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which of these hindi words is used to represent 100 | Tagalog language - wikipedia
Tagalog (/ təˈɡɑːlɒɡ /; Tagalog pronunciation: (tɐˈɡaːloɡ)) is an Austronesian language spoken as a first language by a quarter of the population of the Philippines and as a second language by the majority. Its standardized form, officially named Filipino, is the national language of the Philippines, and is one of two official languages alongside English.
It is related to other Philippine languages, such as the Bikol languages, Ilocano, the Visayan languages, Kapampangan, and Pangasinan, and more distantly to other Austronesian languages, such as the Formosan languages of Taiwan, Malay (Malaysian and Indonesian), Hawaiian, Māori, and Malagasy.
The word Tagalog is derived from the endonym taga - log ("river dweller ''), composed of tagá - ("native of '' or "from '') and ilog ("river ''). Linguists such as Dr. David Zorc and Dr. Robert Blust speculate that the Tagalogs and other Central Philippine ethno - linguistic groups originated in Northeastern Mindanao or the Eastern Visayas.
The first written record of Tagalog is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which dates to 900 CE and exhibits fragments of the language along with Sanskrit, Old Malay, Javanese and Old Tagalog. The first known complete book to be written in Tagalog is the Doctrina Christiana (Christian Doctrine), printed in 1593. The Doctrina was written in Spanish and two transcriptions of Tagalog; one in the ancient, then - current Baybayin script and the other in an early Spanish attempt at a Latin orthography for the language.
Throughout the 333 years of Spanish rule, various grammars and dictionaries were written by Spanish clergymen, including Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala by Pedro de San Buenaventura (Pila, Laguna, 1613), the Czech Paul Klein Vocabulario de la lengua tagala (beginning of the 18th century), Vocabulario de la lengua tagala (1835), and Arte de la lengua tagala y manual tagalog para la administración de los Santos Sacramentos (1850) in addition to early studies of the language; however, the indigenous poet Francisco Baltazar (1788 -- 1862) is regarded as the foremost Tagalog writer, his most notable work being the early 19th - century epic Florante at Laura.
Tagalog differs from its Central Philippine counterparts with its treatment of the Proto - Philippine schwa vowel * ə. In most Bikol and Visayan languages, this sound merged with / u / and (o). In Tagalog, it has merged with / i /. For example, Proto - Philippine * dəkət (adhere, stick) is Tagalog dikít and Visayan & Bikol dukot.
Proto - Philippine * r, * j, and * z merged with / d / but is / l / between vowels. Proto - Philippine * ŋajan (name) and * hajək (kiss) became Tagalog ngalan and halík.
Proto - Philippine * R merged with / ɡ /. * tubiR (water) and * zuRuʔ (blood) became Tagalog tubig and dugô.
The first substantial dictionary of the Tagalog language was written by the Czech Jesuit missionary Pablo Clain in the beginning of the 18th century. Clain spoke Tagalog and used it actively in several of his books. He wrote the first dictionary, which he later passed over to Francisco Jansens and José Hernandez. Further compilation of his substantial work was prepared by P. Juan de Noceda and P. Pedro de Sanlucar and published as Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala in Manila in 1754 and then repeatedly reedited, with the last edition being in 2013 in Manila.
Tagalog was declared the official language by the first constitution in the Philippines, the Constitution of Biak - na - Bato in 1897.
In 1935, the Philippine constitution designated English and Spanish as official languages, but mandated the development and adoption of a common national language based on one of the existing native languages. After study and deliberation, the National Language Institute, a committee composed of seven members who represented various regions in the Philippines, chose Tagalog as the basis for the evolution and adoption of the national language of the Philippines. President Manuel L. Quezon then, on December 30, 1937, proclaimed the selection of the Tagalog language to be used as the basis for the evolution and adoption of the national language of the Philippines. In 1939, President Quezon renamed the proposed Tagalog - based national language as wikang pambansâ (national language). In 1959, the language was further renamed as "Pilipino ''. The 1973 constitution designated the Tagalog - based "Pilipino '', along with English, as an official language and mandated the development and formal adoption of a common national language to be known as Filipino. The 1987 constitution designated Filipino as the national language mandating that as it evolves, it shall be further developed and enriched on the basis of existing Philippine and other languages.
Article XIV, Section 7 of the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines specifies, in part:
Subject to provisions of law and as the Congress may deem appropriate, the Government shall take steps to initiate and sustain the use of Filipino as a medium of official communication and as language of instruction in the educational system.
The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein.
In 2009, the Department of Education promulgated an order institutionalizing a system of mother - tongue based multilingual education ("MLE ''), wherein instruction is conducted primarily in a student 's mother tongue (one of the various regional Philippine languages) until at least grade three, with additional languages such as Filipino and English being introduced as separate subjects no earlier than grade two. In secondary school, Filipino and English become the primary languages of instruction, with the learner 's first language taking on an auxiliary role. After pilot tests in selected schools, the MLE program was implemented nationwide from School Year (SY) 2012 - 2013.
It is the first language of a quarter of the population of the Philippines and a second language of the majority.
Tagalog is a Central Philippine language within the Austronesian language family. Being Malayo - Polynesian, it is related to other Austronesian languages, such as Malagasy, Javanese, Malay (Malaysian and Indonesian), Tetum (of Timor), and Yami (of Taiwan). It is closely related to the languages spoken in the Bicol Region and the Visayas islands, such as the Bikol group and the Visayan group, including Hiligaynon and Cebuano.
At present, no comprehensive dialectology has been done in the Tagalog - speaking regions, though there have been descriptions in the form of dictionaries and grammars of various Tagalog dialects. Ethnologue lists Lubang, Manila, Marinduque, Bataan, Batangas, Bulacan, Tanay - Paete (Rizal - Laguna), and Tayabas as dialects of Tagalog; however, there appear to be four main dialects, of which the aforementioned are a part: Northern (exemplified by the Bulacan dialect), Central (including Manila), Southern (exemplified by Batangas), and Marinduque.
Some example of dialectal differences are:
Perhaps the most divergent Tagalog dialects are those spoken in Marinduque. Linguist Rosa Soberano identifies two dialects, western and eastern, with the former being closer to the Tagalog dialects spoken in the provinces of Batangas and Quezon.
One example is the verb conjugation paradigms. While some of the affixes are different, Marinduque also preserves the imperative affixes, also found in Visayan and Bikol languages, that have mostly disappeared from most Tagalog early 20th century; they have since merged with the infinitive.
Northern and central dialects form the basis for the national language.
According to the Philippine Statistics Authority, as of 2014 there were 100 million people living in the Philippines, where almost all of whom will have some basic level of understanding of the language. The Tagalog homeland, Katagalugan, covers roughly much of the central to southern parts of the island of Luzon -- particularly in Aurora, Bataan, Batangas, Bulacan, Cavite, Laguna, Metro Manila, Nueva Ecija, Quezon, Rizal, and Zambales. Tagalog is also spoken natively by inhabitants living on the islands, Marinduque, Mindoro, and Palawan. It is spoken by approximately 64 million Filipinos, 96 % of the household population; 22 million, or 28 % of the total Philippine population, speak it as a native language.
Tagalog speakers are found in other parts of the Philippines as well as throughout the world, though its use is usually limited to communication between Filipino ethnic groups. In 2010, the US Census bureau reported (based on data collected in 2007) that in the United States it was the fourth most - spoken language at home with almost 1.5 million speakers, behind Spanish or Spanish Creole, French (including Patois, Cajun, Creole), and Chinese. Tagalog ranked as the third most spoken language in metropolitan statistical areas, behind Spanish and Chinese but ahead of French.
The Tagalog language also boasts accentations unique to some parts of Tagalog - speaking regions. For example, in some parts of Manila, a strong pronunciation of i exists and vowel - switching of o and u exists so words like "gising '' (to wake) is pronounced as "giseng '' with a strong ' e ' and the word "tagu - taguan '' (hide - and - go - seek) is pronounced as "tago - tagoan '' with a mild ' o '.
Batangas Tagalog boasts the most distinctive accent in Tagalog compared to the more Hispanized northern accents of the language. The Batangas accent has been featured in film and television and Filipino actor Leo Martinez speaks with this accent. Martinez 's accent, however, will quickly be recognized by native Batangueños as representative of the accent in western Batangas which is milder compared to that used in the eastern part of the province.
Taglish and Englog are names given to a mix of English and Tagalog. The amount of English vs. Tagalog varies from the occasional use of English loan words to outright code - switching, where the language changes in mid-sentence. Such code - switching is prevalent throughout the Philippines and in various languages of the Philippines other than Tagalog.
Code - mixing also entails the use of foreign words that are "Filipinized '' by reforming them using Filipino rules, such as verb conjugations. Users typically use Filipino or English words, whichever comes to mind first or whichever is easier to use.
City - dwellers, the highly educated, and people born around and after World War II are more likely to do this.
The practice is common in television, radio, and print media as well. Advertisements from companies like Wells Fargo, Wal - Mart, Albertsons, McDonald 's, and Western Union have contained Taglish.
Tagalog has 33 phonemes: 19 of them are consonants and 14 are vowels. Syllable structure is relatively simple, being maximally consonant - ar - vowel - consonant, where consonant - ar only occurs in borrowed words such as trak "truck '' or sombréro "hat ''.
Tagalog has ten simple vowels, five long and five short, and four diphthongs. Before appearing in the area north of Pasig river, Tagalog had three vowel qualities: / a /, / i /, and / u /. This was later expanded to five with the introduction of words from Northern Philippine languages like Kapampangan and Ilocano and Spanish words.
Nevertheless, simplification of pairs (o ~ u) and (ɛ ~ i) is likely to take place, especially in some Tagalog as second language, remote location and worker class registers.
The four diphthongs are / aj /, / uj /, / aw /, and / iw /. Long vowels are not written apart from pedagogical texts, where an acute accent is used: á é í ó ú.
The table above shows all the possible realizations for each of the five vowel sounds depending on the speaker 's origin or proficiency. The five general vowels are in bold.
Below is a chart of Tagalog consonants. All the stops are unaspirated. The velar nasal occurs in all positions including at the beginning of a word. Loanword variants using these phonemes are italicized inside the angle brackets.
Glottal stop is not indicated. Glottal stops are most likely to occur when:
Lexical stress, coupled with glottalization, is a distinctive feature in Tagalog. Primary stress normally occurs on either the final or the penultimate syllable of a word. Long vowel accompany primary or secondary stress unless the stress occurs at the end of a word.
Tagalog words are often distinguished from one another by the position of the stress and the presence of the glottal stop. In general, there are four types of phonetic emphases, which, in formal or academic settings, are indicated with a diacritic (tuldík) above the vowel. The penultimate primary stress position (malumay) is the default stress type and so is left unwritten except in dictionaries. The name of each stress type has its corresponding diacritic in the final vowel.
Tagalog, like other Philippines languages today, is written using the Latin alphabet. Prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1521 and the beginning of their colonization in 1565, Tagalog was written in an abugida -- or alphasyllabary -- called Baybayin. This system of writing gradually gave way to the use and propagation of the Latin alphabet as introduced by the Spanish. As the Spanish began to record and create grammars and dictionaries for the various languages of the Philippine archipelago, they adopted systems of writing closely following the orthographic customs of the Spanish langauge and were refined over the years. Until the first half of the 20th century, most Philippine languages were widely written in a variety of ways based on Spanish orthography.
In the late 19th century, a number of educated Filipinos began proposing for revising the spelling system used for Tagalog at the time. In 1884, Filipino doctor and student of langauges Trinidad Pardo de Tavera published his study on the ancient Tagalog script Contribucion para el Estudio de los Antiguos Alfabetos Filipinos and in 1887, published his essay El Sanscrito en la lengua Tagalog which made use of a new writing system developed by him. Meanwhile, Jose Rizal, inspired by Pardo de Tavera 's 1884 work, also began developing a new system of orthography (unaware at first of Pardo de Tavera 's own orthography). A major noticeable change in these proposed orthographies was the use of the letter ⟨ k ⟩ rather than ⟨ c ⟩ and ⟨ q ⟩ to represent the phoneme / k /.
In 1889, the new bilingual Spanish - Tagalog La España Oriental newspaper, of which Isabelo de los Reyes was an editor, began publishing using the new orthography stating in a footnote that it would "use the orthography recently introduced by... learned Orientalis ''. This new orthography, while having its supporters, was also not initially accepted by several writers. Soon after the first issue of La España, Pascual H. Poblete 's Revista Católica de Filipina began a series of articles attacking the new orthography and its proponents. A fellow writer, Pablo Tecson was also critical. Among the attacks was the use of the letters "k '' and "w '' as they were deemed to be of German origin and thus its proponents were deemed as "unpatriotic ''. The publishers of these two papers would eventually merge as La Lectura Popular in January 1890 and would eventually make use of both spelling systems in its articles. Pedro Laktaw, a schoolteacher, published the first Spanish - Tagalog dictionary using the new orthography in 1890.
In April 1890, Jose Rizal authored an article Sobre la Nueva Ortografia de la Lengua Tagalog in the Madrid - based periodical La Solidaridad. In it, he addressed the criticisms of the new writing system by writers like Pobrete and Tecson and the simplicity, in his opinion, of the new orthography. Rizal described the orthography promoted by Pardo de Tavera as "more perfect '' than what he himself had developed. The new orthography was however not broadly adopted initially and was used inconsistently in the bilingual periodicals of Manila until the early 20th century. The revolutionary society Kataás - taasan, Kagalang - galang Katipunan ng̃ mg̃á Anak ng̃ Bayan or Katipunan made use of the k - orthography and the letter k featured prominently on many of its flags and insignias.
In 1937, Tagalog was selected to serve as basis for the country 's national language. In 1940, the Balarílà ng Wikang Pambansâ (English: Grammar of the National Language) of grammarian Lope K. Santos introduced the Abakada alphabet. This alphabet consists of 20 letters and became the standard alphabet of the national langauge. The orthography as used by Tagalog would eventually influence and spread to the systems of writing used by other Philippine languages (which had been using variants of the Spanish - based system of writing). In 1987, the ABAKADA was dropped and in its place is the expanded Filipino alphabet.
Tagalog was written in an abugida -- or alphasyllabary -- called Baybayin prior to the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines, in the 16th century. This particular writing system was composed of symbols representing three vowels and 14 consonants. Belonging to the Brahmic family of scripts, it shares similarities with the Old Kawi script of Java and is believed to be descended from the script used by the Bugis in Sulawesi.
Although it enjoyed a relatively high level of literacy, Baybayin gradually fell into disuse in favor of the Latin alphabet taught by the Spaniards during their rule.
There has been confusion of how to use Baybayin, which is actually an abugida, or an alphasyllabary, rather than an alphabet. Not every letter in the Latin alphabet is represented with one of those in the Baybayin alphasyllabary. Rather than letters being put together to make sounds as in Western languages, Baybayin uses symbols to represent syllables.
A "kudlit '' resembling an apostrophe is used above or below a symbol to change the vowel sound after its consonant. If the kudlit is used above, the vowel is an "E '' or "I '' sound. If the kudlit is used below, the vowel is an "O '' or "U '' sound. A special kudlit was later added by Spanish missionaries in which a cross placed below the symbol to get rid of the vowel sound all together, leaving a consonant. Previously, the consonant without a following vowel was simply left out (for example, bundok being rendered as budo), forcing the reader to use context when reading such words.
Example:
Baybayin is encoded in Unicode version 3.2 in the range 1700 - 171F under the name "Tagalog ''.
vowels
k
d / r
g
h
l
m
n
ng
p
s
w
y
Until the first half of the 20th century, Tagalog was widely written in a variety of ways based on Spanish orthography consisting of 32 letters called ' ABECEDARIO ' (Spanish for "alphabet ''):
When the national language was based on Tagalog, grammarian Lope K. Santos introduced a new alphabet consisting of 20 letters called ABAKADA in school grammar books called balarilà:
In 1987, the Department of Education, Culture and Sports issued a memo stating that the Philippine alphabet had changed from the Pilipino - Tagalog Abakada version to a new 28 - letter alphabet to make room for loans, especially family names from Spanish and English:
The genitive marker ng and the plural marker mga are abbreviations that are pronounced nang (naŋ) and mangá (mɐˈŋa). Ng, in most cases, roughly translates to "of '' (ex. Siya ay kapatid ng nanay ko. She is the sibling of my mother) while nang usually means "when '' or can describe how something is done or to what extent (equivalent to the suffix - ly in English adverbs), among other uses. Mga (pronounced as "muh - NGA '') denotes plurality as adding an s, es, or ies does in English (ex. Iyan ang mga damit ko. (Those are my clothes)).
In the first example, nang is used in lieu of the word noong (when; Noong si Hudas ay madulas). In the second, nang describes that the person woke up (gumising) early (maaga); gumising nang maaga. In the third, nang described up to what extent that Juan improved (gumaling), which is "greatly '' (nang todo). In the latter two examples, the ligature na and its variants - ng and - g may also be used (Gumising na maaga / Maagang gumising; Gumaling na todo / Todong gumaling).
The longer nang may also have other uses, such as a ligature that joins a repeated word:
The words pô / hô and opò / ohò are traditionally used as polite iterations of the affirmative "oo '' ("yes ''). It is generally used when addressing elders or superiors such as bosses or teachers.
"Pô '' and "opò '' are specifically used to denote a high level of respect when addressing older persons of close affinity like parents, relatives, teachers and family friends. "Hô '' and "ohò '' are generally used to politely address older neighbours, strangers, public officials, bosses and nannies, and may suggest a distance in societal relationship and respect determined by the addressee 's social rank and not their age. However, "pô '' and "opò '' can be used in any case in order to express an elevation of respect.
Used in the affirmative:
Pô / Hô may also be used in negation.
Tagalog vocabulary is composed mostly of words of native Austronesian origin - most of the words that end with the diphthongs - iw, (e.g. saliw) and those words that exhibit reduplication (e.g. halo - halo, patpat, etc.). However it has a significant number of Spanish loanwords. Spanish is the language that has bequeathed the most loanwords to Tagalog.
Tagalog also includes many loanwords from English, Indian (Vedic Sanskrit, Sanskrit and Tamil), Chinese (Hokkien, Yue Chinese (Cantonese), Mandarin), Japanese, Arabic, Persian.
Due to trade with Mexico via the Manila galleons from the 16th to the 19th centuries, many words from Nahuatl were introduced to Tagalog, but some of them were replaced by Spanish loanwords in the latter part of the Spanish colonization in the islands.
The Philippines has long been a melting pot of nations. The islands have been subject to different influences and a meeting point of numerous migrations since the early prehistoric origins of trading activities, especially from the time of the Neolithic Period, Silk Road, Tang Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, Ryukyu Kingdom and Manila Galleon trading periods. This means that the evolution of the language is difficult to reconstruct (although many theories exist).
In pre-Hispanic times, Trade Malay was widely known and spoken throughout Maritime Southeast Asia.
English has borrowed some words from Tagalog, such as abaca, barong, balisong, boondocks, jeepney, Manila hemp, pancit, ylang - ylang, and yaya, although the vast majority of these borrowed words are only used in the Philippines as part of the vocabularies of Philippine English.
Tagalog has contributed several words to Philippine Spanish, like barangay (from balan͠gay, meaning barrio), the abacá, cogon, palay, dalaga etc.
Below is a chart of Tagalog and twenty other Austronesian languages comparing thirteen words.
Religious literature remains one of the most dynamic contributors to Tagalog literature. The first Bible in Tagalog, then called Ang Biblia ("the Bible '') and now called Ang Dating Biblia ("the Old Bible ''), was published in 1905. In 1970, the Philippine Bible Society translated the Bible into modern Tagalog. Even before the Second Vatican Council, devotional materials in Tagalog had been in circulation. There are at least four circulating Tagalog translations of the Bible
When the Second Vatican Council, (specifically the Sacrosanctum Concilium) permitted the universal prayers to be translated into vernacular languages, the Catholic Bishops ' Conference of the Philippines was one of the first to translate the Roman Missal into Tagalog. The Roman Missal in Tagalog was published as early as 1982.
Jehovah 's Witnesses were printing Tagalog literature at least as early as 1941 and The Watchtower (the primary magazine of Jehovah 's Witnesses) has been published in Tagalog since at least the 1950s. New releases are now regularly released simultaneously in a number of languages, including Tagalog. The official website of Jehovah 's Witnesses also has some publications available online in Tagalog.
Tagalog is quite a stable language, and very few revisions have been made to Catholic Bible translations. Also, as Protestantism in the Philippines is relatively young, liturgical prayers tend to be more ecumenical.
In Tagalog, the Lord 's Prayer is exclusively known by its incipit, Amá Namin (literally, "Our Father '').
Amá namin, sumasalangit Ka
Sambahín ang ngalan Mo.
Mapasaamin ang kaharián Mo.
Sundín ang loób Mo,
Dito sa lupà, gaya nang sa langit.
Bigyán Mo kamí ngayón ng aming kakanin sa araw - araw,
At patawarin Mo kamí sa aming mga salâ,
Para nang pagpápatawad namin,
Sa nagkakasalà sa amin;
At huwág Mo kamíng ipahintulot sa tuksó,
At iadyâ Mo kamí sa lahát ng masamâ.
(Sapagkát sa Inyó ang kaharián, at ang kapangyarihan,
At ang kaluwálhatian, ngayón, at magpakailanman.)
Amen
This is Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Pángkalahatáng Pagpapahayag ng Karapatáng Pantao)
Bawat tao'y isinilang na may layà at magkakapantáy ang tagláy na dangál at karapatán. Silá'y pinagkalooban ng pangangatwiran at budhî na kailangang gamitin nilá sa pagtuturingan nilá sa diwà ng pagkakapatiran. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
The numbers (mga bilang) in Tagalog language are of two sets. The first set consists of native Tagalog words and the other set are Spanish loanwords. (This may be compared to other East Asian languages, except with the second set of numbers borrowed from Spanish instead of Chinese.) For example, when a person refers to the number "seven '', it can be translated into Tagalog as "pito '' or "syete '' (Spanish: siete).
Months and days in Tagalog are also localised forms of Spanish months and days. "Month '' in Tagalog is buwán (also the word for moon) and "day '' is araw (the word also means sun). Unlike Spanish, however, months and days in Tagalog are always capitalised.
Time expressions in Tagalog are also Tagalized forms of the corresponding Spanish. "Time '' in Tagalog is panahon, or more commonly oras. Unlike Spanish and English, times in Tagalog are capitalized whenever they appear in a sentence.
opô (ˈʔopoʔ) or ohô (ˈʔohoʔ) (formal / polite form)
hindî pô (formal / polite form)
Very informal: ewan (ʔɛˈʊɑn), archaic aywan (ɑjˈʊɑn) (closest English equivalent: colloquial dismissive ' Whatever ')
Hindi ko nauunawaan (hɪnˈdiː ko nɐʔʊʊnawaʔˌʔan)
Marunong po ba kayong magsalitâ ng Ingglés? (polite version for elders and strangers) Marunong ka bang mag - Ingglés? (short form) Marunong po ba kayong mag - Ingglés? (short form, polite version for elders and strangers)
* Pronouns such as niyo (2nd person plural) and nila (3rd person plural) are used on a single 2nd person in polite or formal language. See Tagalog grammar.
Ang hindî marunong lumingón sa pinánggalingan ay hindî makaráratíng sa paroroonan. (José Rizal) One who knows not how to look back from whence he came, will never get to where he is going.
Tao ka nang humarap, bilang tao kitang haharapin. (A proverb in Southern Tagalog that made people aware the significance of sincerity in Tagalog communities. It says, "As a human you reach me, I treat you as a human and never act as a traitor. '')
Hulí man daw at magalíng, nakákahábol pa rin. (Hulí man raw at magalíng, nakákahabol pa rin.) If one is behind but capable, one will still be able to catch up.
Magbirô ka na sa lasíng, huwág lang sa bagong gising. Make fun of someone drunk, if you must, but never one who has just awakened.
Aanhín pa ang damó kung patáy na ang kabayo? What use is the grass if the horse is already dead?
Ang sakít ng kalingkingan, ramdám ng buóng katawán. The pain in the pinkie is felt by the whole body. (In a group, if one goes down, the rest follow.)
Nasa hulí ang pagsisisi. Regret is always in the end.
Pagkáhabà - habà man ng prusisyón, sa simbahan pa rin ang tulóy. The procession may stretch on and on, but it still ends up at the church. (In romance: refers to how certain people are destined to be married. In general: refers to how some things are inevitable, no matter how long you try and postpone it.)
Kung ' dî mádaán sa santóng dasalan, daanin sa santóng paspasan. If it can not be got through holy prayer, get it through blessed force. (In romance and courting: santóng paspasan literally means ' holy speeding ' and is a euphemism for sexual intercourse. It refers to the two styles of courting by Filipino boys: one is the traditional, protracted, restrained manner favoured by older generations, which often featured serenades and manual labour for the girl 's parents; the other is upfront seduction, which may lead to a slap on the face or a pregnancy out of wedlock. The second conclusion is known as pikot or what Western cultures would call a ' shotgun marriage '. This proverb is also applied in terms of diplomacy and negotiation.)
(mainly) Calabarzon and Mimaropa
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list of james bond actors in chronological order | James Bond filmography - wikipedia
Commander James Bond RN -- code number 007 -- is a fictional character created by the British journalist and novelist Ian Fleming in 1952. The character appeared in a series of twelve novels and two short story collections written by Fleming and a number of continuation novels and spin - off works after Fleming 's death in 1964. There have been twenty - six films in total, produced between 1962 and 2015.
Fleming portrayed Bond as a tall, athletic, handsome secret agent in his thirties or forties; he has several vices including drinking, smoking, gambling, automobiles and womanizing. He is an exceptional marksman, and skilled in unarmed combat, skiing, swimming and golf. While Bond kills without hesitation or regret, he usually kills only when carrying out orders, while acting in self - defence and occasionally as revenge.
American actor Barry Nelson was the first to portray Bond on screen, in a 1954 television adaptation, "Casino Royale ''. In 1961 Eon Productions began work on Dr. No, an adaptation of the novel of the same name. The result was a film that spawned a series of twenty - four films produced by Eon Productions and two independent films. After considering the likes of "refined '' English actors such as Cary Grant and David Niven, the producers cast Sean Connery as Bond in the film. Fleming was appalled at the selection of the uncouth, 31 - year - old Scottish actor, considering him to be the antithesis of his character. However, Connery 's physical prowess and sexual magnetism in the role came to be closely identified with the character, with Fleming ultimately changing his view on Connery and incorporating aspects of his portrayal into the books.
Seven actors in total have portrayed Bond on film. Following Connery 's portrayal, David Niven, George Lazenby, Roger Moore, Timothy Dalton, Pierce Brosnan and Daniel Craig have assumed the role. These screen versions have retained many traits from Fleming 's depiction, although some of Bond 's less fashionable attitudes have been dropped, such as racism, homophobia, retaining the services of a maid, and in the more recent films, smoking. Despite playing the same character, there have been notable differences among the portrayals. Daniel Craig is the incumbent Bond in the long - running Eon series, and played the part for a fourth time in the latest film, Spectre, released in October 2015. Daniel Craig will return as Bond in the 25th instalment of the series. The film is expected to release in 2019.
A Secret Service agent, Bond was a composite based on a number of commandos whom author Ian Fleming had known during his service in the Naval Intelligence Division during World War II, to whom he added his own style and a number of his own tastes. Fleming appropriated the name from American ornithologist James Bond. Bond 's code number 007 comes from one of British naval intelligence 's key achievements of World War I: the breaking of the German diplomatic code. One of the German documents cracked and read by the British was the Zimmermann Telegram, which was coded 0075, and which was one of the factors that led the US entering the war. Subsequently if material was graded 00 it meant it was highly classified. Fleming later told a journalist, "When I was at the Admiralty... all the top - secret signals had the double - 0 prefix... and I decided to borrow it for Bond ''.
Although James Bond is in his mid-to - late thirties, he does not age in Fleming 's stories. Fleming biographer Andrew Lycett noted that, "within the first few pages (of Casino Royale) Ian had introduced most of Bond 's idiosyncrasies and trademarks '', which included his looks, his Bentley and his smoking and drinking habits: Bond 's penchant for alcohol runs throughout the series of books and he smokes up to 70 cigarettes a day.
Fleming decided to underplay Bond 's character, observing that "Exotic things would happen to and around him, but he would be a neutral figure ''. On another occasion, he reinforced his point, saying, "When I wrote the first one in 1953, I wanted Bond to be an extremely dull, uninteresting man to whom things happened; I wanted him to be a blunt instrument ''.
Sean Connery was the first actor to portray Bond on film in Dr. No (1962). An amateur bodybuilder, he had come to the attention of the Bond film producers after several appearances in British films from the late 1950s. At a muscular 6'2 ", Fleming originally disapproved of his casting as James Bond, believing him to be an overgrown stuntman who lacked the finesse and elegance to play James Bond; he envisaged a suave actor, such as David Niven playing the role. Producer Albert R. Broccoli -- known to all as Cubby -- disagreed with Fleming 's view, later commenting that "I wanted a ballsy guy... put a bit of veneer over that tough Scottish hide and you 've got Fleming 's Bond instead of all the mincing poofs we had applying for the job ''. Eon 's choice of Connery was also based on his looks and sex appeal, an appeal that would later be echoed by Honor Blackman who said, after appearing with Connery in Goldfinger, "He was exceedingly handsome, virile and sexy and that really was the tenor of what the script was always trying to display ''. After Connery was chosen, director Terence Young took the actor to his tailor and hairdresser, and introduced him to the high life, restaurants, casinos and women of London. In the words of Bond writer Raymond Benson, Young educated the actor "in the ways of being dapper, witty, and above all, cool ''.
Connery 's interpretation of the character differed considerably from Fleming 's, being more promiscuous and cold blooded than the literary version. Connery described Bond as "a complete sensualist -- senses highly tuned, awake to everything, quite amoral. I particularly like him because he thrives on conflict ''. Academic James Chapman observed that for Dr. No, Connery 's interpretation of the character, although not complete, showed the actor "should be credited with having established a new style of performance: a British screen hero in the manner of an American leading man ''. In his second film, From Russia with Love, Connery looked less nervous and edgy; he gave "a relaxed, wry performance of subtle wit and style ''. Pfeiffer and Worrall noted that Connery "personified James Bond with such perfection that even Ian Fleming... admitted that it was difficult imagining anyone else in the part ''; academic Jeremy Black agreed and declared that "Connery made the role his own and created the Bond audience for the cinema ''. Black also observed that Connery gave the character a "spare, pared - down character... (with) inner bleakness along with the style ''. Connery played Bond with "the right mix of cool charisma, violence and arrogance... against which all others are judged ''. Raymond Benson perceived that Connery "embodies a ruggedness and an intense screen presence this transcends any preconceived notions about the character ''. Benson also noted that Bond was witty, but contains "an assured toughness that epitomises the machismo male ''. Roger Moore agreed with Black and Benson, commenting that "Sean was Bond. He created Bond. He embodied Bond and because of Sean, Bond became an instantly recognisable character the world over -- he was rough, tough, mean and witty... he was a bloody good 007 ''. However, despite his charm and virility, Connery was characteristically laconic in his delivery. Christopher Bray says of him that "in his single - minded, laconic, mocking, self - sufficient vanity, Connery 's Bond was the epitome of sixties consumer culture ''.
Interviewed by Oriana Fallaci in 1965, Connery identified where he had altered the character for the films, saying "I said to the producers that the character had one defect, there was no humor about him; to get him accepted, they 'd have to let me play him tongue - in - cheek, so people could laugh. They agreed, and there you are: today Bond is accepted to such an extent that even philosophers take the trouble to analyze him, even intellectuals enjoy defending him or attacking him. And even while they 're laughing at him, people take him terribly seriously ''. Connery went on to add that "Bond is important: this invincible superman that every man would like to copy, that every woman would like to conquer, this dream we all have of survival. And then one ca n't help liking him ''. After the pressures of five films in six years, Connery left the role after the 1967 film You Only Live Twice saying, "It became a terrible pressure, like living in a goldfish bowl... that was part of the reason I wanted to be finished with Bond. Also I had become completely identified with it, and it became very wearing and very boring ''.
After a hiatus of one film -- On Her Majesty 's Secret Service, in which George Lazenby played Bond -- Connery returned to the role for Diamonds Are Forever after David Picker, the head of United Artists, made it clear that Connery was to be enticed back to the role and that money was no object. When approached about resuming the role of Bond, Connery demanded -- and received -- a fee of £ 1.25 million (£ 24 million in 2015 pounds), 12.5 % of the gross profits and, as a further enticement, United Artists offered to back two films of his choice. His performance received mixed reviews, with Raymond Benson considering that Connery "looks weary and bored... he is overweight, slow - moving, and does n't seem to be trying to create a credible character ''. Despite that, Benson considers that Connery "still radiates more screen presence than Roger Moore or George Lazenby ''. On the other hand, Pauline Kael said "Connery 's James Bond is less lecherous than before and less foppish -- and he 's better this way ''.
In the early 1980s producer Jack Schwartzman moved ahead with a non-Eon Bond film, following the controversy over the 1961 novel Thunderball and the subsequent long legal battle; the result was Never Say Never Again. Connery accepted an offer to play Bond once more, asking for (and receiving) a fee of $3 million ($7 million in 2016 dollars), a percentage of the profits, as well as casting, director and script approval. The script has several references to Bond 's advancing years -- playing on Connery being 52 at the time of filming. David Robinson, reviewing the film for The Times considered that, "Connery... is back, looking hardly a day older or thicker, and still outclassing every other exponent of the role, in the goodnatured throwaway with which he parries all the sex and violence on the way ''. In 2003 Bond, as portrayed by Connery, was selected as the third - greatest hero in cinema history by the American Film Institute.
When Sean Connery had been cast in November 1961, David Niven had been Fleming 's choice for the role as the actor reflected his image of the character. In 1965 producer Charles Feldman signed Niven to play Sir James Bond for Casino Royale, a film not made by Eon Productions. Connery and Peter Sellers had both turned down the role. Niven was 56 when he played Bond and his characterisation was that of an elderly man who had won the Victoria Cross at the Siege of Mafeking, had a daughter by his lover, the spy Mata Hari, played Claude Debussy on the piano, ate royal jelly and cultivated black roses. The concept of Bond is that once Niven 's Bond retired, his name and 007 designation was passed to another agent to keep the legend alive; James Chapman notes that the implication was that the "other Bond '' was that played by Connery.
Chapman considered the concept of an elderly Bond to be an interesting one, with Bond referring to Connery 's Bond as a "sexual acrobat who leaves a trail of beautiful dead women behind like blown roses ''. In line with the literary Bond, Niven 's character drives a vintage Bentley, rather than the Aston Martin favoured by Connery. Bond scholar Steven Jay Rubin thought Niven perfectly cast as the retired Bond, and saw him as "a throw - back to the hell - for - leather adventure heroes '' of the character, which paralleled Niven 's own life and career. Barnes and Hearn describe this as a "perfectly fair interpretation '', given the way Niven approached the role, while Raymond Benson thinks casting Niven was "intelligent ''. Jeremy Black questioned the use of Niven in the role, observing that he did not seem to be a killer, and did not have the "disconcerting edge '' that Connery had.
With the departure of Connery after You Only Live Twice, Broccoli and director Peter R. Hunt chose Australian George Lazenby to play the role of Bond. He first came to their attention after seeing him in a Fry 's Chocolate Cream advertisement. Lazenby dressed the part by sporting several sartorial Bond elements such as a Rolex Submariner wristwatch and a Savile Row suit (ordered, but uncollected, by Connery), and going to Connery 's barber at the Dorchester Hotel. Lazenby consolidated his claim during a screen test, when he accidentally punched a professional wrestler, who was acting as stunt coordinator, in the face, impressing Broccoli with his ability to display aggression. Lazenby never signed a contract, with negotiations dragging on during production, and he was subsequently convinced by his agent Ronan O'Rahilly that the secret agent would be archaic in the liberated 1970s; as a result he left the role before the release of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service in 1969. For his performance as Bond, Lazenby was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year -- Actor at the 27th Golden Globe Awards.
Critical opinion was split about Lazenby; he has been considered to have been the worst Bond, and has variously been described as "laconic and humourless '', "a little stiff '' and "annoying and smug ''. Derek Malcolm of The Guardian was dismissive of Lazenby 's performance, saying that he "is not a good actor and though I never thought Sean Connery was all that stylish either, there are moments when one yearns for a little of his louche panache ''. The New York Times critic AH Weiler also weighed in against Lazenby, saying that "Lazenby, if not a spurious Bond, is merely a casual, pleasant, satisfactory replacement ''. Pauline Kael called Lazenby "quite a dull fellow '' in her otherwise positive review in The New Yorker. However, Peter R. Hunt, director of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service, stated that Lazenby should have undertaken more films in the role, saying "he would have made a very credible Bond and been very good indeed ''.
Smith and Lavington consider that Lazenby "had chosen to play Bond the same way as Sean Connery had, with perhaps more humility and humanity ''; they went on to say that "Lazenby 's inexperience rarely shows '' in the film, and that "he invariably rises to the occasion ''. Alexander Walker in the London Evening Standard said that, "The truth is that George Lazenby is almost as good a James Bond as the man referred to in his film as ' the other fellow '. Lazenby 's voice is more suave than sexy - sinister and he could pass for the other fellow 's twin on the shady side of the casino. Bond is now definitely all set for the Seventies ''. Judith Crist of New York Magazine commented that, "This time around there 's less suavity and a no - nonsense muscularity and maleness to the role via the handsome Mr. Lazenby ''. Feminist film critic Molly Haskell wrote an approving review in the Village Voice: "Lazenby... seems more comfortable in a wet tuxedo than a dry martini, more at ease as a donnish genealogist than reading (or playing) Playboy, and who actually dares to think that one woman who is his equal is better than a thousand part - time playmates ''.
James Chapman considers that Lazenby looks the part of Bond, identifying his athleticism and "arrogant swagger '', which "convey the snobbery of the character ''. Chapman also distinguished a more vulnerable and human characterisation in Bond -- feeling exhausted and falling in love -- as opposed to the "heroic superman '' of Connery. Brian Fairbanks noted that "OHMSS gives us a James Bond capable of vulnerability, a man who can show fear and is not immune to heartbreak. Lazenby is that man, and his performance is superb ''. Ben Macintyre also observed that of all the Bonds, Lazenby 's characterisation was closest to that of Fleming 's original character.
After Diamonds Are Forever, Broccoli and Saltzman tried to convince Sean Connery to return as Bond, but he declined. After considering Jeremy Brett, Michael Billington and Julian Glover, the two producers finally turned to Roger Moore, who they had previously discussed for On Her Majesty 's Secret Service, but who had been unavailable, and he was ultimately cast to play Bond in Live and Let Die. At the time Moore was an established television actor, known for his performances as Simon Templar in The Saint and Lord Brett Sinclair in The Persuaders!: in both of which he played a "charming, debonair, international playboy ''. When playing Bond, Moore tried not to imitate either Connery or his previous roles, and screenwriter Tom Mankiewicz fitted the screenplay around Moore 's persona by giving more comedy scenes and a light - hearted feel to Bond, an approach that led Raymond Benson to describe Moore 's Bond as "a rather smarmy, eyebrow - raising international playboy who never seemed to get hurt ''.
Film writer Andrew Spicer considered Roger Moore to be the most elegant and mannerly of the Bonds, with the voice and style of an English debonair country gentleman. Benson agreed, stating that Moore was, "too nice and well - mannered to be a James Bond of any real substance '', while Doug Pratt said that "the writers worked out an amenable personality for Roger Moore and found a breezy balance between comedy and action ''. To make Moore 's character appear tougher, a Smith & Wesson. 44 Magnum -- which at the time was associated with the macho image of the Clint Eastwood character, Dirty Harry -- was chosen for Moore to use in Live and Let Die rather than Bond 's usual choice of Walther PPK.
Spicer says "Roger Moore re-created Bond as an old - style debonair hero, more polished and sophisticated than Connery 's incarnation, using the mocking insouciance he had perfected in his role as Simon Templar... Moore 's humour was a throwaway, and certainly in the later films, verged on self - parody. It was an essential strand in the increasingly tongue - in - cheek direction of the series which became more light - hearted, knowing and playfully intertextual ''. Chapman noted that Moore was the most comedic of the Bonds, with a more light - hearted approach to playing the character with a mocking wit and innuendo. Additionally, Moore 's one - liners were delivered in a way to suggest that the violence inherent in the films was a joke, as opposed to Connery 's, which was used to mitigate the violence. Moore explained his approach to the humour by saying "to me, the Bond situations are so ridiculous... I mean, this man is supposed to be a spy, and yet everybody knows he 's a spy... it 's outrageous. So you have to treat the humour outrageously as well ''.
Pauline Kael was a fairly vocal critic of Moore 's, dismissing him as an "iceberg '' in The Man with the Golden Gun. In reviewing For Your Eyes Only, she wrote "Roger Moore is Bond again, and his idea of Bond 's imperturbable cool is the same as playing dead ''. Reviewing Moonraker, she wrote "Roger Moore is dutiful and passive as Bond; his clothes are neatly pressed and he shows up for work, like an office manager who is turning into dead wood but hanging on to collect his pension ''. Only in The Spy Who Loved Me, one of Kael 's favourite Bond films, did she praise him describing him as self - effacing: "Moore gets the chance to look scared -- an emotion that suits him and makes him more likable ''.
A number of Moore 's personal preferences were transferred into his characterisation of Bond: his taste for Cuban cigars and his wearing of safari suits were assigned to the character. Moore 's use for cigars in his early films put him in contrast to the cigarette - smoking Connery, Lazenby and Dalton. By the time of Moore 's fifth film, For Your Eyes Only, released in 1981, his characterisation had come to represent an old - fashioned character, in contrast to the fashionability Connery had brought to the role in the 1960s.
In 1985 Moore appeared in his seventh and final film, A View to a Kill; he was 57 (he appeared alongside co-star Tanya Roberts, who was 30). Critics focused on Moore 's age: The Washington Post said "Moore is n't just long in the tooth -- he 's got tusks, and what looks like an eye job has given him the pie - eyed blankness of a zombie. He 's not believable anymore in the action sequences, even less so in the romantic scenes ''. When he was cast for the film, Moore recalled that he felt "a bit long in the tooth '', and in December 2007 admitted that he "was only about four hundred years too old for the part ''. Like Connery, Moore appeared as Bond in seven films; by the time he retired in 1985, he was the oldest actor to play 007 in the Eon series, and his Bond films had earned over $1 billion at the box office.
With the retirement of Roger Moore in 1985, a search for a new actor to play Bond took place that saw a number of actors, including Sam Neill, Pierce Brosnan and Timothy Dalton audition for the role in 1986. Bond co-producer Michael G. Wilson, director John Glen, Dana and Barbara Broccoli "were impressed with Sam Neill and very much wanted to use him '', although Bond producer Albert R. Broccoli was not sold on the actor. Dalton and Brosnan were both considered by Eon, but after Brosnan was eventually ruled out by his Remington Steele contract, Dalton was appointed in August 1986 on a salary of $5.2 million. When he was either 24 or 25 years old Dalton had discussed playing Bond with Broccoli, but decided he was too young to accept the role, thinking Bond should be played between 35 and 40 years old. In preparing for the role, Dalton, a green - eyed, dark haired, slender, 6'2 '' (1 m 88 cm) classically trained Shakespearean actor, was keen to portray the character as accurately as possible, reading up extensively on the books before his role in The Living Daylights (1987).
Dalton 's Bond was a serious one: dark, cold, emotional, stern, ruthless, showing little humour, and focused as a killer with little time for fun and indulgence. Dalton 's interpretation of the character came from his "desire to see a darker Bond '', one that was "less of a womaniser, tougher and closer to the darker character Ian Fleming wrote about ''. James Chapman also considered Dalton to be closer to Fleming 's Bond than the previous actors, writing that Dalton was "clearly less comfortable... with the witty asides and one - liners... so he becomes something closer to the Bond of the books, who rarely develops a sense of humour ''. When reviewing Licence to Kill, Iain Johnstone of The Sunday Times disagreed, declaring that "any vestiges of the gentleman spy... by Ian Fleming '' have now gone; he went on to say that "this character is remarkably close both in deed and action to the eponymous hero of the new Batman film ''.
Not all viewers were taken with Dalton. Jay Scott of The Globe and Mail was entirely dismissive. "The new Bond has been widely described in feature stories as a throwback to the Ian Fleming original (studying the Fleming novels, Dalton was pleased to discover that Bond was a human being, he says), and that may be true, if the Fleming original lacked charm, sex appeal and wit. Timothy Dalton 's Bond is a serious bloke who swallows his words and approaches his job with responsibility and humanity, and eschews promiscuity -- Dirtless Harry. You get the feeling that on his off nights, he might curl up with the Reader 's Digest and catch an episode of Moonlighting -- he 'd try to memorize the jokes -- before nodding off under the influence of Ovaltine. The British reviews of The Living Daylights have been laudatory, perhaps because this Bond is the most British of all, if British is to be understood as a synonym for reserved ''.
Raymond Benson noted that Dalton "purposely played Bond as a ruthless and serious man with very little of the wit displayed by Connery, Lazenby or Moore '', and considered him to be "the most accurate and literal interpretation of the role... ever seen on screen ''. His character also reflected a degree of moral ambiguity; in Licence to Kill, for instance, he becomes a rogue agent, while Dalton himself saw the character as a "man, not a superhuman; a man who is beset with moral confusions and apathies and uncertainties, and who is often very frightened and nervous and tense ''. Smith and Lavington observed that during Dalton 's portrayal in Licence to Kill, Bond appeared "self - absorbed... reckless, brutal, prone to nervous laughter and... probably insane, or at least seriously disturbed. In the light of Licence to Kill, one academic, Martin Willis, referred to Dalton 's Bond as a "muscular vigilante ''. Steven Jay Rubin noted that Dalton 's films had "a hard - edged reality and some unflinching violent episodes that were better suited to Dalton 's more realistic approach to the character ''. Rubin considered Dalton 's portrayal to be "Fleming 's Bond... the suffering Bond ''. In contrast to the previous incarnations of the character, Smith and Lavington identified Dalton 's humour as "brooding rather than flippant ''; combined with his heavy smoking, they considered him "an effective leading man ''. Eoghan Lyng, writing for The James Bond Dossier, favourably compared him to Daniel Craig, stating that "Despite chronological placement, it was Dalton, not Brosnan, who proved to be the prototype for the 21st century Bond. ''. Although Bond screenwriter Richard Maibaum called Sean Connery the best Bond, he considered Dalton the best actor of the four he worked with. His predecessor, Roger Moore also felt that Dalton was the best actor to play Bond.
Dalton 's films did not perform as well at the box office as most of the previous films. Commentators such as Screen International considered the Bond series had run its course in the age of series such as Indiana Jones and Lethal Weapon. Edward P. Comentale observed that "Dalton, for all his occasional flat northern vowels, was probably too much the stage actor to be convincing as an action hero in the age of Willis, Schwarzenegger and Stallone ''. After just two films -- The Living Daylights and Licence to Kill -- litigation ensued over the licensing of the Bond catalogue, delaying what would have been Dalton 's third film by several years. His six - year contract expired in 1993 and he left the series in 1994.
After Timothy Dalton retired from the Bond role in 1994, Eon turned to the actor they had considered after A View to a Kill: Pierce Brosnan. He was offered a three - film contract, with an option on a fourth; his salary for his first film, GoldenEye, was $4 million, which rose to $16.5 million for his fourth and final outing, Die Another Day. Brosnan had first met Broccoli on the set of For Your Eyes Only, when Brosnan 's wife, Cassandra Harris, was appearing in the film as Countess Lisl von Schlaf, and the couple lunched with Broccoli during filming. Brosnan went on to play a criminal - turned - private investigator in Remington Steele in the 1980s, where he captured some of the traits of previous Bonds in playing the role: like Moore, he exemplified a high degree of suavity, elegance, charm and wit, but displayed a masculinity and grittiness on occasion reminiscent of Connery 's Bond, both successfully "combine the character 's Englishness with a classless internationalism that is highly knowing ''. Andrew Spicer says that "Brosnan 's frame carries the ' Armani look ' with its refined understated Englishness, to perfection. His lithe, sinuous athleticism is well suited to the fast - paced action and state - of - the - art gadgetry that retains the series ' core appeal ''. James Chapman also considered Brosnan 's appearance striking, saying the actor had "old - fashioned, darkly handsome matinee idol looks ''.
With Brosnan, the Bond writers knew that because of the changes in public attitudes, he could not be as overtly sexual and dominant over women as Connery 's Bond, and was denounced by M in Goldeneye to be a "sexist, misogynist dinosaur, a relic of the Cold War ''. Brosnan was seen by many as the quintessential James Bond in appearance and manner; displaying an air of coolness, elegance and a grace which made him believable as an international playboy, if not purely as an assassin. John G. Stackhouse for instance argues that it is preposterous that any man as strikingly handsome as Brosnan and Connery could be a secret agent, saying, "When Sean Connery or Pierce Brosnan enters a room, everyone notices. Thus it is ridiculous to suppose that James Bond, looking like that, could be a secret agent for longer than about two seconds ''.
Brosnan 's Bond was introduced in Goldeneye; James Chapman argues that the film works his portrayal of Bond into the history of the others in the series through the post-credits sequence use of the Aston Martin DB5, previously seen in Goldfinger and Thunderball, "thus immediately evoking the memory of (Sean) Connery ''. Brosnan 's characterisation of Bond was seen by Jeremy Black as being "closer to the Fleming novels than Moore... yet he is also lighter and less intense than Dalton ''. Black also commented that the shift in character in the first three films reflected changing social opinions, with Bond not smoking. Brosnan was clear he wanted to change Bond 's smoking habit, saying "I do n't give a damn about everyone 's perception of the character: I think smoking causes cancer therefore he does n't smoke '', although he did smoke a Cuban cigar in Die Another Day. Brosnan continued with the use of humour prevalent with other portrayals, and provided a "mix of action and danger threaded through with the right amount of wit and humour ''; Smith and Lavington saw the humour largely as puns that were "flippant, but not crass ''.
After four films in the role, Brosnan stated he wished to do one final Bond film. Although plans were made for a film to be released in 2004, negotiations stalled and Brosnan announced his intention to leave in July 2004.
On 14 October 2005 Eon Productions, Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and Sony Pictures Entertainment announced at a press conference in London that Daniel Craig would be the sixth actor to portray Bond in the Eon series (although seventh film Bond overall). A tuxedo - and lifejacket - clad Craig arrived via a Royal Navy speedboat. Craig had based his acceptance of the role on the strength of the script for the first film, Casino Royale; he later recalled that "once I sat down and read the story, I just thought that I wanted to tell (it)... I 'm a big Bond fan, and I love what he represents ''. Significant controversy followed the decision, with some critics and fans expressing doubt the producers had made the right choice. Throughout the entire production period, Internet campaigns such as danielcraigisnotbond.com expressed their dissatisfaction and threatened to boycott the film in protest. Craig, unlike previous actors, was not considered by the protesters to fit the tall, dark, handsome and charismatic image of Bond to which viewers had been accustomed. Many disparagingly called him "James Blonde '', believing the 5 ft 10 in (1.78 m) blond - haired blue - eyed rugged Craig to be far fitting from the traditional tall, dark and suave actors who had earlier portrayed him. The Daily Mirror ran a front page news story critical of Craig, with the headline, The Name 's Bland -- James Bland.
Craig first played Bond in the 2006 film Casino Royale, an adaptation of Fleming 's novel of the same name and a reboot of the Eon series, which saw Bond earn his 00 status. Despite the negative press on his appointment, Craig was widely praised by critics and former Bonds after the release of Casino Royale, believing him to have been the first actor to truly nail Fleming 's character in the book: Todd McCarthy, reviewing the film for Variety, considered that "Craig comes closer to the author 's original conception of this exceptionally long - lived male fantasy figure than anyone since early Sean Connery '', and he went on to say that "Craig once and for all claims the character as his own '', while Steven Spielberg called Craig "the perfect 21st - century Bond ''. Paul Arendt, writing for the BBC, agreed, observing that "Daniel Craig is not a good Bond. He 's a great Bond. Specifically, he is 007 as conceived by Ian Fleming -- a professional killing machine, a charming, cold - hearted patriot with a taste for luxury. Craig is the first actor to really nail 007 's defining characteristic: he 's an absolute swine ''. James Chapman commented on the realism and violence in the film noting that Bond is seen to seriously bleed for the first time in the series; Chapman also identified a number of violent scenes which make Casino Royale notable in the series. In 2012 Skyfall was released: it was Craig 's third outing as 007. Reviewing the film, Philip French, writing in The Observer, considered that Craig managed to "get out of the shadow of Connery '', while the New Statesman thought that he had "relaxed into Bond without losing any steeliness ''.
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what is the county for kansas city mo | Kansas City, Missouri - wikipedia
Kansas City is the largest city in the U.S. state of Missouri. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city had an estimated population of 488,943 in 2017, making it the 37th most - populous city in the United States. It is the central city of the Kansas City metropolitan area, which straddles the Kansas -- Missouri state line. Kansas City was founded in the 1830s as a Missouri River port at its confluence with the Kansas River coming in from the west. On June 1, 1850 the town of Kansas was incorporated; shortly after came the establishment of the Kansas Territory. Confusion between the two ensued and the name Kansas City was assigned to distinguish them soon after.
Sitting on Missouri 's western boundary, with Downtown near the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri Rivers, the modern city encompasses some 319.03 square miles (826.3 km), making it the 23rd largest city by total area in the United States. Most of the city lies within Jackson County, but portions spill into Clay, Cass, and Platte counties. Along with Independence, one of its major suburbs, it serves as one of the two county seats of Jackson County. Other major suburbs include the Missouri cities of Blue Springs and Lee 's Summit and the Kansas cities of Overland Park, Olathe, and Kansas City.
The city is composed of several neighborhoods, including the River Market District in the north, the 18th and Vine District in the east, and the Country Club Plaza in the south. Kansas City is known for its long tradition of jazz music and culture, for its cuisine (including its distinctive style of barbecue), and its craft breweries.
Kansas City, Missouri was incorporated as a town on June 1, 1850, and as a city on March 28, 1853. The territory straddling the border between Missouri and Kansas at the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers was considered a good place to build settlements.
The Antioch Christian Church, Dr. James Compton House, and Woodneath are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
The first documented European visitor to Kansas City was Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont, who was also the first European to explore the lower Missouri River. Criticized for his response to the Native American attack on Fort Détroit, he had deserted his post as fort commander and was avoiding French authorities. Bourgmont lived with a Native American wife in a village about 90 miles (140 km) east near Brunswick, Missouri, where he illegally traded furs.
To clear his name, he wrote Exact Description of Louisiana, of Its Harbors, Lands and Rivers, and Names of the Indian Tribes That Occupy It, and the Commerce and Advantages to Be Derived Therefrom for the Establishment of a Colony in 1713 followed in 1714 by The Route to Be Taken to Ascend the Missouri River. In the documents, he describes the junction of the "Grande Riv (ière) des Cansez '' and Missouri River, making him the first to adopt those names. French cartographer Guillaume Delisle used the descriptions to make the area 's first reasonably accurate map.
The Spanish took over the region in the Treaty of Paris in 1763, but were not to play a major role other than taxing and licensing Missouri River ship traffic. The French continued their fur trade under Spanish license. The Chouteau family operated under Spanish license at St. Louis in the lower Missouri Valley as early as 1765 and in 1821 the Chouteaus reached Kansas City, where François Chouteau established Chouteau 's Landing.
After the 1804 Louisiana Purchase, Lewis and Clark visited the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers, noting it was a good place to build a fort. In 1831, a group of Mormons from New York settled in what would become the city. They built the first school within Kansas City 's current boundaries, but were forced out by mob violence in 1833 and their settlement remained vacant.
In 1833 John McCoy established West Port along the Santa Fe Trail, 3 miles (4.8 kilometers) away from the river. In 1834 McCoy established Westport Landing on a bend in the Missouri to serve as a landing point for West Port. Soon after, the Kansas Town Company, a group of investors, began to settle the area, taking their name from an English spelling of "Cansez. '' In 1850, the landing area was incorporated as the Town of Kansas.
By that time, the Town of Kansas, Westport and nearby Independence, had become critical points in the United States ' westward expansion. Three major trails -- the Santa Fe, California, and Oregon -- all passed through Jackson County.
On February 22, 1853, the City of Kansas was created with a newly elected mayor. It had an area of 0.70 square miles (1.8 km) and a population of 2,500. The boundary lines at that time extended from the middle of the Missouri River south to what is now Ninth Street, and from Bluff Street on the west to a point between Holmes Road and Charlotte Street on the east.
The Kansas City area was rife with animosity just prior to the U.S. Civil War. Kansas successfully petitioned the U.S. to enter the Union as a free state that did not allow slavery under the new doctrine of popular sovereignty. Missouri had many slaves, and slavery sympathizers crossed into Kansas to sway the state towards allowing slavery, at first by ballot box and then by bloodshed.
During the Civil War, the city and its immediate surroundings were the focus of intense military activity. Although the First Battle of Independence in August 1862 resulted in a Confederate States Army victory, the Confederates were unable to leverage their win in any significant fashion, as Kansas City was occupied by Union troops and proved too heavily fortified to assault. The Second Battle of Independence, which occurred on October 21 -- 22, 1864 as part of Sterling Price 's Missouri expedition of 1864, also resulted in a Confederate triumph. Once again their victory proved hollow, as Price was decisively defeated in the pivotal Battle of Westport the next day, effectively ending Confederate efforts to regain Missouri.
General Thomas Ewing, in response to a successful raid on nearby Lawrence, Kansas, led by William Quantrill, issued General Order No. 11, forcing the eviction of residents in four western Missouri counties -- including Jackson -- except those living in the city and nearby communities and those whose allegiance to the Union was certified by Ewing.
After the Civil War, Kansas City grew rapidly, largely losing its Southern identity. The selection of the city over Leavenworth, Kansas, for the Hannibal & St. Joseph Railroad bridge over the Missouri River brought about significant growth. The population exploded after 1869, when the Hannibal Bridge, designed by Octave Chanute, opened. The boom prompted a name change to Kansas City in 1889, and the city limits to be extended south and east. Westport became part of Kansas City on December 2, 1897. In 1900, Kansas City was the 22nd largest city in the country, with a population of 163,752 residents.
Kansas City, guided by architect George Kessler, became a forefront example of the City Beautiful movement, offering a network of boulevards and parks.
The relocation of Union Station to its current location in 1914 and the opening of the Liberty Memorial in 1923 provided two of the city 's most identifiable landmarks. Robert A. Long, president of the Liberty Memorial Association, was a driving force in the funding for construction. Long was a longtime resident and wealthy businessman. He built the R.A. Long Building for the Long - Bell Lumber Company, his home, Corinthian Hall (now the Kansas City Museum) and Longview Farm.
Further spurring Kansas City 's growth was the opening of the innovative Country Club Plaza development by J.C. Nichols in 1925, as part of his Country Club District plan.
At the start of the 20th century, political machines gained clout in the city, with the one led by Tom Pendergast dominating the city by 1925. Several important buildings and structures were built during this time, including the Kansas City City Hall and the Jackson County Courthouse. The machine fell in 1939 when Pendergast, riddled with health problems, pleaded guilty to tax evasion after long federal investigations. His biographers have summed up Pendergast 's uniqueness:
Pendergast may bear comparison to various big - city bosses, but his open alliance with hardened criminals, his cynical subversion of the democratic process, his monarchistic style of living, his increasingly insatiable gambling habit, his grasping for a business empire, and his promotion of Kansas City as a wide - open town with every kind of vice imaginable, combined with his professed compassion for the poor and very real role as city builder, made him bigger than life, difficult to characterize.
Kansas City 's suburban development began with a streetcar system in the early decades of the 20th century. The city 's first suburbs were in the neighborhoods of Pendleton Heights and Quality Hill. After World War II, many relatively affluent residents left for suburbs in Johnson County, Kansas, and eastern Jackson County, Missouri. Many also went north of the Missouri River, where Kansas City had incorporated areas between the 1940s and 1970s.
In 1950, African Americans represented 12.2 % of Kansas City 's population. The sprawling characteristics of the city and its environs today mainly took shape after 1960s race riots. The assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. was a catalyst for the 1968 Kansas City riot. At this time, slums were forming in the inner city, and many who could afford to do so, left for the suburbs and outer edges of the city. The post-World War II idea of suburbs and the "American Dream '' also contributed to the sprawl of the area. The city 's population continued to grow, but the inner city declined. The city 's most populous ethnic group, non-Hispanic whites, declined from 89.5 % in 1930 to 54.9 % in 2010.
In 1940, the city had about 400,000 residents; by 2000, the same area was home to only about 180,000. From 1940 to 1960, the city more than doubled its physical size, while increasing its population by only about 75,000. By 1970, the city covered approximately 316 square miles (820 km), more than five times its size in 1940.
The Hyatt Regency walkway collapse was a major disaster that occurred on July 17, 1981, killing 114 people and injuring more than 200 others during a tea dance. At the time, it was the deadliest structural collapse in US history.
In the 21st century, the Kansas City area has undergone extensive redevelopment, with over $6 billion in improvements to the downtown area on the Missouri side. One of the main goals is to attract convention and tourist dollars, office workers, and residents to downtown KCMO. Among the projects include the redevelopment of the Power & Light District, located in the area to the east of the Power & Light Building (the former headquarters of the Kansas City Power & Light Company, which is now based in the district 's northern end), into a retail and entertainment district; and the Sprint Center, an 18,500 - seat arena that opened in the district in 2007, which was funded by a 2004 ballot initiative involving a tax on car rentals and hotels, and was designed to meet the stadium specifications for a possible future NBA or NHL franchise. Kemper Arena, which was replaced by Sprint Center, fell into disrepair and was sold to private developers. By 2018, the arena was being converted to a sports complex under the name Hy - Vee Arena. The Kauffman Performing Arts Center opened in 2011 providing a new, modern home to the KC Orchestra and Ballet. In 2015, an 800 - room Hyatt Convention Center Hotel was announced for a site next to the Performance Arts Center & Bartle Hall. Construction is expected to start in early 2018 with Loews as the operator.
From 2007 to 2017, downtown residential population in Kansas City quadrupled and continues to grow. The area has grown from almost 4,000 residents in the early 2000s to nearly 30,000 as of 2017. Kansas City 's downtown ranks as the 6th - fastest growing downtown in America with the population expected to grow by over 40 % by 2022. Conversions of office buildings such as the Power and Light Building, Commerce Bank Tower, and others into residential and hotel space has helped to fulfill the demand. New apartment complexes like One, Two, and Three Lights, River Market West, 503 Main, and others have begun to reshape Kansas City 's skyline. Strong demand has led to occupancy rates in the high 90 % 's.
While the residential population of downtown has boomed, the office population has dropped significantly from the early 2000s to the mid 2010s. AMC and other top employers moved their operations to modern office buildings in the suburbs. High office vacancy plagued downtown, leading to the neglect of many office buildings. By the mid 2010s, many office buildings were converted to residential uses and the Class A vacancy rate plunged to 12 % in 2017. Swiss Re, Virgin Mobile, AutoAlert, and others have begun to move operations to downtown Kansas City from the suburbs as well as expensive coastal cities.
The area has seen additional development through various transportation projects, including improvements to the Grandview Triangle, which intersects Interstates 435 and 470, and U.S. Route 71, a thoroughfare long notorious for fatal accidents.
In July 2005, the Kansas City Area Transportation Authority (KCATA) launched Kansas City 's first bus rapid transit line, the Metro Area Express (MAX), which links the River Market, Downtown, Union Station, Crown Center and the Country Club Plaza. The KCATA continues to expand MAX with additional routes on Prospect Avenue, Troost Avenue, and Independence Avenue.
In 2013, construction began on a two - mile streetcar line in downtown Kansas City (funded by a $102 million ballot initiative that was passed in 2012) that runs between the River Market and Union Station, it began operation in May 2016. In 2017, voters approved the formation of a TDD to expand the streetcar line south 3.5 miles from Union Station to UMKC 's Volker Campus. Additionally in 2017, the KC Port Authority began engineering studies for a Port Authority funded streetcar expansion north to Berkley Riverfront Park. Citywide, voter support for rail projects continues to grow with numerous light rail projects in the works.
In 2016, Jackson County, Missouri acquired unused rail lines as part of a long term commuter rail plan. For the time being, the line is being converted to a trail while county officials negotiate with railroads for access to tracks in Downtown Kansas City.
On November 7, 2017, Kansas City, Missouri voters overwhelmingly approved a new single terminal at Kansas City International Airport by a 75 % to 25 % margin. The new single terminal will replace the three existing "Clover Leafs '' at KCI Airport and is expected to open in October 2022.
The city has an area of 319.03 square miles (826.28 km), of which, 314.95 square miles (815.72 km) is land and 4.08 square miles (10.57 km) is water. Bluffs overlook the rivers and river bottom areas. Kansas City proper is bowl - shaped and is surrounded to the north and south by glacier - carved limestone and bedrock cliffs. Kansas City is at the junction between the Dakota and Minnesota ice lobes during the maximum late Independence glaciation of the Pleistocene epoch. The Kansas and Missouri rivers cut wide valleys into the terrain when the glaciers melted and drained. A partially filled spillway valley crosses the central city. This valley is an eastward continuation of the Turkey Creek Valley. It is the closest major city to the geographic center of the contiguous United States, or "Lower 48 ''.
Kansas City, Missouri, comprises more than 240 neighborhoods, some with histories as independent cities or as the sites of major events.
The Nelson - Atkins Museum opened its Euro - Style Bloch addition in 2007, and the Safdie - designed Kauffman Center for the Performing Arts opened in 2011. The Power and Light Building is influenced by the Art Deco style and sports a glowing sky beacon. The new world headquarters of H&R Block is a 20 - story all - glass oval bathed in a soft green light. The four industrial artworks atop the support towers of the Kansas City Convention Center (Bartle Hall) were once the subject of ridicule, but now define the night skyline near the new Sprint Center along with One Kansas City Place (Missouri 's tallest office tower), the KCTV - Tower (Missouri 's tallest freestanding structure) and the Liberty Memorial, a World War I memorial and museum that flaunts simulated flames and smoke billowing into the night skyline. It was designated as the National World War I Museum and Memorial in 2004 by the United States Congress. Kansas City is home to significant national and international architecture firms including ACI Boland, BNIM, 360 Architecture, HNTB, Populous. Frank Lloyd Wright designed two private residences and Community Christian Church there.
Kansas City hosts over 200 working fountains. Notable examples are on the Country Club Plaza. Designs range from French - inspired traditional to modern. Highlights include the Black Marble H&R Block fountain in front of Union Station, which features synchronized water jets; the Nichols Bronze Horses at the corner of Main and J.C. Nichols Parkway at the entrance to the Plaza Shopping District; and the fountain at Hallmark Cards World Headquarters in Crown Center.
Since its inception in 1857, City Market has been one of the largest and most enduring public farmers ' markets in the American Midwest, linking growers and small businesses to the community. More than 30 full - time merchants operate year - round and offer specialty foods, fresh meats and seafood, restaurants and cafes, floral, home accessories and more. The City Market is also home to the Arabia Steamboat Museum, which houses artifacts from a steamboat that sank near Kansas City in 1856.
Downtown Kansas City is an area of 2.9 square miles (7.5 km) bounded by the Missouri River to the north, 31st Street to the south, Troost Avenue to the East, and State Line Road to the west. Areas near Downtown Kansas City include the 39th Street District, which is known as Restaurant Row, and features one of Kansas City 's largest selections of independently owned restaurants and boutique shops. It is a center of literary and visual arts, and bohemian culture. Crown Center is the headquarters of Hallmark Cards and a major downtown shopping and entertainment complex. It is connected to Union Station by a series of covered walkways. The Country Club Plaza, or simply "the Plaza '', is an upscale, outdoor shopping and entertainment district. It was the first suburban shopping district in the United States, designed to accommodate shoppers arriving by automobile, and is surrounded by apartments and condominiums, including a number of high rise buildings. The associated Country Club District to the south includes the Sunset Hill and Brookside neighborhoods, and is traversed by Ward Parkway, a landscaped boulevard known for its statuary, fountains and large, historic homes. Kansas City 's Union Station is home to Science City, restaurants, shopping, theaters, and the city 's Amtrak facility.
After years of neglect and seas of parking lots, Downtown Kansas City is undergoing a period of change with over $6 billion in development since 2000. Many residential properties recently have been or are under redevelopment in three surrounding warehouse loft districts and the Central Business District. The Power & Light District, a new, nine - block entertainment district comprising numerous restaurants, bars, and retail shops, was developed by the Cordish Company of Baltimore, Maryland. Its first tenant opened on November 9, 2007. It is anchored by the Sprint Center, a 19,000 - seat sports and entertainment complex.
Kansas City lies in the Midwestern United States, near the geographic center of the country, at the confluence of the Missouri and Kansas rivers. The city lies in the northern periphery of the humid subtropical zone. but is interchangeable with the humid continental climate due to roughly 104 air frosts on average per annum. The city is part of USDA plant hardiness zones 5b and 6a. In the center of North America, far removed from a significant body of water, there is significant potential for extreme hot and cold swings throughout the year. The warmest month is July, with a 24 - hour average temperature of 81.0 ° F (27.2 ° C). The summer months are hot and humid, with moist air riding up from the Gulf of Mexico, and high temperatures surpass 100 ° F (38 ° C) on 5.6 days of the year, and 90 ° F (32 ° C) on 47 days. The coldest month of the year is January, with an average temperature of 31.0 ° F (− 0.6 ° C). Winters are cold, with 22 days where the high temperature is at or below 32.0 ° F (0.0 ° C) and 2.5 nights with a low at or below 0 ° F (− 18 ° C). The official record highest temperature is 113 ° F (45 ° C), set on August 14, 1936 at Downtown Airport, while the official record lowest is − 23 ° F (− 31 ° C), set on December 22 and 23, 1989. Normal seasonal snowfall is 13.4 inches (34 cm) at Downtown Airport and 18.8 in (48 cm) at Kansas City International Airport. The average window for freezing temperatures is October 31 to April 4, while for measurable (0.1 in or 0.25 cm) snowfall, it is November 27 to March 16 as measured at Kansas City International Airport. Precipitation, both in frequency and total accumulation, shows a marked uptick in late spring and summer.
Kansas City is located in "Tornado Alley '', a broad region where cold air from the Rocky Mountains in Canada collides with warm air from the Gulf of Mexico, leading to the formation of powerful storms, especially during the spring. The Kansas City metropolitan area has experienced several significant outbreaks of tornadoes in the past, including the Ruskin Heights tornado in 1957 and the May 2003 tornado outbreak sequence. The region can also experience ice storms during the winter months, such as the 2002 ice storm during which hundreds of thousands of residents lost power for days and (in some cases) weeks. Kansas City and its outlying areas are also subject to flooding, including the Great Floods of 1951 and 1993.
According to the 2010 census, the racial composition of Kansas City was as follows:
Kansas City has the second largest Sudanese and Somali populations in the United States. The Latino / Hispanic population of Kansas City, which is heavily Mexican and Central American, is spread throughout the metropolitan area, with some concentration in the northeast part of the city and southwest of downtown. The Asian population, mostly Southeast Asian, is partly concentrated within the northeast side to the Columbus Park neighborhood in the Greater Downtown area, a historical Italian American neighborhood, the UMKC area and in River Market, in northern Kansas City.
The Historic Kansas City boundary is roughly 58 square miles (150 km) and has a population density of about 5,000 people per sq. mi. It runs from the Missouri River to the north, 79th Street to the south, the Blue River to the east, and State Line Road to the west. During the 1960s and 1970s, Kansas City annexed large amounts of land, which are largely undeveloped to this day.
Between the 2000 and 2010 Census counts, the urban core of Kansas City continued to drop significantly in population. The areas of Greater Downtown in the center city, and sections near I - 435 and I - 470 in the south, and Highway 152 in the north are the only areas of Kansas City, Missouri, to have seen an increase in population, with the Northland seeing the greatest population growth.
The federal government is the largest employer in the Kansas City metro area. More than 146 federal agencies maintain a presence there. Kansas City is one of ten regional office cities for the US government. The Internal Revenue Service maintains a large service center in Kansas City that occupies nearly 1,400,000 square feet (130,000 m). It is one of only two sites to process paper returns. The IRS has approximately 2,700 full - time employees in Kansas City, growing to 4,000 during tax season. The General Services Administration has more than 800 employees. Most are at the Bannister Federal Complex in South Kansas City. The Bannister Complex is also home to the Kansas City Plant, which is a National Nuclear Security Administration facility operated by Honeywell. Honeywell employs nearly 2,700 at the Kansas City Plant, which produces and assembles 85 % of the non-nuclear components of the United States nuclear bomb arsenal. The Social Security Administration has more than 1,700 employees in the Kansas City area, with more than 1,200 at its downtown Mid-America Program Service Center (MAMPSC). The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Kansas City. The Kansas City Main Post Office is at 300 West Pershing Road.
Ford Motor Company operates a large manufacturing facility in Claycomo at the Ford Kansas City Assembly Plant, which builds the Ford F - 150. The General Motors Fairfax Assembly Plant is in adjacent Kansas City, Kansas. Smith Electric Vehicles builds electric vehicles in the former TWA / American Airlines overhaul facility at Kansas City International Airport.
One of the largest US drug manufacturing plants is the Sanofi - Aventis plant in south Kansas City on a campus developed by Ewing Kauffman 's Marion Laboratories. Of late, it has been developing academic and economic institutions related to animal health sciences, an effort most recently bolstered by the selection of Manhattan, Kansas, at one end of the Kansas City Animal Health Corridor, as the site for the National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility, which researches animal diseases.
Numerous agriculture companies operate out of the city. Dairy Farmers of America, the largest dairy co-op in the United States is located in northern Kansas City. Kansas City Board of Trade is the principal trading exchange for hard red winter wheat, the principal ingredient of bread. The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics and The National Association of Basketball Coaches are based in Kansas City.
The business community is serviced by two major business magazines, the Kansas City Business Journal (published weekly) and Ingram 's Magazine (published monthly), as well as other publications, including a local society journal, the Independent (published weekly).
The Kansas City Federal Reserve Bank built a new building that opened in 2008 near Union Station. Missouri is the only state to have two of the 12 Federal Reserve Bank headquarters (the second is in St. Louis). Kansas City 's effort to get the bank was helped by former mayor James A. Reed, who as senator, broke a tie to pass the Federal Reserve Act.
The national headquarters for the Veterans of Foreign Wars is headquartered just south of Downtown.
With a Gross Metropolitan Product of $41.68 billion in 2004, Kansas City 's (Missouri side only) economy makes up 20.5 % of Missouri 's gross state product. In 2014, Kansas City was ranked # 6 for real estate investment.
Three international law firms, Lathrop & Gage, Stinson Leonard Street, and Shook, Hardy & Bacon are based in the city.
The following notable companies are headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri:
According to the city 's Fiscal Year 2014 - 15 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top ten principal employers are as follows:
Kansas City is often abbreviated as KC (abbreviations often refer to the metropolitan area). It is officially nicknamed the "City of Fountains ''. The fountains at Kauffman Stadium, commissioned by original Kansas City Royals owner Ewing Kauffman, are the largest privately funded fountains in the world. The city has more boulevards than any other city except Paris and has been called "Paris of the Plains ''. Soccer 's popularity, at both professional and youth levels, as well as Children 's Mercy Park 's popularity as a home stadium for the U.S. Men 's National Team has to the appellation as the "Soccer Capital of America ''. Residents are known as Kansas Citians. The city is sometimes referred to as the "Heart of America '', as it is near both the population center of the United States and the geographic center of the 48 contiguous states.
The Kansas City Repertory Theatre is the metropolitan area 's top professional theatre company. The Starlight Theatre is an 8,105 - seat outdoor theatre designed by Edward Delk. The Kansas City Symphony was founded by R. Crosby Kemper Jr. in 1982 to replace the defunct Kansas City Philharmonic, which was founded in 1933. The symphony performs at the Kauffman Center for the Performing Arts. Michael Stern is the symphony 's music director and lead conductor. Lyric Opera of Kansas City, founded in 1958, performs at the Kauffman Center, offers one American contemporary opera production during its season, consisting of either four or five productions. The Civic Opera Theater of Kansas City performs at the downtown Folly Theater and at the UMKC Performing Arts Center. Every summer from mid-June to early July, The Heart of America Shakespeare Festival performs at Southmoreland Park near the Nelson - Atkins Museum; the festival was founded by Marilyn Strauss in 1993.
The Kansas City Ballet, founded in 1957 by Tatiana Dokoudovska, is a ballet troupe comprising 25 professional dancers and apprentices. Between 1986 and 2000, it combined with Dance St. Louis to form the State Ballet of Missouri, although it remained in Kansas City. From 1980 to 1995, the Ballet was run by dancer and choreographer Todd Bolender. Today, the Ballet offers an annual repertory split into three seasons, performing classical to contemporary ballets. The Ballet also performs at the Kauffman Center. Kansas City is home to The Kansas City Chorale, a professional 24 - voice chorus conducted by Charles Bruffy. The chorus performs an annual concert series and a concert in Phoenix each year with their sister choir, the Phoenix Chorale. The Chorale has made nine recordings (three with the Phoenix Chorale).
Kansas City jazz in the 1930s marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. The 1979 documentary The Last of the Blue Devils portrays this era in interviews and performances by local jazz notables. In the 1970s, Kansas City attempted to resurrect the glory of the jazz era in a family - friendly atmosphere. In the 1970s, an effort to open jazz clubs in the River Quay area of City Market along the Missouri ended in a gang war. Three of the new clubs were blown up in what ultimately ended Kansas City mob influence in Las Vegas casinos. The annual "Kansas City Blues and Jazz Festival '' attracts top jazz stars and large out - of - town audiences. It was rated Kansas City 's "best festival. '' by Pitch.com.
Live music venues are found throughout the city, with the highest concentration in the Westport entertainment district centered on Broadway and Westport Road near the Country Club Plaza, as well as the 18th & Vine area (jazz music). A variety of music genres can be heard and have originated there, including musicians Janelle Monáe, Puddle of Mudd, Isaac James, The Get Up Kids, Shiner, Flee The Seen, The Life and Times, Reggie and the Full Effect, Coalesce, The Casket Lottery, The Gadjits, The Rainmakers, Vedera, The Elders, Blackpool Lights, The Republic Tigers, Tech N9ne, Krizz Kaliko, Kutt Calhoun, Skatterman & Snug Brim, Mac Lethal, Ces Cru and Solè. As of 2003, the Kansas City Jazz Orchestra, a big band jazz orchestra, performs in the metropolitan area.
In 2018, UNESCO named Kansas City as a "City of Music, '' making it the only city in the United States with that distinction. The city 's funding of $7 million for improvements to the 18th & Vine Jazz District in 2016, coupled with the city 's rich musical heritage, contributed to the designation.
The large community of Irish - Americans numbers over 50,000. The Irish were the first large immigrant group to settle in Kansas City and founded its first newspaper. The Irish community includes bands, dancers, newspapers, Irish stores and the Kansas City Irish Center at Drexel Hall in Midtown. The first book that detailed the history of the Irish in Kansas City was Missouri Irish: Irish Settlers on the American Frontier, published in 1984. The Kansas City Irish Fest is held over Labor Day weekend every year in Crown Center and Washington Park.
Missouri voters approved riverboat casino gaming on the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers by referendum with a 63 % majority on November 3, 1992. The first casino facility in the state opened in September 1994 in North Kansas City by Harrah 's Entertainment (now Caesar 's Entertainment). The combined revenues for four casinos exceeded $153 million per month in May 2008. The metropolitan area is home to six casinos: Ameristar Kansas City, Argosy Kansas City, Harrah 's North Kansas City, Isle of Capri Kansas City, the 7th Street Casino (which opened in Kansas City, Kansas, in 2008) and Hollywood Casino (which opened in February 2012 in Kansas City, Kansas).
Kansas City is most famous for its steak and barbecue, along with the typical array of Southern cuisine. During the heyday of the Kansas City Stockyards, the city was known for its Kansas City steaks or Kansas City strip steaks. The most famous of its steakhouses is the Golden Ox in the Kansas City Live Stock Exchange in the West Bottoms stockyards. These stockyards were second only to those of Chicago in size, but they never recovered from the Great Flood of 1951 and eventually closed. Founded in 1938, Jess & Jim 's Steakhouse in the Martin City neighborhood was also well known.
The Kansas City Strip cut of steak is similar to the New York Strip cut, and is sometimes referred to just as a strip steak. Along with Texas, Memphis, North and South Carolina, Kansas City is lauded as a "world capital of barbecue. '' More than 90 barbecue restaurants operate in the metropolitan area. The American Royal each fall hosts what it claims is the world 's biggest barbecue contest.
Classic Kansas City - style barbecue was an inner - city phenomenon that evolved from the pit of Henry Perry, a migrant from Memphis who is generally credited with opening the city 's first barbecue stand in 1921, and blossomed in the 18th and Vine neighborhood. Arthur Bryant 's took over the Perry restaurant and added sugar to his sauce to sweeten the recipe a bit. In 1946 one of Perry 's cooks, George W. Gates, opened Gates Bar - B-Q, later Gates and Sons Bar - B-Q when his son Ollie joined the family business. Bryant 's and Gates are the two definitive Kansas City barbecue restaurants; native Kansas Citian and essayist Calvin Trillin famously called Bryant 's "the single best restaurant in the world '' in an essay he wrote for Playboy magazine in the 1960s. Fiorella 's Jack Stack Barbecue is also well regarded. In 1977, Rich Davis, a psychiatrist, test - marketed his own concoction called K.C. Soul Style Barbecue Sauce. He renamed it KC Masterpiece, and in 1986, he sold the recipe to the Kingsford division of Clorox. Davis retained rights to operate restaurants using the name and sauce, whose recipe popularized the use of molasses as a sweetener in Kansas City - style barbecue sauces. In 2009, Kansas City appeared on Newsmax magazine 's list of the "Top 25 Most Uniquely American Cities and Towns, '' a piece written by CBS News travel editor Peter Greenberg. In determining his ranking, Greenberg cited the city 's barbecue, among other factors.
Kansas City has several James Beard Award - winning / nominated chefs and restaurants. Winning chefs include Michael Smith, Celina Tio, Colby Garrelts, Debbie Gold, Jonathan Justus and Martin Heuser. A majority of the Beard Award - winning restaurants are in the Crossroads district, downtown and in Westport.
The proportion of Kansas City area residents with a known religious affiliation is 50.75 %. The most common religious denominations in the area are:
In 1911, Elias Disney moved his family from Marceline to Kansas City. They lived in a new home with a garage built by Elias Disney, which became the location for Walt 's very first animation, at 3028 Bellefontaine. In 1919, Walt Disney returned from France where he had served as a Red Cross Ambulance Driver in World War I. Walt started the first animation company Laugh - O - Gram Studio in Kansas City. Later, the company went bankrupt, Walt Disney moved to Hollywood, and started The Walt Disney Company on October 16, 1923.
Professional sports teams in Kansas City include the Kansas City Chiefs in the National Football League (NFL), the Kansas City Royals in Major League Baseball (MLB) and Sporting Kansas City in Major League Soccer (MLS).
The following table lists the professional teams in the Kansas City metropolitan area:
The Chiefs -- now a member of the NFL 's American Football Conference (AFC) -- started play in 1960 as the Dallas Texans and they moved to Kansas City in 1963. The team lost Super Bowl I to the Green Bay Packers. They came back in 1969 to become the last ever AFL champions and win Super Bowl IV against NFL champions Minnesota Vikings with a score of 23 - 7.
The Athletics baseball franchise played in the city from 1955, after moving from Philadelphia, to 1967, when the team relocated to Oakland, California. The city 's Major League Baseball franchise, the Royals, started play in 1969, and are the only major league sports franchise in Kansas City that has not relocated or changed its name. The Royals were the first American League expansion team to reach the playoffs, in 1976, to reach the World Series in 1980, and to win the World Series in 1985. The Royals returned to the World Series in 2014 and won in 2015.
The Kansas City T - Bones, playing in the independent Northern League from 2003 until 2010, and currently in the independent American Association since 2011, and unaffiliated minor league team. They play their games in T - Bones Stadium in Kansas City, Kansas.
The Kansas City Wiz became a charter member of Major League Soccer in 1996. It was renamed the Kansas City Wizards in 1997. In 2011, the team was renamed Sporting Kansas City and moved to its new stadium Children 's Mercy Park in Kansas City, Kansas. Sporting 's reserve team, Swope Park Rangers, plays at Shawnee Mission District Stadium in Overland Park, Kansas. FC Kansas City began play in 2013 as an expansion team of the National Women 's Soccer League; the team 's home games are held at Swope Soccer Village.
In college athletics, Kansas City has lately been the home of the Big 12 College Basketball Tournaments. The men 's tournament has been played at Sprint Center since March 2008. The women 's tournament is played at Municipal Auditorium.
In addition to serving as the Chiefs ' home stadium, Arrowhead Stadium serves as the venue for various intercollegiate football games. It has hosted the Big 12 Championship Game five times. On the last weekend in October, the MIAA Fall Classic rivalry game between Northwest Missouri State University and Pittsburg State University took place at the stadium.
Kansas City is represented on the rugby pitch by the Kansas City Blues RFC, a former member of the Rugby Super League and a Division 1 club. The team works closely with Sporting Kansas City and splits home - games between Sporting 's training pitch and Rockhurst University 's stadium.
Kansas City briefly had four short - term major league baseball teams between 1884 and 1915: the Kansas City Unions of the short - lived Union Association in 1884, the Kansas City Cowboys in the National League in 1886, a team of the same name in the then - major league American Association in 1888 and 1889, and the Kansas City Packers in the Federal League in 1914 and 1915. The Kansas City Monarchs of the now - defunct Negro National and Negro American Leagues represented Kansas City from 1920 through 1955. the city also had a number of minor league baseball teams between 1885 and 1955. From 1903 through 1954, the Kansas City Blues played in the high - level American Association minor league. In 1955, Kansas City became a major league city when the Philadelphia Athletics baseball franchise relocated to the city in 1955. Following the 1967 season, the team relocated to Oakland, California.
Kansas City was also represented in the National Basketball Association by the Kansas City Kings (called the Kansas City - Omaha Kings from 1972 to 1975), when the former Cincinnati Royals moved to the Midwest. The team left Sacramento in 1985.
In 1974, the National Hockey League placed an expansion team in Kansas City called the Kansas City Scouts. The team moved to Denver in 1976, then to New Jersey in 1982 where they have remained ever since as the New Jersey Devils.
Kansas City has 132 miles (212 km) of boulevards and parkways, 214 urban parks, 49 ornamental fountains, 152 ball diamonds, 10 community centers, 105 tennis courts, 5 golf courses, 5 museums and attractions, 30 pools, and 47 park shelters. These amenities are found across the city. Much of the system, designed by George E. Kessler, was constructed from 1893 to 1915.
Cliff Drive, in Kessler Park on the North Bluffs, is a designated State Scenic Byway. It extends 4.27 miles (6.87 km) from The Paseo and Independence Avenue through Indian Mound on Gladstone Boulevard at Belmont Boulevard, with many historical points and architectural landmarks.
Ward Parkway, on the west side of the city near State Line Road, is lined by many of the city 's largest and most elaborate homes.
The Paseo is a major north -- south parkway that runs 19 miles (31 km) through the center of the city beginning at Cliff Drive. It was modeled on the Paseo de la Reforma, a fashionable Mexico City boulevard.
Swope Park is one of the nation 's largest city parks, comprising 1,805 acres (3 sq mi), more than twice the size of New York City 's Central Park. It features a zoo, a woodland nature and wildlife rescue center, 2 golf courses, 2 lakes, an amphitheatre, a day - camp, and numerous picnic grounds. Hodge Park, in the Northland, covers 1,029 acres (416 ha) (1.61 sq. mi.). This park includes the 80 - acre (320,000 m) Shoal Creek Living History Museum, a village of more than 20 historical buildings dating from 1807 to 1885. Berkely Riverfront Park, 955 acres (3.86 km) on the banks of the Missouri River on the north edge of downtown, holds annual Independence Day celebrations and other festivals.
A program went underway to replace many of the fast - growing sweetgum trees with hardwood varieties.
Kansas City is home to the largest municipal government in the state of Missouri. The city has a council / manager form of government. The role of city manager has diminished over the years. The non-elective office of city manager was created following excesses during the Pendergast days. The mayor is the head of the Kansas City City Council, which has 12 members (one member for each district, plus one at large member per district). The mayor is the presiding member. Kansas City holds city elections in every fourth odd numbered year. The last citywide election was held in May 2015. The officials took office in August 2015 and will hold the position until 2019.
Pendergast was the most prominent leader during the machine politics days. The most nationally prominent Democrat associated with the machine was Harry S Truman, who became a Senator, Vice President and then President of the United States from 1945 to 1953. Kansas City is the seat of the United States District Court for the Western District of Missouri, one of two federal district courts in Missouri. The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri is in St. Louis. It also is the seat of the Western District of the Missouri Court of Appeals, one of three districts of that court (the Eastern District is in St. Louis and the Southern District is in Springfield).
The Mayor, City Council, and City Manager are listed below:
Kansas City hosted the 1900 Democratic National Convention, the 1928 Republican National Convention and the 1976 Republican National Convention. The urban core of Kansas City consistently votes Democratic in Presidential elections; however, on the state and local level Republicans often find success, especially in the Northland and other suburban areas of Kansas City.
Kansas City is represented by three members of the United States House of Representatives:
Some of the earliest organized violence in Kansas City erupted during the American Civil War. Shortly after the city 's incorporation in 1850, so - called Bleeding Kansas erupted, affecting border ruffians and Jayhawkers. During the war, Union troops burned all occupied dwellings in Jackson County south of Brush Creek and east of Blue Creek to Independence in an attempt to halt raids into Kansas. After the war, the Kansas City Times turned outlaw Jesse James into a folk hero via its coverage. James was born in the Kansas City metro area at Kearney, Missouri, and notoriously robbed the Kansas City Fairgrounds at 12th Street and Campbell Avenue.
In the early 20th century under Pendergast, Kansas City became the country 's "most wide open town ''. While this would give rise to Kansas City Jazz, it also led to the rise of the Kansas City mob (initially under Johnny Lazia), as well as the arrival of organized crime. In the 1970s, the Kansas City mob was involved in a gang war over control of the River Quay entertainment district, in which three buildings were bombed and several gangsters were killed. Police investigations gained after boss Nick Civella was recorded discussing gambling bets on Super Bowl IV (where the Kansas City Chiefs defeated the Minnesota Vikings). The war and investigation led to the end of mob control of the Stardust Casino, which was the basis for the film Casino (although the production minimizes the Kansas City connections).
As of November 2012, Kansas City ranked 18th on the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) 's annual survey of crime rates for cities with populations over 100,000. Much of the city 's violent crime occurs on the city 's lower income East Side. Revitalizing the downtown and midtown areas has been fairly successful and now these areas have below average violent crime compared to major downtowns. According to a 2007 analysis by The Kansas City Star and the University of Missouri - Kansas City, downtown experienced the largest drop in crime of any neighborhood in the city during the 2000s.
Many universities, colleges, and seminaries are in the Kansas City metropolitan area, including:
Kansas City is served by 16 school districts including 10 Public School Districts, with a significant portion being nationally ranked. There are also numerous private schools; Catholic schools in Kansas City are governed by the Diocese of Kansas City.
The following Public School Districts serve Kansas City:
The Kansas City Star is the area 's primary newspaper. William Rockhill Nelson and his partner, Samuel Morss, first published the evening paper on September 18, 1880. The Star competed with the morning Kansas City Times before acquiring that publication in 1901. The "Times '' name was discontinued in March 1990, when the morning paper was renamed the "Star ''.
Weekly newspapers include The Call (which is focused toward Kansas City 's African - American community), the Kansas City Business Journal, The Pitch, Ink, and the bilingual publications Dos Mundos and KC Hispanic News.
The city is served by two major faith - oriented newspapers: The Kansas City Metro Voice, serving the Christian community, and the Kansas City Jewish Chronicle, serving the Jewish community. It also the headquarters of the National Catholic Reporter, an independent Catholic newspaper.
The Kansas City media market (ranked 32nd by Arbitron and 31st by Nielsen) includes 10 television stations, 30 FM and 21 AM radio stations. Kansas City broadcasting jobs have been a stepping stone for national television and radio personalities, notably Walter Cronkite and Mancow Muller.
WDAF radio (610 AM, now at 106.5 FM; AM frequency now occupied by KCSP) signed on in 1927 as an affiliate of the NBC Red Network, under the ownership of The Star. In 1949, the Star signed on WDAF - TV as an affiliate of the NBC television network. The Star sold off the WDAF stations in 1957, following an antitrust investigation by the United States government (reportedly launched at Truman 's behest, following a long - standing feud with the Star) over the newspaper 's ownership of television and radio stations. KCMO radio (originally at 810 AM, now at 710 AM) signed on KCMO - TV (now KCTV) in 1953. The respective owners of WHB (then at 710 AM, now at 810 AM) and KMBC radio (980 AM, now KMBZ), Cook Paint and Varnish Company and the Midland Broadcasting Company, signed on WHB - TV / KMBC - TV as a time - share arrangement on VHF channel 9 in 1953; KMBC - TV took over channel 9 full - time in June 1954, after Cook Paint and Varnish purchased Midland Broadcasting 's stations.
The major broadcast television networks have affiliates in the Kansas City market (covering 32 counties in northwestern Missouri, with the exception of counties in the far northwestern part of the state that are within the adjacent Saint Joseph market, and northeastern Kansas); including WDAF - TV 4 (Fox), KCTV 5 (CBS), KMBC - TV 9 (ABC), KCPT 19 (PBS), KCWE 29 (The CW), KSHB - TV 41 (NBC) and KSMO - TV 62 (MyNetworkTV). Other television stations in the market include Saint Joseph - based KTAJ - TV 16 (TBN), Kansas City, Kansas - based TV25.tv (consisting of three locally owned stations throughout northeast Kansas, led by KCKS - LD 25, affiliated with several digital multicast networks), Lawrence, Kansas - based KMCI - TV 38 (independent), Spanish - language station KUKC - LP 48 (Univision), and KPXE - TV 50 (Ion Television).
Kansas City has been a locale for film and television productions. Between 1931 and 1982 Kansas City was home to the Calvin Company, a large movie production company that specialized in promotional and sales short films and commercials for corporations, as well as educational films for schools and the government. Calvin was an important venue for Kansas City arts, training local filmmakers who went on to Hollywood careers and also employing local actors, most of whom earned their main income in fields such as radio and television announcing. Kansas City native Robert Altman directed movies at the Calvin Company, which led him to shoot his first feature film, The Delinquents, in Kansas City using many local players.
The 1983 television movie The Day After was filmed in Kansas City and Lawrence, Kansas. The 1990s film Truman, starring Gary Sinise, was filmed in the city. Other films shot in or around Kansas City include Article 99, Mr. & Mrs. Bridge, Kansas City, Paper Moon, In Cold Blood, Ninth Street, and Sometimes They Come Back (in and around nearby Liberty, Missouri). More recently, a scene in the controversial film Brüno was filmed in downtown Kansas City 's historic Hotel Phillips.
Today, Kansas City is home to an active independent film community. The Independent Filmmaker 's Coalition is an organization dedicated to expanding and improving independent filmmaking in Kansas City. The city launched the KC Film Office in October 2014 with the goal of better marketing the city for prospective television shows and movies to be filmed there. The City Council passed several film tax incentives in February 2016 to take effect in May 2016; the KC Film Office is coordinating its efforts with the State of Missouri to reinstate film incentives on a statewide level.
Originally, Kansas City was the launching point for travelers on the Santa Fe, Oregon and California trails. Later, with the construction of the Hannibal Bridge across the Missouri River, it became the junction of 11 trunk railroads. More rail tonnage passes through the city than any other U.S. city. Trans World Airlines (TWA) located its headquarters in the city, and had ambitious plans to turn the city into an air hub.
Missouri and Kansas were the first states to start building interstates with Interstate 70. Interstate 435, which encircles the entire city, is the second longest beltway in the nation. (Interstate 275 around Cincinnati, Ohio is the longest.) The Kansas City metro area has more limited access highway lane - miles per capita than any other large US metro area, over 27 % more than the second - place Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex, over 50 % more than the average American metropolitan area. The Sierra Club blames the extensive freeway network for excessive sprawl and the decline of central Kansas City. On the other hand, the relatively uncongested road network contributes significantly to Kansas City 's position as one of America 's largest logistics hubs.
Kansas City International Airport was built to TWA 's specifications to make a world hub. Its original passenger - friendly design placed each of its gates 100 feet (30 m) from the street. Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, it required a costly overhaul to conform to the tighter security protocols. Charles B. Wheeler Downtown Airport was TWA 's original headquarters and houses the Airline History Museum. It is still used for general aviation and airshows.
Like most American cities, Kansas City 's mass transit system was originally rail - based. From 1870 to 1957, Kansas City 's streetcar system was among the top in the country, with over 300 miles (480 km) of track at its peak. The rapid sprawl in the following years led this private system to be shut down.
On December 28, 1965, the Kansas City Area Transportation Authority (KCATA) was formed via a bi-state compact created by the Missouri and Kansas legislatures. The compact gave the KCATA responsibility for planning, construction, owning and operating passenger transportation systems and facilities within the seven - county area.
In July 2005, the KCATA launched Kansas City 's first bus rapid transit line, the Metro Area Express (MAX). MAX links the River Market, Downtown, Union Station, Crown Center and the Country Club Plaza. This corridor employs over 150,000 workers. MAX operates and is marketed more like a rail system than a local bus line. A unique identity was created for MAX, including 13 modern diesel buses and easily identifiable "stations ''. MAX features (real - time GPS tracking of buses, available at every station), and stoplights automatically change in their favor if buses are behind schedule. In 2010, a second MAX line was added on Troost Avenue. The city is planning another MAX line down Prospect Avenue.
On December 12, 2012, a ballot initiative to construct a $102 million, 2 - mile (3200 m) modern streetcar line in downtown Kansas City was approved by local voters. The streetcar route runs along Main Street from the River Market to Union Station; it debuted on May 6, 2016. A new non-profit corporation made up of private sector stakeholders and city appointees -- the Kansas City Streetcar Authority -- operates and maintains the system. Unlike many similar systems around the U.S., no fare is to be charged initially. Residents within the proposed Transportation Development District are determining the fate of the KC Streetcar 's southern extension through Midtown and the Plaza to UMKC. The Port Authority of Kansas City is also studying running an extension to Berkley Riverfront Park.
In 2015, the KCATA, Unified Government Transit, Johnson County Transit, and IndeBus (all separate metro services) began merging into one coordinated transit service for the Kansas City region, called RideKC. The buses and other transit options will be branded as: RideKC Bus, RideKC MAX, RideKC Streetcar, and RideKC Bridj. RideKC Bridj is a micro transit service partnership between Ford Bridj and KCATA that began on March 7, 2016. Users download the Bridj app and use the service much like a taxi service. The merger and full coordination is expected to be complete by 2019.
A 2015 study by Walk Score ranked Kansas City as the 42nd most walkable out of the 50 largest U.S. cities. As a whole, the city has a score of 34 out of 100. However, several of the more densely populated neighborhoods have much higher scores: Westport has a score of 91; the Downtown Loop has a score of 85; the Crossroads scored 85; and the Plaza scored 83. Those ratings range from "A Walker 's Paradise '' to "Very Walkable. '' In April 2017, voters approved an $800 million general obligation bond, part of which is designated for sidewalk repairs and creating complete - streets.
According to the American Community Survey, 81.6 percent of working Kansas City residents commuted to work by driving alone, 7.9 percent carpooled, 2.7 percent used public transportation, and 1.7 percent walked to work. About 1.5 percent commuted by other means, including taxi, bicycle, or motorcycle. About 4.6 of working Kansas City residents worked at home.
In 2015, 11.4 percent of Kansas City households were without a car, which was virtually unchanged in 2016 (11.3 percent). The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Kansas City averaged 1.58 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8 per household.
Kansas City has 14 sister cities:
Other articles connected with the culture of Kansas City:
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what do they call the subway in new york | New York City subway - wikipedia
October 27, 1904 (Original subway) July 3, 1868 (first elevated, rapid transit operation)
The New York City Subway is a rapid transit system owned by the City of New York and leased to the New York City Transit Authority, a subsidiary agency of the state - run Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA). Opened in 1904, the New York City Subway is one of the world 's oldest public transit systems, one of the world 's most used metro systems, and the metro system with the most stations. It offers service 24 hours per day on every day of the year, though some routes may operate only part - time.
The New York City Subway is the largest rapid transit system in the world by number of stations, with 472 stations in operation (424 if stations connected by transfers are counted as single stations). Stations are located throughout the boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx. The Staten Island Railway is not officially considered part of the subway, as it lacks a rail link with the subway system, so passengers traveling between Staten Island and another borough must take the Staten Island Ferry or an MTA bus; free transfers are allowed to the subway and bus systems. The PATH in Manhattan and New Jersey and the AirTrain JFK in Queens both accept the subway 's MetroCard but are not operated by the MTA and do not allow free transfers. However, the Roosevelt Island Tramway does allow free transfers to the MTA and bus systems, even though it is also not operated by the MTA.
The system is also one of the world 's longest. Overall, the system contains 236 miles (380 km) of routes, translating into 665 miles (1,070 km) of revenue track; and a total of 850 miles (1,370 km) including non-revenue trackage.
By annual ridership, the New York City Subway is the busiest rapid transit rail system in both the Western Hemisphere and the Western world, as well as the eighth busiest rapid transit rail system in the world; only the metro (subway) systems in Beijing, Shanghai, Seoul, Guangzhou, Tokyo, Moscow, and Hong Kong record higher annual ridership. In 2017, the subway delivered over 1.72 billion rides, averaging approximately 5.6 million daily rides on weekdays and a combined 5.7 million rides each weekend (3.2 million on Saturdays; 2.5 million on Sundays). On September 23, 2014, more than 6.1 million people rode the subway system, establishing the highest single - day ridership since ridership was regularly monitored in 1985.
Of the system 's 25 services, 22 pass through Manhattan, the exceptions being the G train, the Franklin Avenue Shuttle, and the Rockaway Park Shuttle. Large portions of the subway outside Manhattan are elevated, on embankments, or in open cuts, and a few stretches of track run at ground level. In total, 40 % of track is above ground, despite the "subway '' moniker. Many lines and stations have both express and local services. These lines have three or four tracks. Normally, the outer two are used for local trains, while the inner one or two are used for express trains. Stations served by express trains are typically major transfer points or destinations.
Alfred Ely Beach built the first demonstration for an underground transit system in New York City in 1869 and opened it in February 1870. His Beach Pneumatic Transit only extended 312 feet (95 m) under Broadway in Lower Manhattan operating from Warren Street to Murray Street and exhibited his idea for a subway propelled by pneumatic tube technology. The tunnel was never extended for political and financial reasons, although extensions had been planned to take the tunnel southward to the Battery and northwards towards the Harlem River. (In 1912, workers excavating for the present - day BMT Broadway Line dug into the old Beach tunnel; today, no part of this line remains as the tunnel was completely within the limits of the present day City Hall Station under Broadway.)
The Great Blizzard of 1888 helped demonstrate the benefits of an underground transportation system. A plan for the construction of the subway was approved in 1894, and construction began in 1900. The first underground line of the subway opened on October 27, 1904, almost 36 years after the opening of the first elevated line in New York City, which became the IRT Ninth Avenue Line. The fare was $0.05 and on the first day the trains carried over 150,000 passengers. The oldest structure still in use opened in 1885 as part of the BMT Lexington Avenue Line in Brooklyn and is now part of the BMT Jamaica Line. The oldest right - of - way, which is part of the BMT West End Line near Coney Island Creek, was in use in 1864 as a steam railroad called the Brooklyn, Bath and Coney Island Rail Road.
By the time the first subway opened in 1904, the lines had been consolidated into two privately owned systems, the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT, later Brooklyn -- Manhattan Transit Corporation, BMT) and the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT). The city built most of the lines and leased them to the companies. The first line of the city - owned and operated Independent Subway System (IND) opened in 1932; this system was intended to compete with the private systems and allow some of the elevated railways to be torn down, but stayed within the core of the City due to its small startup capital. This required it to be run ' at cost ', necessitating fares up to double the five - cent fare popular at the time.
In 1940, the city bought the two private systems. Some elevated lines ceased service immediately while others closed soon after. Integration was slow, but several connections were built between the IND and BMT; these now operate as one division called the B Division. Since the IRT tunnels, sharper curves, and stations are too small and therefore can not accommodate B Division cars, the IRT remains its own division, the A Division. However, many passenger transfers between stations of all three former companies have been created, allowing the entire network to be treated as a single unit.
During the late - 1940s, the system recorded high ridership, and on December 23, 1946, the system - wide record of 8,872,249 fares was set.
The New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA), a public authority presided by New York City, was created in 1953 to take over subway, bus, and streetcar operations from the city, and placed under control of the state - level Metropolitan Transportation Authority in 1968.
Organized in 1934 by transit workers of the BRT, IRT, and IND, the Transport Workers Union of America Local 100 remains the largest and most influential local of the labor unions. Since the union 's founding, there have been three union strikes over contract disputes with the MTA: 12 days in 1966, 11 days in 1980, and three days in 2005.
By the 1970s and 1980s, the New York City Subway was at an all - time low. Ridership had dropped to 1910s levels, and graffiti and crime were rampant on the subway; in general, the subway was very poorly maintained during that time, and delays and track problems were common. Still, the NYCTA managed to open six new subway stations in the 1980s, make the current fleet of subway cars graffiti - free, as well as order 1,775 new subway cars. By the early 1990s, conditions had improved significantly, although maintenance backlogs accumulated during those 20 years are still being fixed today.
Entering the 21st century, progress continued despite several disasters. The September 11 attacks resulted in service disruptions on lines running through Lower Manhattan, particularly the IRT Broadway -- Seventh Avenue Line, which ran directly underneath the World Trade Center. Sections of the tunnel, as well as the Cortlandt Street station, which was directly underneath the Twin Towers, were severely damaged. Rebuilding required the suspension of service on that line south of Chambers Street. Ten other nearby stations were closed for cleanup. By March 2002, seven of those stations had reopened. The rest (except for Cortlandt Street on the IRT Broadway -- Seventh Avenue Line) reopened on September 15, 2002, along with service south of Chambers Street. In October 2012, Hurricane Sandy wreaked havoc, flooding several underwater tunnels and other facilities near New York Harbor, as well as trackage over Jamaica Bay. The immediate damage was fixed within six months but long - term resiliency and rehabilitation projects continue.
When the IRT subway debuted in 1904, the typical tunnel construction method was cut - and - cover. The street was torn up to dig the tunnel below before being rebuilt from above. Traffic on the street above would be interrupted due to the digging up of the street. Temporary steel and wooden bridges carried surface traffic above the construction.
Contractors in this type of construction faced many obstacles, both natural and man - made. They had to deal with rock formations and ground water, which required pumps. Twelve miles of sewers, as well as water and gas mains, electric conduits, and steam pipes had to be rerouted. Street railways had to be torn up to allow the work. The foundations of tall buildings often ran near the subway construction, and in some cases needed underpinning to ensure stability.
This method worked well for digging soft dirt and gravel near the street surface. However, tunnelling shields were required for deeper sections, such as the Harlem and East River tunnels, which used cast - iron tubes. Rock or concrete - lined tunnels were used on segments from 33rd to 42nd streets under Park Avenue; 116th to 120th Streets under Broadway; 145th to Dyckman Streets (Fort George) under Broadway and St. Nicholas Avenue; and 96th Street and Broadway to Central Park North and Lenox Avenue.
About 40 % of the subway system runs on surface or elevated tracks, including steel or cast iron elevated structures, concrete viaducts, embankments, open cuts and surface routes. All of these construction methods are completely grade - separated from road and pedestrian crossings, and most crossings of two subway tracks are grade - separated with flying junctions. The sole exceptions of at - grade junctions of two lines in regular service are the 142nd Street junction, the Rogers junction and the Myrtle Avenue junction, whose tracks both intersect at the same level.
The 7,700 workers who built the original subway lines were mostly immigrants living in Manhattan.
More recent projects use tunnel boring machines, which increase the cost. They minimize disruption at street level and avoid already existing utilities. Examples of such projects include the extension of the IRT Flushing Line and the IND Second Avenue Line.
Since the opening of the original New York City Subway line in 1904, various official and planning agencies have proposed numerous extensions to the subway system. One of the more expansive proposals was the "IND Second System '', part of a plan to construct new subway lines in addition to taking over existing subway lines and railroad rights - of - way. The most grandiose IND Second Subway plan, conceived in 1929, was to be part of the city - operated IND, and was to comprise almost ⁄ of the current subway system. By 1939, with unification planned, all three systems were included within the plan, which was ultimately never carried out. Many different plans were proposed over the years of the subway 's existence, but expansion of the subway system mostly stopped during World War II.
Though most of the routes proposed over the decades have never seen construction, discussion remains strong to develop some of these lines, to alleviate existing subway capacity constraints and overcrowding, the most notable being the proposals for the Second Avenue Subway. Plans for new lines date back to the early 1910s, and expansion plans have been proposed during many years of the system 's existence.
After the IND Sixth Avenue Line was completed in 1940, the city went into great debt, and only 33 new stations have been added to the system since, nineteen of which were part of defunct railways that already existed. Five stations were on the abandoned New York, Westchester and Boston Railway, which was incorporated into the system in 1941 as the IRT Dyre Avenue Line. Fourteen more stations were on the abandoned LIRR Rockaway Beach Branch (now the IND Rockaway Line), which opened in 1955. Two stations (57th Street and Grand Street) were part of the Chrystie Street Connection, and opened in 1968; the Harlem -- 148th Street terminal opened that same year in an unrelated project. Six were built as part of a 1968 plan: three on the Archer Avenue Lines, opened in 1988, and three on the 63rd Street Lines, opened in 1989. The new South Ferry station was built and connected to the existing Whitehall Street -- South Ferry station in 2009. The one - stop 7 Subway Extension to the west side of Manhattan, comprising the 34th Street -- Hudson Yards station, was opened in 2015, and three stations on the Second Avenue Subway in the Upper East Side were opened in the beginning of 2017.
Many rapid transit systems run relatively static routings, so that a train "line '' is more or less synonymous with a train "route ''. In New York City, however, routings change often because of changes in the availability of connections or the setup of service patterns. Within the nomenclature of the subway, the "line '' describes the physical railroad track or series of tracks that a train "route '' uses on its way from one terminal to another. "Routes '' (also called "services '') are distinguished by a letter or a number and "Lines '' have names. They are also designations for trains, as exemplified in the Billy Strayhorn song "Take the "A '' Train ".
There are 25 train services in the subway system, including three short shuttles. Each route has a color and a local or express designation representing the Manhattan trunk line of the particular service. The color light green is exclusively assigned to the Crosstown Line route, which operates entirely outside Manhattan, while the shuttles are all assigned dark gray. The lines and services are not referred to by color (e.g., Blue Line or Green Line) by native New Yorkers or by most New York City residents, but out - of - towners and tourists often refer to the subway lines by color.
The 1, C, G, L, M, R, and W trains are fully local and make all stops. The 2, 3, 4, 5, A, B, D, E, F, N and Q trains have portions of express and local service. The J train normally operates local, but during rush hours it is joined by the Z train in the peak direction; both the J and Z run local, express or skip - stop on different parts of their shared route. The 6 and 7 are also fully local, but during rush - hours, express variants of the routes, designated by diamond - shaped route markers, are operated alongside the locals. The letter S is used for three shuttle services: Franklin Avenue Shuttle, Rockaway Park Shuttle, and 42nd Street Shuttle.
Though the subway system operates on a 24 - hour basis, during late night hours some of the designated routes do not run, run as a shorter route (often referred to as the ' shuttle train ' version of its full - length counterpart) or run with a different stopping pattern. These are usually indicated by smaller, secondary route signage on station platforms. Because there is no nightly system shutdown for maintenance, tracks and stations must be maintained while the system is operating. This work sometimes necessitates service changes during midday, overnight hours, and weekends.
When parts of lines are temporarily shut down for construction purposes, the transit authority can substitute free shuttle buses (using MTA Regional Bus Operations bus fleet) to replace the routes that would normally run on these lines. The Transit Authority announces planned service changes through its website, via placards that are posted on station and interior subway - car walls, and through its Twitter page.
Current official transit maps of the New York City Subway are based on a 1979 design by Michael Hertz Associates. The maps are not geographically accurate due to the complexity of the system (Manhattan being the smallest borough, but having the most services), but they do show major city streets as an aid to navigation. The newest edition took effect on June 27, 2010, and makes Manhattan bigger and Staten Island smaller. Earlier diagrams of the subway (the first being produced in 1958) had the perception of being more geographically inaccurate than the diagrams today. The design of the subway map by Massimo Vignelli, published by the MTA between 1972 and 1979, has become a modern classic but the MTA deemed the map flawed due to its placement of geographical elements.
A late night - only version of the map was introduced on January 30, 2012. On September 16, 2011, the MTA introduced a Vignelli - style interactive subway map, "The Weekender '', to its website; as the title suggests, the online map provides information about any planned work, from late Friday night to early Monday morning.
Several privately produced schematics are available online or in printed form, such as those by Hagstrom Map. Additionally, the New York City subway map has served as the subject of artistic endeavors.
Late night subway service map
The official map
Old official map designed by George Salomon
The NYC Subway map as a theme of art
Out of the 472 stations, 470 are served 24 hours a day. Underground stations in the New York City Subway are typically accessed by staircases going down from street level. Many of these staircases are painted in a common shade of green, with slight or significant variations in design. Other stations have unique entrances reflective of their location or date of construction. Several station entrance stairs, for example, are built into adjacent buildings. Nearly all station entrances feature color - coded globe or square lamps signifying their status as an entrance.
Out of all the stations on the New York City Subway,
This means that 61 % of the stations are below the surface (59 % being fully underground and about 2 % with most of the station below the surface). 39 % of stations are above the surface or overground.
Many stations in the subway system have mezzanines. Mezzanines allow for passengers to enter from multiple locations at an intersection and proceed to the correct platform without having to cross the street before entering. Inside mezzanines are fare control areas, where passengers physically pay their fare to enter the subway system. In many older stations, the fare control area is at platform level with no mezzanine crossovers. Many elevated stations also have platform - level fare control with no common station house between directions of service.
Upon entering a station, passengers may use station booths (formerly known as token booths) or vending machines to buy their fare, which is currently stored in a MetroCard. Each station has at least one booth, typically located at the busiest entrance. After swiping the card at a turnstile, customers enter the fare - controlled area of the station and continue to the platforms. Inside fare control are "Off - Hours Waiting Areas '', which consist of benches and are identified by a yellow sign.
A typical subway station has waiting platforms ranging from 480 to 600 feet (150 to 180 m) long, though some IND platforms may be as long as 660 to 745 feet (201 to 227 m) long. Platforms of former commuter rail stations, such as those on the IND Rockaway Line, are even longer. Due to the large number of transit lines, one platform or set of platforms often serve more than one service. Passengers need to look at the overhead signs at the platform entrance steps and over each track to see which trains stop there and when, and at the arriving train to see which one it is.
There are a number of common platform configurations:
Since the majority of the system was built before 1990, the year the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) went into effect, many New York City Subway stations were not designed to be handicapped - accessible. Since then, elevators have been built in newly constructed stations to comply with the ADA. (Most grade - level stations required little modification to meet ADA standards.) In addition, the MTA identified "key stations '', high - traffic and / or geographically important stations, which must conform to the ADA when they are extensively renovated. As of January 2017, there are 118 currently accessible stations; many of them have AutoGate access. Under the current MTA plans, the number of ADA accessible stations will go up to 144 by 2020.
In June 2016, the MTA was sued by a disability rights group for not including an elevator during the $21,000,000 renovation of the Middletown Road subway station in the Bronx. Only 19 % of all of the subway system 's stations were fully accessible to people with disabilities at the time, a number that rose to 24 % the next year. In April 2017, two simultaneous lawsuits against the MTA, one in state court and one in federal court, claimed that the system was breaking one of the city 's human - rights laws by violating the Americans with Disabilities Act. As a result, the suits said, the MTA failed to "eliminate and prevent discrimination from playing any role in actions relating to employment, public accommodations and housing and other real estate. ''
As of November 2016, the New York City Subway has 6418 cars on the roster. A typical New York City Subway train consists of 8 to 11 cars, although shuttles can have as few as two, and the train can range from 150 to 600 feet (46 to 183 m) in length.
The system maintains two separate fleets of cars, one for the A Division routes and another for the B Division routes. All B Division equipment is about 10 feet (3.05 m) wide and either 60 feet 6 inches (18.44 m) or 75 feet (22.86 m) long, whereas A Division equipment is approximately 8 feet 9 inches (2.67 m) wide and 51 feet 4 inches (15.65 m) long. A portion of the 60 - foot B Division fleet is used for operation in the BMT Eastern Division, where 75 - foot (22.86 m) long cars are not permitted.
Cars purchased by the City of New York since the inception of the IND and the other divisions beginning in 1948 are identified by the letter "R '' followed by a number; e.g.: R32. This number is the contract number under which the cars were purchased. Cars with nearby contract numbers (e.g.: R1 through R9, or R26 through R29, or R143 through R160B) may be relatively identical, despite being purchased under different contracts and possibly built by different manufacturers.
Since 1999, the R142, R142A, R143, R160, R179 and R188 cars have been placed into service. These cars are collectively known as New Technology Trains (NTTs) due to modern innovations such as LED and LCD route signs and information screens, as well as recorded train announcements and the ability to facilitate Communication - Based Train Control (CBTC).
As part of the 2017 -- 2020 MTA Financial Plan, 600 subway cars will have electronic display signs installed to improve customer experience.
Riders pay a single fare to enter the subway system and may transfer between trains at no extra cost until they exit via station turnstiles; the fare is a flat rate regardless of how far or how long the rider travels. Thus, riders must swipe their MetroCard upon entering the subway system, but not a second time upon leaving.
As of April 2016, nearly all fares are paid by MetroCard; the base fare is $2.75 when purchased in the form of a reusable "pay per ride '' MetroCard, with the last fare increase occurring on March 22, 2015. Single - use cards may be purchased for $3.00, and 7 - day and 30 - day unlimited ride cards can lower the effective per - ride fare significantly. Reduced fares are available for the elderly and people with disabilities.
Fares were stored in a money room at 370 Jay Street in Downtown Brooklyn starting in 1951, when the building opened as a headquarters for the New York City Board of Transportation. The building is close to the lines of all three subway divisions (the IRT, BMT, and IND) and thus was a convenient location to collect fares, including tokens and cash, via money train. Passageways from the subway stations, including a visible door in the Jay Street IND station, lead to a money sorting room in the basement of the building. Fare collection and transport was originally performed using armored trucks, and the money trains were replaced by armored trucks in 2006.
In November 1993, the subway system introduced a fare system called the MetroCard, which allows riders to use cards that store the value equal to the amount paid to a station booth clerk or vending machine. The MetroCard was enhanced in 1997 to allow passengers to make free transfers between subways and buses within two hours; several MetroCard - only transfers between subway stations were added in 2001. With the addition of unlimited - ride MetroCards in 1998 (for 7 - day and 30 - day periods, later 1 - day "Fun Pass '' and 14 - day periods, both of which have been discontinued), the New York City Transit system was the last major transit system in the United States with the exception of BART in San Francisco to introduce passes for unlimited bus and rapid transit travel.
In April 2016, MTA solicited proposals for a contactless "New Fare Payment System '' to replace the MetroCard by 2022. On October 23, 2017, it was announced that the MetroCard would be phased out and replaced by a contactless fare payment system also by Cubic, with fare payment being made using Apple Pay, Google Pay, debit / credit cards with near - field communication technology, or radio - frequency identification cards. The October 23 announcement calls for the expansion of this system to a general - use electronic fare payment system at 500 subway turnstiles and 600 buses by late 2018, with all buses and subway stations using electronic fare collection by 2020. However, support of the MetroCard is slated to remain until 2023.
Since the late 20th century, the MTA has started several projects to maintain and improve the subway. In the 1990s, it started converting the BMT Canarsie Line to use communications - based train control, utilizing a moving block signal system that allowed more trains to use the tracks and thus increasing passenger capacity. After the Canarsie Line tests were successful, the MTA expanded the automation program in the 2000s and 2010s to include other lines. As part of another program called FASTRACK, the MTA started closing sections of lines during weekday nights in 2012, in order to allow workers to clean these lines without being hindered by train movements. It expanded the program beyond Manhattan the next year after noticing how efficient the FASTRACK program was compared to previous service diversions. In 2015, the MTA announced a wide - ranging improvement program as part of the 2015 -- 2019 Capital Program. Thirty stations would be extensively rebuilt under the Enhanced Station Initiative, and new R211 subway cars would be able to fit more passengers.
The MTA has also started some projects to improve passenger amenities. It added train arrival "countdown clocks '' to most A Division stations and the BMT Canarsie Line (L train) by late 2011, allowing passengers on these routes to see train arrival times using real - time data. A similar countdown - clock project for the B Division and the IRT Flushing Line was deferred until 2016, when a new Bluetooth - based clock system was tested successfully. Beginning in 2011, the MTA also started "Help Point '' to aid with emergency calls or station agent assistance. The Help Point project was deemed successful, and the MTA subsequently installed Help Points in all stations. Interactive touchscreen "On The Go! Travel Station '' kiosks, which give station advisories, itineraries, and timetables, were installed starting in 2011, with the program also being expanded after a successful pilot. Cellular phone and wireless data in stations, first installed in 2011 as part of yet another pilot program, was also expanded systemwide due to positive passenger feedback. Finally, credit - card trials at several subway stations in 2006 and 2010 led to proposals for contactless payment to replace the aging MetroCard.
The system currently uses automatic block signaling with fixed wayside signals and automatic train stops in order to provide safe train operation across the whole system. The New York City Subway system has, for the most part, used block signalling since its 1904 opening, and many portions of the current signaling system were installed between the 1930s and 1960s. These signals work by preventing trains from entering a "block '' occupied by another train. Typically, the blocks are 1,000 feet (300 m) long. If no train is in the block, the signal will light up as green. When a train enters the block, the signal turns red, marking the block as occupied. The train 's maximum speed will depend on how many blocks are open in front of it. However, the signals do not register a train 's speed, nor where in the block the train is located.
Subway trains are stopped mechanically at all signals showing "stop '' aspects by automatic train stops located alongside the tracks; all cars are equipped with tripcocks. Although this is a simple principle of train stops, that wayside trippers must not be moved to trip ("stop '') position until it is guaranteed that the train has fully passed the signal with all its cars.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the MTA began automating the subway by communications - based train control (CBTC). CBTC supplements, rather than replaces, the fixed - block signal system; it allows trains to operate more closely together with lower headways. The BMT Canarsie Line, on which the L train runs, was chosen for pilot testing because it is a self - contained line that does not operate in conjunction with other lines. CBTC became operational in February 2009. Due to an unexpected ridership increase, the MTA ordered additional cars, and increased service from 15 trains to 26 trains per hour, an achievement beyond the capability of the block system. The total cost of the project was $340 million.
After the success of the BMT Canarsie Line automation, the IRT Flushing Line, carrying the 7 and < 7 > trains, was next chosen to be outfitted with CBTC. The proposed plan is estimated to cost US $1.4 billion. It is scheduled to be completed in September 2017.
Eventually, the MTA has plans to automate a much larger portion, using One Person Train Operation (OPTO) in conjunction with CBTC. At the current pace of installation, it would take 175 years for CBTC to be installed at a cost of $20 billion. The Flushing line operated at almost 30 trains an hour using the signal system installed when the line was built, but after CBTC is installed it is possible that an additional two trains per hour could be operated. In March 2018, New York City Transit Authority president Andy Byford annonced a new plan for resignaling the subway with CBTC, which would only take 10 to 15 years, compared to the previous estimate of 40 years. However, this would be very expensive, as it would cost $8 to $15 billion.
The New York City Subway uses a system known as Automatic Train Supervision (ATS) for dispatching and train routing on the A Division (the Flushing line and the trains used on the 7 and < 7 > services do not have ATS.) ATS allows dispatchers in the Operations Control Center (OCC) to see where trains are in real time, and whether each individual train is running early or late. Dispatchers can hold trains for connections, re-route trains, or short - turn trains to provide better service when a disruption causes delays.
Despite the signal system, there have been at least 64 major train accidents since 1918, when a train bound for South Ferry smashed into two trains halted near Jackson Avenue on the IRT White Plains Road Line in the Bronx. Several accidents resulted when the train operator ran through red signals and rear - ended the subway train in front of it; this resulted from the signaling practice of "keying by '', which allowed train operators to bypass red signals. The deadliest accident, the Malbone Street Wreck, occurred on November 1, 1918 beneath the intersection of Flatbush Avenue, Ocean Avenue, and Malbone Street (the latter of which is now Empire Boulevard) near the Prospect Park station of the then - BRT Brighton Line in Brooklyn, killing 93 people. As a result of accidents, especially more recent ones such as the 1995 Williamsburg Bridge crash, timer signals were installed. These signals have resulted in reduced speeds across the system. Accidents such as derailments are also due to broken equipment, such as the rails and the train itself.
A portion of subway - related deaths in New York consists of suicides committed by jumping in front of an oncoming train. Between 1990 and 2003, 343 subway - related suicides have been registered out of a citywide total of 7,394 (4.6 %) and subway - related suicides increased by 30 %, despite a decline in overall suicide numbers.
Due to increase in people hit by trains in 2013, in late 2013 and early 2014 the MTA started a test program at one undisclosed station, with four systems and strategies to eliminate the number of people hit by trains. Closed - circuit television cameras, a web of laser beams stretched across the tracks, radio frequencies transmitted across the tracks, and thermal imaging cameras focused on the station 's tracks were set to be installed at that station. At the unidentified station, tests have gone so well at the testing site that these track protection systems will be installed systemwide as part of the 2015 -- 2019 capital program.
The MTA also expressed interest in starting a pilot program to install platform edge doors. Several planned stations in the New York City Subway may possibly feature platform screen doors, possibly including future stations such as those part of the Second Avenue Subway. Currently, the MTA is planning a test program to install screen doors at a subway station on the BMT Canarsie Line. As part of the 2010 -- 2014 capital program, the station was going to be Sixth Avenue, but it is uncertain whether or not that this will be the station chosen. Following a series of incidents during one week in November 2016, in which 3 people were injured or killed after being pushed onto the tracks, the MTA started to consider installing platform edge doors for the 42nd Street Shuttle.
Crime rates have shown variations over time, with a drop starting in the 1990s and continuing today. In order to fight crime, various approaches have been used over the years, including an "If You See Something, Say Something '' campaign and, starting in 2016, banning people who commit a crime in the subway system from entering the system for a certain length of time.
In the 1960s, for example, mayor Robert Wagner ordered an increase in the New York City Transit Police force from 1,219 to 3,100 officers. During the hours at which crimes most frequently occurred (between 8: 00 p.m. and 4: 00 a.m.), the officers went on patrol in all stations and trains. In response, crime rates decreased, as extensively reported by the press. In July 1985, however, the Citizens Crime Commission of New York City published a study showing riders abandoning the subway, fearing the frequent robberies and generally bad circumstances.
To counter these developments, policy that was rooted in the late 1980s and early 1990s was implemented. In line with this Fixing Broken Windows philosophy, the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) began a five - year program to eradicate graffiti from subway trains in 1984. In 1993, Mayor Rudy Giuliani took office and with Police Commissioner Howard Safir, the strategy was more widely deployed in New York under the rubrics of "zero tolerance '' and "quality of life ''. Crime rates in the subway and city dropped. Giuliani 's campaign credited the success to the zero tolerance policy. The extent to which his policies deserve the credit is disputed.
New York City Police Department Commissioner William J. Bratton and author of Fixing Broken Windows, George L. Kelling, however, stated the police played an "important, even central, role '' in the declining crime rates. The trend continued and Giuliani 's successor, Michael Bloomberg, stated in a November 2004 press release: "Today, the subway system is safer than it has been at any time since we started tabulating subway crime statistics nearly 40 years ago. ''
After the September 11, 2001, attacks, the MTA exercised extreme caution regarding anyone taking photographs or recording video inside the system and proposed banning all photography and recording in a meeting around June 2004. However, due to strong response from both the public and from civil rights groups, the rule of conduct was dropped. In November 2004, the MTA again put this rule up for approval, but was again denied, though many police officers and transit workers still confront or harass people taking photographs or videos. However, on April 3, 2009, the NYPD issued a directive to officers stating that it is legal to take pictures within the subway system so long as it is not accompanied with suspicious activity.
Currently, the MTA Rules of Conduct, Restricted Areas and Activities section states that anyone may take pictures or record videos, provided that they do not use any of three tools: lights, reflectors, or tripods. These three tools are permitted only by members of the press who have identification issued by the NYPD.
On July 22, 2005, in response to bombings in London, the New York City Transit Police introduced a new policy of randomly searching passengers ' bags as they approached turnstiles. The NYPD claimed that no form of racial profiling would be conducted when these searches actually took place. The NYPD has come under fire from some groups that claim purely random searches without any form of threat assessment would be ineffectual. Donna Lieberman, Executive Director of the NYCLU, stated, "This NYPD bag search policy is unprecedented, unlawful and ineffective. It is essential that police be aggressive in maintaining security in public transportation. But our very real concerns about terrorism do not justify the NYPD subjecting millions of innocent people to suspicionless searches in a way that does not identify any person seeking to engage in terrorist activity and is unlikely to have any meaningful deterrent effect on terrorist activity. '' The searches were upheld by the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in MacWade v. Kelly.
On April 11, 2008, MTA received a Ferrara Fire Apparatus Hazardous Materials Response Truck, which went into service three days later. It will be used in the case of a chemical or bioterrorist attack.
Najibullah Zazi and others were arrested in September 2009 and pleaded guilty in 2010 to being part of an al - Qaeda plan to undertake suicide bombings on the New York City subway system.
The MTA faced a budget deficit of US $1.2 billion in 2009. This resulted in fare increases (three times from 2008 to 2010) and service reductions (including the elimination of two part - time subway services, the V and W). Several other routes were modified as a result of the deficit. The N was made a full - time local in Manhattan (in contrast to being a weekend local / weekday express before 2010), while the Q was extended nine stations north to Astoria -- Ditmars Boulevard on weekdays, both to cover the discontinued W. The M was combined with the V, routing it over the Chrystie Street Connection, IND Sixth Avenue Line and IND Queens Boulevard Line to Forest Hills -- 71st Avenue on weekdays instead of via the BMT Fourth Avenue Line and BMT West End Line to Bay Parkway. The G was truncated to Court Square full - time. Construction headways on eleven routes were lengthened, and off - peak service on seven routes were lengthened.
In June 2017, Governor Andrew Cuomo signed an executive order declaring a state of emergency for the New York City Subway after a series of derailments, track fires, and overcrowding incidents. On June 27, 2017, thirty - nine people were injured when an A train derailed at 125th Street, damaging tracks and signals then catching on fire. On July 21, 2017, the second set of wheels on a southbound Q train jumped the track near Brighton Beach, with nine people suffering injuries due to improper maintenance of the car in question. To solve the system 's problems, the MTA officially announced the Genius Transit Challenge on June 28, where contestants could submit ideas to improve signals, communications infrastructure, or rolling stock.
On July 25, 2017, Chairman Joe Lhota announced a two - phase, $9 billion New York City Subway Action Plan to stabilize the subway system and to prevent the continuing decline of the system. The first phase, costing $836 million, consisted of five categories of improvements in Signal and Track Maintenance, Car Reliability, System Safety and Cleanliness, Customer Communication, and Critical Management Group. The $8 billion second phase would implement the winning proposals from the Genius Transit Challenge and fix more widespread problems. Six winning submissions for the Genius Transit Challenge were announced in March 2018.
In October 2017, city comptroller Scott Stringer released an analysis of the effect of subway delays on the economy and on commuters. The study found that based on a normal wait time of 5 minutes and an average wage of $34 per hour in 2016, "worst - case '' subway delays of more than 20 minutes could cost up to $389 million annually in lost productivity. By comparison, "mid-case '' delays of between 10 and 20 minutes could cost $243.1 million per year, and "best - case '' delays of between 5 and 10 minutes could cost $170.2 million per year.
In November 2017, The New York Times published its investigation into the crisis. It found that the crisis had arisen as a result of financially unsound decisions by local and state politicians from both the Democratic and Republican parties. By this time, the subway 's 65 % average on - time performance was the lowest among all major cities ' transit systems, and every non-shuttle subway route 's on - time performance had declined in the previous ten years.
Several subway lines have reached their operational limits in terms of train frequency and passengers, according to data released by the Transit Authority. As of June 2007, all of the A Division services except the 42nd Street Shuttle, as well as the E and L trains, were beyond capacity, as well as portions of the N train. In April 2013, New York magazine reported that the system was more crowded than it had been in the previous 66 years. The subway reached a daily ridership of 6 million for 29 days in 2014, and was expected to record a similar ridership level for 55 days in 2015; by comparison, in 2013, daily ridership never reached 6 million. In particular, the express tracks of the IRT Lexington Avenue Line and IND Queens Boulevard Line are noted for operating at full capacity during peak hours. The Long Island Rail Road East Side Access project is expected to bring many more commuters to the Lexington Avenue Line when it opens around the year 2022, further overwhelming its capacity.
By early 2016, delays as a result of overcrowding were up to more than 20,000 every month, four times the amount in 2012. The overcrowded trains have resulted in an increase of assaults because of tense commuters. With less platform space, more passengers are forced to be on the edge of the platform resulting in the increased possibility of passengers falling on the track. One possible solution that the MTA is considering is platform screen doors, which exist on the AirTrain JFK to prevent passengers from falling onto the tracks. In order to prevent hitting passengers who could fall onto the tracks, train operators are being instructed to go into stations at lower speeds. The increased proximity of riders could result in the spread of contagious diseases.
The Second Avenue Subway, which has provisions for communications - based train control (CBTC), was built to relieve pressure on the Lexington Avenue Line (4, 5, 6, and < 6 > trains) by shifting an estimated 225,000 passengers. In addition, CBTC installation on the Flushing Line is expected to increase the rate of trains per hour on the 7 and < 7 > trains, but little relief will come to other crowded lines until later. CBTC on the Flushing Line is expected to be completed in September 2017. The L train, which is overcrowded during rush hours, already has CBTC operation. The installation of CBTC has reduced the L 's running time by 3 %. Even with CBTC, there are limits on the potential increased service. For L service to be increased further, a power upgrade as well as additional space for the L to turn around at its Manhattan terminus, Eighth Avenue, are needed.
The MTA is also seeking to implement CBTC on the IND Queens Boulevard Line. CBTC is to be installed on this line in five phases, with phase one (50th Street / 8th Avenue and 47th -- 50th Streets -- Rockefeller Center to Kew Gardens -- Union Turnpike) being included in the 2010 -- 2014 capital budget. The $205.8 million contract for the installment of phase one was awarded in 2015 to Siemens and Thales. Planning for phase one started in 2015, with major engineering work to follow in 2017. The total cost for the entire Queens Boulevard Line is estimated at over $900 million. The Queens Boulevard CBTC project is expected to be completed in 2021. Funding for CBTC on the IND Eighth Avenue Line is also provided in the 2015 -- 2019 capital project. The MTA projects that 355 miles of track will receive CBTC signals by 2029, including most of the IND, as well as the IRT Lexington Avenue Line and the BMT Broadway Line. The MTA also is planning to install CBTC equipment on the IND Crosstown Line, the BMT Fourth Avenue Line and the BMT Brighton Line before 2025. As part of the installation of CBTC, the whole fleet of subway cars needs to be remodeled or replaced.
Due to an increase of ridership, the MTA has tried to increase capacity wherever possible by adding more frequent service, specifically during the evening hours. However, this increase will not likely keep up with the growth of subway ridership. Some lines have capacity for additional trains during peak times, but there are too few subway cars for this additional service to be operated.
As part of the R211 subway car order, the MTA is planning to test a train of 10 open - gangway experimental prototype cars, which could increase capacity by up to 10 % by utilizing space that in previous models was the unused space between cars. The order could be expanded to include up to 750 open - gangway cars.
The MTA is also testing smaller ideas on some services. In late 2015, the F, 6, and 7 trains started having 100 "station platform controllers '' deployed to manage the flow of passengers on and off crowded trains for maximum ridership during morning rush hours, for a total of 129 such employees; these workers also answer passengers ' questions about subway directions, rather than having conductors answer them and thus delaying the trains. In early 2017, the test was expanded to the afternoon peak period with an increase of 35 platform conductors. In November of the same year, 140 platform controllers and 90 conductors gained iPhone 6S devices so they could receive notifications of, and tell riders about, subway disruptions. Subway guards, the predecessors to the platform controllers, were first used during the Great Depression and World War II.
Shortened "next stop '' announcements on trains were being tested on the 2 and 5 trains. "Step aside '' signs on the platforms, reminding boarding passengers to let departing passengers off the train first, are being tested at Grand Central -- 42nd Street, 51st Street, and 86th Street on the Lexington Avenue Line. Cameras would also be installed so the MTA could observe passenger overcrowding.
In systems like the London Underground, stations are simply closed off when they are overcrowded, such as the busy Oxford Circus tube station, which had to close more than 100 times in a year. That type of restriction is not necessary yet on the New York City Subway, according to MTA spokesman Kevin Ortiz.
Service on the subway system is occasionally disrupted by flooding from rainstorms, even minor ones. Rainwater can disrupt signals underground and require the electrified third rail to be shut off. Every day, the MTA moves 13 million gallons of water when it is not raining. Since 1992, $357 million has been used to improve 269 pump rooms. By August 2007, $115 million was earmarked to upgrade the remaining 18 pump rooms.
Despite these improvements, the transit system continues to experience flooding problems. On August 8, 2007, after more than 3 inches (76 mm) of rain fell within an hour, the subway system flooded, causing almost every subway service to either be disabled or seriously disrupted, effectively halting the morning rush. This was the third incident in 2007 in which rain disrupted service. The system was disrupted on this occasion because the pumps and drainage system can handle only a rainfall rate of 1.75 inches (44 mm) per hour; the incident 's severity was aggravated by the scant warning as to the severity of the storm.
In addition, as part of a $130 million and an estimated 18 - month project, the MTA began installing new subway grates in September 2008 in an attempt to prevent rain from overflowing into the subway system. The metallic structures, designed with the help of architectural firms and meant as a piece of public art, are placed atop existing grates but with a 3 - to - 4 - inch (76 to 102 mm) sleeve to prevent debris and rain from flooding the subway. The racks will at first be installed in the three most flood - prone areas as determined by hydrologists: Jamaica, Tribeca, and the Upper West Side. Each neighborhood has its own distinct design, some featuring a wave - like deck which increases in height and features seating (as in Jamaica), others with a flatter deck that includes seating and a bike rack.
In October 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused a lot of damage to New York City, and many subway tunnels were inundated with floodwater. The subway opened with limited service two days after the storm and was running at 80 percent capacity within five days; however, some infrastructure needed years to repair. A year after the storm, MTA spokesperson Kevin Ortiz said, "This was unprecedented in terms of the amount of damage that we were seeing throughout the system. '' The storm flooded nine of the system 's 14 underwater tunnels, many subway lines, and several subway yards, as well as completely destroying a portion of the IND Rockaway Line and much of the South Ferry terminal station. Reconstruction required many weekend closures on several lines as well as the 53rd Street Tunnel, Clark Street Tunnel, Cranberry Street Tunnel, Joralemon Street Tunnel and Steinway Tunnel; several long - term closures were also included on the Greenpoint Tunnel, Montague Street Tunnel, Rockaway Line, and the South Ferry station, with a long - term closure planned for the 14th Street Tunnel; some reconstruction is expected to last until at least 2020. As a preventative measure, 68 subway entrances in Lower Manhattan are also receiving fabric plugs that are intended to keep flood water out. In October 2017, it was revealed that 3,000 - pound (1,400 kg) waterproof doors and curtains were being installed in 24 Lower Manhattan locations at a cost of $30,000 each.
Flooding at 125th Street after a water main break
Preparations for Hurricane Sandy at Bowling Green
South Ferry after Hurricane Sandy
Pump train in the Cranberry Street Tube after Hurricane Sandy
On August 27, 2011, due to the approach of Hurricane Irene, the MTA suspended subway service at noon in anticipation of heavy flooding on tracks and in tunnels. It was the first weather - caused shutdown in the history of the system. Service was restored by August 29.
On October 29, 2012, another full closure was ordered before the arrival of Hurricane Sandy. All services on the subway, the Long Island Rail Road and Metro - North were gradually shut down that day at 7: 00 P.M., to protect passengers, employees and equipment from the coming storm. The storm caused serious damage to the system, especially the IND Rockaway Line, upon which many sections between Howard Beach -- JFK Airport and Hammels Wye on the Rockaway Peninsula were heavily damaged, leaving it essentially isolated from the rest of the system. This required the NYCTA to truck in 20 R32 subway cars to the line to provide some interim service (temporarily designated the H). Also, several of the system 's tunnels under the East River were flooded by the storm surge. South Ferry suffered serious water damage and did not reopen until April 4, 2013 by restoring service to the older loop - configured station that had been replaced in 2009; the stub - end terminal tracks remained out of service until June 2017.
Since 2015, there have been three blizzard - related subway shutdowns. On January 26, 2015, another full closure was ordered by New York Governor Andrew Cuomo due to the January 2015 nor'easter, which was originally projected to leave New York City with 20 to 30 inches (51 to 76 cm) of snow. The next day, the subway system was partially reopened. A number of New York City residents criticized Cuomo 's decision to shut down the subway system for the first time ever due to snow. The nor'easter dropped much less snow in the city than originally expected, totaling only 9.8 inches (25 cm) in Central Park. On January 23, 2016, a partial subway closure was ordered due to the January 2016 United States blizzard, wherein all aboveground stations were closed; the underground lines remained open during the blizzard. Most of the subway resumed service the next day, with some lingering delays due to an average of 26 inches (66 cm) of snow in the area. On March 13, 2017, another partial subway closure of all aboveground stations was ordered for the next day due to the March 2017 nor'easter, which was forecast to bring up to 20 inches (51 cm) of snow to the area.
Litter accumulation is a perennial problem in the subway system. In the 1970s and 1980s, dirty trains and platforms, as well as graffiti were a serious problem. The situation had improved since then, but the 2010 budget crisis, which caused over 100 of the cleaning staff to lose their jobs, threatened to curtail trash removal from the subway system. Every day, the MTA removes 40 tons of trash from 3,500 trash receptacles.
The New York City Subway system is infested with rats. Rats are sometimes seen on platforms, and are commonly seen foraging through garbage thrown onto the tracks. They are believed to pose a health hazard, and on rare instances have been known to bite humans. Subway stations notorious for rat infestation include Chambers Street, Jay Street -- MetroTech, West Fourth Street, Spring Street and 145th Street.
Decades of efforts to eradicate or simply thin the rat population in the system have been unsuccessful. In March 2009, the Transit Authority announced a series of changes to its vermin control strategy, including new poison formulas and experimental trap designs. In October 2011, the MTA announced a new initiative to clean 25 subway stations, along with their garbage rooms, of rat infestations. Also in October 2011, the MTA announced a pilot program aimed at reducing levels of garbage in the subways by removing all garbage bins from the subway platforms. The initiative is being tested at the Eighth Street -- New York University and Flushing -- Main Street stations. As of March 2016, stations along the BMT Jamaica Line, BMT Myrtle Avenue Line, and various other stations had their garbage cans removed due to the success of the program.
There are also vacuum trains that are designed to remove trash off of the tracks, but are ineffective and often broken. A 2016 study by Travel Math had the New York City Subway listed as the dirtiest subway system in the country based on the number of viable bacteria cells. In August 2016, the MTA announced that it had initiated Operation Track Sweep, which is an aggressive plan that will dramatically reduce the amount of trash on the tracks and in the subway environment, and in turn should reduce track fires and train delays. The frequency of station track cleaning will be increased. In a two - week period, 94 stations will be cleaned, an increase from 34 stations. Starting on September 12, 2016, the MTA launched an intensive two - week, system - wide cleaning from all of the tracks at all of the system 's stations. New portable track vacuum systems are in the works as the MTA is working with two manufacturers. Three new powerful vacuum trains, two arriving in 2017, and the third in 2018, and 27 new refuse cars will be part of the operation.
On March 28, 2017, the New York State Comptroller, Thomas DiNapoli, announced the MTA 's pilot program to remove trash cans had been scrapped. His office had criticized the agency for the program.
Typical subway car exterior in the late 1970s
Measures against rats
Program for removing garbage bins from stations
Rolling stock on the New York City Subway produces high levels of noise that exceed guidelines set by the World Health Organization and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. In 2006, Columbia University 's Mailman School of Public Health found noise levels averaged 95 decibel (dB) inside subway cars and 94 dB on platforms. Daily exposure to noise at such levels for as little as 30 minutes can lead to hearing loss. Noise on one in 10 platforms exceeded 100 dB. Under WHO and EPA guidelines, noise exposure at that level is limited to 1.5 minutes. A subsequent study by Columbia and the University of Washington found higher average noise levels in the subway (80.4 dB) than on commuter trains including Port Authority Trans - Hudson (PATH) (79.4 dB), Metro - North (75.1 dB) and Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) (74.9 dB). Since the decibel scale is a logarithmic scale, sound at 95 dB is 10 times more intense than at 85 dB, 100 times more intense than at 75 dB, and so forth. In the second study, peak subway noise registered at 102.1 dB.
For the construction of the Second Avenue Subway, the MTA, with the engineering firm Arup, worked to reduce the noise levels in stations. In order to reduce noise for all future stations starting with the Second Avenue Subway, the MTA is investing in low - vibration track using ties encased in concrete - covered rubber and neoprene pads. Continuously welded rail, which is also being installed, reduces the noise being made by the wheels of trains. The biggest change that is going to be made is in the design of stations. Current stations were built with tile and stone, which bounce sound everywhere, while newer stations will have the ceilings lined with absorbent fiberglass or mineral wool that will direct sound toward the train and not the platform. With less noise from the trains, platform announcements could be heard more clearly. They will be clearer with speakers spaced periodically on the platform, angled so that announcements can be heard by the riders. The Second Avenue Subway has the first stations to test this technology.
The New York City Board of Transportation, and its successor, MTA New York City Transit, has had numerous events that promote increased ridership of their transit system.
From 1941 to 1976, the Board of Transportation / New York City Transit Authority sponsored the "Miss Subways '' publicity campaign. In the musical On the Town, the character Miss Turnstiles is based on the Miss Subways campaign. The campaign was resurrected in 2004, for one year, as "Ms. Subways ''. It was part of the 100th anniversary celebrations. The monthly campaign, which included the winners ' photos and biographical blurbs on placards in subway cards, featured such winners as Mona Freeman and prominent New York City restaurateur Ellen Goodman. The winner of this contest was Caroline Sanchez - Bernat, an actress from Morningside Heights.
Subway Series is a term applied to any series of baseball games between New York City teams, as opposing teams can travel to compete merely by using the subway system. Subway Series is a term long used in New York, going back to series between the Brooklyn Dodgers or New York Giants and the New York Yankees in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, the term is used to describe the rivalry between the Yankees and the New York Mets. During the 2000 World Series, cars on the 4 train (which stopped at Yankee Stadium) were painted with Yankee colors, while cars on the 7 train (which stopped at Shea Stadium) had Mets colors. The term could also be applied to the rivalry between the New York Knicks and the Brooklyn Nets of the National Basketball Association, or the New York Rangers and the New York Islanders of the National Hockey League ever since the Nets and the Islanders moved to the Barclays Center in Brooklyn.
Since 2003, the MTA has operated a Holiday Train on Sundays in November and December, from the first Sunday after Thanksgiving to the Sunday before Christmas Day. This train was made of cars from the R1 through R9 series, which have been preserved by Railway Preservation Corp. and the New York Transit Museum. The route made all stops between Second Avenue in Manhattan and Queens Plaza in Queens via the IND Sixth Avenue Line and the IND Queens Boulevard Line. In 2011, the train operated on Saturdays instead of Sundays. In 2017, the train ran between Second Avenue and 96th Street.
The contract, car numbers (and year built) used were Arnines, specifically R1 100 (built 1930), R1 381 (1931), R4 401 (1932), R4 484 (1932) -- Bulls Eye lighting and a test P.A. system added in 1946, R6 - 3 1000 (1935), R6 - 1 1300 (1937), R7A 1575 (1938) -- rebuilt in 1947 as a prototype for the R10 subway car, and R9 1802 (1940).
Route map: Google
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how to work out win percentage in football | Winning percentage - wikipedia
In sports, a winning percentage is the fraction of games or matches a team or individual has won. It is defined as wins divided by the total number of matches played (i.e. wins plus draws plus losses). A draw counts as a 1⁄2 win.
For example, if a team 's season record is 30 wins and 20 losses, the winning percentage would be. 600. If a team 's season record is 30 -- 15 -- 5 (i.e. it has won thirty games, lost fifteen and tied five times), the five tie games are counted as 21⁄2 wins, and so the team has an adjusted record of 321⁄2 wins, resulting in a. 650 winning percentage for the fifty total games from
In leagues in which points are awarded for overtime losses, it is possible for a team to have a winning percentage above. 500 (50 %) despite losing more than half of the games it has played.
Winning percentage is one way to compare the record of two teams; however, another standard method most frequently used in baseball and professional basketball standings is games behind. In baseball, a pitcher is assessed wins and losses as an individual statistic and thus has his own winning percentage, based on his win -- loss record.
In North America, winning percentages are expressed to three digits and read as whole numbers (e.g. 1.000, "a thousand '' or. 500, "five hundred ''). In this case, the name "winning percentage '' is actually a misnomer, since it is not expressed as a percentage. A winning percentage such as. 536 ("five thirty - six '') expressed as a percentage would be 53.6 %.
However, in soccer, a manager 's abilities may be measured by win percentage. In this case, the formula is wins divided by total number of matches; draws are not considered as "half - wins '', and the quotient is always in percentage form.
To this day in the National Football League, division winners and playoff qualifiers are technically determined by winning percentage and not by number of wins. Ties are currently counted as half a win and half a loss, however, prior to 1972 ties did not count for the purposes of this calculation. So, for example, one team finished 11 - 3 and another 10 - 2 - 2, there would have been no tiebreaker - the team with two ties would have been deemed the outright division winner. This made tie games (a fairly common occurrence in football before overtime was introduced) somewhat more valuable to teams compared to the half - win they are considered today.
Some leagues and competitions may instead use a points percentage system, changing the nature of this statistic. In this type of method, used in many group tournament ranking systems, the competitors are awarded a certain number of points per win, fewer points per tie, and none for a loss. The teams are then ranked by the total number of these accumulated points. One such method is the "three points for a win '', where three points are awarded for winning a game, one point is awarded for a draw, and no points are awarded for a loss. The National Hockey League (which uses an overtime and shootouts to break all ties) awards two points for a win in regulation or overtime / shootout, one point for an overtime loss, and none for a regulation loss.
In the National Hockey League, teams are awarded two points for a win, and one point for either a tie (a discontinued statistic) or an overtime loss. It can be calculated as follows:
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when was the civil rights act of 1964 proposed | Civil Rights Act of 1964 - wikipedia
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub. L. 88 -- 352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It prohibited unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools, employment, and public accommodations.
Powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its power to regulate interstate commerce under Article One (section 8), its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment and its duty to protect voting rights under the Fifteenth Amendment. The Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 2, 1964, at the White House.
The bill was called for by President John F. Kennedy in his Report to the American People on Civil Rights of June 11, 1963, in which he asked for legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public -- hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments '', as well as "greater protection for the right to vote ''. Kennedy delivered this speech following the immediate aftermath of the Birmingham campaign and the growing number of demonstrations and protests throughout the southern United States. Kennedy was moved to action following the elevated racial tensions and wave of black riots in the spring 1963.
Emulating the Civil Rights Act of 1875, Kennedy 's civil rights bill included provisions to ban discrimination in public accommodations, and to enable the U.S. Attorney General to join in lawsuits against state governments which operated segregated school systems, among other provisions. However, it did not include a number of provisions deemed essential by civil rights leaders including protection against police brutality, ending discrimination in private employment, or granting the Justice Department power to initiate desegregation or job discrimination lawsuits.
On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy met with the Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening. Two days later, Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield both voiced support for the president 's bill, except for provisions guaranteeing equal access to places of public accommodations. This led to several Republican Congressmen drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, saying legislative action was "imperative ''. The president 's bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler, a Democrat from New York. After a series of hearings on the bill, Celler 's committee strengthened the act, adding provisions to ban racial discrimination in employment, providing greater protection to black voters, eliminating segregation in all publicly owned facilities (not just schools), and strengthening the anti-segregation clauses regarding public facilities such as lunch counters. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U.S. law. In essence, this was the controversial "Title III '' that had been removed from the 1957 and 1960 Acts. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality and suppression of free speech rights.
Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October, 1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The bill was reported out of the Judiciary Committee in November 1963, and referred to the Rules Committee, whose chairman, Howard W. Smith, a Democrat and avid segregationist from Virginia, indicated his intention to keep the bill bottled up indefinitely.
The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, changed the political situation. Kennedy 's successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. In his first address to a joint session of Congress on November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy 's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long. ''
Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee; it required the support of a majority of House members to move the bill to the floor. Initially Celler had a difficult time acquiring the signatures necessary, with many congressmen who supported the civil rights bill itself remaining cautious about violating normal House procedure with the rare use of a discharge petition. By the time of the 1963 winter recess, 50 signatures were still needed.
After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill and that the petition would acquire the necessary signatures. To avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee.
Lobbying support for the Civil Rights Act was coordinated by the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, a coalition of 70 liberal and labor organizations. The principal lobbyists for the Leadership Conference were civil rights lawyer Joseph L. Rauh Jr. and Clarence Mitchell, Sr. of the NAACP.
Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, ensured that the bill would be quickly considered by the Senate. Normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Senator James O. Eastland, Democrat from Mississippi. Given Eastland 's firm opposition, it seemed impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the bill from being relegated to Judiciary Committee limbo. Having initially waived a second reading of the bill, which would have led to it being immediately referred to Judiciary, Mansfield gave the bill a second reading on February 26, 1964, and then proposed, in the absence of precedent for instances when a second reading did not immediately follow the first, that the bill bypass the Judiciary Committee and immediately be sent to the Senate floor for debate.
When the bill came before the full Senate for debate on March 30, 1964, the "Southern Bloc '' of 18 southern Democratic Senators and one Republican Senator led by Richard Russell (D - GA) launched a filibuster to prevent its passage. Said Russell: "We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about social equality and intermingling and amalgamation of the races in our (Southern) states. ''
The most fervent opposition to the bill came from Senator Strom Thurmond (D - SC): "This so - called Civil Rights Proposals, which the President has sent to Capitol Hill for enactment into law, are unconstitutional, unnecessary, unwise and extend beyond the realm of reason. This is the worst civil - rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals and actions of the radical Republican Congress. ''
After 54 days of filibuster, Senators Hubert Humphrey (D - MN), Mike Mansfield (D - MT), Everett Dirksen (R - IL), and Thomas Kuchel (R - CA), introduced a substitute bill that they hoped would attract enough Republican swing votes in addition to the core liberal Democrats behind the legislation to end the filibuster. The compromise bill was weaker than the House version in regard to government power to regulate the conduct of private business, but it was not so weak as to cause the House to reconsider the legislation.
On the morning of June 10, 1964, Senator Robert Byrd (D-W.Va.) completed a filibustering address that he had begun 14 hours and 13 minutes earlier opposing the legislation. Until then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, including six Saturdays. A day earlier, Democratic Whip Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the bill 's manager, concluded he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and end the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four - vote victory margin, the final tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a civil rights bill. And only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure.
On June 19, the substitute (compromise) bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73 -- 27, and quickly passed through the House -- Senate conference committee, which adopted the Senate version of the bill. The conference bill was passed by both houses of Congress, and was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964.
Totals are in "Yea -- Nay '' format:
The original House version:
Cloture in the Senate:
The Senate version:
The Senate version, voted on by the House:
Note: "Southern '', as used in this section, refers to members of Congress from the eleven states that made up the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War. "Northern '' refers to members from the other 39 states, regardless of the geographic location of those states.
The original House version:
The Senate version:
Just one year earlier, the same Congress had passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which prohibited wage differentials based on sex. The prohibition on sex discrimination was added to the Civil Rights Act by Howard W. Smith, a powerful Virginia Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee and who strongly opposed the legislation. Smith 's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133. Historians debate Smith 's motivation, whether it was a cynical attempt to defeat the bill by someone opposed to civil rights both for blacks and women, or an attempt to support their rights by broadening the bill to include women. Smith expected that Republicans, who had included equal rights for women in their party 's platform since 1944, would probably vote for the amendment. Historians speculate that Smith was trying to embarrass northern Democrats who opposed civil rights for women because the clause was opposed by labor unions. Representative Carl Elliott of Alabama later claimed, "Smith did n't give a damn about women 's rights... he was trying to knock off votes either then or down the line because there was always a hard core of men who did n't favor women 's rights, '' and the Congressional Record records that Smith was greeted by laughter when he introduced the amendment.
Smith asserted that he was not joking; he sincerely supported the amendment and, indeed, along with Rep. Martha Griffiths, he was the chief spokesperson for the amendment. For twenty years Smith had sponsored the Equal Rights Amendment (with no linkage to racial issues) in the House because he believed in it. He for decades had been close to the National Woman 's Party and its leader Alice Paul, who was also the leader in winning the right to vote for women in 1920, the author of the first Equal Rights Amendment, and a chief supporter of equal rights proposals since then. She and other feminists had worked with Smith since 1945 trying to find a way to include sex as a protected civil rights category. Now was the moment. Griffiths argued that the new law would protect black women but not white women, and that was unfair to white women. Furthermore, she argued that the laws "protecting '' women from unpleasant jobs were actually designed to enable men to monopolize those jobs, and that was unfair to women who were not allowed to try out for those jobs. The amendment passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The final law passed with the votes of Republicans and Northern Democrats. Thus, as Justice William Rehnquist explained in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, "The prohibition against discrimination based on sex was added to Title VII at the last minute on the floor of the House of Representatives... the bill quickly passed as amended, and we are left with little legislative history to guide us in interpreting the Act 's prohibition against discrimination based on ' sex. ' ''
One of the most damaging arguments by the bill 's opponents was that once passed, the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain racial quotas in schools. Proponents of the bill, such as Emanuel Celler and Jacob Javits, said that the bill would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Senator Hubert Humphrey (D - MN) wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Humphrey said "if the bill were to compel it, it would be a violation (of the Constitution), because it would be handling the matter on the basis of race and we would be transporting children because of race. '' While Javits said any government official who sought to use the bill for busing purposes "would be making a fool of himself, '' two years later the Department of Health, Education and Welfare said that Southern school districts would be required to meet mathematical ratios of students by busing.
The bill divided and engendered a long - term change in the demographic support of both parties. President Johnson realized that supporting this bill would risk losing the South 's overwhelming support of the Democratic Party. Both Attorney General Robert Kennedy and Vice President Johnson had pushed for the introduction of the civil rights legislation. Johnson told Kennedy aide Ted Sorensen that "I know the risks are great and we might lose the South, but those sorts of states may be lost anyway. '' Senator Richard Russell, Jr. later warned President Johnson that his strong support for the civil rights bill "will not only cost you the South, it will cost you the election ''. Johnson, however, went on to win the 1964 election by one of the biggest landslides in American history. The South, which had five states swing Republican in 1964, became a stronghold of the Republican Party by the 1990s.
Although majorities in both parties voted for the bill, there were notable exceptions. Though he opposed forced segregation, Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona voted against the bill, remarking, "You ca n't legislate morality. '' Goldwater had supported previous attempts to pass civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 as well as the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax. He stated that the reason for his opposition to the 1964 bill was Title II, which in his opinion violated individual liberty and states ' rights. Democrats and Republicans from the Southern states opposed the bill and led an unsuccessful 83 - day filibuster, including Senators Albert Gore, Sr. (D - TN) and J. William Fulbright (D - AR), as well as Senator Robert Byrd (D - WV), who personally filibustered for 14 hours straight.
(The full text of the Act is available online.)
Barred unequal application of voter registration requirements.
Title I did not eliminate literacy tests, which were one of the main methods used to exclude Black voters, other racial minorities, and poor Whites in the South, nor did it address economic retaliation, police repression, or physical violence against nonwhite voters. While the Act did require that voting rules and procedures be applied equally to all races, it did not abolish the concept of voter "qualification '', that is to say, it accepted the idea that citizens do not have an automatic right to vote but rather might have to meet some standard beyond citizenship. It was the Voting Rights Act, enacted one year later in 1965, that directly addressed and eliminated most voting qualifications beyond citizenship.
Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce; exempted private clubs without defining the term "private ''.
Prohibited state and municipal governments from denying access to public facilities on grounds of race, color, religion or national origin.
Encouraged the desegregation of public schools and authorized the U.S. Attorney General to file suits to enforce said act.
Expanded the Civil Rights Commission established by the earlier Civil Rights Act of 1957 with additional powers, rules and procedures.
Prevents discrimination by government agencies that receive federal funds. If an agency is found in violation of Title VI, that agency may lose its federal funding.
General
This title declares it to be the policy of the United States that discrimination on the ground of race, color, or national origin shall not occur in connection with programs and activities receiving Federal financial assistance and authorizes and directs the appropriate Federal departments and agencies to take action to carry out this policy. This title is not intended to apply to foreign assistance programs. Section 601 -- This section states the general principle that no person in the United States shall be excluded from participation in or otherwise discriminated against on the ground of race, color, or national origin under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.
Section 602 directs each Federal agency administering a program of Federal financial assistance by way of grant, contract, or loan to take action pursuant to rule, regulation, or order of general applicability to effectuate the principle of section 601 in a manner consistent with the achievement of the objectives of the statute authorizing the assistance. In seeking the effect compliance with its requirements imposed under this section, an agency is authorized to terminate or to refuse to grant or to continue assistance under a program to any recipient as to whom there has been an express finding pursuant to a hearing of a failure to comply with the requirements under that program, and it may also employ any other means authorized by law. However, each agency is directed first to seek compliance with its requirements by voluntary means.
Section 603 provides that any agency action taken pursuant to section 602 shall be subject to such judicial review as would be available for similar actions by that agency on other grounds. Where the agency action consists of terminating or refusing to grant or to continue financial assistance because of a finding of a failure of the recipient to comply with the agency 's requirements imposed under section 602, and the agency action would not otherwise be subject to judicial review under existing law, judicial review shall nevertheless be available to any person aggrieved as provided in section 10 of the Administrative Procedure Act (5 U.S.C. § 1009). The section also states explicitly that in the latter situation such agency action shall not be deemed committed to unreviewable agency discretion within the meaning of section 10. The purpose of this provision is to obviate the possible argument that although section 603 provides for review in accordance with section 10, section 10 itself has an exception for action "committed to agency discretion, '' which might otherwise be carried over into section 603. It is not the purpose of this provision of section 603, however, otherwise to alter the scope of judicial review as presently provided in section 10 (e) of the Administrative Procedure Act.
Title VII of the Act, codified as Subchapter VI of Chapter 21 of title 42 of the United States Code, prohibits discrimination by covered employers on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 2). Title VII applies to and covers an employer "who has fifteen (15) or more employees for each working day in each of twenty or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year '' as written in the Definitions section under 42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b). Title VII also prohibits discrimination against an individual because of his or her association with another individual of a particular race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, such as by an interracial marriage. The EEO Title VII has also been supplemented with legislation prohibiting pregnancy, age, and disability discrimination (See Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, Age Discrimination in Employment Act, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990).
In very narrowly defined situations, an employer is permitted to discriminate on the basis of a protected trait where the trait is a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that particular business or enterprise. To prove the bona fide occupational qualifications defense, an employer must prove three elements: a direct relationship between the protected trait and the ability to perform the duties of the job, the BFOQ relates to the "essence '' or "central mission of the employer 's business '', and there is no less - restrictive or reasonable alternative (United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 499 U.S. 187 (1991) 111 S. Ct. 1196). The Bona Fide Occupational Qualification exception is an extremely narrow exception to the general prohibition of discrimination based on protected traits (Dothard v. Rawlinson, 433 U.S. 321 (1977) 97 S. Ct. 2720). An employer or customer 's preference for an individual of a particular religion is not sufficient to establish a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Kamehameha School -- Bishop Estate, 990 F. 2d 458 (9th Cir. 1993)).
Title VII allows for any employer, labor organization, joint labor - management committee, or employment agency to bypass the "unlawful employment practice '' for any person involved with the Communist Party of the United States or of any other organization required to register as a Communist - action or Communist - front organization by final order of the Subversive Activities Control Board pursuant to the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950.
There are partial and whole exceptions to Title VII for four types of employers:
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as well as certain state fair employment practices agencies (FEPAs) enforce Title VII (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 4). The EEOC and state FEPAs investigate, mediate, and may file lawsuits on behalf of employees. Where a state law is contradicted by a federal law, it is overridden. Every state, except Arkansas and Mississippi, maintains a state FEPA (see EEOC and state FEPA directory). Title VII also provides that an individual can bring a private lawsuit. An individual must file a complaint of discrimination with the EEOC within 180 days of learning of the discrimination or the individual may lose the right to file a lawsuit. Title VII only applies to employers who employ 15 or more employees for 20 or more weeks in the current or preceding calendar year (42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b)).
In the early 1980s, the EEOC and some federal courts began holding that sexual harassment is also prohibited under the Act. In 1986, the Supreme Court held in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986), that sexual harassment is sex discrimination and is prohibited by Title VII. Same - sex sexual harassment has also been held in a unanimous decision written by Justice Scalia to be prohibited by Title VII (Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U.S. 75 (1998), 118 S. Ct. 998).
In 2012, the EEOC ruled that employment discrimination on the basis of gender identity or transgender status is prohibited under Title VII. The decision held that discrimination on the basis of gender identity qualified as discrimination on the basis of sex whether the discrimination was due to sex stereotyping, discomfort with the fact of an individual 's transition, or discrimination due to a perceived change in the individual 's sex. In 2014, the EEOC initiated two lawsuits against private companies for discrimination on the basis of gender identity, with additional litigation under consideration. As of November 2014, Commissioner Chai Feldblum is making an active effort to increase awareness of Title VII remedies for individuals discriminated on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.
On December 15, 2014, under a memorandum issued by Attorney General Eric Holder, the United States Department of Justice (DoJ) took a position that aligned with the EEOC, namely the prohibition of sex discrimination under Title VII encompassed the prohibition of discrimination based on gender identity or transgender status. DoJ had already stopped opposing claims of discrimination brought by federal transgender employees.
In October 2017, Attorney General Jeff Sessions issued a directive that withdrew the Holder memorandum. According to a copy of the directive reviewed by BuzzFeed News, Sessions stated that Title VII should be narrowly interpreted to cover discrimination between "men and women ''. Attorney General Session stated as a matter of law, "Title VII does not prohibit discrimination based on gender identity per se. '' Devin O'Malley, speaking on behalf of the DoJ, stated "the last administration abandoned that fundamental principle (that the Department of Justice can not expand the law beyond what Congress has provided), which necessitated today 's action. '' Sharon McGowan, a lawyer with Lambda Legal who previously served in the Civil Rights division of DoJ, rejected that argument, saying "(T) his memo is not actually a reflection of the law as it is -- it 's a reflection of what the DOJ wishes the law were '' and "The Justice Department is actually getting back in the business of making anti-transgender law in court. ''
On December 11, 2017, the United States Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal in Evans v. Georgia Regional Hospital, in which a lower court ruled against the plaintiff, who had argued Title VII protections applied to sexual orientation. The 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals stated in its earlier ruling that only the Supreme Court could determine if Title VII applied.
Required compilation of voter - registration and voting data in geographic areas specified by the Commission on Civil Rights.
Title IX made it easier to move civil rights cases from state courts to federal court. This was of crucial importance to civil rights activists who contended that they could not get fair trials in state courts.
Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 should not be confused with Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, which prohibits sex discrimination in federally funded education programs and activities.
Established the Community Relations Service, tasked with assisting in community disputes involving claims of discrimination.
Title XI gives a defendant accused of certain categories of criminal contempt in a matter arising under title II, III, IV, V, VI, or VII of the Act the right to a jury trial. If convicted, the defendant can be fined an amount not to exceed $1,000 or imprisoned for not more than six months.
There were white business owners who claimed that Congress did not have the constitutional authority to ban segregation in public accommodations. For example, Moreton Rolleston, the owner of a motel in Atlanta, Georgia, said he should not be forced to serve black travelers, saying, "the fundamental question... is whether or not Congress has the power to take away the liberty of an individual to run his business as he sees fit in the selection and choice of his customers ''. Rolleston claimed that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a breach of the Fourteenth Amendment and also violated the Fifth and Thirteenth Amendments by depriving him of "liberty and property without due process ''. In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964), the Supreme Court held that Congress drew its authority from the Constitution 's Commerce Clause, rejecting Rolleston 's claims.
Resistance to the public accommodation clause continued for years on the ground, especially in the South. When local college students in Orangeburg, South Carolina attempted to desegregate a bowling alley in 1968, they were violently attacked, leading to rioting and what became known as the "Orangeburg massacre. '' Resistance by school boards continued into the next decade, with the most significant declines in black - white school segregation only occurring at the end of the 1960s and the start of the 1970s in the aftermath of the Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (1968) court decision.
Between 1965 and 1972, Title VII lacked any strong enforcement provisions. Instead, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was authorized only to investigate external claims of discrimination. The EEOC could then refer cases to the Justice Department for litigation if reasonable cause was found. The EEOC documented the nature and magnitude of discriminatory employment practices, the first study of this kind done.
In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Employment Opportunity Act. The Act amended Title VII and gave EEOC authority to initiate its own enforcement litigation. The EEOC now played a major role in guiding judicial interpretations of civil rights legislation. The commission was also permitted for the first time to define "discrimination, '' a term excluded from the 1964 Act.
The Constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was, at the time, in some dispute as it applied to the private sector. In the landmark Civil Rights Cases the United States Supreme Court had ruled, in 1883, that Congress did not have the power to prohibit discrimination in the private sector, thus stripping the Civil Rights Act of 1875 of much of its ability to protect civil rights.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, the legal justification for voiding the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was part of a larger trend by members of the United States Supreme Court to invalidate most government regulations of the private sector, except when dealing with laws designed to protect traditional public morality.
In the 1930s, during the New Deal, the majority of the Supreme Court justices gradually shifted their legal theory to allow for greater government regulation of the private sector under the commerce clause, thus paving the way for the Federal government to enact civil rights laws prohibiting both public and private sector discrimination on the basis of the commerce clause.
After the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, the Supreme Court upheld the law 's application to the private sector, on the grounds that Congress has the power to regulate commerce between the States. The landmark case Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States established the constitutionality of the law, but it did not settle all of the legal questions surrounding the law.
In Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp., a 1971 Supreme Court case regarding the gender provisions of the Act, the Court ruled that a company could not discriminate against a potential female employee because she had a preschool - age child unless they did the same with potential male employees. A federal court overruled an Ohio state law that barred women from obtaining jobs which required the ability to lift 25 pounds and required women to take lunch breaks when men were not required to. In Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, the United States Supreme Court decided that printing separate job listings for men and women was illegal, which ended that practice among the country 's newspapers. The United States Civil Service Commission ended the practice among federal jobs which designated them "women only '' or "men only ''.
In 1974, the Supreme Court also ruled that the San Francisco school district was violating non-English speaking students ' rights under the 1964 act by placing them in regular classes rather than providing some sort of accommodation for them.
In 1975, a federal civil rights agency warned a Phoenix, Arizona school that its end - of - year father - son and mother - daughter baseball games were illegal according to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. President Gerald Ford intervened, and the games were allowed to continue.
In 1977, the Supreme Court struck down state minimum height requirements for police officers as violating the Act; women usually could not meet these requirements.
On April 4, 2017, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Chicago, sitting en banc, ruled that Title VII of the Act forbids discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation by a vote of 8 -- 3. Over the prior month, panels of both the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit in Atlanta and the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in New York City had reached the opposite conclusion, finding that Title VII sex discrimination does not include claims based on sexual orientation.
Despite its lack of influence during its time, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had considerable impact on later civil rights legislation in the United States. It paved the way for future legislation that was not limited to African American civil rights. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 -- which has been called "the most important piece of federal legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 '' -- was influenced both by the structure and substance of the previous Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act was arguably of equal importance, and "draws substantially from the structure of that landmark legislation (Civil Rights Act of 1964) ''. The Americans With Disabilities Act paralleled its landmark predecessor structurally, drawing upon many of the same titles and statutes. For example, "Title I of the ADA, which bans employment discrimination by private employers on the basis of disability, parallels Title VII of the Act ''. Similarly, Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act, "which proscribes discrimination on the basis of disability in public accommodations, tracks Title II of the 1964 Act while expanding upon the list of public accommodations covered. '' The Americans with Disabilities Act extended "the principle of nondiscrimination to people with disabilities '', an idea unsought in the United States before the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Act also influenced later civil rights legislation, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, aiding not only African Americans, but also women.
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who sang national anthem at nrl grand final | NRL Grand final - Wikipedia
The NRL Grand Final, which determines the Australian rugby league football season 's premiers, is one of Australia 's major sporting events and one of the largest attended club championship events in the world. Since 1999 it has been contested at Sydney 's Stadium Australia, which was the primary athletics venue for the 2000 Olympic Games. The first year it was held at Stadium Australia, the NRL Grand Final broke the record for attendance at an Australian rugby league game, with 107,999 people attending.
The Grand Final had traditionally been played on Sunday afternoons until 2000, the following year saw the game shifted to an evening start. From 2008, a compromise was reached between official broadcaster Nine Network 's preferred starting time of 7 pm and the traditional starting time of 3 pm, with the Grand Final beginning at 5 pm AEDT. In 2013 the evening start resumed, the match commencing at 7: 15 pm.
Each year the NRL Grand Final Breakfast, a function that is attended by both teams, hundreds of guests and screened live on Australian television is held during the week before the game. However In 2015 the breakfast was cancelled
The game itself is usually preceded by an opening ceremony featuring entertainment and the singing of the national anthem by well - known Australasian and international musical acts. After the pre-game entertainment it is traditional for the Provan - Summons Trophy, the NRL 's official premiership trophy, to be delivered to the field by an Australian Army helicopter shortly before kick off.
At the conclusion of the Grand Final there is a presentation ceremony where the winning team are awarded premiership rings. The player judged to be the man - of - the - match by the Australian national team selectors is awarded the prestigious Clive Churchill Medal and the Prime Minister of Australia is typically on - hand to hand the Provan - Summons Trophy to the winning captain.
In 2010 the Government of New South Wales secured the grand final for Stadium Australia until 2022 for $45 million.
First grade rugby league in NSW began in 1908, the first premiership deciding game was played at the Royal Agricultural Society Showground, with Souths defeating Easts 14 - 12. From 1912 to 1925, no finals system was in place, however in 1916, 1922, 1923 and 1924, a match was played as a tiebreaker to decide the season 's premiership winner. From 1926 to 1953, finals were played under the Argus system, which produced a deciding game in two slightly differing ways.
All of these deciding games are now deemed to be grand finals, whether they were referred to as such at the time or not. From 1954 to the present, using a variety of systems, the deciding match has been explicitly termed a grand final, and no distinction is made between grand finals played under the auspices of the various governing bodies.
The NRL Grand Final is held in Sydney since it has the most clubs in the NRL and the current venue for the Grand Final, Stadium Australia is the second highest capacity stadium in Australia, after the Melbourne Cricket Ground.
Attendances
The winners of the Grand Final qualify to play the winners of the Super League Grand Final in the World Club Challenge. The runners up qualify to play the Super League minor premiership winners in the second game of the World Club Series.
The Provan - Summons Trophy is the NRL 's main prize, awarded to the team that wins the premiership. Its sculptured design is similar to the Winfield Cup trophy, which was introduced for the 1982 NSWRFL season. It is a three - dimensional cast of a famous photo called The Gladiators, which depicts a mud - soaked Norm Provan of St. George and Arthur Summons of Western Suburbs embracing after the 1963 NSWRFL season 's Grand Final. It was not officially named the Provan - Summons Trophy until 2013, the 50th anniversary of the 1963 Grand Final. The trophy is awarded following each grand final to the captain of the winning club.
The Clive Churchill Medal is the award given to the player judged to be man - of - the - match in the National Rugby League 's annual Grand Final. The award was created to honour Clive Churchill, one of the greatest rugby league players in Australian history, following his death in 1985. A prestigious honour in the NRL, The medal 's recipient is chosen by the selectors of the Australian national team and announced and awarded to the player judged best and fairest on the ground at every post-grand final ceremony.
The Clive Churchill Medal has been awarded ever since the 1986 NSWRL season when its first recipient was Parramatta 's Peter Sterling. The only two players to have won the award more than once are Canberra 's Bradley Clyde (1989 and 1991) and Melbourne Storm 's Billy Slater (2009 and 2017). In 2010, the Melbourne Storm were stripped of the 2007 and 2009 premierships due to salary cap breaches exposed by the NRL, however the Clive Churchill Medallists from those years still continue to be recognised.
The NRL present premiership rings for the players and coach of grand final winning sides. After the 2004 NRL Grand Final which was won by the Bulldogs, one of their players, Johnathan Thurston gave his premiership ring to teammate Steve Price who missed the decider due to injury. The Melbourne Storm were stripped of their premierships in 2007 and 2009, but the players involved in those premierships were still allowed to keep their premiership rings. In 2014 NRL premiership ring was worth $8000 made by Zed N Zed Jewellery.
Prize money is awarded to the victorious club.
However the amount is probably not reflective of the magnitude of participating in the event. It is often assumed simply that the winner of the premiership typically experiences an increase in revenue through increases in membership and merchandise sales.
The 1997 Super League Grand Final was a night time match *
1909 - South Sydney win the premiership by forfeit over Balmain. There was an agreement that both sides would forfeit the match, however Souths showed up, kicked off to an imaginary opponent, scored a try and were declared premiers.
1956 - St. George beat Balmain to claim the first of a world record 11 straight premierships.
1963 - St. George beat Western Suburbs 8 - 3 in a match famous for the iconic ' Gladiators ' photo of Norm Provan and Arthur Summons covered in mud. It is also notable for a controversial try scored by Dragons winger Johnny King. Wests players tackled him and believed him to be held, however the referee rules play on.
1965 - A then record crowd of 78,056 packed into the Sydney Cricket Ground to see St. George captain Norm Provan play his last NSWRFL game. It was also St. George 's 10th straight premiership.
1966 - St. George win their 11th straight premiership, at the time a world record in any football code.
1969 - Balmain win a controversial grand final 11 - 2 over South Sydney. The game causes controversy due to Balmain 's lay down tactics.
1975 - Eastern Suburbs beat St. George by a then record 38 - 0 score line. St. George fullback Graeme Langlands plays the game in white boots and has a painkiller injection go wrong.
1977 - St. George and Parramatta play out the first drawn grand final, 9 - all after extra time. They come back the next week for a grand final replay and St. George win 22 - 0.
1978 - Manly and Cronulla play out the second drawn grand final, 11 - all. There is no extra time and the replay is played on the following Tuesday, won by Manly 16 - 0.
1987 - Manly defeat Canberra 18 - 8 in the last grand final played at the Sydney Cricket Ground.
1989 - Known by many as the best grand final ever, Canberra come from 14 - 2 down to beat Balmain 19 - 14 in extra time. Canberra became the first team outside of NSW to win the competition.
1992 - The Brisbane Broncos defeat St. George 28 - 8 to become the first Queensland team to win the grand final.
1997 - Brisbane defeat Cronulla for their third premiership in the Super League grand final. This was the first night grand final, the first (and currently only) top level rugby league grand final to be played outside of Sydney before a record crowd for any sporting event in Queensland of 58,912.
1997 - Newcastle winger Darren Albert scores a try with six seconds left to deliver Newcastle their first ever premiership, 22 - 16 over Manly.
1999 - A world record crowd of 107,999 watch the two newest clubs Melbourne Storm and St George Illawarra Dragons battle it out. St. George Illawarra lead 18 - 14 before a late penalty try to Melbourne winger Craig Smith gives the Storm a 20 - 18 win to become the first Victorian team to win a NRL premiership and the quickest NRL club to win their first ever premiership in only their second season.
2001 - Newcastle win the first night grand final in Sydney, 30 - 24 over Parramatta.
2005 - Wests Tigers five - eighth Benji Marshall throws a magic flick pass to winger Pat Richards as the Tigers become the first joint venture to win the premiership, 30 - 16 over the North Queensland Cowboys.
2008 - Manly Warringah Sea Eagles secure a record 40 - 0 win over Melbourne Storm.
2014 - South Sydney Rabbitohs win their first premiership in 43 years, beating Canterbury - Bankstown Bulldogs 30 - 6.
2015 - The first all - Queensland NRL Grand Final sparked talk of a Grand Final being held in Queensland in the near future. It was also notable as Brisbane Broncos ended their biggest drought from a Grand Final since entering the competition and it was Bennett 's first year back since leaving the Broncos. It was also notable for North Queensland Cowboys winger Kyle Feldt scoring a try after the full - time siren to level the game at 16 - all. After Jonathan Thurston missed the sideline conversion, he kicked a golden point field goal to win the Cowboys their first ever premiership in the first golden point grand final. It also ended Brisbane 's undefeated streak in grand final 's having won all six previous games.
2016 - Cronulla - Sutherland Sharks win their first premiership in their 50th season by defeating Melbourne Storm 14 - 12. This was also only their 4th grand final appearance since entering the competition in 1967. Their other grand final appearances came in 1973, 1978 and 1997. This is widely regarded and the best grand final ever and the most complete performance of a team over the course of a year.
2017 - The Melbourne Storm won their third valid title, and will go down as one of the most dominant sides in Rugby League history after winning the minor premiership an premiership as well as having the best attack and defence of any team, finishing the season off with 23 wins and 4 losses.
The 1999 NRL Grand Final saw a new rugby league world record crowd of 107,999 was at Stadium Australia for the game. The attendance, which saw 67,142 more people attend than had done so for the 1998 NRL Grand Final at the Sydney Football Stadium, broke the record attendance for a Grand Final, eclipsing the previous record of 78,065 set in 1965 when St. George defeated South Sydney 12 - 8 at the Sydney Cricket Ground.
The 2014 NRL Grand Final had a crowd of 83,833 was the largest attendance at a sporting event at Stadium Australia since its 2001 reconfiguration.
Early NRL Grand Finals featured a halftime show consisting of marching bands but as the popularity of the game increased, a trend where popular singers and musicians performed during its pre-game ceremonies and the halftime show, or simply sang the Advance Australia Fair, emerged.
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where is the new christopher robin movie filmed | Christopher Robin (film) - wikipedia
Christopher Robin is a 2018 American fantasy comedy - drama film directed by Marc Forster and written by Alex Ross Perry, Tom McCarthy and Allison Schroeder, from a story by Greg Brooker and Mark Steven Johnson. The film is inspired by A.A. Milne and E.H. Shepard 's book Winnie - the - Pooh and is a live - action / CGI extension of the Disney franchise of the same name. The film stars Ewan McGregor as the titular character alongside Hayley Atwell, as well as the voices of Jim Cummings and Brad Garrett. The plot follows Christopher Robin as he has grown up and lost his sense of imagination, only to be reunited with his old stuffed bear friend, Winnie - the - Pooh.
Plans of a live - action Winnie the Pooh adaptation were announced in April 2015, and Forster was confirmed as director in November 2016. McGregor signed on as Christopher Robin in April 2017 and principal photography began in August of that year in the United Kingdom, lasting until November.
Christopher Robin had its premiere in Burbank, California on July 30, 2018. Released in the United States on August 3, 2018, by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, the film has grossed over $115 million worldwide and received mostly positive reviews from critics.
Christopher Robin is leaving for boarding school, so his friends from the Hundred Acre Wood -- Winnie the Pooh, Tigger, Piglet, Eeyore, Kanga, Roo, Owl, and Rabbit -- throw a goodbye party. Christopher comforts Pooh and tells him that he will never forget him.
Christopher goes to boarding school, after which he grows up, meets and marries architect Evelyn, with whom he has daughter Madeline. He serves in the British Army during World War II. After the war, he works as an efficiency expert at Winslow Luggages. He neglects his family due to his demanding job and plans on sending Madeline to boarding school. With the company hitting hard times, Giles Winslow Jr. tells Christopher to decrease expenditures by 20 %, largely by choosing which employees to lay off, and to present his plan on Monday. This causes Christopher to reluctantly miss joining his family at their countryside cottage in Sussex for a summer - ending weekend.
When Pooh awakens and is unable to find his friends, he decides to travel through Christopher 's door and finds himself in London. He reunites with Christopher, who is shocked to see Pooh, but takes him back to his London home. After a night and morning of chaos (including Pooh knocking down all of his kitchen shelves in search of honey), Christopher escorts the bear back to Sussex on the next train.
After sneaking past Christopher 's cottage, the two enter the Hundred Acre Wood. Christopher becomes exasperated by Pooh 's absent - mindedness and fear of Heffalumps and Woozles. Christopher angrily tells Pooh that he is not a child anymore, before the two get separated in the fog. Christopher discovers Eeyore and Piglet, who lead him to the others, hiding in a log out of fear of a Heffalump. Unable to persuade his friends that he is truly Christopher Robin, he pretends to defeat a Heffalump to convince them. Finally believing that it is Christopher Robin, they joyfully greet him. When they reunite with Pooh at their meeting spot, Christopher apologizes for getting upset earlier. Christopher tells Pooh how lost he feels, but Pooh reminds him that they have found each other and comforts him with a hug. The next morning, Christopher, realising how late he is, rushes from the Hundred Acre Wood to make his presentation. He encounters his family and, unable to tell them about his old friends in the Hundred Acre Wood, leaves.
Pooh realizes that Tigger removed Christopher 's paperwork when drying his briefcase, so Pooh, Tigger, Piglet and Eeyore decide to travel to London to give it back. They meet Madeline, who recognizes them from her father 's drawings. She joins them, wanting to dissuade her father about boarding school; Evelyn follows after discovering a note Madeline left.
At the meeting, Christopher discovers that his briefcase contains items from the woods that Tigger left for him. Evelyn arrives and Christopher joins her to search London for Madeline. Madeline 's group stow away in Winslow company crates, but Tigger, Eeyore and Piglet are accidentally thrown out, and they encounter Christopher and Evelyn in the process. Madeline and Pooh arrive near the Winslow building and reunite with Christopher 's group, but Madeline accidentally trips on the stairs and loses all but one of the papers, upsetting her and Pooh. Christopher assures Madeline of her importance to him and that he will not send her to boarding school.
Christopher improvises a plan involving reducing the prices of luggage, giving employees paid leave, and selling their luggage to everyday people to increase demand. Winslow Jr., who instead proposed firing some of the staff, dismisses the idea; Winslow Sr. warms to it and agrees to the plan. Winslow Jr. is humiliated as Christopher points out that he contributed nothing to the plan, having been golfing all weekend.
Christopher finally takes his family into the Hundred Acre Wood to meet the rest of his friends.
In a mid-credits scene, the employees of Winslow 's are seen having fun at the beach while Richard M. Sherman performs "Busy Doing Nothing '' on a piano. Pooh, Piglet, Eeyore and Tigger are relaxing on beach chairs with Eeyore saying "Thank you for noticing me ''.
On April 2, 2015, Walt Disney Pictures announced that a live - action adaptation based on the characters from the Winnie the Pooh franchise was in development which would take a similar pattern to 2010 's Alice in Wonderland, 2014 's Maleficent, and 2015 's Cinderella. Alex Ross Perry was hired to write the script and Brigham Taylor hired to produce the film, about an adult Christopher Robin returning to the Hundred Acre Wood to spend time with Pooh and the gang. On November 18, 2016, it was reported that the studio had hired Marc Forster to direct the film, titled Christopher Robin, and the project would have "strong elements of magical realism as it seeks to tell an emotional journey with heartwarming adventure. '' On March 1, 2017, Tom McCarthy was hired to rewrite the existing screenplay.
On April 26, 2017, Ewan McGregor was announced to play the title character while Allison Schroeder was recruited to do additional work on the script. On June 22, 2017, it was revealed that Gemma Arterton had been in negotiations to portray the wife of the title character but, ultimately, she passed on the role. In August and September 2017, Hayley Atwell and Mark Gatiss were cast as Evelyn, Christopher Robin 's wife and Giles Winslow, Christopher Robin 's boss, while Brad Garrett and Nick Mohammed were cast as Eeyore and Piglet with Jim Cummings reprising his roles as both Winnie the Pooh and Tigger. In January 2018, Peter Capaldi, Sophie Okonedo and Toby Jones were cast as Rabbit, Kanga and Owl respectively. Chris O'Dowd was originally announced as the voice of Tigger, but later stepped down from the role after audiences in test screenings reacted negatively towards how he voiced the character and was replaced by Cummings.
Principal photography on the film began in early August 2017, in the United Kingdom, and concluded on November 4, 2017. Much of the filming of the Hundred Acre Wood scenes took place at Ashdown Forest, which was the original inspiration for the setting, as well as Windsor Great Park.
Jóhann Jóhannsson was hired to score the film, shortly before his death on February 9, 2018. The film is dedicated to his memory. Klaus Badelt was announced as taking over composing duties for Jóhannsson, but the score was ultimately written by Geoff Zanelli and Jon Brion. At an Academy event, songwriter and Disney Legend Richard Sherman revealed that the film would feature the iconic "Winnie the Pooh '' theme, and that he was working on three new songs for the film, titled "Goodbye Farewell '', "Busy Doing Nothing '' and "Christopher Robin '', with the first one being performed by the voice cast, and the last two by Sherman. "Up, Down and Touch the Ground '' and "The Wonderful Thing About Tiggers '' are also included in the film.
Visual effects studios Framestore and Method Studios, are leading the animation for the Hundred Acre Wood characters, with Overall Vfx Supervisor Chris Lawrence and Animation Supervisor Michael Eames leading the teams.
Christopher Robin premiered in Burbank, California on July 30, 2018, and was released on August 3, 2018 by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The film was denied release in China, as some have speculated it was due to Chinese netizens have drawn comparisons between Winnie the Pooh and Chinese leader Xi Jinping since mid 2017. Other industry insider speculates it was likely due to other reasons such as the film 's size and the presence of other Hollywood films in the market.
The first teaser poster of the film was released on March 5, 2018, and the first teaser trailer was unveiled the following day.
On May 24, 2018, it was announced that the full trailer would premiere the following day during McGregor 's appearance on The Ellen DeGeneres Show.
As of August 28, 2018, Christopher Robin has grossed $79.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $36.4 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $115.6 million.
In the United States and Canada, Christopher Robin was released alongside The Spy Who Dumped Me, The Darkest Minds, and Death of a Nation: Can We Save America a Second Time?. The film made $9.5 million on its first day, including $1.5 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $24.6 million, finishing second at the box office behind holdover Mission: Impossible -- Fallout. The film fell 47 % to $13 million in its second weekend, finishing third behind The Meg and Mission: Impossible -- Fallout. In its third weekend, the film declined 31 % to $8.9 million, finishing in sixth place. The movie retained its sixth place position during its fourth weekend and grossed $6.3 million, dropping 29 %.
On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71 % based on 191 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Christopher Robin may not equal A.A. Milne 's stories -- or their animated Disney adaptations -- but it should prove sweet enough for audiences seeking a little childhood magic. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 59 out of 100, based on 42 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it 4.5 out of 5 stars.
Ben Kenigsberg of the New York Times reviewed the film this way: "Once Christopher Robin softens its insufferable, needlessly cynical conception of the title character, it offers more or less what a Pooh reboot should: a lot of nostalgia, a bit of humor and tactile computer animation. '' And David Sims of The Atlantic wrote, "It 's an odd, melancholic experience that at times recalls Terrence Malick as it does A.A. Milne, but there will certainly be some viewers in its exact wheelhouse. '' Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film 3 out of 4 stars and said, "Pooh 's wisdom and kindness can not be denied. The same impulses worked for the two Paddington movies, God knows. Christopher Robin is n't quite in their league, but it 's affecting nonetheless. '' Richard Lawson of Vanity Fair gave the film a positive review and heavily praised the voice performance from Cummings, calling it "Oscar - worthy ''. Overall, he said, "As Winnie the Pooh (and Tigger too), the veteran voice actor gives such sweet, rumpled, affable life to the wistful bear of literary renown that it routinely breaks the heart. Cummings 's performance understands something more keenly than the movie around it; he taps into a vein of humor and melancholy that is pitched at an exact frequency, one that will speak to child and adult alike. His Pooh is an agreeable nuisance and an accidental philosopher, delivering nonsensical (and yet entirely sensible) adages in a friendly, deliberate murmur ringed faintly with sadness. I wanted to (gently) yank him from the screen and take him home with me, his fuzzy little paw in mine as we ambled to the subway, the summer sun fading behind us. He 's a good bear, this Pooh. ''
Conversely, Alonso Duralde of TheWrap called the film "slow and charmless '' and wrote, "What we 're left with is a Hook - style mid-life crisis movie aimed at kids, designed to shame parents who spend too much time at the office and not enough with their families. '' Sarah Melton from Exclaim! gave the film a rating of 5 / 10, calling it a "sickly sweet tale '' with a predictable ending. Helen O'Hara of Empire magazine gave the film a 2 out of 5 stars and said "Everyone 's trying hard, but they ca n't quite live up to the particularly gentle, warm tone of Pooh himself. Unlike the bear of very little brain, this is a film pulled in different directions with entirely too many thoughts in its head ''.
The performance of Ewan McGregor as Christopher Robin was particularly well received. David Fear of Rolling Stone said, "He 's an actor who can roll with this movie 's punches, whether it requires him to be light on his feet or dragged down by existential despair, exhilarated by childlike play or exasperated by a house - wrecking creature who says things like, ' People say nothing is impossible, but I do nothing every day '. '' Adam Forsgren for East Idaho News wrote, "First and foremost is McGregor 's performance in the title role. The guy sells being the put - upon, overburdened office drone so well that it 's a treat to see him begin to rediscover his younger self and let himself play... McGregor is the glue that holds this whole movie together. '' Stephanie Zacharek of Time stated, "But it 's doubtful the movie would work at all if not for McGregor: He turns Christopher 's anxiety into a haunting presence, the kind of storm cloud that we can all, now and then, feel hovering above us. Yet McGregor is also an actor capable of expressing unalloyed delight. And when, as Christopher Robin, he finally does, some of that delight rubs off on us too. '' Brian Lowry also noted in his review for CNN, "Give much of the credit to McGregor in the thankless task of playing opposite his adorably furry co-stars, ably handling the comedy derived from the fact that he does n't dare let others see them. ''
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top 10 college under national university in bangladesh | National university, Bangladesh - wikipedia
National University, Bangladesh (Bengali: জাতীয় বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়, বাংলাদেশ) is a parent university of Bangladesh that was established by an Act of Parliament as an affiliating University of the country to impart graduate and post-graduate level education to the students through its affiliated colleges and professional institutions throughout the country. It is the 2nd largest university in the world according to enrolment. The headquarter is in Gazipur, on the outskirts of Dhaka.
It is a postgraduate teaching and research university as well as an affiliating university. It is state - run and public. The university has a school and a centre. It has established institutes that provide courses leading to M. Phil. and PhD degrees.
The Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences (IHS) was introduced in 1997 to offer two - year M. Phil. following modern American credit hour and semester system including course work, two - month internship and thesis guided by supervisor. The M. Phil. is an interdisciplinary degree which is intensive enough to help the students to pursue PhD courses. The course is open to faculty members who are employed at universities and colleges.
Four more institutes -- the Institute of Liberation and Bangladesh Studies (ILBS), Institutes of National Science (INS), Institute of Life Sciences (ILS), and Institute of Business and Management Studies (IBMS) -- have all the formalities complete toward their constitutions and are soon to provide higher courses related to science, needs of life, and national heritage.
Very few of the teachers teaching at honours and masters level have higher training. The training programme of the university is designed to augment the knowledge of the college teachers, enhance their skill in teaching and get them an exposure to higher ideas. Eminent educationists and scholars of the country are associated with the academic programmes provided on campus.
There are four academic units:
The school and centres organise education in colleges and improve the standard. The university provides bachelor 's, honours and master 's degrees in ten disciplines: languages, humanities, social science, commerce and business administration, physical sciences, mathematical sciences, biological science, education, law and computer technology.
Apart from the units providing campus teaching at Board Bazar, Gazipur, the university has about 1,688 component / affiliated colleges. These colleges under its academic control cater for courses leading to Pass, Honours and master 's degrees. The university exercises academic control over the colleges according to the National University Act 1992 mandated by the National Parliament of Bangladesh and the statutes of the university. It provides the curricula and syllabi, arranges admission test, gives guidelines for admission, arranges inspection, holds examination, publishes results, and awards certificates.
The college curricula and syllabi are being standardised and modernised in consonance with national ideology. The new syllabuses came into effect from the last academic session.
The National University of Bangladesh is now the fifth largest university in the world after its 17 - year history by its number of registered students at affiliated colleges. It is also one of the largest universities in the world by number of affiliated colleges and number of expanding subjects and courses.
There are some 2,254 colleges affiliated to NUB. Prominent ones include the following:
((Public Universities of Bangladesh)
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when does the new season of steven universe start | List of Steven Universe episodes - wikipedia
Steven Universe is an American animated television series created by Rebecca Sugar for Cartoon Network. The series revolves around Steven Universe (voiced by Zach Callison), who protects his hometown of Beach City alongside Garnet (voiced by Estelle), Amethyst (voiced by Michaela Dietz) and Pearl (voiced by Deedee Magno Hall), three magical alien guardians known as the Crystal Gems. The series was renewed for a fourth and fifth season on March 30, 2016. As of 12 August 2018, no sixth season has yet been announced; but on July 21, 2018, it was announced that a Steven Universe television film, Steven Universe: The Movie, was in production.
As of July 6, 2018, 152 episodes of Steven Universe have aired. Episodes have variously been broadcast once a week (most recently on Monday nights), in blocks of multiple new episodes in the course of a week, which are marketed as "Stevenbombs '', or back - to - back as specials with an umbrella title.
The following lists are ordered according to the list on the official website of the series, which reflects the intended watching order of the creators. While similar to the original broadcast order, three episodes from the first season were not broadcast until the second season.
The supervising director for this season is Ian Jones - Quartey.
Season One initially aired weekly on Monday nights, switching to Thursday nights from "Steven the Sword Fighter ''. "Rose 's Scabbard '' and "The Message '' through to Season Two 's "Full Disclosure '' aired over five nights as the first "Stevenbomb ''.
"Sworn to the Sword '' through to "Chille Tid '', "Cry for Help '' to "Friend Ship '', and "The Answer '' to "Log Date 7 15 2 '' all aired daily over three five - night "Stevenbombs ''.
"Super Watermelon Island '' through to "Hit the Diamond '' aired weekly as the event "In Too Deep '', while the remaining episdes (and the first two of Season Four) aired every weekday as part of the four - week event "Summer Adventures ''.
The series moved to Fridays from "The New Crystal Gems ''. "Steven 's Dream '' through to "That Will Be All '', and "Lion 4: Alternate Ending '' to "I Am My Mom '' each aired daily as two four - night events (the former titled "Out of This World '').
Episodes moved to Mondays from "Your Mother and Mine ''. "Stuck Together '' through to "Lars ' Head '', and "Lars of the Stars '' to "Jungle Moon '' both aired back - to - back as events, titled "Wanted '' and "Stranded '' respectively; "Now We 're Only Falling Apart '' through to "Reunited '' aired daily as a five - night event titled "Heart of the Crystal Gems ''.
Stevonnie crash - lands in a jungle on an alien moon and, unable to contact Lars, must fend for themself. They discover that the moon houses an abandoned Gem base and orbits a former Gem colony, and have a strange dream involving Yellow Diamond and Pink Diamond.
A film based on the series, Steven Universe: The Movie, was announced on July 21, 2018. It is to be made available on Cartoon Network at an unknown date.
All six digital shorts combined make up one full production code of season 2 (1031 - 058).
All five of these shorts combined make up one full production code of season 4 (1040 - 112).
Depending on the customer 's region, Steven Universe is available through various video on demand services such as Hulu, Google Play, iTunes, Amazon Video, and Microsoft Movies & TV.
Episodes on the Steven Universe DVDs are not always presented in original broadcast order. In the table below, the episodes are listed in the order they appear on the DVD, and are numbered according to the intended watching order.
In North America, Warner Home Video has released several single - disc compilation DVDs featuring select episodes, as well as a "complete season '' DVD set. In Australia, Madman Entertainment has followed a similar pattern, and releases their "season '' sets on both Blu - ray and DVD format; the series has yet to see any Blu - ray releases in the North American market.
While the Australian Season DVDs use the intended broadcast order, the American "Season One '' is re-ordered, omitting "Shirt Club '' and "Story for Steven '' but including the Season Two episodes "Full Disclosure '' and "Joy Ride ''. The American Season One DVD also includes special features not available in the previous Australian release.
Extra: Pilot episode ("The Time Thing '') (Region 1 only)
Extra: Pilot episode ("The Time Thing '')
Extras: Online Shorts
Extras: ' Behind the Music ', ' Listening Party ', Music Video Performances (' Something Entirely New ', ' It 's Over, Is n't It? ', ' Love Like You ', ' Here Comes a Thought ' and ' What 's the Use of Feeling (Blue)? '), Song Demos (' Be Wherever You Are ' and ' Full Disclosure ') and Animatics (' Gem Glow ', ' Full Disclosure ', ' Steven the Sword Fighter ', ' Steven and the Stevens ' and ' Island Adventure ')
Extras: Online shorts
Extras: Pilot ("The Time Thing ''), Online shorts
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what is mutual exclusion and multithreading in os | Mutual exclusion - wikipedia
In computer science, mutual exclusion is a property of concurrency control, which is instituted for the purpose of preventing race conditions; it is the requirement that one thread of execution never enter its critical section at the same time that another concurrent thread of execution enters its own critical section.
The requirement of mutual exclusion was first identified and solved by Edsger W. Dijkstra in his seminal 1965 paper titled Solution of a problem in concurrent programming control, which is credited as the first topic in the study of concurrent algorithms.
A simple example of why mutual exclusion is important in practice can be visualized using a singly linked list of four items, where the second and third are to be removed. The removal of a node that sits between 2 other nodes is performed by changing the next pointer of the previous node to point to the next node (in other words, if node i is being removed, then the next pointer of node i − 1 is changed to point to node i + 1, thereby removing from the linked list any reference to node i). When such a linked list is being shared between multiple threads of execution, two threads of execution may attempt to remove two different nodes simultaneously, one thread of execution changing the next pointer of node i − 1 to point to node i + 1, while another thread of execution changes the next pointer of node i to point to node i + 2. Although both removal operations complete successfully, the desired state of the linked list is not achieved: node i + 1 remains in the list, because the next pointer of node i − 1 points to node i + 1.
This problem (called a race condition) can be avoided by using the requirement of mutual exclusion to ensure that simultaneous updates to the same part of the list can not occur.
The problem which mutual exclusion addresses is a problem of resource sharing: how can a software system control multiple processes ' access to a shared resource, when each process needs exclusive control of that resource while doing its work? The mutual - exclusion solution to this makes the shared resource available only while the process is in a specific code segment called the critical section. It controls access to the shared resource by controlling each mutual execution of that part of its program where the resource would be used.
A successful solution to this problem must have at least these two properties:
Deadlock freedom can be expanded to implement one or both of these properties:
Every process ' program can be partitioned into four sections, resulting in four states. Program execution cycles through these four states in order:
If a process wishes to enter the critical section, it must first execute the trying section and wait until it acquires access to the critical section. After the process has executed its critical section and is finished with the shared resources, it needs to execute the exit section to release them for other processes ' use. The process then returns to its non-critical section.
There are both software and hardware solutions for enforcing mutual exclusion. Some different solutions are discussed below.
On uniprocessor systems, the simplest solution to achieve mutual exclusion is to disable interrupts during a process 's critical section. This will prevent any interrupt service routines from running (effectively preventing a process from being preempted). Although this solution is effective, it leads to many problems. If a critical section is long, then the system clock will drift every time a critical section is executed because the timer interrupt is no longer serviced, so tracking time is impossible during the critical section. Also, if a process halts during its critical section, control will never be returned to another process, effectively halting the entire system. A more elegant method for achieving mutual exclusion is the busy - wait.
Busy - waiting is effective for both uniprocessor and multiprocessor systems. The use of shared memory and an atomic test - and - set instruction provide the mutual exclusion. A process can test - and - set on a location in shared memory, and since the operation is atomic, only one process can set the flag at a time. Any process that is unsuccessful in setting the flag can either go on to do other tasks and try again later, release the processor to another process and try again later, or continue to loop while checking the flag until it is successful in acquiring it. Preemption is still possible, so this method allows the system to continue to function -- even if a process halts while holding the lock.
Several other atomic operations can be used to provide mutual exclusion of data structures; most notable of these is compare - and - swap (CAS). CAS can be used to achieve wait - free mutual exclusion for any shared data structure by creating a linked list where each node represents the desired operation to be performed. CAS is then used to change the pointers in the linked list during the insertion of a new node. Only one process can be successful in its CAS; all other processes attempting to add a node at the same time will have to try again. Each process can then keep a local copy of the data structure, and upon traversing the linked list, can perform each operation from the list on its local copy.
Beside hardware - supported solutions, some software solutions exist that use busy waiting to achieve mutual exclusion. Examples of these include the following:
These algorithms do not work if out - of - order execution is used on the platform that executes them. Programmers have to specify strict ordering on the memory operations within a thread.
It is often preferable to use synchronization facilities provided by an operating system 's multithreading library, which will take advantage of hardware solutions if possible but will use software solutions if no hardware solutions exist. For example, when the operating system 's lock library is used and a thread tries to acquire an already acquired lock, the operating system could suspend the thread using a context switch and swap it out with another thread that is ready to be run, or could put that processor into a low power state if there is no other thread that can be run. Therefore, most modern mutual exclusion methods attempt to reduce latency and busy - waits by using queuing and context switches. However, if the time that is spent suspending a thread and then restoring it can be proven to be always more than the time that must be waited for a thread to become ready to run after being blocked in a particular situation, then spinlocks are an acceptable solution (for that situation only).
One binary test&set register is sufficient to provide the deadlock - free solution to the mutual exclusion problem. But a solution built with a test&set register can possibly lead to the starvation of some processes which become caught in the trying section. In fact, Ω (n) (\ displaystyle \ Omega ((\ sqrt (n)))) distinct memory states are required to avoid lockout. To avoid unbounded waiting, n distinct memory states are required.
Most algorithms for mutual exclusion are designed with the assumption that no failure occurs while a process is running inside the critical section. However, in reality such failures may be commonplace. For example, a sudden loss of power or faulty interconnect might cause a process in a critical section to experience an unrecoverable error or otherwise be unable to continue. If such a failure occurs, conventional, non-failure - tolerant mutual exclusion algorithms may deadlock or otherwise fail key liveness properties. To deal with this problem, several solutions using crash - recovery mechanisms have been proposed.
The solutions explained above can be used to build the synchronization primitives below:
Many forms of mutual exclusion have side - effects. For example, classic semaphores permit deadlocks, in which one process gets a semaphore, another process gets a second semaphore, and then both wait till the other semaphore to be released. Other common side - effects include starvation, in which a process never gets sufficient resources to run to completion; priority inversion, in which a higher priority thread waits for a lower - priority thread; and high latency, in which response to interrupts is not prompt.
Much research is aimed at eliminating the above effects, often with the goal of guaranteeing non-blocking progress. No perfect scheme is known. Blocking system calls used to sleep an entire process. Until such calls became threadsafe, there was no proper mechanism for sleeping a single thread within a process (see polling).
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malcolm in the middle season 4 episode 11 | List of Malcolm in the middle episodes - wikipedia
Malcolm in the Middle is a Fox sitcom that ran for seven seasons from January 9, 2000 to May 14, 2006 with 151 episodes produced.
A combination of Malcolm 's disgust at the house falling apart around them, and Hal 's fear - induced "zero tolerance '' attempts at maintaining peace and order in the family, results in Malcolm being kicked out of the house; the longer he has no home, the more his sanity begins to slip away. Hal finds Malcolm at his ex-girlfriend's house and agrees to keep this between them, knowing that Lois would 've gone through greater lengths to find him. At the ranch, Otto 's family arrives and Francis has to deal with Otto 's piano - playing nephew who intentionally annoys him, which leads to him smashing his piano in front of Otto 's family. Meanwhile, Reese comes up with an idiotic idea by attaching a fire hose to his back for more speed on his bike, which ends up in a disaster.
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who sang the song let it go from frozen | Let It Go (Disney song) - Wikipedia
"Let It Go '' is a song from Disney 's 2013 animated feature film Frozen, whose music and lyrics were composed by husband - and - wife songwriting team Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez. The song was performed in its original show - tune version in the film by American actress and singer Idina Menzel in her vocal role as Queen Elsa. Anderson - Lopez and Lopez also composed a simplified pop version (with shorter lyrics and background chorus) which was performed by actress and singer Demi Lovato over the start of the film 's closing credits. A music video was separately released for the pop version.
The song presents the ostracized Queen Elsa, who abandons her kingdom when her magical ability to create and control ice and snow is discovered by the public. Up in the mountains, away from confused and suspicious onlookers, Elsa realizes that she no longer needs to hide her abilities, and so declares herself free from the restrictions she has had to endure since childhood. She rejoices in being able to use her power without fear or limit, to let her past go, and manipulate snow to create a living snowman and a magnificent ice castle for herself. The song also includes discarding items, most notably her glove which her parents gave her to hold back her powers, and taking her tiara off her head and throwing it over her shoulder, afterwards unraveling her braided hairstyle.
"Let It Go '' reached the top five on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and won both the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 2014 and the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media in 2015. The song gained international recognition, becoming one of the most globally recorded Disney songs, with numerous covers being recorded in different languages.
According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry, "Let It Go '' sold 10.9 million copies in 2014, becoming the year 's fifth best - selling song.
The Daily Telegraph explained that instead of the villain originally envisioned by the producers, the songwriters saw Elsa as "a scared girl struggling to control and come to terms with her gift. '' When interviewed in January 2014 by John August and Aline Brosh McKenna, Frozen director Jennifer Lee gave her recollection of the song 's conception: "Bobby and Kristen said they were walking in Prospect Park and they just started talking about what would it feel like (to be Elsa). Forget villain. Just what it would feel like. And this concept of letting out who she is (,) that she 's kept to herself for so long (,) and she 's alone and free, but then the sadness of the fact (sic) that the last moment is she 's alone. It 's not a perfect thing, but it 's powerful. ''
"Let It Go '' was the first song written by Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez for the film that made it in, since songs composed earlier were eventually cut. The story outline they were given had a place reserved for "Elsa 's Badass Song '', which was what they were trying to write. The duo took inspiration from the songs of the Disney Renaissance such as The Little Mermaid and Beauty and the Beast and various artists including Adele, Aimee Mann, Avril Lavigne (whose 2002 debut album was titled Let Go), Lady Gaga, and Carole King. The song finally began to gel one day as the couple walked together from their home in Park Slope to nearby Prospect Park while they were "thinking from an emo kind of place. '' Anderson - Lopez explained what happened next: "We went for a walk in Prospect Park and threw phrases at each other. What does it feel like to be the perfect exalted person, but only because you 've held back this secret? Bobby came up with ' kingdom of isolation, ' and it worked. '' Lopez was able to improvise the song 's first four lines on the spot. Back at their home studio, they composed the rest of the song by alternating between improvising melodies on a piano and brainstorming lyrics on a whiteboard, and finished it within a single day.
"Let It Go '' is a power ballad in the key of A-flat major overall, but begins in the relative minor (F minor). The song is in quadruple meter, and has a fast tempo of around 137 beats per minute (allegro). The song 's vocal range spans from F to E ♭. Anderson - Lopez and Lopez specifically wrote the song for Idina Menzel, referring to her as "one of the most glorious voices of Broadway and an icon in musical theater. '' Menzel 's vocal range was taken under consideration during the music 's composition.
For each song they created, including "Let It Go '', Anderson - Lopez and Lopez recorded a demo in their studio, then emailed it to the Disney Animation production team in Burbank for discussion at their next videoconference. After the film 's release, Anderson - Lopez was shown an "explicitly honest '' fan version of the song with very colorful lyrics, and in response, she noted that in the videoconferences she herself had used similarly candid language to describe Elsa 's mindset at that point in the plot: "After a while, Chris Montan, the head of music at Disney, would be like, ' Whoa, language! ' '' She also disclosed that Disney Animation 's Chief Creative Officer John Lasseter (who served as executive producer for Frozen) was so taken with "Let It Go '' that he played her original demo of the song in his car for months.
Once approved, the song 's piano - vocal score, along with the rest of their work for Frozen, was eventually forwarded to arranger Dave Metzger at his home studio in Salem, Oregon, who orchestrated their work into a lush sound suitable for recording by a full orchestra at the Eastwood Scoring Stage on the Warner Bros. studio lot in Burbank at the end of July 2013. The song 's vocal track was recorded separately prior to orchestration at Sunset Sound in Hollywood, with the piano track from the demo playing into Menzel 's headphones. That piano track, played by Lopez himself, was not re-recorded by a session musician at the orchestral recording session; it is the same piano track heard in the final mix of the song.
Although unintentional, the song 's composition was pivotal in the film 's characterization of Elsa. Although Elsa was originally written as a villain, co-directors Chris Buck and Lee gradually rewrote Elsa into one of the film 's protagonists after "Let It Go '' was composed. About that, Lee later explained, "the minute we heard the song the first time, I knew that I had to rewrite the whole movie. '' Buck further clarified: "Jen had to go back and rewrite some pages in the first act to build up to that scene... You have to set it up well enough in advance so that when the song comes, the audience is ready for it and there 's an emotional payoff. ''
When it came to animating Elsa 's scenes for the song, Lopez and Anderson - Lopez insisted on the particular detail that Elsa should slam the palace doors on the audience at the song 's end, which they acknowledged was similar to the ending of the Broadway musical Sweeney Todd. Lopez explained that they wanted that feeling of how "this character does n't need us anymore, '' because he had always loved that feeling "when a character just kind of malevolently looks at you and slams a door in your face, '' although in the final version, Elsa 's facial expression ended up as more of a "sly smile ''. According to Lopez, it was the last line at the end, "the cold never bothered me anyway, '' that was "our little Avril Lavigne line ''.
On December 6, 2013, Walt Disney Animation Studios released a video of the entire "Let It Go '' sequence as seen in the movie, which has over 600 million views as of December 2017 on YouTube. On January 30, 2014, a sing - along version of the sequence was released and has received more than 1.3 billion views on YouTube as of December 2017.
Besides the original English version, Disney Character Voices International arranged for Frozen to be dubbed into another 47 languages and dialects worldwide. A major challenge was to find sopranos capable of matching Menzel 's warm vocal tone and vocal range in their native languages. Rick Dempsey, senior executive at Disney Character Voices International regarded the process as "exceptionally challenging '', explaining, "It 's a difficult juggling act to get the right intent of the lyrics and also have it match rhythmically to the music. And then you have to go back and adjust for lip sync! (It)... requires a lot of patience and precision. ''
On January 22, 2014, Disney released a multi-language version of the "Let It Go '' musical sequence, which featured vocal performances of 25 different voice actresses who portrayed Elsa in their respective dubbing versions of the film. At the annual meeting of the shareholders of the Walt Disney Company on March 18, 2014 in Portland, Oregon, chairman and chief executive officer Bob Iger praised the team who did "an incredible job casting fantastic international talent so that Frozen truly belongs to the world, '' then showed the entire multi-language video clip of "Let It Go '' to the assembled shareholders. On March 31, 2014, an in - studio multi-language video of the song was released, showing singers of 25 different languages recording their versions of "Let It Go ''. On April 15, 2014 a studio recording of the multi-language version was released via digital download.
In 2015, a Hindi and an Indonesian version of the movie were aired on Disney Channel. The Indonesian version features a translated pop version of "Let It Go '', sung by the ensemble of Indonesian singers Anggun, Chilla Kiana, Regina Ivanova (id), Nowela and Cindy Bernadette. The pop version was released as leading single of We Love Disney, Indonesia (id).
On April 15, 2014, Walt Disney Records released a compilation album titled Let It Go: The Complete Set, with all 42 foreign - language film versions of "Let It Go '' and nine end credit versions.
In South Korea, the pop version of the song by Hyolyn reached number six on the Gaon Music Chart in February, followed by the film version performed by Hye Na Park (ko) charting at number 80 in March. The Japanese versions of the song, performed in the film by Takako Matsu and in the end roll by May J., reached number 2 and 8 respectively on the Japan Hot 100 after the film 's Japanese release in March 2014. Matsu 's version was certified million for digital downloads in Japan in May 2014, and May J. 's version platinum for 250,000 downloads. May J. recorded a rearranged version of the song on her album Heartful Song Covers, which was released on March 26, 2014.
Since 2013, some local TV stations have been dubbing the movie in their local languages. Namely: Albanian, Arabic, Karachay - Balkar, Persian and Tagalog.
Anggun, Chilla Kiana, Regina Ivanova (id), Nowela and Cindy Bernadette (credits)
"Let It Go '' received widespread acclaim from film critics, music critics, and audiences, with some comparing it favorably to "Defying Gravity '' (also performed by Idina Menzel) from the Broadway musical Wicked. The Rochester City Newspaper called it the best song of the film 's soundtrack, writing; "Performed with belty gusto by Idina Menzel, it 's got every element needed to be a lasting favorite. (...) Menzel should be credited for providing as much power and passion to this performance as she did in her most famous role. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Marc Snetiker described the song as "an incredible anthem of liberation '' while Joe Dziemianowicz of New York Daily News called it "a stirring tribute to girl power and the need to ' let go ' of fear and shame ''.
On the other hand, Jim DeRogatis and Greg Kot of the radio show Sound Opinions criticized the song; DeRogatis labeled it "schlock '', and Kot described it as a "clichéd piece of fluff that you would have heard on a Broadway soundtrack from maybe the fifties or the sixties ''.
By spring 2014, many journalists had observed that after watching Frozen, numerous young children in the United States were becoming unusually obsessed with the film 's music, and with "Let It Go '' in particular. Columnist Yvonne Abraham of The Boston Globe called the song "musical crack '' which "sends kids into altered states. '' A similar phenomenon was described in the United Kingdom, where Lorraine Candy, editor - in - chief of Elle UK, wrote of a "musical epidemic sweeping the nation, relentlessly gathering up every child... in its cult - like grip ''.
Passenger, the singer - songwriter who rose to fame with the 2012 hit single "Let Her Go '', admitted in an August 2016 interview on The Project that his single is frequently confused with "Let It Go. '' As a result, he "always '' receives song requests for the latter, even though it is not his song.
In November 2017, Chilean pop singer Jaime Ciero sued Disney, Idina Menzel, and Demi Lovato, claiming that "Let It Go '' was extremely similar to his 2008 song "Volar ''.
Some viewers outside the film industry, including one evangelical pastor and commentators, believe that the film is a promotion for the normalization of homosexuality, while others have argued that the character of Elsa is a representation of positive LGBT youth and the song is a metaphor for coming out. The LGBT community, however, had a mixed reaction to these claims. When Frozen co-director Jennifer Lee was asked about the purported gay undertones, she stated that the film 's meaning was open to interpretation "I feel like once we hand the film over, it belongs to the world, so I do n't like to say anything, and let the fans talk. I think it 's up to them. '' Lee added that the film 's meaning was also inevitably going to be interpreted within the cultural context of being made in the year 2013.
Another interpretation for the song and the movie is that they promote self - affirmation for people on the autism spectrum. Co-writer Kristen Andersen - Lopez has stated that her younger brother has autistic traits and that inspired the song insofar as it deals with the concept of having a "special sibling. ''
"Let It Go '' won the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 86th Academy Awards, where a shortened rendition of the show - tune version was performed live by Menzel; with the award, Robert Lopez became the 12th person, and by far the quickest (10 years), to win an Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, and Tony in their career.
The decision to release a single for "Let It Go '' was made after the song was written and was presented to Disney. Kristen Anderson - Lopez and Robert Lopez selected American singer and former Disney Channel star Demi Lovato, who also appears on Disney 's Hollywood Records roster, to cover the song on the soundtrack album. It was included in the deluxe edition of Demi. Lovato 's version was officially covered in nine other languages, eight of which are included into "Let It Go the Complete Set '': French, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Malaysian, Mandarin Chinese (China 's version), Spanish (Latin American version) and Russian. The Indonesian pop version was released as leading single of We Love Disney, Indonesia (id).
Anderson - Lopez said that Lovato was chosen because of the singer 's own personal life; "She had a past that she 's pretty open about that is similar to Elsa 's journey of letting a dark past and fear behind and moving forward with your power. '' Lovato indeed identified herself with the song 's context, stating "It 's so relatable. Elsa is finding her identity; she 's growing into who she is and she 's finally accepting her own strength and magical powers. Instead of hiding it, like she 's done all her life, she 's letting it go and embracing it. ''
Lovato 's cover version was released as a single by Walt Disney Records on October 21, 2013. While Menzel 's version is performed in the key of A-flat major and a tempo of 137 beats per minute, Lovato 's version is performed in the key of G major and a tempo of 140 beats per minute, with her vocal range spanning between G and E. In this version, the line "Let the storm rage on '' is omitted from the chorus, along with its unusual accompanying chord progression, and an extra "Let it go '' is substituted in its place.
The music video was released on November 1, 2013. It was directed by Declan Whitebloom. The video opens with Lovato sitting on the floor of an abandoned mansion lined with marble floors and dotted with furniture covered with white sheets. During the video she is wearing a black period - inspired cloak dress. She can then be seen playing a grand piano. The scenes inside the mansion are interwoven with images and clips from Frozen. Towards the end of the song, Lovato re-emerges wearing a cream - colored gown and the room seems to be new again, with the sheets thrown away revealing brightly embellished furniture.
Lovato performed the song on several occasions. Lovato first performed the track at the 2013 Disney Parks Christmas Day Parade. On November 13, 2014, she performed the song at the 2014 Royal Variety Performance. The song was also a part of Lovato 's setlist for The Neon Lights Tour and the Demi World Tour. On May 2015, she performed the song for 2nd Indonesian Choice Awards.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Menzel 's version was a single release, being promoted to adult contemporary radio by Walt Disney Records in January 2014. Disney 's music division planned to release Lovato 's version of the song before Menzel 's, as they did not consider Menzel 's version a traditional pop song.
It is the first song from a Disney animated musical to reach the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 since 1995, when Vanessa L. Williams ' "Colors of the Wind '' from Pocahontas peaked at number four on the chart. The song is also Menzel 's first single to reach the top 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, making her the first Tony Award winner for acting to ever reach the top 10. The song was the ninth best - selling song of 2014 in the United States with 3.37 million copies sold in that year. As of December 2014, the song has sold 3.5 million copies in the US. It is now the biggest - selling foreign song from any original soundtrack in South Korea as of March 12, 2014.
A remix EP was released digitally by Walt Disney Records on May 19, 2014. The EP features four remixes by Dave Audé, Papercha $ er, DJ Escape & Tony Coluccio and Corbin Hayes. Armin van Buuren produced another remix of the song for the remix album, Dconstructed.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Many cover versions have been recorded internationally. In February 2014, Alex Boyé recorded a light Africanized tribal cover of the song, featuring the One Voice Children 's Choir and Lexi Walker as Elsa.
The Piano Guys ' cover version mixes parts of Antonio Vivaldi 's Concerto No. 4 in F minor, Op. 8, RV 297, "L'inverno '' (Winter) from The Four Seasons into the original. The music videos of both covers were filmed in the ice castles in Midway, Utah.
In March 2014, Brian Hull recorded a cover of the song while impersonating various Disney characters such as Winnie the Pooh, Tigger, Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse and Goofy.
Norwegian YouTube singer Per Fredrik Pellek Asly or "PelleK '', covered a power metal version of the Lovato version of the song on December 16, 2013, collecting more than 4 million views.
In February 2014, a parody YouTuber by the name of Malinda Kathleen Reese used Google Translate to translate the song 's lyrics from multiple languages to English, revealing expected humorous mistranslations, with lines such as "Let us very angry '' and "Give up, tune in, slam the door. ''
It has been alleged by some commentators that one of the promotional songs for the 2022 Winter Olympics, "The Snow and Ice Dance, '' has suspicious similarities with "Let It Go. '' A Chinese media outlet cited technical analysis of the two songs: Both songs employ a piano as the major instrument, have similar prelude chords and an eight - beat introduction, and they run at almost exactly the same tempo.
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where was the us declaration of independence signed | Signing of the United states Declaration of Independence - wikipedia
The signing of the United States Declaration of Independence occurred (primarily) on August 2, 1776 at the Pennsylvania State House (Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The 56 delegates to the Second Continental Congress represented the 13 former colonies which had declared themselves the "United States of America, '' and they endorsed the Declaration of Independence which the Congress had approved on July 4, 1776. The Declaration proclaimed that the Thirteen Colonies then at war with Great Britain were now sovereign states and thus no longer a part of the British Empire. The signers ' names are grouped by state, with the exception of President of the Continental Congress John Hancock; the states are arranged geographically from north to south.
The final draft of the Declaration was approved by the Continental Congress on July 4, the date of its signing has long been disputed. Most historians have concluded that it was signed on August 2, 1776, nearly a month after its adoption, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed.
The Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, with 12 of the 13 colonies voting in favor and New York abstaining. The date that the Declaration was signed has long been the subject of debate. Within a decade after the event, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and John Adams all wrote that the Declaration was signed by Congress the day it was adopted on July 4, 1776. That assertion is seemingly confirmed by the signed copy of the Declaration, which is dated July 4. Additional support for the July 4 date is provided by the Journals of Congress, the official public record of the Continental Congress. The proceedings for 1776 were first published in 1777, and the entry for July 4 states that the Declaration was engrossed and signed on that date (the official copy was handwritten).
In 1796, signer Thomas McKean disputed that the Declaration had been signed on July 4, pointing out that some signers were not present, including several who were not even elected to Congress until after that date. "(N) o person signed it on that day nor for many days after '', he later wrote. His claim gained support when the Secret Journals of Congress were published in 1821. The Secret Journals contained two previously unpublished entries about the Declaration.
On July 15, New York 's delegates heard that they 'd gotten permission from their convention to agree to the declaration. The Secret Journals entry for July 19 reads:
Resolved That the Declaration passed on the 4th be fairly engrossed on parchment with the title and stile of "The unanimous declaration of the thirteen united states of America '' & that the same when engrossed be signed by every member of Congress.
The entry for August 2 states:
The declaration of Independence being engrossed & compared at the table was signed by the Members.
In 1884, historian Mellen Chamberlain argued that these entries indicated that the famous signed version of the Declaration had been created following the July 19 resolution, and had not been signed by Congress until August 2. Subsequent research has confirmed that many of the signers had not been present in Congress on July 4, and that some delegates may have added their signatures even after August 2. Both Jefferson and Adams never wavered from their belief that the signing ceremony took place on July 4, yet most historians have accepted the argument which David McCullough articulates in his biography of John Adams: "No such scene, with all the delegates present, ever occurred at Philadelphia. ''
Legal historian Wilfred Ritz concluded in 1986 that about 34 delegates signed the Declaration on July 4, and that the others signed on or after August 2. Ritz argued that the engrossed copy of the Declaration was signed by Congress on July 4, as Jefferson, Adams, and Franklin had stated, and that it was implausible that all three men had been mistaken. Ritz believed that McKean 's testimony was questionable, and that historians had misinterpreted the July 19 resolution. According to Ritz, this resolution did not call for a new document to be created, but rather for the existing one to be given a new title, which was necessary after New York had joined the other 12 states in declaring independence. Ritz reasoned that the phrase "signed by every member of Congress '' in the July 19 resolution meant that delegates who had not signed the Declaration on the 4th were now required to do so.
Fifty - six delegates eventually signed the Declaration of Independence:
President of Congress
New Hampshire
Massachusetts Bay
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
Connecticut
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland
Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Eight delegates never signed the Declaration, out of the approximately 50 who are thought to have been present in Congress during the voting on independence in early July 1776: John Alsop, George Clinton, John Dickinson, Charles Humphreys, Robert R. Livingston, John Rogers, Thomas Willing, and Henry Wisner. Clinton, Livingston, and Wisner were attending to duties away from Congress when the signing took place. Willing and Humphreys voted against the resolution of independence and were replaced in the Pennsylvania delegation before the August 2 signing. Rogers had voted for the resolution of independence but was no longer a delegate on August 2. Alsop favored reconciliation with Great Britain and so resigned rather than add his name to the document. Dickinson refused to sign, believing the Declaration premature, but he remained in Congress. George Read had voted against the resolution of independence, and Robert Morris had abstained -- yet they both signed the Declaration.
The most famous signature on the engrossed copy is that of John Hancock, who presumably signed first as President of Congress. Hancock 's large, flamboyant signature became iconic, and John Hancock emerged in the United States as an informal synonym for "signature ''. Future presidents Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were among the signatories. Edward Rutledge (age 26) was the youngest signer and Benjamin Franklin (age 70) the oldest.
Some delegates were away on business when the Declaration was debated, including William Hooper and Samuel Chase, but they were back in Congress to sign on August 2. Other delegates were present when the Declaration was debated but added their names after August 2, including Lewis Morris, Oliver Wolcott, Thomas McKean, and possibly Elbridge Gerry. Richard Henry Lee and George Wythe were in Virginia during July and August, but returned to Congress and signed the Declaration probably in September and October, respectively.
New delegates joining the Congress were also allowed to sign. Eight men signed the Declaration who did not take seats in Congress until after July 4: Matthew Thornton, William Williams, Benjamin Rush, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, George Ross, and Charles Carroll of Carrollton. Matthew Thornton did not take a seat in Congress until November. By the time that he signed it, there was n't any space for his name next to the other New Hampshire delegates, so he placed his signature at the end of the document.
The first published version of the Declaration was the Dunlap broadside. The only names on that version were Congress President John Hancock and Secretary Charles Thomson, and those names were printed rather than signatures. The public did not learn who had signed the engrossed copy until January 18, 1777, when the Congress ordered that an "authenticated copy '' be sent to each of the 13 states, including the names of the signers. This copy is called the Goddard Broadside; it was the first to list all the signers except for Thomas McKean, who may not have signed the Declaration until after the Goddard Broadside was published. Congress Secretary Charles Thomson did not sign the engrossed copy of the Declaration, and his name does n't appear on the Goddard Broadside, even though it does appear on the Dunlap broadside.
Various legends emerged years later concerning the signing of the Declaration, when the document had become an important national symbol. In one famous story, John Hancock supposedly said that Congress, having signed the Declaration, must now "all hang together '', and Benjamin Franklin replied: "Yes, we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately. '' The quotation did not appear in print until more than 50 years after Franklin 's death.
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how old was aria when she started pretty little liars | Aria Montgomery - wikipedia
Aria Marie Montgomery is a fictional character in the Pretty Little Liars series created by American author Sara Shepard. She is portrayed by Lucy Hale in the television adaptation, which premiered on ABC Family in June 2010. Lucy Hale was named Favorite Cable TV Actress at the 2014 People 's Choice Awards for her role in the series.
In the book series, Aria is described as gorgeous, tall, lean with long blue - black hair, startling ice - blue eyes and an angular face. Aria is artsy and imaginative, has a hipster style, and a passion for knitting and writing. She is also described as Rosewood 's ' weird girl '.
On another interview with ClevverTV.com, Lucy Hale said, "She 's like an old soul with an espectacular body and she knows what she wants... she 's very cool, she 's got it put together. '' While also commenting on her style: "She 's sort of all over the place... she 's the quirkiest one and just put miss - match pieces together and mixes vintage stuff with modern things... very funky... very creative. ''.
Aria is one of four primary protagonists in all fourteen of the Pretty Little Liars novels, starting with 2006 's Pretty Little Liars. She is the daughter of Byron and Ella Montgomery and has a younger brother, Mike.
Before Alison DiLaurentis disappeared, Aria is shown to have a quirky personality and a penchant for knitting. She is best friends with Alison ' Ali ' DiLaurentis along with Hanna Marin, Spencer Hastings, and Emily Fields. Like the other girls, Aria and Alison had a secret between them; they witnessed Aria 's father, Byron, cheating on her mother with one of his students, Meredith, and he begs Aria not to tell anyone. During the night of the last of 7th grade, while having a sleepover in Spencer 's sister Melissa 's barn, Alison disappeared. Not long after Ali 's disappearance, Aria 's father moves his family to Iceland in an attempt to hide the affair from Aria 's mother, Ella.
In the first novel, Aria and her family return from Iceland, moving back into their old house in Rosewood, Pennsylvania. She, Hanna, Spencer, and Emily have grown apart since Alison 's disappearance. Since the three year jump, Aria has now blossomed into a beautiful and confident young woman. She meets Ezra Fitz at a local bar and they connect; hooking up in the girls bathroom. She later finds that after all her time in Iceland, formerly overweight Hanna is now thin, glamorous, and best friends with former nerdy outcast, Mona Vanderwaal. When she begins school she finds that Ezra is also her new AP English teacher. Aria later begins to receive texts and emails from an unknown source that reveals secrets that only Ali knew and more recent ones, including Byron 's affair with Meredith and Aria 's with Ezra, signed, "A ''. When Alison 's body is discovered under a block of cement, she, along with the other three girls, receive a text at the memorial service, "I 'm still here bitches, and I know everything. '' signed, "A ''.
The unknown identity of "A '', and suspicions that Byron may be seeing Meredith again, cause Aria to feel uncertain about her future. She goes to Meredith 's yoga class after receiving the address from "A ''. Which causes her to feel worse about keeping her father 's affair a secret. After almost getting herself into a car accident, she runs into Hanna 's ex-boyfriend Sean Ackard. He goes with her to confront Meredith, who bluntly says that she and Byron are in love, and nothing will break them up. Sean and Aria 's relationship turns romantic, and they go to the local Foxy benefit. When Aria returns home, she discovers that "A '' sent her mother a letter detailing her father 's affair, and the fact that Aria knew all about it.
The series begins with a flashback in a barn where four girls Aria, Hanna, Spencer, and Emily are having a sleepover; they are surprised by their best friend and queen bee Alison DiLaurentis, who frightens them by causing creaking noises outside the barn as a practical joke. The five girls gossip and share secrets before falling asleep. When they awake, they realize that two of the girls are gone, Spencer and Ali. They run into Spencer, who tells them Ali is missing and that she heard a scream.
One year later, Aria and her family have returned home to Rosewood after a year of living in Iceland. Aria still feels troubled over her best friend 's disappearance, which concerns both her parents who encourage her to reconnect with her old friends. However, Aria sees through her dad 's concerns and reassures him that she is still keeping his secret. She drops her brother off at lacrosse and stops off at a Bar and Grill, where she meets a man named Ezra, who mistakes her for a college girl and informs her that he will soon be starting a new teaching post. The two feel an instant connection and end up hooking up in the bathrooms.
In a conversation with her father, we see flashbacks of Aria and Alison catching her dad making out with another woman in the back of his car. Aria begins to reunite with her old friends, mainly Emily, at school and discovers that Ezra is in fact her new English teacher, Mr Fitz. After an awkward moment, Aria receives a text message from an unknown "A '' which reads "Aria: Maybe he fools around with students all the time. A lot of teachers do. Just ask your dad. - A ''. Aria attempts to continue her relationship with Mr Fitz, but he rejects her telling her everything has changed. However, they rekindle their romance at Ali 's funeral, which is held after her body is discovered under the DiLaurentis ' gazebo, which was being ready to build right before her disappearance. After one kiss, however, Aria leaves Ezra. Aria meets up with Emily and in turn Hanna and Spencer at the funeral, and they reveal that each have received a message from the mysterious A. The police now reveal that the girls need questioning again as they are now looking at a murder case, before they each receive a text. "I 'm still here, bitches. And I know everything. - A ''.
Aria and her friends continue to be tormented by the anonymous "A '', who seems to know all the secrets they told Ali, including the secret surrounding a mysterious blind girl named Jenna Marshall. When Jenna joins them at their lunch table, her presence triggers a flashback to the night of the unknown "Jenna Thing ''. The four girls and Alison were having a sleepover and trying on each other 's clothes when Alison claimed to have seen Toby Cavanaugh spying on them through her window. To get revenge, Alison and the girls plant a stink bomb in his house. However, it caused the garage to explode, presumably causing Jenna to lose her sight, a fact that Jenna seems determined to hang over their heads.
Aria continues her illicit affair with Ezra, while trying to come to terms with her father 's own affair. "A '' continues to taunt the girls in every aspect of their lives. They try to block them out of their lives by putting blockers on their e-mail accounts and their cell phones, but "A '' appears to be too smart, even breaking into Spencer 's house and ends up sending a detailed letter to Aria 's mother, Ella, telling of her husband 's affair, which leaves Ella devastated, and Aria guilty for keeping it from her.
A meeting with Hardy, an old college friend of Ezra 's, as well as an untimely message from "A '', brings home to Ezra the reality of his relationship with Aria and he eventually ends it at their school homecoming leaving Aria heartbroken. After which he leaves Rosewood, and Aria discovers he has gone to New York to look for another job. Aria must attempt to move on from the breakup with Ezra.
Aria 's parents argue and eventually separate over her father 's affair, with her mom moving out of the house and into an apartment above her art gallery. Noel Khan, a boy Aria used to have a crush on, asks her out. She declines at first, but eventually accepts when the school 's SATs are cancelled and they have to take shelter due to a hurricane warning in which Ezra makes his return and tells Aria that she was all he thought about. "I thought about you every second I was gone. But I also thought about the consequences. '' At Mona 's "glamping '' party, Ezra texts Aria to meet him near the party in his car. She does so and the two eventually end up kissing, this is spotted by Hanna, who has been surveying the area with binoculars, in an attempt to spot who "A '' is. She apparently does, but before she can tell others, Hanna is hit by a car, and Aria reads a text from "A '' who tells the remaining girls that "She knew too much. - A ''.
In the second half of the first season, Aria realizes that Noel knows about her and Ezra 's relationship and was the one who wrote I See You on the back of Ezra 's car. She also tells Emily, Hanna, and Spencer about her affair with Ezra. Spencer takes her to a tree that has Alison + Ian carved on it, but someone had cut it down. She was also present when Melissa and Ian announce to Spencer that they got married. Ezra and Aria 's relationship continues and Aria tells Ezra the truth about "The Jenna Thing. '' Aria finds out that Ezra was once engaged and his ex-fiancee was the one who ended it. Byron offers Ezra a job at Hollis and Ezra takes it after realizing that he and Aria can have a normal boyfriend and girlfriend relationship. Aria finds out that Ezra 's ex-fiancee is also working at Hollis and that Ezra knew but did n't tell her about it.
In the beginning of season two Aria 's relationship with Ezra is on the verge of ending due to the revelation of his ex-fiancee, Jackie, working at the same college as him. Ezra clearly wants nothing more than to be with Aria and tries to show her that she is the only girl he 's interested in. On his last day working at Rosewood, Ezra is packing up his belongings in his car when Aria runs and kisses him. She realizes that her and Ezra are meant to be together and that she loves him no matter what.
Now that Ezra is no longer Aria 's teacher, they are legally allowed to date, but this does n't mean it starts to become any easier for the two of them. They struggle to find the right place and time to tell everyone (excluding Spencer, Hanna, and Emily who already know) about their relationship. When Ali 's older brother, Jason comes back to Rosewood, the girls ' believe he 's up to no good. But soon, Aria finds herself talking to Jason more after he promises not to tell the police about Aria 's brother, Mike, breaking into his house. Her brother continues to break into houses and ends up in the hands of the police, but is let go when Byron and Ella come to pick him up at the station. Mike is now depressed and stays cooped up in his room doing mysterious and unknown things. Aria tries to help Mike out, but there is nothing she or her family can do to get him to listen. Aria continues to think about Jason more and more and has a few inappropriate dreams about him. In the end, she admits to Emily about her dreams and Emily simply says, "When you dream about someone, it is n't because they want something from you, it 's because you want something from them. ''
In the ninth episode, "Picture This '', Jason kisses Aria and she does n't exactly stop him. But she does tell him she 's not available and walks away confused. Aria confides in Emily about her random relationship with Jason. Emily tells her that she needs to stay away from him and reminds her that she has Ezra, who she truly loves. Despite her feelings for Jason, Aria agrees and stays with Ezra.
At the college fair, Aria admits to Ezra that Jason kissed her and she did n't stop him. This leaves Ezra in shock but he is n't completely angry at Aria.
Spencer gets Emily to help her find out more about Jason and possibly his motives for coming back to Rosewood. They break into Jason 's shed and find a red room full of pictures of Aria sleeping. They warn Aria about what they saw and she seems completely freaked out. Aria later confronts Jason about the photos of her and he claims that they were Ali 's, so he wanted to develop them. Aria believes him, but is still unsure about his motives. She sees Jason at a restaurant and they begin to talk about what else Jason found of Ali 's. Spencer and Toby see the two of them talking after Spencer and Emily both warned her about him, so Spencer decides that there is only one person Aria would listen to -- Ezra. Spencer jumps into Ezra 's car and Ezra looks shocked. Spencer tells him that she knows about him and Aria and that Aria is in danger. Ezra finds Aria in Jason 's front yard and tells her that he does n't want to lose her. He says he 's ready to tell everyone about the two of them and Aria seems relieved and happy. When Jason comes back, he sees Aria and Ezra kissing. Aria tells him she has to go and Jason realizes Ezra is the reason why Aria is "unavailable ''. He lets her go and Aria rides away with Ezra. Later that night, Ella confronts Aria about rumors a while back about Ezra possibly having a relationship with one of his students. Aria seems shocked and does n't know where her mom is going with it. Ella then tells her that she saw Spencer and Ezra in Mr. Fitz 's car together, but Aria reassures her that they are n't seeing each other. Ella tells Aria that she would be devastated if she found out he was having a relationship with one of his students, but takes it back and says she would actually feel betrayed. This discourages Aria and makes her feel like maybe Ezra and her ca n't go public after all.
In the twelfth episode "Over My Dead Body '', the liars receive a large box with chucky dolls inside. A tells them that if they do n't do everything the dolls want them to do by 7pm, Dr Sullivan dies. Aria 's chucky doll says that she must get Jackie to leave Hollis. She receives Jackie 's paper which is about to get published and another paper identical to Jackie 's. Jackie plagiarized her paper. When Aria attempts to do what A tells her to, Jackie tells her that she will not be leaving Hollis, but Aria will leave Ezra.
When Aria is arrested, Ezra comes to the police station and confesses to Ella that he loves her. Ella thinks Ezra is talking about Spencer and tells him that the Hastings parents will ruin him if they find out about the relationship. Aria breaks up with Ezra, but after one month, they meet in downtown Rosewood by accident. Aria later stops by his office to return a book, and Jackie comes in and tells her to stay away from him. Ezra walks in during their conversation, and Jackie leaves. Ezra tells Aria that they need to tell Aria 's parents about what 's been happening. When they do, Ella and Byron are extremely angry, and Mike punches Ezra, leaving Ezra with a bleeding lip. Ezra returns to his office where he talks with Jackie, and tells her that he is extremely angry with her.
A few days after that, Aria 's dad, Byron, goes to Ezra 's apartment and threatens him, saying that if Ezra will see Aria again, Byron will hand him over to the police. After that, Ezra stops answering Aria 's phone calls, texts and E-mails. But Aria does n't give up on him that easily. Aria is having a "date '' with Holden, a childhood friend, but actually she is taking Holden to a play that she knows Ezra will go to. Holden understands she just wanted to see Ezra, he says he 'll help her meet him, in return for her helping him with his secret, which is martial arts. After a few days, Aria leaves Ezra a message saying she 'll be in front of the clock in Philadelphia and if he comes, it means they still have a chance. After he hears that message he decides to meet her at the clock, thus continuing their relationship in secrecy again. It is revealed in the next episode that no one but Holden knows about the rekindled romance and after a few days Aria also tells her friends about her relationship after being threatened by A. They continue seeing each other on Aria 's "dates '' with Holden, nearly being caught by Byron once. After he is fired, he tells Aria that he ca n't teach in that town anymore and must find a place where he can before they can start dating again. Ezra leaves Rosewood, but Aria keeps in touch with him.
In the final episode of Season 2, "unmAsked '', Aria is at the masquerade ball. Ezra comes to and they reconcile, with Ezra telling her he wants to have his first dance with Aria, as a couple.
Season 3 picks up five months after the liars discovered that Mona was A. It starts at a party at Spencer 's where they discuss what they did in the summer.
Near the beginning of the season Aria meets Ezra 's mother and younger brother Wesley Fitzgerald - who Aria shares a brief kiss with, (Gregg Sulkin). Wesley tells Aria about a girl called Maggie, (Larisa Oleynik) that Ezra got pregnant when he was younger. Wesley accidentally lets it slip after finding out his mother tried to pay Aria to "disappear '' from her son 's life, which is what she did to Maggie as she thought she ruined Ezra 's life. Just before the mid-season finale of season 3, Aria discovers that Ezra has a son that he is unaware of with a woman named Maggie. Ezra always assumed Maggie got an abortion. Maggie asked Aria to keep it a secret.
In the Halloween episode Aria is kidnapped by A and nearly killed after being locked in a box with a dead Garrett Reynolds (Yani Gellman) and nearly being pushed out of a moving train onto the track, luckily Hanna, Spencer and Emily come to the rescue. After, Spencer accidentally tells Ezra about Maggie and that he has a 7 - year - old son. Ezra leaves town and Wes and Aria develop a closer relationship. In Aria 's bedroom, Wes kisses her before she tells him that they ca n't do this and he states that they ca n't and leaves.
Then Ezra comes back and Aria finds out that he is n't coming alone. Maggie and Malcom - his seven - year - old son - came along with him. Aria tries to cope with the fact that Ezra has a family now and their relationship has changed. Things become worse when Ezra decides to get back to teaching as he now has more responsibilities. Rosewood high rehires Ezra as an English teacher and Aria starts questioning her relationship with Ezra, especially after the headmaster asks her whether she is ' seeing ' Ezra occasionally or not. Finally Aria feels she is not a part of Ezra 's life anymore and she decides to break up with Ezra.
In the last episode of Season 3, "A Dangerous Game '', the liars get trapped in a burning lodge with Mona Vanderwaal, who was formerly A. According to Hanna Marin and Mona Vanderwaal, it was Alison DiLaurentis who pulled them out.
Aria has broken up with her boyfriend Ezra, and needs to find a way to move on. After almost being run down by "A '', she decides to take a karate class where she finds a cute karate instructor named Jake, and they develop a crush for each other. In the end of an episode, Jake is seen with punching bags and falls to the ground when someone puts knives in his punching bag.
Aria also keeps an eye on her younger brother, Mike Montgomery, who starts dating Aria 's junior high torturer Mona Vanderwaal. However, Mike gets mad at Aria and says, "If you 've forgiven Dad, why ca n't you forgive the messenger? '', referring to Mona.
When Aria 's friends are convinced that Ezra is A, Aria disagrees and gets mad at them. However, Aria finds out Ezra knew her before they began dating and feels betrayed and used. Aria and her friends finally get a message from Alison - Alison is alive and she wants to tell the girls the truth.
They go to New York and see Alison. She tells them the truth, including the fact that Ezra dated Alison before he met Aria. When A manages to contact them, they run to the top of the building and admit to Ali that they think Jessica DiLaurentis is A. Ezra comes out of nowhere and protects the girls by taking a bullet for them.
In Season 5, Aria and Ezra try to heal their relationship after he is shot by Shana in New York City. She kisses him and they have sex in Miss Me x 100 and decide to try and see where their relationship takes them. After Mona 's death and Alison 's arrest, Aria and Ezra both try to talk to Mike about her death, and Aria is shocked when he tells her that Mona faked her own death to catch ' A ', but he believes that ' A ' must have blackmailed her, which is why she has n't returned. Aria and the other liars try to get Alison out of prison, but when Hanna is also arrested and evidence against them makes it look like they also committed the murder, things start to look down and Aria and the others are arrested for Mona 's murder. A kidnaps them on their way to a prison in the Season 5 finale and traps them in his dollhouse, but the girls outsmart him, find Mona, and try to escape. But when they go outside, they find themselves where they were at the beginning: prisoners.
In Season 6, Aria escapes A 's dollhouse with the other liars, but is emotionally scarred from being tortured by Charles in the dollhouse. When she returns from the hospital, she finds out Andrew is suspected of kidnapping the girls, leading Aria to lie to the police by telling them that she saw Andrew 's face in the dollhouse. After Andrew is found out not to be ' A ', Aria must respond to the lies she told to the police, and deal with an extremely angry Andrew. Aria soon has flashbacks of herself in the dollhouse, one being when A forced her to cut and dye her hair. She finds the color applicator in the Hollis College 's darkroom, which leads her to befriending a fellow photographer, Clark, and they soon become quick friends. Clark and Aria exchange photographs, and Aria reveals the pictures of the dolls in her bedroom. Once Aria leaves, she goes home to examine her photographs further, until she is interrupted by Byron. Finally, Aria opens up to her father about her experiences in the dollhouse and she finishes her story in tears. After overcoming many obstacles, "A '' is revealed to be CeCe Drake and Aria leaves Rosewood to go to school in Savannah.
Five years later, Aria has ended her relationship with Ezra and is dating a co-worker, Liam, whom she works with at a publishing house. When Charlotte is killed, Aria is forced to return to Rosewood and face her demons: Ezra has become sullen and depressed, drowning himself in alcohol and seclusion since the disappearance of his girlfriend, Nicole, and is having a hard time writing a sequel for his former best - seller; Alison believes that Aria has something to do with Charlotte 's murder and when a security tape that could make Aria a suspect surfaces, the girls attempt to protect her by erasing the tape, which only puts them into deeper trouble; Aria begins to worry that Ezra and Byron had something to do with Charlotte 's murder, but soon realizes she is wrong. As the stalker 's game becomes more dangerous, Aria gets burned in a fire and is sent to the hospital. Feelings for Ezra bubble to the surface as he is there for her during this tough time. Aria begins to help Ezra write his book as he gets over the loss of Nicole. She is approved by her boss and becomes an author. In the spring finale Ezra tells Aria that her boss loved the whole book, and she then cheats on Liam by sleeping with Ezra.
In Along Comes Mary, Ezra proposes to Aria who says she needs to think about it because of her part in the Rollins accidental murder when he is hit by Hanna Marin 's car. However at the end of the Wanted: Dead or Alive, Ezra re-proposes when Aria tells him everything and she says yes. Of course with some help earlier from Hanna who says she and Ezra are just meant to be.
In Power Play, Aria is contacted by "A.D. '' via video chat. They tell her they have her file from Jessica DiLaurentis and it contains a secret that would make Ezra choose Nicole over her. They later tell her to meet them and she goes to do so. She stumbles upon their limo at the location and the door opens. She steps inside and sees "A.D. '' sitting there. They reveal themselves as Sydney Driscoll, who claims to have shot Spencer and rescued Jenna from the blind school. Sydney offers Aria the chance to join the A-Team, and Aria realizes that Sydney has an earpiece in her ear, meaning that the driver is the real "A.D. '' and Aria confronts her. Sydney says that leaving Alison and coming to meet them was the first step towards Aria earning "A.D. 's '' trust, but she still has a long way to go. "A.D. '' later texts Aria and asks her if she has made a decision yet.
In In the Eye Abides the Heart, Aria begins to work for "A.D. '' and gives them information about the Liars ' discoveries. She later steals Lucas and Charlotte 's comic book and hands it over to "A.D. '', in exchange for a black A-Team hoodie.
In The Glove That Rocks the Cradle, Aria continues to work as "A.D.s '' helper and eventually puts on the black hoodie and breaks into Alison 's house as "A ''. She trashes the room and breaks the toys, leaving the "A '' dolls hanging above the crib and slinging blood onto the side of it. Alison and Emily return home and Aria barely manages to escape. The Liars find the crib and deduce that "A.D. '' definitely has a helper, while Spencer finds Aria 's earring in the room.
In Driving Miss Crazy, Aria 's work as "A.D. '' helper continues when they send her to the Hastings residence to deliver a phone with a message that will play through their Bluetooth speakers. She later breaks into Alison 's in her "A '' uniform to retrieve her file and leave a puzzle piece on the board.
In Choose or Lose, Aria shreds the file, as her apartment is raided by the police, who have a search warrant. Her phone is confiscated but "A.D. '' gives her a new phone to collaborate with them on. They give her instructions to meet them in her "A '' uniform and Mona overhears. She informs that others that she thinks Aria is on the "A.D. '' - Team and explains her theory about Aria being the one responsible for trashing the nursery and leaving the recording behind for "A.D. '' at Spencer 's. Aria suits up her uniform and goes to meet with "A.D. '' and they tell her she looks good in the uniform. She hears a noise and follows it, only for the Liars catch her in the uniform. The Liars are furious with her for collaborating with "A.D. '' against them and force to walk back to the police station on her own. However, Aria 's name is cleared, when "A.D. '' gifts her an alibi, in exchange for assistance. Aria later declares she is leaving the A-Team.
In "Till Death Do Us Part '', it has been one year since the last episode, we first see Aria and Ezra on the set of a film studio where their book is being made into a movie. Before her wedding to Ezra, Aria finds out that she will not be able to have children making her believe she can no longer get married since Ezra wants a family. When she shares the unfortunate news with Ezra he consoles her and tells her that they have other options and confirms that he still loves her and wants to get married. After their rehearsal dinner at the Radley, Ezra begins discussing getting other opinions from fertility specialists. After Aria claims that she has already seen other fertility doctors Ezra becomes upset wondering why she did not tell him about the sooner. After telling him that she wanted to make sure she could n't have children on her own before telling him he becomes upset asking her if he has so much trust in her why does she not have the same trust in him. Aria tells Ezra she loves him, he tells her he loves her too, but it is not the same as trusting him and he leaves. The next day Aria and the girls are in her dressing room when she comes out in her gown excited and ready to marry Ezra, however he does not show and sends her a text saying that he can not go through with the wedding. What Aria does n't know is that Ezra has been captured by A.D. as has Spencer whose place has been taken by A.D (Alex Drake, Spencer 's evil twin sister). When Toby realizes that "Spencer '' (A.D posing as Spencer) is not the real Spencer, with the help from Jenna, he lets the other girls and Caleb know. With the help of Mona, who has only been pretending to be on A.D 's side tells them the location of A.D. 's lair they rescue Ezra and Spencer. The next day Aria and Ezra happily get married. While the girls are saying goodbye, Aria shares her and Ezra 's plans for their honeymoon as well as their plans to look at adoption agencies when they return.
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do you want to stay here a little while | Do n't You Wanna Stay - wikipedia
"Do n't You Wanna Stay '' is a duet recorded by American singers Jason Aldean and Kelly Clarkson. It was written by Andy Gibson, Paul Jenkins, & Jason Sellers. It was released as the second single from Aldean 's fourth album My Kinda Party (2010), following Aldean 's and Clarkson 's performance on the 44th annual Country Music Association Awards on November 10, 2010 due to strong demands of radio stations. The song contains elements of country and pop, and its lyrics speak of the difficulties of finding and maintaining love.
"Do n't You Wanna Stay '' was met with generally favorable reviews by critics who considered the song as "a classic power ballad ''. Critics also lauded the interesting combination between Aldean 's and Clarkson 's voices. The song was a crossover hit, peaking at number one on the Billboard Hot Country Songs and at number 31 on the Billboard Hot 100. It became Aldean 's fifth number one single and Clarkson 's first number one single on the Billboard Hot Country Songs and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
Both Aldean and Clarkson performed the song on several occasions, notably on the tenth season of American Idol and at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards. Footage from the Country Music Association award performance was used to comprise a music video for "Do n't You Wanna Stay '', directed by Paul Miller. The song was nominated for "Best Country Duo / Group Performance '' at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards, but lost to "Barton Hollow '' by The Civil Wars. "Do n't You Wanna Stay '' was covered by Colton Dixon and Skylar Laine in the eleventh season of American Idol and was performed by Justin Chain and Shelbie Z in the fifth season of The Voice.
"Do n't You Wanna Stay '' was written by Andy Gibson, Paul Jenkins and Jason Sellers. According to Sellers, they were at Jenkins ' house when they started composing the song. He explained, "We just wanted to write a love song. We had an idea of what we were targeting. We did n't write it as a duet. We wrote it, and Andy thought about recording it. After we got the song written, we played it for Jason. Jason Aldean 's idea for it was to make it a duet. '' The song is the first duet that Aldean has recorded. In an interview with Nashville.com, Aldean revealed that the song was not originally presented to him as a duet. Nevertheless, he and producer Michael Knox thought the lyrics would work for two people if he could find a female artist as a duet partner. Aldean considered a number of female vocalists to record the song with, especially Kelly Clarkson and Carrie Underwood. However, Clarkson remained as his first choice. He explained,
"We had the song pitched to us and originally it was n't a duet. The more I was listening to the thing and learning the song, I realized it set itself up to be a duet if we wanted to go that route. When I called my producer about it he asked who I wanted to sing it with me and I said Kelly Clarkson, but I did n't think we 'd be able to get her. I 've always been a big fan of hers. I love her voice and I love her style. Long story short, we got her a copy of the song and she loved it. As soon as she started singing, it became obvious it was going to be great. ''
On November 10, 2010, "Do n't You Wanna Stay '' was performed live for the first time by Aldean with Clarkson on the 44th Country Music Association Awards. The performance triggered an overwhelming demand from radio stations across the country. As a result, Aldean 's label, Broken Bow Records, made the song available on PLAY MPE. Carson James, the label 's Senior Vice President for Promotion responded, "If there 's one thing I 've learned in my years in the record business, it is always give radio what they want (...) Our entire promotion staff has spent all night fielding calls and returning texts about getting this song, so we decided it best to release it on Play MPE first thing this morning. '' Myra Dehais of RED Company claimed that the song 's rise at adult - radio stations was a result of the company 's distribution, saying "This is a proud moment for RED distribution, (...) In crossing a country song over to the adult and pop formats, we can face resistance, since (some) stations have only a slot or two for country music, in order to maintain sonic balance. "Do n't You Wanna Stay '' was later included on the deluxe edition of Clarkson 's fifth studio album, Stronger (2011).
"Do n't You Wanna Stay '' is a country pop song with a length of four minutes and sixteen seconds. It incorporates melancholic guitar riff which is accompanied by classical elements such as violin. Mikael Wood of Billboard described the song as "a dramatic, slow building power ballad in the style of Bonnie Tyler 's "Total Eclipse of the Heart '' ", a view held similar by John Hill of About.com who considered the song as a "classic power ballad '', writing "whether you want to call the song country, pop, or something in between does n't matter because the chorus is so catchy that it does n't matter if you use an electric guitar or a steel guitar. '' It is set in common time and has a steady tempo of 72 beats per minute. It is written in the key of G - sharp minor and both Aldean and Clarkson 's vocals span two octaves, from A ♯ to G ♯. It follows the chord progression G ♯ m -- E -- B. Bob Peacock of Roughstock thought that the structure of the song was interesting with its brief four - line verses and "do n't you wan na stay 's throughout the chorus. As the chorus of the song starts in, the sound of electric and slide guitars are prominent as Aldean and Clarkson sing, "Do n't you wan na hold each other tight / Do n't you wan na fall asleep with me tonight? ''
Lyrically, the song narrates the difficulties of finding and maintaining love. Cristin Maher of Taste of Country contended that the song exemplifies the desire some people have when they want to make the move from a physical relationship to an emotional relationship, which is represented by the song lyrics "Let 's take it slow, I do n't want to move too fast / I do n't wan na just make love, I wan na make love last. '' Gibson, one of the writers of the song, stated that the song does not contain a lot of flowery lyrics or sentiment. He added, "It 's just straight up what somebody would say to somebody they 'd want to be with. ''
The song has received generally positive reviews. Allison Stewart of The Washington Post called the song "great and gooey '', saying that it sounded like "Bryan Adams teaming with Heart in 1984 for a contribution to some alternate universe Footloose soundtrack. '' Blake Boldt of Engine 145 gave the song a thumbs - up, calling the song as "a dramatic affair that demonstrates how pop and country can intersect with each other and offer decent results. '' He concluded his review by writing, "'' Do n't You Wanna Stay '' would be a suitable fit for a Foreigner or Whitesnake album, and, though nowhere near a classic, it 's an instant entrant into the "guilty pleasure '' category. '' Reviewing the album for Billboard, Gary Graff described the song as being part of an "array of such bittersweet, emotionally ambivalent goodbye songs ''. Bobby Peacock of Roughstock gave the song three - and - a-half stars out of five and praised both Aldean and Clarkson 's fine voice, "making for an interesting combination: Jason 's rough, slightly nasal voice against Kelly 's cleaner, forceful tone. '' In a different perspective, Kevin John Coyne of Country Universe graded the production of the song as "C '', lambasting the song for its musical element, writing "the sheer volume of noise that invades the track with the first chorus takes us straight into Monster Ballads territory. '' He concluded his review by emphasizing that "this is n't country music. It just is n't. ''
Gary Trust of Billboard noted that the success of "Do n't You Wanna Stay '' as a crossover adult - radio hit was due to several reasons; Bob Neumann of WPBB, an adult contemporary radio station, posited that "country and adult stations share listeners (...) so audience may have already been familiar with the song based on its original life at country radio. '' Mike Mullaney of WBMX radio station opined that the song 's own merits had propelled its crossover, saying
"Sure, it 's a great country song. But, at its core, it 's just a great song. It has a lot of the same qualities of Lady Antebellum 's ' Need You Now ': great lyrics and melody, while each of these singers has amazing emotional resonance in their voices (...) Aldean has a country delivery, but our audience likes country hits. Having Kelly on the track was a big help in initially getting our attention but, ultimately, the song is just a hit. ''
On March 5, 2013, Billboard ranked the song at number 40 in its list of Top 100 American Idol Hits of All Time. Additionally, it appeared at number 14 of Clarkson 's Top 15 Biggest Billboard Hot 100 hits through the week ending April 29, 2017. On the other hand, Sterling Whitaker of The Boot put "Do n't You Wanna Stay '' at number six on his list of Top 10 Jason Aldean Songs. Laura McClellan of Taste of Country ranked the song at number three of Aldean 's Top 10 songs, citing it as "the biggest reason the industry is beginning to recognize Aldean with award nominations. '' Chuck Dauphin of Billboard ranked the song atop his list of Jason Aldean 's 10 Best Songs and described it as "a ballad that one does n't get tired of hearing -- and that 's not something you see everyday. '' He also put the song at number 25 in his list of Top 50 Country Love Songs of All Time.
At the 2011 CMT Music Awards, "Do n't You Wanna Stay '' was nominated for "Collaborative Video of the Year, '' but lost to Justin Bieber 's "That Should Be Me '' featuring Rascal Flatts (2010). "Do n't You Wanna Stay '' received nominations for two awards at the 45th Country Music Association Awards. The song received a nomination for the "Musical Event of the Year '' and won the award; it was also nominated for the "Single of the Year '' but lost to The Band Perry 's "If I Die Young '' (2010). At the 54th Grammy Awards, the song received a nomination for "Best Country Duo / Group Performance '' but lost to The Civil Wars ' "Barton Hollow '' (2011). "Do n't You Wanna Stay '' won two awards of "Single by a Vocal Collaboration '' and "Music Video by a Duo / Group / Collaboration '' at the 2011 American Country Awards. The song won the awards of "Single of the Year '' and "Vocal Event of the Year '' at the 47th Academy of Country Music.
Following the album release of My Kinda Party, "Do n't You Wanna Stay '' debuted at number 59 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs as well as at number 93 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending November 20, 2010. On its second week on Billboard Hot 100, the song jumped to number 56 after the singers ' performance at the Country Music Association awards. The song reached a new peak of number 31 in its 24th week on the chart after Aldean and Clarkson performed the song on American Idol, selling 59,000 paid downloads that week according to Nielsen SoundScan. "Do n't You Wanna Stay '' also debuted at number 17 and number 39 on Adult Contemporary and Adult Pop Songs charts respectively. In July 2011, the song leapt into the top ten positions of Adult Contemporary (11 - 8) and Adult Pop Songs (11 - 9). The ascent prompted the song to re-enter the Billboard Hot 100 at number 48 in its 27th week on the chart.
On the week ending February 27, 2011, "Do n't You Wanna Stay '' moved to number one on Billboard Hot Country Songs and stayed in the top position for three consecutive weeks. It became Aldean 's fifth number one hit and Clarkson 's first number one hit on the chart. The accomplishment also made Clarkson as the third American Idol contestant to score a number one hit on the Billboard Hot Country Songs. The feat was first accomplished by Josh Gracin and followed by Carrie Underwood.
The song held the record as the best - selling country collaboration single in digital history until it was overtaken by Blake Shelton and Pistol Annies ' "Boys ' Round Here '' in 2014. It is Aldean 's second song to cross the 2 million mark, following "Dirt Road Anthem '' in 2011; and Clarkson 's fourth song to cross the 2 million mark following "Since U Been Gone '' in 2008, "My Life Would Suck Without You '' in 2009, and "Stronger (What Does n't Kill You) '' in 2012. As of September 2017, the song has sold 2,712,000 copies in the US.
On November 10, 2010, Aldean performed the song with Clarkson for the first time at the 44th annual Country Music Association Awards at Bridgestone Arena in Nashville, Tennessee. Despite receiving a standing ovation, their performance of the song in that event was graded as a "D '' in the Los Angeles Times, noting that the song is "a ballad that turned into some oddly orchestrated ' 80s hair metal tune. It 's an easy slam, but this is "American Idol '' bombast. '' Aldean and Clarkson also performed the song on several other occasions. They sang the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on February 22, 2011. On April 14, 2011, they performed the song live on the tenth season of American Idol during the Top 8 results show. They later performed the song live during Country Music Association festival in Nashville, Tennessee on June 9, 2011. Aldean also performed the song on all venues of his concert tour, the My Kinda Party Tour, which started on January 21, 2011. During each performance, Clarkson is seen on a big screen behind Aldean, singing her part of the duet. He explained,
"We decided to go in and film her doing her thing (...) so even though she was n't at the show, she could still be a part of the show. As big as that song is getting for us right now, it was definitely a song that we thought we had to have in the show. She cut a thing for us to use, and I cut a thing for her to use in her show if she wants to do that. It 's a cool way to have her be a part of the show even though she 's not going to be there every night. ''
On February 12, 2012, both Aldean and Clarkson performed the song in front of a stage outfitted with giant clock innards at the 54th Grammy Awards. Todd Martens of Los Angeles Times thought that "the duo looked like they were on the set of "Hugo ''. '' As their performance neared its end, Aldean 's microphone suddenly went out. Sarah Wyland of Great American Country felt that Aldean was professional in handling the technical problem by continuing to sing the song with Clarkson. However, Natalie Maines, the lead vocalist of the Dixie Chicks, lambasted Aldean 's performance in her Twitter account, writing "Well the good thing about his mic going out is suddenly the song got a lot more in tune. '' "Do n't You Wanna Stay '' is also performed by Clarkson in her fourth headlining tour, the Stronger Tour (2012). While Clarkson is performing the song, Aldean is seen on a big screen, singing his part of the duet. She also performed the song as a duet with Blake Shelton while touring at Nokia Theatre L.A. Live, Los Angeles. The song 's accompanying music video is composed of the live footage from the Country Music Association awards which was directed by Paul Miller.
"Do n't You Wanna Stay '' was covered by Colton Dixon and Skylar Laine in the eleventh season of American Idol. Natalie Finn of E! gave a mixed review of the pair 's performance, writing "Skylar handled Kelly Clarkson better than Colton played Jason Aldean on "Do n't You Wanna Stay, '' but she 's the country girl, so it made sense. '' Brian Mansfield of USA Today felt that the song was out of Dixon 's comfort zone and a little out of Laine 's range. Gil Kaufman of MTV remarked that the chemistry between the pair was more like cold fusion. Jennifer Still of Digital Spy said the performance "is n't anything incredible ''. "Do n't You Wanna Stay '' was performed by Justin Chain and Shelbie Z in the fifth season of The Voice during the Battle Rounds which was first aired on October 14, 2013. Natasha Chandel of MTV opined that the pair struggled with their pitch and harmonies during rehearsals but successfully stepped up their game during the live performance. A similar view was shared by Ashley Lee of The Hollywood Reporter writing, "Throughout rehearsals, neither the motorcycle accident survivor nor the pageant coach could lock in their harmonies during the choruses (...) They ended up blending well onstage.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what is the button on the rear view mirror | Rear - view mirror - Wikipedia
A rear - view mirror (or rearview mirror) is a mirror in automobiles and other vehicles, designed to allow the driver to see rearward through the vehicle 's rear window (rear windshield).
In cars, the rear - view mirror is usually affixed to the top of the windshield on a double - swivel mount allowing it to be adjusted to suit the height and viewing angle of any driver and to swing harmlessly out of the way if impacted by a vehicle occupant in a collision.
The rear - view mirror is augmented by one or more side - view mirrors, which serve as the only rear - vision mirrors on motorcycles and bicycles.
Among the rear - view mirror 's early uses is a mention by Dorothy Levitt in her 1909 book The Woman and the Car which noted that women should "carry a little hand - mirror in a convenient place when driving '' so they may "hold the mirror aloft from time to time in order to see behind while driving in traffic ''. However, earlier use is described in 1906, in a trade magazine noting mirrors for showing what is coming behind now popular on closed bodied automobiles, and to likely be widely adopted in a short time. The same year, a Mr. Henri Cain from France patented a "Warning mirror for automobiles ''. The Argus Dash Mirror, adjustable to any position to see the road behind, appeared in 1908. Earliest known rear - view mirror mounted on a racing vehicle appeared on Ray Harroun 's Marmon race car at the inaugural Indianapolis 500 race in 1911. Harroun himself claimed he got the idea from seeing a mirror used for a similar purpose on a horse - drawn vehicle in 1904. Harroun also claimed that the mirror vibrated constantly due to the rough brick surface, and it was rendered largely useless.
Elmer Berger is usually credited with inventing the rear - view mirror, though in fact he was the first to patent it (1921) and develop it for incorporation into production streetgoing automobiles by his Berger and Company.
Recently, rear - view video cameras have been built into many new model cars, this was partially in response to the rear - view mirrors ' inability to show the road directly behind the car, due to the rear deck or trunk obscuring as much as 3 -- 5 metres (10 -- 15 feet) of road behind the car. As many as 50 small children are killed by SUVs every year in the USA because the driver can not see them in their rear - view mirrors. Camera systems are usually mounted to the rear bumper or lower parts of the car, allowing for better rear visibility.
Aftermarket secondary rear - view mirrors are available. They attach to the main rear - view mirror and are independently adjustable to view the back seat. This is useful to enable adults to monitor children in the back seat.
A prismatic rear - view mirror -- sometimes called a "day / night mirror '' -- can be tilted to reduce the brightness and glare of lights, mostly for high - beam headlights of vehicles behind which would otherwise be reflected directly into the driver 's eyes at night. This type of mirror is made of a piece of glass that is wedge - shaped in cross section -- its front and rear surfaces are not parallel.
On manual tilt versions, a tab is used to adjust the mirror between "day '' and "night '' positions. In the day view position, the front surface is tilted and the reflective back side gives a strong reflection. When the mirror is moved to the night view position, its reflecting rear surface is tilted out of line with the driver 's view. This view is actually a reflection off the low - reflection front surface; only a much - reduced amount of light is reflected into the driver 's eyes.
"Manual tilt '' day / night mirrors first began appearing in the 1930s and became standard equipment on most passenger cars and trucks by the early 1970s.
In the 1949s, American inventor Jacob Rabinow developed a light - sensitive automatic mechanism for the wedge - type day / night mirror. Several Chrysler Corporation cars offered these automatic mirrors as optional equipment as early as 1959, but few customers ordered them for their cars and the item was soon withdrawn from the option lists. Several automakers began offering rear - view mirrors with automatic dimming again in 1983, and it was in the late 1980s that they began to catch on in popularity.
Current systems usually use photosensors mounted in the rear - view mirror to detect light and dim the mirror by means of electrochromism. This electrochromic feature has also been incorporated into side - view mirrors allowing them to dim and reduce glare as well.
On trucks and buses the load often blocks rearward vision out the backlight. In the U.S. virtually all trucks and buses have a side view mirror on each side, often mounted on the doors and viewed out the side windows, which are used for rear vision. These mirrors leave a large unviewable ("blind '') area behind the vehicle, which tapers down as the distance increases. This is a safety issue which the driver must compensate for, often with a person guiding the truck back in congested areas, or by backing in a curve. "Spot mirrors '', a convex mirror which provides a distorted image of the entire side of the vehicle, are commonly mounted on at least the right side of a vehicle. In the U.S. mirrors are considered "safety equipment '', and are not included in width restrictions.
Depending on the type of motorcycle, the motorcycle may or may not have rear - view mirrors. Street - legal motorcycles are generally required to have rear - view mirrors. Motorcycles for off - road use only normally do not have rear - view mirrors. Rear - view mirrors come in various shapes and designs, and have various methods of mounting the mirrors to the motorcycle, most commonly to the handlebars. Rear - view mirrors can also be attached to the rider 's motorcycle helmet.
Some bicycles are equipped with a rear - view mirror mounted on a handlebar. Rear - view mirrors may also be fitted to the bicycle frame, on a helmet or the frame of a pair of eyeglasses. This allows what is behind to be checked continuously without turning round. Rear - view mirrors almost never come with a new bicycle and require an additional purchase.
In 1956, the Civil Aeronautical Administration proposed a rear - view mirror mounted right above the pilot to keep an eye when private aircraft are landing or taxiing on the runway to prevent collisions. Fighter aircraft usually have one or more rear - view mirrors mounted on the front canopy frame to watch out for chasing aircraft.
Some computer monitors are fitted with rear - view mirrors to see if anyone is positioned behind the user where they can see sensitive information, such as names and passwords, being keyed in or on the screen. These are used especially on automated teller machines and similar.
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when did the last lyons corner house close | J. Lyons and Co.. - Wikipedia
J. Lyons & Co. was a British restaurant chain, food manufacturing, and hotel conglomerate founded in 1884.
The company began as collaboration between the professional artist Joseph Lyons and his brothers in law, Isidore and Montague Gluckstein, as a spin off from the Salmon & Gluckstein tobacco company. In 1894 the company started a teashop in Piccadilly, London, and from 1909 developed this into a chain of teashops known as Lyons ' Corner Houses. The company also ran high class restaurants, founding the Trocadero in 1895, and hotels including the Strand Palace, opened in 1909, the Regent Palace, opened in 1915, and the Cumberland Hotel, opened in 1933, all in London. From the 1930s Lyons began to develop a pioneering range of teas, biscuits and cakes that were sold in grocery stores across the world.
Lyons was appointed to run the company, and it was named after him.
J. Lyons & Co. was a pioneer in introducing computers to business. Between 1951 and 1963, the company manufactured and sold a range of LEO (Lyons Electronic Office) computers.
The company was a substantial food manufacturer, with factories at Cadby Hall in Hammersmith, and from 1921 at Greenford, producing bread, cakes, pies, tea, coffee and ice cream.
To the public, J. Lyons & Co. were best known for their chain of tea shops which opened from 1894 and finally closed in 1981, and for the Lyons Corner Houses in the West End of London. The tea shops were slightly more up market than their ABC (Aerated Bread Company) counterparts. They were notable for their interior design, from the 1920s Oliver P. Bernard being consultant artistic director. Until the 1940s they had a certain working - class chic, but by the 1950s and ' 60s they were quick stops for busy shoppers where one could drink a cup of tea and eat a snack or an inexpensive meal. The tea shops always had a bakery counter at the front, and their signs, art nouveau gold lettering on white, were a familiar landmark (before the Second World War service was to the table by uniformed waitresses, known as ' Nippies ', but after the War the tea shops converted to cafeteria service).
Lyons ' Corner Houses, which first appeared in 1909 and remained until 1977, were noted for their art deco style. Situated on or near the corners of Coventry Street, Strand and Tottenham Court Road, they and the Maison Lyonses at Marble Arch and in Shaftesbury Avenue were large buildings on four or five floors, the ground floor of which was a food hall with counters for delicatessen, sweets and chocolates, cakes, fruit, flowers and other products. In addition, they possessed hairdressing salons, telephone booths, theatre booking agencies and at one period a twice - a-day food delivery service. On the other floors were several restaurants, each with a different theme and all with their own musicians. For a time the Corner Houses were open 24 hours a day, and at their peak each branch employed around 400 staff. They featured window displays, and, in the post-war period, the Corner Houses were smarter and grander than the local tea shops. Between 1896 and 1965 Lyons owned the Trocadero, which was similar in size and style to the Corner Houses.
As well as the tea shops and Corner Houses, Lyons ran other large restaurants such as the Angel Cafe Restaurant in Islington and the Throgmorton in Throgmorton Street. Its chains have included Steak Houses (1961 -- 1988), Wimpy Bars (1953 -- 1976), Baskin - Robbins (1974 -) and Dunkin ' Donuts (1989 -). The artist Kay Lipton designed all the windows for the Corner Houses under the jurisdiction of Norman Joseph, the director post-war.
The Regent Palace Hotel, Glasshouse Street, London was operated by Strand Hotels Limited, a subsidiary of J. Lyons and Company and opened on 16 May 1915. Strand Hotels also operated the Cumberland Hotel (Marble Arch, London), Kingsley Hotel, Park Court Hotel, Windsor Hotel, White 's Hotel and the Strand Palace Hotel after the inception of Strand Hotels Limited. The last London hotel that they operated until the demise of the group in the mid-70s was the Tower Hotel situated by Tower Bridge in London.
In 1938, Lyons purchased the Bee Bee Biscuit Company, which manufactured biscuits from its factories in Blackpool. Six years later, Lyons changed the company 's name to Symbol Biscuits Ltd. and began selling biscuits under the Symbol and Lyons brand names: one of their innovations was Maryland Cookies in 1956. In 1990, Lyons changed the Symbol Biscuits name to Lyons Biscuits Ltd.
The rearmament period just before World War II saw a big expansion in the number of Royal Ordnance Factories (ROFs), which were British government - owned. However, due to shortages of management resources some ROFs were run as agency factories; and J. Lyons and Co. ran at least one, ROF Elstow. The management and stock control systems needed in the ROFs, in respect of control of raw materials and "perishable '' finished products, were somewhat similar to those used in the catering business; and J. Lyons was ideally suited to this task. They do not appear to have any involvement in managing these after 1945, when the ROFs started to run down.
The top management of Lyons, with its background in the use of mechanical adding machines, saw the necessity of new electrical computers for organising the distribution of cakes and other highly perishable goods. They, therefore, substantially financed the University of Cambridge 's Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) which was the second electronic digital stored - program computer to go into regular service, and built their own programmable digital computers and became the first user of these in businesses, with the LEO I digital computer: the Lyons Electronic Office I, designed and built by Dr John Pinkerton under the able leadership of John Simmons. It handled the company 's accounts and logistics. Lyons also included the weather forecast to ensure goods carried by their "fresh produce '' delivery vans were not wasted in large quantities. Google chairman Eric Schmidt called this "the world 's first office computer '', built in 1951. A subsidiary LEO Computers Ltd was formed in 1954 and went on to build 11 Leo II and 94 Leo III computers that were sold worldwide.
The company was losing money in the 1960s but remained under the control of the Salmon family, descended from a founding partner. Lyons began to close some of its London tea shops and hotels; in 1963 it also merged its LEO Computers business with English Electric 's computer interests to form the jointly owned English Electric LEO.
In 1964, Lyons sold their half - stake; and English Electric merged the company with Marconi 's computer interests to form English Electric LEO Marconi Computers. A continuing problem in the British computer industry was both lack of investment capital and competition with the much larger U.S. computer companies, such as IBM. English Electric LEO Marconi Computers merged with other companies to form International Computers Limited (ICL) which was bought by Fujitsu in 1990.
In 1978, Lyons was acquired by Allied Breweries and became part of the resulting Allied Lyons. It fell on hard economic times in the late 1980s; and was sold, eventually being broken up with its ice cream and ice lolly products, which were branded as Lyons Maid, being sold to Nestlé. Other parts that were sold off included Lyons Cakes (sold to RHM and ending up as part of their Manor Bakeries subsidiary which also makes Mr Kipling 's Cakes) and Ready Brek cereal (ending up being owned by Weetabix Limited). At the end of 1994, Lyons sold Lyons Biscuits to Hillsdown Holdings, which later sold it to a U.S. investment firm which subsequently sold it to large biscuit manufacturer Burton 's Foods.
The J. Lyons & Co. papers are now stored in the London Metropolitan Archives.
The niece and nephew of the Gluckstein brothers were Hannah Gluckstein, a painter; and Louis Gluckstein, a Conservative politician. A descendant of the Salmon side of the original partnership is Nigella Lawson.
Former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher worked as a chemist for the company prior to becoming a barrister and then a Conservative Party MP. While working for the company she helped develop methods for preserving ice cream.
The chairmen of J. Lyons were:
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please sir may i have more oliver twist | Oliver Twist - wikipedia
Oliver Twist; or, the Parish Boy 's Progress is author Charles Dickens 's second novel, and was first published as a serial 1837 -- 39. The story centres on orphan Oliver Twist, born in a workhouse and sold into apprenticeship with an undertaker. After escaping, Twist travels to London, where he meets "The Artful Dodger '', a member of a gang of juvenile pickpockets led by the elderly criminal, Fagin.
Oliver Twist is notable for its unromantic portrayal by Dickens of criminals and their sordid lives, as well as for exposing the cruel treatment of the many orphans in London in the mid-19th century. The alternative title, The Parish Boy 's Progress, alludes to Bunyan 's The Pilgrim 's Progress, as well as the 18th - century caricature series by William Hogarth, A Rake 's Progress and A Harlot 's Progress.
In this early example of the social novel, Dickens satirises the hypocrisies of his time, including child labour, the recruitment of children as criminals, and the presence of street children. The novel may have been inspired by the story of Robert Blincoe, an orphan whose account of working as a child labourer in a cotton mill was widely read in the 1830s. It is likely that Dickens 's own youthful experiences contributed as well.
Oliver Twist has been the subject of numerous adaptations for various media, including a highly successful musical play, Oliver!, and the multiple Academy Award - winning 1968 motion picture. Disney also put its spin on the novel with the animated film called Oliver & Company in 1988.
The novel was originally published in monthly instalments in the magazine Bentley 's Miscellany, from February 1837 to April 1839. It was originally intended to form part of Dickens 's serial, The Mudfog Papers. George Cruikshank provided one steel etching per month to illustrate each instalment. The novel first appeared in book form six months before the initial serialisation was completed, in three volumes published by Richard Bentley, the owner of Bentley 's Miscellany, under the author 's pseudonym, "Boz ''. It included 24 steel - engraved plates by Cruikshank.
The first edition was titled: Oliver Twist, or, The Parish Boy 's Progress.
Serial publication dates:
Oliver Twist is born and raised into a life of poverty and misfortune in a workhouse in an unnamed town 70 miles north of London. Orphaned by his mother 's death in childbirth and his father 's mysterious absence, Oliver is meagrely provided for under the terms of the Poor Law and spends the first nine years of his life living at a baby farm in the ' care ' of a woman named Mrs. Mann. Oliver is brought up with little food and few comforts. Around the time of Oliver 's ninth birthday, Mr. Bumble, the parish beadle, removes Oliver from the baby farm and puts him to work picking and weaving oakum at the main workhouse. Oliver, who toils with very little food, remains in the workhouse for six months. One day, the desperately hungry boys decide to draw lots; while the loser must ask for another portion of gruel. This task falls to Oliver himself, who at the next meal comes forward trembling, bowl in hand, and begs Mr. Bumble for gruel with his famous request: "Please, sir, I want some more ''.
A great uproar ensues. The board of well - fed gentlemen who administer the workhouse hypocritically offer £ 5 to any person wishing to take on the boy as an apprentice. Mr. Gamfield, a brutal chimney sweep, almost claims Oliver. However, when he begs despairingly not to be sent away with "that dreadful man '', a kindly magistrate refuses to sign the indentures. Later, Mr. Sowerberry, an undertaker employed by the parish, takes Oliver into his service. He treats Oliver better and, because of the boy 's sorrowful countenance, uses him as a mourner at children 's funerals. Mr. Sowerberry is in an unhappy marriage, and his wife looks down on Oliver and loses few opportunities to underfeed and mistreat him. He also suffers torment at the hands of Noah Claypole, an oafish and bullying fellow apprentice and "charity boy '' who is jealous of Oliver 's promotion to mute, and Charlotte, the Sowerberrys ' maidservant, who is in love with Noah.
Wanting to bait Oliver, Noah insults the memory of Oliver 's biological mother, calling her "a regular right - down bad ' un ''. Enraged, Oliver assaults the much bigger boy. Mrs. Sowerberry takes Noah 's side, helps him to subdue, punch, and beat Oliver, and later compels her husband and Mr. Bumble, who has been sent for in the aftermath of the fight, to beat Oliver again. Once Oliver is being sent to his room for the night, he breaks down and weeps. The next day, Oliver escapes from the Sowerberrys ' house and later decides to run away to London to seek for a better life.
Nearing London, Oliver encounters Jack Dawkins, a pickpocket more commonly known by the nickname the "Artful Dodger '', and his sidekick, a boy of a humorous nature, named Charley Bates, but Oliver 's innocent and trusting nature fails to see any dishonesty in their actions. Dodger provides Oliver with a free meal and tells him of a gentleman in London who will "give him lodgings for nothing, and never ask for change ''. Grateful for the unexpected assistance, Oliver follows Dodger to the "old gentleman 's '' residence. In this way, Oliver unwittingly falls in with an infamous Jewish criminal known as Fagin, the gentleman of whom the Artful Dodger spoke. Ensnared, Oliver lives with Fagin and his gang of juvenile pickpockets in their lair at Saffron Hill for some time, unaware of their criminal occupations. He believes they make wallets and handkerchiefs.
Soon, Oliver naively goes out to "make handkerchiefs '' with the Artful Dodger and Charley Bates, only to learn that their real mission is to pick pockets. Dodger and Charley steal the handkerchief of an old gentleman named Mr Brownlow and promptly flee. When he finds his handkerchief missing, Mr Brownlow turns round, sees Oliver running away in fright, and pursues him, thinking he was the thief. Others join the chase, capture Oliver, and bring him before the magistrate. Curiously, Mr Brownlow has second thoughts about the boy -- he seems reluctant to believe he is a pickpocket. To the judge 's evident disappointment, a bookstall holder who saw Dodger commit the crime clears Oliver, who, by now actually ill, faints in the courtroom. Mr Brownlow takes Oliver home and, along with his housekeeper Mrs Bedwin, cares for him.
Oliver stays with Mr Brownlow, recovers rapidly, and blossoms from the unaccustomed kindness. His bliss is interrupted when Fagin, fearing Oliver might tell the police about his criminal gang, decides that Oliver must be brought back to his hideout. When Mr Brownlow sends Oliver out to pay for some books, one of the gang, a young girl named Nancy, whom Oliver had previously met at Fagin 's, accosts him with help from her abusive lover, the robber Bill Sikes, and Oliver is quickly bundled back to Fagin 's lair. The thieves take the five - pound note Mr Brownlow had entrusted to him, and strip him of his fine new clothes. Oliver, shocked, flees and attempts to call for police assistance, but is dragged back by the Artful Dodger, Charley, and Fagin. Nancy, alone, is sympathetic towards Oliver and saves him from beatings by Fagin and Sikes.
In a renewed attempt to draw Oliver into a life of crime, Fagin forces him to participate in a burglary. Nancy reluctantly assists in recruiting him, all the while assuring the boy that she will help him if she can. Sikes, after threatening to kill him if he does not cooperate, puts Oliver through a small window and orders him to unlock the front door. The robbery goes wrong and Oliver is shot by people in the house and wounded in his left arm. After being abandoned by Sikes, the wounded Oliver makes it back to the house and ends up under the care of the people he was supposed to rob: Miss Rose and her guardian Mrs Maylie.
The mysterious man Monks plots with Fagin to destroy Oliver 's reputation. Monks denounces Fagin 's failure to turn Oliver into a criminal, and the two of them agree on a plan to make sure he does not find out about his past. Monks is apparently related to Oliver in some way. Back in Oliver 's hometown, Mr Bumble has married Mrs Corney, the matron of the workhouse where the story first began, only to find himself in an unhappy marriage, constantly arguing with his domineering wife. After one such argument, Mr Bumble walks to a pub where he meets Monks, who questions him about Oliver. Bumble informs Monks that he knows someone who can give Monks more information for a price, and later Monks meets secretly with the Bumbles. After Mrs Bumble tells Monks all she knows for a price, Monks takes the locket and ring proving Oliver 's parents, which had once belonged to Oliver 's mother, and drops them into the river flowing under his place. Monks relates these events to Fagin, unaware that Nancy is eavesdropping on their conversations and plans to inform Oliver 's benefactors. Mr Brownlow returns to London, where Oliver sees him, and brings him to meet the Maylies.
Now ashamed of her role in Oliver 's kidnapping and worried for the boy 's safety, Nancy goes to Rose Maylie, staying in London. She knows that Monks and Fagin are plotting to get their hands on the boy again, and offers to meet again any Sunday night on London bridge. Rose tells Mr Brownlow, and the two then make plans with all their party in London. The first Sunday night, Nancy tries to leave for her walk, but Sikes refuses permission when she declines to state exactly where she is going. Fagin realizes that Nancy is up to something, perhaps has a new boyfriend, and resolves to find out what her secret is. Meanwhile, Noah has fallen out with the undertaker Mr Sowerberry, stolen money from him, and fled to London with Charlotte. Using the name "Morris Bolter '', he joins Fagin 's gang for protection and becomes a practicer of "the kinchin lay '' (robbing of children), and Charlotte is put with the girls. Fagin sends Noah to watch the Artful Dodger on trial, after he is caught with a stolen silver snuff box; the Dodger is convicted while showing his style, with a punishment of transportation to Australia. Next, Noah is sent by Fagin to spy on Nancy, and discovers her meeting with Rose and Mr Brownlow on the bridge, hearing their discussion of why she did not appear the prior week and how to save Oliver from Fagin and Monks.
Fagin angrily passes the information on to Sikes, twisting the story to make it sound as if Nancy had informed on him, when she had not. Believing Nancy to be a traitor, Sikes beats her to death in a fit of rage that very night and flees to the countryside to escape from the police and his conscience. There, Sikes is haunted by visions of Nancy and alarmed by news of her murder spreading across the countryside. He returns to London to find a hiding place and intends to steal money from Fagin and flee to France, only to die by accidentally hanging himself while attempting to lower himself from a rooftop to flee from a mob angry at Nancy 's murder.
While Sikes is fleeing the mob, Mr Brownlow forces Monks to listen to the story connecting him, once called Edward Leeford, and Oliver as half brothers, or to face the police for his crimes. Their father was once friends with Brownlow. Mr Leeford had fallen in love with Oliver 's mother, Agnes, after Monks ' parents had separated. Mr Leeford had to help a dying friend in Rome, and then died there himself, leaving Agnes, "his guilty love '', in England. Mr Brownlow has a picture of Agnes and had begun making inquiries when he noticed a marked resemblance between her and Oliver. Monks had hunted his brother to destroy him, to gain all in their father 's will. Meeting with Monks and the Bumbles in Oliver 's native town, Brownlow asks Oliver to give half his inheritance to Monks to give him a second chance; Oliver is more than happy to comply. Monks moves to "the new world '', where he squanders his money, reverts to crime, and dies in prison. Fagin is arrested, tried and condemned to the gallows. On the eve of Fagin 's hanging, Oliver, accompanied by Mr Brownlow in an emotional scene, visits Fagin in Newgate Prison, in hope of retrieving papers from Monks. Fagin is lost in a world of his own fear of impending death.
On a happier note, Rose Maylie is the long - lost sister of Agnes, and thus Oliver 's aunt. She marries her sweetheart Harry Maylie, who gives up his political ambitions to become a parson, drawing all their friends to settle near them. Oliver lives happily with Mr Brownlow, who adopts him. Noah becomes a paid, semi-professional police informer. The Bumbles lose their positions and are reduced to poverty, ending up in the workhouse themselves. Charley Bates, horrified by Sikes ' murder of Nancy, becomes an honest citizen, moves to the country, and eventually becomes prosperous.
In Oliver Twist, Dickens mixes grim realism with merciless satire to describe the effects of industrialism on 19th - century England and to criticise the harsh new Poor Laws. Oliver, an innocent child, is trapped in a world where his only options seem to be the workhouse, a life of crime symbolised by Fagin 's gang, a prison, or an early grave. From this unpromising industrial / institutional setting, however, a fairy tale also emerges. In the midst of corruption and degradation, the essentially passive Oliver remains pure - hearted; he steers away from evil when those around him give in to it, and in proper fairy - tale fashion, he eventually receives his reward -- leaving for a peaceful life in the country, surrounded by kind friends. On the way to this happy ending, Dickens explores the kind of life an outcast, orphan boy could expect to lead in 1830s London.
Poverty is a prominent concern in Oliver Twist. Throughout the novel, Dickens enlarged on this theme, describing slums so decrepit that whole rows of houses are on the point of ruin. In an early chapter, Oliver attends a pauper 's funeral with Mr. Sowerberry and sees a whole family crowded together in one miserable room.
This prevalent misery makes Oliver 's encounters with charity and love more poignant. Oliver owes his life several times over to kindness both large and small. The apparent plague of poverty that Dickens describes also conveyed to his middle - class readers how much of the London population was stricken with poverty and disease. Nonetheless, in Oliver Twist, he delivers a somewhat mixed message about social caste and social injustice. Oliver 's illegitimate workhouse origins place him at the nadir of society; as an orphan without friends, he is routinely despised. His "sturdy spirit '' keeps him alive despite the torment he must endure. Most of his associates, however, deserve their place among society 's dregs and seem very much at home in the depths. Noah Claypole, a charity boy like Oliver, is idle, stupid, and cowardly; Sikes is a thug; Fagin lives by corrupting children, and the Artful Dodger seems born for a life of crime. Many of the middle - class people Oliver encounters -- Mrs. Sowerberry, Mr. Bumble, and the savagely hypocritical "gentlemen '' of the workhouse board, for example -- are, if anything, worse.
On the other hand, Oliver -- who has an air of refinement remarkable for a workhouse boy -- proves to be of gentle birth. Although he has been abused and neglected all his life, he recoils, aghast, at the idea of victimising anyone else. This apparently hereditary gentlemanliness makes Oliver Twist something of a changeling tale, not just an indictment of social injustice. Oliver, born for better things, struggles to survive in the savage world of the underclass before finally being rescued by his family and returned to his proper place -- a commodious country house.
One early 21st century film adaptation of the novel dispenses with the paradox of Oliver 's genteel origins by eliminating his origin story completely, making him just another anonymous orphan like the rest of Fagin 's gang.
Dickens makes considerable use of symbolism. The many symbols Oliver faces are primarily good versus evil, with evil continually trying to corrupt and exploit good, but good winning out in the end. The town of Oliver 's birth was Mudfog in the firsts serialization in Bentley 's Miscellany in 1837, but changed to an unnamed town, a 70 - mile walk to London, when published in book form. The "merry old gentleman '' Fagin, for example, has satanic characteristics: he is a veteran corrupter of young boys who presides over his own corner of the criminal world; he makes his first appearance standing over a fire holding a toasting - fork, and he refuses to pray on the night before his execution. The London slums, too, have a suffocating, infernal aspect; the dark deeds and dark passions are concretely characterised by dim rooms and pitch - black nights, while the governing mood of terror and brutality may be identified with uncommonly cold weather. In contrast, the countryside where the Maylies take Oliver is a bucolic heaven.
The novel is also shot through with a related motif, social class, which calls attention to the stark injustice of Oliver 's world. When the half - starved child dares to ask for more, the men who punish him are fat. A remarkable number of the novel 's characters are overweight.
Toward the end of the novel, the gaze of knowing eyes becomes a potent symbol. For years, Fagin avoids daylight, crowds, and open spaces, concealing himself most of the time in a dark lair. When his luck runs out at last, he squirms in the "living light '' of too many eyes as he stands in the dock, awaiting sentence. Similarly, after Sikes kills Nancy at dawn, he flees the bright sunlight in their room, out to the countryside, but is unable to escape the memory of her dead eyes. In addition, Charley Bates turns his back on crime when he sees the murderous cruelty of the man who has been held up to him as a model.
In the tradition of Restoration Comedy and Henry Fielding, Dickens fits his characters with appropriate names. Oliver himself, though "badged and ticketed '' as a lowly orphan and named according to an alphabetical system, is, in fact, "all of a twist. '' However, Oliver and his name may have been based on a young workhouse boy named Peter Tolliver whom Dickens knew while growing up. Mr. Grimwig is so called because his seemingly "grim '', pessimistic outlook is actually a protective cover for his kind, sentimental soul. Other character names mark their bearers as semi-monstrous caricatures. Mrs. Mann, who has charge of the infant Oliver, is not the most motherly of women; Mr. Bumble, despite his impressive sense of his own dignity, continually mangles the King 's English he tries to use; and the Sowerberries are, of course, "sour berries '', a reference to Mrs. Sowerberry 's perpetual scowl, to Mr. Sowerberry 's profession as an undertaker, and to the poor provender Oliver receives from them. Rose Maylie 's name echoes her association with flowers and springtime, youth and beauty while Toby Crackit 's is a reference to his chosen profession of housebreaking.
Bill Sikes 's dog, Bull 's - eye, has "faults of temper in common with his owner '' and is an emblem of his owner 's character. The dog 's viciousness represents Sikes 's animal - like brutality while Sikes 's self - destructiveness is evident in the dog 's many scars. The dog, with its willingness to harm anyone on Sikes 's whim, shows the mindless brutality of the master. Sikes himself senses that the dog is a reflection of himself and that is why he tries to drown the dog. He is really trying to run away from who he is. This is also illustrated when Sikes dies and the dog does immediately also. After Sikes murders Nancy, Bull 's - eye also comes to represent Sikes 's guilt. The dog leaves bloody footprints on the floor of the room where the murder is committed. Not long after, Sikes becomes desperate to get rid of the dog, convinced that the dog 's presence will give him away. Yet, just as Sikes can not shake off his guilt, he can not shake off Bull 's - eye, who arrives at the house of Sikes 's demise before Sikes himself does. Bull 's - eye 's name also conjures up the image of Nancy 's eyes, which haunt Sikes until the bitter end and eventually cause him to hang himself accidentally.
Dickens employs polarised sets of characters to explore various dual themes throughout the novel; Mr. Brownlow and Fagin, for example, personify "good vs. evil ''. Dickens also juxtaposes honest, law - abiding characters such as Oliver himself with those who, like the Artful Dodger, seem more comfortable on the wrong side of the law. Crime and punishment is another important pair of themes, as is sin and redemption: Dickens describes criminal acts ranging from picking pockets to murder, and the characters are punished severely in the end. Most obviously, he shows Bill Sikes hounded to death by a mob for his brutal acts and sends Fagin to cower in the condemned cell, sentenced to death by due process. Neither character achieves redemption; Sikes dies trying to run away from his guilt, and on his last night alive, the terrified Fagin refuses to see a rabbi or to pray, instead asking Oliver to help him escape.
Nancy, by contrast, redeems herself at the cost of her own life and dies in a prayerful pose. She is one of the few characters in Oliver Twist to display much ambivalence. Her storyline in the novel strongly reflects themes of domestic violence and psychological abuse at the hands of Bill, who ultimately murders her.
Although she is a full - fledged criminal, indoctrinated and trained by Fagin since childhood, she retains enough empathy to repent her role in Oliver 's kidnapping, and to take steps to try to atone. As one of Fagin 's victims, corrupted but not yet morally dead, she gives eloquent voice to the horrors of the old man 's little criminal empire. She wants to save Oliver from a similar fate; at the same time, she recoils from the idea of turning traitor, especially to Bill Sikes, whom she loves. When he was later criticised for giving a "thieving, whoring slut of the streets '' such an unaccountable reversal of character, Dickens ascribed her change of heart to "the last fair drop of water at the bottom of a dried - up, weed - choked well ''.
Dickens has been accused of following antisemitic stereotypes because of his portrayal of the Jewish character Fagin in Oliver Twist. Paul Vallely writes that Fagin is widely seen as one of the most grotesque Jews in English literature, and the most vivid of Dickens 's 989 characters. Nadia Valdman, who writes about the portrayal of Jews in literature, argues that Fagin 's representation was drawn from the image of the Jew as inherently evil, that the imagery associated him with the devil, and with beasts.
The novel refers to Fagin 257 times in the first 38 chapters as "the Jew '', while the ethnicity or religion of the other characters is rarely mentioned. In 1854, The Jewish Chronicle asked why "Jews alone should be excluded from the ' sympathizing heart ' of this great author and powerful friend of the oppressed. '' Dickens (who had extensive knowledge of London street life and child exploitation) explained that he had made Fagin Jewish because "it unfortunately was true, of the time to which the story refers, that that class of criminal almost invariably was a Jew. '' Dickens commented that by calling Fagin a Jew he had meant no imputation against the Jewish faith, saying in a letter, "I have no feeling towards the Jews but a friendly one. I always speak well of them, whether in public or private, and bear my testimony (as I ought to do) to their perfect good faith in such transactions as I have ever had with them. '' Eliza Davis, whose husband had purchased Dickens 's home in 1860 when he had put it up for sale, wrote to Dickens in protest at his portrayal of Fagin, arguing that he had "encouraged a vile prejudice against the despised Hebrew '', and that he had done a great wrong to the Jewish people. While Dickens first reacted defensively upon receiving Davis 's letter, he then halted the printing of Oliver Twist, and changed the text for the parts of the book that had not been set, which explains why after the first 38 chapters Fagin is barely called "the Jew '' at all in the next 179 references to him.
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where is the north and south pole located on a map | North Pole - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 90 ° N 0 ° W / 90 ° N - 0 ° E / 90; - 0
The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is (subject to the caveats explained below) defined as the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth 's axis of rotation meets its surface.
The North Pole is the northernmost point on the Earth, lying diametrically opposite the South Pole. It defines geodetic latitude 90 ° North, as well as the direction of true north. At the North Pole all directions point south; all lines of longitude converge there, so its longitude can be defined as any degree value. Along tight latitude circles, counterclockwise is east and clockwise is west. The North Pole is at the center of the Northern Hemisphere.
While the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice. This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole (unlike the South Pole). However, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, constructed a number of manned drifting stations on a generally annual basis since 1937, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole. Since 2002, the Russians have also annually established a base, Barneo, close to the Pole. This operates for a few weeks during early spring. Studies in the 2000s predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice - free because of Arctic ice shrinkage, with timescales varying from 2016 to the late 21st century or later.
The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4,261 m (13,980 ft) by the Russian Mir submersible in 2007 and at 4,087 m (13,410 ft) by USS Nautilus in 1958. The nearest land is usually said to be Kaffeklubben Island, off the northern coast of Greenland about 700 km (430 mi) away, though some perhaps non-permanent gravel banks lie slightly closer. The nearest permanently inhabited place is Alert in the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada, which is located 817 km (508 mi) from the Pole.
The Earth 's axis of rotation -- and hence the position of the North Pole -- was commonly believed to be fixed (relative to the surface of the Earth) until, in the 18th century, the mathematician Leonhard Euler predicted that the axis might "wobble '' slightly. Around the beginning of the 20th century astronomers noticed a small apparent "variation of latitude, '' as determined for a fixed point on Earth from the observation of stars. Part of this variation could be attributed to a wandering of the Pole across the Earth 's surface, by a range of a few metres. The wandering has several periodic components and an irregular component. The component with a period of about 435 days is identified with the eight - month wandering predicted by Euler and is now called the Chandler wobble after its discoverer. The exact point of intersection of the Earth 's axis and the Earth 's surface, at any given moment, is called the "instantaneous pole '', but because of the "wobble '' this can not be used as a definition of a fixed North Pole (or South Pole) when metre - scale precision is required.
It is desirable to tie the system of Earth coordinates (latitude, longitude, and elevations or orography) to fixed landforms. Of course, given plate tectonics and isostasy, there is no system in which all geographic features are fixed. Yet the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service and the International Astronomical Union have defined a framework called the International Terrestrial Reference System.
As early as the 16th century, many prominent people correctly believed that the North Pole was in a sea, which in the 19th century was called the Polynya or Open Polar Sea. It was therefore hoped that passage could be found through ice floes at favorable times of the year. Several expeditions set out to find the way, generally with whaling ships, already commonly used in the cold northern latitudes.
One of the earliest expeditions to set out with the explicit intention of reaching the North Pole was that of British naval officer William Edward Parry, who in 1827 reached latitude 82 ° 45 ′ North. In 1871 the Polaris expedition, a US attempt on the Pole led by Charles Francis Hall, ended in disaster. Another British Royal Navy attempt on the pole, part of the British Arctic Expedition, by Commander Albert H. Markham reached a then - record 83 ° 20'26 '' North in May 1876 before turning back. An 1879 -- 1881 expedition commanded by US naval officer George W. DeLong ended tragically when their ship, the USS Jeanette, was crushed by ice. Over half the crew, including DeLong, were lost.
In April 1895 the Norwegian explorers Fridtjof Nansen and Hjalmar Johansen struck out for the Pole on skis after leaving Nansen 's icebound ship Fram. The pair reached latitude 86 ° 14 ′ North before they abandoned the attempt and turned southwards, eventually reaching Franz Josef Land.
In 1897 Swedish engineer Salomon August Andrée and two companions tried to reach the North Pole in the hydrogen balloon Örnen ("Eagle ''), but came down 300 km (190 mi) north of Kvitøya, the northeasternmost part of the Svalbard archipelago. They trekked to Kvitøya but died there three months later. In 1930 the remains of this expedition were found by the Norwegian Bratvaag Expedition.
The Italian explorer Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi and Captain Umberto Cagni of the Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina) sailed the converted whaler Stella Polare ("Pole Star '') from Norway in 1899. On 11 March 1900 Cagni led a party over the ice and reached latitude 86 ° 34 ' on 25 April, setting a new record by beating Nansen 's result of 1895 by 35 to 40 km (22 to 25 mi). Cagni barely managed to return to the camp, remaining there until 23 June. On 16 August the Stella Polare left Rudolf Island heading south and the expedition returned to Norway.
The US explorer Frederick Cook claimed to have reached the North Pole on 21 April 1908 with two Inuit men, Ahwelah and Etukishook, but he was unable to produce convincing proof and his claim is not widely accepted.
The conquest of the North Pole was for many years credited to US Navy engineer Robert Peary, who claimed to have reached the Pole on 6 April 1909, accompanied by Matthew Henson and four Inuit men, Ootah, Seeglo, Egingwah, and Ooqueah. However, Peary 's claim remains highly disputed and controversial. Those who accompanied Peary on the final stage of the journey were not trained in (Western) navigation, and thus could not independently confirm his navigational work, which some claim to have been particularly sloppy as he approached the Pole.
The distances and speeds that Peary claimed to have achieved once the last support party turned back seem incredible to many people, almost three times that which he had accomplished up to that point. Peary 's account of a journey to the Pole and back while traveling along the direct line -- the only strategy that is consistent with the time constraints that he was facing -- is contradicted by Henson 's account of tortuous detours to avoid pressure ridges and open leads.
The British explorer Wally Herbert, initially a supporter of Peary, researched Peary 's records in 1989 and found that there were significant discrepancies in the explorer 's navigational records. He concluded that Peary had not reached the Pole. Support for Peary came again in 2005, however, when British explorer Tom Avery and four companions recreated the outward portion of Peary 's journey with replica wooden sleds and Canadian Eskimo Dog teams, reaching the North Pole in 36 days, 22 hours -- nearly five hours faster than Peary. However, Avery 's fastest 5 - day march was 90 nautical miles, significantly short of the 135 claimed by Peary. Avery writes on his web site that "The admiration and respect which I hold for Robert Peary, Matthew Henson and the four Inuit men who ventured North in 1909, has grown enormously since we set out from Cape Columbia. Having now seen for myself how he travelled across the pack ice, I am more convinced than ever that Peary did indeed discover the North Pole. ''
Another rejection of Peary 's claim arrived in 2009, when E. Myles Standish of the California Institute of Technology, an experienced referee of scientific claims, reported numerous alleged lacunae and inconsistencies.
The first claimed flight over the Pole was made on 9 May 1926 by US naval officer Richard E. Byrd and pilot Floyd Bennett in a Fokker tri-motor aircraft. Although verified at the time by a committee of the National Geographic Society, this claim has since been undermined by the 1996 revelation that Byrd 's long - hidden diary 's solar sextant data (which the NGS never checked) consistently contradict his June 1926 report 's parallel data by over 100 mi (160 km). The secret report 's alleged en - route solar sextant data were inadvertently so impossibly overprecise that he excised all these alleged raw solar observations out of the version of the report finally sent to geographical societies five months later (while the original version was hidden for 70 years), a realization first published in 2000 by the University of Cambridge after scrupulous refereeing.
According to Standish, "Anyone who is acquainted with the facts and has any amount of logical reasoning can not avoid the conclusion that neither Cook, nor Peary, nor Byrd reached the North Pole; and they all knew it. ''
The first consistent, verified, and scientifically convincing attainment of the Pole was on 12 May 1926, by Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen and his US sponsor Lincoln Ellsworth from the airship Norge. Norge, though Norwegian - owned, was designed and piloted by the Italian Umberto Nobile. The flight started from Svalbard in Norway, and crossed the Arctic Ocean to Alaska. Nobile, with several scientists and crew from the Norge, overflew the Pole a second time on 24 May 1928, in the airship Italia. The Italia crashed on its return from the Pole, with the loss of half the crew.
In May 1937 the world 's first North Pole ice station, North Pole - 1, was established by Soviet scientists by air 20 kilometres (13 mi) from the North Pole. The expedition members: oceanographer Pyotr Shirshov, meteorologist Yevgeny Fyodorov, radio operator Ernst Krenkel, and the leader Ivan Papanin conducted scientific research at the station for the next nine months. By 19 February 1938, when the group was picked up by the ice breakers Taimyr and Murman, their station had drifted 2850 km to the eastern coast of Greenland.
In May 1945 an RAF Lancaster of the Aries expedition became the first Commonwealth aircraft to overfly the North Geographic and North Magnetic Poles. The plane was piloted by David Cecil McKinley of the Royal Air Force. It carried an 11 - man crew, with Kenneth C. Maclure of the Royal Canadian Air Force in charge of all scientific observations. In 2006, Maclure was honoured with a spot in Canada 's Aviation Hall of Fame.
Discounting Peary 's disputed claim, the first men to set foot at the North Pole were a Soviet party including geophysicists Mikhail Ostrekin and Pavel Senko, oceanographers Mikhail Somov and Pavel Gordienko, and other scientists and flight crew (24 people in total) of Aleksandr Kuznetsov 's Sever - 2 expedition (March -- May 1948). It was organized by the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route. The party flew on three planes (pilots Ivan Cherevichnyy, Vitaly Maslennikov and Ilya Kotov) from Kotelny Island to the North Pole and landed there at 4: 44pm (Moscow Time, UTC + 04: 00) on 23 April 1948. They established a temporary camp and for the next two days conducted scientific observations. On 26 April the expedition flew back to the continent.
Next year, on 9 May 1949 two other Soviet scientists (Vitali Volovich and Andrei Medvedev) became the first people to parachute onto the North Pole. They jumped from a Douglas C - 47 Skytrain, registered CCCP H - 369.
On 3 May 1952 U.S. Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Joseph O. Fletcher and Lieutenant William Pershing Benedict, along with scientist Albert P. Crary, landed a modified Douglas C - 47 Skytrain at the North Pole. Some Western sources considered this to be the first landing at the Pole until the Soviet landings became widely known.
The United States Navy submarine USS Nautilus (SSN - 571) crossed the North Pole on 3 August 1958. On 17 March 1959 USS Skate (SSN - 578) surfaced at the Pole, breaking through the ice above it, becoming the first naval vessel to do so.
Setting aside Peary 's claim, the first confirmed surface conquest of the North Pole was that of Ralph Plaisted, Walt Pederson, Gerry Pitzl and Jean Luc Bombardier, who traveled over the ice by snowmobile and arrived on 19 April 1968. The United States Air Force independently confirmed their position.
On 6 April 1969 Wally Herbert and companions Allan Gill, Roy Koerner and Kenneth Hedges of the British Trans - Arctic Expedition became the first men to reach the North Pole on foot (albeit with the aid of dog teams and airdrops). They continued on to complete the first surface crossing of the Arctic Ocean -- and by its longest axis, Barrow, Alaska to Svalbard -- a feat that has never been repeated. Because of suggestions (later proven false) of Plaisted 's use of air transport, some sources classify Herbert 's expedition as the first confirmed to reach the North Pole over the ice surface by any means. In the 1980s Plaisted 's pilots Weldy Phipps and Ken Lee signed affidavits asserting that no such airlift was provided. It is also said that Herbert was the first person to reach the pole of inaccessibility.
On 17 August 1977 the Soviet nuclear - powered icebreaker Arktika completed the first surface vessel journey to the North Pole.
In 1982 Ranulph Fiennes and Charles R. Burton became the first people to cross the Arctic Ocean in a single season. They departed from Cape Crozier, Ellesmere Island, on 17 February 1982 and arrived at the geographic North Pole on 10 April 1982. They travelled on foot and snowmobile. From the Pole, they travelled towards Svalbard but, due to the unstable nature of the ice, ended their crossing at the ice edge after drifting south on an ice floe for 99 days. They were eventually able to walk to their expedition ship MV Benjamin Bowring and boarded it on 4 August 1982 at position 80: 31N 00: 59W. As a result of this journey, which formed a section of the three - year Transglobe Expedition 1979 -- 1982, Fiennes and Burton became the first people to complete a circumnavigation of the world via both North and South Poles, by surface travel alone. This achievement remains unchallenged to this day.
In 1985 Sir Edmund Hillary (the first man to stand on the summit of Mount Everest) and Neil Armstrong (the first man to stand on the moon) landed at the North Pole in a small twin - engined ski plane. Hillary thus became the first man to stand at both poles and on the summit of Everest.
In 1986 Will Steger, with seven teammates, became the first to be confirmed as reaching the Pole by dogsled and without resupply.
On 6 May 1986 USS Archerfish (SSN 678), USS Ray (SSN 653) and USS Hawkbill (SSN - 666) surfaced at the North Pole, the first tri-submarine surfacing at the North Pole.
On 21 April 1987 Shinji Kazama of Japan became the first person to reach the North Pole on a motorcycle.
On 18 May 1987 USS Billfish (SSN 676), USS Sea Devil (SSN 664) and HMS Superb (S 109) surfaced at the North Pole, the first international surfacing at the North Pole.
In 1988 a 13 - man strong team (9 Soviets, 4 Canadians) skied across the arctic from Siberia to northern Canada. One of the Canadians, Richard Weber became the first person to reach the Pole from both sides of the Arctic Ocean.
On 4 May 1990 Børge Ousland and Erling Kagge became the first explorers ever to reach the North Pole unsupported, after a 58 - day ski trek from Ellesmere Island in Canada, a distance of 800 km.
On 7 September 1991 the German research vessel Polarstern and the Swedish icebreaker Oden reached the North Pole as the first conventional powered vessels. Both scientific parties and crew took oceanographic and geological samples and had a common tug of war and a football game on an ice floe. Polarstern again reached the pole exactly 10 years later with the Healy.
In 1998, 1999, and 2000 Lada Niva Marshs (special very large wheeled versions made by BRONTO, Lada / Vaz 's experimental product division) were driven to the North Pole. The 1998 expedition was dropped by parachute and completed the track to the North Pole. The 2000 expedition departed from a Russian research base around 114 km from the Pole and claimed an average speed of 20 -- 15 km / h in an average temperature of − 30 ° C.
Commercial airliner flights on the Polar routes may pass within viewing distance of the North Pole. For example, the flight from Chicago to Beijing may come close as latitude 89 ° N, though because of prevailing winds return journeys go over the Bering Strait. In recent years journeys to the North Pole by air (landing by helicopter or on a runway prepared on the ice) or by icebreaker have become relatively routine, and are even available to small groups of tourists through adventure holiday companies. Parachute jumps have frequently been made onto the North Pole in recent years. The temporary seasonal Russian camp of Barneo has been established by air a short distance from the Pole annually since 2002, and caters for scientific researchers as well as tourist parties. Trips from the camp to the Pole itself may be arranged overland or by helicopter.
The first attempt at underwater exploration of the North Pole was made on 22 April 1998 by Russian firefighter and diver Andrei Rozhkov with the support of the Diving Club of Moscow State University, but ended in fatality. The next attempted dive at the North Pole was organized the next year by the same diving club, and ended in success on 24 April 1999. The divers were Michael Wolff (Austria), Brett Cormick (UK), and Bob Wass (USA).
In 2005 the United States Navy submarine USS Charlotte (SSN - 766) surfaced through 155 cm (61 in) of ice at the North Pole and spent 18 hours there.
In July 2007 British endurance swimmer Lewis Gordon Pugh completed a 1 km (0.62 mi) swim at the North Pole. His feat, undertaken to highlight the effects of global warming, took place in clear water that had opened up between the ice floes. His later attempt to paddle a kayak to the North Pole in late 2008, following the erroneous prediction of clear water to the Pole, was stymied when his expedition found itself stuck in thick ice after only three days. The expedition was then abandoned.
By September 2007 the North Pole had been visited 66 times by different surface ships: 54 times by Soviet and Russian icebreakers, 4 times by Swedish Oden, 3 times by German Polarstern, 3 times by USCGC Healy and USCGC Polar Sea, and once by CCGS Louis S. St - Laurent and by Swedish Vidar Viking.
On 2 August 2007 a Russian scientific expedition Arktika 2007 made the first ever manned descent to the ocean floor at the North Pole, to a depth of 4.3 km (2.7 mi), as part of the research programme in support of Russia 's 2001 extended continental shelf claim to a large swathe of the Arctic Ocean floor. The descent took place in two MIR submersibles and was led by Soviet and Russian polar explorer Artur Chilingarov. In a symbolic act of visitation, the Russian flag was placed on the ocean floor exactly at the Pole.
The expedition was the latest in a series of efforts intended to give Russia a dominant influence in the Arctic according to the New York Times. The warming Arctic climate and summer shrinkage of the iced area has attracted the attention of many countries, such as China and the United States, toward the top of the world, where resources and shipping routes may soon be exploitable.
In 2009 the Russian Marine Live - Ice Automobile Expedition -- MLAE 2009 (Vasily Elagin as a leader, and a team of Sergey Larin, Afanasy Makovnev, Vladimir Obikhod, Alexey Ushakov, Alexey Shkrabkin, and Nikolay Nikulshin) reached the North Pole on two custom - built 6 x 6 low - pressure - tire ATVs -- Yemelya 1 and Yemelya 2 -- designed by Vasily Elagin, a known Russian mountain climber, explorer, and engineer. The vehicles reached the North Pole on 26 April 2009, 17: 30 (Moscow time). The expedition was supported by the Russian Geographical Society. The Russian Book of Records recognized it as the first successful vehicle trip to the Geographical North Pole.
On 1 March 2013 the Russian Marine Live - Ice Automobile Expedition -- MLAE 2013 (Vasily Elagin as a leader, and a team of Andrey Vankov, Sergey Isayev, Nikolay Kozlov, Afanasy Makovnev, Vladimir Obikhod, and Alexey Shkrabkin) on two custom - built 6 x 6 low - pressure - tire ATVs -- Yemelya 3 and Yemelya 4 -- started from Golomyanny Island (the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago) to the North Pole across drifting ice of the Arctic Ocean. The vehicles reached the Pole on 6 April and then continued to the Canadian coast. The coast was reached on 30 April 2013 (83 ° 08N, 075 ° 59W), and on 5 May 2013, the expedition finished in Resolute Bay, NU. The way between the Russian borderland (Machtovyi Island of the Severnaya Zemlya Archipelago, 80 ° 15N, 097 ° 27E) and the Canadian coast (83 ° 08N, 075 ° 59W) took 55 days; it was ~ 2300 km across drifting ice and about 4000 km in total. The expedition was totally self - dependent and used no external supplies. The expedition was supported by the Russian Geographical Society.
The sun at the North Pole is continuously above the horizon during the summer and continuously below the horizon during the winter. Sunrise is just before the March equinox (around 20 March); the sun then takes three months to reach its highest point of near 231⁄2 ° elevation at the summer solstice (around 21 June), after which time it begins to sink, reaching sunset just after the September equinox (around 23 September). When the sun is visible in the polar sky, it appears to move in a horizontal circle above the horizon. This circle gradually rises from near the horizon just after the vernal equinox to its maximum elevation (in degrees) above the horizon at summer solstice and then sinks back toward the horizon before sinking below it at the autumnal equinox. Hence the North and South Poles experience the slowest rates of sunrise and sunset on Earth.
A civil twilight period of about two weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset, a nautical twilight period of about five weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset and an astronomical twilight period of about seven weeks occurs before sunrise and after sunset.
These effects are caused by a combination of the Earth 's axial tilt and its revolution around the sun. The direction of the Earth 's axial tilt, as well as its angle relative to the plane of the Earth 's orbit around the sun, remains very nearly constant over the course of a year (both change very slowly over long time periods). At northern midsummer the North Pole is facing towards the sun to its maximum extent. As the year progresses and the Earth moves around the sun, the North Pole gradually turns away from the sun until at midwinter it is facing away from the Sun to its maximum extent. A similar sequence is observed at the South Pole, with a six - month time difference.
In most places on Earth, local time is determined by longitude, such that the time of day is more - or-less synchronised to the position of the sun in the sky (for example, at midday the sun is roughly at its highest). This line of reasoning fails at the North Pole, where the sun rises and sets only once per year, and all lines of longitude, and hence all time zones, converge. There is no permanent human presence at the North Pole and no particular time zone has been assigned. Polar expeditions may use any time zone that is convenient, such as Greenwich Mean Time, or the time zone of the country from which they departed.
The North Pole is substantially warmer than the South Pole because it lies at sea level in the middle of an ocean (which acts as a reservoir of heat), rather than at altitude on a continental land mass. Despite being an ice cap, it shares some characteristics with a tundra climate (ETf) due to the July and August temperatures peaking just above freezing.
Winter temperatures at the North Pole can range from about − 50 to − 13 ° C (− 58 to 9 ° F), averaging around − 31 ° C (− 24 ° F). However, a freak storm caused the temperature to reach 0.7 ° C (33 ° F) for a time at a World Meteorological Organization buoy, located at 87.45 ° N, on December 30, 2015. It was estimated that the temperature at the North Pole was between 30 and 35 ° F (− 1 and 2 ° C) during the storm. Summer temperatures (June, July, and August) average around the freezing point (0 ° C (32 ° F)). The highest temperature yet recorded is 13 ° C (55 ° F), much warmer than the South Pole 's record high of only − 12.3 ° C (9.9 ° F). A similar spike in temperatures would occur on November 15, 2016, and would last for several days.
The sea ice at the North Pole is typically around 2 to 3 m (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) thick, although ice thickness, its spatial extent, and the fraction of open water within the ice pack can vary rapidly and profoundly in response to weather and climate. Studies have shown that the average ice thickness has decreased in recent years. It is likely that global warming has contributed to this, but it is not possible to attribute the recent abrupt decrease in thickness entirely to the observed warming in the Arctic. Reports have also predicted that within a few decades the Arctic Ocean will be entirely free of ice in the summer. This may have significant commercial implications; see "Territorial Claims, '' below.
The retreat of the Arctic sea ice will accelerate global warming, as less ice cover reflects less solar radiation, and may have serious climate implications by contributing to Arctic cyclone generation.
Polar bears are believed rarely to travel beyond about 82 ° North owing to the scarcity of food, though tracks have been seen in the vicinity of the North Pole, and a 2006 expedition reported sighting a polar bear just 1 mi (1.6 km) from the Pole. The ringed seal has also been seen at the Pole, and Arctic foxes have been observed less than 60 km (37 mi) away at 89 ° 40 ′ N.
Birds seen at or very near the Pole include the snow bunting, northern fulmar and black - legged kittiwake, though some bird sightings may be distorted by the tendency of birds to follow ships and expeditions.
Fish have been seen in the waters at the North Pole, but these are probably few in number. A member of the Russian team that descended to the North Pole seabed in August 2007 reported seeing no sea creatures living there. However, it was later reported that a sea anemone had been scooped up from the seabed mud by the Russian team and that video footage from the dive showed unidentified shrimps and amphipods.
Currently, under international law, no country owns the North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The five surrounding Arctic countries, Russian Federation, Canada, Norway, Denmark (via Greenland), and the United States, are limited to a 200 - nautical - mile (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone around their coasts, and the area beyond that is administered by the International Seabed Authority.
Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has 10 years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 - mile exclusive economic zone. If validated, such a claim gives the claimant state rights to what may be on or beneath the sea bottom within the claimed zone. Norway (ratified the convention in 1996), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada (ratified in 2003) and Denmark (ratified in 2004) have all launched projects to base claims that certain areas of Arctic continental shelves should be subject to their sole sovereign exploitation.
In 1907 Canada invoked a "sector principle '' to claim sovereignty over a sector stretching from its coasts to the North Pole. This claim has not been relinquished, but was not consistently pressed until 2013.
In some children 's Western cultures, the geographic North Pole is described as the location of Santa Claus ' workshop and residence, although the depictions have been inconsistent between the geographic and magnetic North Pole. Canada Post has assigned postal code H0H 0H0 to the North Pole (referring to Santa 's traditional exclamation of "Ho ho ho! '').
This association reflects an age - old esoteric mythology of Hyperborea that posits the North Pole, the otherworldly world - axis, as the abode of God and superhuman beings. The popular figure of the pole - dwelling Santa Claus thus functions as an archetype of spiritual purity and transcendence.
As Henry Corbin has documented, the North Pole plays a key part in the cultural worldview of Sufism and Iranian mysticism. "The Orient sought by the mystic, the Orient that can not be located on our maps, is in the direction of the north, beyond the north. ''
Owing to its remoteness, the Pole is sometimes identified with a mysterious mountain of ancient Iranian tradition called Mount Qaf (Jabal Qaf), the "farthest point of the earth ''. According to certain authors, the Jabal Qaf of Muslim cosmology is a version of Rupes Nigra, a mountain whose ascent, like Dante 's climbing of the Mountain of Purgatory, represents the pilgrim 's progress through spiritual states. In Iranian theosophy, the heavenly Pole, the focal point of the spiritual ascent, acts as a magnet to draw beings to its "palaces ablaze with immaterial matter. ''
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freedom is my birthright bal gangadhar tilak full speech | Bal Gangadhar Tilak - Wikipedia
Bal Gangadhar Tilak (or Lokmanya Tilak, pronunciation (help info); 23 July 1856 -- 1 August 1920), born as Keshav Gangadhar Tilak, was an Indian nationalist, teacher, social reformer, lawyer and an independence activist. He was the first leader of the Indian Independence Movement. The British colonial authorities called him "The father of the Indian unrest. '' He was also conferred with the title of "Lokmanya '', which means "accepted by the people (as their leader) ''.
Tilak was one of the first and strongest advocates of Swaraj ("self - rule '') and a strong radical in Indian consciousness. He is known for his quote in Marathi: "Swarajya is my birthright and I shall have it! ''. He formed a close alliance with many Indian National Congress leaders including Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, Aurobindo Ghose, V.O. Chidambaram Pillai and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
Tilak was born in a Marathi Chitpavan Brahmin family in Ratnagiri as Keshav Gangadhar Tilak, as mentioned above. In headquarters of the eponymous district of present - day Maharashtra (then British India) on 23 July 1856. His ancestral village was Chikhali. His father, Gangadhar Tilak was a school teacher and a Sanskrit scholar who died when Tilak was sixteen. Tilak graduated from Deccan College, Pune in 1877. Tilak was amongst one of the first generation of Indians to receive a college education. In 1871 Tilak was married to Tapibai (Née Bal) when he was sixteen, a few months before his father 's death. After marriage, her name was changed to Satyabhamabai. He obtained his Bachelor of Arts in first class in Mathematics from Deccan College of Pune in 1877. He left his M.A. course of study midway to join the L.L.B course instead, and in 1879 he obtained his L.L.B degree from Government Law College. After graduating, Tilak started teaching mathematics at a private school in Pune. Later, due to ideological differences with the colleagues in the new school, he withdrew and became a journalist. Tilak actively participated in public affairs. He stated: "Religion and practical life are not different. To take Sanyas (renunciation) is not to abandon life. The real spirit is to make the country your family work together instead of working only for your own. The step beyond is to serve humanity and the next step is to serve God. ''
He organised the Deccan Education Society in 1884 with a few of his college friends, including Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Mahadev Ballal Namjoshi and Vishnushastri Chiplunkar. Their goal was to improve the quality of education for India 's youth. The Deccan Education Society was set up to create a new system that taught young Indians nationalist ideas through an emphasis on Indian culture. The Society established the New English School for secondary education and Fergusson College in 1885 for post-secondary studies. Tilak taught mathematics at Fergusson College. He began a mass movement towards independence by an emphasis on a religious and cultural revival. In 1890, Tilak left the society for more openly political work.
Tilak had a long political career agitating for Indian autonomy from the British rule. Before Gandhi, he was the most widely known Indian political leader. Unlike his fellow Maharashtrian contemporary, Gokhale, Tilak was considered a radical Nationalist but a Social conservative. He was imprisoned on a number of occasions that included a long stint at Mandalay. At one stage in his political life he was called "the father of Indian unrest '' by the British authorities.
Tilak joined the Indian National Congress in 1890. He opposed its moderate attitude, especially towards the fight for self - government. He was one of the most - eminent radicals at the time. In fact, it was the Swadeshi movement of 1905 - 1907 that resulted in the split within the Indian National Congress into the Moderates and the Extremists
Despite being personally opposed to early marriage, Tilak was against the 1891 Age of Consent bill, seeing it as interference with Hinduism and a dangerous precedent. The act raised the age at which a girl could get married from 10 to 12 years.
During late 1896, a bubonic plague spread from Bombay to Pune, and by January 1897, it reached epidemic proportions. British troops were brought in to deal with the emergency and harsh measures were employed including forced entry into private houses, examination of occupants, evacuation to hospitals and segregation camps, removing and destroying personal possessions, and preventing patients from entering or leaving the city. By the end of May, the epidemic was under control. Though the British authorities ' measures were well - meant, they were widely regarded as acts of tyranny and oppression. Tilak took up this issue by publishing inflammatory articles in his paper Kesari (Kesari was written in Marathi, and Maratha '' was written in English), quoting the Hindu scripture, the Bhagavad Gita, to say that no blame could be attached to anyone who killed an oppressor without any thought of reward. Following this, on 22 June 1897, Commissioner Rand and another British officer, Lt. Ayerst were shot and killed by the Chapekar brothers and their other associates. According to Barbara and Thomas R. Metcalf, Tilak "almost surely concealed the identities of the perpetrators ''. Tilak was charged with incitement to murder and sentenced to 18 months imprisonment. When he emerged from prison in present - day Mumbai, he was revered as a martyr and a national hero. He adopted a new slogan coined by his associate Kaka Baptista, "Swaraj (self - rule) is my birthright and I shall have it. ''
Following the Partition of Bengal, which was a strategy set out by Lord Curzon to weaken the nationalist movement, Tilak encouraged the Swadeshi movement and the Boycott movement. The movement consisted of the boycott of foreign goods and also the social boycott of any Indian who used foreign goods. The Swadeshi movement consisted of the usage of natively produced goods. Once foreign goods were boycotted, there was a gap which had to be filled by the production of those goods in India itself. Tilak said that the Swadeshi and Boycott movements are two sides of the same coin.
Tilak opposed the moderate views of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and was supported by fellow Indian nationalists Bipin Chandra Pal in Bengal and Lala Lajpat Rai in Punjab. They were referred to as the "Lal - Bal - Pal triumvirate ''. In 1907, the annual session of the Congress Party was held at Surat, Gujarat. Trouble broke out over the selection of the new president of the Congress between the moderate and the radical sections of the party. The party split into the radicals faction, led by Tilak, Pal and Lajpat Rai, and the moderate faction. Nationalists like Aurobindo Ghose, V.O. Chidambaram Pillai were Tilak supporters.
During his lifetime among other political cases, Bal Gangadhar Tilak had been tried for Sedition Charges in three times by British India Government -- in 1897, 1909, and 1916. In 1897, Tilak was sentenced to 18 months in prison for preaching disaffection against the Raj. In 1909, he was again charged with sedition and intensifying racial animosity between Indians and the British. The Bombay lawyer Muhammad Ali Jinnah in Tilak 's defence could not annul the evidence in Tilak 's polemical articles and Tilak was sentenced to six years in prison in Burma.
On 30 April 1908, two Bengali youths, Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose, threw a bomb on a carriage at Muzzafarpur, to kill the Chief Presidency Magistrate Douglas Kingsford of Calcutta fame, but erroneously killed two women traveling in it. While Chaki committed suicide when caught, Bose was hanged. Tilak, in his paper Kesari, defended the revolutionaries and called for immediate Swaraj or self - rule. The Government swiftly charged him with sedition. At the conclusion of the trial, a special jury convicted him by 7: 2 majority. The judge, Dinshaw D. Davar gave him a six years jail sentence to be served in Mandalay, Burma and a fine of Rs 1,000. On being asked by the judge whether he had anything to say, Tilak said:
All that I wish to say is that, in spite of the verdict of the jury, I still maintain that I am innocent. There are higher powers that rule the destinies of men and nations; and I think, it may be the will of Providence that the cause I represent may be benefited more by my suffering than by my pen and tongue.
In passing sentence, the judge indulged in some scathing strictures against Tilak 's conduct. He threw off the judicial restraint which, to some extent, was observable in his charge to the jury. He condemned the articles as "seething with sedition '', as preaching violence, speaking of murders with approval. "You hail the advent of the bomb in India as if something had come to India for its good. I say, such journalism is a curse to the country ''. Tilak was sent to Mandalay from 1908 to 1914. While imprisoned, he continued to read and write, further developing his ideas on the Indian nationalist movement. While in the prison he wrote the Gita Rahasya. Many copies of which were sold, and the money was donated for the Indian Independence movement..
Tilak developed diabetes during his sentence in Mandalay prison. This and the general ordeal of prison life had mellowed him at his release on 16 June 1914. When World War I started in August of that year, Tilak cabled the King - Emperor George V of his support and turned his oratory to find new recruits for war efforts. He welcomed The Indian Councils Act, popularly known as Minto - Morley Reforms, which had been passed by British Parliament in May 1909, terming it as "a marked increase of confidence between the Rulers and the Ruled ''. It was his conviction that acts of violence actually diminished, rather than hastening, the pace of political reforms. He was eager for reconciliation with Congress and had abandoned his demand for direct action and settled for agitations "strictly by constitutional means '' -- a line advocated by his rival Gokhale.
Tilak tried to convince Mohandas Gandhi to leave the idea of Total non-violence ("Total Ahimsa '') and try to get self - rule ("Swarajya '') by all means.
Later, Tilak re-united with his fellow nationalists and re-joined the Indian National Congress in 1916. He also helped find the All India Home Rule League in 1916 -- 18, with G.S. Khaparde and Annie Besant. After years of trying to reunite the moderate and radical factions, he gave up and focused on the Home Rule League, which sought self - rule. Tilak travelled from village to village for support from farmers and locals to join the movement towards self - rule. Tilak was impressed by the Russian Revolution, and expressed his admiration for Vladimir Lenin. The league had 1400 members in April 1916, and by 1917 membership had grown to approximately 32,000. Tilak started his Home Rule League in Maharashtra, Central Provinces, and Karnataka and Berar region. Besant 's League was active in the rest part of India.
Tilak, progressed into a prominent nationalist after his close association with Indian nationalists following the partition of Bengal. When asked in Calcutta whether he envisioned a Maratha - type of government for independent India, Tilak replied that the Maratha - dominated governments of 17th and 18th centuries were outmoded in the 20th century, and he wanted a genuine federal system for Free India where every religion and race was an equal partner. He added that only such a form of government would be able to safeguard India 's freedom. He was the first Congress leader to suggest that Hindi written in the Devanagari script be accepted as the sole national language of India.
Tilak sought to unite the Indian population for mass political action throughout his life. For this to happen, he believed there needed to be a comprehensive justification for anti-British pro-Hindu activism. For this end, he sought justification in the supposed original principles of the Ramayana and the Bhagavad Gita. He named this call to activism karma - yoga or the yoga of action. In his interpretation, the Bhagavad Gita reveals this principle in the conversation between Krishna and Arjuna when Krishna exhorts Arjuna to fight his enemies (which in this case included many members of his family) because it is his duty. In Tilaks opinion, the Bhagavad Gita provided a strong justification of activism. However, this conflicted with the mainstream exegesis of the text at the time which was predominated by renunciate views and the idea of acts purely for God. This was represented by the two mainstream views at the time by Ramanuja and Adi Shankara. To find support for this philosophy, Tilak wrote his own interpretations of the relevant passages of the Gita and backed his views using Jnanadeva 's commentary on the Gita, Ramanuja 's critical commentary and his own translation of the Gita. His main battle was against the renunciate views of the time which conflicted with worldly activism. To fight this, he went to extents to reinterpret words such as karma, dharma, yoga as well as the concept of renunciation itself. Because he found his rationalization on Hindu religious symbols and lines, this alienated many non-Hindus such as the Muslims who began to ally with the British for support.
Tilak was strongly opposed to liberal trends emerging in Pune. For example, he vehemently opposed the establishment of the first Native girls High school (now called Huzurpaga) in Pune in 1885 and its curriculum using his newspapers, the Mahratta and Kesari. Tilak was also opposed to intercaste marriage, particularly the match where an upper caste woman married a lower caste man. Tilak officially opposed the age of consent bill which raised the age of marriage from ten to twelve for girls, however he was willing to sign a circular that increased age of marriage for girls to sixteen and twenty for boys. In his opinion, self - rule took precedence over any social reform.
Tilak did not have a progressive view when it came to gender relations. He did not believe that Hindu women should get a modern education. Rather, he had a more conservative view, believing that women were meant to be homemakers who had to subordinate themselves to the needs of their husbands and children.
Tilak and Swami Vivekananda had great mutual respect and esteem for each other. They met accidentally while travelling by train in 1892 and Tilak had Vivekananda as a guest in his house. A person who was present there (Basukaka), heard that it was agreed between Vivekananda and Tilak that Tilak would work towards nationalism in the "political '' arena, while Vivekananda would work for nationalism in the "religious '' arena. When Vivekanada passed away at a young age, Tilak expressed great sorrow and paid tributes to him in the Kesari. Tilak said about Vivekananda:
"No Hindu, who, has the interests of Hinduism at his heart, could help feeling grieved over Vivekananda 's samadhi. Vivekananda, in short, had taken the work of keeping the banner of Advaita philosophy forever flying among all the nations of the world and made them realize the true greatness of Hindu religion and of the Hindu people. He had hoped that he would crown his achievement with a fulfillment of this task by virtue of his learning, eloquence, enthusiasm and sincerity, just as he had laid a secure foundation for it; but with Swami 's samadhi these hopes have gone. Thousands of years ago, another saint, Shankaracharya, who, showed to the world the glory and greatness of Hinduism. At the fag of the 19th century, the second Shankaracharya is Vivekananda, who, showed to the world the glory of Hinduism. His work has yet to be completed. We have lost our glory, our independence, everything. ''
Shahu had several conflicts with Tilak as the latter agreed with the Brahmin decision of puranic rituals for the Marathas that were intended for Shudras. Tilak even suggested that the Marathas should be "content '' with the Shudra status assigned to them by the Brahmins. Tilak 's newspapers as well as the press in Kolhapur criticized Shahu for his caste prejudice and his unreasoned hostility towards Brahmins. These included serious allegations such as sexual assaults by Shahu against four Brahmin women. An englishwoman named lady Minto was petitioned to help them. The agent of Shahu had blamed these allegations on the "troublesome brahmins ''. Tilak and another Brahmin suffered from the confiscation of estates by Shahu, the first during a quarrel between Shahu and the Shankaracharya of Sankareshwar and later in another issue.
Tilak started two weeklies, Kesari ("The Lion '') in Marathi and Mahratta in English (sometimes referred as ' Maratha ' in Academic Study Books) in 1880 -- 81 with Gopal Ganesh Agarkar as the first editor. By this he was recognized as ' awakener of India '. As Kesari later became a daily and continues publication to this day.
In 1894, Tilak transformed the household worshipping of Ganesha into a grand public event (Sarvajanik Ganeshotsav). The celebrations consisted of several days of processions, music and food. They were organized by the means of subscriptions by neighbourhood, caste, or occupation. Students often would celebrate Hindu and national glory and address political issues; including patronage of Swadeshi goods.
In 1895, Tilak founded the Shri Shivaji Fund Committee for celebration of "Shiv Jayanti '', the birth anniversary of Chhatrapati Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire. The project also had the objective of funding the reconstruction of the tomb (Samadhi) of Shivaji at Raigad Fort. For this second objective, Tilak established the Shri Shivaji Raigad Smarak Mandal along with Senapati Khanderao Dabhade II of Talegaon Dabhade, who became the founder President of the Mandal.
The events like the Ganapati festival and Shiv Jayanti were used by Tilak to build a national spirit beyond the circle of educated elite in opposition to colonial rule. But it also exacerbated Hindu - Muslim differences. The festival organizers would urge Hindus to protect cows and boycott the Muharram celebrations organized by Shi'a Muslims, in which Hindus had formerly often participated. Thus, although the celebrations were meant to be a way to oppose colonial rule, they also contributed to religious tensions. Contemporary Marathi Hindu nationalist parties like the Shivsena took up his reverence for Shivaji.
The Deccan Education Society that Tilak founded with others in the 1880s still runs Institutions in Pune like the Fergusson College.
The Swadeshi movement started by Tilak at the beginning of the 20th century became part of the Independence movement until that goal was achieved in 1947. One can even say Swadeshi remained part of Indian Government policy until the 1990s when the Congress Government liberalised the economy.
Tilak Smarak Ranga Mandir, a theatre auditorium in Pune is dedicated to him. In 2007, the Government of India released a coin to commemorate the 150th birth anniversary of Tilak.
Tilak said, "I regard India as my Motherland and my Goddess, the people in India are my kith and kin, and loyal and steadfast work for their political and social emancipation is my highest religion and duty ''.
Lokmanya: Ek Yug Purush is a film released on January 2, 2015 based on his life. Directed by Om Raut, Tilak is played by actor Subodh Bhave.
Tilak 's son, Shridhar was a campaigner for social reforms in India. Shridhar 's son, Jayantrao Tilak (1921 - 2001) was editor of the Kesari newspaper for many years. Jayantrao was also a politician from the Congress party. He was a member of the Parliament of India representing Maharashtra in the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Indian Parliament. He was also a member of the Maharashtra Legislative Council.
Mukta Tilak, the wife of Tilak 's great - grandson Shailesh Tilak was elected Pune 's mayor in 2017. Mukta Tilak is a Bhartiya Janata Party member.
Rohit Tilak, a descendant of Bal Gangadhar Tilak is a Pune based Congress party politician. In 2017, a woman with whom he had an extra-marital affair accused him of rape and other crimes. He is currently out on bail in connection with these charges.
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actor who played gary preston in the sitcom miranda | Miranda (TV series) - wikipedia
Miranda was a British television sitcom written by and starring comedian Miranda Hart. It originally aired on BBC Two from 9 November 2009 and later on BBC One. Developed from Hart 's semi-autobiographical BBC Radio 2 comedy Miranda Hart 's Joke Shop (2008), the situation comedy revolves around socially inept Miranda, who frequently finds herself in awkward situations. The show features actors Sarah Hadland, Tom Ellis, Patricia Hodge, Sally Phillips, James Holmes and Bo Poraj. It was filmed in front of live audiences at the BBC Television Centre and The London Studios.
Receiving positive comments from critics, Miranda won a Royal Television Society award and gained several BAFTA TV Award nominations. The series has since been regularly repeated on British television and is available in the United States through Hulu.
The episodes revolve around the difficulties Miranda (Miranda Hart) gets herself into. She is 6 ft 1 in (185 cm) tall and, sometimes mistaken for a man, is addressed as ' Sir '. She has never fit in with her old boarding school friends, Tilly (Sally Phillips) and Fanny (Katy Wix), and finds social situations awkward, especially around men. She is a constant disappointment to her mother, Penny (Patricia Hodge), who is desperate for her to get a proper job and a husband. Although Miranda owns and lives above her own joke shop and boutique, she lacks any real capacity for business, so it is managed by her childhood friend Stevie Sutton (Sarah Hadland). The restaurant next door is initially run by Clive Evans (James Holmes), until series three, when the restaurant 's chef, Gary Preston (Tom Ellis), purchases it from him. After many failed attempts at dating, Miranda and Gary, a friend from university whom Miranda fancies, decide to be just friends. Nevertheless, when Gary gets a girlfriend called Rose (Naomi Bentley), it prompts Miranda to start a new relationship with Michael Jackford (Bo Poraj), a local reporter whose work soon takes him to Africa. Upon his return he proposes to Miranda, as does Gary when he realises his love for her. Miranda accepts Gary 's proposal rather than Michael 's and Miranda and Gary get married in the final episode.
Abigail Wilson, who worked for comedians Dawn French and Jennifer Saunders, suggested Hart pitch a show to the BBC after seeing her perform in 2003. Following a read - through of her script with Saunders and BBC executives, a television pilot, based on her semi-autobiographical writing, was filmed in early 2008, and the series was then developed into a sitcom for radio; Miranda Hart 's Joke Shop aired on BBC Radio 2 in August and September 2008. A television series was commissioned in August 2008 and began filming in June 2009. Outdoor shots for series one were filmed in Hounslow, West London.
In an interview with the BBC 's Writersroom, Hart said of the semi-autobiographical basis for the series:
Well I developed this stand - up persona, and that 's where it all started from. I realised I was getting laughs being a version of me, and that 's what ended up in the sitcom. You do ultimately start from yourself but I 'm pleased to say I did have to exaggerate for comedic effect. It was n't entirely autobiographical. I 'm not quite that mad.
Each episode begins with a welcome to audience and a ' Previously in my life... ' segment, and Hart says a joke shop is the "right place '' as the setting after being asked to consider an office to "normalise '' the character. Her love of 1970s comedy programmes, such as Some Mothers Do ' Ave ' Em, is the influence for Miranda. The episodes end with a ' You have been watching... ' credits section where each cast member waves goodbye, as seen concluding Jimmy Perry and David Croft sitcoms such as Dad 's Army and Hi - de-Hi!. Quoted in The Times, Hart says "I 'm saying this is what I 'm doing and I 'm not scared to do it. Some of my comedy peers do slightly fear being a mainstream figure, as if it 's slightly uncool. Well, I thought I 'm going to embrace it. '' Throughout each episode, Hart breaks the fourth wall and addresses the audience directly, a technique described as a "simple creative decision (that) makes this infectious comedy sing ''; another critic stated "this is hard to pull off, but it works well ''.
Following the conclusion of the first series, the BBC commissioned a second series for BBC Two in 2010. Of this, Hart said "I am not only relieved but totally overwhelmed by the response and thrilled that people have enjoyed the series. I am very grateful for all the support and to the BBC for giving me the chance to do another series next year. '' Filming started during the first weeks of summer, and the new series began broadcast in November 2010. The second series comprises six episodes and saw the return of Miranda 's mother and friends, Stevie, Gary and Tilly.
For the BBC broadcast, following the end of each episode viewers could press the red button, or go online, to watch Hart interview a guest who had inspired her during the writing of the show. Hart 's friend Clare Balding was the first guest and they discussed how Balding influenced the character of Tilly. Frank Skinner was interviewed for the second episode. Following the end of episode five, which is a two - hander between Miranda and Penny, the red - button feature saw Hart interview her real - life mother. In late 2010, Hart announced that she would be filming a special edition of Miranda for Comic Relief. The sketch saw Miranda team up with dancers from Pineapple Dance Studios.
Miranda was recommissioned for a third series by BBC Comedy commissioner Cheryl Taylor in January 2011. Hart revealed that the third series might not be ready until 2012, but she may write a Christmas special. The following month it was announced that the third series of Miranda would be shown on BBC One. In April 2011, Hart announced on The Graham Norton Show that she had set herself to start writing the third series the following month. However, Hart revealed in November she had still not started writing the series. That same month it was announced Hart would not be doing a new Christmas special, though the 2010 Christmas episode would be repeated on BBC One.
On 17 December 2011, Andrew Mickel of Digital Spy reported Hart 's involvement with BBC One drama Call the Midwife had delayed the third series of Miranda until Autumn 2012. Filming on the third series ended in early October 2012. A month later, a BBC News reporter revealed that Gary Barlow would appear in an episode of the third series as himself. They stated that he would "get friendly in an unexpected way '' with Hart. The third series began broadcasting from 26 December 2012. The outdoor scenes for the second episode of the third series were filmed in Church Street, Kingston upon Thames.
Due to the cliffhanger at the end of the third series, it was suspected that Miranda would return for a fourth series. However, in July 2014, Hart announced that there are no plans for a fourth series but ' a couple of specials ' would be made. Hart later announced that the two Christmas specials would be the end to the sitcom. Hart said the end was "going to be really emotional, '' but added that she did n't want her sitcom character "to keep falling over and making a fool of herself ''.
The first special, titled "I Do, But To Who? '' aired on 25 December 2014 and the final episode titled "The Final Curtain '' aired on 1 January 2015.
At the end of the final episode, Miranda said to the audience / viewers: "I do n't know when and if I 'll see you again... '' In June 2015, Miranda Hart revealed that she had n't ruled out a possible return for Miranda.
Sarah Hadland has suggested that the sitcom is set to return. Speaking in an interview with The Telegraph, the actress -- who plays Miranda 's friend Stevie in the show -- confirmed that the comedy will be back "in some format ''. However, she would n't be drawn on specifics, just saying: "I can say there will be something ''.
In late May 2017, Tom Ellis suggested the possibility of future episodes in an interview on BBC Radio 2, saying that "we may be revisiting Miranda in the next couple of years ''.
The main cast of Miranda (aside from Ellis and Holmes), reunited for the 2017 Royal Variety Performance, for which Hart was the host. They appeared several times throughout the evening in character.
The first series was picked as one of the top 10 forthcoming TV shows for Autumn 2009 by The Sunday Times. Ahead of the first episode airing, Dominic Maxwell in an article for The Times described it as an "old - school '' sitcom and said that "It 's good fun, if you buy into it. And if you do, it 's because of Hart. '' Also describing it as "old - fashioned '', Vicky Frost for The Guardian said of the slapstick physical comedy that "It 's not clever -- but it is funny. And that, I think is at the heart of Miranda 's appeal. '' Mark Wright for The Stage said that Hodge gives a "brilliant, brilliant performance '' and that "what sets Miranda out as something special is Hart herself, and the rest just gels around her. '' The first series opened with 2.63 million viewers (10 % audience share), rising to 3.14 million viewers (12 % share) for the fourth episode.
The second series opened with 3.19 million viewers, rising to 4.01 million viewers for the third episode. Rachel Tarley from the Metro said Miranda is an acquired taste and that an episode can be a mixed bag. However, Tarley enjoyed the festive episode of series 2, saying "Hart got away with a lot of the more irritating qualities of her work, with help from the fantastic Patricia Hodge and Sally Phillips. Tonight was also the first we saw of Miranda 's father, played by Tom Conti, who filled most of the episode 's falling - over quota, so that Miranda finally remained pretty vertical throughout the episode. '' She added that Hart is "a great observer of everyday dilemmas '' and the best thing of all is she left the door open for a third series. Dominic Cavendish of The Daily Telegraph called Miranda "the sitcom of the year '', while Chris Harvey of the same newspaper said "The truth is, pretty much every time Miranda turns and looks at the camera, I burst out laughing. And even when her slapstick is so obvious it would n't confuse a small child (...) I still laugh. Even when I 'm trying not to. Even when I really, really do n't want to. '' Meanwhile, Catherine Gee said the show was a flop and listed six reasons why, which included unoriginal jokes, Hart 's asides to the camera and the show retaining "the worst aspects of the sitcoms of yesteryear. ''
The opening episode of the third series became one of the most watched shows in the UK over the Christmas period, attracting a total audience of over 11.5 million viewers. For The Telegraph, Michael Deacon compares the programme to a childish Christmas panto, finally adding, "Perhaps I 'm just getting old. I 'm sure I 'd have loved this show when I was six. '' Keith Watson, writing for Metro, says the series three finale is a "great end to an up - to - scratch season, Miranda never fails to cheer up an evening, reminding many of us that we are n't alone in the everyday awkward situations that we might find ourselves in -- to some extent, anyway. ''
George Entwistle stated, "Miranda 's been a tremendous hit with audiences on BBC Two and I 'm very glad she 's let us persuade her to move to BBC One, where we believe we can build an even bigger following for her multi-award - winning show. BBC Two has done an exceptional job of supporting and nurturing Miranda over a number of years and I 'm certain she 'll be equally well looked after at BBC One. ''
In March 2010, Hart won the comedy performance prize at the 2009 Royal Television Society Awards for her role; the series was also nominated for the scripted comedy and comedy writing (for Hart, Cary and Hurst) awards. The series also gained two nominations at the 2010 British Academy Television Awards: scripted comedy and female comedy performance for Hart. Both Hart and Hodge received Best Actress nominations at the 2010 Monte Carlo Television Festival. In November 2010, Miranda was nominated for Best Comedy Programme at the Broadcast Awards. In January 2011, the show won Best New British TV Comedy at the British Comedy Awards, while Hart won Best TV Comedy Actress and the People 's Choice Award For The King Or Queen Of Comedy 2010. Miranda was also nominated for Best Sitcom.
Hart won Best Comedy Performance and Miranda was named Best Scripted Comedy at the Royal Television Society Awards in March 2011. Miranda earned the award for Best Comedy Show at the 37th Broadcasting Press Guild Awards. Juliet May received a nomination for Best Director at the 2011 British Academy Television Craft Awards. Hart and the show received nominations from the British Academy Television Awards for Female Performance in a Comedy Role and the YouTube Audience Award respectively. In December 2011, Hart won Best TV Comedy Actress at the 22nd British Comedy Awards. She also earned nominations for Best Female TV Comic and the People 's Choice Award For The King Or Queen Of Comedy. Miranda was nominated for Best Sitcom. 2013 saw Hart nominated for Best Female Performance in a Comedy Programme at the British Academy Television Awards.
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when are the world cup awards given out | FIFA World Cup awards - wikipedia
At the end of each FIFA World Cup final tournament, several awards are presented to the players and teams which have distinguished themselves in various aspects of the game.
There are currently five post-tournament awards, and one given during the tournament:
Two other awards were given between 1994 and 2006:
The Golden Ball award is presented to the best player at each FIFA World Cup finals, with a shortlist drawn up by the FIFA technical committee and the winner voted for by representatives of the media. Those who finish as runners - up in the vote receive the Silver Ball and Bronze Ball awards as the second and third most outstanding players in the tournament respectively. The current award was introduced in the 1982 FIFA World Cup, sponsored by Adidas and France Football, though fifa.com also lists in their player articles as "golden ball winners '' Kempes, Cruyff, Pelé, Bobby Charlton, Garrincha and Didi for 1978, 1974, 1970, 1966, 1962 and 1958 respectively. Barcelona is the only club whose players have won the Golden Ball a record 3 times (Johan Cruyff in 1974, Romário in 1994, Lionel Messi in 2014).
The Golden Boot or Golden Shoe Award goes to the top goalscorer of the FIFA World Cup. While every World Cup had a ranking of the goalscorers, the first time an award was given was in 1982, under the name Golden Shoe. It was rechristened Golden Boot in 2010. FIFA sometimes lists the top goalscorers of previous Cups among the Golden Boot winners.
If there is more than one player with the same number of goals, since 1994 the tie - breaker goes to the player without a penalty goal, if none has a penalty then the tie breaker goes to the person with more assists - with the FIFA Technical Study Group deciding whether an assist is to be counted as such. If there is still more than one player, the tie - breaker since 2006 goes to the player who has played the least amount of time, which translates to a higher goal average.
The Golden Glove Award is awarded to the best goalkeeper of the tournament. The award was introduced with the name Lev Yashin Award in 1994, in honor of the late Soviet goalkeeper. The FIFA Technical Study Group recognises the top goalkeeper of the tournament based on the player 's performance throughout the final competition. Although goalkeepers have this specific award for their position, they are still eligible for the Golden Ball as well, as when Oliver Kahn was awarded in 2002. In the event of a tie, the Golden Glove Award goes to the goalkeeper who progressed furthest in the competition. The next tiebreakers are saves made, then minutes played.
Although the Golden Glove Award was first awarded in 1994, every All - Star Team in World Cups prior to 1998 except 1990 included only one goalkeeper.
The Best Young Player award was awarded for the first time at the 2006 World Cup in Germany and given to Germany 's Lukas Podolski. The award is given to the best player in the tournament who is at most 21 years old. For the 2018 World Cup, this meant that the player had to have been born on or after 1 January 1997. The election took place on FIFA 's official World Cup website with the help of The FIFA Technical Study Group.
FIFA organised a survey on the Internet for users to choose the "best young player '' of the World Cup, between 1958 and 2002, named the best young player of each tournament. With 61 % of the overall vote, the winner was Pelé, who finished ahead of the Peruvian Teófilo Cubillas, the best young player at Mexico 1970, and England 's Michael Owen, who reached similar heights at France 98.
The FIFA Fair Play Trophy is given to the team with the best record of fair play during the World Cup final tournament since 1970. Only teams that qualified for the second round are considered. The winners of this award earn the FIFA Fair Play Trophy, a diploma, a fair play medal for each player and official, and $50,000 worth of football equipment to be used for youth development.
The appearance of the award was originally a certificate. From 1982 to 1990, it had been a golden trophy based on Sport Billy, a football - playing cartoon character from 1982 who became an icon for FIFA Fair play. Ever since 1994, it is simply a trophy with an elegant footballer figure. Peru was the first nation to win the award after receiving no yellow or red cards in the 1970 FIFA World Cup held in Mexico.
The Man of the Match award picks the outstanding player in every game of the tournament since 2002. While the inaugural two editions were chosen by the technical group, the Man of the Match is since 2010 picked by an online poll on FIFA 's website.
Total awards As of 15 July 2018
By Country As of 15 July 2018
The FIFA Award for the Most Entertaining Team is a subjectively awarded prize for the team that had done the most to entertain the public with a positive approach to the game, organised through public participation in a poll starting in 1994.
The All - Star Team is a team of the best performers at the respective World Cup finals. The ways in which the FIFA All - Star team members have been chosen has varied from year to year. A technical study group consisting of journalists - mostly from Europe and South America - and experts has historically chosen the team. However, in 1994 FIFA decided to add an official squad, chosen by the FIFA technical group and under the brand name MasterCard All - Star Team. For 1998, 2002 and 2006, substitute and reserve members were also nominated for full 22 and 23 - player squads. The All - Star team wound up dropped prior to the 2010 tournament - coincidentally, three years after FIFA changed its sponsorship from MasterCard to Visa.
Enrique Ballestrero
José Nasazzi Milutin Ivković
Luis Monti Álvaro Gestido José Leandro Andrade
Pedro Cea Héctor Castro Héctor Scarone Guillermo Stábile Bert Patenaude
Ricardo Zamora
Jacinto Quincoces Eraldo Monzeglio
Luis Monti Attilio Ferraris Leonardo Cilaurren
Giuseppe Meazza Raimundo Orsi Enrique Guaita Matthias Sindelar Oldřich Nejedlý
František Plánička
Pietro Rava Alfredo Foni Domingos da Guia
Michele Andreolo Ugo Locatelli
Silvio Piola Gino Colaussi György Sárosi Gyula Zsengellér Leônidas
Roque Máspoli
Erik Nilsson José Parra Víctor Rodríguez Andrade
Obdulio Varela Bauer Alcides Ghiggia Jair
Zizinho Ademir Juan Alberto Schiaffino
Gyula Grosics
Ernst Ocwirk Djalma Santos José Santamaría
Fritz Walter József Bozsik Nándor Hidegkuti Zoltán Czibor
Helmut Rahn Ferenc Puskás Sándor Kocsis
Harry Gregg
Djalma Santos Bellini Nílton Santos
Danny Blanchflower Didi Gunnar Gren Raymond Kopa
Pelé Garrincha Just Fontaine
Viliam Schrojf
Djalma Santos Cesare Maldini Valery Voronin Karl - Heinz Schnellinger
Mário Zagallo Zito Josef Masopust
Vavá Garrincha Leonel Sánchez
Gordon Banks
George Cohen Bobby Moore Vicente Silvio Marzolini
Franz Beckenbauer Mário Coluna Bobby Charlton
Flórián Albert Uwe Seeler Eusébio
Ladislao Mazurkiewicz
Carlos Alberto Atilio Ancheta Franz Beckenbauer Giacinto Facchetti
Gérson Rivellino Bobby Charlton
Pelé Gerd Müller Jairzinho
Sepp Maier
Ruud Krol Paul Breitner Elias Figueroa Franz Beckenbauer Berti Vogts
Wolfgang Overath Kazimierz Deyna Johan Neeskens
Rob Rensenbrink Johan Cruyff Grzegorz Lato
Ubaldo Fillol
Berti Vogts Ruud Krol Daniel Passarella Alberto Tarantini
Dirceu Teófilo Cubillas Rob Rensenbrink
Roberto Bettega Paolo Rossi Mario Kempes
Dino Zoff
Luizinho Júnior Claudio Gentile Fulvio Collovati
Zbigniew Boniek Falcão Michel Platini Zico
Paolo Rossi Karl - Heinz Rummenigge
Jean - Marie Pfaff
Josimar Manuel Amoros Júlio César
Jan Ceulemans Jean Tigana Michel Platini Diego Maradona
Preben Elkjær Larsen Emilio Butragueño Gary Lineker
Sergio Goycochea Luis Gabelo Conejo
Andreas Brehme Paolo Maldini Franco Baresi
Diego Maradona Lothar Matthäus Dragan Stojković Paul Gascoigne
Salvatore Schillaci Roger Milla Jürgen Klinsmann
Michel Preud'homme
Jorginho Márcio Santos Paolo Maldini
Dunga Krasimir Balakov Gheorghe Hagi Tomas Brolin
Romário Hristo Stoichkov Roberto Baggio
Fabien Barthez José Luis Chilavert
Roberto Carlos Marcel Desailly Lilian Thuram Frank de Boer Carlos Gamarra
Dunga Rivaldo Michael Laudrup Zinedine Zidane Edgar Davids
Ronaldo Davor Šuker Brian Laudrup Dennis Bergkamp
Oliver Kahn Rüştü Reçber
Roberto Carlos Sol Campbell Fernando Hierro Hong Myung - bo Alpay Özalan
Rivaldo Ronaldinho Michael Ballack Claudio Reyna Yoo Sang - chul
Ronaldo Miroslav Klose El Hadji Diouf Hasan Şaş
Gianluigi Buffon Jens Lehmann Ricardo
Roberto Ayala John Terry Lilian Thuram Philipp Lahm Fabio Cannavaro Gianluca Zambrotta Ricardo Carvalho
Zé Roberto Patrick Vieira Zinedine Zidane Michael Ballack Andrea Pirlo Gennaro Gattuso Luís Figo Maniche
Hernán Crespo Thierry Henry Miroslav Klose Luca Toni Francesco Totti
In addition to the 16 of the All - Star Team, 6 reserves were listed: Edwin van der Sar, Juan Sebastián Verón, Thierry Henry, Jay - Jay Okocha, Michael Owen, and Christian Vieri.
Again there were seven reserves: Iker Casillas, Cafu, Dietmar Hamann, Joaquín, Hidetoshi Nakata, Landon Donovan, and Marc Wilmots.
In 2010, an equivalent of the All Star Team was an online poll to FIFA.com Club members named "Dream Team '', sponsored by Yingli. The Dream Team poll returned the following edition sponsored by Oi, and again in 2018 sponsored by Hisense.
Iker Casillas
Philipp Lahm Sergio Ramos Carles Puyol Maicon
Xavi Bastian Schweinsteiger Wesley Sneijder Andrés Iniesta
David Villa Diego Forlán
Vicente del Bosque
Manuel Neuer
Marcelo Mats Hummels David Luiz Thiago Silva
Ángel Di María Toni Kroos James Rodríguez
Neymar Thomas Müller Lionel Messi
Joachim Löw
Thibaut Courtois
Marcelo Raphaël Varane Diego Godín Thiago Silva
Philippe Coutinho Luka Modrić Kevin De Bruyne
Cristiano Ronaldo Harry Kane Kylian Mbappé
While FIFA did not release an official list for 2014, official sponsor Castrol published a team of the tournament based on their Castrol Performance Index, which evaluates players ' performances through statistical data. Similarly, McDonald 's sponsored in 2018 a fantasy football game, whose team of highest - scoring players was published after the tournament.
Manuel Neuer
Marcos Rojo Mats Hummels Thiago Silva Stefan de Vrij
Oscar Toni Kroos Philipp Lahm James Rodríguez
Arjen Robben Thomas Müller
Thibaut Courtois
Andreas Granqvist Raphaël Varane Thiago Silva Yerry Mina
Denis Cheryshev Philippe Coutinho Luka Modrić
Harry Kane Eden Hazard Antoine Griezmann
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where does puss in boots movie take place | Puss in Boots (2011 film) - wikipedia
Puss in Boots is a 2011 American 3D computer - animated action comedy film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures. It was directed by Chris Miller (who also directed 2007 's Shrek the Third) and written by Brian Lynch and Tom Wheeler. It stars Antonio Banderas, Salma Hayek, Zach Galifianakis, Billy Bob Thornton and Amy Sedaris. The film was released in theaters on October 28, 2011 in Digital 3D and IMAX 3D.
Although the character of Puss in Boots originated in a European fairy tale in 1697, the film is a spin - off and prequel to the Shrek franchise. It follows the character Puss in Boots on his adventures before his first appearance in Shrek 2 in 2004. Accompanied by his friends, Humpty Dumpty and Kitty Softpaws, Puss is pitted against Jack and Jill, two murderous outlaws in ownership of legendary magical beans which lead to great fortune.
Puss in Boots grossed $554.9 million at the box office. It was nominated for Best Animated Feature at the 84th Academy Awards. A television series, titled The Adventures of Puss in Boots, premiered on Netflix in 2015. A sequel film, titled Puss in Boots 2: Nine Lives & 40 Thieves, was scheduled to be released in 2018, but was removed from the DreamWorks schedule in early 2015.
Puss in Boots (Antonio Banderas) is a talking cat named for his signature pair of boots. Puss is a fugitive on the run from the law, looking to restore his lost honor. He learns that the outlaw couple Jack (Billy Bob Thornton) and Jill (Amy Sedaris) have the magic beans he 's been looking for most of his life, which can lead him to a giant 's castle holding valuable golden goose eggs. When Puss tries to steal them from the outlaws ' room, a female cat named Kitty Softpaws interrupts, and both fail. Kitty is allied with Humpty Alexander Dumpty, a talking egg and Puss ' long - estranged childhood friend from the orphanage where he was raised. Puss tells Kitty his origin story and of his feelings of betrayal for a youthful misadventure when Humpty tricked Puss into helping commit a bank robbery in his hometown of San Ricardo; Puss has been on the run ever since. Humpty eventually convinces Puss to join them in finding the beans and retrieving the golden eggs.
The trio steal the beans from Jack and Jill and plant them in the desert. Puss and Kitty 's relationship becomes romantic. The trio ride the beanstalk into the clouds to find the castle of the late giant, while avoiding the Great Terror, a giant goose that guards the Golden Goose. When they realize the golden eggs are too heavy to carry, they steal the Goose, which is just a gosling, and escape the castle. While celebrating their victory, the group is ambushed by Jack and Jill, who knock Puss unconscious.
When Puss wakes up, he tracks Jack and Jill to San Ricardo where he learns the entire heist was a plot by Humpty to lure him home to be arrested, as revenge for abandoning him to the authorities when Humpty 's youthful heist went bad. Jack, Jill, and Kitty were involved in the con. After pleas from Imelda, his adoptive mother, Puss turns himself in to the guards while Humpty donates many golden eggs to the town and becomes a hero.
While in prison, Puss meets the original Jack from "Jack and the Beanstalk '' who warns him that the Great Terror is in fact the Goose 's mother, and it will stop at nothing to get its child back. Realizing Humpty intended to destroy the town all along, Puss lets a repentant Kitty help him break out of prison and she also tells him she loves him. Tracking him down just as the Great Terror arrives, Puss convinces Humpty to help him fight off the Great Terror, saying he knows Humpty is a good person at heart. Using the Goose as bait, Puss and Humpty lure the Great Terror out of the town. During the chase, Jack and Jill betray Humpty and try to take the Goose, but get crushed by the Great Terror. Humpty and the Goose are knocked off a bridge with Puss holding onto them. Humpty knows Puss can not hold both of them, so he lets go, sacrificing himself to save the Goose and the town. Humpty 's shell cracks open to reveal he was a golden egg on the inside. The Great Terror then takes the Goose and Humpty back to the giant 's castle.
Puss ' efforts to save San Ricardo make him a hero among the townspeople and Imelda. In the epilogue, Jack and Jill are recovering from their injuries, Humpty is shown once again in his regular egg form, wearing a golden egg suit, as he rides the Great Terror into the clouds, and Puss and Kitty kiss.
The film had been in development since 2004, when Shrek 2 was released. As a Shrek 2 spin - off, it was initially planned for release in 2008 as a direct - to - video film, then titled Puss in Boots: The Story of an Ogre Killer. By October 2006, the film was re-slated as a theatrical release due to market conditions, and due to DreamWorks Animation 's realization that the Puss character deserved more.
In September 2010, Guillermo del Toro signed on as executive producer. Discussing del Toro, Miller stated: "We worked out a system for him to come in once every few months or whenever we had something new to show him. If we needed someone to bounce ideas off of, he was always there, and if we had a problem we were tackling, we 'd get Guillermo on the red phone -- our emergency phone -- and ask him advice on what we should do with a certain character or scene. It was like having our own film school. '' Miller stated that del Toro was particularly involved in Humpty 's character design. "Guillermo loved the dreamy quality of Humpty Dumpty. He suggested we push that further, make him more like da Vinci. '' It was del Toro 's idea to make Humpty "an ingenious freak of nature '' who builds contraptions such as a flying machine. Del Toro rewrote the ending to redeem the character and deepen his relationship with Puss -- an unconventional conclusion for a children 's film. He helped design the fantasy elements of the giant 's castle, as well as the architecture of the town, which he conceived as "an amalgam of Spain and Mexico ''.
Except for Puss, the film features new characters. Citing the co-writer, David H. Steinberg, "It does n't overlap with Shrek at all. Partly that was done to tell an original Puss story, but partly because we did n't know what Shrek 4 were going to do with the characters and we could n't write conflicting storylines. '' The film was teased in Shrek Forever After, when Shrek finally shuts the book titled "Shrek '', and puts it away next to a book titled "Puss in Boots ''.
Puss in Boots is the first DreamWorks Animation feature film that was partly made in India. A Bangalore studio owned by Technicolor, which had mainly worked on TV specials and DVD bonus material, spent six months animating three major scenes in the film. The outsourcing had financial advantages, with 40 % less labor costs than in the US, but the primary reason for outsourcing to India was lack of personnel, due to the studio producing as many as three films a year.
The release date was originally set for November 4, 2011, but was pushed a week earlier to October 28, 2011. Anne Globe, head of worldwide marketing for DreamWorks Animation, said the decision to move the film 's release date a week earlier was to attract parents and their children to see the film before other family - friendly movies were released in November 2011.
The film was renamed Cat in Boots in the United Arab Emirates for officially unknown reasons, but it is suspected for religious and cultural reasons. According to the UAE 's The National Media Council, which is responsible for censorship, the UAE did n't have any involvement in the rename and that "the decision to change the name had been made by the Hollywood studio and the movie distributors in the UAE. '' Consequently, since the film 's distributor was based in the UAE, the same print was syndicated to all theaters throughout the Middle East. However, the name change was limited to the film 's original theatrical run, as merchandise and later regional home media release retained the film 's original title.
Henry Jackman, the composer for Puss in Boots, utilized folk instruments of traditional Latin music. Inspired by Spanish composer Manuel de Falla, Jackman blended guitars and Latin percussion with an orchestral sound influenced by Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. Mexican guitar duo Rodrigo y Gabriela contributed to Jackman 's score, and two of their songs, Diabolo Rojo and Hanuman were included in the soundtrack. Lady Gaga 's song "Americano '' was also featured in the film. The soundtrack for the film, featuring the original score by Jackman, was released on October 24, 2011, by Sony Classical.
Puss in Boots had its world premiere on October 16, 2011, aboard the Royal Caribbean International 's cruise ship Allure of the Seas, docked in Fort Lauderdale, Florida at the time. It was theatrically released in the United States on October 28, 2011. The film was digitally re-mastered into IMAX 3D, and was released in 268 North American IMAX theaters and at least 47 IMAX theaters outside North America.
Puss in Boots was released on DVD, Blu - ray and Blu - ray 3D on February 24, 2012. The movie was accompanied by a short animated film called Puss in Boots: The Three Diablos. As of July 2013, 7.2 million home entertainment units were sold worldwide.
Another featured extra short is "Klepto Kitty ''; a three - minute profile of Dusty the Klepto Kitty, a notorious cat in California who steals items from neighbors ' yards, some of it captured on a night vision kitty - cam, hung around Dusty 's neck by the Animal Planet network for their own documentary.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 84 % based on reviews from 147 critics, with an average rating of 6.8 out of 10. The website 's consensus is, "It is n't deep or groundbreaking, but what it lacks in profundity, Puss in Boots more than makes up for with an abundance of wit, visual sparkle, and effervescent charm. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 65 % based on 24 reviews. CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was an "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review, saying "Puss in Boots is a perfectly diverting romp that happens to showcase some of the best 3D work yet from a mainstream animated feature. Colorful, clever enough, free of cloying showbiz in - jokes, action - packed without being ridiculous about it and even well choreographed. '' Peter Debruge of Variety gave the film a positive review, saying "Puss ' origin story could easily stand on its own -- a testament to clever writing on the part of its creative team and an irresistible central performance by Antonio Banderas. '' Christy Lemire of the Associated Press gave the film three out of four stars, saying "For quick, lively, family friendly entertainment, "Puss in Boots '' works just fine, even in 3 - D, which is integrated thoughtfully into the narrative and does n't just feel like a gimmick. '' Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film three and a half stars out of five, saying "As good as Banderas and Hayek are together, Galifianakis is better, making Humpty - Dumpty, of all people, one of the more intriguing animated characters to come along in a while. He 's a nice surprise. '' Moira MacDonald of The Seattle Times gave the film three out of four stars, saying "I left dreaming of a world in which cats could tango - and when 's the last time a movie did that? '' Marjorie Baumgarten of The Austin Chronicle gave the film three out of five stars, saying "The seductive interplay of Banderas and Hayek, the barely recognizable vocal contributions of Galifianakis, and the Southern backwoods speech of Thornton and Sedaris all keep us attuned to the events on the screen. ''
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a C, saying "In the Shrek films, the joke of Puss in Boots, with his trilled consonants and penchant for chest - puffing sword duels, is that no one this cuddly should try to be this dashing. But in Puss in Boots, that joke wears out its welcome in 15 minutes. '' Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Puss in Boots does n't break any new ground in the storytelling department, and its reliance on go - go - go state - of - the - art action sequences grows wearying by the end, but the movie has a devilish wit that works for parent and child alike. '' Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News gave the film four out of five stars, saying "It 's always a pleasure to find a family film that respects its audience all the way up the line. '' Colin Covert of the Star Tribune gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Remember that toy where you yank a string and hear the sound of a barnyard animal? "Puss in Boots '' has about half as much entertainment value. '' Olly Richards of Empire gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Like most kittens, it 's not always perfectly behaved, but at least this new Puss adventure does n't have you reaching for the cinematic spray bottle. And thank goodness the spin - off does nothing to neuter the charismatic cat 's appeal. '' Stan Hall of The Oregonian gave the film a B, saying "Puss in Boots is n't particularly deep, nor does it take itself seriously -- it just wants to seek glory, win affection and cash in. Done, done and done. ''
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film four out of five stars, saying "Perhaps the most engaging thing about "Puss in Boots '' is that it never takes itself too seriously. '' Stephen Holden of The New York Times gave the film three and a half stars out of five, saying "It is a cheerfully chaotic jumble of fairy tale and nursery rhyme characters parachuted into a Spanish storybook setting. '' Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Basically, this toon is a tired riff on Sergio Leone 's spaghetti Westerns, punctuated by more puns and cat jokes than you can shake a litter box at. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three out of four stars, saying "With his impeccable comic timing and lyrical Spanish accent, Banderas ' swashbuckling charmer is an undeniable treat. '' Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Puss in Boots '' proves there is at least one cat with multiple lives. The feature - length animated spinoff - a star turn for the popular "Shrek '' supporting character voiced by Antonio Banderas - is almost shockingly good. And not just because a lot of you will approach it with lowered expectations. '' Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger gave the film three out of four stars, saying "An almost purr - fect little film that even a dog owner can enjoy. ''
Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal gave the film a positive review, saying "Puss made his debut in "Shrek 2, '' then did time in the two decreasingly funny sequels. Now he 's got a movie of his own, and not a moment too soon. '' Lisa Kennedy of The Denver Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "It would overstate matters to say Puss in Boots leaves its cat holding the bag (we had to get that in). But it also leaves its hero awaiting a richer fable, one befitting his charms and his portrayer 's talents. '' Anna Smith of Time Out gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Puss in Boots is uneven, but when it 's on course, cat fans will be in heaven. '' Amy Biancolli of the Houston Chronicle gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Puss in Boots prances along on three basic truths. One, cats are funny. Two, vain Spanish cats in high - heeled musketeer boots are even funnier. Lastly, booted, vain Spanish cats voiced by a breathy Antonio Banderas are flat - out hilarious. '' Tasha Robinson of The A.V. Club gave the film a C+, saying "Puss In Boots makes a great theme - park ride, a thrill - a-minute feast for the eyes and the semicircular canals. But while the settings are impressively multidimensional, the characters are flatter than old - school cel drawings. ''
The film grossed $149,260,504 in North America, and $405,726,973 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $554,987,477. It is the eleventh highest - grossing film of 2011 and is also the third highest - grossing animated film that year behind Kung Fu Panda 2 ($665.7 million) and Cars 2 ($559.9 million).
In North America, the film topped the box office on its opening day with $9.6 million. On its opening weekend, the film made $34,077,439, topping Saw III 's record ($33.6 million) for the highest Halloween weekend opening ever. It retained first place during its second weekend, with $33,054,644, declining only 3 %.
Outside North America, on its opening weekend, it earned second place with $17.2 million. The film opened at # 1 in both the UK with a weekend gross of £ 1.98 million ($3.1 million), and Australia, with $2.98 million. It topped the box office outside North America on its seventh weekend with $47.1 million from 40 countries. It ranks as the ninth highest - grossing film of 2011 outside North America. Its highest - grossing country after North America was Russia and the CIS ($50.6 million), followed by Germany ($33.9 million) and France and the Maghreb region ($33.2 million).
In November 2012, executive producer Guillermo del Toro said that they already did a couple of script drafts for a sequel, and that the director Chris Miller wants to take Puss on an adventure to exotic places. In April 2014, Antonio Banderas, the voice of Puss, said that the work on the sequel had just begun. In June 2014, the movie was titled Puss in Boots 2: Nine Lives & 40 Thieves and was scheduled to be released on November 2, 2018. Two months later, it was moved back to December 21, 2018. In January 2015, Puss in Boots 2 was removed from the release schedule following corporate restructuring and DreamWorks Animation 's new policy to release two films a year. Two months later, Banderas said in an interview that the script was under restructuring, and that Shrek may appear in the film.
The film also spawned an animated series that premiered on Netflix on January 16, 2015.
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who said walk tall and carry a big stick | Big stick ideology - wikipedia
Presidency
Big stick ideology, big stick diplomacy, or big stick policy refers to U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt 's foreign policy: "speak softly and carry a big stick. '' Roosevelt described his style of foreign policy as "the exercise of intelligent forethought and of decisive action sufficiently far in advance of any likely crisis. ''
The idea is negotiating peacefully but also having strength in case things go wrong. Simultaneously threatening with the "big stick '', or the military, ties in heavily with the idea of Realpolitik, which implies a pursuit of political power that resembles Machiavellian ideals. It is comparable to gunboat diplomacy, as used in international politics by imperial powers.
The first known use of the phrase occurs in a private letter from Roosevelt (then Governor of New York) to Henry L. Sprague, dated January 26, 1900. Roosevelt wrote, in a bout of happiness after forcing New York 's Republican committee to pull support away from a corrupt financial adviser:
I have always been fond of the West African proverb: "Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far. ''
In an article about an interview with Governor Roosevelt, published in the Brooklyn Daily Eagle on April 1, 1900, a reporter noted that "His motto, he says, he has taken from the South African people: ' Speak softly -- carry a big stick -- and you will go far. ' ''
Roosevelt would go on to be elected Vice President later that year, and subsequently used the aphorism publicly in an address to the Minnesota State Fair, entitled "National Duties '', on September 2, 1901:
A good many of you are probably acquainted with the old proverb: "Speak softly and carry a big stick -- you will go far. ''
Four days later, President William McKinley was shot by an assassin; his death a further eight days later elevated Roosevelt to the presidency.
Roosevelt 's attribution of the phrase to "a West African proverb '' was seen at the time as evidence of Roosevelt 's "prolific '' reading habits, but the claim that it originated in West Africa has been disputed. No earlier citation for the phrase has been found, and there is no record of the phrase being used in West Africa before Roosevelt 's time. It has been therefore suggested that he might have coined the phrase himself.
Although used before his presidency, Roosevelt used military muscle several times throughout his two terms with a more subtle touch to complement his diplomatic policies and enforcing the Monroe Doctrine throughout multiple interventions in Latin America. This included the Great White Fleet, 16 battleships which peacefully circumnavigated the globe as an illustration of United States ' rising yet neutral prestige under Roosevelt 's direction.
In the early 20th century, Venezuela was receiving messages from Britain and Germany about "Acts of violence against the liberty of British subjects and the massive capture of British vessels '' who were from the UK and the acts of Venezuelan initiative to pay off long - standing debts. After British and German forces took naval action with a blockade on Venezuela (1902 -- 1903), Roosevelt denounced the blockade. The blockade began the basis of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe doctrine. Though he had mentioned the basis of his idea beforehand in private letters, he officially announced the corollary in 1904, stating that he only wanted the "other republics on this continent '' to be "happy and prosperous ''. For that goal to be met, the corollary required that they "maintain order within their borders and behave with a just obligation toward outsiders ''.
Most historians, such as one of Roosevelt 's many biographers Howard K. Beale have summarized that the corollary was influenced by Roosevelt 's personal beliefs as well as his connections to foreign bondholders. The U.S. public was very "tense '' during the two - month blockade, and Roosevelt requested that Britain and Germany pull out their forces from the area. During the requests for the blockade 's end, Roosevelt stationed naval forces in Cuba, to ensure "the respect of Monroe doctrine '' and the compliance of the parties in question. The doctrine was never ratified by the senate or brought up for a vote to the American public. Roosevelt 's declaration was the first of many presidential decrees in the twentieth century that were never ratified.
The U.S. used the "big stick '' during "Canal Diplomacy '', the questionable diplomatic actions of the U.S. during the pursuit of a canal across Central America. Both Nicaragua and Panama featured canal related incidents of Big Stick Diplomacy.
In 1901, Secretary of State John Hay pressed the Nicaraguan Government for approval of a canal. Nicaragua would receive $1.5 million in ratification, $100,000 annually, and the U.S. would "provide sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity ''. Nicaragua then returned the contract draft with a change; they wished to receive, instead of an annual $100,000, $6 million in ratification. The U.S. accepted the deal, but after Congress approved the contract a problem of court jurisdiction came up. The U.S. did not have legal jurisdiction in the land of the future canal. An important note is that this problem was on the verge of correction, until Pro-Panama representatives posed problems for Nicaragua; the current leader (General José Santos Zelaya) did not cause problems, from the outlook of U.S. interests.
In 1899, the Isthmian Canal Commission was set up to determine which site would be best for the canal (Nicaragua or Panama) and then to oversee construction of the canal. After Nicaragua was ruled out, Panama was the obvious choice. A few problems had arisen, however. With the U.S. ' solidified interests in Panama (then a small portion of Colombia), both Colombia and the French company that was to provide the construction materials raised their prices. The U.S., refusing to pay the higher - than - expected fees, "engineered a revolution '' in Colombia. On November 3, 1903, Panama (with the support of the United States Navy) revolted against Colombia. Panama became a new republic, receiving $10 million from the U.S. alone. Panama also gained an annual payment of $250,000, and guarantees of independence. The U.S. gained the rights to the canal strip "in perpetuity ''. Roosevelt later said that he "took the Canal, and let Congress debate ''. After Colombia lost Panama, they tried to appeal to the U.S. by the reconsidering of treaties and even naming Panama City the capital of Colombia.
The U.S., after the Spanish -- American War, had many expansionists who wanted to annex Cuba. Many people felt that a foreign power (outside of the U.S.) would control a portion of Cuba, thus the U.S. could not continue with its interests in Cuba. Although many advocated annexation, this was prevented by the Teller Amendment, which states "hereby disclaims any disposition of intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said island except for pacification thereof, and asserts its determination, when that is accomplished, to leave the government and control of the island to its people. '' When summarized, this could mean that the U.S. would not interfere with Cuba and its peoples. The expansionists argued though, that the Teller Amendment was created "ignorant of actual conditions '' and that this released the U.S. from its obligation. Following the debate surrounding the Teller Amendment, the Platt Amendment took effect. The Platt Amendment (the name is a misnomer; the Platt Amendment is actually a rider to the Army Appropriation Act of 1901) was accepted by Cuba in late 1901, after "strong pressure '' from Washington. The Platt Amendment, summarized by Thomas A. Bailey in "Diplomatic History of the American People '':
With Platt Amendment in place, Roosevelt pulled the troops out of Cuba. This action was met with public unrest and outcries for annexation, with reasons ranging from "U.S. interests '' to "dominant white race ''. The Indianapolis News said, "It is manifest destiny for a nation to own the islands which border its shores. '' A year later, Roosevelt wrote,
Just at the moment I am so angry with that infernal little Cuban republic that I would like to wipe its people off the face of the earth. All that we wanted from them was that they would behave themselves and be prosperous and happy so that we would not have to interfere.
At the conclusion of the Russo - Japanese War in September 1905, President Roosevelt leveraged his position as a strong but impartial leader in order to negotiate a peace treaty between the two nations. "Speaking softly '' earned the President enough prestige to even merit a Nobel Peace Prize the following year for his efforts.
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when did china's one child policy end | One - child policy - wikipedia
The one - child policy, a part of the family planning policy, was a population planning policy of China. It was introduced in 1979 (after a decade long two - child policy), modified in the mid 1980s to allow rural parents a second child if the first was a daughter, and then lasted three more decades before being eliminated near the end of 2015. The policy allowed exceptions for many groups, including ethnic minorities. Provincial governments imposed fines for violations, and the local and national governments created commissions to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work.
According to the Chinese government, 400 million births were prevented, starting from 1969 a decade before the start of one child policy. Many scholars have disputed this claim, with Martin King Whyte and Wang et al contending that the policy had little effect on population growth or the size of the total population. China has been compared to countries with similar socioeconomic development like Thailand and Iran, along with the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, which achieved similar declines of fertility without a one - child policy. However, a recent demographic study challenged these scholars by showing that China 's low fertility was achieved two or three decades earlier than would be expected given its development, and that the official estimate of 400 million policy averted births is plausible. In addition, the combined effects of the one - child policy and the two - child policy that preceded it may have averted as many as 1 billion people in China by 2060 when one adds in all the eliminated descendants of the births originally averted by the policies. Although 76 % of Chinese people supported the policy in a 2008 survey, it was controversial outside of China.
In October 2015, the Chinese government announced that its family planning policy would change from the one - child policy to a two - child policy. The new law took effect on January 1, 2016, following its passage in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on December 27, 2015.
During the period of Mao Zedong 's leadership in China, the birth rate fell from 37 per thousand to 20 per thousand. Infant mortality declined from 227 per thousand births in 1949 to 53 per thousand in 1981, and life expectancy dramatically increased from around 35 years in 1948 to 66 years in 1976. Until the 1960s, the government encouraged families to have as many children as possible because of Mao 's belief that population growth empowered the country, preventing the emergence of family planning programs earlier in China 's development. The population grew from around 540 million in 1949 to 940 million in 1976. Beginning in 1970, citizens were encouraged to marry at later ages and have only two children.
Although the fertility rate began to decline, the Chinese government observed the global debate over a possible overpopulation catastrophe suggested by organizations such as Club of Rome and Sierra Club. While visiting Europe in 1979, one of the top Chinese officials, Song Jian, read two influential books of the movement, The Limits to Growth and A Blueprint for Survival. With a group of mathematicians, Song determined the correct population of China to be 700 million. A plan was prepared to reduce China 's population to the desired level by 2080, with the one - child policy as one of the main instruments of social engineering. In spite of some criticism inside the party, the plan (also referred to as the Family Planning Policy) was officially adopted in 1979. The plan called for families to have one child each in order to curb a then - surging population and limit the demands for water and other resources, as well as to alleviate social, economic, and environmental problems in China. The policy was formally implemented as a temporary measure on September 18, 1980.
The one - child policy was originally designed to be a One - Generation Policy. It was enforced at the provincial level and enforcement varied; some provinces had more relaxed restrictions. The one - child limit was most strictly enforced in densely populated urban areas.
Beginning in 1980, the official policy granted local officials the flexibility to make exceptions and allow second children in the case of "practical difficulties '' (such as cases in which the father is a disabled serviceman) or when both parents are single children, and some provinces had other exemptions worked into their policies as well. In most areas, families were allowed to apply to have a second child if their first - born is a daughter. Furthermore, families with children with disabilities have different policies and families whose first child suffers from physical disability, mental illness, or intellectual disability were allowed to have more children. However, second children were sometimes subject to birth spacing (usually 3 or 4 years). Children born in overseas countries were not counted under the policy if they do not obtain Chinese citizenship. Chinese citizens returning from abroad were allowed to have a second child. Sichuan province allowed exemptions for couples of certain backgrounds. By one estimate there were at least 22 ways in which parents could qualify for exceptions to the law towards the end of the one - child policy 's existence. As of 2007, only 36 % of the population were subjected to a strict one - child limit. 53 % were permitted to have a second child if their first was a daughter; 9.6 % of Chinese couples were permitted two children regardless of their gender; and 1.6 % -- mainly Tibetans -- had no limit at all.
Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, a new exception to the regulations was announced in Sichuan province for parents who had lost children in the earthquake. Similar exceptions had previously been made for parents of severely disabled or deceased children. People have also tried to evade the policy by giving birth to a second child in Hong Kong, but at least for Guangdong residents, the one - child policy was also enforced if the birth was given in Hong Kong or abroad.
In accordance with China 's affirmative action policies towards ethnic minorities, all non-Han ethnic groups are subjected to different laws and were usually allowed to have two children in urban areas, and three or four in rural areas. Han Chinese living in rural towns were also permitted to have two children. Because of couples such as these, as well as who simply pay a fine (or "social maintenance fee '') to have more children, the overall fertility rate of mainland China was close to 1.4 children per woman as of 2011.
The Family Planning Policy was enforced through a financial penalty in the form of the "social child - raising fee '', sometimes called a "family planning fine '' in the West, which was collected as a fraction of either the annual disposable income of city dwellers or of the annual cash income of peasants, in the year of the child 's birth. For instance, in Guangdong, the fee is between 3 and 6 annual incomes for incomes below the per capita income of the district, plus 1 to 2 times the annual income exceeding the average. Both members of the couple need to pay the fine.
As part of the policy, women were required to have a contraceptive intrauterine device (IUD) surgically installed after having a first child, and to be sterilized by tubal ligation after having a second child. From 1980 to 2014, 324 million Chinese women were fitted with IUDs in this way and 108 million were sterilized. Women who refused these procedures -- which many resented -- could lose their government employment and their children could lose access to education or health services. The IUDs installed in this way were modified such that they could not be removed manually, but only through surgery. In 2016, following the abolition of the one - child policy, the Chinese government announced that IUD removals would now be paid for by the government.
In 2013, Deputy Director Wang Peian of the National Health and Family Planning Commission said that "China 's population will not grow substantially in the short term ''. A survey by the commission found that only about half of eligible couples wish to have two children, mostly because of the cost of living impact of a second child.
In November 2013, following the Third Plenum of the 18th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, China announced the decision to relax the one - child policy. Under the new policy, families could have two children if one parent, rather than both parents, was an only child. This mainly applied to urban couples, since there were very few rural only children due to long - standing exceptions to the policy for rural couples. The coastal province of Zhejiang, one of China 's most affluent, became the first area to implement this "relaxed policy '' in January 2014. The relaxed policy has been implemented in 29 out of the 31 provinces, with the exceptions of Xinjiang and Tibet. Under this policy, approximately 11 million couples in China are allowed to have a second child; however, only "nearly one million '' couples applied to have a second child in 2014, less than half the expected number of 2 million per year. By May 2014, 241,000 out of 271,000 applications had been approved. Officials of China 's National Health and Family Planning Commission claimed that this outcome was expected, and that "second - child policy '' would continue progressing with a good start.
In 2016, 433 births and 211 deaths were recorded in Wulipu, Hubei. The birth rate was 8.9 ‰ and death rate was 4.3 ‰ resulting in a natural population increase of 4.6 ‰. In the results of a separate survey published by the Shayang County government, Wulipu 's population had increased from 48,044 to 48,132 during a survey period. 424 children were born during the survey period resulting in a birth rate of 8.82 ‰. During the same period, 63 people died, resulting in death rate of 1.31 ‰. Of the births in the survey, 406 (95.75 %) were in compliance with the family planning policy of China. 312 (73.58 %) of the births were the firstborn in the family. (All of these births were in compliance with the family planning policy of China.) Among the firstborn children, 157 were female. 107 (25.24 %) of the births were the second - born child in the family. 90 of these births were in compliance with the family planning policy of China. Among the second - born children, 47 were female. Five (1.18 %) of the births surveyed were neither the firstborn nor second - born child in the family. Four of these births were in compliance with the family planning policy of China. Among the children born who were neither firstborn nor second - born, two were female.
In October 2015, the Chinese news agency Xinhua announced plans of the government to abolish the one - child policy, now allowing all families to have two children, citing from a communiqué issued by the Communist Party "to improve the balanced development of population '' -- an apparent reference to the country 's female - to - male sex ratio -- and to deal with an aging population according to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. The new law took effect on 1 January 2016 after it was passed in the standing committee of the National People 's Congress on 27 December 2015.
The rationale for the abolition was summarized by former Wall Street Journal reporter Mei Fong: "The reason China is doing this right now is because they have too many men, too many old people, and too few young people. They have this huge crushing demographic crisis as a result of the one - child policy. And if people do n't start having more children, they 're going to have a vastly diminished workforce to support a huge aging population. '' China 's ratio is about five working adults to one retiree; the huge retiree community must be supported, and that will dampen future growth, according to Fong.
Since the citizens of China are living longer and having fewer children, the growth of the population imbalance is expected to continue, as reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation which referred to a United Nations projections forecast that "China will lose 67 million working - age people by 2030, while simultaneously doubling the number of elderly. That could put immense pressure on the economy and government resources. '' The longer term outlook is also pessimistic, based on an estimate by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, revealed by Cai Fang, deputy director. "By 2050, one - third of the country will be aged 60 years or older, and there will be fewer workers supporting each retired person. ''
Although many critics of China 's reproductive restrictions approve of the policy 's abolition, Amnesty International said that the move to the two - child policy would not end forced sterilizations, forced abortions, or government control over birth permits. Others also stated that the abolition is not a sign of the relaxation of authoritarian control in China. A reporter for CNN said, "It was not a sign that the party will suddenly start respecting personal freedoms more than it has in the past. No, this is a case of the party adjusting policy to conditions... The new policy, raising the limit to two children per couple, preserves the state 's role. ''
The abolition may not achieve a significant benefit, as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation analysis indicated: "Repealing the one - child policy may not spur a huge baby boom, however, in part because fertility rates are believed to be declining even without the policy 's enforcement. Previous easings of the one - child policy have spurred fewer births than expected, and many people among China 's younger generations see smaller family sizes as ideal. '' The CNN reporter adds that China 's new prosperity is also a factor in the declining birth rate, saying, "Couples naturally decide to have fewer children as they move from the fields into the cities, become more educated, and when women establish careers outside the home. ''
The one - child policy was managed by the National Population and Family Planning Commission under the central government since 1981. The Ministry of Health of the People 's Republic of China and the National Health and Family Planning Commission were made defunct and a new single agency National Health and Family Planning Commission took over national health and family planning policies in 2013. The agency reports to the State Council.
The policy was enforced at the provincial level through fines that were imposed based on the income of the family and other factors. "Population and Family Planning Commissions '' existed at every level of government to raise awareness and carry out registration and inspection work.
According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, it is complicated to evaluate the effects of the one - child policy on family outcomes because the Chinese government had already enacted aggressive family planning policy before the introduction of the one - child policy; seen a sharp drop in fertility rates before the enactment of the one - child policy; the one - child policy coincided with Chinese economic reform which would have contributed to reduced fertility rates; and other developing East Asian countries also experienced sharp declines in fertility rates. According to the study, "In general, very different views exist on how the one - child policy affected fertility: one group of studies argued that the one - child policy had a significant or decisive effect on fertility in China, while another group argued that socioeconomic development played a key role in China 's fertility decline. A plausible reconciliation of these views is that the one - child policy accelerated the already - occurring drop in fertility for a few years, but in the longer term, economic development played a more fundamental role in leading to and maintaining China 's low fertility level. To put it more bluntly, China 's fertility might well have dropped to the current low level with rapid economic development, even without the one - child policy, although the timeline of the decline would not appear quite the same. ''
The fertility rate in China continued its fall from 2.8 births per woman in 1979 (already a sharp reduction from more than five births per woman in the early 1970s) to 1.5 in 2010. This is similar to demographic transition seen in Thailand, Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu which have undergone similar changes in fertility rates without a one - child policy. China 's one - child policy significantly accelerated the advent of an aging society, radically altered the structure of the population, and helped create an aging population. While the policy may have achieved the stated demographic goals of preventing an estimated 200 million or more births (the official claim is 400 million), it produced many unintended and far - reaching consequences. These include a deficit of 40 million female babies, mostly as a direct consequence of illegal sex - selective abortions, and a population with an artificially large elderly demographic.
The sex ratio of a newborn infant (between male and female births) in mainland China reached 117: 100, and stabilized between 2000 and 2013, substantially higher than the natural baseline, which ranges between 103: 100 and 107: 100. It had risen from 108: 100 in 1981 -- at the boundary of the natural baseline -- to 111: 100 in 1990. According to a report by the National Population and Family Planning Commission, there will be 30 million more men than women in 2020, potentially leading to social instability, and courtship - motivated emigration.
The disparity in the gender ratio at birth increases dramatically after the first birth, for which the ratios remained steadily within the natural baseline over the 20 year interval between 1980 and 1999. Thus, a large majority of couples appear to accept the outcome of the first pregnancy, whether it is a boy or a girl. If the first child is a girl, and they are able to have a second child, then a couple may take extraordinary steps to assure that the second child is a boy. If a couple already has two or more boys, the sex ratio of higher parity births swings decidedly in a feminine direction. This demographic evidence indicates that while families highly value having male offspring, a secondary norm of having a girl or having some balance in the sexes of children often comes into play. Zeng 1993 reported a study based on the 1990 census in which they found sex ratios of just 65 or 70 boys per 100 girls for births in families that already had two or more boys. A study by Anderson & Silver (1995) found a similar pattern among both Han and non-Han nationalities in Xinjiang Province: a strong preference for girls in high parity births in families that had already borne two or more boys. This tendency to favour girls in high parity births to couples who had already borne sons was later also noted by Coale and Banister, who suggested as well that once a couple had achieved its goal for the number of males, it was also much more likely to engage in "stopping behavior '', i.e., to stop having more children.
The long - term disparity has led to a significant gender imbalance or skewing of the sex ratio. As reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, China has between 32 million and 36 million more males than would be expected naturally, and this has led to social problems. "Because of a traditional preference for baby boys over girls, the one - child policy is often cited as the cause of China 's skewed sex ratio... Even the government acknowledges the problem and has expressed concern about the tens of millions of young men who wo n't be able to find brides and may turn to kidnapping women, sex trafficking, other forms of crime or social unrest. '' The situation will not improve in the near future. According to the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, there will be 24 million more men than women of marriageable age by 2020.
According to a 2017 study in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, "existing studies indicate either a modest or minimal effect of the fertility change induced by the one - child policy on children education ''.
The one - child policy of China made it more expensive for parents with children to adopt, which may have had an effect upon the numbers of children living in state - sponsored orphanages. However, in the 1980s and early 1990s, poor care and high mortality rates in some state institutions generated intense international pressure for reform.
In the 1980s, adoptions accounted for half of the so - called "missing girls ''. Through the 1980s, as the one - child policy came into force, parents who desired a son but had a daughter often failed to report or delayed reporting female births to the authorities. Some parents may have offered up their daughters for formal or informal adoption. A majority of children who went through formal adoption in China in the later 1980s were girls, and the proportion who were girls increased over time.
In an interview with National Public Radio on October 30, 2015, Adam Pertman, president and CEO of the National Center on Adoption and Permanency, indicated that many young girls were adopted by citizens of other countries, particularly the United States, a trend which has been declining for some years. "The infant girls of yesteryear have not been available, if you will, for five, seven years. China has been... trying to keep the girls within the country... And the consequence is that, today, rather than those young girls who used to be available -- primarily girls -- today, it 's older children, children with special needs, children in sibling groups. It 's very, very different. ''
Since there are no penalties for multiple births, it is believed that an increasing number of couples are turning to fertility medicines to induce the conception of twins. According to a 2006 China Daily report, the number of twins born per year was estimated to have doubled.
The one - child policy has played a major role in improving the quality of life for women in China. For thousands of years, girls have held a lower status in Chinese households. However, the one - child policy 's limit on the number of children has prompted parents of women to start investing money in their well - being. As a result of being an only child, women have increased opportunity to receive an education, and support to get better jobs. One of the side effects of the one - child policy is to have liberated women from heavy duties in terms of taking care of many children and the family in the past; instead women had a lot of spare time for themselves to pursue their career or hobbies. The other major "side effect '' of the one child policy is that the traditional concepts of gender roles between men and women have weakened. Being one and the only "chance '' the parents have, women are expected to compete with peer men for better educational resources or career opportunities. Especially in cities where one - child policy was much more regulated and enforced, expectations on women to succeed in life are no less than on men.
It is reported that the focus of China on population planning helps provide a better health service for women and a reduction in the risks of death and injury associated with pregnancy. At family planning offices, women receive free contraception and pre-natal classes that contributed to the policy 's success in two respects. First, the average Chinese household expends fewer resources, both in terms of time and money, on children, which gives many Chinese people more money with which to invest. Second, since Chinese adults can no longer rely on children to care for them in their old age, there is an impetus to save money for the future.
As the first generation of law - enforced only - children came of age for becoming parents themselves, one adult child was left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents. Called the "4 - 2 - 1 Problem '', this leaves the older generations with increased chances of dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to receive support. If personal savings, pensions, or state welfare fail, most senior citizens would be left entirely dependent upon their very small family or neighbours for assistance. If, for any reason, the single child is unable to care for their older adult relatives, the oldest generations would face a lack of resources and necessities. In response to such an issue, all provinces have decided that couples are allowed to have two children if both parents were only children themselves. By 2007, all provinces in the nation except Henan had adopted this new policy; Henan followed in 2011.
Heihaizi (Chinese: 黑 孩子; pinyin: hēiháizi) or "black child '' is a term denoting children born outside the one - child policy, or generally children who are not registered in the Chinese national household registration system.
Being excluded from the family register means they do not possess a Hukou, which is "an identifying document, similar in some ways to the American social security card. '' In this respect they do not legally exist and as a result can not access most public services, such as education and health care, and do not receive protection under the law.
Some parents may over-indulge their only child. The media referred to the indulged children in one - child families as "little emperors ''. Since the 1990s, some people have worried that this will result in a higher tendency toward poor social communication and cooperation skills amongst the new generation, as they have no siblings at home. No social studies have investigated the ratio of these over-indulged children and to what extent they are indulged. With the first generation of children born under the policy (which initially became a requirement for most couples with first children born starting in 1979 and extending into the 1980s) reaching adulthood, such worries were reduced.
However, the "little emperor syndrome '' and additional expressions, describing the generation of Chinese singletons are very abundant in the Chinese media, Chinese academia and popular discussions. Being over-indulged, lacking self - discipline and having no adaptive capabilities are traits that are highly associated with Chinese singletons.
Some 30 delegates called on the government in the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference in March 2007 to abolish the one - child rule, citing "social problems and personality disorders in young people ''. One statement read, "It is not healthy for children to play only with their parents and be spoiled by them: it is not right to limit the number to two children per family, either. '' The proposal was prepared by Ye Tingfang, a professor at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, who suggested that the government at least restore the previous rule that allowed couples to have up to two children. According to a scholar, "The one - child limit is too extreme. It violates nature 's law. And in the long run, this will lead to mother nature 's revenge. ''
Reports surfaced of Chinese women giving birth to their second child overseas, a practice known as birth tourism. Many went to Hong Kong, which is exempt from the one - child policy. Likewise, a Hong Kong passport differs from China mainland passport by providing additional advantages. Recently though, the Hong Kong government has drastically reduced the quota of births set for non-local women in public hospitals. As a result, fees for delivering babies there have surged. As further admission cuts or a total ban on non-local births in Hong Kong are being considered, mainland agencies that arrange for expectant mothers to give birth overseas are predicting a surge in those going to North America.
As the United States practises birthright citizenship, all children born in the US will automatically have US citizenship. The closest US location from China is Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands, a US dependency in the western Pacific Ocean that allows Chinese visitors without visa restrictions. As of 2012, the island was experiencing an upswing in Chinese births, since birth tourism there had become cheaper than to Hong Kong. This option is used by relatively affluent Chinese who often have secondary motives as well, wishing their children to be able to leave mainland China when they grow older or bring their parents to the US. Canada, compared to US, is less achievable as their government denies many visa requests.
Due to the preference in Rural Chinese society to give birth to a son, pre-natal sex determination and sex - selective abortions are illegal in China. Often argued as one of the key factors in the imbalanced sex - ratio in China, as excess female infant mortality and underreporting of female births can not solely explain this gender disparity. Researchers have found that the gender of the firstborn child in rural parts of China impact whether or not the mother will seek an ultrasound for the second child. 40 % of women with a firstborn son seek an ultrasound for their second pregnancy, versus 70 % of women with firstborn daughters. This clearly depicts a desire for women to birth a son if one has not yet been birthed. In response to this, the Chinese government made sex - selective abortions illegal in 2005.
The policy is controversial outside China for many reasons, including accusations of human rights abuses in the implementation of the policy, as well as concerns about negative social consequences.
The Chinese government, quoting Zhai Zhenwu, director of Renmin University 's School of Sociology and Population in Beijing, estimates that 400 million births were prevented by the one - child policy as of 2011, while some demographers challenge that number, putting the figure at perhaps half that level, according to CNN. Zhai clarified that the 400 million estimate referred not just to the one - child policy, but includes births prevented by predecessor policies implemented one decade before, stating that "there are many different numbers out there but it does n't change the basic fact that the policy prevented a really large number of births ''.
This claim is disputed by Wang Feng, director of the Brookings - Tsinghua Center for Public Policy, and Cai Yong from the Carolina Population Center at University of North Carolina Chapel Hill Wang claims that "Thailand and China have had almost identical fertility trajectories since the mid 1980s '', and "Thailand does not have a one - child policy. '' China 's Health Ministry has also disclosed that at least 336 million abortions were performed on account of the policy.
According to a report by the US Embassy, scholarship published by Chinese scholars and their presentations at the October 1997 Beijing conference of the International Union for the Scientific Study of Population seemed to suggest that market - based incentives or increasing voluntariness is not morally better but that it is in the end more effective. In 1988, Zeng Yi and Professor T. Paul Schultz of Yale University discussed the effect of the transformation to the market on Chinese fertility, arguing that the introduction of the contract responsibility system in agriculture during the early 1980s weakened family planning controls during that period. Zeng contended that the "big cooking pot '' system of the People 's Communes had insulated people from the costs of having many children. By the late 1980s, economic costs and incentives created by the contract system were already reducing the number of children farmers wanted.
A long - term experiment in a county in Shanxi Province, in which the family planning law was suspended, suggested that families would not have many more children even if the law were abolished. A 2003 review of the policy - making process behind the adoption of the one - child policy shows that less intrusive options, including those that emphasized delay and spacing of births, were known but not fully considered by China 's political leaders.
Corrupted government officials and especially wealthy individuals have often been able to violate the policy in spite of fines. Filmmaker Zhang Yimou had three children and was subsequently fined 7.48 million yuan ($1.2 million). For example, between 2000 and 2005, as many as 1,968 officials in central China 's Hunan province were found to be violating the policy, according to the provincial family planning commission; also exposed by the commission were 21 national and local lawmakers, 24 political advisors, 112 entrepreneurs and 6 senior intellectuals.
Some of the offending officials did not face penalties, although the government did respond by raising fines and calling on local officials to "expose the celebrities and high - income people who violate the family planning policy and have more than one child ''. Also, people who lived in the rural areas of China were allowed to have two children without punishment, although the family is required to wait a couple of years before having another child.
The one - child policy has been challenged for violating a human right to determine the size of one 's own proper family. According to a 1968 proclamation of the International Conference on Human Rights, "Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children. ''
According to the UK newspaper The Daily Telegraph, a quota of 20,000 abortions and sterilizations was set for Huaiji County in Guangdong Province in one year due to reported disregard of the one - child policy. According to the article local officials were being pressured into purchasing portable ultrasound devices to identify abortion candidates in remote villages. The article also reported that women as far along as 8.5 months pregnant were forced to abort, usually by an injection of saline solution. A 1993 book by social scientist, Steven W. Mosher, reported that women in their ninth month of pregnancy, or already in labour, were having their children killed whilst in the birth canal or immediately after birth.
According to a 2005 news report by Australian Broadcasting Corporation correspondent, John Taylor, China outlawed the use of physical force to make a woman submit to an abortion or sterilization in 2002 but ineffectively enforces the measure. In 2012, Feng Jianmei, a villager from central China 's Shaanxi province was forced into an abortion by local officials after her family refused to pay the fine for having a second child. Chinese authorities have since apologized and two officials were fired, while five others were sanctioned.
In the past, China promoted eugenics as part of its population planning policies, but the government has backed away from such policies, as evidenced by China 's ratification of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which compels the nation to significantly reform its genetic testing laws. Recent research has also emphasized the necessity of understanding a myriad of complex social relations that affect the meaning of informed consent in China. Furthermore, in 2003, China revised its marriage registration regulations and couples no longer have to submit to a pre-marital physical or genetic examination before being granted a marriage license.
The United Nations Population Fund 's (UNFPA) support for family planning in China, which has been associated with the One - Child policy in the United States, led the United States Congress to pull out of the UNFPA during the Reagan administration, and again under George W. Bush 's presidency, citing human rights abuses and stating that the right to "found a family '' was protected under the Preamble in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. President Obama resumed U.S. government financial support for the UNFPA shortly after taking office in 2009, intending to "work collaboratively to reduce poverty, improve the health of women and children, prevent HIV / AIDS and provide family planning assistance to women in 154 countries ''.
Sex - selected abortion, abandonment, and infanticide are illegal in China. Nevertheless, the United States Department of State, the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and the human rights organization Amnesty International have all declared that infanticide still exists. A writer for the Georgetown Journal of International Affairs wrote, "The ' one - child ' policy has also led to what Amartya Sen first called ' Missing Women ', or the 100 million girls ' missing ' from the populations of China (and other developing countries) as a result of female infanticide, abandonment, and neglect ''.
The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation offered the following summary as to the long term effects of sex - selective abortion and abandonment of female infants:
Multiple research studies have also found that sex - selective abortion -- where a woman undergoes an ultrasound to determine the sex of her baby, and then aborts it if it 's a girl -- was widespread for years, particularly for second or subsequent children. Millions of female fetuses have been aborted since the 1970s. China outlawed sex selective abortions in 2005, but the law is tough to enforce because of the difficulty of proving why a couple decided to have an abortion. The abandonment, and killing, of baby girls has also been reported, though recent research studies say it has become rare, in part due to strict criminal prohibitions.
Anthropologist G. William Skinner at the University of California, Davis and Chinese researcher Yuan Jianhua have claimed that infanticide was fairly common in China before the 1990s.
General:
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who dies in season 4 of prison break | Prison Break (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of Prison Break, an American serial drama television series commenced airing in the United States on September 1, 2008. It consists of 24 episodes (22 television episodes and 2 straight to DVD episodes), 16 of which aired from September to December 2008. After a hiatus, it resumed on April 17, 2009 and concluded on May 15, 2009 with a two episode finale. The fourth season was announced as the final season of Prison Break, however the series returned in a limited series format as Prison Break: Resurrection, which premiered on April 4, 2017.
On January 13, 2009, Fox president Kevin Reilly confirmed the series would end at the conclusion of this season. He explained, "Prison Break got to a point where a lot of the stories had been told. '' At the time, he said there was a possibility of adding two extra episodes, he said "We want to finish strong. '' These extra two episodes became Prison Break: The Final Break, although they never aired on Fox, and became available only on DVD.
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what is the first light in the night sky | Night sky - wikipedia
The term night sky refers to the sky as seen at night. The term is usually associated with astronomy, with reference to views of celestial bodies such as stars, the Moon, and planets that become visible on a clear night after the Sun has set. Natural light sources in a night sky include moonlight, starlight, and airglow, depending on location and timing. The aurora borealis and aurora australis light up the skies of the Arctic and Antarctic circles respectively. Occasionally, a large coronal mass ejection from the Sun or simply high levels of solar wind extend the phenomenon toward the equator.
The night sky and studies of it have a historical place in both ancient and modern cultures. In the past, for instance, farmers have used the state of the night sky as a calendar to determine when to plant crops. Many cultures have drawn constellations between stars in the sky, using them in association with legends and mythology about their deities.
The anciently developed belief of astrology is generally based on the belief that relationships between heavenly bodies influence or convey information about events on Earth. The scientific study of the night sky and bodies observed within it, meanwhile, takes place in the science of astronomy.
The visibility of celestial objects in the night sky is affected by light pollution. The presence of the Moon in the night sky has historically hindered astronomical observation by increasing the amount of ambient lighting. With the advent of artificial light sources, however, light pollution has been a growing problem for viewing the night sky. Special filters and modifications to light fixtures can help to alleviate this problem, but for the best seeing both professional and amateur optical astronomers seek viewing sites located far from major urban areas.
The fact that the sky is not completely dark at night, even in the absence of moonlight and city lights, can be easily observed, since if the sky were absolutely dark, one would not be able to see the silhouette of an object against the sky.
The intensity of the sky varies greatly over the day and the primary cause differs as well. During daytime when the sun is above the horizon direct scattering of sunlight (Rayleigh scattering) is the overwhelmingly dominant source of light. In twilight, the period of time between sunset and sunrise, the situation is more complicated and a further differentiation is required. Twilight is divided in three segments according to how far the sun is below the horizon in segments of 6 °.
After sunset the civil twilight sets in, and ends when the sun drops more than 6 ° below the horizon. This is followed by the nautical twilight, when the sun reaches heights of - 6 ° and - 12 °, after which comes the astronomical twilight defined as the period from - 12 ° to - 18 °. When the sun drops more than 18 ° below the horizon the sky generally attains its minimum brightness.
Several sources can be identified as the source of the intrinsic brightness of the sky, namely airglow, indirect scattering of sunlight, scattering of starlight, and artificial light pollution.
Depending on local sky cloud cover, pollution, humidity, and light pollution levels, the stars visible to the unaided naked eye appear as hundreds, thousands or tens of thousands of white pinpoints of light in an otherwise near black sky together with some feint nebulae or clouds of light. In ancient times the stars were often assumed to be equidistant on a dome above the earth because they are much too far away for stereopsis to offer any depth cues. Visible stars range in color from blue (hot) to red (cold), but with such small points of feint light, most look white because they stimulate the rod cells without triggering the cone cells. If it is particularly dark and a particularly faint celestial object is of interest, averted vision may be helpful.
The stars of the night sky can not be counted unaided because they are so numerous and there is no way to track which have been counted and which have not. Further complicating the count, fainter stars may appear and disappear depending on exactly where the observer is looking. The result is an impression of an extraordinarily vast star field.
Because stargazing is best done from a dark place away from city lights, dark adaptation is important to achieve and maintain. It takes several minutes for eyes to adjust to the darkness necessary for seeing the most stars, and surroundings on the ground are hard to discern. A red flashlight (torch) can be used to illuminate star charts, telescope parts, and the like without undoing the dark adaptation. (See Purkinje effect).
There are no markings on the night sky, though there exist many sky maps to aid stargazers in identifying constellations and other celestial objects. Constellations are prominent because their stars tend to be brighter than other nearby stars in the sky. Different cultures have created different groupings of constellations based on differing interpretations of the more - or-less random patterns of dots in the sky. Constellations were identified without regard to distance to each star, but instead as if they were all dots on a dome.
Orion is among the most prominent and recognizable constellations. The Big Dipper (which has a wide variety of other names) is helpful for navigation in the northern hemisphere because it points to Polaris, the north star.
The pole stars are special because they are approximately in line with the Earth 's axis of rotation so they appear to stay in one place while the other stars rotate around them through the course of a night (or a year).
Planets, named for the Greek word for "wanderer, '' process through the star field a little each day, executing loops with time scales dependent on the length of the planets year or orbital period around solar system. Planets, to the naked eye, appear as points of light in the sky with variable brightness. Planets shine due to sunlight reflecting or scattering from the planets surface or atmosphere. Thus the relative sun planet earth positions determine the planets brightness. With telescope or good binoculars the planets appear as discs demonstrating finite size and also show phases like Earth 's moon and also may possess their own orbiting moons which occasionally cast shadow onto the host planet surface. Venus is the most prominent planet, often called the "morning star '' or "evening star '' because it is brighter than the stars and often the only "star '' visible near sunrise or sunset depending on its location in its orbit. Mercury, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn are also visible to the naked eye.
Earth 's Moon is a gray disc in the sky with cratering visible to the naked eye. It spans, depending on its exact location, 29 - 33 arcminutes - which is about the size of a thumbnail at arm 's length, and is readily identified. Over 28 days, the moon goes through a full cycle of lunar phases. People can generally identify phases within a few days by looking at the moon. Unlike stars and most planets, the light reflected from the moon is bright enough to be seen during the day. (Venus can sometimes be seen even after sunrise.)
Some of the most spectacular moons come during the full moon phase near sunset or sunrise. The moon on the horizon benefits from the moon illusion which makes it appear larger. The light reflected from the moon traveling through the atmosphere also colors the moon orange and / or red.
Comets come to the night sky only rarely. Comets are illuminated by the sun, and their tails extend away from the sun. A comet with visible tail is quite unusual - a great comet appears about once a decade. They tend to be visible only shortly before sunrise or after sunset because those are the times they are close enough to the sun to show a tail.
Clouds obscure the view of other objects in the sky, though varying thicknesses of cloudcover have differing effects. A very thin cirrus cloud in front of the moon might produce a rainbow - colored ring around the moon. Stars and planets are too small or dim to take on this effect, and are instead only dimmed (often to the point of invisibility). Thicker cloudcover obscures celestial objects entirely, making the sky black or reflecting city lights back down. Clouds are often close enough to afford some depth perception, though they are hard to see without moonlight or light pollution.
On clear dark nights in unpolluted areas, when the moon is thin or below the horizon, a band of what looks like white dust, the Milky Way, can be seen.
Shortly after sunset and before sunrise, artificial satellites often look like stars -- similar in brightness and size -- but move relatively quickly. Those that fly in low Earth orbit cross the sky in a couple of minutes. Some satellites, including space debris, appear to blink or have a periodic fluctuation in brightness because they are rotating.
Meteors (commonly known as shooting stars) streak across the sky very infrequently. During a meteor shower, they may average one a minute at irregular intervals, but otherwise their appearance is a random surprise. The occasional meteor will make a bright, fleeting streak across the sky, and they can be very bright in comparison to the night sky.
Aircraft are also visible at night, distinguishable at a distance from other objects because their lights blink.
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what kind of corn is used to make corn nuts | Corn nut - wikipedia
Corn nuts, also known as toasted corn, corn bits or quicos, are a snack food made of roasted or deep - fried corn kernels. In parts of South America, including Peru and Colombia, it is referred to as cancha.
Corn nuts are prepared by soaking whole corn kernels in water for three days, then deep - frying them in oil until they are hard and brittle. The kernels are soaked because they shrink during the harvesting and cleaning process, and rehydration returns them to their original size.
Albert Holloway of Oakland, California introduced corn nuts to the United States in 1936. He originally sold them to tavern owners to be given away free to their patrons as a snack that would be great with beer, calling them Olin 's Brown Jug Toasted Corn.
Holloway later renamed his product CornNuts. After Holloway and his sons Maurice and Rich learned of a breed of corn grown in Cusco, Peru (often referred to as Cuzco corn) that grew large kernels (some said to have been bigger than a U.S. quarter coin), the company researched developing a hybrid of the Cusco corn that could be grown effectively in California. After a decade of research, the company introduced CornNuts made with the hybrid variety in 1964. CornNuts sold on the market today are no longer of the large Cusco corn size.
The most popular brand, CornNuts was owned by Holloway 's original family company until the company was purchased by Nabisco in 1998. Cornnuts is a registered trademark of Kraft Foods. It is available in five flavors: Original, BBQ (barbecue - flavored), Chile Picante con Limon, Ranch, and Jalapeño Cheddar.
A Filipino variant of corn nuts is cornick. Compared to the American variety, cornick pieces are typically smaller and crispier. Garlic is the most common flavor of cornick, with other common flavors including: chili cheese, adobo, barbecue, lechón manok (also known as roasted chicken), and sweet. Major brands include Boy Bawang (literally "Garlic Boy '' in Tagalog, commonly sold in small packets), Corn Bits, and Safari.
A popular variety of cornick is the lighter, chicharrón - like chichacorn, a semi-popped style of cornick using glutinous corn from the Ilocos Region which is treated with lime before frying.
Diana, a snack company in El Salvador, makes a variety of corn - nut - like snacks. These are called elotitos in Spanish, or Crunchy Cornbits. These come in a variety of seasonings, such as Lemon, Cheese and Chili, and Barbecue. These are sold throughout Central America.
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which country has the smallest population in north america | List of North American countries by population - wikipedia
This is a list of North American countries and dependent territories by population, which is sorted by the 2015 mid-year demographic. The largest country by land area is Canada, and by population is United States. The largest city by population is Mexico City. The languages most spoken are English, Spanish and French.
North American population by country (top 8).
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who was known as the son of promise in the old testament | Isaac - Wikipedia
Isaac is one of the three patriarchs of the Israelites, according to the biblical Book of Genesis. In the biblical narrative, he is the son of Abraham and Sarah and father of Jacob; his name means "he will laugh '', reflecting when both Abraham and Sarah laughed in disbelief when told that they would have a child. He is the only patriarch whose name was not changed, and the only one who did not move out of Canaan. According to the narrative, he died when he was 180 years old, the longest - lived of the three.
The story of Isaac is important in the Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The consensus of modern scholarship doubts the existence of figures from Genesis, including Isaac.
The anglicized name Isaac is a transliteration of the Hebrew term Yiṣḥāq (יִצְחָק) which literally means "He laughs / will laugh. '' Ugaritic texts dating from the 13th century BCE refer to the benevolent smile of the Canaanite deity El. Genesis, however, ascribes the laughter to Isaac 's parents, Abraham and Sarah, rather than El. According to the biblical narrative, Abraham fell on his face and laughed when God (Hebrew, Elohim) imparted the news of their son 's eventual birth. He laughed because Sarah was past the age of childbearing; both she and Abraham were advanced in age. Later, when Sarah overheard three messengers of the Lord renew the promise, she laughed inwardly for the same reason. Sarah denied laughing when God questioned Abraham about it.
In Amos Isaac is spelled not with a צ but with a ש - Amos 7: 9 ישחק
It was prophesied to the patriarch Abraham that he would have a son and that his name should be Isaac. When Abraham became one hundred years old, this son was born to him by his first wife Sarah. Though this was Abraham 's second son it was Sarah 's first and only child.
On the eighth day from his birth, Isaac was circumcised, as was necessary for all males of Abraham 's household, in order to be in compliance with Yahweh 's covenant.
After Isaac had been weaned, Sarah saw Ishmael mocking, and urged her husband to cast out Hagar the bondservant and her son, so that Isaac would be Abraham 's sole heir. Abraham was hesitant, but at God 's order he listened to his wife 's request.
At some point in Isaac 's youth, his father Abraham brought him to Mount Moriah. At God 's command, Abraham was to build a sacrificial altar and sacrifice his son Isaac upon it. After he had bound his son to the altar and drawn his knife to kill him, at the very last moment an angel of God prevented Abraham from proceeding. Rather, he was directed to sacrifice instead a nearby ram that was stuck in thickets.
Before Isaac was 40 (Gen 25: 20) Abraham sent Eliezer, his steward, into Mesopotamia to find a wife for Isaac, from his nephew Bethuel 's family. Eliezer chose the Aramean Rebekah for Isaac. After many years of marriage to Isaac, Rebekah had still not given birth to a child and was believed to be barren. Isaac prayed for her and she conceived. Rebekah gave birth to twin boys, Esau and Jacob. Isaac was 60 years old when his two sons were born. Isaac favored Esau, and Rebekah favored Jacob.
The narratives about Isaac do not mention him having concubines.
Isaac moved to Beer - lahai - roi after his father died. When the land experienced famine, he removed to the Philistine land of Gerar where his father once lived. This land was still under the control of King Abimelech as it was in the days of Abraham. Like his father, Isaac also deceived Abimelech about his wife and also got into the well business. He had gone back to all of the wells that his father dug and saw that they were all stopped up with earth. The Philistines did this after Abraham died. So, Isaac unearthed them and began to dig for more wells all the way to Beersheba, where he made a pact with Abimelech, just like in the day of his father.
Isaac grew old and became blind. He called his son Esau and directed him to procure some venison for him, in order to receive Isaac 's blessing. While Esau was hunting, Jacob, after listening to his mother 's advice, deceived his blind father by misrepresenting himself as Esau and thereby obtained his father 's blessing, such that Jacob became Isaac 's primary heir and Esau was left in an inferior position. According to Genesis 25: 29 -- 34, Esau had previously sold his birthright to Jacob for "bread and stew of lentils ''. Thereafter, Isaac sent Jacob into Mesopotamia to take a wife of his mother 's brother 's house. After 20 years working for his uncle Laban, Jacob returned home. He reconciled with his twin brother Esau, then he and Esau buried their father, Isaac, in Hebron after he died at the age of 180.
According to local tradition, the graves of Isaac and Rebekah, along with the graves of Abraham and Sarah and Jacob and Leah, are in the Cave of the Patriarchs.
In rabbinical tradition, the age of Isaac at the time of binding is taken to be 37, which contrasts with common portrayals of Isaac as a child. The rabbis also thought that the reason for the death of Sarah was the news of the intended sacrifice of Isaac. The sacrifice of Isaac is cited in appeals for the mercy of God in later Jewish traditions. The post-biblical Jewish interpretations often elaborate the role of Isaac beyond the biblical description and primarily focus on Abraham 's intended sacrifice of Isaac, called the aqedah ("binding ''). According to a version of these interpretations, Isaac died in the sacrifice and was revived. According to many accounts of Aggadah, unlike the Bible, it is Satan who is testing Isaac as an agent of God. Isaac 's willingness to follow God 's command at the cost of his death has been a model for many Jews who preferred martyrdom to violation of the Jewish law.
According to the Jewish tradition, Isaac instituted the afternoon prayer. This tradition is based on Genesis chapter 24, verse 63 ("Isaac went out to meditate in the field at the eventide '').
Isaac was the only patriarch who stayed in Canaan during his whole life and though once he tried to leave, God told him not to do so. Rabbinic tradition gave the explanation that Isaac was almost sacrificed and anything dedicated as a sacrifice may not leave the Land of Israel. Isaac was the oldest of the biblical patriarchs at the time of his death, and the only patriarch whose name was not changed.
Rabbinic literature also linked Isaac 's blindness in old age, as stated in the Bible, to the sacrificial binding: Isaac 's eyes went blind because the tears of angels present at the time of his sacrifice fell on Isaac 's eyes.
The early Christian church continued and developed the New Testament theme of Isaac as a type of Christ and the Church being both "the son of the promise '' and the "father of the faithful ''. Tertullian draws a parallel between Isaac 's bearing the wood for the sacrificial fire with Christ 's carrying his cross. and there was a general agreement that, while all the sacrifices of the Old Law were anticipations of that on Calvary, the sacrifice of Isaac was so "in a pre-eminent way ''.
The Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church consider Isaac as a Saint along with other biblical patriarchs. Along with those of other patriarchs and the Old Testament Righteous, his feast day is celebrated in the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Byzantine rite of the Catholic Church on the Second Sunday before Christmas (December 11 -- 17), under the title the Sunday of the Forefathers.
The New Testament states Isaac was "offered up '' by his father Abraham, and that Isaac blessed his sons. Paul contrasted Isaac, symbolizing Christian liberty, with the rejected older son Ishmael, symbolizing slavery; Hagar is associated with the Sinai covenant, while Sarah is associated with the covenant of grace, into which her son Isaac enters. The Epistle of James chapter 2, verses 21 -- 24, states that the sacrifice of Isaac shows that justification (in the Johannine sense) requires both faith and works.
In the Epistle to the Hebrews, Abraham 's willingness to follow God 's command to sacrifice Isaac is used as an example of faith as is Isaac 's action in blessing Jacob and Esau with reference to the future promised by God to Abraham In verse 19, the author views the release of Isaac from sacrifice as analogous to the resurrection of Jesus, the idea of the sacrifice of Isaac being a prefigure of the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross.
Islam considers Isaac as a prophet of Islam, and describes him as the father of the Israelites and a righteous servant of God.
Isaac, along with Ishmael, is highly important for Muslims for continuing to preach the message of monotheism after his father Abraham. Among Isaac 's children was the follow - up Israelite patriarch Jacob, who too is venerated an Islamic prophet.
Isaac is mentioned fifteen times by name in the Quran, often with his father and his son, Jacob. The Quran states that Abraham received "good tidings of Isaac, a prophet, of the righteous '', and that God blessed them both (37: 12). In a fuller description, when angels came to Abraham to tell him of the future punishment to be imposed on Sodom and Gomorrah, his wife, Sarah, "laughed, and We gave her good tidings of Isaac, and after Isaac of (a grandson) Jacob '' (11: 71 -- 74); and it is further explained that this event will take place despite Abraham and Sarah 's old age. Several verses speak of Isaac as a "gift '' to Abraham (6: 84; 14: 49 -- 50), and 24: 26 -- 27 adds that God made "prophethood and the Book to be among his offspring '', which has been interpreted to refer to Abraham 's two prophetic sons, his prophetic grandson Jacob, and his prophetic great - grandson Joseph. In the Qur'an, it later narrates that Abraham also praised God for giving him Ishmael and Isaac in his old age (14: 39 -- 41).
Elsewhere in the Quran, Isaac is mentioned in lists: Joseph follows the religion of his forefathers Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (12: 38) and speaks of God 's favor to them (12: 6); Jacob 's sons all testify their faith and promise to worship the God that their forefathers, "Abraham, Ishmael and Isaac '', worshiped (2: 127); and the Qur'an commands Muslims to believe in the revelations that were given to "Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob and the Patriarchs '' (2: 136; 3: 84). In the Quran 's narrative of Abraham 's near - sacrifice of his son (37: 102), the name of the son is not mentioned and debate has continued over the son 's identity, though many feel that the identity is the least important element in a story which is given to show the courage that one develops through faith.
The Quran mentions Isaac as a prophet and a righteous man of God. Isaac and Jacob are mentioned as being bestowed upon Abraham as gifts of God, who then worshipped God only and were righteous leaders in the way of God:
And We bestowed on him Isaac and, as an additional gift, (a grandson), Jacob, and We made righteous men of every one (of them). And We made them leaders, guiding (men) by Our Command, and We sent them inspiration to do good deeds, to establish regular prayers, and to practise regular charity; and they constantly served Us (and Us only).
And WE gave him the glad tidings of Isaac, a Prophet, and one of the righteous.
Some scholars have described Isaac as "a legendary figure '' or "as a figure representing tribal history, or "as a seminomadic leader. '' The stories of Isaac, like other patriarchal stories of Genesis, are generally believed to have "their origin in folk memories and oral traditions of the early Hebrew pastoralist experience. '' The Cambridge Companion to the Bible makes the following comment on the biblical stories of the patriarchs:
Yet for all that these stories maintain a distance between their world and that of their time of literary growth and composition, they reflect the political realities of the later periods. Many of the narratives deal with the relationship between the ancestors and peoples who were part of Israel 's political world at the time the stories began to be written down (eighth century B.C.E.). Lot is the ancestor of the Transjordanian peoples of Ammon and Moab, and Ishmael personifies the nomadic peoples known to have inhabited north Arabia, although located in the Old Testament in the Negev. Esau personifies Edom (36: 1), and Laban represents the Aramean states to Israel 's north. A persistent theme is that of difference between the ancestors and the indigenous Canaanites... In fact, the theme of the differences between Judah and Israel, as personified by the ancestors, and the neighboring peoples of the time of the monarchy is pressed effectively into theological service to articulate the choosing by God of Judah and Israel to bring blessing to all peoples. ''
According to Martin Noth, a scholar of the Hebrew Bible, the narratives of Isaac date back to an older cultural stage than that of the West - Jordanian Jacob. At that era, the Israelite tribes were not yet sedentary. In the course of looking for grazing areas, they had come in contact in southern Philistia with the inhabitants of the settled countryside. The biblical historian A. Jopsen believes in the connection between the Isaac traditions and the north, and in support of this theory adduces Amos 7: 9 ("the high places of Isaac '').
Albrecht Alt and Martin Noth hold that, "The figure of Isaac was enhanced when the theme of promise, previously bound to the cults of the ' God the Fathers ' was incorporated into the Israelite creed during the southern - Palestinian stage of the growth of the Pentateuch tradition. '' According to Martin Noth, at the Southern Palestinian stage of the growth of the Pentateuch tradition, Isaac became established as one of the biblical patriarchs, but his traditions were receded in the favor of Abraham.
The earliest Christian portrayal of Isaac is found in the Roman catacomb frescoes. Excluding the fragments, Alison Moore Smith classifies these artistic works in three categories:
"Abraham leads Isaac towards the altar; or Isaac approaches with the bundle of sticks, Abraham having preceded him to the place of offering... Abraham is upon a pedestal and Isaac stands near at hand, both figures in orant attitude... Abraham is shown about to sacrifice Isaac while the latter stands or kneels on the ground beside the altar. Sometimes Abraham grasps Isaac by the hair. Occasionally the ram is added to the scene and in the later paintings the Hand of God emerges from above. ''
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when was the official census carried out in india | Census of India - wikipedia
The decennial Census of India has been conducted 15 times, As of 2011. While has been conducted every 10 years, beginning in 1872, the first complete census was taken in the year 1881. Post 1949, it has been conducted by the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India under the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. All the census since 1951 are conducted under 1948 Census of India Act.
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who sang the song i can't live without you | Without You (Badfinger song) - wikipedia
"Without You '' is a song written by Pete Ham and Tom Evans of British rock group Badfinger, and first released on their 1970 album No Dice. The song has been recorded by over 180 artists, and versions released as singles by Harry Nilsson (1971) and Mariah Carey (1994) became international best - sellers. Paul McCartney once described the ballad as "the killer song of all time ''.
In 1972, writers Ham and Evans received the British Academy 's Ivor Novello Award for Best Song Musically and Lyrically.
First recorded by the rock group Badfinger, the song was composed by two of its members. Pete Ham wrote a song originally titled "If It 's Love '', but it had lacked a strong chorus. At the time of writing the band shared residence with the Mojos at 7 Park Avenue in Golders Green. One evening, in the midst of the parties, songwriting, touring, in Golders Green, Ham and his girlfriend Beverly Tucker were about to go out for the evening. But just as they were leaving Tom Evans said he had an idea for a song -- Ham said, "Not tonight, I 've promised Bev. '' But she thought he would be wondering if he had done the right thing later, if he went out, -- she told him -- "Go into the studio, I 'm fine about it ''... He said, "Your mouth is smiling, but your eyes are sad. '' The song Ham wrote that night was called "If its Love '' and has the verse "Well I ca n't forget tomorrow, when I think of all my sorrow, I had you there but then I let you go, and now it 's only fair that I should let you know... if it 's love ''. But Ham was n't happy with the chorus.
Evans ' relationship with his future wife Marianne influenced his lyrics:
One evening he (Evans) went to her (Marianne 's) friend Karen and told Karen, "She 's left me. I need her back. I ca n't live without her. '' He flew to Bonn to find her -- he wrote a song called "I Ca n't Live ''. Its chorus included "I ca n't live, if living is without you, I ca n't live, I ca n't give any more. '' And so the merging of the two songs, Ham and Evans created the hit (with) Ham 's verse, "warm, sweet, sentimental '' and Evans ' chorus, "intense, dramatic, heartbreaking. ''
Both Ham and Evans said they did not consider the song to have much potential at the time Badfinger recorded it, and the track was slotted to close the first side of their 1970 No Dice album. Badfinger 's recording of the song, which is more brusque than its successors ' versions, was not released as a single in Europe or North America.
Two writers of the song, Ham and Evans, later committed suicide due to legal and financial issues. In Evans ' case, it was a dispute over songwriting royalties for "Without You '' that precipitated his action. Songwriting royalties had become the subject of constant legal wrangling for Evans, and In 1983, following an acrimonious argument with his bandmate Joey Molland over the royalties for the song, Evans hanged himself.
Harry Nilsson, at the time best known for his hit "Everybody 's Talkin ' '' and for composing such hits as Three Dog Night 's "One '', heard Badfinger 's recording of "Without You '' at a party, and mistook it for a Beatles song. After realising it was not, he decided to cover the song for his album Nilsson Schmilsson in 1971. The song was released as a single in October 1971, and it stayed at number one on the U.S. pop chart for four weeks, from 13 February to 11 March 1972. The song also spent five weeks atop the U.S. adult contemporary chart. Billboard ranked it as the number four song for 1972.
In the UK, the song spent five weeks at number one on the British pop chart, beginning on 11 March, and sold almost 800,000 copies. It went to number one in several other countries, including Australia (for five weeks), Ireland (two weeks) and New Zealand (two weeks).
The single was produced by Richard Perry, who later explained, "It was a different record for its time. It was a big ballad with a heavy backbeat, and although many artists have cut songs like it since, no one was doing it then. '' Gary Wright who worked with Badfinger on George Harrison 's projects, played the piano. Also featured are Klaus Voormann (bass), Jim Keltner (drums) and Tom Plovanic (acoustic guitar). The string and horn arrangements are by Paul Buckmaster. In 1973, Nilsson won the "Best Male Pop Vocal '' Grammy award for the song. While Nilsson rarely gave live concerts, he did perform the song with Ringo Starr and his All - Starr Band at Caesar 's Palace in Las Vegas in September 1992.
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Mariah Carey 's version, based on Harry Nilsson 's version rather than the Badfinger original, was released as the third single off Music Box in the first quarter of 1994, its U.S. release date of 24 January 1994 falling just over a week after Nilsson had died following a heart attack on 15 January 1994. In the U.S. "Without You '' was promoted as a double A-side with "Never Forget You ''. While she had heard Nilsson 's version as a very young girl, Carey 's decision to remake his hit was based on a chance hearing during the time she was recording Music Box: "I heard that song in a restaurant and just knew it would be a huge international hit '' recalls Carey. Carey 's version has been considered very popular on talent shows. "Without You '' was later included on some non-U.S. pressings of her compilation albums # 1 's (1998) and # 1 to Infinity (2015), and her 2001 compilation, Greatest Hits. "Without You '' was also included on her 2009 compilation The Ballads.
"Without You '' reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100 for six weeks, remaining in the top 40 for 21 weeks and on the chart for 23. It reached number two on both the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay and Radio & Records pop charts (ending Carey 's streak of consecutive number ones on the latter chart; all ten of her previous singles had gone to the top), and number three on the Hot 100 Singles Sales. It was certified gold by the RIAA and sold 600,000 copies domestically. It was ranked 16 on the Hot 100 1994 year - end charts.
"Without You '' remains Carey 's biggest hit across Europe. In the British Isles, where Carey had yet to score a number one hit, "Without You '' made its UK chart debut at number one where it remained for four weeks in total, while in Ireland the track was number one for five weeks: "Without You '' remains Carey 's only number one solo hit in both the UK and Ireland although she has since topped both nations ' charts with her 2000 collaboration with Westlife: "Against All Odds ''. "Without You '' is one of only two Carey singles certified Gold in the UK with sales of 470,000 copies. Also Carey 's first chart - topper in Italy, "Without You '' was a runaway success in Switzerland (with ten non-consecutive weeks at number 1), the Netherlands (number one for twelve weeks) and Flemish Belgium and Sweden (both eight weeks at number one), also topping the singles chart in Germany for four weeks and Austria for eight weeks, where Carey 's success had previously been limited. In France "Without You '' peaked at number two and in Norway at number three. "Without You '' was certified gold in Germany and Austria by IFPI and in France by SNEP.
A number three hit for Carey in both Canada and Australia, "Without You '' was a number one hit in New Zealand: certified platinum in Australia by ARIA, "Without You '' was also certified gold in New Zealand by RIANZ.
David Browne of Entertainment Weekly called Carey 's "Without You '' a "by - the - numbers remake of Nilsson 's melodramatic 1972 hit. '' Stephen Holden of Rolling Stone called this song "likeliest contender '' for ballads like "I Will Always Love You '' praising how "Carey dips into her lower register and is accompanied by backup singers (including herself) magnified to sound like a mighty gospel chorus. '' Singer Chris De Burgh, who remade "Without You '' for his 2008 covers album "Footsteps '', would state: "I loved the Nilsson song. I thought the Mariah Carey (cover) was a joke. She was missing the point. He meant it. She did n't. '' Carey herself would state of "Without You '' in 2008: "That song did a lot for me but it 's not really representative of me as an artist. ''
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Notable versions of "Without You '' have also been recorded by:
Nilsson 's version of "Without You '' was used as the opening tune to the 1979 feature film Porridge. In the film Casino, the Nilsson version is playing during one of Ginger 's manic episodes. In the film The Rules of Attraction, a college girl commits suicide in a bathtub while this song plays on the soundtrack. In Bridget Jones ' Diary, the title character performs a tuneless rendition of this song. In Whiskey Tango Foxtrot, this song plays during a raid in which American Marines rescue a kidnapped journalist.
On 27 August 2002 Kelly Clarkson performed "Without You '' on American Idol (season 1) during the Top 3 show as the judges choice song. Then again as an encore performance for the results show. The Top 3 performance can be seen on the DVD "American Idol Search for a Superstar '' issued in 2002.
In June 2010 the Harry Nilsson version of the song was used in television advertising for the UK brand Soda Stream.
Nilsson 's version was also included in the Apple Productions Movie, "The Son of Dracula ''.
It was also used in the final scenes of the Inside No. 9 episode A Quiet Night In.
In series two of Peep Show this song was featured in the episode titled Wedding.
In the 2015 movie Vacation, the Harry Nilsson version plays during the Grand Canyon rafting scene.
Nilsson 's version was heard in a 2016 commercial for Heinz ketchup that debuted on CBS ' coverage of Super Bowl 50 on 7 February 2016.
In the television series 30 Rock episode "Cutbacks '' Jonathan sings chorus to Jack after being let go.
On 15 May 1995, at ASCAP 's twelfth annual Pop Music Awards in Beverly Hills, California, "Without You '' was recognised as one of the 50 most - played songs of 1994 (due largely to Mariah Carey 's recording). Discrepancies in ASCAP 's books, resulting from a lawsuit against the Ham and Evans estates by their former manager, incorrectly attributed the song as being composed not only by Ham and Evans, but also by Badfinger 's other bandmembers, Mike Gibbins and Joey Molland, and their former manager, Bill Collins. This designation and a lack of correction by ASCAP prompted the Ham Estate to boycott the ceremony. The song was also nominated for "Song of the Year '' in London at the Ivor Novello Awards.
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where does the electron transport chain occur in prokaryotes and eukaryotes | Electron transport chain - wikipedia
An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H ions) across a membrane. This creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that stores energy chemically in the form of highly strained bonds. The molecules of the chain include peptides, enzymes (which are proteins or protein complexes), and others. The final acceptor of electrons in the electron transport chain during aerobic respiration is molecular oxygen although a variety of acceptors other than oxygen such as sulfate exist in anaerobic respiration.
Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy via redox reactions from sunlight in photosynthesis or, such as in the case of the oxidation of sugars, cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, an important electron transport chain is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane where it serves as the site of oxidative phosphorylation through the use of ATP synthase. It is also found in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes. In bacteria, the electron transport chain is located in their cell membrane.
In chloroplasts, light drives the conversion of water to oxygen and NADP to NADPH with transfer of H ions across chloroplast membranes. In mitochondria, it is the conversion of oxygen to water, NADH to NAD and succinate to fumarate that are required to generate the proton gradient.
Electron transport chains are major sites of premature electron leakage to oxygen, generating superoxide and potentially resulting in increased oxidative stress.
The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free '') to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.
The function of the electron transport chain is to produce a transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient as a result of the redox reactions. If protons flow back through the membrane, they enable mechanical work, such as rotating bacterial flagella. ATP synthase, an enzyme highly conserved among all domains of life, converts this mechanical work into chemical energy by producing ATP, which powers most cellular reactions. A small amount of ATP is available from substrate - level phosphorylation, for example, in glycolysis. In most organisms the majority of ATP is generated in electron transport chains, while only some obtain ATP by fermentation.
Most eukaryotic cells have mitochondria, which produce ATP from products of the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and amino acid oxidation. At the mitochondrial inner membrane, electrons from NADH and FADH2 pass through the electron transport chain to oxygen, which is reduced to water. The electron transport chain comprises an enzymatic series of electron donors and acceptors. Each electron donor will pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy, which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively "pumping '' protons into the intermembrane space, producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work. The entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation, since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many steps.
A small percentage of electrons do not complete the whole series and instead directly leak to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the free - radical superoxide, a highly reactive molecule that contributes to oxidative stress and has been implicated in a number of diseases and aging.
Energy obtained through the transfer of electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM). This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ). It allows ATP synthase to use the flow of H through the enzyme back into the matrix to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. Complex I (NADH coenzyme Q reductase; labeled I) accepts electrons from the Krebs cycle electron carrier nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and passes them to coenzyme Q (ubiquinone; labeled Q), which also receives electrons from complex II (succinate dehydrogenase; labeled II). Q passes electrons to complex III (cytochrome bc complex; labeled III), which passes them to cytochrome c (cyt c). Cyt c passes electrons to Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; labeled IV), which uses the electrons and hydrogen ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water.
Four membrane - bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid - soluble electron carriers and water - soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain:
In Complex I (NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase, NADH - CoQ reductase, or NADH dehydrogenase; EC 1.6. 5.3), two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid - soluble carrier, ubiquinone (UQ). The reduced product, ubiquinol (UQH), freely diffuses within the membrane, and Complex I translocates four protons (H) across the membrane, thus producing a proton gradient. Complex I is one of the main sites at which premature electron leakage to oxygen occurs, thus being one of the main sites of production of superoxide.
The pathway of electrons is as follows:
NADH is oxidized to NAD, by reducing Flavin mononucleotide to FMNH in one two - electron step. FMNH is then oxidized in two one - electron steps, through a semiquinone intermediate. Each electron thus transfers from the FMNH to an Fe - S cluster, from the Fe - S cluster to ubiquinone (Q). Transfer of the first electron results in the free - radical (semiquinone) form of Q, and transfer of the second electron reduces the semiquinone form to the ubiquinol form, QH. During this process, four protons are translocated from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space. As the electrons become continuously oxidized and reduced throughout the complex an electron current is produced along the 180 Angstrom width of the complex within the membrane. This current powers the active transport of four protons to the intermembrane space per two electrons from NADH.
In Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase or succinate - CoQ reductase; EC 1.3. 5.1) additional electrons are delivered into the quinone pool (Q) originating from succinate and transferred (via flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)) to Q. Complex II consists of four protein subunits: succinate dehydrogenase, (SDHA); succinate dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) iron - sulfur subunit, mitochondrial, (SDHB); succinate dehydrogenase complex subunit C, (SDHC) and succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit D, (SDHD). Other electron donors (e.g., fatty acids and glycerol 3 - phosphate) also direct electrons into Q (via FAD). Complex 2 is a parallel electron transport pathway to complex 1, but unlike complex 1, no protons are transported to the intermembrane space in this pathway. Therefore, the pathway through complex 2 contributes less energy to the overall electron transport chain process.
In Complex III (cytochrome bc complex or CoQH - cytochrome c reductase; EC 1.10. 2.2), the Q - cycle contributes to the proton gradient by an asymmetric absorption / release of protons. Two electrons are removed from QH at the Q site and sequentially transferred to two molecules of cytochrome c, a water - soluble electron carrier located within the intermembrane space. The two other electrons sequentially pass across the protein to the Q site where the quinone part of ubiquinone is reduced to quinol. A proton gradient is formed by one quinol (2H + 2e -) oxidations at the Q site to form one quinone (2H + 2e -) at the Q site. (in total four protons are translocated: two protons reduce quinone to quinol and two protons are released from two ubiquinol molecules).
When electron transfer is reduced (by a high membrane potential or respiratory inhibitors such as antimycin A), Complex III may leak electrons to molecular oxygen, resulting in superoxide formation.
In Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase; EC 1.9. 3.1), sometimes called cytochrome AA3, four electrons are removed from four molecules of cytochrome c and transferred to molecular oxygen (O), producing two molecules of water. At the same time, eight protons are removed from the mitochondrial matrix (although only four are translocated across the membrane), contributing to the proton gradient. The activity of cytochrome c oxidase is inhibited by cyanide.
According to the chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis, proposed by Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Peter D. Mitchell, the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation are coupled by a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The efflux of protons from the mitochondrial matrix creates an electrochemical gradient (proton gradient). This gradient is used by the F F ATP synthase complex to make ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase is sometimes described as Complex V of the electron transport chain. The F component of ATP synthase acts as an ion channel that provides for a proton flux back into the mitochondrial matrix. It is composed of a, b and c subunits. Protons in the inter-membranous space of mitochondria first enters the ATP synthase complex through a subunit channel. Then protons move to the c subunits. The number of c subunits it has determines how many protons it will require to make the F turn one full revolution. For example, in humans, there are 8 c subunits, thus 8 protons are required. After c subunits, protons finally enters matrix using a subunit channel that opens into the mitochondrial matrix. This reflux releases free energy produced during the generation of the oxidized forms of the electron carriers (NAD and Q). The free energy is used to drive ATP synthesis, catalyzed by the F component of the complex. Coupling with oxidative phosphorylation is a key step for ATP production. However, in specific cases, uncoupling the two processes may be biologically useful. The uncoupling protein, thermogenin -- present in the inner mitochondrial membrane of brown adipose tissue -- provides for an alternative flow of protons back to the inner mitochondrial matrix. This alternative flow results in thermogenesis rather than ATP production. Synthetic uncouplers (e.g., 2, 4 - dinitrophenol) also exist, and, at high doses, are lethal.
In the mitochondrial electron transport chain electrons move from an electron donor (NADH or QH) to a terminal electron acceptor (O) via a series of redox reactions. These reactions are coupled to the creation of a proton gradient across the mitochondrial inner membrane. There are three proton pumps: I, III, and IV. The resulting transmembrane proton gradient is used to make ATP via ATP synthase.
The reactions catalyzed by Complex I and Complex III work roughly at equilibrium. This means that these reactions are readily reversible, by increasing the concentration of the products relative to the concentration of the reactants (for example, by increasing the proton gradient). ATP synthase is also readily reversible. Thus ATP can be used to build a proton gradient, which in turn can be used to make NADH. This process of reverse electron transport is important in many prokaryotic electron transport chains.
In eukaryotes, NADH is the most important electron donor. The associated electron transport chain is
NADH → Complex I → Q → Complex III → cytochrome c → Complex IV → O where Complexes I, III and IV are proton pumps, while Q and cytochrome c are mobile electron carriers. The electron acceptor is molecular oxygen.
In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) the situation is more complicated, because there are several different electron donors and several different electron acceptors. The generalized electron transport chain in bacteria is:
Note that electrons can enter the chain at three levels: at the level of a dehydrogenase, at the level of the quinone pool, or at the level of a mobile cytochrome electron carrier. These levels correspond to successively more positive redox potentials, or to successively decreased potential differences relative to the terminal electron acceptor. In other words, they correspond to successively smaller Gibbs free energy changes for the overall redox reaction Donor → Acceptor.
Individual bacteria use multiple electron transport chains, often simultaneously. Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors, a number of different dehydrogenases, a number of different oxidases and reductases, and a number of different electron acceptors. For example, E. coli (when growing aerobically using glucose as an energy source) uses two different NADH dehydrogenases and two different quinol oxidases, for a total of four different electron transport chains operating simultaneously.
A common feature of all electron transport chains is the presence of a proton pump to create a transmembrane proton gradient. Bacterial electron transport chains may contain as many as three proton pumps, like mitochondria, or they may contain only one or two. They always contain at least one proton pump.
In the present day biosphere, the most common electron donors are organic molecules. Organisms that use organic molecules as an energy source are called organotrophs. Organotrophs (animals, fungi, protists) and phototrophs (plants and algae) constitute the vast majority of all familiar life forms.
Some prokaryotes can use inorganic matter as an energy source. Such an organism is called a lithotroph ("rock - eater ''). Inorganic electron donors include hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, nitrite, sulfur, sulfide, manganese oxide, and ferrous iron. Lithotrophs have been found growing in rock formations thousands of meters below the surface of Earth. Because of their volume of distribution, lithotrophs may actually outnumber organotrophs and phototrophs in our biosphere.
The use of inorganic electron donors as an energy source is of particular interest in the study of evolution. This type of metabolism must logically have preceded the use of organic molecules as an energy source.
Bacteria can use a number of different electron donors. When organic matter is the energy source, the donor may be NADH or succinate, in which case electrons enter the electron transport chain via NADH dehydrogenase (similar to Complex I in mitochondria) or succinate dehydrogenase (similar to Complex II). Other dehydrogenases may be used to process different energy sources: formate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate dehydrogenase, H dehydrogenase (hydrogenase), etc. Some dehydrogenases are also proton pumps; others funnel electrons into the quinone pool. Most dehydrogenases show induced expression in the bacterial cell in response to metabolic needs triggered by the environment in which the cells grow.
Quinones are mobile, lipid - soluble carriers that shuttle electrons (and protons) between large, relatively immobile macromolecular complexes embedded in the membrane. Bacteria use ubiquinone (the same quinone that mitochondria use) and related quinones such as menaquinone. Another name for ubiquinone is Coenzyme Q10.
A proton pump is any process that creates a proton gradient across a membrane. Protons can be physically moved across a membrane; this is seen in mitochondrial Complexes I and IV. The same effect can be produced by moving electrons in the opposite direction. The result is the disappearance of a proton from the cytoplasm and the appearance of a proton in the periplasm. Mitochondrial Complex III uses this second type of proton pump, which is mediated by a quinone (the Q cycle).
Some dehydrogenases are proton pumps; others are not. Most oxidases and reductases are proton pumps, but some are not. Cytochrome bc is a proton pump found in many, but not all, bacteria (it is not found in E. coli). As the name implies, bacterial bc is similar to mitochondrial bc (Complex III).
Proton pumps are the heart of the electron transport process. They produce the transmembrane electrochemical gradient that enables ATP Synthase to synthesize ATP.
Cytochromes are pigments that contain iron. They are found in two very different environments.
Some cytochromes are water - soluble carriers that shuttle electrons to and from large, immobile macromolecular structures imbedded in the membrane. The mobile cytochrome electron carrier in mitochondria is cytochrome c. Bacteria use a number of different mobile cytochrome electron carriers.
Other cytochromes are found within macromolecules such as Complex III and Complex IV. They also function as electron carriers, but in a very different, intramolecular, solid - state environment.
Electrons may enter an electron transport chain at the level of a mobile cytochrome or quinone carrier. For example, electrons from inorganic electron donors (nitrite, ferrous iron, etc.) enter the electron transport chain at the cytochrome level. When electrons enter at a redox level greater than NADH, the electron transport chain must operate in reverse to produce this necessary, higher - energy molecule.
When bacteria grow in aerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor (O) is reduced to water by an enzyme called an oxidase. When bacteria grow in anaerobic environments, the terminal electron acceptor is reduced by an enzyme called a reductase.
In mitochondria the terminal membrane complex (Complex IV) is cytochrome oxidase. Aerobic bacteria use a number of different terminal oxidases. For example, E. coli does not have a cytochrome oxidase or a bc complex. Under aerobic conditions, it uses two different terminal quinol oxidases (both proton pumps) to reduce oxygen to water.
Anaerobic bacteria, which do not use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor, have terminal reductases individualized to their terminal acceptor. For example, E. coli can use fumarate reductase, nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, DMSO reductase, or trimethylamine - N - oxide reductase, depending on the availability of these acceptors in the environment.
Most terminal oxidases and reductases are inducible. They are synthesized by the organism as needed, in response to specific environmental conditions.
Just as there are a number of different electron donors (organic matter in organotrophs, inorganic matter in lithotrophs), there are a number of different electron acceptors, both organic and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy.
In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate.
Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD / NADH redox pair and the O / H O redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O is the electron acceptor.
Not every donor - acceptor combination is thermodynamically possible. The redox potential of the acceptor must be more positive than the redox potential of the donor. Furthermore, actual environmental conditions may be far different from standard conditions (1 molar concentrations, 1 atm partial pressures, pH = 7), which apply to standard redox potentials. For example, hydrogen - evolving bacteria grow at an ambient partial pressure of hydrogen gas of 10 atm. The associated redox reaction, which is thermodynamically favorable in nature, is thermodynamic impossible under "standard '' conditions.
Bacterial electron transport pathways are, in general, inducible. Depending on their environment, bacteria can synthesize different transmembrane complexes and produce different electron transport chains in their cell membranes. Bacteria select their electron transport chains from a DNA library containing multiple possible dehydrogenases, terminal oxidases and terminal reductases. The situation is often summarized by saying that electron transport chains in bacteria are branched, modular, and inducible.
In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from a low - energy electron donor (e.g., NADH) to an acceptor (e.g., O) through an electron transport chain. In photophosphorylation, the energy of sunlight is used to create a high - energy electron donor and an electron acceptor. Electrons are then transferred from the donor to the acceptor through another electron transport chain.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above. They use mobile, lipid - soluble carriers (quinones) and mobile, water - soluble carriers (cytochromes, etc.). They also contain a proton pump. It is remarkable that the proton pump in all photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial Complex III.
Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic reaction center and Light - dependent reaction.
Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation of protons across a membrane, producing a proton gradient. The proton gradient is used to produce useful work. About 30 work units are produced per electron transport.
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where did the symbol of the poppy come from | Poppy - wikipedia
A poppy is a flowering plant in the subfamily Papaveroideae of the family Papaveraceae. Poppies are herbaceous plants, often grown for their colourful flowers. One species of poppy, Papaver somniferum, is the source of the crude drug opium which contains powerful medicinal alkaloids such as morphine and has been used since ancient times as an analgesic and narcotic medicinal and recreational drug. It also produces edible seeds. Following the trench warfare in the poppy fields of Flanders during World War I, poppies have become a symbol of remembrance of soldiers who have died during wartime.
Poppies are herbaceous annual, biennial or short - lived perennial plants. Some species are monocarpic, dying after flowering. Poppies can be over 4 feet tall with flowers up to six inches across. Flowers of species (not cultivars) have 4 to 6 petals, many stamens forming a conspicuous whorl in the center of the flower and an ovary of from 2 to many fused carpels. The petals are showy, may be of almost any color and some have markings. The petals are crumpled in the bud and as blooming finishes, the petals often lie flat before falling away. In the temperate zones, poppies bloom from spring into early summer. Most species secrete latex when injured. Bees use poppies as a pollen source. The pollen of the oriental poppy, Papaver orientale, is dark blue, that of the field or corn poppy (Papaver rhoeas) is grey to dark green. The opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, grows wild in eastern and southern Asia, and South Eastern Europe. It is believed that it originated in the Mediterranean region.
Poppies belong to the subfamily Papaveroideae of the family Papaveraceae, which includes the following genera:
The flowers of most poppy species are attractive and are widely cultivated as annual or perennial ornamental plants. This has resulted in a number of commercially important cultivars, such as the Shirley poppy, a cultivar of Papaver rhoeas and semi-double or double (flore plena) forms of the opium poppy Papaver somniferum and oriental poppy (Papaver orientale). Poppies of several other genera are also cultivated in gardens. A few species have other uses, principally as sources of drugs and foods. The opium poppy is widely cultivated and its worldwide production is monitored by international agencies. It is used for production of dried latex and opium, the principal precursor of narcotic and analgesic opiates such as morphine, heroin and codeine. Poppy seeds are rich in oil, carbohydrates, calcium and protein. Poppy oil is often used as cooking oil, salad dressing oil, or in products such as margarine. Poppy oil can also be added to spices for cakes, or breads. Poppy products are also used in different paints, varnishes, and some cosmetics.
Poppies have long been used as a symbol of sleep, peace, and death: Sleep because the opium extracted from them is a sedative, and death because of the common blood - red color of the red poppy in particular. In Greek and Roman myths, poppies were used as offerings to the dead. Poppies used as emblems on tombstones symbolize eternal sleep. This symbolism was evoked in the children 's novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, in which a magical poppy field threatened to make the protagonists sleep forever.
A second interpretation of poppies in Classical mythology is that the bright scarlet color signifies a promise of resurrection after death.
The poppy of wartime remembrance is Papaver rhoeas, the red - flowered corn poppy. This poppy is a common weed in Europe and is found in many locations, including Flanders, which is the setting of the famous poem "In Flanders Fields '' by the Canadian surgeon and soldier John McCrae. In Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand, artificial poppies (plastic in Canada, paper in the UK, Australia, South Africa, Malta and New Zealand) are worn to commemorate those who died in war. This form of commemoration is associated with Remembrance Day, which falls on November 11. In Canada, Australia and the UK, poppies are often worn from the beginning of November through to the 11th, or Remembrance Sunday if that falls on a later date. In New Zealand and Australia, soldiers are also commemorated on ANZAC day (April 25), although the poppy is still commonly worn around Remembrance Day. Wearing of poppies has been a custom since 1924 in the United States. Miss Moina Michael of Georgia is credited as the founder of the Memorial Poppy in the United States.
Red - flowered poppy is unofficially considered the national flower of the Albanians in Albania, Kosovo and elsewhere. This is due to its red and black colors, the same as the colors of the flag of Albania.
Papaver somniferum was domesticated by the indigenous people of Western and Central Europe between 6000 and 3500 BC.
Ancient Egyptian doctors would have their patients eat seeds from a poppy to relieve pain. Poppy seeds contain small quantities of both morphine and codeine, which are pain - relieving drugs that are still used today. Poppy seeds and fixed oils can also be nonnarcotic because when they are harvested about twenty days after the flower has opened, the morphine is no longer present.
The California poppy, Eschscholzia californica, is the state flower of California.
In Mexico, Grupo Modelo, the makers of Corona beer, used red poppy flowers in most of its advertising images until the 1960s.
A poppy flower is depicted on the reverse of the Macedonian 500 - denar banknote, issued in 1996 and 2003. The poppy is also part of the coat of arms of the Republic of Macedonia.
The powerful symbolism of Papaver rhoeas has been borrowed by various advocacy campaigns, such as the White Poppy and Simon Topping 's black poppy.
The girl 's given name "Poppy '' is taken from the name of the flower.
Artificial poppies (called "Buddy Poppies '') are used in the veterans ' aid campaign by the Veterans of Foreign Wars, which provides money to the veterans who assemble the poppies and various aid programs to veterans and their families.
Canada issued special quarters (25 - cent coins) with a red poppy on the reverse in 2004, 2008 and 2010. The 2004 Canadian "poppy '' quarter was the world 's first colored circulation coin.
The American Legion Family called upon Congress to designate the Friday before Memorial Day as National Poppy Day. This inaugural day was Friday, May 26, 2017. National Poppy Day broadens a tradition that dates back to the American Legion Auxiliary 's first National Convention in the early 1920s when the red poppy was adopted as The American Legion Family 's memorial flower. Today it remains an iconic symbol of honor for the sacrifice of our veterans. American Legion Auxiliary members distribute millions of poppies annually across the country in exchange for donations that go directly to assist disabled and hospitalized veterans in our communities.
Opium poppy with seed head
Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum)
Opium poppy seed capsule
Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) seeds
California Poppy
Poppies near Kelling, North Norfolk, UK, June 2002
Himalayan blue poppy near Gumburanjon in Zanskar, India, July 2008
White poppy seeds. There are about 140,000 poppy seeds to the ounce.
California poppy seeds
Red poppy flower
Field poppies, by Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin - Gorskii, c. 1912
Turkish poppy - seed cake
Kutia, a sweet grain pudding traditionally served in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia
Childe Hassam, Poppies on the Isles of Shoals, 1890, Brooklyn Museum
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who played khan in the original star trek series | Khan Noonien Singh - wikipedia
Khan Noonien Singh, commonly shortened to Khan, is a fictional character in the Star Trek science fiction franchise. The character first appeared in the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Space Seed '' (1967), and was portrayed by Ricardo Montalbán who reprised his role in the 1982 film Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. In the 2013 film Star Trek Into Darkness, he is played by Benedict Cumberbatch.
The character once controlled more than a quarter of the Earth during the Eugenics Wars of the 1990s. After being revived from suspended animation in 2267 by the crew of the Starship Enterprise, Khan attempts to capture the starship, but is thwarted by James T. Kirk and exiled on Ceti Alpha V to create a new society with his people. In Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, set fifteen years after "Space Seed '', Khan escapes his exile and sets out to exact revenge upon Kirk.
Harve Bennett, executive producer for Star Trek II, chose Khan as the villain for the film. To reflect the time spent marooned on an inhospitable world, Khan was given a costume that looked as though it had been scavenged from different items and showed off Montalbán 's physique. Montalbán 's portrayal has been positively received by critics and fans; Khan was voted one of the ten greatest film villains by the Online Film Critics Society.
In Star Trek Into Darkness, set in the alternate continuity established in Star Trek (2009), Khan is awakened almost a decade before the events of "Space Seed ''. Khan is given the false identity "John Harrison '' and coerced by Admiral Marcus into building weapons for Starfleet in exchange for the lives of Khan 's crew. He ultimately rebels and comes into conflict with the crew of Enterprise.
Khan makes his introductory appearance in the episode "Space Seed '', first broadcast on February 16, 1967. According to the backstory revealed in the episode, Khan is one of a group of genetically engineered superhumans, bred to be free of the usual human mental and physical limitations, who were removed from power after the Eugenics Wars of the 1990s. Khan had been both the most successful conqueror and the most benign ruler of the group, ruling more than a quarter of the Earth 's area across Asia to the Middle East from 1992 to 1996 with a firm but generally peaceful hand until he was deposed. While most of the supermen were killed or sentenced to death, Khan and 84 others escaped Earth by way of the sleeper ship SS Botany Bay. Botany Bay is discovered by the crew of the Starship Enterprise in 2267, with Khan and 72 of the 84 crew members of Botany Bay still alive, cryogenically frozen in suspended animation.
When Khan 's sleep chamber malfunctions, he is transported to Enterprise, where he reawakens and learns he is in the 23rd century. Given spacious quarters while Botany Bay is towed to a starbase, Khan fascinates and charms the ship 's historian, Marla McGivers (Madlyn Rhue), while using his access to the ship 's technical manuals to learn how to take over and operate Enterprise. McGivers agrees to help Khan revive the other supermen, allowing him to organize an attempted takeover. To coerce the Enterprise crew to cooperate with him, Khan places Captain James T. Kirk (William Shatner) in the ship 's decompression chamber and threatens to kill Kirk unless the crew submits. McGivers can not stand by as her Captain dies and frees Kirk, who neutralizes Khan 's men by using a neural gas. Khan heads to engineering and sets the ship 's engines to self - destruct, whereupon he is incapacitated by Kirk. Captain Kirk conducts a hearing, sentencing Khan and his followers to exile on an uncolonized world, Ceti Alpha V. Khan accepts Kirk 's challenge -- invoking the fall of Lucifer in Milton 's Paradise Lost -- and McGivers joins Khan rather than face court - martial. Spock (Leonard Nimoy) wonders what the "seed '' Kirk has planted will bear in a hundred years.
Khan returns in the 1982 feature film Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. Captain Clark Terrell (Paul Winfield) and First Officer Pavel Chekov (Walter Koenig) of USS Reliant are searching for an uninhabited world to test the Genesis device, a powerful terraforming tool. They beam down to what they believe is Ceti Alpha VI. Khan 's followers capture Terrell and Chekov, and Khan explains that the barren world is Ceti Alpha V; the sixth planet of the system exploded shortly after Khan and his followers were marooned. The cataclysm caused massive climate disturbances, rendering the planet into a desert, and many of the survivors -- including Khan 's wife -- were killed by the only surviving species of animal, the Ceti eel. Only twenty of Khan 's followers survive. Swearing vengeance on Kirk, Khan implants Ceti eels in Terrell and Chekov 's brains, rendering them vulnerable to suggestion. Khan then seizes control of Reliant, intent on capturing the Genesis device.
Khan lures Enterprise to the space station Regula I, and he launches a surprise attack that disables Kirk 's ship. Kirk tricks Khan by using a special code to remotely lower Reliant 's shields, allowing Enterprise to inflict significant damage. Khan is forced to withdraw to make repairs. Using the mind - controlled Terrell and Chekov as spies, Khan captures the Genesis device and leaves Kirk marooned on Regula I. Spock deceives Khan into thinking that Enterprise is crippled, surprising Khan when Enterprise rescues Kirk and escapes to the nearby Mutara Nebula. Goaded into following Kirk, Khan pilots Reliant into the nebula, where shields and sensors are inoperable. Due to Khan 's inexperience with three - dimensional space combat, Enterprise defeats Reliant and Khan is severely wounded. Refusing to accept defeat, Khan activates the Genesis device, intent on killing his foe along with himself. Khan quotes Ahab 's words of vengeance from Moby Dick as he watches Enterprise try to escape.
Khan appears in the 2013 film Star Trek Into Darkness, taking place in the alternate continuity established in Star Trek (2009). While the character 's backstory remains the same, Khan is revived by Starfleet Admiral Alexander Marcus rather than the crew of Enterprise. Marcus anticipates a war with the Klingons, and forces Khan to develop warships and weapons for Starfleet under the cover identity of "Commander John Harrison '', holding Khan 's shipmates hostage. These developments include advanced long - range torpedoes and the warship USS Vengeance.
Believing Marcus killed his crew, Khan engineers attacks on a Starfleet archive and Starfleet leadership, before fleeing to the Klingon homeworld Qo'noS. Marcus arms Enterprise with 72 advanced torpedoes and sends Kirk and Enterprise to Qo'noS to kill Harrison. Against orders, Kirk attempts to capture him alive. Upon learning the number of torpedoes on board Enterprise, Khan surrenders, revealing his identity, the presence of his followers in the torpedoes, and the reasons for his attacks.
When Marcus arrives aboard Vengeance and attacks Enterprise, Kirk and Khan work together to take control of Vengeance 's bridge. Once in control of Vengeance, Khan kills Admiral Marcus and demands that Spock return his crew. Spock, having removed Khan 's people from the torpedoes, lowers the Enterprise 's shields and allows Khan to beam the activated weapons ' warheads aboard Vengeance, crippling the ship. Khan crashes Vengeance in San Francisco in an attempt to escape, but is pursued and captured by Spock. Khan is placed back into cryogenic sleep along with his crew.
Khan has been depicted in various novels and comic book publications. As with all non-television and non-film Star Trek material, the publications are outside of Star Trek canon.
Author Greg Cox penned three Star Trek novels featuring Khan, published by licensee Pocket Books. In the two - volume The Eugenics Wars: The Rise and Fall of Khan Noonien Singh, Khan is depicted as a North Indian from a family of Sikhs. "Khan '' is a title; his adoptive parents are from Chandigarh, Punjab, India and are both eugenic scientists. At the end of the second novel, Khan and his followers are placed aboard the Botany Bay by Gary Seven as part of a deal to stop Khan 's machinations on Earth. The 2005 follow - up, To Reign in Hell: The Exile of Khan Noonien Singh, relates what happened to Khan and his fellow exiles between the events of "Space Seed '' and The Wrath of Khan. A different version of Khan 's exile on Ceti Alpha V is depicted in IDW Publishing 's 2010 comic miniseries Khan: Ruling in Hell.
From 2013 to 2014, IDW published a five - part series of comic books telling the story of the Into Darkness incarnation of Khan. The first issue in the series acknowledges the discrepancy of Khan 's physical appearance compared to that of the previous incarnation. In keeping with the prime timeline 's backstory, Khan 's beginnings, rise to power, and involvement in the Eugenics War are depicted. It is also revealed his birth name was Noonien Singh and that he adopted the title "Khan '' out of admiration for Genghis Khan. The series goes on to mention that Khan 's anatomy and memories were altered per Marcus 's orders, so that Khan would initially believe himself to be the fabricated Harrison.
Writer Carey Wilber pitched "Space Seed '' to Star Trek producers Roddenberry, Gene Coon, and Robert Justman with an 18 - page outline dated August 29, 1966. In the outline, Wilber envisioned the crew of Botany Bay as criminals sent on a 1,500 - year journey to make room on Earth for others. Khan was represented as a Nordic criminal with a "magnificent '' body, Harald Ericsson. The producers suggested changes to the outline in a series of memos; in memos dated September 7 and 9, Coon suggested significant changes to Ericsson. "I want to rather do more with him than you have indicated in the story outline, '' he wrote. Believing that Ericsson (misspelled as Erickson in the memo) could be a worthy adversary for Kirk, Coon suggested that the character be "in fact very similar to James Kirk, our captain, except that our captain has made an adjustment to this world and this culture (...) In other words, Carey, build us a giant of a man. ''
The first draft of the script introduced the character as John Ericssen -- who is revealed to be a man involved in "The First World Tyranny '', named Ragnar Thorwald. The character of Thorwald was more brutal than Khan in the final version, killing guards using a phaser. In the original script, Kirk forgives Ericssen and offers him and his people a chance at a fresh start -- something that remained in the final episode -- but the character committing murder would have precluded such an ending, as NBC censors would have necessitated the "bad guy '' be punished for his actions.
By the final draft, Khan is Indian; a character guesses that Khan is from Northern India, and "probably a Sikh. '' Khan 's full name was based on that of Kim Noonien Singh, a pilot Gene Roddenbery served with during the Second World War. Roddenbery lost touch with his friend and had hoped that Khan 's similar name might attract his attention and renew his old acquaintance.
In "Space Seed '', Khan is presented as having several positive characteristics: he is gracious, smiling, fearless and generous. He is not threatened by the success of others, and encourages their self - esteem. He is also ambitious, desiring a challenge commensurate with his abilities, but this ambition is not tempered by any consideration of the rights of others. Author Paul Cantor asserts that Khan is a mirror image of Kirk, sharing his aggressiveness, ambition, and even his womanizing tendencies, but possessing them in far greater degree. During the episode, several of the characters express their admiration for the man even as they oppose him, with Kirk referring to him as "the best of the tyrants, and the most dangerous. '' The character 's Spanish accent and superhuman appearance strongly differentiate him from most Star Trek characters.
After the disappointing response to the first Star Trek feature film, The Motion Picture, Paramount executives appointed Harve Bennett, a television producer who had never watched Star Trek, to be executive producer for the sequel. Bennett watched all the original series episodes and chose Khan from "Space Seed '' as a possible villain for the film. Early drafts of the script had Khan as a shadowy tyrant leading a planet in revolt; later drafts added the "Genesis device '' which Khan would steal.
Costume designer Robert Fletcher wanted to emphasize the effects of their harsh environment on Khan and his followers. "My intention with Khan was to express the fact that they had been marooned on that planet with no technical infrastructure, so they had to cannibalize from the spaceship whatever they used or wore. Therefore, I tried to make it look as if they had dressed themselves out of pieces of upholstery and electrical equipment that composed the ship, '' he said. Director Nicholas Meyer told Montalbán to keep Khan 's right glove on at all times, in order to give viewers a puzzle they could form their own opinions about and add mystery to the character. Meyer has been repeatedly asked if Montalbán wore a prosthetic chest for his scenes, as his uniform was purposefully designed with an open front. Meyer replied in audio commentary for the film that Montalbán (who was 61 during filming) is "one strong cookie, '' and that no prosthetics were applied to the actor 's sizeable frame.
At no point during The Wrath of Khan are Khan and Kirk in the same location; they speak to each other only over communication links such as view screens. This was due in part to the fact that the set of the Reliant was a redress of the Enterprise bridge, and the two actors ' scenes were filmed four months apart. Montalbán recited his lines with a script assistant instead of to William Shatner.
Montalbán said in promotional interviews for the film he realized early on in his career that a good villain does not see himself as villainous. The villain may do villainous things, but he feels that he is doing them for righteous reasons. Montalbán further stated he always tried to find a flaw in the character, as no one is completely good or completely evil; while Khan had a rather distorted view of reality and therefore performed acts of evil, he still felt that his vengeance was a noble cause because of the death of his wife. Khan quotes the character of Ahab from Moby - Dick throughout the film, driving home his lust to make Kirk pay for the wrongs he has inflicted upon him.
Following the box office success of J.J. Abrams ' Star Trek reboot and the announcement that actors Chris Pine and Zachary Quinto had tentatively agreed to appear in two sequels, Internet rumors began circulating about the plot of the second film. Abrams hinted that because of the alternate timeline created in the first film, reintroducing Khan into Star Trek lore remained a possibility. Abrams told MTV, "(Khan and Kirk) exist -- and while their history may not be exactly as people are familiar with, I would argue that a person 's character is what it is, '' Abrams said of the notion that his Khan could be just as evil, even if Kirk never stranded him on Ceti Alpha V. "Certain people are destined to cross paths and come together, and Khan is out there... even if he does n't have the same issues. '' Writer Damon Lindelof declared that Khan 's "intense gravity, '' particularly regarding the character 's delivery of monologues, made him an obligatory character to use, even if its iconic status made the crew afraid of the fan reaction. Lindelof jokingly stated that "it was never really a ' Should we or should n't we? ' as much as it was ' We really have to do this but if we do n't get it right people are going to kill us. ' ''
As part of the secrecy campaign, Benedict Cumberbatch denied that he was playing Khan during interviews, describing Harrison as simply a terrorist with his own purposes, as well as "someone that 's activated and manufactured in a way by Starfleet, and it 's a scene that has come back to haunt him. '' He discussed the character 's moral ambiguity saying it fit the adage "one man 's terrorist is another man 's freedom fighter, '' adding parallels to the current world order "whether it 's U.S. foreign policy or the actions of some terrorists. '' Into Darkness writers Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman added that they used the character of Khan not just for his popularity with the fandom -- "It 's so easy to fall into the trap of doing something because you think people are going to love it. You must come up with what the movie can be on its own and then, if it turns out the villain maybe can be Khan, then you can do it. But you ca n't start there. '' -- but for fitting the sequel 's theme of "how far will we go to exact vengeance and justice on an enemy that scares us. ''
Some fans protested Cumberbatch 's casting as Khan, believing that a person of Indian descent should have been given the role instead.
Superficially, Khan has been compared to Friedrich Nietzsche 's concept of the "Übermensch '' (superman or overman). Khan is mentally and physically superior to any normal human. In the Star Trek: Enterprise episode "Borderland '', Malik, the leader of a group of "supermen '' created from the same genetic engineering project as Khan, quotes Nietzsche, telling Archer that "Mankind is something to be surpassed ''. Professor William J. Devlin and coauthor Shai Biderman examined Khan 's character compared to the Übermensch and found that Khan 's blind pursuit of revenge is against Nietzsche 's ideals of transcendence and self - creation of a meaningful life. Instead, the authors offer Spock 's self - sacrifice in The Wrath of Khan as a better example of the Übermensch.
Montalbán 's performance as Khan was favorably received by critics. Discussing the Star Trek motion pictures, the Associated Press noted that Star Trek films were measured by how menacing their foe was, and that Khan was among the best in the series; a 2002 review of the Star Trek films ranked Khan as the greatest enemy seen in any of the films. Reviewers of The Wrath of Khan, such as Roger Ebert, rated Khan as one of the strongest aspects of the film. New Yorker critic Pauline Kael said Montalbán 's performance "was the only validation he has ever had of his power to command the big screen. ''
Critic Christopher Null notes that "it is nearly gospel now among Trekkies that... Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan is the undisputed best of the series, and will likely never meet its equal, '' and calls Khan the "greatest role of (Montalbán 's) career ''. Though he felt that the villain of Star Trek: The Motion Picture, V'ger, was more cerebral and interesting, author James Iaccino notes that most fans and moviegoers preferred the archetypical good - versus - evil fight the struggle between Khan and Kirk represents. Villains in subsequent Star Trek films have been measured by the standard of Khan, with Paramount promising fans that the villain of Star Trek Generations would be equal to the genetic superman. IGN ranked Khan as the best Star Trek villain, noting that he set the pattern for revenge - seeking villains in the series; in the decades since the film 's release, "even those with a passing interest (in Trek) know the name. '' Star Trek producer Rick Berman called the villain "threatening and memorable. ''
Khan is also recognized as a great villain outside of the Star Trek series. The Associated Press called the character "one of sci - fi 's great villains ''. In 2002, the Online Film Critics Society 's 132 members voted Khan as the 10th Greatest Screen Villain of all time, the only Star Trek character to appear in the listing. In 2006, Emmy Magazine voted Khan "TV 's Most Out - of - This - World Character '', beating out other science - fiction characters such as The Doctor and Commander Adama. Editors wrote that "Khan was so cool we would 've bought a Chrysler Cordoba if he 'd told us to, '' referring to an ad campaign Montalbán appeared in for Chrysler. The character also had a cultural impact outside of Star Trek fandom; a clip from The Wrath of Khan featuring Kirk screaming "Khaaan! '' was one popular culture appropriation that became a "popular fad '' driving the success of the website YTMND.
In 2004, the Star Trek franchise returned to Khan 's backstory in a three - episode story arc on Star Trek: Enterprise. In "Borderland '', "Cold Station 12 '' and "The Augments '', a 22nd - century scientist is portrayed as having revived genetically engineered embryos from Khan 's time and raised them as "Augments ''. Enterprise producer Manny Coto described these characters as "mini Khan Noonien Singhs ''.
Benedict Cumberbatch 's performance in Star Trek Into Darkness drew praise from critics with Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine calling it a "tour - de-force to be reckoned with '' and his character "a villain for the ages ''. Joe Neumaier of New York 's Daily News wrote that Cumberbatch delivered "one of the best blockbuster villains in recent memory ''. Jonathan Romney of The Independent specifically noted Cumberbatch 's voice saying it was "So sepulchrally resonant that it could have been synthesised from the combined timbres of Ian McKellen, Patrick Stewart and Alan Rickman holding an elocution contest down a well. '' The New York Times praised his screen presence saying "He fuses Byronic charisma with an impatient, imperious intelligence that seems to raise the ambient I.Q. whenever he 's on screen. ''
Christian Blauvelt from website Hollywood.com criticized the casting of Khan in Star Trek Into Darkness as being "whitewashed into oblivion ''. Star Trek: Voyager actor Garrett Wang tweeting, "The casting of Cumberbatch was a mistake on the part of the producers. I am not being critical of the actor or his talent, just the casting. '' Co-producer and co-screenwriter Roberto Orci addressed the issue of the casting saying, "Basically, as we went through the casting process and we began honing in on the themes of the movie, it became uncomfortable for me to support demonizing anyone of color, particularly any one of Middle Eastern descent or anyone evoking that. One of the points of the movie is that we must be careful about the villain within US, not some other race. ''
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who played cindy brady in the brady bunch | Susan Olsen - wikipedia
Susan Marie Olsen (born August 14, 1961) is an American former child actress, animal welfare advocate, artist, and former radio host. Olsen is known for her role as Cindy Brady, the youngest Brady child in the sitcom The Brady Bunch for the full run of the show, from 1969 to 1974. In 1995 she had a minor role in the Brady bunch Movie as a reporter.
Olsen was born in Santa Monica, California to Lawrence & DeLoice Olsen, the youngest of four children. Her siblings are: Larry (24 years older), Christopher (14 years older), and Diane (5 years older). Christopher was also a child actor, perhaps best known for his role in The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956).
Olsen landed a number of supporting roles in television, most notably in Ironside, Gunsmoke, and Julia, and appeared in the Elvis Presley movie The Trouble With Girls (1968) as a squeaky - clean singer in a singing contest.
At age eight, Olsen was cast as Cindy on The Brady Bunch. As an adult, Olsen has expressed that portraying Cindy made friendships difficult for her as a child. She most disliked the season two "tattletale '' episode, in which Cindy incessantly snitches on her siblings. Because of the episode, she was shunned by her real - life peers, who did not understand the difference between actors and their characters.
Olsen has appeared in all Brady Bunch reunion movies with the exception of A Very Brady Christmas (1988), which was filmed when she and her first husband, Steve Ventimiglia were on their honeymoon. In that movie, Cindy Brady was played by actress Jennifer Runyon. Olsen reprised her role as Cindy Brady in the short lived CBS spin - off series The Bradys.
In 2005, VH1 ranked her No. 34 in The 100 Greatest Kid Stars of television and film.
In 2007, Olsen and her fellow cast members were honored with the TV Pop Culture Award on the TV Land Awards. This is the only award The Brady Bunch has ever won.
As a teen, Olsen was the spokesgirl for Sindy doll, made by Marx Toys from the late 1970s. As an adult, Olsen moved into the graphic design business and in 1998 briefly marketed a brand of glow - in - the - dark shoes for Converse. She also worked as a talk show host at the Los Angeles radio station KLSX from 1995 to 1996 with Ken Ober, and co-hosted and co-wrote another radio show with comedian Allan Havey at Comedy World in 2000.
She appeared in episode 26 of Cartoon Network 's talk show Space Ghost Coast to Coast, "Switcheroo '', with Cassandra Peterson as "Elvira, Mistress of the Dark ''. Olsen has also been an advocate for migraine sufferers since 1998. She described her headaches on Larry King Live.
An urban legend claimed that Olsen had become an adult film star. In a late 1990s television interview, Olsen stated that her "porn '' connection was that she created space ship sound effects for a porn film called Love Probe from a Warm Planet. She did this as a favor for a friend who worked in the technical side of the business. She went on to state that perhaps the legend got started because the star of the porn film Crocodile Blondee, which was widely distributed among troops during the Persian Gulf crisis, was rumored to be her. She added that since the porn star was very pretty, she did not try too hard to dispel the rumor.
In the fall of 2008, Olsen appeared on Fox Reality 's Gimme My Reality Show, in which celebrities compete to win their own reality show. Susan used this vehicle to make a statement about animal rescue, a cause with which she is thoroughly involved. On June 6, 2009, Olsen thanked retired game show host and current animal rights activist Bob Barker when The Bradys accepted an honor at the GSN Awards. Olsen is an animal welfare advocate and serves on the board of directors of the nonprofit organization Precious Paws, a rescue group. Olsen personally cares for unweaned homeless kittens until they are old enough to adopt.
On September 1, 2009, Olsen released the coffee table book Love to Love You Bradys: The Bizarre Story of The Brady Bunch Variety Hour which celebrates the 1976 -- 77 television variety show The Brady Bunch Hour. In addition to many color photos and artwork, the volume features over 100 interviews with Brady Bunch cast members, producers Sid and Marty Krofft, Sherwood Schwartz, Bruce Vilanch, Rip Taylor, and Paul Shaffer.
In September 2010, Olsen made a guest appearance on The Young and the Restless playing Mrs. Liza Morton, the owner of a pre-school.
In 2011, Olsen appeared in season 3, episode 43 of The Biography Channel 's reality show Celebrity Ghost Stories.
In December 2016, Olsen was fired from her radio show, "Two Chicks Talkin ' Politics '' on LA Talk Radio, as a result of engaging with a feud with openly gay actor Leon Acord - Whiting, in which Olsen, responding to comments Acord - Whiting had made about her on another station, unleashed an extensive and profane rant against him accusing him of cowardice. Acord - Whiting accused Olsen of homophobia for the remarks (which included repeated use of the word "faggot '') and successfully lobbied to have Olsen fired.
She is the creator of Marshmallow Fluff - inspired art. Her work, called "Fluffart, '' has been curated into a collection made available in limited editions.
As an animal welfare advocate, Olsen has created another art collection, entitled "The Art of Rescue ''. She donates the proceeds to assist animals in rescue organizations until they are able to be adopted.
In July 2012, Olsen was one of a limited number of artists invited to show in "Art with an Agenda: An Exhibit Inspired by Kelly Thomas '', at the PAS Gallery in Fullerton, California. All the art on display was inspired by the life and circumstances surrounding the death of Kelly Thomas, a homeless, schizophrenic, 37 - year - old man who was brutally beaten by members of the Fullerton Police Department on July 5, 2011. Olsen 's piece, titled "Still Life, '' shows a half - eaten donut in a puddle of blood beside a lit flashlight.
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what happens if there is a tie in the nfl playoffs | NFL playoffs - wikipedia
The National Football League (NFL) playoffs are a single - elimination tournament held after the end of the National Football League regular season to determine the NFL champion. Six teams from each of the league 's two conferences qualify for the playoffs based on regular season records, and a tie - breaking procedure exists in the case of equal records. The tournament ends with the Super Bowl, the league 's championship game, which matches the two conference champions.
NFL postseason history can be traced to the first NFL Championship Game in 1933, though in the early years, qualification for the game was based solely on regular season records. From 1933 to 1966, the NFL postseason generally only consisted of the NFL Championship Game, pitting the league 's two division winners (pending any one - game playoff matches that needed to be held to break ties in the division standings). The NFL playoffs then expanded in 1967, when four teams qualified for the tournament. When the league merged with the American Football League (AFL) in 1970, the playoffs expanded to eight teams. The playoffs were expanded to 10 teams in 1978 and 12 teams since 1990.
The NFL is the only one out of the four major professional sports leagues in the United States to use a single - elimination tournament in all four rounds of its playoffs; Major League Baseball (MLB) (not including their wild - card postseason round), the National Basketball Association (NBA), and the National Hockey League (NHL) all use a "best - of '' series format instead.
The 32 - team National Football League is divided into two conferences, American Football Conference (AFC) and National Football Conference (NFC), each with 16 teams. Since 2002, each conference has been further divided into four divisions of four teams each. The tournament brackets are made up of six teams from each of the league 's two conferences, following the end of the regular season. Qualification into the playoffs works as follows:
The names of the first two playoff rounds date back to the postseason format that was first used in 1978, when the league added a second wild - card team to each conference. The first round of the playoffs is dubbed the wild - card playoffs (or wild - card weekend). In this round, the third - seeded division winner hosts the sixth seed wild card, and the fourth seed hosts the fifth. There are no restrictions regarding teams from the same division matching up in any round. The 1 and 2 seeds from each conference receive a bye in the first round, which entitles these teams to automatic advancement to the second round, the divisional playoffs, where they face the wild - card weekend survivors. The 1 seed has home - field advantage throughout the playoffs. The NFL does not use a fixed bracket playoff system. The number 1 seed will host the worst surviving seed from the first round (seed 4, 5 or 6), while the number 2 seed will play the other team (seed 3, 4 or 5). The two surviving teams from each conference 's divisional playoff games then meet in the respective AFC and NFC Conference Championship games (hosted by the higher seed), with the winners of those contests going on to face one another in the Super Bowl. Only twice since 1990 has neither a number one - seeded team nor a number two - seeded team hosted a conference championship game (in the 2006 AFC Championship the # 3 seeded Indianapolis Colts hosted the # 4 seeded New England Patriots with the Colts winning 38 -- 34 and the 2008 NFC Championship the # 4 seeded Arizona Cardinals hosting the # 6 seeded Philadelphia Eagles with the Cardinals winning 32 -- 25).
If teams are tied (having the same regular season won - lost - tied record), the playoff seeding is determined by a set of tie - breaking rules.
One potential disadvantage is that the two teams with the best records in a conference could play each other before the conference championship if they are in the same division. The better team would be seeded # 1, while the lesser team would be seeded # 5 as the top wild - card team, and as shown in the diagram, it is possible for the # 1 division winner to play the top wild - card team in the divisional round. (See also the "Modification proposals '' section below.)
The New York Giants and New York Jets have shared the same home stadium since 1984 (first Giants Stadium from 1984 to 2009, and MetLife Stadium since 2010). Thus, if both teams need to host playoff games on the same weekend, they are always required to play on separate days, even during the Conference Championship round. The only time such a scheduling conflict has occurred was during wild - card weekend in 1985, when only 10 teams qualified for the postseason and there were only two wild - card games (See the "History '' section below): Instead of playing both wild - card games on the same day, as was the case when the 10 - team system was used from 1978 to 1989, the New England Patriots defeated the Jets, 26 -- 14, on Saturday, December 28, before the Giants beat the San Francisco 49ers, 17 -- 3, on the following day.
Often, teams will finish a season with identical records. It becomes necessary, therefore, to devise means to break these ties, either to determine which teams will qualify for the playoffs, or to determine seeding in the playoff tournament. The rules below are applied in order until the tie is broken. If three teams are tied for one playoff spot and the third team is eliminated at any step, the tie breaker reverts to step one for the remaining two teams. If multiple playoff spots are at stake, the rules are applied in order until the first team qualifies, then the process is started again for the remaining teams.
The tie - breaking rules have changed over the years, with the most recent changes being made in 2002 to accommodate the league 's realignment into eight four - team divisions; record vs. common opponents and most of the other criteria involving wins and losses were moved up higher in the tie - breaking list, while those involving compiled stats such as points for and against were moved to the bottom.
The current tiebreakers are as follows, with coin tosses used if all of the criteria fail:
The NFL introduced overtime for any divisional tiebreak games beginning in 1940, and for championship games beginning in 1946. The first postseason game to be played under these rules was the 1958 NFL Championship Game between the Baltimore Colts and New York Giants (the so - called "Greatest Game Ever Played ''). Overtime under the original format was sudden death, the first team to score would be declared the winner.
In March 2010, the NFL amended its rules for postseason overtime, with the rule being extended into the regular season in March 2012. If a team scores a touchdown, or if the defense scores a safety on its first possession, it is declared the winner. If it scores a field goal on its first possession, however, it then kicks off to the opposing team, which has an opportunity to score; if the score is tied again after that possession, true sudden death rules apply and whoever scores next will win.
Since postseason games can not end in a tie, unlike the preseason or regular season, additional overtime periods are played as necessary until a winner is determined. Furthermore, all clock rules apply as if a game had started over. Therefore, if the first overtime period ends with the score still tied, the teams switch ends of the field prior to double overtime. If a game was still tied with two minutes to go in double overtime, there would be a two - minute warning (but not during the first overtime period as in the regular season). And if it were still tied at the end of double overtime, there would be a kickoff to start triple overtime. Although a contest could theoretically last indefinitely, or last multiple overtime periods like several National Hockey League postseason games, no NFL playoff game has ever gone into triple - overtime. The longest NFL game played to date is 82 minutes, 40 seconds: Miami Dolphins kicker Garo Yepremian made the winning 37 - yard field goal after 7: 40 of double - overtime to defeat the Kansas City Chiefs, 27 -- 24, in the 1971 -- 72 NFL playoffs on December 25, 1971.
The NFL 's method for determining its champions has changed over the years.
From the league 's founding in 1920 until 1932, there was no scheduled championship game. From 1920 -- 1923, the championship was awarded to a team by a vote of team owners at the annual owners ' meeting. From 1924 -- 1932, the team having the best winning percentage was awarded the championship (the de facto standard owners had been using anyway). As each team played a different number of games, simply counting wins and losses would have been insufficient. Additionally, tie games were not counted in the standings in figuring winning percentage (under modern rules, ties count as 1⁄2 win and 1⁄2 loss). There was a head - to - head tiebreaker, which also was weighted toward the end of the season: for two teams that played each other twice, each winning once, the team winning the second game was determined to be the champion (the criteria used to decide the 1921 title).
In 1932, the Chicago Bears (6 -- 1 -- 6) and the Portsmouth Spartans (6 -- 1 -- 4) were tied at the end of the season with the identical winning percentage of. 857 (the Green Bay Packers (10 -- 3 -- 1) had more wins, but a lower winning percentage (. 769) as calculated under the rules of the day, which omitted ties). An additional game was therefore needed to determine a champion. It was agreed that the game would be played in Chicago at Wrigley Field, but severe winter weather and fear of a low turnout forced the game to be moved indoors to Chicago Stadium. The game was played under modified rules on a shortened 80 - yard dirt field, and the Bears won with a final score of 9 -- 0. As a result of the game, the Bears had the better winning percentage (. 875) and won the league title. The loss gave the Spartans a final winning percentage of. 750, and moved them to third place behind the Packers. While there is no consensus that this game was a real "championship '' game (or even a playoff game), it generated considerable interest and led to the creation of the official NFL Championship Game in 1933.
Given the interest of the impromptu "championship game '', and the desire of the league to create a more equitable means of determining a champion, the league divided into two conferences beginning in 1933. The winners of each conference (the first place teams in the conferences) met in the NFL Championship Game after the season. There was no tie - breaker system in place; any ties in the final standings of either conference resulted in a playoff game being played in 1941, 1943, 1947, two games in 1950, and one each in 1952, 1957, 1958, and 1965. Since the venue and date of the championship game were often not known until the last game of the season had been played, these playoff games sometimes resulted in delaying the end of the season by one week.
The playoff structure used from 1933 to 1966 was considered inequitable by some because of the number of times it failed to match the teams with the two best records in the championship game, as only the conference winners would qualify for playoff contention. Four times between 1950 and 1966 (in 1951, 1956, 1960, and 1963) the team with the second - best win - loss record did not qualify for the playoffs while the team with the best record in the other conference, but only the third - best in the league, would advance to the championship game.
For the 1967 NFL season, the NFL expanded to 16 teams, and split its two conferences into two divisions each, with four teams in each division. The four division champions would advance to the NFL playoffs, and to remain on schedule, a tie - breaker system was introduced. The first round of playoffs determined the conference 's champion and its representative in the NFL Championship Game, played the following week. Thus, 1967 was the first season there was a scheduled playoff tournament to determine the teams to play for the NFL Championship.
During the three years (1967 -- 69) that this playoff structure was in effect, there was one use of the tie - breaker system. In 1967, the Los Angeles Rams and Baltimore Colts ended the season tied at 11 -- 1 -- 2 for the lead in the Coastal Division. The Colts came into the last game of the season undefeated, but were beaten by the Rams. Though the Colts shared the best win / loss record in the NFL that year, they failed to advance to the playoffs while three other teams with worse records won their divisions. This event figured into the decision in 1970 to include a wild - card team in the playoff tournament after the AFL -- NFL merger.
During the 1960s, a third - place playoff game was played in Miami, called the Playoff Bowl. It was contested in early January following the 1960 -- 69 seasons. Though official playoff games at the time they were played, the NFL now officially classifies these ten games (and statistics) as exhibitions, not as playoff games.
Since it would eventually merge with the NFL, the history of the AFL 's playoff system merits some explanation. For the 1960 -- 68 seasons, the AFL used the two - divisional format identical to the NFL to determine its champion. There was no tie - breaker system in place, so ties atop the Eastern Division final standings in 1963 and Western Division in 1968 necessitated playoff games to determine each division 's representative in the championship.
For the 1969 season, a first round was added whereby each division winner played the second - place team from the other division. The winners of these games met in the AFL Championship Game. In the only year of this format, the AFL Champion Kansas City Chiefs were the second - place team in the Western division. The Chiefs went on to win Super Bowl IV that season, thus becoming the first non-division winner to win a Super Bowl.
During its brief history, the AAFC, which would merge into the NFL for the 1950 season, used an identical playoff format to the NFL from 1946 to 1948. In 1949 (its last year), the AAFC would merge its two conferences when one of its teams folded, and use a four - team playoff system. In 1948, the aforementioned issue of playoff inequity came into play when the San Francisco 49ers would miss the playoffs with a 12 -- 2 record; they were in the same conference as the 14 -- 0 Cleveland Browns, who would go on to win the Western Conference and then the AAFC 's championship game against the 7 -- 7 Buffalo Bills (AAFC).
The Super Bowl began as an inter-league championship game between the AFL and NFL, an idea first proposed by Kansas City Chiefs owner Lamar Hunt. This compromise was the result of pressures the upstart AFL was placing on the older NFL. The success of the rival league would eventually lead to a full merger of the two leagues.
From the 1966 season to the 1969 season (Super Bowls I -- IV) the game featured the champions of the AFL and NFL. Since the 1970 season, the game has featured the champions of the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC).
When the leagues merged in 1970, the new NFL (with 26 teams) reorganized into two conferences of three divisions each. From the 1970 season to the 1977 season, four teams from each conference (for a total of eight teams) qualified for the playoffs each year. These four teams included the three division champions, and a fourth wild - card team.
Originally, the home teams in the playoffs were decided based on a yearly rotation. From 1970 to 1974, the divisional playoff round rotated which of the three division champions would have home field advantage, with the wild - card teams and the teams they would face in the divisional playoff game would never have home field advantage throughout the playoffs. Starting in 1970, the divisional playoff games consisted of the AFC Central champions and the NFC West champions playing their games on the road. Then in 1971 it rotated to the AFC East champions and the NFC East champions playing their games on the road. In the 1972 divisional playoff games, the AFC West champions and the NFC Central champions were the visiting teams. And 1973 it would start all over with the AFC Central and NFC West again, and so on.
The rotation system led to several playoff inequities, such as:
The league did not institute a seeding system for the playoffs until 1975, where the surviving clubs with the higher seeds were made the home teams for each playoff round. Thus, the top seeded division winner played the wild - card team, and the remaining two division winners played at the home stadium of the better seed (which meant that the lowest - seeded division winner had to open the postseason on the road). However, two teams from the same division could not meet prior to the conference championship game. Thus, there would be times when the pairing in the divisional playoff round would be the 1 seed vs. the 3 seed and 2 vs. 4.
Following an expansion of the regular season from 14 to 16 games in the 1978 season, the league added one more wild - card team for each conference. The two wild - card teams played the week before the division winners. The winner of this game played the top seeded division winner as was done from 1970 -- 1977. The league continued to prohibit intra-divisional games in the divisional playoffs, but allowed such contests in the wild - card round. This ten - team playoff format was used through the 1989 season. Under this system, the Oakland Raiders became the first wild - card team to win a Super Bowl following the 1980 season.
During the strike - shortened 1982 season, only nine regular season games were played, and a modified playoff format was instituted. Divisional play was ignored (there were some cases where division rivals had both games wiped out by the strike, although each division ultimately sent at least one team to the playoffs), and the top eight teams from each conference (based on W-L-T record) were advanced to the playoffs. As a result, this became the first time that teams with losing records qualified for the playoffs: the 4 -- 5 Cleveland Browns and the 4 -- 5 Detroit Lions.
Several times between 1978 -- 89, the two wild - card games had to be played on different days. Normally they both would be held on Sunday. In 1983 and 1988, the games were split between Saturday and Monday because Sunday was Christmas, and the NFL had avoided playing on that day at the time. In 1984, both games were played in the Pacific Time Zone, so they had to be played on Saturday and Sunday to accommodate for time differences. In 1985, both the New York Giants and Jets hosted wild - card games. As they have shared a home stadium since 1984, the games had to be played on different days.
For the 1990 season, a third wild - card team for each conference was added, expanding the playoffs to the current twelve teams. The lowest - seeded division winner was then "demoted '' to the wild - card weekend. Also, the restrictions on intra-divisional games during the divisional playoffs were removed.
The 2001 season became the first time that playoff games were played in prime time. Thus, the league no longer had the same restrictions like in 1984 as to when to schedule games in the Pacific Time Zone.
The 1990 format continued until the 2002 expansion and reorganization into eight divisions. In this current format, as explained above, the 4 division winners and 2 wild cards are seeded 1 -- 6, with the top 2 seeds receiving byes, and the highest seed in each round guaranteed to play the lowest seed. Also, seeds determine the home - field advantage.
There are some limitations that exist in the current 12 - team playoff system. Since being a division winner is a guaranteed playoff berth, there have been many cases in which a team that wins a "weak '' division either barely has a winning record or has a. 500 or losing record altogether (such as the 2010 Seattle Seahawks). At the same time, since a division winner is seeded higher than the wild cards, non-division winners may end up playing a road game during Wild Card Weekend against a team with an inferior record, or may end up outright missing the playoffs. And going on the road during the first postseason round does not guarantee success: the first time that all four road teams won during Wild Card Weekend occurred during the 2015 -- 16 season.
This issue has become more prevalent since the aforementioned 2002 realignment. There are three notable examples in which a division winner with a. 500 or sub -. 500 record ended up winning a playoff game against a team with a superior record:
As a result of this seeding issue, frequent calls have been made to modify the playoff format even further. One proposal has been to expand the playoffs to 14 teams. Proponents of expansion note the increased revenue that could be gained from an additional two playoff games. They also note that the 12 - team playoff system was implemented when the league only had 28 teams and six divisions (of 4 to 5 teams each). The opposition to such a move notes that an expansion of the playoffs would "water down '' the field by giving access to lower - caliber teams. Opponents to expansion further point to the NBA playoffs and the NHL playoffs where more than half of the teams qualify for the postseason, and there is often a decreased emphasis on regular season performance as a result.
After the 2007 playoffs saw two wild - card teams with better records (Jacksonville Jaguars and eventual Super Bowl XLII champions New York Giants) go on the road to defeat division winners (Pittsburgh Steelers and Tampa Bay Buccaneers, respectively) during wild - card weekend, the NFL explored another proposal to change the playoffs so that the team with the better record would host the game, even if that meant a division winner went on the road. The NFL 's Competition Committee withdrew the request later that offseason, with Atlanta Falcons president Rich McKay mentioning that they wanted the idea to simply get a discussion going. New England Patriots owner Robert Kraft was a strong opponent of the rule change, believing that "if you win a division, it 's good for your fans to know you will have a home game. ''
Just before the 2010 -- 11 Seahawks - Saints playoff game, McKay wanted to revisit the previous proposal to reseed teams during wild - card weekend. However, sportswriter Peter King wrote that he believed league owners were still hesitant on implementing any such changes at this time due to the then - pending 2011 work stoppage, the proposals to extend the regular season from 16 to 18 games and how it will impact the postseason, and the simple fact that not enough teams have been seriously disadvantaged by the current format.
In October 2013, NFL commissioner Roger Goodell announced plans to revisit the idea to expand the playoffs to 14 teams, with the increased revenue gained from the two additional postseason games being used to offset plans to shorten the preseason. The two extra Wild Card games could also be scheduled on the weekend, creating triple - headers on both Saturday and Sunday. Goodell then suggested that they might instead be played on Friday and / or Monday, which may eventually cause scheduling conflicts with games of the new College Football Playoff.
The 14 - team playoff proposal remained tabled until December 2014, when no team in the NFC South could finish better than. 500; Goodell stated that the league would vote on it at the March 2015 Owners ' Meetings. One proposed 14 - club system includes giving first - round byes for the teams with the best record in each conference, two division champions in each conference receiving home games, and the remaining eight teams would be seeded by win - loss record. However, by the following February 2015, the Washington Post reported that support among team owners has eroded, and league leaders expressed reluctance to make a change until the one - year extension with CBS to televise Thursday Night Football expired at the end of the 2015 season. The proposal lost all interest; today, it has never been raised. It is likely that movement wo n't be made on expanding either the playoffs or the regular season until at least 2020, when the current collective bargaining agreement expires.
Correct as of 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs
* Tiebreaker playoff appearances based on the team with the more recent playoff appearance.
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why are seattle fans called the 12th man | 12th Man (football) - wikipedia
The 12th man or 12th player is a term for fans of teams in eleven - a-side sports games, particularly association football (soccer) or American football. As most football leagues allow a maximum of eleven players per team on the playing field at a time, referring to a team 's fans as the 12th man implies that they have a potentially helpful role in the game. Infrequently, the term has referred to individuals having a notable connection to their football team. In Canadian football, 12 players are usually on the field at one time and the term 13th man is often used to refer to fans. Similarly, in Australian rules football, 18 players are on the field and the fans are often referred to as the 19th man. The term has a different meaning in cricket, referring instead to the first substitute player who fields when a member of the fielding side is injured (the term 6th man has a similar connotation in basketball).
The presence of fans can have a profound impact on how the teams perform, an element in the home advantage. Namely, the home team fans would like to see their team win the game. Thus these fans will often create loud sounds or chant in hopes of distracting, demoralizing and confusing the opposing team while they have possession of the ball; or to persuade a referee to make a favorable decision. Noises are made by shouting, whistling, stomping and various other techniques. In American football, the sideline is sometimes also referred to as the "12th man '' or "12th defender '': since a player is considered down when he steps out of bounds, the sideline effectively acts as an extra defender. This usage is less common than the one referring to the fans.
The term can also be construed as implying that the referee is not impartial.
The first recorded use of the term "twelfth man '' was a magazine published by the University of Minnesota in September, 1900, that referred to "the mysterious influence of the twelfth man on the team, the rooter. '' Later, in the November 1912 edition of The Iowa Alumnus, an alumni publication of the University of Iowa (then known as State University of Iowa), E.A. McGowan described the 1903 game between Iowa and the University of Illinois. In his article, titled "The Twelfth Player '' McGowan wrote: "The eleven men had done their best; but the twelfth man on the team (the loyal spirited Iowa rooter) had won the game for old S.U.I. ''
An early reference to the numerical "12th Man '' term occurred at the 1922 Dixie Classic, featuring Centre College and The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas (later known as Texas A&M). During the game, A&M coach Dana X. Bible realized that one more injury would leave him without another backfield player to send into the game. Coach Bible remembered E. King Gill, an A&M basketball player who moonlighted on the football team. Gill had traveled from College Station with the team, but had not dressed. He 'd been assigned by Bible to work up in the press box as a spotter for Waco News - Tribune sports editor Jinx Tucker. Gill was called down to the field, where he went beneath the crowded stands and donned the uniform of an injured Aggie player. Then he assumed his place on the Aggie sideline and in A&M football history. The Aggies won the game 22 - 14, but Gill 's services were never needed. Gill later said, "I wish I could say that I went in and ran for the winning touchdown, but I did not. I simply stood by in case my team needed me. '' Although he did not actually play in the game, his readiness to play was noted.
Other individuals have occasionally been labeled by local media as the "Twelfth Man '' of their team. In 1930, W.H. Adamson, Principal of Oak Cliff (Dallas) High School was called the "Twelfth Man '' of the school 's American football team by a local reporter due to the rousing pre-game speeches he would give to the players.
In the 1935 Princeton - Dartmouth game before 56,000 fans who braved the snow and cold, spectator Mike Mesco was initially reported to have left his seat from the stands to join the Dartmouth defensive line and was referred to in a local newspaper as the "Twelfth Dartmouth Man. '' As it turned out it was not Mesko but George Larsen of Cranford, N.J., who dashed from the stands to aid Dartmouth in her game with Princeton. Asa Bushnell III, Princeton class of 1947, wrote of the incident in 1960 for the Princeton Athletic News: "Strange as it may seem, it was a young architect from Cranford, N.J., a refugee from the University of Cincinnati, no less - who immortalized the activities in Palmer Stadium on November 23, 1935. It was he who, midway through the fourth period that tingling afternoon, left the other 55,999 spectators in their seats to assist the Dartmouth Indians in a determined goal - line stand. It was he who lined up with the Hanoverians on the two yard stripe and prevented Jack White from scoring - and White boasted interference from the awesome likes of Johnny Weller and Homer Spofford. It was the daring "twelfth man '' who, though escorted unceremoniously off the field and out of the stadium without further ado, gained a nationwide American football reputation in a single play. ''
The December 18, 1938, Dallas Morning News said "Whether they play now on a team, used to play back in the day, follow the game closely or just quarterback from the grandstand occasionally, every American football enthusiast well knows how much that twelfth man in the stands means to any American football team. But that backing means unusually much in the traditional Thanksgiving game between the University of Texas and Texas A&M. With an uncertain monotony that has long since made game forecasters exceedingly skittish, these two win where their twelfth men help most. '' Thus, in this single instance, the term "Twelfth Man '' was used to refer to the fans of both schools playing.
The term "12th man '' is commonly used in football to refer to the fans and occasionally the manager. A notable club famous for the twelfth man reference comes from Aston Villa, referring to the Holte End stand at Villa Park. Large European and Asian teams such as Bayern Munich, Foolad, Malmö FF, Hammarby IF, Werder Bremen, Aberdeen, Rangers, Paris Saint - Germain, Lazio, Feyenoord, Ferencvárosi TC, FC Red Star, Fenerbahçe S.K., and Sporting CP have officially retired the number 12 to the fans. Stockport County fans are registered as official members of their squad with the number 12. Portsmouth F.C. has also retired its number 12 shirt, and lists the club 's supporters, "Pompey Fans '', as player number 12 on the squad list printed in home match programmes, while Plymouth Argyle have theirs registered to the Green Army (the nickname for their fans). Number 12 is also reserved for the fans at many other clubs, including CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg in Russia, Bristol Rovers and Grimsby Town in England, as well as Aarhus Gymnastikforening (AGF), Odense Boldklub, also known as OB, in Denmark, Malmö FF and Hammarby IF in Sweden and Perth Glory in Australia. On Hammarby IF 's, Feyenoord and Werder Bremen 's home games, the stadium speaker announces number 12 as "the fans '' during team lineup announcements.
Dynamo Dresden in Germany also keeps number 12 for their fans, as well as the official team anthem being "We are the 12th man ''. Aberdeen F.C. supporters commonly display a large banner in the shape of a football shirt with the text "Red Army 12 '' in place of a player 's name and number. The fans of the Northern Ireland national football team and Derry City are referred to as the 12th man as well. In the League of Ireland Shamrock Rovers F.C. retired the number 12 jersey in recognition of the fans who took over the club in 2005. Cork City F.C., Clube Atlético Mineiro and Clube de Regatas do Flamengo also retired the number 12 for the fans. The most vociferous fans of Boca Juniors in Argentina are known as the "Jugador Numero 12 '' (Spanish for "Player Number 12 '') or simply "La Doce '' ("The 12 ''). On September 18, 2004, U.S. Lecce, an Italian team currently playing in Serie A, retired the number 12 to the fans, which was handed to them by the former captain Cristian Ledesma. They symbolically represent a 12th Man in the field. In the beginning of 2009 / 2010 season, Happy Valley AA introduced the club 's mascot, a panda, on squad list as the fan club captain wearing the number 12 jersey. As of the end of the 2011 / 2012 season Rangers F.C announced that the number 12 jersey would be retired in honour of the fans support throughout a period of financial difficulty.
The term has been used by various American football teams including the University of Minnesota, the University of Iowa, Baylor University, Dartmouth College, Simmons College, Texas A&M and the NFL 's Seattle Seahawks, Green Bay Packers, Buffalo Bills, Denver Broncos, Washington Redskins, Indianapolis Colts, Miami Dolphins, and Chicago Bears in marketing practices in reference to their supporters. The Bears currently use the phrase "4th Phase '' (with the first three phases being offense, defense, and special teams), and the Seahawks currently use the phrase "The 12s. ''
Many high schools in the United States incorporate 12th Man language into their booster, supporter, or rooter clubs. Examples of such "12th Man Clubs '' include the Alta Loma Braves, Dana Hills Dolphins, Washington Panthers, Richwood Knights, Diamond Bar Brahmas, Fairfield Falcons, and Brentwood Bruins.
The Campbellsville University Tigers of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics also have a 12th Man Club.
On December 12, 1992, (12 / 12 / 1992) the Buffalo Bills of the National Football League honored their 12th Man as the seventh inductee into the Buffalo Bills Wall of Fame, located inside of Ralph Wilson Stadium. Their fans were inducted because of their loyal support during the team 's early ' 90s Super Bowl runs. In 2008, the Bills renamed their "12th Man Walk of Fame '' as "Tim Russert Plaza, '' in honor of the Buffalo native and lifelong fan. The team continues to refer to their fans as the "12th Man, '' with their independent, international fan clubs known as "Bills Backers Chapters. '' The Bills have a licensing agreement with Texas A&M over the use of the "12th Man '' term.
Fans of the Indianapolis Colts of the NFL are known as the 12th Man. The Colts created a Ring of Honor on September 23, 1996, after playing 13 seasons in Indianapolis, Indiana. In 2007, the Colts inducted their 12th Man as the sixth entrant into the team 's Ring of Honor, then located on the interior facade of the RCA Dome. The Ring of Honor currently encircles Lucas Oil Stadium, the team 's home venue. The organization also designates a "12th Man Fan of the Game ''. On November 12, 2015, Texas A&M announced the filing of a lawsuit against the Colts based on the team 's usage of the term. On February 17, 2016, the lawsuit was settled with the Colts agreeing to remove the phrase from their Ring of Honor and to immediately cease all other uses of the trademarked phrase.
The Seattle Seahawks retired the number 12 jersey on December 15, 1984, in honor of their fans. In 2003, the Seahawks installed a giant flagpole in the south endzone of what is now CenturyLink Field, and began a tradition of raising a giant flag with the number 12 on it in honor of the fans, but one of whom is Sam Adkins, the former Seahawks quarterback who did wear the number 12. Usually, a local celebrity or a season ticket holder raises the flag during pregame ceremonies. In recent years, 12th Man flags have been seen all over Seattle whenever the Seahawks make the playoffs, including atop the Space Needle. In 2014, Boeing painted a Boeing 747 - 8 freighter with a special Seahawks livery, with the number 12 on the tail, and they later flew it over eastern Washington in a flight path spelling the number 12. When the Seahawks took the field for Super Bowl XLVIII, they were led by LB Heath Farwell carrying the team 's 12th Man flag per team tradition.
The Seahawks ' 12th Man has twice set the Guinness World Record loudest crowd noise at a sporting event, first on September 15, 2013, registering 136.6 dB during a game against the San Francisco 49ers and again on December 2, 2013, during a Monday Night Football game against the New Orleans Saints, with a roar of 137.6 dB. As per an agreement struck between the Seahawks and Texas A&M in 2016, the Seahawks have virtually ceased from referring to their fans as the "12th Man '', and instead are using the term "12s ''.
The first known instance of Texas A&M referring to its fanbase as the "12th Man '' is contained on page 17 of 25 November 1921 edition of The Battalion, the Texas A&M campus newspaper. Current Texas A&M students call themselves the 12th Man, and have done so continuously since the 1920s. Ever since the day E. King Gill left the stands in 1922, the entire student body has stood throughout the game to symbolize their "readiness, desire, and enthusiasm '' to take the field if needed. A statue of E. King Gill stands to the north of Kyle Field to remind Aggies of their constant obligation to preserve the spirit of the 12th Man. Beginning in 1985, fans also began waving 12th Man Towels during the game to show their support. The tradition of towels started when coach Jackie Sherrill 's 12th man squad began carrying them to motivate the student body in the stands.
Because the students are always waiting for the opportunity to support their team, they are also willing to share the credit for the team 's good deeds. A popular Aggie tradition is that "when the team scores, everybody scores ''. Whenever the Aggies score points during the game, students kiss their dates.
Football coach Jackie Sherrill created the "12th Man Kick - Off Team '' in the 1980s, composed of non-athletic scholarship students who tried out for the team. Coach Sherrill has written a book entitled "No Experience Required '' which details this team and the tradition. These students were placed on the roster for the sole purpose of kickoffs. The squad was nicknamed "the suicide squad ''. These students often had little regard for their safety and were determined to make a tackle at any cost. The 12th Man Kick - Off Team was extremely successful and eventually held opponents to one of the lowest yards - per - return average in the league during kickoffs. Later, head coach R.C. Slocum changed the team to allow only one representative of the 12th Man on the kick off team who wears uniform number 12. The player is chosen based on the level of determination and hard work shown in practices. Under Dennis Franchione, the 12th Man Kick - Off Team composed of walk - ons was brought back, though used only rarely when the team was up by quite a few points.
On June 30, 2014, Texas A&M bought the domain name 12thman.com, which then became its official athletics website.
In 1986, the Washington Redskins released a video entitled "Thanks to the 12th Man ''. A blogger on NFL.com considered it to be among the worst sports videos of all - time.
The effects of the "12th man '' vary widely, but can be put in two categories. The first is simply psychological, the effect of showing the home team that they are appreciated, and showing the away team that they are somewhat unwelcome. The second directly relates to the deafening effects of a loud crowd.
In association football, the crowd is very passionate and often sing throughout the whole match. Some occasions where the crowd noise is extra loud can be before kickoff; during the buildup to and scoring of a goal; when encouraging the team to come back from defeat; to discourage an opposition penalty taker; or to harass a referee giving a free kick to the opposition team.
In American football, fans are most incited by physical play, especially good plays made by the defense. Additionally, the home team can derive energy from the loud noise of their fans; former American football players have described the feeling of their adrenaline pumping after hearing the fans yell, which is "like you have a reserve energy tank. ''
The noise of the crowd can have a significant impact on the players on the field. In American football, an extremely loud crowd can prevent the offensive linemen from hearing the snap count. This can have the effect of making the player slower to react when the ball is snapped, and his eventual response may be weaker than normal because each play is begun "with some indecision and doubt ''. The noise can also prevent players from hearing audibles and can make it difficult for the team 's offense to coordinate plays in the huddle. The effect of the noise can often be measured in mistakes, such as false start penalties.
Coaches can take steps to minimize the effect of the crowd noise on their teams. Some American football teams bring large speakers to their practice fields and broadcast loud noises such as jet engines to prepare their teams for the anticipated noise level. Crowd noise tends to diminish after a long lull in play, such as a pause for instant replay. Former NFL player Brian Baldinger speculates that some coaches draw out reviews as part of a coaching strategy to quiet the crowd for their next play.
A researcher from Harvard University discovered in a study that some football referees appeared to be impacted by crowd noise. His studies revealed that a home team acquired an additional 0.1 goal advantage for every 10,000 fans in the stadium.
Delia Smith, Norwich City 's joint major shareholder, received some attention when she took to the pitch during a half time interval, with a microphone in hand and Sky TV cameras in tow, to tell fans the side "need their twelfth man ''. "Where are you? '' she cried. Norwich City lost the game in the final seconds, but Smith 's passion worked to increase the affection the fans held for her.
The current naturally loudest football stadium is the Turk Telecom Arena, in Turkey, host of the Galatasaray team. As a prepared attempt, the current world record for crowd noise at an athletic event was set on September 29, 2014, when the Kansas City Chiefs hosted the New England Patriots. Noise during that event reached a high of 142.2 decibels during a timeout.
Texas A&M University applied on December 26, 1989, for trademark U.S. Ser. No. 74013898 related to usage of the term. The United States Patent and Trademark Office issued the "trademark registration '' September 4, 1990, to Texas A&M. Four additional Trademark claims related to the "12th Man '' term were also filed and granted at later dates by Texas A&M University (See U.S. Ser. Nos. 74560726, 76671314, 85977835 and 85851199), the first three of which have achieved Incontestable Status as a result of its section 15 affidavit with the Patent and Trademark Office. According to former Texas A&M Athletic Director Bill Byrne, he contacted the Chicago Bears and Buffalo Bills about halting their "12th Man '' themes. Byrne stated that, "they responded quickly with our requests to stop using our Twelfth Man trademark. '' Texas A&M sent requests to stop using the phrase to the Seattle Seahawks in both 2004 and 2005. The Seahawks did not respond to the requests.
In January 2006, Texas A&M filed a trademark infringement lawsuit against the Seattle Seahawks and in May 2006, the dispute was settled out of court. Neither side admitted any fault or liability. In the agreement, the Seahawks licensed the phrase in exchange for $100,000, along with public acknowledgement as to Texas A&M 's ownership rights of the phrase, and an additional annual fee. The compensation amounted to $5,000 per year. The agreement, which expired in 2016, limited the Seahawks ' usage to seven western states and forbid them from selling any "12th Man '' merchandise. In August 2015, the Seahawks shifted towards calling their fans the "12s '', and replaced their "Home of the 12th Man '' stadium sign with a new "Home of the 12s '' sign.
On November 12, 2015, Texas A&M filed suit against the Indianapolis Colts after repeated cease and desist requests were ignored by the NFL club. On February 17, 2016, the lawsuit was settled with the Colts agreeing to remove the phrase from their Ring of Honor and to immediately cease all other uses of the trademarked phrase.
In August 2016, the Seahawks agreed to a new five year trademark licensing agreement with Texas A&M. As part of the agreement, the Seahawks agreed to pay Texas A&M $140,000 for limited rights to use the trademarked term. This agreement, like the previous agreement, prohibits the Seahawks from using the "12th Man '' term on any merchandise. The new agreement, however, also prohibits Seattle from using the term on social media, nor are they allowed to use the term on any signage within their stadium, including their Ring of Honor.
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explain the significance of french revolution in the history of french | French Revolution - wikipedia
The French Revolution (French: Révolution française (ʁevɔlysjɔ̃ fʁɑ̃sɛːz)) was a period of far - reaching social and political upheaval in France that lasted from 1789 until 1799, and was partially carried forward by Napoleon during the later expansion of the French Empire. The Revolution overthrew the monarchy, established a republic, experienced violent periods of political turmoil, and finally culminated in a dictatorship under Napoleon that rapidly brought many of its principles to Western Europe and beyond. Inspired by liberal and radical ideas, the Revolution profoundly altered the course of modern history, triggering the global decline of absolute monarchies while replacing them with republics and liberal democracies. Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history.
The causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years ' War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt and attempted to restore its financial status through unpopular taxation schemes, which were heavily regressive. Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates - General in May 1789. The first year of the Revolution saw members of the Third Estate taking control, the assault on the Bastille in July, the passage of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August, and a women 's march on Versailles that forced the royal court back to Paris in October. A central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right - wing supporters of the monarchy intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy. In a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793.
External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution. The Revolutionary Wars beginning in 1792 ultimately featured French victories that facilitated the conquest of the Italian Peninsula, the Low Countries and most territories west of the Rhine -- achievements that had eluded previous French governments for centuries. Internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. The dictatorship imposed by the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror, from 1793 until 1794, established price controls on food and other items, abolished slavery in French colonies abroad, dechristianised society through the creation of a new calendar and the expulsion of religious figures, and secured the borders of the new republic from its enemies. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, with estimates ranging from 16,000 to 40,000. After the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, and significant military conquests abroad. Dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. Napoleon, who became the hero of the Revolution through his popular military campaigns, went on to establish the Consulate and later the First Empire, setting the stage for a wider array of global conflicts in the Napoleonic Wars.
The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution. Almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. Its central phrases and cultural symbols, such as La Marseillaise and Liberté, fraternité, égalité, ou la mort, became the clarion call for other major upheavals in modern history, including the Russian Revolution over a century later.
The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day. The Revolution resulted in the suppression of the feudal system, the emancipation of the individual, the greater division of landed property, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth and the establishment of equality. The French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity.
Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies. It became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France and the lives of its citizens towards the objective of military conquest. Some of its central documents, like the Declaration of the Rights of Man, expanded the arena of human rights to include women and slaves, leading to movements for abolitionism and universal suffrage in the next century.
Historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Rising social and economic inequality, new political ideas emerging from the Enlightenment, economic mismanagement, environmental factors leading to agricultural failure, unmanageable national debt, and political mismanagement on the part of King Louis XVI have all been cited as laying the groundwork for the Revolution.
Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the "public sphere '' in France and elsewhere in Europe. Habermas argued that the dominant cultural model in 17th century France was a "representational '' culture, which was based on a one - sided need to "represent '' power with one side active and the other passive. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the "public sphere '' which was "critical '' in that both sides were active. Examples of the "public sphere '' included newspapers, journals, masonic lodges, coffee houses and reading clubs where people either in person or virtually via the printed word debated and discussed issues. In France, the emergence of the "public sphere '' outside of the control of the state saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. Likewise, in the 17th century it was the court that decided what was culturally good and what was not; in the 18th century, the opinion of the court mattered less and it was the consumers who became the arbiters of cultural taste. In the 1750s, during the "Querelle des Bouffons '' over the question of the quality of Italian vs. French music, the partisans of both sides appealed to the French public "because it alone has the right to decide whether a work will be preserved for posterity or will be used by grocers as wrapping - paper ''. In 1782, Louis - Sébastien Mercier wrote: "The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV. Reigning opinions are no longer received from the court; it no longer decides on reputations of any sort... The court 's judgments are countermanded; one says openly that it understands nothing; it has no ideas on the subject and could have none. '' Inevitably, the belief that public opinion had the right to decide cultural questions instead of deferring to the court transformed itself into the demand that the public also have a say on political questions as well.
The economy in the Ancien Régime during the years preceding the Revolution suffered from instability; poor harvests lasting several years and an inadequate transportation system both contributed to making food more expensive. The sequence of events leading to the Revolution included the national government 's fiscal troubles caused by an inefficient tax system and expenditure on numerous large wars. The attempt to challenge British naval and commercial power in the Seven Years ' War was a costly disaster, with the loss of France 's colonial possessions in continental North America and the destruction of the French Navy. French forces were rebuilt and feeling bitter about having lost many of France 's overseas colonies to the British Empire during the Seven Years ' War, Louis XVI was eager to give the American rebels financial and military support. After the British surrender at the Battle of Saratoga, the French sent 10,000 troops and millions of dollars to the rebels. Despite succeeding in gaining independence for the Thirteen Colonies, France was severely indebted by the American Revolutionary War. France 's inefficient and antiquated financial system could not finance this debt. Faced with a financial crisis, the king called an Estates General, recommended by the Assembly of Notables in 1787 for the first time in over a century.
France was experiencing such a severe economic depression that there was n't enough food to go around. As with most monarchies, the upper class was always insured a stable living so while the rich remained very wealthy, the majority of the French population was starving. Many were so destitute that they could n't even feed their families and resorted to theft or prostitution to stay alive. Meanwhile, the royal court at Versailles was isolated from and indifferent to the escalating crisis. While in theory King Louis XVI was an absolute monarch, in practice he was often indecisive and known to back down when faced with strong opposition. While he did reduce government expenditures, opponents in the parliaments successfully thwarted his attempts at enacting much needed reforms. The Enlightenment had produced many writers, pamphleteers and publishers who could inform or inflame public opinion. The opposition used this resource to mobilise public opinion against the monarchy, which in turn tried to repress the underground literature.
Many other factors involved resentments and aspirations given focus by the rise of Enlightenment ideals. These included resentment of royal absolutism; resentment by peasants, labourers and the bourgeoisie towards the traditional seigneurial privileges possessed by the nobility; resentment of the Catholic Church 's influence over public policy and institutions; aspirations for freedom of religion; resentment of aristocratic bishops by the poorer rural clergy; aspirations for social, political and economic equality, and (especially as the Revolution progressed) republicanism; hatred of Queen Marie - Antoinette, who was falsely accused of being a spendthrift and an Austrian spy; and anger towards the King for dismissing ministers, including finance minister Jacques Necker, who were popularly seen as representatives of the people.
Freemasonry played an important role in the revolution. Originally largely apolitical, Freemasonry was radicalised in the late 18th century through the introduction of higher grades which emphasised themes of liberty, equality, and fraternity. Virtually every major player in the Revolution was a Freemason and these themes became the widely recognised slogan of the revolution.
Louis XVI ascended to the throne in the middle of a financial crisis in which the state was faced with a budget deficit and was nearing bankruptcy. This was due in part to France 's costly involvements in the Seven Years ' War and later the American Revolution. In May 1776, finance minister Turgot was dismissed, after failing to enact reforms. The next year, Jacques Necker, a foreigner, was appointed Comptroller - General of Finance. He could not be made an official minister because he was a Protestant.
Necker realised that the country 's extremely regressive tax system subjected the lower classes to a heavy burden, while numerous exemptions existed for the nobility and clergy. He argued that the country could not be taxed higher; that tax exemptions for the nobility and clergy must be reduced; and proposed that borrowing more money would solve the country 's fiscal shortages. Necker published a report to support this claim that underestimated the deficit by roughly 36 million livres, and proposed restricting the power of the parlements.
This was not received well by the King 's ministers, and Necker, hoping to bolster his position, argued to be made a minister. The King refused, Necker was dismissed, and Charles Alexandre de Calonne was appointed to the Comptrollership. Calonne initially spent liberally, but he quickly realised the critical financial situation and proposed a new tax code.
The proposal included a consistent land tax, which would include taxation of the nobility and clergy. Faced with opposition from the parlements, Calonne organised the summoning of the Assembly of Notables. But the Assembly failed to endorse Calonne 's proposals and instead weakened his position through its criticism. In response, the King announced the calling of the Estates - General for May 1789, the first time the body had been summoned since 1614. This was a signal that the Bourbon monarchy was in a weakened state and subject to the demands of its people.
The Estates - General was organised into three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the rest of France. It had last met in 1614. Elections were held in the spring of 1789; suffrage requirements for the Third Estate were for French - born or naturalised males, aged 25 years or more, who resided where the vote was to take place and who paid taxes. Strong turnout produced 1,201 delegates, including 303 clergy, 291 nobles and 610 members of the Third Estate. The First Estate represented 100,000 Catholic clergy; the Church owned about 10 % of the land and collected its own taxes (the tithe) on peasants. The lands were controlled by bishops and abbots of monasteries, but two - thirds of the 303 delegates from the First Estate were ordinary parish priests; only 51 were bishops. The Second Estate represented the nobility, about 400,000 men and women who owned about 25 % of the land and collected seigneurial dues and rents from their peasant tenants. About a third of these deputies were nobles, mostly with minor holdings. The Third Estate representation was doubled to 610 men, representing 95 % of the population. Half were well educated lawyers or local officials. Nearly a third were in trades or industry; 51 were wealthy land owners.
To assist delegates, "Books of grievances '' (cahiers de doléances) were compiled to list problems. The books articulated ideas which would have seemed radical only months before; however, most supported the monarchical system in general. Many assumed the Estates - General would approve future taxes, and Enlightenment ideals were relatively rare.
Pamphlets by liberal nobles and clergy became widespread after the lifting of press censorship. The Abbé Sieyès, a theorist and Catholic clergyman, argued the paramount importance of the Third Estate in the pamphlet Qu'est - ce que le tiers état? (What is the Third Estate?) published in January, 1789. He asserted: "What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been until now in the political order? Nothing. What does it want to be? Something. ''
The Estates - General convened in the Grands Salles des Menus - Plaisirs in Versailles on 5 May 1789 and opened with a three - hour speech by Necker. The Third Estate demanded that the credentials of deputies should be verified by all deputies, rather than each estate verifying the credentials of its own members, but negotiations with the other estates failed to achieve this. The commoners appealed to the clergy, who asked for more time. Necker then stated that each estate should verify its own members ' credentials and that the king should act as arbitrator.
The middle class were the ones who fanned the flames of revolution. They established the National Assembly and tried to pressure the aristocracy to spread their money evenly between the upper, middle and lower classes. On 10 June 1789 Abbé Sieyès moved that the Third Estate, now meeting as the Communes (English: "Commons '') proceed with verifying its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so two days later, completing the process on 17 June. Then they voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People ''. They invited the other orders to join them, but made it clear they intended to conduct the nation 's affairs with or without them.
In an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des États where the Assembly met, making an excuse that the carpenters needed to prepare the hall for a royal speech in two days. Weather did not allow an outdoor meeting, and fearing an attack ordered by Louis XVI, they met in a tennis court just outside Versailles, where they proceeded to swear the Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789) under which they agreed not to separate until they had given France a constitution. A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did 47 members of the nobility. By 27 June, the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and Versailles. Messages of support for the Assembly poured in from Paris and other French cities.
By this time, Necker had earned the enmity of many members of the French court for his overt manipulation of public opinion. Marie Antoinette, the King 's younger brother the Comte d'Artois, and other conservative members of the King 's privy council urged him to dismiss Necker as financial advisor. On 11 July 1789, after Necker published an inaccurate account of the government 's debts and made it available to the public, the King fired him, and completely restructured the finance ministry at the same time.
Many Parisians presumed Louis ' actions to be aimed against the Assembly and began open rebellion when they heard the news the next day. They were also afraid that arriving soldiers -- mostly foreign mercenaries -- had been summoned to shut down the National Constituent Assembly. The Assembly, meeting at Versailles, went into nonstop session to prevent another eviction from their meeting place. Paris was soon consumed by riots, chaos, and widespread looting. The mobs soon had the support of some of the French Guard, who were armed and trained soldiers.
On 14 July, the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and ammunition cache inside the Bastille fortress, which was also perceived to be a symbol of royal power. After several hours of combat, the prison fell that afternoon. Despite ordering a ceasefire, which prevented a mutual massacre, Governor Marquis Bernard - René de Launay was beaten, stabbed and decapitated; his head was placed on a pike and paraded about the city. Although the fortress had held only seven prisoners (four forgers, two noblemen kept for immoral behaviour, and a murder suspect) the Bastille served as a potent symbol of everything hated under the Ancien Régime. Returning to the Hôtel de Ville (city hall), the mob accused the prévôt des marchands (roughly, mayor) Jacques de Flesselles of treachery and butchered him.
The King, alarmed by the violence, backed down, at least for the time being. The Marquis de Lafayette took up command of the National Guard at Paris. Jean - Sylvain Bailly, president of the Assembly at the time of the Tennis Court Oath, became the city 's mayor under a new governmental structure known as the commune. The King visited Paris, where, on 17 July he accepted a tricolore cockade, to cries of Vive la Nation ("Long live the Nation '') and Vive le Roi ("Long live the King '').
Necker was recalled to power, but his triumph was short - lived. An astute financier but a less astute politician, Necker overplayed his hand by demanding and obtaining a general amnesty, losing much of the people 's favour.
As civil authority rapidly deteriorated, with random acts of violence and theft breaking out across the country, members of the nobility, fearing for their safety, fled to neighbouring countries; many of these émigrés, as they were called, funded counter-revolutionary causes within France and urged foreign monarchs to offer military support to a counter-revolution.
By late July, the spirit of popular sovereignty had spread throughout France. In rural areas, many commoners began to form militias and arm themselves against a foreign invasion: some attacked the châteaux of the nobility as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as "la Grande Peur '' ("the Great Fear ''). In addition, wild rumours and paranoia caused widespread unrest and civil disturbances that contributed to the collapse of law and order.
On 4 and 11 August 1789 the National Constituent Assembly abolished privileges and feudalism (numerous peasant revolts had almost brought feudalism to an end) in the August Decrees, sweeping away personal serfdom, exclusive hunting rights and other seigneurial rights of the Second Estate (nobility).
Also the tithe (a 10 % tax for the Church, gathered by the First Estate (clergy)) was abolished which had been the main source of income for many clergymen. During the course of a few hours nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies and cities lost their special privileges.
Historian Georges Lefebvre summarises the night 's work:
Without debate the Assembly enthusiastically adopted equality of taxation and redemption of all manorial rights except for those involving personal servitude -- which were to be abolished without indemnification. Other proposals followed with the same success: the equality of legal punishment, admission of all to public office, abolition of venality in office, conversion of the tithe into payments subject to redemption, freedom of worship, prohibition of plural holding of benefices... Privileges of provinces and towns were offered as a last sacrifice.
Originally the peasants were supposed to pay for the release of seigneurial dues; these dues affected more than a fourth of the farmland in France and provided most of the income of the large landowners. The majority refused to pay and in 1793 the obligation was cancelled. Thus the peasants got their land free, and also no longer paid the tithe to the church.
Furet emphasises that the decisions of August 1789 survived and became an integral part of
the founding texts of modern France. They destroyed aristocratic society from top to bottom, along with its structure of dependencies and privileges. For this structure they substituted the modern, autonomous individual, free to do whatever was not prohibited by law... The Revolution thus distinguished itself quite early by its radical individualism
The old judicial system, based on the 13 regional parlements, was suspended in November 1789, and officially abolished in September 1790. The main institutional pillars of the old regime had vanished overnight.
On 26 August 1789 the Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which comprised a statement of principles rather than a constitution with legal effect. The Declaration was directly influenced by Thomas Jefferson working with General Lafayette, who introduced it.
The National Constituent Assembly functioned not only as a legislature, but also as a body to draft a new constitution.
Necker, Mounier, Lally - Tollendal and others argued unsuccessfully for a senate, with members appointed by the crown on the nomination of the people. The bulk of the nobles argued for an aristocratic upper house elected by the nobles. The popular party carried the day: France would have a single, unicameral assembly. The King retained only a "suspensive veto ''; he could delay the implementation of a law, but not block it absolutely. The Assembly eventually replaced the historic provinces with 83 départements, uniformly administered and roughly equal in area and population.
Amid the Assembly 's preoccupation with constitutional affairs, the financial crisis had continued largely unaddressed, and the deficit had only increased. Honoré Mirabeau now led the move to address this matter, and the Assembly gave Necker complete financial dictatorship.
Fuelled by rumours of a reception for the King 's bodyguards on 1 October 1789, at which the national cockade had been trampled upon, on 5 October 1789, crowds of women began to assemble at Parisian markets. The women first marched to the Hôtel de Ville, demanding that city officials address their concerns. The women were responding to the harsh economic situations they faced, especially bread shortages. They also demanded an end to royal efforts to block the National Assembly, and for the King and his administration to move to Paris as a sign of good faith in addressing the widespread poverty.
Getting unsatisfactory responses from city officials, as many as 7,000 women joined the march to Versailles, bringing with them cannons and a variety of smaller weapons. Twenty thousand National Guardsmen under the command of Lafayette responded to keep order, and members of the mob stormed the palace, killing several guards. Lafayette ultimately persuaded the king to accede to the demand of the crowd that the monarchy relocate to Paris.
On 6 October 1789, the King and the royal family moved from Versailles to Paris under the "protection '' of the National Guards, thus legitimising the National Assembly.
The Revolution caused a massive shift of power from the Roman Catholic Church to the state. Under the Ancien Régime, the Church had been the largest single landowner in the country, owning about 10 % of the land in the kingdom. The Church was exempt from paying taxes to the government, while it levied a tithe -- a 10 % tax on income, often collected in the form of crops -- on the general population, only a fraction of which it then redistributed to the poor.
Resentment towards the Church weakened its power during the opening of the Estates General in May 1789. The Church composed the First Estate with 130,000 members of the clergy. When the National Assembly was later created in June 1789 by the Third Estate, the clergy voted to join them, which perpetuated the destruction of the Estates General as a governing body. The National Assembly began to enact social and economic reform. Legislation sanctioned on 4 August 1789 abolished the Church 's authority to impose the tithe. In an attempt to address the financial crisis, the Assembly declared, on 2 November 1789, that the property of the Church was "at the disposal of the nation ''. They used this property to back a new currency, the assignats. Thus, the nation had now also taken on the responsibility of the Church, which included paying the clergy and caring for the poor, the sick and the orphaned. In December, the Assembly began to sell the lands to the highest bidder to raise revenue, effectively decreasing the value of the assignats by 25 % in two years. In autumn 1789, legislation abolished monastic vows and on 13 February 1790 all religious orders were dissolved. Monks and nuns were encouraged to return to private life and a small percentage did eventually marry.
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, passed on 12 July 1790, turned the remaining clergy into employees of the state. This established an election system for parish priests and bishops and set a pay rate for the clergy. Many Catholics objected to the election system because it effectively denied the authority of the Pope in Rome over the French Church. In October a group of 30 bishops wrote a declaration saying they could not accept that law, and this protest fueled also civilian opposition against that law. Eventually, in November 1790, the National Assembly began to require an oath of loyalty to the Civil Constitution from all the members of the clergy. This led to a schism between those clergy who swore the required oath and accepted the new arrangement and those who remained loyal to the Pope. Priests swearing the oath were indicated as ' constitutional ', those not taking the oath as ' non-juring ' or ' refractory ' clergy. Overall, 24 % of the clergy nationwide took the oath. This decree stiffened the resistance against the state 's interference with the church, especially in the west of France like in Normandy, Brittany and the Vendée, where only few priests took the oath and the civilian population turned against the revolution.
Widespread refusal led to legislation against the clergy, "forcing them into exile, deporting them forcibly, or executing them as traitors ''. Pope Pius VI never accepted the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, further isolating the Church in France.
A new Republican Calendar was established in 1793, with 10 - day weeks that made it very difficult for Catholics to remember Sundays and saints ' days. Workers complained it reduced the number of first - day - of - the - week holidays from 52 to 37.
During the Reign of Terror, extreme efforts of de-Christianisation ensued, including the imprisonment and massacre of priests and destruction of churches and religious images throughout France. An effort was made to replace the Catholic Church altogether, with civic festivals replacing religious ones. The establishment of the Cult of Reason was the final step of radical de-Christianisation. These events led to a widespread disillusionment with the Revolution and to counter-rebellions across France. Locals often resisted de-Christianisation by attacking revolutionary agents and hiding members of the clergy who were being hunted. Eventually, Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety were forced to denounce the campaign, replacing the Cult of Reason with the deist but still non-Christian Cult of the Supreme Being. The Concordat of 1801 between Napoleon and the Church ended the de-Christianisation period and established the rules for a relationship between the Catholic Church and the French State that lasted until it was abrogated by the Third Republic via the separation of church and state on 11 December 1905. The persecution of the Church led to a counter-revolution known as the Revolt in the Vendée.
Historians Lynn Hunt and Jack Censer argue that some French Protestants, the Huguenots, wanted an anti-Catholic regime, and that Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire helped fuel this resentment. Historian John McManners writes, "In eighteenth - century France throne and altar were commonly spoken of as in close alliance; their simultaneous collapse... would one day provide the final proof of their interdependence. ''
Factions within the Assembly began to clarify. The aristocrat Jacques Antoine Marie de Cazalès and the abbé Jean - Sifrein Maury led what would become known as the right wing, the opposition to revolution (this party sat on the right - hand side of the Assembly). The "Royalist democrats '' or monarchiens, allied with Necker, inclined towards organising France along lines similar to the British constitutional model; they included Jean Joseph Mounier, the Comte de Lally - Tollendal, the comte de Clermont - Tonnerre, and Pierre Victor Malouet, comte de Virieu.
The "National Party '', representing the centre or centre - left of the assembly, included Honoré Mirabeau, Lafayette, and Bailly; while Adrien Duport, Barnave and Alexandre Lameth represented somewhat more extreme views. Almost alone in his radicalism on the left was the Arras lawyer Maximilien Robespierre. Abbé Sieyès led in proposing legislation in this period and successfully forged consensus for some time between the political centre and the left. In Paris, various committees, the mayor, the assembly of representatives, and the individual districts each claimed authority independent of the others. The increasingly middle - class National Guard under Lafayette also slowly emerged as a power in its own right, as did other self - generated assemblies.
The Assembly abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the Ancien Régime -- armorial bearings, liveries, etc. -- which further alienated the more conservative nobles, and added to the ranks of the émigrés. On 14 July 1790, and for several days following, crowds in the Champ de Mars celebrated the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille with the Fête de la Fédération; Talleyrand performed a mass; participants swore an oath of "fidelity to the nation, the law, and the king ''; the King and the royal family actively participated.
The electors had originally chosen the members of the Estates - General to serve for a single year. However, by the terms of the Tennis Court Oath, the communes had bound themselves to meet continuously until France had a constitution. Right - wing elements now argued for a new election, but Mirabeau prevailed, asserting that the status of the assembly had fundamentally changed, and that no new election should take place before completing the constitution.
In late 1790 the French army was in considerable disarray. The military officer corps was largely composed of noblemen, who found it increasingly difficult to maintain order within the ranks. In some cases, soldiers (drawn from the lower classes) had turned against their aristocratic commanders and attacked them. At Nancy, General Bouillé successfully put down one such rebellion, only to be accused of being anti-revolutionary for doing so. This and other such incidents spurred a mass desertion as more and more officers defected to other countries, leaving a dearth of experienced leadership within the army.
This period also saw the rise of the political "clubs '' in French politics. Foremost among these was the Jacobin Club; 152 members had affiliated with the Jacobins by 10 August 1790. The Jacobin Society began as a broad, general organisation for political debate, but as it grew in members, various factions developed with widely differing views. Several of these factions broke off to form their own clubs, such as the Club of ' 89.
Meanwhile, the Assembly continued to work on developing a constitution. A new judicial organisation made all magistracies temporary and independent of the throne. The legislators abolished hereditary offices, except for the monarchy itself. Jury trials started for criminal cases. The King would have the unique power to propose war, with the legislature then deciding whether to declare war. The Assembly abolished all internal trade barriers and suppressed guilds, masterships, and workers ' organisations: any individual gained the right to practise a trade through the purchase of a license; strikes became illegal.
Louis XVI was increasingly dismayed by the direction of the revolution. His brother, the Comte d'Artois and his queen, Marie Antoinette, urged a stronger stance against the revolution and support for the émigrés, while he was resistant to any course that would see him openly side with foreign powers against the Assembly. Eventually, fearing for his own safety and that of his family, he decided to flee Paris to the Austrian border, having been assured of the loyalty of the border garrisons.
Louis cast his lot with General Bouillé, who condemned both the emigration and the Assembly, and promised him refuge and support in his camp at Montmédy. On the night of 20 June 1791 the royal family fled the Tuileries Palace dressed as servants, while their servants dressed as nobles.
However, late the next day, the King was recognised and arrested at Varennes and returned to Paris. The Assembly provisionally suspended the King. He and Queen Marie Antoinette remained held under guard. The King 's flight had a profound impact on public opinion, turning popular sentiment further against the clergy and nobility, and built momentum for the institution of a constitutional monarchy.
As most of the Assembly still favoured a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, the various groups reached a compromise which left Louis XVI as little more than a figurehead: he was forced to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to abdication.
However, Jacques Pierre Brissot drafted a petition, insisting that in the eyes of the nation Louis XVI was deposed since his flight. An immense crowd gathered in the Champ de Mars to sign the petition. Georges Danton and Camille Desmoulins gave fiery speeches. The Assembly called for the municipal authorities to "preserve public order ''. The National Guard under Lafayette 's command confronted the crowd. The soldiers responded to a barrage of stones by firing into the crowd, killing between 13 and 50 people. The incident cost Lafayette and his National Guard much public support.
In the wake of the massacre the authorities closed many of the patriotic clubs, as well as radical newspapers such as Jean - Paul Marat 's L'Ami du Peuple. Danton fled to England; Desmoulins and Marat went into hiding.
Meanwhile, in August 1791, a new threat arose from abroad: the King 's brother - in - law Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, King Frederick William II of Prussia, and the King 's brother Charles - Philippe, comte d'Artois, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, declaring their intention to bring the French king in the position "to consolidate the basis of a monarchical government '' and that they were preparing their own troops for action, hinting at an invasion of France on the King 's behalf.
Although Leopold himself sought to avoid war and made the declaration to satisfy the Comte d'Artois and the other émigrés, the reaction within France was ferocious. The French people expressed no respect for the dictates of foreign monarchs, and the threat of force merely hastened their militarisation.
Even before the Flight to Varennes, the Assembly members had determined to debar themselves from the legislature that would succeed them, the Legislative Assembly. They now gathered the various constitutional laws they had passed into a single constitution, and submitted it to the recently restored Louis XVI, who accepted it, writing "I engage to maintain it at home, to defend it from all attacks from abroad, and to cause its execution by all the means it places at my disposal ''. The King addressed the Assembly and received enthusiastic applause from members and spectators. With this capstone, the National Constituent Assembly adjourned in a final session on 30 September 1791.
The Legislative Assembly first met on 1 October 1791, elected by those 4 million men -- out of a population of 25 million -- who paid a certain minimum amount of taxes. Under the Constitution of 1791, France would function as a constitutional monarchy. The King had to share power with the elected Legislative Assembly, but he retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers.
Early on, the King vetoed legislation that threatened the émigrés with death and that decreed that every non-juring clergyman must take within eight days the civic oath mandated by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Over the course of a year, such disagreements would lead to a constitutional crisis.
Late 1791, a group of Assembly members who propagated war against Austria and Prussia was, after some remark of politician Maximilien Robespierre, henceforth indicated as the ' Girondins ', although not all of them really came from the southern province of Gironde. A group around Robespierre -- later indicated as ' Montagnards ' or ' Jacobins ' -- pleaded against that war; this opposition between those groups would harden and embitter in the next 11⁄2 years.
In response to the threat of war of August 1791 from Austria and Prussia, leaders of the Assembly saw such a war as a means to strengthen support for their revolutionary government, and the French people as well as the Assembly thought that they would win a war against Austria and Prussia. On 20 April 1792, France declared war on Austria. Late April 1792, France invaded and conquered the Austrian Netherlands (roughly present - day Belgium and Luxembourg).
The Legislative Assembly degenerated into chaos before October 1792. Francis Charles Montague concluded in 1911, "In the attempt to govern, the Assembly failed altogether. It left behind an empty treasury, an undisciplined army and navy, and a people debauched by safe and successful riot. ''
Lyons argues that the Constituent Assembly had liberal, rational, and individualistic goals that seem to have been largely achieved by 1791. However, it failed to consolidate the gains of the Revolution, which continued with increasing momentum and escalating radicalism until 1794. Lyons identifies six reasons for this escalation. First, the king did not accept the limitations on his powers, and mobilised support from foreign monarchs to reverse it. Second, the effort to overthrow the Roman Catholic Church, sell off its lands, close its monasteries and its charitable operations, and replace it with an unpopular makeshift system caused deep consternation among the pious and the peasants. Third, the economy was badly hurt by the issuance of ever increasing amounts of paper money (assignats), which caused more and more inflation; the rising prices hurt the urban poor who spent most of their income on food. Fourth, the rural peasants demanded liberation from the heavy system of taxes and dues owed to local landowners. Fifth, the working class of Paris and the other cities -- the sans - culottes -- resented the fact that the property owners and professionals had taken all the spoils of the Revolution. Finally, foreign powers threatened to overthrow the Revolution, which responded with extremism and systematic violence in its own defence.
In the summer of 1792, all of Paris was against the king, and hoped that the Assembly would depose the king, but the Assembly hesitated.
At dawn of 10 August 1792, a large, angry crowd of Parisians and soldiers from all over France, insurgents and popular militias, supported by the revolutionary Paris Commune, marched on the Tuileries Palace where the king resided, assailed the Palace and killed the Swiss Guards who were assigned for the protection of the king.
Around 8: 00am the king decided to leave his palace and seek safety with his wife and children in the Assembly that was gathered in permanent session in Salle du Manège opposite to the Tuileries. The royal family became prisoners. After 11: 00am, a rump session of the Legislative Assembly ' temporarily relieved the king from his task ' and thus suspended the monarchy; little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins. In reaction, on 19 August the Prussian general Duke of Brunswick invaded France and besieged Longwy.
26 August, the Assembly decreed the deportation of refractory priests in the west of France, as "causes of danger to the fatherland '', to destinations like French Guiana. In reaction, peasants in the Vendée took over a town, in another step toward civil war. What remained of a national government depended on the support of the insurrectionary Commune. With enemy troops advancing, the Commune looked for potential traitors in Paris.
On 2, 3 and 4 September 1792, hundreds of Parisians, supporters of the revolution, infuriated by Verdun being captured by the Prussian enemy, the uprisings in the west of France, and rumours that the incarcerated prisoners in Paris were conspiring with the foreign enemy, raided the Parisian prisons and murdered between 1,000 and 1,500 prisoners, many of them Catholic priests but also common criminals. Jean - Paul Marat, a political ally of Robespierre, in an open letter on 3 September incited the rest of France to follow the Parisian example; Robespierre kept a low profile in regard to the murder orgy; the Assembly and the city council of Paris (la Commune) seemed inapt and hardly motivated to call a halt to the unleashed bloodshed.
The Commune sent gangs of National Guardsmen and fereres into the prisons to kill 10 or more victims, mostly nonjuring priests. The Commune then sent a circular letter to the other cities of France inviting them to follow this example, and many cities launched their own massacres of prisoners and priests in the "September massacres ''. The Assembly could offer only feeble resistance. In October, however, there was a counterattack accusing the instigators, especially Marat, of being terrorists. This led to a political contest between the more moderate Girondists and the more radical Montagnards inside the Convention, with rumour used as a weapon by both sides. The Girondists lost ground when they seemed too conciliatory. But the pendulum swung again and after Thermidor, the men who had endorsed the massacres were denounced as terrorists.
Chaos persisted until the Convention, elected by universal male suffrage and charged with writing a new constitution, met on 20 September 1792 and became the new de facto government of France. The next day it abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. The following day -- 22 September 1792, the first morning of the new Republic -- was later retroactively adopted as the beginning of Year One of the French Republican Calendar.
From 1793 to 1815 France was engaged almost continuously (with two short breaks) in wars with Britain and a changing coalition of other major powers. The many French successes led to the spread of the French revolutionary ideals into neighbouring countries, and indeed across much of Europe. However, the final defeat of Napoleon in 1814 (and 1815) brought a reaction that reversed some -- but not all -- of the revolutionary achievements in France and Europe. The Bourbons were restored to the throne, with the brother of executed King Louis XVI becoming King Louis XVIII.
The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with Austria and its allies. The King, many of the Feuillants, and the Girondins specifically wanted to wage war. The King (and many Feuillants with him) expected war would increase his personal popularity; he also foresaw an opportunity to exploit any defeat: either result would make him stronger. The Girondins wanted to export the Revolution throughout Europe and, by extension, to defend the Revolution within France. The forces opposing war were much weaker. Barnave and his supporters among the Feuillants feared a war they thought France had little chance to win and which they feared might lead to greater radicalisation of the revolution. On the other end of the political spectrum Robespierre opposed a war on two grounds, fearing that it would strengthen the monarchy and military at the expense of the revolution, and that it would incur the anger of ordinary people in Austria and elsewhere. The Austrian emperor Leopold II, brother of Marie Antoinette, may have wished to avoid war, but he died on 1 March 1792. France preemptively declared war on Austria (20 April 1792) and Prussia joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. The invading Prussian army faced little resistance until checked at the Battle of Valmy (20 September 1792) and was forced to withdraw.
The new - born Republic followed up on this success with a series of victories in Belgium and the Rhineland in the fall of 1792. The French armies defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Jemappes on 6 November, and had soon taken over most of the Austrian Netherlands. This brought them into conflict with Britain and the Dutch Republic, which wished to preserve the independence of the southern Netherlands from France. After the king 's execution in January 1793, these powers, along with Spain and most other European states, joined the war against France. Almost immediately, French forces faced defeat on many fronts, and were driven out of their newly conquered territories in the spring of 1793. At the same time, the republican regime was forced to deal with rebellions against its authority in much of western and southern France. But the allies failed to take advantage of French disunity, and by the autumn of 1793 the republican regime had defeated most of the internal rebellions and halted the allied advance into France itself.
The stalemate was broken in the summer of 1794 with dramatic French victories. They defeated the allied army at the Battle of Fleurus, leading to a full Allied withdrawal from the Austrian Netherlands. They followed up by a campaign which swept the allies to the east bank of the Rhine and left the French, by the beginning of 1795, conquering the Dutch Republic itself. The House of Orange was expelled and replaced by the Batavian Republic, a French satellite state. These victories led to the collapse of the coalition against France. Prussia, having effectively abandoned the coalition in the fall of 1794, made peace with revolutionary France at Basel in April 1795, and soon thereafter Spain, too, made peace with France. Of the major powers, only Britain and Austria remained at war with France.
Although the French Revolution had a dramatic impact in numerous areas of Europe, the French colonies felt a particular influence. As the Martinican author Aimé Césaire put it, "there was in each French colony a specific revolution, that occurred on the occasion of the French Revolution, in tune with it. '' The Haitian Revolution (Saint Domingue) became a central example of slave uprisings in French colonies.
Late August 1792, elections were held, now under male universal suffrage, for the new National Convention.
On 20 September 1792, the new National Convention replaced the Legislative Assembly. From the start the Convention suffered from the bitter division between a group around Robespierre, Danton and Marat referred to as ' Montagnards ' or ' Jacobins ' or ' left ' and a group referred to as ' Girondins ' or ' right '. But the majority of the representatives, referred to as ' la Plaine ', were member of neither of those two antagonistic groups and managed to preserve some speed in the Convention 's debates.
Immediately on 21 September the Convention abolished the monarchy, making France the French First Republic. A new French Republican Calendar was introduced to replace the Christian Gregorian calendar, renaming the year 1792 as year 1 of the Republic.
With wars against Prussia and Austria having started earlier in 1792, in November 1792 France also declared war on the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic. In the course of 1793, the Holy Roman Empire, the kings of Portugal and Naples and the Grand - Duke of Tuscany declared war against France.
In the Brunswick Manifesto, the Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population if it were to resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. This among other things made Louis appear to be conspiring with the enemies of France. On 17 January 1793 Louis was condemned to death for "conspiracy against the public liberty and the general safety '' by a close majority in Convention: 361 voted to execute the king, 288 voted against, and another 72 voted to execute him subject to a variety of delaying conditions. The former Louis XVI, now simply named Citoyen Louis Capet (Citizen Louis Capet) was executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793 on the Place de la Révolution, former Place Louis XV, now called the Place de la Concorde. Conservatives across Europe were horrified and monarchies called for war against revolutionary France.
When war went badly, prices rose and the sans - culottes -- poor labourers and radical Jacobins -- rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup, backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian sans - culottes. An alliance of Jacobin and sans - culottes elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. Policy became considerably more radical, as "The Law of the Maximum '' set food prices and led to executions of offenders.
This policy of price control was coeval with the Committee of Public Safety 's rise to power and the Reign of Terror. The Committee first attempted to set the price for only a limited number of grain products but, by September 1793, it expanded the "maximum '' to cover all foodstuffs and a long list of other goods. Widespread shortages and famine ensued. The Committee reacted by sending dragoons into the countryside to arrest farmers and seize crops. This temporarily solved the problem in Paris, but the rest of the country suffered. By the spring of 1794, forced collection of food was not sufficient to feed even Paris and the days of the Committee were numbered. When Robespierre went to the guillotine in July of that year the crowd jeered, "There goes the dirty maximum! ''
' Reign of Terror ' is a label used by some historians for (part of) French history between July 1789 and July 1794, but those historians adhere that label to different periods.
The Committee of Public Safety came under the control of Maximilien Robespierre, a lawyer, and the Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror (1793 -- 94). According to archival records, at least 16,594 people died under the guillotine or otherwise after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities. As many as 40,000 accused prisoners may have been summarily executed without trial or died awaiting trial.
On 2 June 1793, Paris sections -- encouraged by the enragés ("enraged ones '') Jacques Roux and Jacques Hébert -- took over the Convention, calling for administrative and political purges, a low fixed price for bread, and a limitation of the electoral franchise to sans - culottes alone. With the backing of the National Guard, they managed to persuade the Convention to arrest 31 Girondin leaders, including Jacques Pierre Brissot. Following these arrests, the Jacobins gained control of the Committee of Public Safety on 10 June, installing the revolutionary dictatorship.
On 24 June, the Convention adopted the first republican constitution of France, variously referred to as the French Constitution of 1793 or Constitution of the Year I. It was progressive and radical in several respects, in particular by establishing universal male suffrage. It was ratified by public referendum, but normal legal processes were suspended before it could take effect.
On 13 July, the assassination of Jean - Paul Marat -- a Jacobin leader and journalist known for his bloodthirsty rhetoric -- by Charlotte Corday, a Girondin, resulted in further increase of Jacobin political influence. Georges Danton, the leader of the August 1792 uprising against the king, undermined by several political reversals, was removed from the Committee and Robespierre, "the Incorruptible '', became its most influential member as it moved to take radical measures against the Revolution 's domestic and foreign enemies.
The Reign of Terror ultimately weakened the revolutionary government, while temporarily ending internal opposition. The Jacobins expanded the size of the army, and Carnot replaced many aristocratic officers with soldiers who had demonstrated their patriotism, if not their ability. The Republican army repulsed the Austrians, Prussians, British, and Spanish. At the end of 1793, the army began to prevail and revolts were defeated with ease. The Ventôse Decrees (February -- March 1794) proposed the confiscation of the goods of exiles and opponents of the Revolution, and their redistribution to the needy. However, this policy was never fully implemented.
Three approaches attempt to explain the Reign of Terror imposed by the Jacobins in 1793 -- 94. The older Marxist interpretation argued the Terror was a necessary response to outside threats (in terms of other countries going to war with France) and internal threats (of traitors inside France threatening to frustrate the Revolution). In this interpretation, as expressed by the Marxist historian Albert Soboul, Robespierre and the sans - culottes were heroes for defending the revolution from its enemies. François Furet has argued that foreign threats had little to do with the terror. Instead, the extreme violence was an inherent part of the intense ideological commitment of the revolutionaries -- their utopian goals required exterminating opposition. Soboul 's Marxist interpretation has been largely abandoned by most historians since the 1990s. Hanson (2009) takes a middle position, recognising the importance of the foreign enemies, and sees the terror as a contingency that was caused by the interaction of a series of complex events and the foreign threat. Hanson says the terror was not inherent in the ideology of the Revolution, but that circumstances made it necessary.
Introduction of a nationwide conscription for the army in February 1793 was the spark that in March made the Vendée, already rebellious since 1790 because of the changes imposed on the Roman Catholic Church by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), ignite into civil (guerrilla) war against the French Revolutionary government in Paris.
North of the Loire, similar revolts were started by the so - called Chouans (royalist rebels). In March 1793, France also declared war on Spain, the Vendée rebels won some victories against Paris, and the French army was defeated in Belgium by Austria with the French general Dumouriez defecting to the Austrians: the French Republic 's survival was now in real danger. Facing local revolts and foreign invasions in both the East and West of the country, the most urgent government business was the war. On 6 April 1793, to prevent the Convention from losing itself in abstract debate and to streamline government decisions, the Comité de salut public (Committee of Public Prosperity) was created, as executive government which was accountable to the Convention.
In April 1793, the ' Girondins ' group indicted Jean - Paul Marat before the Revolutionary Tribunal for ' attempting to destroy the sovereignty of the people ' and ' preaching plunder and massacre ', referring to his behaviour during the September 1792 Paris massacres. Marat was quickly acquitted but the incident further acerbated the ' Girondins ' versus ' Montagnards ' party strife in the Convention.
Jacques Hébert, Convention member leaning to the ' Montagnards ' group, on 24 May 1793 called on the sans - culottes to rise in revolt against the "henchmen of Capet (the ex-king) and Dumouriez (the defected general) ''. Hébert was arrested by a Convention committee. While that committee consisted only of members from la Plaine and the Girondins, the anger of the sans - culottes was directed towards the Girondins. 25 May, a delegation of la Commune (the Paris city council) protested against Hébert 's arrest. The Convention 's President Isnard, a Girondin, answered them: "Members of la Commune (...) If by your incessant rebellions something befalls to the representatives of the nation, I declare, in the name of France, that Paris will be totally obliterated ''.
On 2 June 1793, the Convention 's session in Tuileries Palace degenerated into chaos and pandemonium. Crowds of people swarmed in and around the palace. Incessant screaming from the public galeries suggested that all of Paris was against the Girondins. Petitions circulated, indicting and condemning 22 Girondins. Barère, member of the Comité de salut public, suggested: to end this division which is harming the Republic, the Girondin leaders should lay down their offices voluntarily. Late that night after much more tumultuous debate, indeed dozens of Girondins had resigned and left the Convention.
By the summer of 1793, most French departments in one way or another opposed the central Paris government, and in many cases ' Girondins ', fled from Paris after 2 June, led those revolts. In Brittany 's countryside, the people rejecting the Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790 had taken to a guerrilla warfare known as Chouannerie. But generally, the French opposition against ' Paris ' had now evolved into a plain struggle for power over the country against the ' Montagnards ' around Robespierre and Marat now dominating Paris.
In June -- July 1793, Bordeaux, Marseilles, Brittany, Caen and the rest of Normandy gathered armies to march on Paris and against ' the revolution '. In July, Lyon guillotined the deposed ' Montagnard ' head of the city council. Barère, member of the Committee of Public Prosperity, on 1 August incited the Convention to tougher measures against the Vendée, at war with Paris since March: "We 'll have peace only when no Vendée remains... we 'll have to exterminate that rebellious people ''. In August, Convention troops besieged Lyon.
On 17 August 1793, the Convention voted for general conscription, the levée en masse, which mobilised all citizens to serve as soldiers or suppliers in the war effort. The consecutive successes in the French revolutionary wars earned Lazare Carnot the title ' Organizer of Victory '.
In August -- September 1793, militants urged the Convention to do more to quell the counter-revolution. A delegation of the Commune (Paris city council) suggested to form revolutionary armies to arrest hoarders and conspirators. Barère, member of the Committee of Public Prosperity -- the de facto executive government -- ever since April 1793, among others on 5 September reacted favorably, saying: let 's "make terror the order of the day! '' The National Convention on 9 September voted to establish sans - culottes paramilitary forces, revolutionary armies, and to force farmers to surrender grain demanded by the government. On 17 September, the Law of Suspects was passed, which ordered the arrest of suspected counter-revolutionaries and people who had revealed themselves as "enemies of freedom ''. This decree was one of the causes for some 17,000 legal death sentences until the end of July 1794, an average of 370 per week -- reason for historians to label those 101⁄2 months ' the (Reign of) Terror '.
On 19 September the Vendée rebels again defeated a Republican Convention army. On 29 September, the Convention extended price limits from grain and bread to other household goods and established the Law of the Maximum, intended to prevent price gouging and supply food to the cities.
On 1 October Barère repeated his plea to subdue the Vendée: "refuge of fanaticism, where priests have raised their altars... ''. In October the Convention troops captured Lyon and reinstated a Montagnard government there.
Criteria for bringing someone before the Revolutionary Tribunal, created March 1793, had always been vast and vague. By August, political disagreement seemed enough to be summoned before the Tribunal; appeal against a Tribunal verdict was impossible. Late August 1793, an army general had been guillotined on the accusation of choosing too timid strategies on the battlefield. Mid-October, the widowed former queen Marie Antoinette was on trial for a long list of charges such as "teaching (her husband) Louis Capet the art of dissimulation '' and incest with her son, she too was guillotined. In October 1793, 21 former ' Girondins ' Convention members who had n't left Paris after June were convicted to death and executed, on the charge of verbally supporting the preparation of an insurrection in Caen by fellow - Girondins.
17 October 1793, the ' blue ' Republican army near Cholet defeated the ' white ' Vendéan insubordinate army and all surviving Vendée residents, counting in tens of thousands, fled over the river Loire north into Brittany. A Convention 's representative on mission in Nantes commissioned in October to pacify the region did so by simply drowning prisoners in the river Loire: until February 1794 he drowned at least 4,000.
Meanwhile, the instalment of the Republican Calendar on 24 October 1793 caused an anti-clerical uprising. Hébert 's and Chaumette 's atheist movement campaigned to dechristianise society. The climax was reached with the celebration of the flame of Reason in Notre Dame Cathedral on 10 November.
By November 1793, the revolts in Normandy, Bordeaux and Lyon were overcome, in December also that in Toulon. Two representatives on mission sent to punish Lyon between November 1793 and April 1794 executed 2,000 people to death by guillotine or firing - squad. The Vendéan army since October roaming through Brittany on 12 December 1793 again ran up against Republican troops and saw 10,000 of its rebels perish, meaning the end of this once threatening army.
Some historians claim that after that Vendéan defeat Convention Republic armies in 1794 massacred 117,000 Vendéan civilians to obliterate the Vendéan people, but others contest that claim. Some historians consider the total civil war to have lasted until 1796 with a toll of 170,000 or 450,000 lives.
Because of the extremely brutal forms that the Republican repression took in many places, historians such as Reynald Secher have called the event a "genocide ''. Historian François Furet concluded that the repression in the Vendee "not only revealed massacre and destruction on an unprecedented scale but also a zeal so violent that it has bestowed as its legacy much of the region 's identity. ''
The guillotine became the tool for a string of executions. Louis XVI had already been guillotined before the start of the terror; Queen Marie Antoinette, Barnave, Bailly, Brissot and other leading Girondins, Philippe Égalité (despite his vote for the death of the King), Madame Roland and many others were executed by guillotine. The Revolutionary Tribunal summarily condemned thousands of people to death by the guillotine, while mobs beat other victims to death.
At the peak of the terror, the slightest hint of counter-revolutionary thoughts or activities (or, as in the case of Jacques Hébert, revolutionary zeal exceeding that of those in power) could place one under suspicion, and trials did not always proceed according to contemporary standards of due process. Sometimes people died for their political opinions or actions, but many for little reason beyond mere suspicion, or because some others had a stake in getting rid of them. Most of the victims received an unceremonious trip to the guillotine in an open wooden cart (the tumbrel). In the rebellious provinces, the government representatives had unlimited authority and some engaged in extreme repressions and abuses. For example, Jean - Baptiste Carrier became notorious for the Noyades ("drownings '') he organised in Nantes; his conduct was judged unacceptable even by the Jacobin government and he was recalled.
Maximilien Robespierre, since July 1793 member of the Committee of Public Prosperity, on 5 February 1794 in a speech in the Convention identified Jacques Hébert and his faction as "internal enemies '' working toward the triumph of tyranny. After a dubious trial Hébert and some allies, charged with counter-revolutionary activities, were guillotined in March.
On 5 April, again at the instigation of Robespierre, Danton, a moderate Montagnard, and 13 associated politicians, charged with counter-revolutionary activities, were executed. A week later again 19 politicians. This hushed the Convention deputies: if henceforth they disagreed with Robespierre they hardly dared to speak out.
On 7 June 1794, Robespierre advocated a new state religion and recommended the Convention acknowledge the existence of the "Supreme Being ''. A law enacted on 10 June 1794 (22 Prairial II) further streamlined criminal procedures: if the Revolutionary Tribunal saw sufficient proof of someone being an "enemy of the people '' a counsel for defence would not be allowed. The frequency of guillotine executions in Paris now rose from on average three a day to an average of 29 a day.
Meanwhile, France 's external wars were going well, with victories over Austrian and British troops in May and June 1794 opening up Belgium for French conquest. But cooperation within the Committee of Public Prosperity, since April 1793 the de facto executive government, started to break down. On 29 June 1794, three colleagues of Robespierre at ' the Committee ' called him a dictator in his face -- Robespierre baffled left the meeting. This encouraged other Convention members to also defy Robespierre. On 26 July, a long and vague speech of Robespierre was n't met with thunderous applause as usual but with hostility; some deputies yelled that Robespierre should have the courage to say which deputies he deemed necessary to be killed next, what Robespierre refused to do.
In the Convention session of 27 July 1794 (9 Thermidor of Year II), Robespierre and his allies hardly managed to say a word as they were constantly interrupted by a row of critics such as Tallien, Billaud - Varenne, Vadier, Barère and acting president Thuriot. Finally, even Robespierre 's own voice failed on him: it faltered at his last attempt to beg permission to speak.
A decree was adopted to arrest Robespierre, Saint - Just and Couthon. 28 July, they and 19 other leading Jacobins were beheaded. 29 July, again 70 Parisians were guillotined.
Subsequently, the Law of 22 Prairial (10 June 1794) was repealed, and the ' Girondins ' expelled from the Convention in June 1793, if not dead yet, were reinstated as Convention deputies.
After July 1794, the French government was dominated by ' Girondins ', who indulged in revenge and violence and death sentences against people associated with the previous ' Jacobin ' / ' Montagnard ' governments around Robespierre and Marat, in what was known as the White Terror. The Jacobin Club was closed and banned.
After July 1794, most civilians henceforth ignored the Republican calendar and returned to the traditional seven - day weeks. The government in a law of 21 February 1795 set steps of return to freedom of religion and reconciliation with the since 1790 refractory Catholic priests, but any religious signs outside churches or private homes, such as crosses, clerical garb, bell ringing, remained prohibited. When the people 's enthousiasm for attending church grew to unexpected levels the government backed out and in October 1795 again, like in 1790, required all priests to swear oaths on the Republic.
In the very cold winter of 1794 -- 95, with the French army demanding more and more bread, same was getting scarce in Paris as was wood to keep houses warm, and in an echo of the October 1789 March on Versailles, on 1 April 1795 (12 Germinal III) a mostly female crowd marched on the Convention calling for bread. But no Convention member sympathized, they just told the women to return home. Again in May a crowd of 20,000 men and 40,000 women invaded the Convention and even killed a deputy in the halls, but again they failed to make the Convention take notice of the needs of the lower classes. Instead, the Convention banned women from all political assemblies, and deputies who had solidarized with this insurrection were sentenced to death: such allegiance between parliament and street fighting was no longer tolerated.
Late 1794, France conquered present - day Belgium. In January 1795 they subdued the Dutch Republic with full consent and cooperation of the influential Dutch patriottenbeweging (' patriots movement '), resulting in the Batavian Republic, a satellite and puppet state of France. In April 1795, France concluded a peace agreement with Prussia, later that year peace was agreed with Spain.
The Convention on 22 August 1795 approved the new "Constitution of the Year III ''. A French plebiscite ratified the document, with about 1,057,000 votes for the constitution and 49,000 against. The results of the voting were announced on 23 September 1795, and the new constitution took effect on 27 September 1795. The new constitution created the Directoire (English: Directory) with a bicameral legislature.
The first chamber was called the ' Council of 500 ' initiating the laws, the second the ' Council of Elders ' reviewing and approving or not the passed laws. Each year, one - third of the chambers was to be renewed. The executive power was in the hands of the five members of the five directors of the Directory with a five - year mandate.
The early directors did not much understand the nation they were governing; they especially had an innate inability to see Catholicism as anything else than counter-revolutionary and royalist. Local administrators had a better sense of people 's priorities, and one of them wrote to the minister of the interior: "Give back the crosses, the church bells, the Sundays, and everyone will cry: ' vive la République! ' ''
The Directory denounced the arbitrary executions of the Reign of Terror, but itself engaged in large scale illegal repressions, as well as large - scale massacres of civilians in the Vendee uprising. The economy continued in bad condition, with the poor especially hurt by the high cost of food.
State finances were in total disarray; the government could only cover its expenses through the plunder and the tribute of foreign countries. If peace were made, the armies would return home and the directors would have to face the exasperation of the rank - and - file who had lost their livelihood, as well as the ambition of generals who could, in a moment, brush them aside. Barras and Rewbell were notoriously corrupt themselves and screened corruption in others. The patronage of the directors was ill - bestowed, and the general maladministration heightened their unpopularity.
The constitutional party in the legislature desired toleration of the nonjuring clergy, the repeal of the laws against the relatives of the émigrés, and some merciful discrimination towards the émigrés themselves. The directors baffled all such endeavours. On the other hand, the socialist conspiracy of Babeuf was easily quelled. Little was done to improve the finances, and the assignats continued to fall in value until each note was worth less than the paper it was printed on; debtors easily paid off their debts. A series of financial reforms started by the Directory finally took effect after it fell from power.
Although committed to Republicanism, the Directory distrusted democracy. Historians have seldom praised the Directory; it was a government of self - interest rather than virtue, thus losing any claim on idealism. It never had a strong base of popular support; when elections were held, most of its candidates were defeated. Its achievements were minor. Brown stresses the turn towards dictatorship and the failure of liberal democracy under the Directory, blaming it on, "chronic violence, ambivalent forms of justice, and repeated recourse to heavy - handed repression. ''
The election system was complex and designed to insulate the government from grass roots democracy. The parliament consisted of two houses: the Conseil des Cinq - Cents (Council of the Five Hundred) with 500 representatives, and the Conseil des Anciens (Council of Elders) with 250 senators. Executive power went to five "directors, '' named annually by the Conseil des Anciens from a list submitted by the Conseil des Cinq - Cents. The universal male suffrage of 1793 was replaced by limited suffrage based on property. The voters had only a limited choice because the electoral rules required two - thirds of the seats go to members of the old Convention, no matter how few popular votes they received.
Citizens of the war - weary nation wanted stability, peace, and an end to conditions that at times bordered on chaos. Nevertheless, those on the right who wished to restore the monarchy by putting Louis XVIII on the throne, and those on the left who would have renewed the Reign of Terror, tried but failed to overthrow the Directory. The earlier atrocities had made confidence or goodwill between parties impossible. The Directory régime met opposition from Jacobins on the left and royalists on the right (the latter were secretly subsidised by the British government). The army suppressed riots and counter-revolutionary activities. In this way the army and in particular Napoleon gained total power.
Parliamentary elections in the spring of 1797, for one - third of the seats in Parliament, resulted in considerable gains for the royalists, who seemed poised to take control of the Directory in the next elections. This frightened the republican directors and they reacted, in the Coup of 18 Fructidor V (4 September 1797), by purging all the winners banishing 57 leaders to certain death in Guiana, removing two supposedly pro-royalist directors, and closing 42 newspapers.
The new, ' corrected ' government, still strongly convinced that Catholicism and royalism were equally dangerous to the Republic, started a fresh campaign to promote the Republican calendar (officially introduced in 1792), with its ten - day week, and tried to hallow the tenth day, décadi, as substitute for the Christian Sunday. Not only citizens opposed and even mocked such decrees, also local government officials refused to enforce such laws.
France was still waging wars, in 1798 in Egypt, Switzerland, Rome, Ireland, Belgium and against the U.S.A., in 1799 in Baden - Württemberg. When the elections of 1798 were again carried by the opposition, the Directory used the army to imprison and exile the opposition leaders and close their newspapers. Increasingly it depended on the Army in foreign and domestic affairs, as well as finance.
In 1799, when the French armies abroad experienced some setbacks, the newly chosen director Sieyes considered a new overhaul necessary for the Directory 's form of government because in his opinion it needed a stronger executive. Together with successful general Napoleon Bonaparte who had just returned to France, Sieyes began preparing another coup d'état, which took place on 9 -- 10 November 1799 (18 -- 19 Brumaire VIII), replacing the five directors now with three "consuls '': Napoleon, Sieyes, and Roger Ducos. That coup some historians consider the closing of the specifically republican phase of the French Revolution.
The Army at first was quite successful. It conquered Belgium and turned it into another province of France. It conquered the Netherlands and made it a puppet state. It conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory for France, and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands, which also provided direct support to the French Army. However, the enemies of France, led by Britain and funded by the inexhaustible British Treasury, formed a Second Coalition in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria). It scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, retaking Italy, Switzerland and the Netherlands and ending the flow of payments from the conquered areas to France. The treasury was empty. Despite his publicity claiming many glorious victories, Napoleon 's army was trapped in Egypt after the British sank the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile. Napoleon escaped by himself, returned to Paris and overthrew the Directory in November, 1799.
Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution in 1797 -- 99. He consolidated old units and split up Austria 's holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon 's Cisalpine Republic was centred on Milan. Genoa the city became a republic while its hinterland became the Ligurian Republic. The Roman Republic was formed out of the papal holdings and the pope was sent to France. The Neapolitan Republic was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months before the enemy forces of the Coalition recaptured it. In 1805 he formed the Kingdom of Italy, with himself as king and his stepson as viceroy. In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the Batavian Republic, and Switzerland into the Helvetic Republic. All these new countries were satellites of France, and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon 's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernised, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France.
Most of the new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasises the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:
In the Old regime there were a small number of heavily censored newspapers that needed a royal licence to operate. Newspapers and pamphlets played a central role in stimulating and defining the Revolution. The meetings of the Estates - General in 1789 created an enormous demand for news, and over 130 newspapers appeared by the end of the year. Among the most significant of these newspapers in 1789 were Marat 's L'Ami du peuple and Elysée Loustallot 's Revolutions de Paris. The next decade saw 2000 newspapers founded, with 500 in Paris alone. Most lasted only a matter of weeks. Together they became the main communication medium, combined with the very large pamphlet literature. Newspapers were read aloud in taverns and clubs, and circulated hand to hand. The press saw its lofty role to be the advancement of civic republicanism based on public service, and downplayed the liberal, individualistic goal of making a profit. By 1793 the radicals were most active but at the start the royalists flooded the country with their press the "Ami du Roi '' (Friends of the King) until they were suppressed. Napoleon only allowed four newspapers, all under tight control.
Symbolism was a device to distinguish the main features of the Revolution and ensure public identification and support. In order to effectively illustrate the differences between the new Republic and the old regime, the leaders needed to implement a new set of symbols to be celebrated instead of the old religious and monarchical symbolism. To this end, symbols were borrowed from historic cultures and redefined, while those of the old regime were either destroyed or reattributed acceptable characteristics. These revised symbols were used to instil in the public a new sense of tradition and reverence for the Enlightenment and the Republic.
"La Marseillaise '' (French pronunciation: (la maʁsɛjɛz)) became the national anthem of France. The song was written and composed in 1792 by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, and was originally titled "Chant de guerre pour l'Armée du Rhin ''. The French National Convention adopted it as the First Republic 's anthem in 1795. It acquired its nickname after being sung in Paris by volunteers from Marseille marching on the capital.
The song is the first example of the "European march '' anthemic style. The anthem 's evocative melody and lyrics have led to its widespread use as a song of revolution and its incorporation into many pieces of classical and popular music. Cerulo says, "the design of "La Marseillaise '' is credited to General Strasburg of France, who is said to have directed de Lisle, the composer of the anthem, to ' produce one of those hymns which conveys to the soul of the people the enthusiasm which it (the music) suggests. ' ''
Hanson notes, "The guillotine stands as the principal symbol of the Terror in the French Revolution. '' Invented by a physician during the Revolution as a quicker, more efficient and more distinctive form of execution, the guillotine became a part of popular culture and historic memory. It was celebrated on the left as the people 's avenger and cursed as the symbol of the Reign of Terror by the right. Its operation became a popular entertainment that attracted great crowds of spectators. Vendors sold programmes listing the names of those scheduled to die. Many people came day after day and vied for the best locations from which to observe the proceedings; knitting women (tricoteuses) formed a cadre of hardcore regulars, inciting the crowd. Parents often brought their children. By the end of the Terror, the crowds had thinned drastically. Repetition had staled even this most grisly of entertainments, and audiences grew bored.
What it is that horrifies people changes over time. Doyle comments:
Cockades were widely worn by revolutionaries beginning in 1789. They now pinned the blue - and - red cockade of Paris onto the white cockade of the Ancien Régime -- thus producing the original Tricolore cockade. Later, distinctive colours and styles of cockade would indicate the wearer 's faction -- although the meanings of the various styles were not entirely consistent, and varied somewhat by region and period.
The tricolour flag is derived from the cockades used in the 1790s. These were circular rosette - like emblems attached to the hat. Camille Desmoulins asked his followers to wear green cockades on 12 July 1789. The Paris militia, formed on 13 July, adopted a blue and red cockade. Blue and red are the traditional colours of Paris, and they are used on the city 's coat of arms. Cockades with various colour schemes were used during the storming of the Bastille on 14 July. The blue and red cockade was presented to King Louis XVI at the Hôtel de Ville on 17 July. Lafayette argued for the addition of a white stripe to "nationalise '' the design. On 27 July, a tricolour cockade was adopted as part of the uniform of the National Guard, the national police force that succeeded the militia.
Well after the revolution, by 1912 the French Third Republic had authorised the form of the tricolore cockade for use on its military aircraft by the Aeronautique Militaire as a national insignia, the first - ever in use worldwide -- it is still in use by the current Armee de l'Air of France, and directly inspired the use of similar roundel insignia by the United Kingdom and many other nations worldwide.
Fasces are Roman in origin and suggest Roman Republicanism. Fasces are a bundle of birch rods containing an axe. The French Republic continued this Roman symbol to represent state power, justice, and unity.
The Liberty cap, also known as the Phrygian cap, or pileus, is a brimless, felt cap that is conical in shape with the tip pulled forward. It reflects Roman republicanism and liberty, alluding to the Roman ritual of manumission of slaves, in which a freed slave receives the bonnet as a symbol of his newfound liberty.
Historians since the late 20th century have debated how women shared in the French Revolution and what long - term impact it had on French women. Women had no political rights in pre-Revolutionary France; they were considered "passive '' citizens; forced to rely on men to determine what was best for them. That changed dramatically in theory as there seemingly were great advances in feminism. Feminism emerged in Paris as part of a broad demand for social and political reform. The women demanded equality for men and then moved on to a demand for the end of male domination. Their chief vehicle for agitation were pamphlets and women 's clubs, but the clubs were abolished in October 1793 and their leaders were arrested. The movement was crushed. Devance explains the decision in terms of the emphasis on masculinity in a wartime situation, Marie Antoinette 's bad reputation for feminine interference in state affairs, and traditional male supremacy. A decade later the Napoleonic Code confirmed and perpetuated women 's second - class status.
When the Revolution opened, groups of women acted forcefully, making use of the volatile political climate. Women forced their way into the political sphere. They swore oaths of loyalty, "solemn declarations of patriotic allegiance, (and) affirmations of the political responsibilities of citizenship. '' De Corday d'Armont is a prime example of such a woman; engaged in the revolutionary political faction of the Girondins, she assassinated the Jacobin leader, Marat. Throughout the Revolution, other women such as Pauline Léon and her Society of Revolutionary Republican Women supported the radical Jacobins, staged demonstrations in the National Assembly and participated in the riots, often using armed force.
The March to Versailles is but one example of feminist militant activism during the French Revolution. While largely left out of the thrust for increasing rights of citizens, as the question was left indeterminate in the Declaration of the Rights of Man, activists such as Pauline Léon and Théroigne de Méricourt agitated for full citizenship for women. Women were, nonetheless, "denied political rights of ' active citizenship ' (1791) and democratic citizenship (1793). ''
On 20 June 1792 a number of armed women took part in a procession that "passed through the halls of the Legislative Assembly, into the Tuileries Gardens, and then through the King 's residence. '' Militant women also assumed a special role in the funeral of Marat, following his murder on 13 July 1793. As part of the funeral procession, they carried the bathtub in which Marat had been murdered (by a counter-revolutionary woman) as well as a shirt stained with Marat 's blood. On 20 May 1793 women were at the fore of a crowd that demanded "bread and the Constitution of 1793. '' When their cries went unnoticed, the women went on a rampage, "sacking shops, seizing grain and kidnapping officials. ''
The Society of Revolutionary Republican Women, a militant group on the far left, demanded a law in 1793 that would compel all women to wear the tricolour cockade to demonstrate their loyalty to the Republic. They also demanded vigorous price controls to keep bread -- the major food of the poor people -- from becoming too expensive. After the Convention passage law in September 1793, the Revolutionary Republican Women demanded vigorous enforcement, but were counted by market women, former servants, and religious women who adamantly opposed price controls (which would drive them out of business) and resented attacks on the aristocracy and on religion. Fist fights broke out in the streets between the two factions of women.
Meanwhile, the men who controlled the Jacobins rejected the Revolutionary Republican Women as dangerous rabble - rousers. At this point the Jacobins controlled the government; they dissolved the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women, and decreed that all women 's clubs and associations were illegal. They sternly reminded women to stay home and tend to their families by leaving public affairs to the men. Organised women were permanently shut out of the French Revolution after October 30, 1793.
Olympe de Gouges wrote a number of plays, short stories, and novels. Her publications emphasised that women and men are different, but this should n't stop them from equality under the law. In her "Declaration on the Rights of Woman '' she insisted that women deserved rights, especially in areas concerning them directly, such as divorce and recognition of illegitimate children.
Madame Roland (a.k.a. Manon or Marie Roland) was another important female activist. Her political focus was not specifically on women or their liberation. She focused on other aspects of the government, but was a feminist by virtue of the fact that she was a woman working to influence the world. Her personal letters to leaders of the Revolution influenced policy; in addition, she often hosted political gatherings of the Brissotins, a political group which allowed women to join. As she was led to the scaffold, Madame Roland shouted "O liberty! What crimes are committed in thy name! ''
Most of these activists were punished for their actions. Many of the women of the Revolution were even publicly executed for "conspiring against the unity and the indivisibility of the Republic ''.
A major aspect of the French Revolution was the dechristianisation movement, a movement strongly rejected by many devout people. Especially for women living in rural areas of France, the closing of the churches meant a loss of normalcy.
When these revolutionary changes to the Church were implemented, it sparked a counter-revolutionary movement among women. Although some of these women embraced the political and social amendments of the Revolution, they opposed the dissolution of the Catholic Church and the formation of revolutionary cults like the Cult of the Supreme Being. As Olwen Hufton argues, these women began to see themselves as the "defenders of faith ''. They took it upon themselves to protect the Church from what they saw as a heretical change to their faith, enforced by revolutionaries.
Counter-revolutionary women resisted what they saw as the intrusion of the state into their lives. Economically, many peasant women refused to sell their goods for assignats because this form of currency was unstable and was backed by the sale of confiscated Church property. By far the most important issue to counter-revolutionary women was the passage and the enforcement of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790. In response to this measure, women in many areas began circulating anti-oath pamphlets and refused to attend masses held by priests who had sworn oaths of loyalty to the Republic. These women continued to adhere to traditional practices such as Christian burials and naming their children after saints in spite of revolutionary decrees to the contrary.
The French Revolution abolished many of the constraints on the economy that had slowed growth during the ancien regime. It abolished tithes owed to local churches as well as feudal dues owed to local landlords. The result hurt the tenants, who paid both higher rents and higher taxes. It nationalised all church lands, as well as lands belonging to royalist enemies who went into exile. It planned to use these seized lands to finance the government by issuing assignats. It abolished the guild system as a worthless remnant of feudalism. It also abolished the highly inefficient system of tax farming, whereby private individuals would collect taxes for a hefty fee. The government seized the foundations that had been set up (starting in the 13th century) to provide an annual stream of revenue for hospitals, poor relief, and education. The state sold the lands but typically local authorities did not replace the funding and so most of the nation 's charitable and school systems were massively disrupted.
The economy did poorly in 1790 -- 96 as industrial and agricultural output dropped, foreign trade plunged, and prices soared. The government decided not to repudiate the old debts. Instead it issued more and more paper money (called "assignat '') that supposedly were grounded seized lands. The result was escalating inflation. The government imposed price controls and persecuted speculators and traders in the black market. People increasingly refused to pay taxes as the annual government deficit increased from 10 % of gross national product in 1789 to 64 % in 1793. By 1795, after the bad harvest of 1794 and the removal of price controls, inflation had reached a level of 3500 %. The assignats were withdrawn in 1796 but the replacements also fuelled inflation. The inflation was finally ended by Napoleon in 1803 with the franc as the new currency.
Napoleon after 1799 paid for his expensive wars by multiple means, starting with the modernisation of the rickety financial system. He conscripted soldiers at low wages, raised taxes, placed large - scale loans, sold lands formerly owned by the Catholic Church, sold Louisiana to the United States, plundered conquered areas and seized food supplies, and levied requisitions on countries he controlled, such as Italy.
The French Revolution had a major impact on Europe and the New World. It changed the course of human history, bringing an end to feudalism and making a path for future advances in broadly defined freedom of an individual.
Otto Dann and John Dinwiddy report, "It has long been almost a truism of European history that the French Revolution gave a great stimulus to the growth of modern nationalism. '' Nationalism was emphasised by historian Carlton J.H. Hayes as a major result of the French Revolution across Europe. The impact on French nationalism was profound. For example, Napoleon became such a heroic symbol of the nation that the glory was easily picked up by his nephew, who was overwhelmingly elected president (and later became Emperor Napoleon III). The influence was great in the hundreds of small German states and elsewhere, where it was either inspired by the French example or in reaction against it.
The changes in France were enormous; some were widely accepted and others were bitterly contested into the late 20th century. Before the Revolution, the people had little power or voice. The kings had so thoroughly centralised the system that most nobles spent their time at Versailles, and thus played only a small direct role in their home districts. Thompson says that the kings had:
After the first year of revolution, this power had been stripped away. The king was a figurehead, the nobility had lost all their titles and most of their land, the Church lost its monasteries and farmlands, bishops, judges and magistrates were elected by the people, the army was almost helpless, with military power in the hands of the new revolutionary National Guard. The central elements of 1789 were the slogan "Liberty, Equality and Fraternity ' and "The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen '', which Lefebvre calls "the incarnation of the Revolution as a whole. ''
The long - term impact on France was profound, shaping politics, society, religion and ideas, and polarising politics for more than a century. Historian François Aulard writes:
The most heated controversy was over the status of the Catholic Church. From a dominant position in 1788, it was almost destroyed in less than a decade, its priests and nuns turned out, its leaders dead or in exile, its property controlled by its enemies, and a strong effort underway to remove all influence of Christian religiosity, such as Sundays, holy days, saints, prayers, rituals and ceremonies. The movement to dechristianise France not only failed but aroused a furious reaction among the pious. Napoleon 's Concordat was a compromise that restored some of the Catholic Church 's traditional roles but not its power, its lands or its monasteries. Priests and bishops were given salaries as part of a department of government controlled by Paris, not Rome. Protestants and Jews gained equal rights. Battles over the role of religion in the public sphere, and closely related issues such as church - controlled schools, that were opened by the Revolution have never seen closure. They raged into the 20th century. By the 21st century, angry debates exploded over the presence of any Muslim religious symbols in schools, such as the headscarves for which Muslim girls could be expelled. J. Christopher Soper and Joel S. Fetzer explicitly link the conflict over religious symbols in public to the French Revolution, when the target was Catholic rituals and symbols.
The revolutionary government seized the charitable foundations that had been set up (starting in the 13th century) to provide an annual stream of revenue for hospitals, poor relief, and education. The state sold the lands but typically local authorities did not replace the funding and so most of the nation 's charitable and school systems were massively disrupted.
In the ancien regime, new opportunities for nuns as charitable practitioners were created by devout nobles on their own estates. The nuns provided comprehensive care for the sick poor on their patrons ' estates, not only acting as nurses, but taking on expanded roles as physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries. During the Revolution, most of the orders of nuns were shut down and there was no organised nursing care to replace them. However, the demand for their nursing services remained strong, and after 1800 the sisters reappeared and resumed their work in hospitals and on rural estates. They were tolerated by officials because they had widespread support and were the link between elite male physicians and distrustful peasants who needed help.
Two thirds of France was employed in agriculture, which was transformed by the Revolution. With the breakup of large estates controlled by the Church and the nobility and worked by hired hands, rural France became more a land of small independent farms. Harvest taxes were ended, such as the tithe and seigneurial dues, much to the relief of the peasants. Primogeniture was ended both for nobles and peasants, thereby weakening the family patriarch. Because all the children had a share in the family 's property, there was a declining birth rate. Cobban says the revolution bequeathed to the nation "a ruling class of landowners. ''
In the cities, entrepreneurship on a small scale flourished, as restrictive monopolies, privileges, barriers, rules, taxes and guilds gave way. However, the British blockade virtually ended overseas and colonial trade, hurting the port cities and their supply chains. Overall, the Revolution did not greatly change the French business system, and probably helped freeze in place the horizons of the small business owner. The typical businessman owned a small store, mill or shop, with family help and a few paid employees; large - scale industry was less common than in other industrialising nations.
The Revolution meant an end to arbitrary royal rule, and held out the promise of rule by law under a constitutional order, but it did not rule out a monarch. Napoleon as emperor set up a constitutional system (although he remained in full control), and the restored Bourbons were forced to go along with one. After the abdication of Napoleon III in 1871, the monarchists probably had a voting majority, but they were so factionalised they could not agree on who should be king, and instead the French Third Republic was launched with a deep commitment to upholding the ideals of the Revolution. The conservative Catholic enemies of the Revolution came to power in Vichy France (1940 -- 44), and tried with little success to undo its heritage, but they kept it a republic. Vichy denied the principle of equality and tried to replace the Revolutionary watchwords "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity '' with "Work, Family, and Fatherland. '' However, there were no efforts by the Bourbons, Vichy or anyone else to restore the privileges that had been stripped away from the nobility in 1789. France permanently became a society of equals under the law.
The Jacobin cause was picked up by Marxists in the mid-19th century and became an element of communist thought around the world. In the Soviet Union, "Gracchus '' Babeuf was regarded as a hero.
On July 16, 1789, two days after the Storming of the Bastille, John Frederick Sackville, serving as ambassador to France, reported to Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Francis Osborne, 5th Duke of Leeds, "Thus, my Lord, the greatest revolution that we know anything of has been effected with, comparatively speaking -- if the magnitude of the event is considered -- the loss of very few lives. From this moment we may consider France as a free country, the King a very limited monarch, and the nobility as reduced to a level with the rest of the nation. '' Yet Britain saw minority support while the majority, and especially the elite, strongly opposed the French Revolution. Britain led and funded the series of coalitions that fought France from 1793 to 1815, and then restored the Bourbons. Edmund Burke was the chief spokesman for the opposition.
In Ireland, the effect was to transform what had been an attempt by Protestant settlers to gain some autonomy into a mass movement led by the Society of United Irishmen involving Catholics and Protestants. It stimulated the demand for further reform throughout Ireland, especially in Ulster. The upshot was a revolt in 1798, led by Wolfe Tone, that was crushed by Britain.
German reaction to the Revolution swung from favourable to antagonistic. At first it brought liberal and democratic ideas, the end of gilds, serfdom and the Jewish ghetto. It brought economic freedoms and agrarian and legal reform. Above all the antagonism helped stimulate and shape German nationalism.
The French invaded Switzerland and turned it into an ally known as the "Helvetic Republic '' (1798 -- 1803). The interference with localism and traditional liberties was deeply resented, although some modernising reforms took place.
The region of modern - day Belgium was divided between two polities: the Austrian Netherlands and Prince - Bishopric of Liège. Both territories experienced revolutions in 1789. In the Austrian Netherlands, the Brabant Revolution succeeded in expelling Austrian forces and established the new United Belgian States. The Liège Revolution expelled the tyrannical Prince - Bishop and installed a republic. Both failed to attract international support. By December 1790, the Brabant revolution had been crushed and Liège was subdued the following year.
During the Revolutionary Wars, the French invaded and occupied the region between 1794 and 1814, a time known as the French period. The new government enforced new reforms, incorporating the region into France itself. New rulers were sent in by Paris. Belgian men were drafted into the French wars and heavily taxed. Nearly everyone was Catholic, but the Church was repressed. Resistance was strong in every sector, as Belgian nationalism emerged to oppose French rule. The French legal system, however, was adopted, with its equal legal rights, and abolition of class distinctions. Belgium now had a government bureaucracy selected by merit.
Antwerp regained access to the sea and grew quickly as a major port and business centre. France promoted commerce and capitalism, paving the way for the ascent of the bourgeoisie and the rapid growth of manufacturing and mining. In economics, therefore, the nobility declined while the middle class Belgian entrepreneurs flourished because of their inclusion in a large market, paving the way for Belgium 's leadership role after 1815 in the Industrial Revolution on the Continent.
The Kingdom of Denmark adopted liberalising reforms in line with those of the French Revolution, with no direct contact. Reform was gradual and the regime itself carried out agrarian reforms that had the effect of weakening absolutism by creating a class of independent peasant freeholders. Much of the initiative came from well - organised liberals who directed political change in the first half of the 19th century.
The Revolution deeply polarised American politics, and this polarisation led to the creation of the First Party System. In 1793, as war broke out in Europe, the Republican Party led by Thomas Jefferson favoured France and pointed to the 1778 treaty that was still in effect. George Washington and his unanimous cabinet, including Jefferson, decided that the treaty did not bind the United States to enter the war. Washington proclaimed neutrality instead. Under President John Adams, a Federalist, an undeclared naval war took place with France from 1798 until 1799, often called the "Quasi War ''. Jefferson became president in 1801, but was hostile to Napoleon as a dictator and emperor. However, the two entered negotiations over the Louisiana Territory and agreed to the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, an acquisition that substantially increased the size of the United States.
The French Revolution has received enormous amounts of historical attention, both from the general public and from scholars and academics. The views of historians, in particular, have been characterised as falling along ideological lines, with disagreement over the significance and the major developments of the Revolution. Alexis de Tocqueville argued that the Revolution was a manifestation of a more prosperous middle class becoming conscious of its social importance.
Other thinkers, like the conservative Edmund Burke, maintained that the Revolution was the product of a few conspiratorial individuals who brainwashed the masses into subverting the old order -- a claim rooted in the belief that the revolutionaries had no legitimate complaints. Other historians, influenced by Marxist thinking, have emphasised the importance of the peasants and the urban workers in presenting the Revolution as a gigantic class struggle. In general, scholarship on the French Revolution initially studied the political ideas and developments of the era, but it has gradually shifted towards social history that analyses the impact of the Revolution on individual lives.
Historians until the late 20th century emphasised class conflicts from a largely Marxist perspective as the fundamental driving cause of the Revolution. The central theme of this argument was that the Revolution emerged from the rising bourgeoisie, with support from the sans - culottes, who fought to destroy the aristocracy. However, Western scholars largely abandoned Marxist interpretations in the 1990s. By the year 2000 many historians were saying that the field of the French Revolution was in intellectual disarray. The old model or paradigm focusing on class conflict has been discredited, and no new explanatory model had gained widespread support. Nevertheless, as Spang has shown, there persists a very widespread agreement to the effect that the French Revolution was the watershed between the premodern and modern eras of Western history.
Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in history. It marks the end of the early modern period, which started around 1500 and is often seen as marking the "dawn of the modern era ''. Within France itself, the Revolution permanently crippled the power of the aristocracy and drained the wealth of the Church, although the two institutions survived despite the damage they sustained. After the collapse of the First Empire in 1815, the French public lost the rights and privileges earned since the Revolution, but they remembered the participatory politics that characterised the period, with one historian commenting: "Thousands of men and even many women gained firsthand experience in the political arena: they talked, read, and listened in new ways; they voted; they joined new organisations; and they marched for their political goals. Revolution became a tradition, and republicanism an enduring option. ''
Some historians argue that the French people underwent a fundamental transformation in self - identity, evidenced by the elimination of privileges and their replacement by rights as well as the growing decline in social deference that highlighted the principle of equality throughout the Revolution. The Revolution represented the most significant and dramatic challenge to political absolutism up to that point in history and spread democratic ideals throughout Europe and ultimately the world. Throughout the 19th Century, the revolution was heavily analysed by economists and political scientists, who saw the class nature of the revolution as a fundamental aspect in understanding human social evolution itself. This, combined with the egalitarian values introduced by the revolution, gave rise to a classless and co-operative model for society called "socialism '' which profoundly influenced future revolutions in France and around the world.
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the doric lonic and corinthian styles are known as the | Ionic order - wikipedia
The Ionic order forms one of the three classical orders of classical architecture, the other two canonic orders being the Doric and the Corinthian. There are two lesser orders: the Tuscan (a plainer Doric), and the rich variant of Corinthian called the composite order, both added by 16th - century Italian architectural writers, based on Roman practice. Of the three canonic orders, the Ionic order has the narrowest columns.
The Ionic capital is characterized by the use of volutes. The Ionic columns normally stand on a base which separates the shaft of the column from the stylobate or platform; the cap is usually enriched with egg - and - dart.
Since Vitruvius a female character has been ascribed to the Ionic, in contrast to the masculine Doric.
The major features of the Ionic order are the volutes of its capital, which have been the subject of much theoretical and practical discourse, based on a brief and obscure passage in Vitruvius. The only tools required to design these features were a straight - edge, a right angle, string (to establish half - lengths) and a compass. Below the volutes, the Ionic column may have a wide collar or banding separating the capital from the fluted shaft (as in, for example, the neoclassical mansion Castle Coole), or a swag of fruit and flowers may swing from the clefts or "neck '' formed by the volutes.
Originally the volutes lay in a single plane (illustration at right); then it was seen that they could be angled out on the corners. This feature of the Ionic order made it more pliant and satisfactory than the Doric to critical eyes in the 4th century BC: angling the volutes on the corner columns ensured that they "read '' equally when seen from either front or side facade. The 16th - century Renaissance architect and theorist Vincenzo Scamozzi designed a version of such a perfectly four - sided Ionic capital; Scamozzi 's version became so much the standard, that when a Greek Ionic order was eventually reintroduced, in the later 18th century Greek Revival, it conveyed an air of archaic freshness and primitive, perhaps even republican, vitality.
The Ionic column is always more slender than the Doric; therefore, it always has a base: Ionic columns are eight and nine column - diameters tall, and even more in the Antebellum colonnades of late American Greek revival plantation houses.
Ionic columns are most often fluted. After a little early experimentation, the number of hollow flutes in the shaft settled at 24. This standardization kept the fluting in a familiar proportion to the diameter of the column at any scale, even when the height of the column was exaggerated. Roman fluting leaves a little of the column surface between each hollow; Greek fluting runs out to a knife edge that was easily scarred.
In some instances, the fluting has been omitted. English architect Inigo Jones introduced a note of sobriety with plain Ionic columns on his Banqueting House at Whitehall Palace, London, and when Beaux - Arts architect John Russell Pope wanted to convey the manly stamina combined with intellect of Theodore Roosevelt, he left colossal Ionic columns unfluted on the Roosevelt memorial at the American Museum of Natural History, New York City, for an unusual impression of strength and stature. Wabash Railroad architect R.E. Mohr included 8 unfluted Ionic frontal columns on his 1928 design for the railroad 's St. Louis suburban stop Delmar Station.
The entablature resting on the columns has three parts: a plain architrave divided into two, or more generally three, bands, with a frieze resting on it that may be richly sculptural, and a cornice built up with dentils (like the closely spaced ends of joists), with a corona ("crown '') and cyma ("ogee '') molding to support the projecting roof. Pictorial often narrative bas - relief frieze carving provides a characteristic feature of the Ionic order, in the area where the Doric order is articulated with triglyphs. Roman and Renaissance practice condensed the height of the entablature by reducing the proportions of the architrave, which made the frieze more prominent.
The Ionic order originated in the mid-6th century BC in Ionia, the southwestern coastland and islands of Asia Minor settled by Ionian Greeks, where an Ionian dialect was spoken. The Ionic order column was being practiced in mainland Greece in the 5th century BC. It was most popular in the Archaic Period (750 -- 480 BC) in Ionia. The first of the great Ionic temples was the Temple of Hera on Samos, built about 570 -- 560 BC by the architect Rhoikos. It stood for only a decade before it was leveled by an earthquake. A longer - lasting 6th century Ionic temple was the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The Parthenon, although it conforms mainly to the Doric order, also has some Ionic elements. A more purely Ionic mode to be seen on the Athenian Acropolis is exemplified in the Erechtheum.
Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the east, a few examples of the Ionic order can be found as far as Pakistan with the Jandial temple near Taxila. Several examples of capitals displaying Ionic influences can be seen as far away as Patna, India, especially with the Pataliputra capital, dated to the 3rd century BC.
Vitruvius, a practicing architect who worked in the time of Augustus, reports that the Doric column had its initial basis in the proportions of the male body, while Ionic columns took on a "slenderness '' inspired by the female body. Though he does not name his source for such a self - conscious and "literary '' approach, it must be in traditions passed on from Hellenistic architects, such as Hermogenes of Priene, the architect of a famed temple of Artemis at Magnesia on the Meander in Lydia (now Turkey).
Renaissance architectural theorists took his hints, to interpret the Ionic order as matronly in comparison to the Doric order, though not as wholly feminine as the Corinthian order. The Ionic is a natural order for post-Renaissance libraries and courts of justice, learned and civilized. Because no treatises on classical architecture survive earlier than that of Vitruvius, identification of such "meaning '' in architectural elements as it was understood in the 5th and 4th centuries BC remains tenuous, though during the Renaissance it became part of the conventional "speech '' of classicism.
From the 17th century onwards, a much admired and copied version of Ionic was that which could be seen in the Temple of Fortuna Virilis in Rome, first clearly presented in a detailed engraving in Antoine Desgodetz, Les edifices antiques de Rome (Paris 1682).
An archaic Greek Ionic capital, in Nordisk familjebok, 1910
Ionic capital at Priene
Scamozzian Ionic capitals on Castle Coole portico
Ionic capitals on the Western and Southern Life Insurance building, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Closeup of Ionic Column
University of Oslo
Ionic capitals on the Jefferson Memorial
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what songs does rapunzel sing in into the woods | Into the Woods - Wikipedia
Into the Woods is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by James Lapine. The musical intertwines the plots of several Brothers Grimm and Charles Perrault fairy tales, exploring the consequences of the characters ' wishes and quests. The main characters are taken from "Little Red Riding Hood '', "Jack and the Beanstalk '', "Rapunzel '', and "Cinderella '', as well as several others. The musical is tied together by a story involving a childless baker and his wife and their quest to begin a family (the original beginning of The Grimm Brothers ' Rapunzel), their interaction with a witch who has placed a curse on them, and their interaction with other storybook characters during their journey.
The musical debuted in San Diego at the Old Globe Theatre in 1986 and premiered on Broadway on November 5, 1987, where it won several Tony Awards, including Best Score, Best Book, and Best Actress in a Musical (Joanna Gleason), in a year dominated by The Phantom of the Opera (1988). The musical has since been produced many times, with a 1988 US national tour, a 1990 West End production, a 1997 tenth anniversary concert, a 2002 Broadway revival, a 2010 London revival and in 2012 as part of New York City 's outdoor Shakespeare in the Park series.
A Disney film adaptation directed by Rob Marshall and starring Meryl Streep, Emily Blunt, James Corden, Anna Kendrick, Chris Pine, Tracey Ullman, Christine Baranski and Johnny Depp was released in 2014. The film grossed over $213 million worldwide and received three Academy Award nominations and three Golden Globe Award nominations.
The Narrator introduces four characters who each have a wish: Cinderella wishes to attend the King 's festival; Jack, a simple poor boy, wishes that his cow, Milky White, would give milk; a Baker and his Wife wish they could have a child; Little Red Ridinghood wishes for bread from the Baker to take to her grandmother 's house.
Jack 's weary mother nags him into selling the cow, and Cinderella 's stepmother and stepsisters, Florinda and Lucinda, tease Cinderella about wanting to attend the King 's festival.
The Baker 's neighbor, an ugly old witch, reveals that the source of the couple 's infertility is a curse she placed on the Baker 's line after catching his father stealing her vegetables, including six magic beans. The Witch also took the Baker 's father 's newborn child Rapunzel. She explains the curse will be lifted if the Baker and his Wife can find the four ingredients that the Witch needs for a certain potion; "the cow as white as milk, the cape as red as blood, the hair as yellow as corn, and the slipper as pure as gold, '' all before the chime of midnight in three days ' time. All begin their journeys into the woods -- Jack goes to market to sell his beloved Milky White, Cinderella 's family rides to the Festival while Cinderella goes to her mother 's grave to ask for guidance, Little Red goes to her grandmother 's house, and the Baker, refusing his wife 's help, goes to find the ingredients ("Prologue '').
Cinderella visits her mother 's grave and receives a beautiful gown and golden slippers from her mother 's spirit ("Cinderella at the Grave ''). Jack encounters a Mysterious Man who mocks him for trying to sell his cow for more than a "sack of beans '' and then vanishes. Little Red Ridinghood meets a hungry Wolf who convinces her to take a detour on her way to Granny 's ("Hello, Little Girl ''). The Baker and his Wife squabble over her presence in the woods, but come across Jack with Milky White. Not having the money necessary to buy the cow, they convince Jack that the beans the Baker has found in his father 's old hunting jacket are magic beans and buy the cow for five of them. Jack bids a tearful goodbye to his cow ("I Guess This Is Goodbye ''), and the Baker orders his wife to return to the village with the cow. He has qualms about being so dishonest, but his wife reasons that the chance to have a child justifies their trickery ("Maybe They 're Magic '').
The Witch has raised Rapunzel as her own daughter, keeping her locked away from the world in a tall tower accessible only by climbing Rapunzel 's long, golden hair ("Our Little World ''). But this day a handsome prince spies the beautiful Rapunzel and resolves to climb the tower himself. In another part of the wood, the Baker has tracked down Little Red Ridinghood. Following the Witch 's advice, he attempts to simply steal the red cape, but her ensuing temper tantrum guilts him into returning it. When Little Red Ridinghood arrives at her grandmother 's house, she is swallowed by the Wolf. The Baker, in pursuit of the cape, slays the Wolf, pulling Little Red Ridinghood and her grandmother from the beast 's innards. Little Red Ridinghood rewards him with the red cape, reflecting on her new experiences ("I Know Things Now ''). Meanwhile, Jack 's mother angrily tosses the beans aside, which grow into an enormous stalk overnight, and sends her son to bed without supper. As Cinderella flees the Festival, pursued by another handsome prince and his steward, the Wife helps her hide and quizzes Cinderella about the ball. Cinderella explains that it was a nice ball ("A Very Nice Prince '') but seems nonplussed by the experience. As a giant beanstalk begins to sprout from the ground next to Jack 's cottage, the Baker 's Wife spots Cinderella 's pure gold slippers. She tries to chase after Cinderella but inadvertently allows Milky White to run off, leaving the Baker 's Wife without slippers or the cow. The characters each state morals and credos as the first midnight chimes ("First Midnight '') and they continue their journeys through the woods.
The next morning, Jack describes his adventure climbing the beanstalk ("Giants in the Sky ''). He gives the Baker five gold pieces he stole from the giants to buy back his cow. When the Baker hesitates, Jack climbs back up the beanstalk to find more. The Mysterious Man emerges and taunts the Baker, stealing the money. The Baker 's Wife confesses she has lost the cow, and she and the Baker split up to look for it. Cinderella 's Prince and Rapunzel 's Prince, who are brothers, meet and compare the their newfound and unobtainable amours ("Agony ''). The Baker 's Wife, who is eavesdropping, takes note when Rapunzel 's prince mentions that he is in love with a girl in a tower with hair "as yellow as corn. '' The Baker 's Wife fools Rapunzel into letting down her hair by telling her that she is her prince and pulls out a piece of it. Meanwhile, The Mysterious Man returns Milky White to the Baker.
The Baker 's Wife and Cinderella meet again, and the Baker 's Wife makes a desperate grab for her shoes, almost succeeding before Cinderella flees. The Baker and his wife reunite, now with three of the four items. The Baker admits that they will have to work together to fulfill the quest ("It Takes Two ''). Jack arrives with a hen that lays golden eggs and attempts to buy Milky White back, but the cow suddenly keels over dead as midnight chimes. Again, the characters recite morals ("Second Midnight ''). The Witch discovers that the Prince has been visiting Rapunzel and, in fury and anguish, demands that Rapunzel stay with her so she can protect her from the outside world ("Stay with Me ''). When Rapunzel refuses, the Witch cuts off Rapunzel 's hair and banishes her to a desert. The Mysterious Man gives the Baker the money to buy another cow. Jack encounters Little Red Ridinghood, who is now sporting a wolf skin cape and a large knife for protection. She goads him into returning once again to the Giant 's home to steal a magic harp.
Cinderella, returning from the last night of the festival, describes how the Prince spread pitch on the stairs to prevent her from escaping. Caught between wanting to escape and wanting to stay, she eventually resolves to let the Prince decide, leaving him one of her slippers as a clue to her identity ("On the Steps of the Palace ''). The Baker 's Wife frantically tries to convince her to give up her other shoe, offering her the sixth magic bean in exchange for it. Cinderella throws the bean aside, but trades shoes with the Baker 's Wife and flees. The Baker arrives with another cow; they now have all four items. The Prince 's Steward grabs the slipper from the Baker 's Wife, and they are fighting over it when a great crash is heard and Jack 's mother runs in to report that there is a dead Giant in her backyard. The Prince, more concerned with finding Cinderella, waves her off and departs with one of the slippers, giving the other to the Baker and his wife. Jack, to his mother 's relief, returns with the magic harp. The Witch discovers that the new cow is unsatisfactory (as it 's a regular cow which has been is covered with flour). However, the Witch is able to resurrect Milky White and instructs the Baker and his Wife to feed the other ingredients to her. Jack tries to milk her, but no milk comes. The Baker 's Wife reveals where she got the yellow hair, and the Witch furiously explains that she can not have touched any of the ingredients. The Mysterious Man tells the Baker to feed the hair - like corn silk to the cow. Now Milky White gives milk which is the potion. The Witch reveals that the Mysterious Man is the Baker 's father. The Witch drinks the potion. At the chime of the third midnight the Mysterious Man falls dead, his reparation complete, the curse is broken, and the Witch regains the youth and beauty she had before the curse.
Cinderella 's Prince searches for the girl whose foot fits the slipper; the stepsisters try but can only get it on by cutting off parts of their feet ("Careful My Toe ''). Cinderella appears, her foot fits the slipper, and she becomes the Prince 's bride. Rapunzel bears twins in the desert where her Prince finds her. The Witch attempts to curse the couple, but with the curse broken, her powers are gone. At Cinderella 's wedding to the Prince, Florinda and Lucinda are blinded by birds as they try to win Cinderella 's favor. The Baker 's Wife, very pregnant, thanks Cinderella for the slipper. Everyone is at the wedding. Everyone but the Witch and the stepsisters congratulate themselves on being able to live happily "Ever After, '' though they fail to notice another beanstalk growing sky - high...
The Narrator introduces the action again: "Once Upon a Time... Later. '' All the characters seem happy but are still wishing: The Baker and his Wife have their precious baby boy, but wish for more room and bicker over the Baker 's unwillingness to hold his child; Jack and his mother are rich and well - fed, but Jack misses his kingdom in the sky; Cinderella is living with her Prince Charming in the Palace, but is getting bored. ("So Happy '').
Everyone is suddenly knocked over by a loud crash. The enormous foot of a Giant has destroyed the Witch 's garden, sparing only a few beans. The Baker and his Wife decide that they must tell the Royal Family, and the Baker travels to the palace. His news is ignored by the Prince 's Steward, and also by Jack 's Mother when he stops at her house to ask for Jack 's aid. When he returns home, Little Red Ridinghood arrives on her way to Granny 's: her house has been destroyed and her mother is missing. The Baker and his Wife decide to escort her. Meanwhile, Jack decides that he must slay the Giant and Cinderella learns from her bird friends that her mother 's grave was disturbed and decides to investigate, dressed in her old rags. Once again, everyone heads into the woods, but this time the mood is somber, for "the skies are strange, the winds are strong '' ("Into the Woods '' Reprise).
Rapunzel has also fled to the woods in a hysterical fit, driven mad by her treatment at the Witch 's hands. Her Prince has followed her, but when he encounters his brother they each confess they have another reason for their presence in the woods. They have grown bored and frustrated with their marriages and now lust after two beautiful women asleep in the woods - Snow White and Sleeping Beauty ("Agony '' Reprise).
The Baker, his Wife, and Little Red Ridinghood get lost in the woods and find Cinderella 's family and the Steward, who reveal that the castle was set upon by the Giant. The Witch arrives as well, bringing news that the Giant has destroyed the village and the Baker 's house. Suddenly, thunderous footsteps are heard and the Giant appears. To the shock of all, this Giant is a woman -- widow of the Giant that Jack killed. Her booming voice proclaims that she wants Jack 's blood in revenge. To satisfy the Giantess, the group realizes they must give her someone, but are unable to decide on whom until they realize that the Narrator is still commenting on the actions from the sidelines. Everyone offers her the narrator as a sacrifice, but he convinces them how lost they would be without him. Nevertheless, the Witch throws him into the Giantess 's arms and he is killed by being dropped. Jack 's mother finds the group and aggressively defends her son, angering the Giantess, and the Steward clubs Jack 's mother to quiet her, inadvertently killing her. As the Giantess leaves to search for Jack, Rapunzel runs into her path and is trampled, to the horror of the Witch ("Witch 's Lament '').
The Royal Family continue on their way, fleeing despite the Baker 's pleas for them to stay and fight the Giant. The Witch declares she will find Jack and sacrifice him to the Giant, and the Baker and his Wife decide they must find him first and split up to search. The Baker 's Wife meets Cinderella 's Prince, and he rapidly seduces her ("Any Moment ''). Meanwhile, the Baker discovers Cinderella at her mother 's ruined grave and convinces her to join their group for safety. The Prince, satisfied, leaves the Baker 's Wife with a few platitudes, and she reflects on her adventure of the woods and her return to domestic life with family ("Moments in the Woods ''). However, she has lost her way, stumbles into the path of the Giant, and is consequently killed by a falling tree.
The Baker, Little Red, and Cinderella await the return of the Baker 's Wife when the Witch drags in Jack, whom she found weeping over the Baker 's Wife 's body. The grief - stricken Baker unwittingly agrees to give Jack to the Giantess, causing an argument. The characters first blame each other for their predicament, until finally they all decide to blame the Witch for growing the beans in the first place ("Your Fault ''). Disgusted and fed up, the Witch curses and scolds them for their inability to accept responsibility, throwing away the rest of her magic beans. This brings her mother 's curse on her again, and she vanishes. ("Last Midnight '').
The Baker flees, but is visited by his father 's spirit who convinces him to face his responsibilities ("No More ''). The Baker returns and helps plan killing the Giantess, using Cinderella 's bird friends to peck out the Giant 's eyes at an area smeared with pitch, where Jack and the Baker can finally deliver a fatal blow. Cinderella stays behind to protect the Baker 's child and when her Prince passes by, he nearly fails to recognize her. She confronts him, having learned of his infidelity from her birds and he explains his feelings of unfulfillment and his reasons for seducing another woman. She asks him to go, and he sorrowfully leaves.
Little Red returns with the news that her grandmother has been killed by the Giantess. Meanwhile, the Baker tells Jack that his mother is dead. Jack vows to kill the steward until the Baker convinces him that will not benefit anyone. Cinderella comforts Little Red and tries to address her qualms -- does killing the Giant make them no better than she is? The Baker and Cinderella explain to Jack and Little Red that everyone is connected, and choices have consequences ("No One Is Alone '').
The four remaining characters slay the Giant and the deceased characters now including the Royal Family (who have lost their way and starved to death in the woods) and the Princes (who have their new paramours, Snow White and Sleeping Beauty, on their arms) return to share one last set of morals with the audience. The survivors resolve to band together and rebuild. The spirit of the Baker 's Wife appears to comfort her mourning husband, advising him to tell their child their story. The Baker begins to tell the child the story of the play, while the Witch appears with the final moral: "Careful the things you say, Children Will Listen. '' All join in on a last reprise of the title song, surmising that we all must venture into the woods while remembering the choices we 've made and learning from each endeavor we come across ("Finale ''). As the characters conclude the song singing, "Into the woods, and out of the woods and happily ever after '', Cinderella closes the show with one last "I wish... ''
Into the Woods premiered at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego, California, on December 4, 1986 and ran for 50 performances under the direction of James Lapine. Many of the performers from that production appeared in the Broadway cast but John Cunningham, who played the Narrator, Wolf and Steward and George Coe, as the Mysterious Man and Cinderella 's Father were replaced by Tom Aldredge, who played the Narrator and Mysterious Man. Kenneth Marshall as Cinderella 's Prince was replaced by Robert Westenberg (who also played the Wolf), LuAnne Ponce, who played Little Red Ridinghood, was replaced by Danielle Ferland, Ellen Foley, the Witch, was replaced by Bernadette Peters. Kay McClelland, who played both Rapunzel and the Stepsister Florinda, stayed with the cast but only played Florinda, Rapunzel being played by Pamela Winslow.
The show underwent much evolution, but the most notable change was the addition of the song "No One Is Alone '' in the middle of the run.
Into The Woods opened on Broadway at the Martin Beck Theatre on November 5, 1987, and closed on September 3, 1989 after 765 performances. It starred Bernadette Peters, Joanna Gleason, Chip Zien, Kim Crosby, Ben Wright, Danielle Ferland, Chuck Wagner, Merle Louise, Tom Aldredge, and Robert Westenberg. The musical was directed by James Lapine, with musical staging by Lar Lubovitch, settings by Tony Straiges, lighting by Richard Nelson, costumes by Ann Hould - Ward (based on original concepts by Patricia Zipprodt and Ann Hould - Ward), and makeup by Jeff Raum. The original production won the 1988 New York Drama Critics ' Circle Award and the Drama Desk Award for Best Musical, and the original cast recording won a Grammy Award. The show was nominated for ten Tony Awards, and won three: Best Score (Stephen Sondheim), Best Book (James Lapine) and Best Actress in a Musical (Joanna Gleason).
Peters left the show after almost five months due to a prior commitment to film the movie Slaves of New York. The Witch was then played by: Betsy Joslyn (from March 30, 1988); Phylicia Rashad (from April 14, 1988); Betsy Joslyn (from July 5, 1988); Nancy Dussault (from December 13, 1988); and Ellen Foley (from August 1, 1989 until the closing).
Other cast replacements included Dick Cavett as the Narrator (as of July 19, 1988) (for a temporary engagement after which Tom Aldredge returned), Edmund Lyndeck as the Mysterious Man, Patricia Ben Peterson as Cinderella, LuAnne Ponce returning to the role of Little Red Ridinghood, Jeff Blumenkrantz as Jack, Marin Mazzie as Rapunzel (as of March 7, 1989) and Kay McClelland, Lauren Mitchell, Cynthia Sikes and Mary Gordon Murray as the Baker 's Wife.
In 1989, from May 23 to May 25 the full original cast (with the exception of Cindy Robinson as Snow White instead of Jean Kelly) reunited for three performances to tape the musical in its entirety for the Season 10 premiere episode of PBS 's American Playhouse, which first aired on March 15, 1991. The show was filmed professionally with seven cameras on the set of the Martin Beck Theater in front of an audience with certain elements changed from its standard production only slightly for the recording in order to better fit the screen rather than the stage such as the lighting, minor costume differences, and others. There were also pick up shots not filmed in front of an audience for various purposes. This video has since been released on Tape and DVD and on occasion, remastered and re-released.
Tenth Anniversary benefit performances were held on November 9, 1997 at The Broadway Theatre (New York), with most of original cast. Original cast understudies Chuck Wagner and Jeff Blumenkrantz played Cinderella 's Prince / Wolf and The Steward in place of Robert Westenburg and Philip Hoffmann and Jonathan Dokuchitz (who joined the broadway production as an understudy in 1989) played Rapunzel 's Prince in place of Wagner. This concert featured the duet "Our Little World, '' written for the first London production of the show.
On November 9, 2014, most of the original cast reunited for two reunion concerts and discussion in Costa Mesa, California. Mo Rocca hosted the reunion and interviewed Stephen Sondheim and James Lapine as well as each cast member. Appearing were Bernadette Peters, Joanna Gleason, Chip Zien, Danielle Ferland, Ben Wright and real life husband and wife, Robert Westenberg and Kim Crosby. The same group presented this discussion / concert on June 21, 2015 at the Brooklyn Academy of Music, New York City.
A United States tour began on November 22, 1988 with Cleo Laine playing the Witch, replaced by Betsy Joslyn in May 1989. Rex Robbins played the Narrator and Mysterious Man, Charlotte Rae played Jack 's Mother, and the Princes were played by Chuck Wagner and Douglas Sills. The set was almost completely reconstructed, and there were certain changes to the script, changing certain story elements. The 10 - month tour played cities around the country, such as Fort Lauderdale, Florida, Los Angeles, and Atlanta. The tour ran at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts from June 1989 to July 16, 1989, with the reviewer for The Washington Post writing: "his lovely score -- poised between melody and dissonance -- is the perfect measure of our tenuous condition. The songs invariably follow the characters ' thinking patterns, as they weigh their options and digest their experience. Needless to say, that does n't make for traditional show - stoppers. But it does make for vivacity of another kind. And Sondheim 's lyrics... are brilliant... I think you 'll find these cast members alert and engaging. ''
The original West End production opened on September 25, 1990 at the Phoenix Theatre and closed on February 23, 1991 after 197 performances. It was directed by Richard Jones, and produced by David Mirvish, with choreography by Anthony Van Laast, costumes by Sue Blane and orchestrations by Jonathan Tunick. The cast featured Julia McKenzie as the Witch, Ian Bartholomew as the Baker, Imelda Staunton as the Baker 's Wife and Clive Carter as the Wolf / Cinderella 's Prince. The show received seven Olivier Award nominations in 1991, winning for Best Actress in a Musical (Staunton) and Best Director of a Musical (Jones).
The song "Our Little World '' was added. This song was a duet sung between the Witch and Rapunzel giving further insight into the care the Witch has for her self - proclaimed daughter and the desire Rapunzel has to see the world outside of her tower. The overall feel of the show was a lot darker than that of the original Broadway production. Critic Michael Billington wrote "But the evening 's triumph belongs also to director Richard Jones, set designer Richard Hudson and costume designer Sue Blane who evoke exactly the right mood of haunted theatricality. Old - fashioned footlights give the faces a sinister glow. The woods themselves are a semi-circular, black - and - silver screen punctuated with nine doors and a crazy clock: they achieve exactly the ' agreeable terror ' of Gustave Dore 's children 's illustrations. And the effects are terrific: doors open to reveal the rotating magnified eyeball or the admonitory finger of the predatory giant. ''
A new intimate production of the show opened (billed as the first London revival) at the Donmar Warehouse on 16 November 1998, closing on 13 February 1999. This revival was directed by John Crowley and designed by his brother, Bob Crowley. The cast included Clare Burt as the Witch, Nick Holder as the Baker, Sophie Thompson as the Baker 's Wife, Jenna Russell as Cinderella, Sheridan Smith as Little Red Ridinghood and Frank Middlemass as the Narrator / Mysterious Man. Russell later appeared as the Baker 's Wife in the 2010 Regent 's Park production. Thompson won the 1999 Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical for her performance, while the production itself was nominated for Outstanding Musical Production.
A revival opened at the Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, running from February 1, 2002 to March 24, 2002. This production was directed and choreographed with the same principal cast that later ran on Broadway.
The 2002 Broadway revival, directed by James Lapine and choreographed by John Carrafa, began previews on April 13, 2002 and opened April 30, 2002 at the Broadhurst Theatre, closing on December 29 after a run of 18 previews and 279 regular performances. It starred Vanessa L. Williams as the Witch, John McMartin as the Narrator, Stephen DeRosa as the Baker, Kerry O'Malley as the Baker 's Wife, Gregg Edelman as Cinderella 's Prince / Wolf, Christopher Sieber as Rapunzel 's Prince / Wolf, Molly Ephraim as Little Red Ridinghood, Adam Wylie as Jack and Laura Benanti as Cinderella. Judi Dench provided the pre-recorded voice of the Giant.
Lapine revised the script slightly for this production, with a cameo appearance of the Three Little Pigs restored from the earlier San Diego production. Other changes, apart from numerous small dialogue changes, included the addition of the song "Our Little World, '' a duet for the Witch and Rapunzel written for the first London production, the addition of a second wolf in the song "Hello Little Girl '' who competes for Little Red 's attention with the first Wolf, the portrayal of Jack 's cow by a live performer (Chad Kimball) in an intricate costume and new lyrics were written for "The Last Midnight, '' now sung by the Witch as a menacing lullaby to the Baker 's baby.
This production featured Scenic design by Douglas W. Schmidt, Costume design by Susan Hilferty, Lighting design by Brian MacDevitt, Sound design by Dan Moses Schreier and Projection design by Elaine J. McCarthy. The revival won the Tony Awards for the Best Revival of a Musical and Best Lighting Design. This Broadway revival wardrobe is on display at the Costume World in South Florida.
A revival at the Royal Opera House 's Linbury Studio in Covent Garden had a limited run from June 14 through June 30, 2007 followed by a short stint at The Lowry theatre, Salford Quays, Manchester between 4 -- 7 July. The production mixed Opera singers, Musical Theatre actors as well as Film and television actors; including Anne Reid as Jack 's Mother and Gary Waldhorn as the Narrator. The production itself, directed by Will Tuckett, was met with mixed reviews; although there were clear stand out performances.
The production completely sold out three weeks before opening. As this was an ' Opera ' production, the show and its performers were overlooked for the ' Musical ' nominations in the 2008 Olivier Awards. This production featured Suzie Toase (Little Red), Peter Caulfield (Jack), Beverley Klein (Witch), Anna Francolini (Baker 's Wife), Clive Rowe (Baker), Nicholas Garrett (wolf) and Lara Pulver (Lucinda). This was the second Sondheim musical to be staged by the Opera House, following 2003 's Sweeney Todd.
The Olivier Award winning Regent 's Park Open Air Theatre production, directed by Timothy Sheader and choreographed by Liam Steel, ran for a six - week limited season from 6 August to 11 September 2010. The cast included Hannah Waddingham as the Witch, Mark Hadfield as the Baker, Jenna Russell as the Baker 's wife, Helen Dallimore as Cinderella, and Judi Dench as the recorded voice of the Giant. Gareth Valentine was the Musical Director. The musical was performed outdoors in a wooded area. Whilst the book remained mostly unchanged, the subtext of the plot was dramatically altered by casting the role of the Narrator as a young school boy lost in the woods following a family argument -- a device used to further illustrate the musical 's themes of parenting and adolescence.
The production opened to wide critical acclaim, much of the press commenting on the effectiveness of the open air setting. The Telegraph reviewer, for example, wrote: "It is an inspired idea to stage this show in the magical, sylvan surroundings of Regent 's Park, and designer Soutra Gilmour has come up with a marvellously rickety, adventure playground of a set, all ladders, stairs and elevated walkways, with Rapunzel discovered high up in a tree. '' The New York Times reviewer commented: "The natural environment makes for something genuinely haunting and mysterious as night falls on the audience... '' Stephen Sondheim attended twice, reportedly extremely pleased with the production. The production also won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival and Michael Xavier, who played Cinderella 's Prince and the Wolf, was nominated for the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical.
The production was recorded in its entirety.
The Regent 's Park Open Air Theatre production transferred to the Public Theater 's 2012 summer series of free performances Shakespeare in the Park at the Delacorte Theater in Central Park, New York, with an American cast as well as new designers. Sheader again was the director and Steel served as co-director and choreographer. Performances were originally to run from July 24 (delayed from July 23 due to the weather) to August 25, 2012, but the show was extended till September 1, 2012. The cast included Amy Adams as The Baker 's Wife, Donna Murphy as The Witch, Denis O'Hare as The Baker, Chip Zien as the Mysterious Man / Cinderella 's Father, Jack Broderick as the young Narrator, Gideon Glick as Jack, Cooper Grodin as Rapunzel 's Prince, Ivan Hernandez as Cinderella 's Prince / Wolf, Tina Johnson as Granny, Josh Lamon as the Steward, Jessie Mueller as Cinderella, Laura Shoop as Cinderella 's Mother, Tess Soltau as Rapunzel and Glenn Close as the Voice of the Giant. The set was a "collaboration between original Open Air Theatre designer Soutra Gilmour and... John Lee Beatty, (and) rises over 50 feet in the air, with a series of tree - covered catwalks and pathways. '' The production was dedicated to Nora Ephron, who died earlier in 2012. In February 2012 and in May 2012, reports of a possible Broadway transfer surfaced with the production 's principal actors in negotiations to reprise their roles. In January 2013, it was announced that the production will not transfer to Broadway due to scheduling conflicts.
A production played in Sydney from 19 March 1993 to 5 June 1993 at the Drama Theatre, Sydney Opera House. It starred Judi Connelli, Geraldine Turner, Tony Sheldon, Philip Quast, Pippa Grandison, and DJ Foster. A Melbourne Theatre Company played from 17 January 1998 to 21 February 1998 at the Playhouse, Victorian Arts Centre. It starred Rhonda Burchmore, John McTernan, Gina Riley, Lisa McCune, Peter Carroll, Tamsin Carroll and Robert Grubb.
The first professional Spanish language production, "Dentro del Bosque '', was produced by University of Puerto Rico Repertory Theatre and premiered in San Juan at Teatro de la Universidad (University Theatre) on March 14, 2013 The cast included Víctor Santiago as Baker, Ana Isabelle as Baker 's Wife and Lourdes Robles as the Witch
The Roundabout Theatre production, directed by Noah Brody and Ben Steinfeld, began performances Off - Broadway on December 19, 2014 and officially opened on January 22, 2015, at the Laura Pels Theatre. Like the original Broadway production 28 years prior, this production had a try - out run at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego, California from July 12, 2014 -- August 17, 2014 with the opening night taking place on July 17. This new version is completely minimalistically reimagined by the Fiasco Theater Company, featuring only ten actors playing multiple parts, and one piano accompanist.
The DreamCatcher Theatre production opened in January 2015 and played a sold out run at the Adrienne Arsht Center in Miami, Florida. Tituss Burgess starred as The Witch, the first male actor to do so. The cast also included Arielle Jacobs as The Bakers Wife. The musical had a production at The Muny in Forest Park, St. Louis, Missouri running from July 21 through 28 2015. The cast included Heather Headley (Witch), Erin Dilly (Baker 's Wife), Rob McClure (Baker), Ken Page (Narrator), Elena Shaddow (Cinderella). The Hart House Theatre production in Toronto, Ontario from January 15, 2016 to January 30, 2016. A production ran at the West Yorkshire Playhouse in Leeds in a collaboration with Opera North from 2 June 2016 to 25 June 2016.
The Israeli premiere, אל תוך היער (El Toch Ha - ya - ar), opened in Tel Aviv on August 2016 for a limited run produced by The Tramp Productions and Stuff Like That, starring Roi Dolev as The Witch, the second male actor to do so.
The principal original casts of notable stage productions of Into the Woods
"Boscos endins ''
National tour *
Veldheer
Harrington
Gamble
Kramer
Reseland
Chatmon
Chatmon
* In the 2016 national tour, the show was minimalistic with only 11 cast members (Including one musician) therefore, some actors were cast in multiple roles.
The musical has been adapted into a child - friendly version for use by schools and young companies, with the second act completely removed, as well as almost half the material from the first. The show is shortened from the original 2 and a half hours to fit in a 50 - minute range, and the music transposed into keys that more easily fit young voices.
A theatrical film adaptation of the musical was produced by Walt Disney Pictures, directed by Rob Marshall, and starring Meryl Streep, Emily Blunt, James Corden, Anna Kendrick, Chris Pine, Tracey Ullman, Christine Baranski, Lilla Crawford, Daniel Huttlestone, MacKenzie Mauzy, Billy Magnussen, and Johnny Depp. The film was released on December 25, 2014. It was a critical and commercial hit, grossing over $213 million worldwide. For her performance as the Witch, Streep was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. The film also received Academy Award nominations for Best Production Design and Best Costume Design.
Act I Prologue parts:
Act I Finale parts:
Act II Prologue parts:
Act II Finale:
In most productions of Into the Woods, including the original Broadway production, several parts are doubled. Cinderella 's Prince and the Wolf, who share the characteristic of being unable to control their appetites, are usually played by the same actor. Similarly, the Narrator and the Mysterious Man, who share the characteristic of commenting on the story while avoiding any personal involvement or responsibility. Granny and Cinderella 's Mother, who are both matriarchal characters in the story, are also typically played by the same person, who also gives voice to the nurturing but later murderous Giant 's Wife.
The show covers multiple themes: growing up, parents and children, accepting responsibility, morality, and finally, wish fulfillment and its consequences. The Time Magazine reviewers wrote that the play 's "basic insight... is at heart, most fairy tales are about the loving yet embattled relationship between parents and children. Almost everything that goes wrong -- which is to say, almost everything that can -- arises from a failure of parental or filial duty, despite the best intentions. '' Stephen Holden wrote that the themes of the show include parent - child relationships and the individual 's responsibility to the community. The witch is n't just a scowling old hag, but a key symbol of moral ambivalence. James Lapine said that the most unpleasant person (the Witch) would have the truest things to say and the "nicer '' people would be less honest. In the Witch 's words: "I 'm not good; I 'm not nice; I 'm just right. ''
Given the show 's debut during the 1980s, the height of the US AIDS crisis, the work has been interpreted to be a parable about AIDS. In this interpretation, the Giant 's Wife serves as a metaphor for HIV / AIDS, killing good and bad characters indiscriminately and forcing the survivors to band together to stop the threat and move on from the devastation, reflecting the devastation to many communities during the AIDS crisis. When asked about the thematic connection, Sondheim acknowledged that initial audiences interpreted it as an AIDS metaphor, but stated that the work was not intended to be specific.
The score is also notable in Sondheim 's output, because of its intricate reworking and development of small musical motifs. In particular, the opening words, "I wish '', are set to the interval of a rising major second and this small unit is both repeated and developed throughout the show, just as Lapine 's book explores the consequences of self - interest and "wishing. '' The dialogue in the show is characterized by the heavy use of syncopated speech. In many instances, the characters ' lines are delivered with a fixed beat that follows natural speech rhythms, but is also purposely composed in eighth, sixteenth, and quarter note rhythms as part of a spoken song. Like many Sondheim / Lapine productions, the songs contain thought - process narrative, where characters converse or think aloud.
Sondheim drew on parts of his troubled childhood when writing the show. In 1987, he told Time Magazine that the "father uncomfortable with babies (was) his father, and (the) mother who regrets having had children (was) his mother. ''
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in visual pleasure and narrative cinema mulvey argues that | Laura Mulvey - wikipedia
Laura Mulvey (born 15 August 1941) is a British feminist film theorist. She was educated at St Hilda 's College, Oxford. She is currently professor of film and media studies at Birkbeck, University of London. She worked at the British Film Institute for many years before taking up her current position.
During the 2008 -- 09 academic year, Mulvey was the Mary Cornille Distinguished Visiting Professor in the Humanities at Wellesley College. Mulvey has been awarded three honorary degrees: in 2006 a Doctor of Letters from the University of East Anglia; in 2009 a Doctor of Law from Concordia University; in 2012 a Bloomsday Doctor of Literature from University College Dublin.
Mulvey is best known for her essay, ' Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema ', written in 1973 and published in 1975 in the influential British film theory journal Screen. It later appeared in a collection of her essays entitled Visual and Other Pleasures, as well as in numerous other anthologies. Her article, which was influenced by the theories of Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan, is one of the first major essays that helped shift the orientation of film theory towards a psychoanalytic framework. Prior to Mulvey, film theorists such as Jean - Louis Baudry and Christian Metz used psychoanalytic ideas in their theoretical accounts of the cinema. Mulvey 's contribution, however, inaugurated the intersection of film theory, psychoanalysis and feminism.
Mulvey states that she intends to use Freud and Lacan 's concepts as a "political weapon. '' She employs some of their concepts to argue that the cinematic apparatus of classical Hollywood cinema inevitably put the spectator in a masculine subject position, with the figure of the woman on screen as the object of desire and "the male gaze. '' In the era of classical Hollywood cinema, viewers were encouraged to identify with the protagonists, who were and still are overwhelmingly male. Meanwhile, Hollywood women characters of the 1950s and ' 60s were, according to Mulvey, coded with "to - be-looked - at - ness '' while the camera positioning and the male viewer constituted the "bearer of the look. '' Mulvey suggests two distinct modes of the male gaze of this era: "voyeuristic '' (i.e. seeing woman as image "to be looked at '') and "fetishistic '' (i.e. seeing woman as a substitute for "the lack, '' the underlying psychoanalytic fear of castration).
Mulvey argues that the only way to annihilate the patriarchal Hollywood system is to radically challenge and re-shape the filmic strategies of classical Hollywood with alternative feminist methods. She calls for a new feminist avant - garde filmmaking that would rupture the narrative pleasure of classical Hollywood filmmaking. She writes, "It is said that analysing pleasure or beauty annihilates it. That is the intention of this article. ''
"Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema '' was the subject of much interdisciplinary discussion among film theorists that continued into the mid 1980s. Critics of the article pointed out that Mulvey 's argument implies the impossibility of the enjoyment of classical Hollywood cinema by women, and that her argument did not seem to take into account spectatorship not organised along normative gender lines. Mulvey addresses these issues in her later 1981 article, "Afterthoughts on ' Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema ' inspired by King Vidor 's Duel in the Sun (1946), '' in which she argues a metaphoric ' transvestism ' in which a female viewer might oscillate between a male - coded and a female - coded analytic viewing position. These ideas led to theories of how gay, lesbian, and bisexual spectatorship might also be negotiated. Her article was written before the findings of the later wave of media audience studies on the complex nature of fan cultures and their interaction with stars. Queer theory, such as that developed by Richard Dyer, has grounded its work in Mulvey to explore the complex projections that many gay men and women fix onto certain female stars (e.g. Doris Day, Liza Minnelli, Greta Garbo, Marlene Dietrich, Judy Garland).
Feminist critic Gaylyn Studlar wrote extensively to problematize Mulvey 's central thesis that the spectator is male and derives visual pleasure from a dominant and controlling perspective. Studlar suggested rather that visual pleasure for all audiences is derived from a passive, masochistic perspective, where the audience seeks to be powerless and overwhelmed by the cinematic image.
Mulvey later wrote that her article was meant to be a provocation or a manifesto, rather than a reasoned academic article that took all objections into account. She addressed many of her critics, and clarified many of her points in "Afterthoughts '' (which also appears in the Visual and Other Pleasures collection).
Mulvey 's most recent book is titled Death 24x a Second: Stillness and the Moving Image (2006). In this work, Mulvey responds to the ways in which video and DVD technologies have altered the relationship between film and viewer. No longer are audience members forced to watch a film in its entirety in a linear fashion from beginning to ending. Instead, viewers today exhibit much more control over the films they consume. In the preface to her book, therefore, Mulvey begins by explicating the changes that film has undergone between the 1970s and the 2000s. Whereas Mulvey notes that, when she first began writing about films, she had been "preoccupied by Hollywood 's ability to construct the female star as ultimate spectacle, the emblem and guarantee of its fascination and power, '' she is now "more interested in the way that those moments of spectacle were also moments of narrative halt, hinting at the stillness of the single celluloid frame. '' With the evolution of film - viewing technologies, Mulvey redefines the relationship between viewer and film. Before the emergence of VHS and DVD players, spectators could only gaze; they could not possess the cinema 's "precious moments, images and, most particularly, its idols, '' and so, "in response to this problem, the film industry produced, from the very earliest moments of fandom, a panoply of still images that could supplement the movie itself, '' which were "designed to give the film fan the illusion of possession, making a bridge between the irretrievable spectacle and the individual 's imagination. '' These stills, larger reproductions of celluloid still - frames from the original reels of movies, became the basis for Mulvey 's assertion that even the linear experience of a cinematic viewing has always exhibited a modicum of stillness. Thus, until a fan could adequately control a film to fulfill his or her own viewing desires, Mulvey notes that "the desire to possess and hold the elusive image led to repeated viewing, a return to the cinema to watch the same film over and over again. '' However, with digital technology, spectators can now pause films at any given moment, replay their favorite scenes, and even skip the scenes they do not desire to watch. According to Mulvey, this power has led to the emergence of her "possessive spectator. '' Films, then, can now be "delayed and thus fragmented from linear narrative into favorite moments or scenes '' in which "the spectator finds a heightened relation to the human body, particularly that of the star. '' It is within the confines of this redefined relationship that Mulvey asserts that spectators can now engage in a sexual form of possession of the bodies they see on screen.
Mulvey believes that avant - garde film "poses certain questions which consciously confront traditional practice, often with a political motivation '' that work towards changing "modes of representation '' as well as "expectations in consumption. '' Mulvey has stated that feminists recognize modernist avant - garde "as relevant to their own struggle to develop a radical approach to art. ''
Mulvey incorporates the Freudian idea of phallocentrism into "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema ''. Using Freud 's thoughts, Mulvey insists on the idea that the images, characters, plots and stories, and dialogues in films are inadvertently built on the ideals of patriarchies, both within and beyond sexual contexts. She also incorporates the works of thinkers like Jacques Lacan and meditates on the works of directors Josef von Sternberg and Alfred Hitchcock.
Within her essay, Mulvey discusses several different types of spectatorship that occur while viewing a film. Viewing a film involves unconsciously or semi-consciously engaging the typical societal roles of men and women. The "three different looks, '' as they are referred to, explain just exactly how films are viewed in relation to phallocentrism. The first "look '' refers to the camera as it records the actual events of the film. The second "look '' describes the nearly voyeuristic act of the audience as one engages in watching the film itself. Lastly, the third "look '' refers to the characters that interact with one another throughout the film.
The main idea that seems to bring these actions together is that "looking '' is generally seen as an active male role while the passive role of being looked at is immediately adopted as a female characteristic. It is under the construction of patriarchy that Mulvey argues that women in film are tied to desire and that female characters hold an "appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact ''. The female actor is never meant to represent a character that directly effects the outcome of a plot or keep the story line going, but is inserted into the film as a way of supporting the male role and "bearing the burden of sexual objectification '' that he can not.
Mulvey was prominent as an avant - garde filmmaker in the 1970s and 1980s. With Peter Wollen, her husband, she co-wrote and co-directed Penthesilea: Queen of the Amazons (1974), Riddles of the Sphinx (1977 -- perhaps their most influential film), AMY! (1980), Crystal Gazing (1982), Frida Kahlo and Tina Modotti (1982), and The Bad Sister (1982).
Penthesilea: Queen of the Amazons was the first of Mulvey and Wollen 's films. In this film, Mulvey attempted to link her own feminist writings on the Amazon myth with the paintings of Allen Jones. These writings concerned themes such as male fantasy, symbolic language, women in relation to men and the patriarchal myth. Both filmmakers were interested in exploring ideology as well as the "structure of mythologizing, its position in mainstream culture and notions of modernism. '' The film ventured into the territory of experimental filmmaking, previously explored by filmmakers such as Jean - Luc Godard.
With Riddles of the Sphinx, Mulvey and Wollen connected "modernist forms '' with a narrative that explored feminism and psychoanalytical theory. This film was fundamental in presenting film as a space "in which the female experience could be expressed. ''
AMY! was a film tribute to Amy Johnson and explores the previous themes of Mulvey and Wollen 's past films. One of the main themes of the film is that women "struggling towards achievement in the public sphere '' must transition between the male and female worlds.
Crystal Gazing exemplified more spontaneous filmmaking than their past films. Many of the elements of the film were decided once production began. The film was well received but lacked a "feminist underpinning '' that had been the core of many of their past films.
The last films of Mulvey and Wollen as a team, Frida Kahlo and Tina Modotti and The Bad Sister revisited feminist issues previously explored by the filmmakers.
In 1991, Mulvey returned to filmmaking with Disgraced Monuments, which she co-directed with Mark Lewis. This film examines "the fate of revolutionary monuments in the Soviet Union after the fall of communism. ''
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where did sncc want to focus its voter registration drives in 1965 | Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee - wikipedia
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC, often pronounced / snɪk / SNIK) was one of the major Civil Rights Movement organizations of the 1960s. It emerged from the first wave of student sit - ins and formed at an April 1960 meeting organized by Ella Baker at Shaw University. After its involvement in the Voter Education Project, SNCC grew into a large organization with many supporters in the North who helped raise funds to support its work in the South, allowing full - time organizers to have a small salary. Many unpaid grassroots organizers and activists also worked with SNCC on projects in the Deep South, often becoming targets of racial violence and police brutality. SNCC played a seminal role in the freedom rides, the 1963 March on Washington, Mississippi Freedom Summer, the Selma campaigns, the March Against Fear and other historic events. SNCC 's major contribution was in its field work, organizing voter registration, freedom schools, and direct action all over the country, but especially in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi.
In the later 1960s, inspired by fiery leaders such as Stokely Carmichael, SNCC focused on black power, and draft resistance to the Vietnam War. As early as 1965, executive secretary James Forman said he "did not know how much longer we can stay nonviolent '' and in 1969, SNCC officially changed its name to the Student National Coordinating Committee to reflect the broadening of its strategy. It passed out of existence in the 1970s following heavy infiltration and suppression by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), spearheaded as part of COINTELPRO operations during the 1960s and 70s led by J. Edgar Hoover.
A final SNCC legacy is the destruction of the psychological shackles which had kept black southerners in physical and mental peonage; SNCC helped break those chains forever. It demonstrated that ordinary women and men, young and old, could perform extraordinary tasks.
Founded in 1960 and inspired by the Greensboro sit - ins and Nashville sit - ins, independent student - led groups began direct - action protests against segregation in dozens of southern communities. SNCC focused on mobilizing local communities, a policy in which African American communities would push for change, impelling the federal government to act once the injustice had become apparent. The most common action of these groups was organizing sit - ins at racially segregated lunch counters to protest the pervasiveness of Jim Crow and other forms of racism. While in the Civil Rights Cases (109 U.S. 3 (1883)), the Court ruled that the equal protection clause "did not cover private individuals, organizations, or establishments, '' the trials of arrested sit - in protesters created an opening for the Court to reevaluate its earlier ruling and expand the clause to cover acts of private discrimination. The sit - in movement was a turning point in using the courts and jail to exert moral and economic pressure on southern communities. In addition to sitting in at lunch counters, the groups also organized and carried out protests at segregated White public libraries, public parks, public swimming pools, and movie theaters. At that time, all those facilities financed by taxes were closed to blacks. The white response was often to close the facility, rather than integrate it.
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), as an organization, began with an $ 800.00 grant from the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) for a conference attended by 126 student delegates from 58 sit - in centers in 12 states, along with delegates from 19 northern colleges, the SCLC, Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR), National Student Association (NSA), and Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). Out of this conference the SNCC was formed.
Ella Baker, who organized the Shaw conference, was the SCLC director at the time she helped form SNCC. But SNCC was not a branch of SCLC. Instead of being closely tied to SCLC or the NAACP as a "youth division '', SNCC sought to stand on its own. Ms. Baker later lost her job with SCLC, which she had helped found.
Among important SNCC leaders attending the conference were Stokely Carmichael from Howard University; Charles F. McDew, who led student protests at South Carolina State University; J. Charles Jones, who organized 200 students to participate in sit - ins at department stores throughout Charlotte, North Carolina; Julian Bond from Atlanta, Diane Nash from Fisk University; James Lawson; and John Lewis, Bernard Lafayette, James Bevel, and Marion Barry from the Nashville Student Movement.
SNCC 's first chairman was Marion Barry, who later became the mayor of Washington DC. Barry served as chairman for one year. The second chairman was Charles F. McDew, who served as the chairman from 1961 to 1963, when he was succeeded by John Lewis. Stokely Carmichael and H. "Rap '' Brown were chairmen in the late 1960s. SNCC 's executive secretary, James Forman, played a major role in running the organization.
In the years that followed, SNCC members were referred to as "shock troops of the revolution. '' SNCC took on greater risks in 1961, after a mob of Ku Klux Klan members and other whites attacked integrated groups of bus passengers who defied local segregation laws as part of the Freedom Rides organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). Rather than allowing mob violence to stop them, New Orleans CORE and Nashville SNCC Freedom Riders, including Dave Dennis, Oretha Castle Haley, Jean C. Thompson, Rudy Lombard, Diane Nash, James Bevel, Marion Barry, Angeline Butler, and John Lewis, put themselves at great personal risk by traveling in racially integrated groups into Mississippi as they continued the Ride. Other bus riders followed, traveling through the deep South to test Southern compliance with Federal Law. At least 436 people took part in these Freedom Rides during the spring and summer of 1961.
Bob Moses played a central role in transforming SNCC from a coordinating committee of student protest groups to an organization of activists dedicated to building community - based political organizations of the rural poor. The voter registration project he initiated in McComb, Mississippi in 1961 became the seed for much of SNCC 's activities from 1962 to 1966.
After the Freedom Rides, SNCC worked primarily on voter registration, and with local protests over segregated public facilities. Registering Black voters was extremely difficult and dangerous. People of Color who attempted to register often lost their jobs and their homes, and sometimes their lives. SNCC workers lived with local families: often the homes providing such hospitality were firebombed.
The actions of SNCC, CORE, and SCLC forced the Kennedy Administration to briefly provide federal protection to temporarily abate mob violence. Local FBI offices were usually staffed by Southern whites (there were no Black FBI agents at that time) who refused to intervene to protect civil rights workers or local Blacks who were attempting to register to vote.
SNCC was unusual among civil rights groups in the way in which decisions were made. Instead of "top down '' control, as was the case with most organizations at that time, decisions in SNCC were made by consensus, called participatory democracy. Ms. Ella Baker was extremely influential in establishing that model, as was Rev. James Lawson. Group meetings would be convened in which every participant could speak for as long as they wanted and the meeting would continue until everyone who was left was in agreement with the decision. Because activities were often very dangerous and could lead to prison or death, SNCC wanted all participants to support each activity.
By 1965, SNCC fielded the largest staff of any civil rights organization in the South. It had organized nonviolent direct action against segregated facilities, as well as voter - registration projects, in Alabama, Arkansas, Maryland, Missouri, Louisiana, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Illinois, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Mississippi; built two independent political parties and organized labor unions and agricultural cooperatives; and given the movement for women 's liberation new energy. It inspired and trained the activists who began the "New Left. '' It helped expand the limits of political debate within Black America, and broadened the focus of the civil rights movement. Unlike mainstream civil rights groups, which merely sought integration of Blacks into the existing order, SNCC sought structural changes in American society itself.
SNCC played a significant role in the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. While many speakers applauded the Kennedy Administration for the efforts it had made toward obtaining new, more effective civil rights legislation protecting the right to vote and outlawing segregation, John Lewis took the administration to task for how little it had done to protect Southern blacks and civil rights workers under attack in the Deep South. Although he was forced to tone down his speech under pressure from the representatives of other civil rights organizations on the march organization committee, his words still stung. The version of the speech leaked to the press went as follows:
We march today for jobs and freedom, but we have nothing to be proud of, for hundreds and thousands of our brothers are not here -- for they have no money for their transportation, for they are receiving starvation wages... or no wages at all. In good conscience, we can not support the administration 's civil rights bill.
This bill will not protect young children and old women from police dogs and fire hoses when engaging in peaceful demonstrations. This bill will not protect the citizens of Danville, Virginia who must live in constant fear in a police state. This bill will not protect the hundreds of people who have been arrested on trumped - up charges like those in Americus, Georgia, where four young men are in jail, facing a death penalty, for engaging in peaceful protest.
However, under pressure from the representatives of other groups many changes were made to the speech as it was delivered that day. According to James Forman, the most important of these was the change of "we can not support '' the Kennedy Civil Rights Bill to "we support with reservations ''. Forman wrote of the following explanation of this:
Somewhere along the line, the church and labor people had been told that this was a march to support the administration 's Civil Rights Bill, which was passed in 1964, after Kennedy 's death. Who did this and how it happened, I do not know. But people all over the country thought they were marching for jobs and freedom when in actuality the sellout leadership of the March on Washington was playing patsy with the Kennedy administration as part of the whole liberal - labor politics of Rustin, Wilkins, Randolph, Reuther, King, the Catholic and Protestant hierarchy. If people had known they had come to Washington to aid the Kennedy administration, they would not have come in the numbers they did.
Forman 's and SNCC 's anger came in part from the failure of the federal government, FBI, and Justice Department to protect SNCC civil rights workers in the South at this time. Indeed, the federal government at that time was instrumental in indicting SNCC workers and other civil rights activists.
In 1961 SNCC began expanding its activities from direct - action protests against segregation into other forms of organizing, most notably voter registration. Under the leadership of Bob Moses, SNCC 's first voter - registration project was in McComb, Mississippi, an effort suppressed with arrests and savage white violence, resulting in the murder of local activist Herbert Lee.
With funding from the Voter Education Project, SNCC expanded its voter registration efforts into the Mississippi Delta around Greenwood, Southwest Georgia around Albany, and the Alabama Black Belt around Selma. All of these projects endured police harassment and arrests; KKK violence including shootings, bombings, and assassinations; and economic terrorism against those blacks who dared to try to register.
In 1962 Bob Moses worked to forge a coalition of national and regional organizations, including the NAACP and the National Council of Churches, that would fund and promote SNCC 's voter registration work in Mississippi. This coalition was known as the Council of Federated Organizations. In the fall of 1963, SNCC conducted the Freedom Ballot, a parallel election in which black Mississippians came out to show their willingness to vote -- a right they had been denied for decades, despite the provisions of the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, due to a combination of state laws and constitutional provisions, economic reprisals and violence by white authorities and private citizens.
SNCC followed up on the Freedom Ballot with the Mississippi Summer Project, also known as Freedom Summer, which focused on voter registration and Freedom Schools. The Summer Project brought hundreds of white Northern students to the South, where they volunteered as teachers and organizers. Their presence brought national press attention to SNCC 's work in the south. SNCC organized black Mississippians to register to vote, almost always without success. White authorities either rejected their applications on any pretexts available or, failing that, simply refused to accept their applications. Tensions grew gradually and SNCC refused to recruit white people because they thought that they brought attention of the media only on white people.
Mississippi Summer received national attention when three civil rights workers involved in the project - James Chaney, Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner - were murdered after having been released from police custody. Their bodies were eventually found after a reluctant J. Edgar Hoover directed the FBI to search for them. Johnson only sent the FBI after series of pressure and demonstrations. He favored at first to be the leader outside of his country with the Vietnam War whereas there were many conflicts inside of it. In the process, the FBI also found corpses of several other missing black Mississippians, whose disappearances had not attracted public attention outside the Delta.
SNCC also established Freedom Schools to teach children to read and to educate them to stand up for their rights. As in the struggle to desegregate public accommodations led by Martin Luther King Jr. and James Bevel in Birmingham, Alabama the year before, the bolder attitudes of the children helped shake their parents out of the fear that had paralyzed many of them.
The goal of the Mississippi Summer Project was to organize the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP), an integrated party, to win seats at the 1964 Democratic National Convention for a slate of delegates elected by disfranchised black Mississippians and white sympathizers. The MFDP was, however, tremendously inconvenient for the Johnson Administration. It had wanted to minimize the inroads that Barry Goldwater 's campaign was making into what had previously been the Democratic stronghold of the "Solid South '' and the support that George Wallace received during the Democratic primaries in the North.
When the MFDP started to organize a fight over credentials, Johnson originally would not budge. When Fannie Lou Hamer, the leader of the MFDP, was in the midst of testifying about the police beatings of her and others for attempting to exercise their right to vote, Johnson preempted television coverage of the credentials fight. Even so, her testimony created enough uproar that Johnson offered the MFDP a "compromise '': they would receive two non-voting seats, while the delegation sent by the official Democratic Party would take its seats.
Johnson used all of his resources, mobilizing Walter Reuther, one of his key supporters within the liberal wing of the Democratic Party, and his Vice-Presidential nominee Hubert Humphrey, to pressure King and other mainstream civil rights leaders to bring the MFDP around, while directing Hoover to put the delegation under surveillance. The MFDP rejected both the compromise and the pressure to accept it, and walked out.
That experience destroyed what little faith SNCC activists had in the federal government, even though Johnson had obtained a broad Civil Rights Act barring discrimination in public accommodations, employment and private education in 1964 and would go on to obtain an equally broad Voting Rights Act in 1965. It also estranged SNCC leaders from many of the mainstream leaders of the civil rights movement.
Those differences carried over into the voting rights struggle that centered on Selma, Alabama in 1965. SNCC had begun organizing black citizens to register to vote in Selma in 1963, but made little headway against the adamant resistance of Sheriff Jim Clark and the White Citizens ' Council. In early 1965, local Selma activists asked the Southern Christian Leadership Conference for help, and the two organizations formed an uneasy alliance. They disagreed over tactical and strategic issues, including the SCLC 's decision not to attempt to cross the Edmund Pettus Bridge a second time after county sheriffs and state troopers attacked them on "Bloody Sunday '' on March 7, 1965.
The civil rights activists crossed the bridge on the third attempt, with the aid of a federal court order barring authorities from interfering with the march. It was part of a five - day march to Montgomery, Alabama, that helped dramatize the need for a Voting Rights Act. During this period, SNCC activists became more and more disenchanted with nonviolence, integration as a strategic goal, and cooperation with white liberals or the Federal government.
SNCC 's experience with the COFO and Mississippi Freedom Summer solidified their estrangement from white liberals. During several points in the Mississippi project, a team of Democratic Party operatives led by Allard Lowenstein and Barney Frank tried to take over its management. They sought to move decision - making power away from grassroots activists in the South, and purge Communist - linked organizations (such as the National Lawyers Guild) from SNCC 's network, in spite of those organizations having made crucial contributions to the movement. Dorothy Zellner (a white radical SNCC staffer) remarked that, "What they (Lowenstein and Frank) want is to let the Negro into the existing society, not to change it. ''
SNCC was also deeply affected by the killing of Sammy Younge Jr. the first black college student to be killed as a result of his involvement in the civil rights movement. Younge was a Navy veteran who later enrolled in the Tuskegee Institute and participated in the Selma - to - Montgomery campaign, as well as other SNCC projects. His murder by a white supremacist in January 1966, and subsequent acquittal of the killer, furthered the group 's disillusionment that the federal government would protect them. SNCC took Younge 's death as the occasion to denounce the war in Vietnam, the first statement of its kind by a major civil rights organization. SNCC highlighted Younge 's death as an example of the hypocrisy of fighting for freedom abroad while rights were denied in the US and was used as a call for people to refuse the draft and work for freedom at home instead.
Many within SNCC had grown skeptical about the tactics of nonviolence and integration. After the Democratic convention of 1964, the group began to split into two factions -- one favoring a continuation of nonviolent, integration - oriented redress of grievances within the existing political system, and the other moving towards Black Power and Marxism.
The first SNCC project to promote the slogan "black power '' was the Lowndes County Freedom Organization (LCFO) an African - American electoral organization which registered over 2,500 black voters between 1965 and 1969. This was a historic achievement given that Lowndes was the most Klan - dominated area in Alabama and that, as a result, Lowndes had zero registered black voters. Although the Voting Rights Act had been passed, federal monitoring was sporadic and federal protection of black voters inconsistent. White supremacists regularly killed blacks, and sometimes their allies like white SNCC volunteer Jonathan Daniels, with impunity. As such, most LCFO members did their organizing openly armed. They had no confidence in appealing to the support of middle - class liberals (even Martin Luther King and SCLC distanced themselves from the group) or the national Democratic Party. LCFO co-founder John Hulett (later elected Sheriff of Lowndes County) warned that this was the state of Alabama 's last chance to peacefully grant African Americans their rights: "We 're out to take power legally, but if we 're stopped by the government from doing it legally, we 're going to take it the way everyone else took it, including the way the Americans took it in the American Revolution. '' Certain the federal government was not going to protect him and his fellow party members, Hulett told a federal registrar, "if one of our candidates gets touched, we 're going to take care of the murderer ourselves. '' Choosing a black panther as their mascot, LCFO was the first of numerous local organizations to be known as "the black panther party ''. (LCFO had no direct relationship with the later Black Panther Party for Self - Defense founded by Huey Newton, however.)
While the LCFO candidates did not win their early campaigns, most historians and activists regard the group 's mere survival under such hostile conditions to be a victory. In 1970 LCFO reconciled with the local Democratic Party, and various candidates, including John Hulett, went on to be Lowndes County officials.
After the Watts riots in Los Angeles in 1965, more of SNCC 's members sought to break their ties with the mainstream civil rights movement and the liberal organizations that supported it. They argued instead that blacks needed to build power of their own, rather than seeking accommodations from the power structure in place. SNCC migrated from a philosophy of nonviolence to one of greater militancy after the mid-1960s, as an advocate of the burgeoning black power movement, a facet of late 20th - century black nationalism. The shift was personified by Stokely Carmichael, who replaced John Lewis as SNCC chairman in 1966 -- 67.
Carmichael raised the banner of Black Power nationally in a speech in Greenwood, Mississippi in June 1966, as part of SNCC 's response to the attempted assassination of James Meredith. After a contentious debate over the meaning of "Black Power '', issues of black nationalism and black separatism, and the organization 's strategic direction, white SNCC members were asked to leave the organization in December 1966. The vote, characterized by some as "expelling '' whites and by others as "asking whites to work against racism in white communities, '' was extremely close; 19 Aye, 18 Nay, and 24 abstentions.
SNCC continued to maintain coalition with several white radical organizations, most notably Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), and inspired them to focus on militant anti-draft resistance. At an SDS - organized conference at UC Berkeley in October 1966, Carmichael challenged the white left to escalate their resistance to the military draft in a manner similar to the black movement. Some participants in ghetto rebellions of the era had already associated their actions with opposition to the Vietnam War, and SNCC had first disrupted an Atlanta draft board in August 1966. According to historians Joshua Bloom and Waldo Martin, SDS 's first Stop the Draft Week of October 1967 was "inspired by Black Power (and) emboldened by the ghetto rebellions. '' SNCC appear to have originated the popular anti-draft slogan: "Hell no! We wo n't go! '' For a time in 1967, SNCC seriously considered an alliance with Saul Alinsky 's Industrial Areas Foundation, and generally supported IAF 's work in Rochester and Buffalo 's black communities.
Expressing SNCC 's evolving policy on nonviolence / violence, Carmichael first argued that blacks should be free to use violence in self - defense; later he advocated revolutionary violence to overthrow oppression. Carmichael rejected the civil - rights legislation as mere palliatives. The Department of Defense stated in 1967: "SNCC can no longer be considered a civil rights group. It has become a racist organization with black supremacy ideals and an expressed hatred for whites. '' (Martin Luther King 's Southern Christian Leadership Conference was classified as a "hate - type '' group by the federal government during the same period).
SNCC became a target of the Counterintelligence Program (COINTELPRO) of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in a concerted effort at all levels of government to crush black radicalism -- both violent and nonviolent -- through both overt and covert means.
Charles E. Cobb, formerly SNCC field secretary in Mississippi, has said that SNCC 's grassroots and autonomous community work was undercut and co-opted by Lyndon Johnson 's War on Poverty: "After we got the Civil Rights Act in 1964 and the Voting Rights Act in 1965, a lot of groups that we had cultivated were absorbed into the Democratic Party... a lot more money came into the states we were working in. A lot of the people we were working with became a part of Head Start and various kinds of poverty programs. We were too young to really know how to respond effectively. How could we tell poor sharecroppers or maids making a few dollars a day to walk away from poverty program salaries or stipends? ''
By early 1967, SNCC was approaching bankruptcy as liberal funders refused to support its overt militancy. Carmichael voluntarily stepped down as chair in May 1967. H. Rap Brown, later known as Jamil Abdullah Al - Amin, replaced him as the head of SNCC. Brown renamed the group the Student National Coordinating Committee and supported violence, which he described as "as American as cherry pie ''. He resigned as chair of SNCC in 1968, after being indicted for inciting to riot in Cambridge, Maryland, in 1967. In 1968, Carmichael was expelled from the group completely by the new program secretary, Phil Hutchings, when Carmichael refused to resign from the Black Panther Party. Carmichael, along with Rap Brown and James Forman, had tried to foster an alliance between SNCC and the Panthers, but it proved to be a failure.
By then, SNCC was no longer an effective organization. Much analysis at the time blamed Carmichael 's departure from the group for the decline, though others would dispute this. In 1968, SNCC lost numerous organizers, such as Kathleen Neal, Bob Brown, and Bobby Rush, to the Black Panther Party. Ella Baker said that "SNCC came North at a time when the North was in a ferment that led to various interpretations on what was needed to be done. With its own frustrations, it could not take the pace - setter role it took in the South... ''
The organization largely disappeared in the early 1970s, although chapters in some communities, such as San Antonio, Texas, continued for several more years. Mario Marcel Salas, field secretary of the SNCC chapter in San Antonio, operated until 1976. The San Antonio SNCC chapter was part Black Panther Party and part SNCC. Dr. Charles Jones of Albany State University termed it a "hybrid organization '' because it had Panther - style survival programs. Salas also worked closely with La Raza Unida Party, running for political office and organizing demonstrations to expose discrimination against Blacks and Latinos. Salas later helped the New Jewel Movement in the otherthrow of Eric Gairy in 1979, the leader of the island of Grenada. He also became the chairman of the Free Nelson Mandela Movement in San Antonio, Texas.
Charles McDew, SNCC 's second chairman, said that the organization was not designed to last beyond its mission of winning civil rights for blacks, and that at the founding meetings most participants expected it to last no more than five years:
By the time of its conclusion, many of the controversial ideas that once had defined SNCC 's radicalism had become widely accepted among African Americans.
Most of SNCC 's early activity took place in Georgia and Mississippi. In the early 1960s, they mainly focused on voter registration projects in the South, and multiple chapters were established throughout the region. The Freedom Rides, in which interracial groups rode buses together and challenged segregated seating arrangements, brought them media attention and helped raise awareness in the North. In 1963, they played an important role in the March on Washington.
The 1964 voter registration project called "Freedom Summer '' focused on Mississippi and marked the beginning of SNCC 's rejection of Northern white volunteers. Under Stokely Carmichael 's leadership, SNCC shifted its focus to the North, where it focused on alleviating poverty in Northern urban areas. As SNCC became more radical in 1966 and 1967, Carmichael established ties with several foreign governments. SNCC was eventually overshadowed by the Black Panther Party, who had a broader national reach.
SNCC activist Bernice Johnson Reagon described the Civil Rights Movement as the "' borning struggle ' of the decade, in that it stimulated and informed those that followed it, '' including the modern feminist movement. The influence of the Civil Rights movement inspired mass protests and awareness campaigns as the main methods to obtain sexual equality.
Many black women held prominent positions in the movement as a result of their participation in SNCC. Some of these women include Ruby Doris Smith Robinson, Donna Richards, Fay Bellamy, Gwen Patton, Cynthia Washington, Jean Wiley, Muriel Tillinghast, Fannie Lou Hamer, Annie Pearl Avery, Diane Nash, Ella Baker, Victoria Gray, Unita Blackwell, Bettie Mae Fikes, Joyce Ladner, Dorie Ladner, Gloria Richardson, Bernice Reagon, Prathia Hall, Gwendolyn Delores Robinson / Zoharah Simmons, Judy Richardson, Martha Prescod Norman Noonan, Ruby Sales, Endesha Ida Mae Holland, Eleanor Holmes Norton and Anne Moody.
"Women who were active in the lunch counter sit - in movement of 1960 led the transformation of SNCC from a coordinating office into a cadre of militant activists dedicated to expanding the civil rights movement throughout the South. In February 1961, Diane Nash and Ruby Doris Smith were among four SNCC members who joined the Rock Hill, South Carolina, desegregation protests, which featured the jail - no - bail tactic - demonstrators serving their jail sentences rather than accepting bail. '' "In May 1961, Nash led a group of student activists to Alabama in order to sustain the Freedom Rides after the initial group of protesters organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) encountered mob violence in Birmingham. During May and June, Nash, Smith, and other student freedom riders traveled on buses from Montgomery to Jackson, Mississippi, where they were swiftly arrested and imprisoned. In August, when veterans of the sit - ins and the Freedom Rides met to discuss SNCC 's future, Baker helped to avoid a damaging split by suggesting separate direct - action and voter - registration wings. Nash became the leader of the direct - action wing of SNCC. ''
Young black girls also played a significant part in the SNCC demonstrations. In July 1963, dozens of young black girls participated in a SNCC protest of a segregated movie theater in Americus Georgia. Over 30 of them were arrested and eventually held against their will in the Leesburg Stockade. They were freed over a month later due to the help of a SNCC volunteer who photographed the girls and published the pictures in a SNCC newsletter. However, despite the multiple humans rights violations that they enduring in the stockade, many girls continued to fight for civil rights after they were freed.
Anne Moody published her autobiography, Coming of Age in Mississippi, in 1970, detailing her decision to participate in SNCC and later CORE, and her experience as a woman in the movement. She described the widespread trend of black women to become involved with SNCC at their educational institutions. As young college students or teachers, these black women were often heavily involved in grassroots campaign by teaching Freedom Schools and promoting voter registration.
Young white women also became very involved with SNCC, particularly after the Freedom Summer of 1964. Many northern white women were inspired by the ideology of racial equality. The book Deep in Our Hearts details the experiences of nine white women in SNCC. Some white women, such as Mary King, Constance W. Curry, and Casey Hayden, and Latino women such as Mary Varela and Elizabeth Sutherland Martinez, were able to obtain status and leadership within SNCC.
Through organizations like SNCC, women of both races were becoming more politically active than at any time in American history since the Women 's suffrage movement. A group of women in SNCC, later identified as Mary King and Casey Hayden, openly challenged the way women were treated when they issued the "SNCC Position Paper (Women in the Movement), or adapted an earlier paper submitted at Waveland Meeting by Elaine DeLott Baker. '' The paper was published anonymously, helping King and Hayden to avoid unwanted attention. The paper listed 11 events in which women were treated as subordinate to men. According to the paper, women in SNCC did not have a chance to become the face of the organization, the top leaders, because they were assigned to clerical and housekeeping duties, whereas men were involved in decision - making. The degree and significance of male - domination and women 's subordination was hotly debated within SNCC; many of SNCC 's black women disputed the premise that women were denied leadership roles. Ruby Doris Smith was often falsely attributed as author of paper, yet Smith was looking towards black nationalism at this time rather than interracial feminism. The following year, King and Hayden produced another document entitled "Sex and Caste: A Kind of Memo ''. The document was published in 1966 by Liberation, the magazine of the War Resisters League. "Sex and Caste '' has since been credited as one of the generative documents that launched second - wave feminism.
When Stokely Carmichael was elected Chair of SNCC, he reoriented the path of the organization towards Black Power. He famously said in a speech, "it is a call for black people to define their own goals, to lead their own organizations. '' Thus, white women lost their influence and power in SNCC; Mary King and Casey Hayden left to become active in pursuing equality for women.
While it is often argued that the Black Power period led to a downgrading of women generally in the organization, historian Barbara Ransby notes that there is no real evidence of this. Carmichael appointed several women to posts as project directors during his tenure as chairman; by the latter half of the 1960s, more women were in charge of SNCC projects than during the first half. Former SNCC member Kathleen Cleaver played a key role in the central committee of the Black Panther Party as communications secretary (1968). Her position in this "male dominated '' leadership was both effective and influential to Brown, Red and Yellow Power groups of the late 1960s and early 1970s.
In 1968, the Third World Women 's Alliance (TWWA) was originated in New York by Frances M. Beal as a caucus of SNCC, addressing the issue of sexism within the movement. By 1970 it had become independent from SNCC, but maintained close ties with it. TWWA came to focus less on specifically black power and more on Puerto Rican and Cuban liberation. It continued to operate until 1978, with chapters in several major cities.
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name of the nobel prize winner in india | List of Indian Nobel laureates - wikipedia
The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed on "those who conferred the greatest benefit on mankind '' in the fields of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, Peace and Economics. Instituted by Alfred Nobel 's last will, which specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes, now known as the Nobel Prizes. They are widely recognized as one of the most prestigious honors awarded in the aforementioned fields.
A total of 835 individuals (791 men and 44 women) and 21 organizations were awarded the Nobel Prize, some more than once. Among the total recipients, 12 are Indians (5 Indian citizens and 7 of Indian origin or residency). Rabindranath Tagore was the first Indian citizen to be awarded and Mother Teresa is the only woman in the list. Notably, Sri Aurobindo was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1943 and for the Nobel Prize in Peace in 1950.
On 1 December 1999, the Norwegian Nobel Committee confirmed that Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was nominated for the Peace Prize thrice (in 1937 -- 39, 1947 and a few days before he was assassinated in January 1948). In 2006, Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee said, "The greatest omission in our 106 year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize. Whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question ''.
The following are the Nobel laureates who were Indian citizens at the time they were awarded the Nobel Prize.
The following are Nobel laureates born in British India or who are of Indian origin but subsequently non-citizens of India; however, they are still often included in lists of Indian Nobel laureates.
The following are Nobel laureates with Indian linkages -- those foreigners who were born in India, those who are of Indian ancestry and those who were residents in India when they became recipients of the Nobel Prize.
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under the constitution who has all power to carry out the laws passed by congress | Necessary and Proper clause - wikipedia
The Necessary and Proper Clause, also known as the elastic clause, is a clause in Article I, Section 8 of the United States Constitution that is as follows:
The Congress shall have Power... To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.
According to the Articles of Confederation, "each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated '' (emphasis added). Thus, the Continental Congress had no powers incidental to those which were "expressly delegated '' by the Articles of Confederation. By contrast, the Necessary and Proper Clause expressly confers incidental powers upon Congress, while no other clauses in the Constitution do so by themselves.
The draft Necessary and Proper Clause provoked controversy during discussions of the proposed constitution, and its inclusion became a focal point of criticism for those opposed to the Constitution 's ratification. While Anti-Federalists expressed concern that the clause would grant the federal government boundless power, Federalists argued that the clause would only permit execution of power already granted by the Constitution. Alexander Hamilton spoke vigorously for this second interpretation in Federalist No. 33. At this time James Madison concurred with Hamilton, arguing in Federalist No. 44 that without this clause, the constitution would be a "dead letter ''. At the Virginia Ratifying Convention, Patrick Henry took the opposing view, saying that the clause would lead to limitless federal power that would inevitably menace individual liberty.
For several decades after the Constitution was ratified, the interpretation of the Necessary and Proper Clause continued to be a powerful bone of contention between the Democratic - Republican Party and the Federalist Party, and several other political parties in the United States. The first practical example of this contention came in 1791, when Hamilton used the clause to defend the constitutionality of the creation of the First Bank of the United States, the first federal bank in the new nation 's history. Concerned that monied Northern aristocrats would take advantage of the bank to exploit the South, Madison argued that Congress lacked the constitutional authority to charter a bank. Hamilton countered that the bank was a reasonable means of carrying out powers related to taxation and the borrowing of funds, claiming the clause applied to activities reasonably related to constitutional powers, not just those that were absolutely necessary to carry out said powers. To embarrass Madison, his contrary claims from The Federalist Papers were read aloud in Congress:
No axiom is more clearly established in law or in reason than wherever the end is required, the means are authorized; wherever a general power to do a thing is given, every particular power for doing it is included.
Eventually, Southern opposition to the bank and to Hamilton 's plan to have the federal government assume the war debts of the states was mollified by the transfer of the nation 's capital from its temporary seat in Philadelphia to a more southerly permanent seat on the Potomac, and the bill, along with the establishment of a national mint, was passed by Congress and signed by President Washington.
This clause, as justification for the creation of a national bank, was put to the test in 1819 in the case of McCulloch v. Maryland, wherein the state of Maryland had attempted to impede the operations of the Second Bank of the United States by imposing a tax on out - of - state banks, of which the Second Bank of the United States was the only one. The court ruled against Maryland, and Chief Justice John Marshall, Hamilton 's longtime Federalist ally, wrote the opinion, which stated that while the Constitution did not explicitly give permission to create a federal bank, it conferred upon Congress an implied power to do so under the Necessary and Proper Clause so that Congress could realize or fulfill its express taxing and spending powers. The case reaffirmed Hamilton 's view that legislation reasonably related to express powers was constitutional. Marshall wrote:
We admit, as all must admit, that the powers of the Government are limited, and that its limits are not to be transcended. But we think the sound construction of the Constitution must allow to the national legislature that discretion with respect to the means by which the powers it confers are to be carried into execution which will enable that body to perform the high duties assigned to it in the manner most beneficial to the people. Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consistent with the letter and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional.
The court in McCulloch v. Maryland held that federal laws could be necessary without being "absolutely necessary '', and noted that "The clause is placed among the powers of Congress, not among the limitations on those powers. '' At the same time, the court retained the power of judicial review established in Marbury v. Madison, declaring that it had the power to strike down laws that departed from those powers: "Should Congress, in the execution of its powers, adopt measures which are prohibited by the Constitution, or should Congress, under the pretext of executing its powers, pass laws for the accomplishment of objects not intrusted to the Government, it would become the painful duty of this tribunal, should a case requiring such a decision come before it, to say that such an act was not the law of the land. ''
As Chief Justice Marshall put it, the Necessary and Proper Clause "purport (s) to enlarge, not to diminish the powers vested in the government. It purports to be an additional power, not a restriction on those already granted. '' Without this clause in the Constitution, there would have been a dispute about whether the express powers imply incidental powers, whereas this clause resolved that dispute by making the incidental powers to be expressed instead of implied.
In a related case following the Civil War, the clause was employed (in combination with other enumerated powers) to give the federal government virtually complete control over currency.
The clause has been paired with the Commerce Clause to provide the constitutional basis for a wide variety of federal laws. For instance, various reforms involved in the New Deal were found to be necessary and proper enactments of the objective of regulating interstate commerce.
Indeed, the influence of the Necessary and Proper Clause and its broader interpretation under McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) in American jurisprudence can be seen in cases generally thought to simply involve the Commerce Clause.
In Wickard v. Filburn (1942), the Supreme Court upheld a federal statute making it a crime for a farmer to produce more wheat than was allowed under price controls and production controls, even if the excess production was for the farmer 's own personal consumption. The Necessary and Proper Clause was used to justify the regulation of production and consumption.
Also, in addition to this combination of clauses being used to uphold federal laws affecting economic activity, they also were used to justify federal criminal laws. For example, Congress in the Federal Kidnapping Act (1932) made it a federal crime to transport a kidnapped person across state lines, because the transportation would be an act of interstate activity over which the Congress has power. It has also provided justification for a wide range of criminal laws relating to interference with the federal government 's rightful operation, including federal laws against assaulting or murdering federal employees.
In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (2012), the Supreme Court ruled that the individual mandate of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act can not be upheld under the Necessary and Proper Clause. Chief Justice John Roberts wrote in his ruling that the mandate can not "be sustained under the Necessary and Proper Clause as an integral part of the Affordable Care Act 's other reforms. Each of this Court 's prior cases upholding laws under that Clause involved exercises of authority derivative of, and in service to, a granted power. (...) The individual mandate, by contrast, vests Congress with the extraordinary ability to create the necessary predicate to the exercise of an enumerated power and draw within its regulatory scope those who would otherwise be outside of it. Even if the individual mandate is "necessary '' to the Affordable Care Act 's other reforms, such an expansion of federal power is not a "proper '' means for making those reforms effective. ''
According to its proponents, this ruling in NFIB v. Sebelius returns the Necessary and Proper clause to its original interpretation outlined by John Marshall in McCulloch v. Maryland. According to David Kopel, the clause "simply restates the background principle that Congress can exercise powers which are merely ' incidental ' to Congress 's enumerated powers. ''
The specific term "Necessary and Proper Clause '' was coined in 1926 by Associate Justice Louis Brandeis, writing for the majority in the Supreme Court decision in Lambert v. Yellowley, 272 U.S. 581 (1926), where in the court upheld a law restricting medicinal use of alcohol as a necessary and proper exercise of power under the 18th Amendment establishing Prohibition in the United States.
This phrase has become the label of choice for this constitutional clause, and it was universally adopted by the courts, and it received Congress 's imprimatur in Title 50 of the United States Code, section 1541 (b) (1994), in the purpose and policy of the War Powers Resolution.
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what is an english word that has been borrowed from spanish | List of English words of Spanish origin - wikipedia
It is a list of English language words whose origin can be traced to the Spanish language as "Spanish loan words ''. Words typical of "Mock Spanish '' used in the United States are listed separately.
Yuca - Taino
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when did the apple iphone 6 come out | IPhone 6 - wikipedia
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September 19, 2014; 3 years ago (2014 - 09 - 19) (16, 64 and 128 GB models)
The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus are smartphones designed and marketed by Apple Inc. The devices are part of the iPhone series and were announced on September 9, 2014, and released on September 19, 2014. The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus jointly serve as successors to the iPhone 5S and were themselves replaced as flagship devices of the iPhone series by the iPhone 6S and iPhone 6S Plus on September 9, 2015.
The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus include larger 4.7 and 5.5 inches (120 and 140 mm) displays, a faster processor, upgraded cameras, improved LTE and Wi - Fi connectivity and support for a near field communications - based mobile payments offering.
The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus received positive reviews, with critics regarding their improved design, specifications, camera, and battery life as being improvements over previous iPhone models. However, aspects of the design of iPhone 6 were also panned, including plastic strips on the rear of the device for its antenna that disrupted the otherwise metal exterior, and the screen resolution of the standard - sized iPhone 6 being lower than other devices in its class. Pre-orders of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus exceeded four million within its first 24 hours of availability -- an Apple record. More than ten million iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus devices were sold in the first three days, another Apple record.. During its lifespan, the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus sold 220 million in total, making it one of the most successful phones to date.
Despite their positive reception, the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus have been the subject of several hardware issues, including most prominently, being susceptible to bending under pressure (a design flaw nicknamed "Bendgate ''), and as a byproduct of this lack of rigidity, the touchscreen 's internal hardware being susceptible to losing its connection to the phone 's logic board (nicknamed "Touch Disease ''). The iPhone 6 Plus was also the subject of camera issues, including some devices with malfunctioning optical image stabilization or otherwise defects on rear cameras.
The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus were moved to the midrange spot in Apple 's iPhone lineup when the iPhone 6S and 6S Plus were released in September 2015. The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were discontinued in most countries on September 7, 2016 when Apple announced the iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus. Their spot as the entry - level iPhone was replaced by the iPhone SE, which was released earlier on March 31, 2016. The iPhone 6 was relaunched with 32 GB of storage in Asian markets in February 2017 as a midrange / budget iPhone. It was later expanded to Europe, before hitting the US markets in May 2017, and Canada in July 2017.
From the launch of the original iPhone to the iPhone 4S, iPhones used 3.5 - inch displays -- which are smaller than screens used by flagship phones from competitors. The iPhone 5 and its immediate successors featured a display that was taller, but the same width as prior models, measuring at 4 inches diagonally. Following Apple 's loss in smartphone market share to companies producing phones with larger displays, reports as early as January 2014 suggested that Apple was preparing to launch new iPhone models with larger, 4.7 - inch and 5.5 - inch displays. Reports prior to its unveiling also speculated that Apple might use a new iPhone model to introduce a mobile payments platform using near - field communications -- a technology that has been incorporated into many Android phones, but has experienced a low adoption rate among users.
The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus were officially unveiled during a press event at the Flint Center for Performing Arts in Cupertino, California on September 9, 2014 and released on September 19, 2014; pre-orders began on September 12, 2014, with the iPhone 6 starting at US $649 and the iPhone 6 Plus starting at US $749. In China, where the iPhone 5c and 5s were the first models in the iPhone series to be released in the country on the same day as their international launch, Apple notified local wireless carriers that it would be unable to release the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus on the 19th because there were "details which are not ready ''; local media reported that the devices had not yet been approved by the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and earlier in the year, a news report by state broadcaster China Central Television alleged that iPhone devices were a threat to national security because iOS 7 's "frequent locations '' function could expose "state secrets. ''
In August 2015, Apple admitted that some iPhone 6 Plus may have faulty cameras that could be causing photos to look blurry and initiated a replacement program.
On September 9, 2015, with the release of the iPhone 6S and iPhone 6S Plus, the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were moved to the mid-range of the iPhone lineup. The 128GB versions of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus was discontinued along with the gold version of both phones, but the 16GB and 64GB versions of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus in silver and space gray remain available for sale at a reduced price.
In June 2016, Apple faced a potential sales ban in China, as Shenzhen Baili, a Chinese device maker, alleged that the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus infringed on its design patent.
The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were discontinued on September 7, 2016, when Apple announced the iPhone 7 and iPhone 7 Plus, and the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus 's spot as the entry - level iPhone has since been taken by the iPhone SE. As the iPhone SE has more powerful internal hardware than the midrange iPhone 6 (largely the same as the 6S) and had been released earlier on March 31, 2016, this created an unusual situation when it was sold alongside the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus until September 7 despite being marketed as a lower - tier iPhone.
In February 2017, the iPhone 6 was quietly relaunched in carrier stores and online, this time the storage has been changed to 32GB. In India it was sold on Amazon 's website in Space Grey. In Taiwan, it was sold through Taiwan Mobile on March 10 in gold colour. In mid-March, it was released in the EU to Belarus via the i - Store web shop. It also makes an appearance in North America with Sprint based US prepaid carriers Boost Mobile and Virgin Mobile, along with AT&T GoPhone. These are not being distributed by Apple on their website or their retail stores.
The design of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus is influenced by that of the iPad Air with a glass front that is curved around the edges of the display, and an aluminum rear that contains two plastic strips for the antenna. Both models come in gold, silver, and "space gray '' finishes. The iPhone 6 has a thickness of 6.9 millimetres (0.27 in), while the iPhone 6 Plus is 7.1 mm (0.28 in) in thickness; both are thinner than the iPhone 5c and iPhone 5s, with the iPhone 6 being Apple 's thinnest phone to date. The most significant changes to the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus are its displays; both branded as "Retina HD Display '' and "ion - strengthened '', the iPhone 6 display is 4.7 inches in size with a 16: 9 resolution of 1334x750 (326 ppi, minus one row of pixels), while the iPhone 6 Plus includes a 5.5 - inch 1920x1080 (1080p) display (401 PPI). The displays use a multiple - domain LCD panel, dubbed "dual - domain pixels ''; the RGB pixels themselves are skewed in pattern, so that every pixel is seen from a different angle. This technique helps improve the viewing angles of the display.
To accommodate the larger physical size of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus, the power button was moved to the side of the phone instead of the top to improve its accessibility. The iPhone 6 features a 6.91 Wh (1810 mAh) battery, while the iPhone 6 Plus features an 11.1 Wh (2915 mAh) battery. Unlike the previous model, the rear - facing camera is not flush with the rear of the device, and has a slight "bulge '' around the lens.
Both models include an Apple A8 system - on - chip, and an M8 motion co-processor -- an update of the M7 chip from the iPhone 5s. The primary difference between the M8 and the original M7 coprocessor is that the M8 also includes a barometer to measure altitude changes. Phil Schiller touted that the A8 chip would provide, in comparison to the 5s, a 25 % increase in CPU performance, a 50 % increase in graphics performance, and less heat output. Early hands - on reports suggested that the A8 's GPU performance might indeed break away from previous generations doubling of performance at each yearly release, scoring 21204.26 in Base mark X compared to 20253.80, 10973.36 and 5034.75 on respectively the 5s, 5 and 4s.
The expanded LTE connectivity on the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus is improved to LTE Advanced, with support for over 20 LTE bands (7 more than the iPhone 5s), for up to 150 Mbit / s download speed, and VoLTE support. Wi - Fi performance has been improved with support for 802.11 ac specifications, providing speeds up to 433.0581 Mbit / s -- which is up to 3 times faster than 802.11 n, along with Wi - Fi Calling support where available. The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus add support for near - field communications (NFC). It is initially used exclusively for Apple Pay -- a new mobile payments system which allows users to store their credit cards in Passbook for use with online payments and retail purchases over NFC. iOS 11 will provide support for uses of near - field communications besides Apple Pay.
The iPhone 6 's rear - facing camera now has the ability to shoot 1080p video at either 30 or 60 frames per second and slow - motion video at either 120 or 240 frames per second. The camera also includes phase detection autofocus. It can also record. The iPhone 6 Plus camera is nearly identical, but also includes optical image stabilization. The front - facing camera was also updated with a new sensor and f / 2.2 aperture, along with support for burst and HDR modes.
When first released, the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus were supplied pre-loaded with iOS 8, while the iPhone 5S was supplied pre-loaded with iOS 7. Apps are able to take advantage of the increased screen size in the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus to display more information on - screen; for example, the Mail app uses a dual - pane layout similar to its iPad version when the device is in landscape mode on the iPhone 6 Plus. As it uses an identical aspect ratio, apps designed for the iPhone 5, iPhone 5C, and 5S can be upscaled for use on the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus. To improve the usability of the devices ' larger screens, an additional "Reachability '' gesture was added; double - tapping the Home button will slide the top half of the screen 's contents down to the bottom half of the screen. This function allows users to reach buttons located near the top of the screen, such as a "Back '' button in the top - left corner.
Both iPhone 6 models received generally positive reviews. Re / code called it "the best smartphone you can buy ''. TechRadar praised the iPhone 6 's "brilliant '' design, improved battery life over the 5s, iOS 8 for being "smarter and more intuitive than ever '', along with the quality of its camera. However, the plastic antenna strips on the rear of the phone were criticized for resulting in poor aesthetics, the display for having lower resolution and pixel density in comparison to other recent smartphones -- including those with the same physical screen size as the iPhone 6, such as the HTC One, and for not having a sufficient justification for its significantly higher price in comparison to similar devices running Android or Windows Phone. The Verge considered the iPhone 6 to be "simply and cleanly designed '' in comparison to the 5s, noting that the phone still felt usable despite its larger size, but criticized the antenna plastic, the protruding camera lens (which prevents the device from sitting flat without a case), and the lack of additional optimization in the operating system for the bigger screen. Improvements such as performance, battery life, VoLTE support, and other tweaks were also noted. In conclusion, the iPhone 6 was considered "good, even great, but there 's little about it that 's truly ambitious or truly moving the needle. It 's just a refinement of a lot of existing ideas into a much more pleasant package ''.
In regards to the 6 Plus, Engadget panned its design for being uncomfortable to hold and harder to grip in comparison to other devices such as the Galaxy Note 3 and LG G3, but praised its inclusion of optical image stabilization and slightly better battery life than the 6.
The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were affected by a number of notable hardware - related issues, including but not limited to concerns surrounding their rigidity (which led to incidents surrounding chassis bending, as well as degradation or outright loss of touchscreen functionality), performance issues on models with larger storage capacity, camera problems on the 6 Plus model, as well as an initially undocumented "error 53 '' that appeared under certain circumstances.
Shortly after its public release, it was reported that the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus chassis was susceptible to bending under pressure, such as when carried tightly in a user 's pocket. While such issues are not exclusive to the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus, the design flaw came to be known among users and the media as "Bendgate ''.
Apple responded to the bending allegations, stating that they had only received nine complaints of bent devices, and that the damage occurring due to regular use is "extremely rare. '' The company maintained that the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus went through durability testing to ensure they would stand up to daily use. The company offered to replace phones that were bent, if it is determined that the bending was unintentional.
On October 1, 2014, it was reported by Axel Telzerow, editor - in - chief of the German technology magazine Computer Bild, that following the posting of a video where a presenter was able to bend an iPhone 6 Plus, an Apple Germany representative informed the publication that it had been banned from future Apple events and that it would no longer receive devices directly from Apple for testing. Telzerow responded by saying that "we congratulate you to your fine new generation of iPhones, even if one of them has a minor weakness with its casing. But we are deeply disappointed about the lack of respect of your company. ''
On October 3, 2014 9to5Mac released a post claiming that certain iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus users complained on social networking sites that the phone ripped off their hair when they held the phone close to their ears when making phone calls. Twitter users claimed that the seam between the glass screen and aluminum back of the iPhone 6 is to blame, with hair becoming caught within it.
Some users reported that 64 and 128 GB iPhone 6 models had experienced performance issues, and that some 128 GB iPhone 6 Plus models would, in rare cases, randomly crash and reboot. Business Korea reported that the issues were connected to the triple - layer cell NAND storage of the affected models. Triple - layer cells can store three bits of data per cell of flash, and are cheaper than dual - layer cell solutions, but at the cost of performance. It was reported that Apple had planned to switch the affected model lines back to multi-layer cell flash, and address the performance issues on existing devices in a future iOS update.
It was reported that the optical image stabilization systems on some iPhone 6 Plus models were faulty, failing to properly stabilize when the phone is being held perfectly still, leading to blurry photos and "wavy '' - looking videos. The optical image stabilization system was also found to have been affected by accessories that use magnets, such as third - party lens attachments; Apple issued advisories to users and its licensed accessory makers, warning that magnetic or metallic accessories can cause the OIS to malfunction.
On August 21, 2015, Apple instituted a repair program for iPhone 6 Plus models released between September 2014 and January 2015, citing that faulty rear cameras on affected models may produce blurry pictures.
Some iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus models have an issue where the front facing camera is somehow "shifted '', or out of place. Apple stated that they would replace most iPhone 6s with this issue, free of charge. Despite numerous complaints regarding this issue, it does not seem to actually affect the camera itself. It is said that the camera is not what has shifted, but a piece of protective foam around the camera module itself that has gone out of place.
If the iPhone 6 home button is repaired or modified by a third - party, the device will fail security checks related to Touch ID as the components had not been "re-validated '' for security reasons -- a process which can only be performed by an authorized Apple outlet. Failing these checks disables all features related to Touch ID. Such effects have sometimes happened as a result of damage as well.
It was reported these same hardware integrity checks would trigger an unrecoverable loop into "Recovery Mode '' if iOS is updated or restored, with attempts to restore the device via iTunes software resulting in an "error 53 '' message. Beyond the explanation that this is related to hardware integrity errors regarding Touch ID components, Apple provided no official explanation of what specifically triggers error 53 or how it can be fixed without replacing the entire device.
On February 18, 2016, Apple released an iOS 9.2. 1 patch through iTunes which addresses this issue, and admitted that error 53 was actually related to a diagnostic check for inspecting the Touch ID hardware before an iPhone is shipped from its factories.
Touchscreen control components on iPhone 6 logic boards have insufficient support, including a lack of underfill -- which strengthens and stabilizes integrated circuits, and a lack of rigid metal shielding on the logic board unlike previous iPhone models; the touchscreen controller is instead shielded by a flexible "sticker ''. Normal use of the device can cause the logic board to flex internally, which strains the touchscreen IC connectors and leads to a degradation or outright loss of touchscreen functionality. A symptom that has been associated with this type of failure is a flickering grey bar near the top of the display. iFixit reported that this issue, nicknamed "touch disease '', was a byproduct of the previous "Bendgate '' design flaw because of the device 's demonstrated lack of rigidity. As such, the larger iPhone 6 Plus is more susceptible to the flaw, but it has also been reported on a small percentage of iPhone 6 models. The devices ' successor, the iPhone 6S, is not afflicted by this flaw due to changes to their internal design, which included the strengthening of "key points '' in the rear casing, and the re-location of the touchscreen controllers to the display assembly from the logic board.
Initially, Apple did not officially acknowledge this issue. The issue was widely discussed on Apple 's support forum -- where posts discussing the issue have been subject to censorship. The touchscreen can be repaired via microsoldering: Apple Stores are not equipped with the tools needed to perform the logic board repair, which had led to affected users sending their devices to unofficial, third - party repair services. An Apple Store employee interviewed by Apple Insider reported that six months after they first started noticing the problem, Apple had issued guidance instructing them to tell affected users that this was a hardware issue which could not be repaired, and that their iPhone had to be replaced. However, some in - stock units have also been afflicted with this issue out of the box, leading to an employee stating that they were "tired of pulling service stock out of the box, and seeing the exact same problem that the customer has on the replacement ''. The issue received mainstream attention in August 2016 when it was reported upon by iFixit. On August 26, 2016, Apple Insider reported that based on data from four "high - traffic '' Apple Store locations, there was a spike in the number of iPhone 6 devices brought into them for repairs following mainstream reports of the "touch disease '' problem.
On August 30, 2016, a group of three iPhone 6 owners sued Apple Inc. in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California and filed for a proposed class action lawsuit, alleging that Apple was engaging in unfair business practices by having "long been aware '' of the defective design, yet actively refusing to acknowledge or repair it.
On November 17, 2016, Apple officially acknowledged the issue and announced a paid repair program for affected iPhone 6 Plus models, stating that "some iPhone 6 Plus devices may exhibit display flickering or Multi-Touch issues after being dropped multiple times on a hard surface and then incurring further stress on the device ''.
Apple Inc. announced that, within 24 hours of availability, over 4 million pre-orders of the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were made, exceeding the supply available. More than 10 million iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus devices were sold in the first three days.
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how long is the last episode of the walking dead | List of the Walking Dead episodes - wikipedia
The Walking Dead is an American post-apocalyptic television series based on the comic book of the same name by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore and Charlie Adlard, and developed for television by Frank Darabont. It premiered on the cable network AMC on October 31, 2010. The series focuses on Rick Grimes, a sheriff 's deputy who slips into a coma after being shot. He awakens to find himself in a dangerous new world that has been overrun by "walkers ''. He joins a group of survivors (including his wife and son) as they try to survive in a world among the undead.
In October 2016, the series was renewed for a 16 - episode eighth season, which premiered on October 22, 2017. As of December 10, 2017, 107 episodes of The Walking Dead have aired.
Prior to the start of season 2, a six - episode web series called Torn Apart premiered on October 3, 2011 on AMC 's official website. The web series is directed by special effects makeup artist and co-executive producer Greg Nicotero and tells the origin story of Hannah, also known as "Bicycle Girl '', the walker that Rick Grimes killed out of mercy and whose bicycle he took in the first episode of the TV series.
A four - episode web series entitled Cold Storage was released on October 1, 2012. Set during the zombie apocalypse, Cold Storage follows the story of Chase as he seeks shelter in a storage facility under the command of B.J., a malicious former employee who hides a very dark secret. The storage unit Chase is given was owned by Rick Grimes.
A three - part webisode series, entitled The Oath, was released on October 1, 2013. This series tells the origin of the "Do n't Open, Dead Inside '' paint on the cafeteria doors of the hospital Rick Grimes awakes in, post-apocalypse. It follows Paul and Karina as they escape their zombie - overrun camp in search of a medical station. The central theme of the series examines the will to persevere in the face of inevitable death.
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when was the world wide web released to the public | History of the World Wide Web - Wikipedia
The World Wide Web ("WWW '' or simply the "Web '') is a global information medium which users can read and write via computers connected to the Internet. The term is often mistakenly used as a synonym for the Internet itself, but the Web is a service that operates over the Internet, just as e-mail also does. The history of the Internet dates back significantly further than that of the World Wide Web. Web is the global information system.
The hypertext portion of the Web in particular has an intricate intellectual history; notable influences and precursors include Vannevar Bush 's Memex, IBM 's Generalized Markup Language, and Ted Nelson 's Project Xanadu.
Paul Otlet 's Mundaneum project has also been named as an early 20th century precursor of the Web.
The concept of a global information system connecting homes is prefigured in "A Logic Named Joe '', a 1946 short story by Murray Leinster, in which computer terminals, called "logics, '' are present in every home. Although the computer system in the story is centralized, the story anticipates a ubiquitous information environment similar to the Web. The cultural impact of the web was imagined even further back in a short story by E.M. Forster, "The Machine Stops, '' first published in 1909.
In 1980, Tim Berners - Lee, an English independent contractor at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Switzerland, built ENQUIRE, as a personal database of people and software models, but also as a way to play with hypertext; each new page of information in ENQUIRE had to be linked to an existing page.
Berners - Lee 's contract in 1980 was from June to December, but in 1984 he returned to CERN in a permanent role, and considered its problems of information management: physicists from around the world needed to share data, yet they lacked common machines and any shared presentation software.
Shortly after Berners - Lee 's return to CERN, TCP / IP protocols were installed on some key non-Unix machines at the institution, turning it into the largest Internet site in Europe within a few years. As a result, CERN 's infrastructure was ready for Berners - Lee to create the Web.
Berners - Lee wrote a proposal on March 13, 1989 for "a large hypertext database with typed links ''. Although the proposal attracted little interest, Berners - Lee was encouraged by his boss, Mike Sendall, to begin implementing his system on a newly acquired NeXT workstation. He considered several names, including Information Mesh, The Information Mine or Mine of Information, but settled on World Wide Web.
Berners - Lee found an enthusiastic supporter in Robert Cailliau. Berners - Lee and Cailliau pitched Berners - Lee 's ideas to the European Conference on Hypertext Technology in September 1990, but found no vendors who could appreciate his vision of marrying hypertext with the Internet.
By Christmas 1990, Berners - Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 0.9, the HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the first Web browser (named WorldWideWeb, which was also a Web editor), the first HTTP server software (later known as CERN httpd), the first web server (http://info.cern.ch), and the first Web pages that described the project itself. The browser could access Usenet newsgroups and FTP files as well. However, it could run only on the NeXT; Nicola Pellow therefore created a simple text browser, called the Line Mode Browser, that could run on almost any computer. To encourage use within CERN, Bernd Pollermann put the CERN telephone directory on the web -- previously users had to log onto the mainframe in order to look up phone numbers.
While inventing and working on setting up the Web, Berners - Lee spent most of his working hours in Building 31 (second floor) at CERN (46 ° 13 ′ 57 '' N 6 ° 02 ′ 42 '' E / 46.2325 ° N 6.0450 ° E / 46.2325; 6.0450 (CERN Building 31, Birthplace of the World Wide Web)), but also at his two homes, one in France, one in Switzerland. In January 1991 the first Web servers outside CERN itself were switched on.
The first web page may be lost, but Paul Jones of UNC - Chapel Hill in North Carolina revealed in May 2013 that he has a copy of a page sent to him in 1991 by Berners - Lee which is the oldest known web page. Jones stored the plain - text page, with hyperlinks, on a floppy disk and on his NeXT computer. CERN put the oldest known web page back online in 2014, complete with hyperlinks that helped users get started and helped them navigate what was then a very small web.
On August 6, 1991, Berners - Lee posted a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the alt. hypertext newsgroup, inviting collaborators. This date is sometimes confused with the public availability of the first web servers, which had occurred months earlier.
Paul Kunz from the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center visited CERN in September 1991, and was captivated by the Web. He brought the NeXT software back to SLAC, where librarian Louise Addis adapted it for the VM / CMS operating system on the IBM mainframe as a way to display SLAC 's catalog of online documents; this was the first Web server outside of Europe and the first in North America. The www - talk mailing list was started in the same month.
In 1992 the Computing and Networking Department of CERN, headed by David Williams, did not support Berners - Lee 's work. A two - page email sent by Williams stated that the work of Berners - Lee, with the goal of creating a facility to exchange information such as results and comments from CERN experiments to the scientific community, was not the core activity of CERN and was a misallocation of CERN 's IT resources. Following this decision, Tim Berners - Lee left CERN despite many of his peers in the IT center advocating for his support, in particular, M. Ben Segal from the distributed computing SHIFT project. He left for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he continued to develop the HTTP protocol.
An early CERN - related contribution to the Web was the parody band Les Horribles Cernettes, whose promotional image is believed to be among the Web 's first five pictures.
In keeping with its birth at CERN and the first page opened, early adopters of the World Wide Web were primarily university - based scientific departments or physics laboratories such as Fermilab and SLAC. By January 1993 there were fifty Web servers across the world. In April 1993 CERN made the World Wide Web available on a royalty - free basis. By October 1993 there were over five hundred servers online. Two of the earliest webcomics started on the World Wide Web in 1993: Doctor Fun and NetBoy.
Early websites intermingled links for both the HTTP web protocol and the then - popular Gopher protocol, which provided access to content through hypertext menus presented as a file system rather than through HTML files. Early Web users would navigate either by bookmarking popular directory pages, such as Berners - Lee 's first site at http://info.cern.ch/, or by consulting updated lists such as the NCSA "What 's New '' page. Some sites were also indexed by WAIS, enabling users to submit full - text searches similar to the capability later provided by search engines.
By the end of 1994, the total number of websites was still minute compared to present figures, but quite a number of notable websites were already active, many of which are the precursors or inspiring examples of today 's most popular services.
Initially, a web browser was available only for the NeXT operating system. This shortcoming was discussed in January 1992, and alleviated in April 1992 by the release of Erwise, an application developed at the Helsinki University of Technology, and in May by ViolaWWW, created by Pei - Yuan Wei, which included advanced features such as embedded graphics, scripting, and animation. ViolaWWW was originally an application for HyperCard. Both programs ran on the X Window System for Unix. In 1992, the first tests between browsers on different platforms were concluded successfully between buildings 513 and 31 in CERN, between browsers on the NexT station and the X11 - ported Mosaic browser.
Students at the University of Kansas adapted an existing text - only hypertext browser, Lynx, to access the web. Lynx was available on Unix and DOS, and some web designers, unimpressed with glossy graphical websites, held that a website not accessible through Lynx was n't worth visiting.
The first Microsoft Windows browser was Cello, written by Thomas R. Bruce for the Legal Information Institute at Cornell Law School to provide legal information, since access to Windows was more widespread amongst lawyers than access to Unix. Cello was released in June 1993.
The Web was first popularized by Mosaic, a graphical browser launched in 1993 by Marc Andreessen 's team at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign (UIUC). The origins of Mosaic date to 1992. In November 1992, the NCSA at the University of Illinois (UIUC) established a website. In December 1992, Andreessen and Eric Bina, students attending UIUC and working at the NCSA, began work on Mosaic with funding from the High - Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a US - federal research and development program. Andreessen and Bina released a Unix version of the browser in February 1993; Mac and Windows versions followed in August 1993. The browser gained popularity due to its strong support of integrated multimedia, and the authors ' rapid response to user bug reports and recommendations for new features.
After graduation from UIUC, Andreessen and James H. Clark, former CEO of Silicon Graphics, met and formed Mosaic Communications Corporation in April 1994, to develop the Mosaic Netscape browser commercially. The company later changed its name to Netscape, and the browser was developed further as Netscape Navigator.
In May 1994, the first International WWW Conference, organized by Robert Cailliau, was held at CERN; the conference has been held every year since. In April 1993, CERN had agreed that anyone could use the Web protocol and code royalty - free; this was in part a reaction to the perturbation caused by the University of Minnesota 's announcement that it would begin charging license fees for its implementation of the Gopher protocol.
In September 1994, Berners - Lee founded the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and the European Commission. It comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web. Berners - Lee made the Web available freely, with no patent and no royalties due. The W3C decided that its standards must be based on royalty - free technology, so they can be easily adopted by anyone.
By 1996 it became obvious to most publicly traded companies that a public Web presence was no longer optional. Though at first people saw mainly the possibilities of free publishing and instant worldwide information, increasing familiarity with two - way communication over the "Web '' led to the possibility of direct Web - based commerce (e-commerce) and instantaneous group communications worldwide. More dotcoms, displaying products on hypertext webpages, were added into the Web.
Low interest rates in 1998 -- 99 facilitated an increase in start - up companies. Although a number of these new entrepreneurs had realistic plans and administrative ability, most of them lacked these characteristics but were able to sell their ideas to investors because of the novelty of the dot - com concept.
Historically, the dot - com boom can be seen as similar to a number of other technology - inspired booms of the past including railroads in the 1840s, automobiles in the early 20th century, radio in the 1920s, television in the 1940s, transistor electronics in the 1950s, computer time - sharing in the 1960s, and home computers and biotechnology in the 1980s.
In 2001 the bubble burst, and many dot - com startups went out of business after burning through their venture capital and failing to become profitable. Many others, however, did survive and thrive in the early 21st century. Many companies which began as online retailers blossomed and became highly profitable. More conventional retailers found online merchandising to be a profitable additional source of revenue. While some online entertainment and news outlets failed when their seed capital ran out, others persisted and eventually became economically self - sufficient. Traditional media outlets (newspaper publishers, broadcasters and cablecasters in particular) also found the Web to be a useful and profitable additional channel for content distribution, and an additional means to generate advertising revenue. The sites that survived and eventually prospered after the bubble burst had two things in common; a sound business plan, and a niche in the marketplace that was, if not unique, particularly well - defined and well - served.
In the aftermath of the dot - com bubble, telecommunications companies had a great deal of overcapacity as many Internet business clients went bust. That, plus ongoing investment in local cell infrastructure kept connectivity charges low, helped to make high - speed Internet connectivity more affordable. During this time, a handful of companies found success developing business models that helped make the World Wide Web a more compelling experience. These include airline booking sites, Google 's search engine and its profitable approach to keyword - based advertising, as well as eBay 's auction site and Amazon.com 's online department store.
This new era also begot social networking websites, such as MySpace and Facebook, which gained acceptance rapidly and became a central part of youth culture. The 2010s also saw the emergence of various controversial trends, such as the expansion of cybercrime, of the manosphere and of internet censorship.
Beginning in 2002, new ideas for sharing and exchanging content ad hoc, such as Weblogs and RSS, rapidly gained acceptance on the Web. This new model for information exchange, primarily featuring user - generated and user - edited websites, was dubbed Web 2.0. The Web 2.0 boom saw many new service - oriented startups catering to a newly democratized Web.
As the Web became easier to query, it attained a greater ease of use overall and gained a sense of organization which ushered in a period of rapid popularization. Many new sites such as Wikipedia and its Wikimedia Foundation sister projects were based on the concept of user - edited content. In 2005, three former PayPal employees created a video viewing website called YouTube, which quickly became popular and introduced a new concept of user - submitted content in major events.
The popularity of YouTube, Facebook, etc., combined with the increasing availability and affordability of high - speed connections has made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. Many video - content hosting and creation sites provide an easy means for their videos to be embedded on third party websites without payment or permission.
This combination of more user - created or edited content, and easy means of sharing content, such as via RSS widgets and video embedding, has led to many sites with a typical "Web 2.0 '' feel. They have articles with embedded video, user - submitted comments below the article, and RSS boxes to the side, listing some of the latest articles from other sites.
Continued extension of the Web has focused on connecting devices to the Internet, coined Intelligent Device Management. As Internet connectivity becomes ubiquitous, manufacturers have started to leverage the expanded computing power of their devices to enhance their usability and capability. Through Internet connectivity, manufacturers are now able to interact with the devices they have sold and shipped to their customers, and customers are able to interact with the manufacturer (and other providers) to access new content.
"Web 2.0 '' has found a place in the English lexicon.
Popularized by Berners - Lee 's book Weaving the Web and a Scientific American article by Berners - Lee, James Hendler, and Ora Lassila, the term Semantic Web describes an evolution of the existing Web in which the network of hyperlinked human - readable web pages is extended by machine - readable metadata about documents and how they are related to each other, enabling automated agents to access the Web more intelligently and perform tasks on behalf of users. This has yet to happen. In 2006, Berners - Lee and colleagues stated that the idea "remains largely unrealized ''.
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where was the movie woody wood pecker filmed | Woody Woodpecker (2017 film) - wikipedia
Woody Woodpecker is a 2017 American live - action / computer - animated family comedy film produced by Mike Elliott and directed by Alex Zamm, based on the cartoon character of the same name created by Walter Lantz and Ben Hardaway. The film stars the voice of Eric Bauza as Woody Woodpecker, and also stars Timothy Omundson as Lance Walters, a divorced attorney with a son and a new girlfriend who wants to build a dream home in a forest in the mountains of Washington, only to find out he is cutting down a tree in which the eponymous woodpecker lives. The film was first released in theaters in Brazil on October 5, 2017. It was released in the United States on DVD on February 6, 2018. While the movie itself was filmed in the English - language, it was focused on the Brazilian public, since the character is still extremely popular in the country. The film received negative reviews from critics.
In the Pine Grove forest in Washington state, Woody Woodpecker toys with two taxidermist poachers, brothers Nate and Ottis Grimes, and eventually cause them to tranquilize each other. In Seattle, Lance Walters, a real estate lawyer, gets fired after a video of him claiming wildlife conservation is unprofitable goes viral. He tells his girlfriend Vanessa that he intends to build an investment home on a large piece of property located near the Canadian border, left to him by his grandfather. Meanwhile, Lance 's ex-wife Linda leaves their son Tommy with him and Vanessa, since she needs to visit her hospitalized father in Philadelphia.
At the Pine Grove forest, Lance, Tommy, and Vanessa meet the park ranger named Samantha Bartlett. As Lance and Vanessa unpack, Tommy goes into the forest for a walk. There, he discovers and befriends Woody after he gives him peanut butter crackers. Woody visits the family at lunchtime and eats almost all of the food. Lance tries to shoo Woody away, but he accidentally wrecks the table and hits Vanessa in the face with a broom. The next morning, construction on the investment home begins, prompting an agitated Woody to cause chaos at the site. Later, in a nearby town, Tommy befriends a young musician named Jill, who persuades him to join her band in the annual Firefly Festival. Tommy is then saved from two bullies by Woody.
As days pass, Lance grows more agitated because of Woody 's constant interference with his project, and he goes to meet Samantha at the ranger station. She reveals that the woodpecker is an endangered species known as a red - crowned pileated woodpecker, which Native Americans saw as a god of mischief and chaos. Lance continues with his work, but Vanessa leaves him after Woody blows up their RV with her inside as a prank. Samantha eventually advises Lance to get along with Woody. Lance reluctantly attempts to surrender to Woody by giving him crackers, but Woody agrees to let him and the workers continue with their construction, as long as he is given crackers every day. Eventually, the investment home is completed despite excessive payment and extended scheduling.
At the town 's Firefly Festival, Tommy and Jill 's drummer Lyle comes down with indigestion, prompting Woody to take over using a homemade drum kit. The performance is a hit, and Lance is surprised to hear that Woody gave Tommy some friendly support. Realizing that having humans around again is n't a bad idea, Woody heads back to the investment home and carves a mural above the fireplace. However, as he signs his name into the carving, he accidentally burns the house down after hitting exposed wiring. Ashamed of his mistake, he flies back to his tree. Infuriated by this, Lance hires Nate and Ottis to hunt Woody down. The brothers find him and tase him unconscious. As they leave, Tommy reprimands his father and runs away. He then forms a plan to rescue Woody and heads to Grimes ' shack with Jill and Lyle, as the brothers try to sell Woody at an online black market auction.
Lance finds the mural that Woody had created. Having a change of heart, he enlists Samantha 's help and they set out to find both Tommy and Woody. However, everyone is captured by the brothers. As Nate grabs a tranquilizer, Lance tilts his cage towards Woody 's so he can free him. After beating the brothers, Woody chases them as they attempt to flee to Canada. He carves a hole in the middle of a bridge, and the brothers fall into the river below, where they are later arrested. Later, Lance apologizes to Woody for not knowing that the house fire was an accident and therefore replaces Woody 's cut - down tree with a birdhouse. Woody accepts both the gift and the group to be called his new family, much to their generosity. That night, as Lance and Tommy fall asleep in a tent, Woody carves the words "Home Sweet Home '' into the new birdhouse, only to accidentally make it topple onto the tent.
In the early 2010s, Universal Pictures and Illumination Entertainment planned a Woody Woodpecker feature film. John Altschuler and Dave Krinsky (King of the Hill) were in talks to develop a story, but in July 2013, Illumination canceled the project. In October 2013, Bill Kopp announced that Universal Pictures had hired him to direct an animated feature film with three interwoven stories. On July 13, 2016, Cartoon Brew reported that Universal 1440 Entertainment was filming a live - action / CG hybrid film based on Woody Woodpecker in Canada. Filming began in June 2016, and ended later in July of that year.
In December 2016, a teaser trailer for the film was leaked by Universal Pictures Brasil with the Brazilian Portuguese dub. A trailer for the original English version premiered in the US on December 13, 2017.
The film received an approval rating of 17 % on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on six reviews. Common Sense Media rated the film a 1 out of 5 stars, stating "Inanely cruel villains, an unoriginal story, ham - handed performances, and reliance on farts and burps are the low lights of this awkward effort to bring back a less - than - engaging cartoon bird. ''
As of February 22, 2018, Woody Woodpecker has grossed $13.4 million. It debuted at $1.5 million, finishing second at the Brazilian box office behind Blade Runner 2049. The movie increased by + 45.4 % in its second weekend, moving to first place to $2.1 million.
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did congress establish a taxing system before the declaration of independence | United States Declaration of Independence - Wikipedia
The United States Declaration of Independence is the statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress meeting at the Pennsylvania State House (now known as Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on July 4, 1776. The Declaration announced that the Thirteen Colonies at war with the Kingdom of Great Britain would regard themselves as thirteen independent sovereign states, no longer under British rule. With the Declaration, these new states took a collective first step toward forming the United States of America. The declaration was signed by representatives from New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
The Lee Resolution for independence was passed on July 2 with no opposing votes. The Committee of Five had drafted the Declaration to be ready when Congress voted on independence. John Adams, a leader in pushing for independence, had persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress edited to produce the final version. The Declaration was a formal explanation of why Congress had voted to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. Adams wrote to his wife Abigail, "The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America '' -- although Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved.
After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for this printing has been lost and may have been a copy in Thomas Jefferson 's hand. Jefferson 's original draft is preserved at the Library of Congress, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, as well as Jefferson 's notes of changes made by Congress. The best - known version of the Declaration is a signed copy that is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., and which is popularly regarded as the official document. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19 and signed primarily on August 2.
The sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. The Declaration justified the independence of the United States by listing colonial grievances against King George III and by asserting certain natural and legal rights, including a right of revolution. Its original purpose was to announce independence, and references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his policies and his rhetoric, as in the Gettysburg Address of 1863. Since then, it has become a well - known statement on human rights, particularly its second sentence:
We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
This has been called "one of the best - known sentences in the English language '', containing "the most potent and consequential words in American history ''. The passage came to represent a moral standard to which the United States should strive. This view was notably promoted by Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy and argued that it is a statement of principles through which the United States Constitution should be interpreted.
The Declaration of Independence inspired many similar documents in other countries, the first being the 1789 Declaration of Flanders issued during the Brabant Revolution in the Austrian Netherlands. It also served as the primary model for numerous declarations of independence in Europe and Latin America, as well as Africa (Liberia) and Oceania (New Zealand) during the first half of the 19th century.
Believe me, dear Sir: there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose; and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America.
By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had been at war for more than a year. Relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767. Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire.
Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire. The colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a larger divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies. The orthodox British view, dating from the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was that Parliament was the supreme authority throughout the empire, and so, by definition, anything that Parliament did was constitutional. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, not even Parliament. After the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all. Anticipating the arrangement of the British Commonwealth, by 1774 American writers such as Samuel Adams, James Wilson, and Thomas Jefferson were arguing that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and that the colonies, which had their own legislatures, were connected to the rest of the empire only through their allegiance to the Crown.
The issue of Parliament 's authority in the colonies became a crisis after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts (known as the Intolerable Acts in the colonies) in 1774 to punish the colonists for the Gaspee Affair of 1772 and the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Many colonists saw the Coercive Acts as a violation of the British Constitution and thus a threat to the liberties of all of British America, so the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia in September 1774 to coordinate a response. Congress organized a boycott of British goods and petitioned the king for repeal of the acts. These measures were unsuccessful because King George and the ministry of Prime Minister Lord North were determined to enforce parliamentary supremacy in America. As the king wrote to North in November 1774, "blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this country or independent ''.
Most colonists still hoped for reconciliation with Great Britain, even after fighting began in the American Revolutionary War at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The Second Continental Congress convened at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia in May 1775, and some delegates hoped for eventual independence, but no one yet advocated declaring it. Many colonists no longer believed that Parliament had any sovereignty over them, yet they still professed loyalty to King George, who they hoped would intercede on their behalf. They were disappointed in late 1775 when the king rejected Congress 's second petition, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion, and announced before Parliament on October 26 that he was considering "friendly offers of foreign assistance '' to suppress the rebellion. A pro-American minority in Parliament warned that the government was driving the colonists toward independence.
Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense was published in January 1776, just as it became clear in the colonies that the king was not inclined to act as a conciliator. Paine had only recently arrived in the colonies from England, and he argued in favor of colonial independence, advocating republicanism as an alternative to monarchy and hereditary rule. Common Sense made a persuasive and impassioned case for independence, which had not yet been given serious intellectual consideration in the American colonies. Paine connected independence with Protestant beliefs as a means to present a distinctly American political identity, thereby stimulating public debate on a topic that few had previously dared to openly discuss, and public support for separation from Great Britain steadily increased after its publication.
Some colonists still held out hope for reconciliation, but developments in early 1776 further strengthened public support for independence. In February 1776, colonists learned of Parliament 's passage of the Prohibitory Act, which established a blockade of American ports and declared American ships to be enemy vessels. John Adams, a strong supporter of independence, believed that Parliament had effectively declared American independence before Congress had been able to. Adams labeled the Prohibitory Act the "Act of Independency '', calling it "a compleat Dismemberment of the British Empire ''. Support for declaring independence grew even more when it was confirmed that King George had hired German mercenaries to use against his American subjects.
Despite this growing popular support for independence, Congress lacked the clear authority to declare it. Delegates had been elected to Congress by 13 different governments, which included extralegal conventions, ad hoc committees, and elected assemblies, and they were bound by the instructions given to them. Regardless of their personal opinions, delegates could not vote to declare independence unless their instructions permitted such an action. Several colonies, in fact, expressly prohibited their delegates from taking any steps towards separation from Great Britain, while other delegations had instructions that were ambiguous on the issue; consequently, advocates of independence sought to have the Congressional instructions revised. For Congress to declare independence, a majority of delegations would need authorization to vote for it, and at least one colonial government would need to specifically instruct its delegation to propose a declaration of independence in Congress. Between April and July 1776, a "complex political war '' was waged to bring this about.
In the campaign to revise Congressional instructions, many Americans formally expressed their support for separation from Great Britain in what were effectively state and local declarations of independence. Historian Pauline Maier identifies more than ninety such declarations that were issued throughout the Thirteen Colonies from April to July 1776. These "declarations '' took a variety of forms. Some were formal written instructions for Congressional delegations, such as the Halifax Resolves of April 12, with which North Carolina became the first colony to explicitly authorize its delegates to vote for independence. Others were legislative acts that officially ended British rule in individual colonies, such as the Rhode Island legislature declaring its independence from Great Britain on May 4, the first colony to do so. Many "declarations '' were resolutions adopted at town or county meetings that offered support for independence. A few came in the form of jury instructions, such as the statement issued on April 23, 1776, by Chief Justice William Henry Drayton of South Carolina: "the law of the land authorizes me to declare... that George the Third, King of Great Britain... has no authority over us, and we owe no obedience to him. '' Most of these declarations are now obscure, having been overshadowed by the declaration approved by Congress on July 2, and signed July 4.
Some colonies held back from endorsing independence. Resistance was centered in the middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Advocates of independence saw Pennsylvania as the key; if that colony could be converted to the pro-independence cause, it was believed that the others would follow. On May 1, however, opponents of independence retained control of the Pennsylvania Assembly in a special election that had focused on the question of independence. In response, Congress passed a resolution on May 10 which had been promoted by John Adams and Richard Henry Lee, calling on colonies without a "government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs '' to adopt new governments. The resolution passed unanimously, and was even supported by Pennsylvania 's John Dickinson, the leader of the anti-independence faction in Congress, who believed that it did not apply to his colony.
-- John Adams, May 15, 1776
As was the custom, Congress appointed a committee to draft a preamble to explain the purpose of the resolution. John Adams wrote the preamble, which stated that because King George had rejected reconciliation and was hiring foreign mercenaries to use against the colonies, "it is necessary that the exercise of every kind of authority under the said crown should be totally suppressed ''. Adams 's preamble was meant to encourage the overthrow of the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland, which were still under proprietary governance. Congress passed the preamble on May 15 after several days of debate, but four of the middle colonies voted against it, and the Maryland delegation walked out in protest. Adams regarded his May 15 preamble effectively as an American declaration of independence, although a formal declaration would still have to be made.
On the same day that Congress passed Adams 's radical preamble, the Virginia Convention set the stage for a formal Congressional declaration of independence. On May 15, the Convention instructed Virginia 's congressional delegation "to propose to that respectable body to declare the United Colonies free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance to, or dependence upon, the Crown or Parliament of Great Britain ''. In accordance with those instructions, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a three - part resolution to Congress on June 7. The motion was seconded by John Adams, calling on Congress to declare independence, form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan of colonial confederation. The part of the resolution relating to declaring independence read:
Resolved, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.
Lee 's resolution met with resistance in the ensuing debate. Opponents of the resolution conceded that reconciliation was unlikely with Great Britain, while arguing that declaring independence was premature, and that securing foreign aid should take priority. Advocates of the resolution countered that foreign governments would not intervene in an internal British struggle, and so a formal declaration of independence was needed before foreign aid was possible. All Congress needed to do, they insisted, was to "declare a fact which already exists ''. Delegates from Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, and New York were still not yet authorized to vote for independence, however, and some of them threatened to leave Congress if the resolution were adopted. Congress, therefore, voted on June 10 to postpone further discussion of Lee 's resolution for three weeks. Until then, Congress decided that a committee should prepare a document announcing and explaining independence in the event that Lee 's resolution was approved when it was brought up again in July.
Support for a Congressional declaration of independence was consolidated in the final weeks of June 1776. On June 14, the Connecticut Assembly instructed its delegates to propose independence and, the following day, the legislatures of New Hampshire and Delaware authorized their delegates to declare independence. In Pennsylvania, political struggles ended with the dissolution of the colonial assembly, and a new Conference of Committees under Thomas McKean authorized Pennsylvania 's delegates to declare independence on June 18. The Provincial Congress of New Jersey had been governing the province since January 1776; they resolved on June 15 that Royal Governor William Franklin was "an enemy to the liberties of this country '' and had him arrested. On June 21, they chose new delegates to Congress and empowered them to join in a declaration of independence.
Only Maryland and New York had yet to authorize independence towards the end of June. Previously, Maryland 's delegates had walked out when the Continental Congress adopted Adams 's radical May 15 preamble, and had sent to the Annapolis Convention for instructions. On May 20, the Annapolis Convention rejected Adams 's preamble, instructing its delegates to remain against independence. But Samuel Chase went to Maryland and, thanks to local resolutions in favor of independence, was able to get the Annapolis Convention to change its mind on June 28. Only the New York delegates were unable to get revised instructions. When Congress had been considering the resolution of independence on June 8, the New York Provincial Congress told the delegates to wait. But on June 30, the Provincial Congress evacuated New York as British forces approached, and would not convene again until July 10. This meant that New York 's delegates would not be authorized to declare independence until after Congress had made its decision.
Political maneuvering was setting the stage for an official declaration of independence even while a document was being written to explain the decision. On June 11, 1776, Congress appointed a "Committee of Five '' to draft a declaration, consisting of John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut. The committee left no minutes, so there is some uncertainty about how the drafting process proceeded; contradictory accounts were written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, too many years to be regarded as entirely reliable -- although their accounts are frequently cited. What is certain is that the committee discussed the general outline which the document should follow and decided that Jefferson would write the first draft. The committee in general, and Jefferson in particular, thought that Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson and promised to consult with him personally. Considering Congress 's busy schedule, Jefferson probably had limited time for writing over the next seventeen days, and likely wrote the draft quickly. He then consulted the others and made some changes, and then produced another copy incorporating these alterations. The committee presented this copy to the Congress on June 28, 1776. The title of the document was "A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled. ''
Congress ordered that the draft "lie on the table ''. For two days, Congress methodically edited Jefferson 's primary document, shortening it by a fourth, removing unnecessary wording, and improving sentence structure. They removed Jefferson 's assertion that Britain had forced slavery on the colonies in order to moderate the document and appease persons in Britain who supported the Revolution. Jefferson wrote that Congress had "mangled '' his draft version, but the Declaration that was finally produced was "the majestic document that inspired both contemporaries and posterity, '' in the words of his biographer John Ferling.
Congress tabled the draft of the declaration on Monday, July 1, and resolved itself into a committee of the whole, with Benjamin Harrison of Virginia presiding, and they resumed debate on Lee 's resolution of independence. John Dickinson made one last effort to delay the decision, arguing that Congress should not declare independence without first securing a foreign alliance and finalizing the Articles of Confederation. John Adams gave a speech in reply to Dickinson, restating the case for an immediate declaration.
A vote was taken after a long day of speeches, each colony casting a single vote, as always. The delegation for each colony numbered from two to seven members, and each delegation voted amongst themselves to determine the colony 's vote. Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted against declaring independence. The New York delegation abstained, lacking permission to vote for independence. Delaware cast no vote because the delegation was split between Thomas McKean (who voted yes) and George Read (who voted no). The remaining nine delegations voted in favor of independence, which meant that the resolution had been approved by the committee of the whole. The next step was for the resolution to be voted upon by Congress itself. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina was opposed to Lee 's resolution but desirous of unanimity, and he moved that the vote be postponed until the following day.
On July 2, South Carolina reversed its position and voted for independence. In the Pennsylvania delegation, Dickinson and Robert Morris abstained, allowing the delegation to vote three - to - two in favor of independence. The tie in the Delaware delegation was broken by the timely arrival of Caesar Rodney, who voted for independence. The New York delegation abstained once again since they were still not authorized to vote for independence, although they were allowed to do so a week later by the New York Provincial Congress. The resolution of independence had been adopted with twelve affirmative votes and one abstention. With this, the colonies had officially severed political ties with Great Britain.
John Adams predicted in a famous letter, written to his wife on the following day, that July 2 would become a great American holiday. He thought that the vote for independence would be commemorated; he did not foresee that Americans -- including himself -- would instead celebrate Independence Day on the date when the announcement of that act was finalized.
I am apt to believe that (Independence Day) will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival. It ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more.
After voting in favor of the resolution of independence, Congress turned its attention to the committee 's draft of the declaration. Over several days of debate, they made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text and, on July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved and sent to the printer for publication.
There is a distinct change in wording from this original broadside printing of the Declaration and the final official engrossed copy. The word "unanimous '' was inserted as a result of a Congressional resolution passed on July 19, 1776:
Resolved, That the Declaration passed on the 4th, be fairly engrossed on parchment, with the title and stile of "The unanimous declaration of the thirteen United States of America, '' and that the same, when engrossed, be signed by every member of Congress.
Historian George Billias says:
Independence amounted to a new status of interdependence: the United States was now a sovereign nation entitled to the privileges and responsibilities that came with that status. America thus became a member of the international community, which meant becoming a maker of treaties and alliances, a military ally in diplomacy, and a partner in foreign trade on a more equal basis.
The declaration is not divided into formal sections; but it is often discussed as consisting of five parts: introduction, preamble, indictment of King George III, denunciation of the British people, and conclusion.
Asserts as a matter of Natural Law the ability of a people to assume political independence; acknowledges that the grounds for such independence must be reasonable, and therefore explicable, and ought to be explained.
"When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature 's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. ''
Outlines a general philosophy of government that justifies revolution when government harms natural rights.
"We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.
"That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. ''
A bill of particulars documenting the king 's "repeated injuries and usurpations '' of the Americans ' rights and liberties.
"Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
"He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
"He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
"He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
"He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
"He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness of his invasions on the rights of the people.
"He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
"He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
"He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.
"He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
"He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.
"He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
"He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.
"He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
"For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
"For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
"For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
"For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
"For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:
"For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
"For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:
"For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
"For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
"He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
"He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
"He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
"He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
"He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
"In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. ''
This section essentially finishes the case for independence. The conditions that justified revolution have been shown.
"Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. ''
The signers assert that there exist conditions under which people must change their government, that the British have produced such conditions and, by necessity, the colonies must throw off political ties with the British Crown and become independent states. The conclusion contains, at its core, the Lee Resolution that had been passed on July 2.
"We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. ''
The first and most famous signature on the engrossed copy was that of John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress. Two future presidents (Thomas Jefferson and John Adams) and a father and great - grandfather of two other presidents (Benjamin Harrison) were among the signatories. Edward Rutledge (age 26) was the youngest signer, and Benjamin Franklin (age 70) was the oldest signer. The fifty - six signers of the Declaration represented the new states as follows (from north to south):
Historians have often sought to identify the sources that most influenced the words and political philosophy of the Declaration of Independence. By Jefferson 's own admission, the Declaration contained no original ideas, but was instead a statement of sentiments widely shared by supporters of the American Revolution. As he explained in 1825:
Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, nor yet copied from any particular and previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion.
Jefferson 's most immediate sources were two documents written in June 1776: his own draft of the preamble of the Constitution of Virginia, and George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights. Ideas and phrases from both of these documents appear in the Declaration of Independence. They were, in turn, directly influenced by the 1689 English Declaration of Rights, which formally ended the reign of King James II. During the American Revolution, Jefferson and other Americans looked to the English Declaration of Rights as a model of how to end the reign of an unjust king. The Scottish Declaration of Arbroath (1320) and the Dutch Act of Abjuration (1581) have also been offered as models for Jefferson 's Declaration, but these models are now accepted by few scholars.
Jefferson wrote that a number of authors exerted a general influence on the words of the Declaration. English political theorist John Locke is usually cited as one of the primary influences, a man whom Jefferson called one of "the three greatest men that have ever lived ''. In 1922, historian Carl L. Becker wrote, "Most Americans had absorbed Locke 's works as a kind of political gospel; and the Declaration, in its form, in its phraseology, follows closely certain sentences in Locke 's second treatise on government. '' The extent of Locke 's influence on the American Revolution has been questioned by some subsequent scholars, however. Historian Ray Forrest Harvey argued in 1937 for the dominant influence of Swiss jurist Jean Jacques Burlamaqui, declaring that Jefferson and Locke were at "two opposite poles '' in their political philosophy, as evidenced by Jefferson 's use in the Declaration of Independence of the phrase "pursuit of happiness '' instead of "property ''. Other scholars emphasized the influence of republicanism rather than Locke 's classical liberalism. Historian Garry Wills argued that Jefferson was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, particularly Francis Hutcheson, rather than Locke, an interpretation that has been strongly criticized.
Legal historian John Phillip Reid has written that the emphasis on the political philosophy of the Declaration has been misplaced. The Declaration is not a philosophical tract about natural rights, argues Reid, but is instead a legal document -- an indictment against King George for violating the constitutional rights of the colonists. Historian David Armitage has argued that the Declaration was strongly influenced by de Vattel 's The Law of Nations, the dominant international law treatise of the period, and a book that Benjamin Franklin said was "continually in the hands of the members of our Congress ''. Armitage writes, "Vattel made independence fundamental to his definition of statehood ''; therefore, the primary purpose of the Declaration was "to express the international legal sovereignty of the United States ''. If the United States were to have any hope of being recognized by the European powers, the American revolutionaries first had to make it clear that they were no longer dependent on Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence does not have the force of law domestically, but nevertheless it may help to provide historical and legal clarity about the Constitution and other laws.
The Declaration became official when Congress voted for it on July 4; signatures of the delegates were not needed to make it official. The handwritten copy of the Declaration of Independence that was signed by Congress is dated July 4, 1776. The signatures of fifty - six delegates are affixed; however, the exact date when each person signed it has long been the subject of debate. Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams all wrote that the Declaration had been signed by Congress on July 4. But in 1796, signer Thomas McKean disputed that the Declaration had been signed on July 4, pointing out that some signers were not then present, including several who were not even elected to Congress until after that date.
The Declaration was transposed on paper, adopted by the Continental Congress, and signed by John Hancock, President of the Congress, on July 4, 1776, according to the 1911 record of events by the U.S. State Department under Secretary Philander C. Knox. On August 2, 1776, a parchment paper copy of the Declaration was signed by 56 persons. Many of these signers were not present when the original Declaration was adopted on July 4. Signer Matthew Thornton from New Hampshire was seated in the Continental Congress in November; he asked for and received the privilege of adding his signature at that time, and signed on November 4, 1776.
Historians have generally accepted McKean 's version of events, arguing that the famous signed version of the Declaration was created after July 19, and was not signed by Congress until August 2, 1776. In 1986, legal historian Wilfred Ritz argued that historians had misunderstood the primary documents and given too much credence to McKean, who had not been present in Congress on July 4. According to Ritz, about thirty - four delegates signed the Declaration on July 4, and the others signed on or after August 2. Historians who reject a July 4 signing maintain that most delegates signed on August 2, and that those eventual signers who were not present added their names later.
Two future U.S. presidents were among the signatories: Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. The most famous signature on the engrossed copy is that of John Hancock, who presumably signed first as President of Congress. Hancock 's large, flamboyant signature became iconic, and the term John Hancock emerged in the United States as an informal synonym for "signature ''. A commonly circulated but apocryphal account claims that, after Hancock signed, the delegate from Massachusetts commented, "The British ministry can read that name without spectacles. '' Another apocryphal report indicates that Hancock proudly declared, "There! I guess King George will be able to read that! ''
Various legends emerged years later about the signing of the Declaration, when the document had become an important national symbol. In one famous story, John Hancock supposedly said that Congress, having signed the Declaration, must now "all hang together '', and Benjamin Franklin replied: "Yes, we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately. '' The quotation did not appear in print until more than fifty years after Franklin 's death.
The Syng inkstand used at the signing was also used at the signing of the United States Constitution in 1787.
After Congress approved the final wording of the Declaration on July 4, a handwritten copy was sent a few blocks away to the printing shop of John Dunlap. Through the night, Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides for distribution. Before long, it was being read to audiences and reprinted in newspapers throughout the 13 states. The first formal public readings of the document took place on July 8, in Philadelphia (by John Nixon in the yard of Independence Hall), Trenton, New Jersey, and Easton, Pennsylvania; the first newspaper to publish it was the Pennsylvania Evening Post on July 6. A German translation of the Declaration was published in Philadelphia by July 9.
President of Congress John Hancock sent a broadside to General George Washington, instructing him to have it proclaimed "at the Head of the Army in the way you shall think it most proper ''. Washington had the Declaration read to his troops in New York City on July 9, with thousands of British troops on ships in the harbor. Washington and Congress hoped that the Declaration would inspire the soldiers, and encourage others to join the army. After hearing the Declaration, crowds in many cities tore down and destroyed signs or statues representing royal authority. An equestrian statue of King George in New York City was pulled down and the lead used to make musket balls.
British officials in North America sent copies of the Declaration to Great Britain. It was published in British newspapers beginning in mid-August, it had reached Florence and Warsaw by mid-September, and a German translation appeared in Switzerland by October. The first copy of the Declaration sent to France got lost, and the second copy arrived only in November 1776. It reached Portuguese America by Brazilian medical student "Vendek '' José Joaquim Maia e Barbalho, who had met with Thomas Jefferson in Nîmes.
The Spanish - American authorities banned the circulation of the Declaration, but it was widely transmitted and translated: by Venezuelan Manuel García de Sena, by Colombian Miguel de Pombo, by Ecuadorian Vicente Rocafuerte, and by New Englanders Richard Cleveland and William Shaler, who distributed the Declaration and the United States Constitution among Creoles in Chile and Indians in Mexico in 1821. The North Ministry did not give an official answer to the Declaration, but instead secretly commissioned pamphleteer John Lind to publish a response entitled Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress. British Tories denounced the signers of the Declaration for not applying the same principles of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness '' to African Americans. Thomas Hutchinson, the former royal governor of Massachusetts, also published a rebuttal. These pamphlets challenged various aspects of the Declaration. Hutchinson argued that the American Revolution was the work of a few conspirators who wanted independence from the outset, and who had finally achieved it by inducing otherwise loyal colonists to rebel. Lind 's pamphlet had an anonymous attack on the concept of natural rights written by Jeremy Bentham, an argument that he repeated during the French Revolution. Both pamphlets asked how the American slaveholders in Congress could proclaim that "all men are created equal '' without freeing their own slaves.
William Whipple, a signer of the Declaration of Independence who had fought in the war, freed his slave Prince Whipple because of revolutionary ideals. In the postwar decades, other slaveholders also freed their slaves; from 1790 to 1810, the percentage of free blacks in the Upper South increased to 8.3 percent from less than one percent of the black population. All Northern states abolished slavery by 1804.
The official copy of the Declaration of Independence was the one printed on July 4, 1776, under Jefferson 's supervision. It was sent to the states and to the Army and was widely reprinted in newspapers. The slightly different "engrossed copy '' (shown at the top of this article) was made later for members to sign. The engrossed version is the one widely distributed in the 21st century. Note that the opening lines differ between the two versions.
The copy of the Declaration that was signed by Congress is known as the engrossed or parchment copy. It was probably engrossed (that is, carefully handwritten) by clerk Timothy Matlack. A facsimile made in 1823 has become the basis of most modern reproductions rather than the original because of poor conservation of the engrossed copy through the 19th century. In 1921, custody of the engrossed copy of the Declaration was transferred from the State Department to the Library of Congress, along with the United States Constitution. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the documents were moved for safekeeping to the United States Bullion Depository at Fort Knox in Kentucky, where they were kept until 1944. In 1952, the engrossed Declaration was transferred to the National Archives and is now on permanent display at the National Archives in the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom ''.
The document signed by Congress and enshrined in the National Archives is usually regarded as the Declaration of Independence, but historian Julian P. Boyd argued that the Declaration, like Magna Carta, is not a single document. Boyd considered the printed broadsides ordered by Congress to be official texts, as well. The Declaration was first published as a broadside that was printed the night of July 4 by John Dunlap of Philadelphia. Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides, of which 26 are known to survive. The 26th copy was discovered in The National Archives in England in 2009.
In 1777, Congress commissioned Mary Katherine Goddard to print a new broadside that listed the signers of the Declaration, unlike the Dunlap broadside. Nine copies of the Goddard broadside are known to still exist. A variety of broadsides printed by the states are also extant.
Several early handwritten copies and drafts of the Declaration have also been preserved. Jefferson kept a four - page draft that late in life he called the "original Rough draught ''. It is not known how many drafts Jefferson wrote prior to this one, and how much of the text was contributed by other committee members. In 1947, Boyd discovered a fragment of an earlier draft in Jefferson 's handwriting. Jefferson and Adams sent copies of the rough draft to friends, with slight variations.
During the writing process, Jefferson showed the rough draft to Adams and Franklin, and perhaps to other members of the drafting committee, who made a few more changes. Franklin, for example, may have been responsible for changing Jefferson 's original phrase "We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable '' to "We hold these truths to be self - evident ''. Jefferson incorporated these changes into a copy that was submitted to Congress in the name of the committee. The copy that was submitted to Congress on June 28 has been lost and was perhaps destroyed in the printing process, or destroyed during the debates in accordance with Congress 's secrecy rule.
On April 21, 2017, it was announced that a second engrossed copy had been discovered in the archives at West Sussex County Council in Chichester, England. Named by its finders the "Sussex Declaration '', it differs from the National Archives copy (which the finders refer to as the "Matlack Declaration '') in that the signatures on it are not grouped by States. How it came to be in England is not yet known, but the finders believe that the randomness of the signatures points to an origin with signatory James Wilson, who had argued strongly that the Declaration was made not by the States but by the whole people.
The Declaration was given little attention in the years immediately following the American Revolution, having served its original purpose in announcing the independence of the United States. Early celebrations of Independence Day largely ignored the Declaration, as did early histories of the Revolution. The act of declaring independence was considered important, whereas the text announcing that act attracted little attention. The Declaration was rarely mentioned during the debates about the United States Constitution, and its language was not incorporated into that document. George Mason 's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights was more influential, and its language was echoed in state constitutions and state bills of rights more often than Jefferson 's words. "In none of these documents '', wrote Pauline Maier, "is there any evidence whatsoever that the Declaration of Independence lived in men 's minds as a classic statement of American political principles. ''
Many leaders of the French Revolution admired the Declaration of Independence but were also interested in the new American state constitutions. The inspiration and content of the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) emerged largely from the ideals of the American Revolution. Its key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working closely in Paris with his friend Thomas Jefferson. It also borrowed language from George Mason 's Virginia Declaration of Rights. The declaration also influenced the Russian Empire. The document had a particular impact on the Decembrist revolt and other Russian thinkers.
According to historian David Armitage, the Declaration of Independence did prove to be internationally influential, but not as a statement of human rights. Armitage argued that the Declaration was the first in a new genre of declarations of independence that announced the creation of new states.
Other French leaders were directly influenced by the text of the Declaration of Independence itself. The Manifesto of the Province of Flanders (1790) was the first foreign derivation of the Declaration; others include the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence (1811), the Liberian Declaration of Independence (1847), the declarations of secession by the Confederate States of America (1860 -- 61), and the Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence (1945). These declarations echoed the United States Declaration of Independence in announcing the independence of a new state, without necessarily endorsing the political philosophy of the original.
Other countries have used the Declaration as inspiration or have directly copied sections from it. These include the Haitian declaration of January 1, 1804, during the Haitian Revolution, the United Provinces of New Granada in 1811, the Argentine Declaration of Independence in 1816, the Chilean Declaration of Independence in 1818, Costa Rica in 1821, El Salvador in 1821, Guatemala in 1821, Honduras in (1821), Mexico in 1821, Nicaragua in 1821, Peru in 1821, Bolivian War of Independence in 1825, Uruguay in 1825, Ecuador in 1830, Colombia in 1831, Paraguay in 1842, Dominican Republic in 1844, Texas Declaration of Independence in March 1836, California Republic in November 1836, Hungarian Declaration of Independence in 1849, Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand in 1835, and the Czechoslovak declaration of independence from 1918 drafted in Washington D.C. with Gutzon Borglum among the drafters. The Rhodesian declaration of independence, ratified in November 1965, is based on the American one as well; however, it omits the phrases "all men are created equal '' and "the consent of the governed ''. The South Carolina declaration of secession from December 1860 also mentions the U.S. Declaration of Independence, though it, like the Rhodesian one, omits references to "all men are created equal '' and "consent of the governed ''.
Interest in the Declaration was revived in the 1790s with the emergence of the United States 's first political parties. Throughout the 1780s, few Americans knew or cared who wrote the Declaration. But in the next decade, Jeffersonian Republicans sought political advantage over their rival Federalists by promoting both the importance of the Declaration and Jefferson as its author. Federalists responded by casting doubt on Jefferson 's authorship or originality, and by emphasizing that independence was declared by the whole Congress, with Jefferson as just one member of the drafting committee. Federalists insisted that Congress 's act of declaring independence, in which Federalist John Adams had played a major role, was more important than the document announcing it. But this view faded away, like the Federalist Party itself, and, before long, the act of declaring independence became synonymous with the document.
A less partisan appreciation for the Declaration emerged in the years following the War of 1812, thanks to a growing American nationalism and a renewed interest in the history of the Revolution. In 1817, Congress commissioned John Trumbull 's famous painting of the signers, which was exhibited to large crowds before being installed in the Capitol. The earliest commemorative printings of the Declaration also appeared at this time, offering many Americans their first view of the signed document. Collective biographies of the signers were first published in the 1820s, giving birth to what Garry Wills called the "cult of the signers ''. In the years that followed, many stories about the writing and signing of the document were published for the first time.
When interest in the Declaration was revived, the sections that were most important in 1776 were no longer relevant: the announcement of the independence of the United States and the grievances against King George. But the second paragraph was applicable long after the war had ended, with its talk of self - evident truths and unalienable rights. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights lacked sweeping statements about rights and equality, and advocates of groups with grievances turned to the Declaration for support. Starting in the 1820s, variations of the Declaration were issued to proclaim the rights of workers, farmers, women, and others. In 1848, for example, the Seneca Falls Convention of women 's rights advocates declared that "all men and women are created equal ''.
John Trumbull 's painting Declaration of Independence has played a significant role in popular conceptions of the Declaration of Independence. The painting is 12 - by - 18 - foot (3.7 by 5.5 m) in size and was commissioned by the United States Congress in 1817; it has hung in the United States Capitol Rotunda since 1826. It is sometimes described as the signing of the Declaration of Independence, but it actually shows the Committee of Five presenting their draft of the Declaration to the Second Continental Congress on June 28, 1776, and not the signing of the document, which took place later.
Trumbull painted the figures from life whenever possible, but some had died and images could not be located; hence, the painting does not include all the signers of the Declaration. One figure had participated in the drafting but did not sign the final document; another refused to sign. In fact, the membership of the Second Continental Congress changed as time passed, and the figures in the painting were never in the same room at the same time. It is, however, an accurate depiction of the room in Independence Hall, the centerpiece of the Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Trumbull 's painting has been depicted multiple times on U.S. currency and postage stamps. Its first use was on the reverse side of the $100 National Bank Note issued in 1863. A few years later, the steel engraving used in printing the bank notes was used to produce a 24 - cent stamp, issued as part of the 1869 Pictorial Issue. An engraving of the signing scene has been featured on the reverse side of the United States two - dollar bill since 1976.
The apparent contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal '' and the existence of American slavery attracted comment when the Declaration was first published. As mentioned above, Jefferson had included a paragraph in his initial draft that strongly indicted Great Britain 's role in the slave trade, but this was deleted from the final version. Jefferson himself was a prominent Virginia slave holder, having owned hundreds of slaves. Referring to this seeming contradiction, English abolitionist Thomas Day wrote in a 1776 letter, "If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves. ''
In the 19th century, the Declaration took on a special significance for the abolitionist movement. Historian Bertram Wyatt - Brown wrote that "abolitionists tended to interpret the Declaration of Independence as a theological as well as a political document ''. Abolitionist leaders Benjamin Lundy and William Lloyd Garrison adopted the "twin rocks '' of "the Bible and the Declaration of Independence '' as the basis for their philosophies. "As long as there remains a single copy of the Declaration of Independence, or of the Bible, in our land, '' wrote Garrison, "we will not despair. '' For radical abolitionists such as Garrison, the most important part of the Declaration was its assertion of the right of revolution. Garrison called for the destruction of the government under the Constitution, and the creation of a new state dedicated to the principles of the Declaration.
The controversial question of whether to add additional slave states to the United States coincided with the growing stature of the Declaration. The first major public debate about slavery and the Declaration took place during the Missouri controversy of 1819 to 1821. Antislavery Congressmen argued that the language of the Declaration indicated that the Founding Fathers of the United States had been opposed to slavery in principle, and so new slave states should not be added to the country. Proslavery Congressmen led by Senator Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina argued that the Declaration was not a part of the Constitution and therefore had no relevance to the question.
With the antislavery movement gaining momentum, defenders of slavery such as John Randolph and John C. Calhoun found it necessary to argue that the Declaration 's assertion that "all men are created equal '' was false, or at least that it did not apply to black people. During the debate over the Kansas -- Nebraska Act in 1853, for example, Senator John Pettit of Indiana argued that the statement "all men are created equal '' was not a "self - evident truth '' but a "self - evident lie ''. Opponents of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, including Salmon P. Chase and Benjamin Wade, defended the Declaration and what they saw as its antislavery principles.
The Declaration 's relationship to slavery was taken up in 1854 by Abraham Lincoln, a little - known former Congressman who idolized the Founding Fathers. Lincoln thought that the Declaration of Independence expressed the highest principles of the American Revolution, and that the Founding Fathers had tolerated slavery with the expectation that it would ultimately wither away. For the United States to legitimize the expansion of slavery in the Kansas - Nebraska Act, thought Lincoln, was to repudiate the principles of the Revolution. In his October 1854 Peoria speech, Lincoln said:
Nearly eighty years ago we began by declaring that all men are created equal; but now from that beginning we have run down to the other declaration, that for some men to enslave others is a "sacred right of self - government ''.... Our republican robe is soiled and trailed in the dust.... Let us repurify it. Let us re-adopt the Declaration of Independence, and with it, the practices, and policy, which harmonize with it.... If we do this, we shall not only have saved the Union: but we shall have saved it, as to make, and keep it, forever worthy of the saving.
The meaning of the Declaration was a recurring topic in the famed debates between Lincoln and Stephen Douglas in 1858. Douglas argued that the phrase "all men are created equal '' in the Declaration referred to white men only. The purpose of the Declaration, he said, had simply been to justify the independence of the United States, and not to proclaim the equality of any "inferior or degraded race ''. Lincoln, however, thought that the language of the Declaration was deliberately universal, setting a high moral standard to which the American republic should aspire. "I had thought the Declaration contemplated the progressive improvement in the condition of all men everywhere, '' he said. During the seventh and last joint debate with Steven Douglas at Alton, Illinois on October 15, 1858, Lincoln said about the declaration:
I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men, but they did not mean to declare all men equal in all respects. They did not mean to say all men were equal in color, size, intellect, moral development, or social capacity. They defined with tolerable distinctness in what they did consider all men created equal -- equal in "certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. '' This they said, and this they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth that all were then actually enjoying that equality, or yet that they were about to confer it immediately upon them. In fact, they had no power to confer such a boon. They meant simply to declare the right, so that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit. They meant to set up a standard maxim for free society which should be familiar to all, constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even, though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people, of all colors, everywhere.
According to Pauline Maier, Douglas 's interpretation was more historically accurate, but Lincoln 's view ultimately prevailed. "In Lincoln 's hands, '' wrote Maier, "the Declaration of Independence became first and foremost a living document '' with "a set of goals to be realized over time ''.
-- Abraham Lincoln, 1858
Like Daniel Webster, James Wilson, and Joseph Story before him, Lincoln argued that the Declaration of Independence was a founding document of the United States, and that this had important implications for interpreting the Constitution, which had been ratified more than a decade after the Declaration. The Constitution did not use the word "equality '', yet Lincoln believed that the concept that "all men are created equal '' remained a part of the nation 's founding principles. He famously expressed this belief in the opening sentence of his 1863 Gettysburg Address: "Four score and seven years ago (i.e. in 1776) our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. ''
Lincoln 's view of the Declaration became influential, seeing it as a moral guide to interpreting the Constitution. "For most people now, '' wrote Garry Wills in 1992, "the Declaration means what Lincoln told us it means, as a way of correcting the Constitution itself without overthrowing it. '' Admirers of Lincoln such as Harry V. Jaffa praised this development. Critics of Lincoln, notably Willmoore Kendall and Mel Bradford, argued that Lincoln dangerously expanded the scope of the national government and violated states ' rights by reading the Declaration into the Constitution.
In July 1848, the first woman 's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Mary Ann McClintock, and Jane Hunt. In their "Declaration of Sentiments '', patterned on the Declaration of Independence, the convention members demanded social and political equality for women. Their motto was that "All men and women are created equal '' and the convention demanded suffrage for women. The suffrage movement was supported by William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass.
The Declaration was chosen to be the first digitized text (1971).
The Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence was dedicated in 1984 in Constitution Gardens on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., where the signatures of all the original signers are carved in stone with their names, places of residence, and occupations.
The new One World Trade Center building in New York City (2014) is 1776 feet high to symbolize the year that the Declaration of Independence was signed.
The adoption of the Declaration of Independence was dramatized in the 1969 Tony Award -- winning musical 1776 and the 1972 film version, as well as in the 2008 television miniseries John Adams. In 1970, The 5th Dimension recorded the opening of the Declaration on their album Portrait in the song "Declaration ''. It was first performed on the Ed Sullivan Show on December 7, 1969, and it was taken as a song of protest against the Vietnam War. The Declaration of Independence is also a plot device in the 2004 American film National Treasure.
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who won the ohio state texas game in 2006 | 2005 Texas vs. Ohio State football game - wikipedia
The 2005 Texas vs. Ohio State football game, played September 10, 2005, was the first - ever meeting between The University of Texas at Austin and The Ohio State University in a college football game. The two teams came into the game ranked No. 2 and No. 4, respectively. It was the second game of the 2005 season for both teams. Schools have become increasingly conservative in scheduling non-conference opponents of a high caliber, so a meeting of two top - five teams in the country was unusual this early in the season. For either team, winning the game would boost their chances of ultimately playing in the BCS National Championship Game while the loser likely faced the end of their national championship hopes.
According to observers such as USA Today, the game between the Texas Longhorns and Ohio State Buckeyes was one of the most - anticipated games of the 2005 season. Due to the high level of anticipation, ESPN chose the game for the location of its weekly College GameDay broadcast.
The 2005 Texas Longhorns football team (variously "Texas '' or "UT '' or the "Horns '') was coached by head football coach Mack Brown and led on the field by quarterback Vince Young. The 2005 Ohio State Buckeyes football team (variously "Ohio State '' or "OSU '' or the "Bucks '') was coached by Jim Tressel. Justin Zwick and Troy Smith shared time as quarterback due to disciplinary measures enforced against Smith. The game was a back - and - forth affair which was ultimately won by Texas, 25 -- 22. The game 's attendance was 105,565, which set the then all - time attendance record for Ohio Stadium. The game was televised nationally on ABC and drew 9.9 million viewers.
ESPN and College Football Rivals, were among the observers who named the game one of the best football games of the season. Texas ' win kept them near the front of the national championship picture. They ultimately finished the season unbeaten, snaring the Big 12 Conference and NCAA championships. Ohio State finished the season with ten wins and two losses and ranked No. 4 in the nation.
The Ohio State Buckeyes and Texas Longhorns are two of the most storied programs in college football. Before 2005 each school had participated in college football for more than 100 years. They are home to nationally known traditions from the Buckeye leaf stickers and the O-H-I-O chant at Ohio State to Bevo and the Hook ' em Horns of Texas.
One of the three most victorious programs in college football history as judged by either number of wins or winning percentage, the University of Texas has traditionally been considered a college football powerhouse. From 1936 to 2004, the team finished the season in the top ten 23 times, or one - third of the time, according to the Associated Press. The team that coach Mack Brown fielded in 2005 has been called one of the most memorable in college football history by College Football News.
Like the Longhorns, the Buckeyes are an elite football program. The Buckeyes program has produced 164 first - team All - American players, including seven Heisman Trophy winners.
The 2005 UT team was attempting to follow on the success of the 2004 season, in which quarterback Vince Young led the team to Mack Brown 's first Bowl Championship Series (BCS) game in the 2005 Rose Bowl and a top - 5 finish in the polls. With the exception of Cedric Benson, Derrick Johnson, and Bo Scaife, Texas returned most of their key players from 2004 -- 2005, including redshirt junior quarterback Vince Young.
Texas was given a pre-season No. 2 ranking (behind defending National Champions University of Southern California) by Sports Illustrated magazine and was also ranked second in the pre-season Associated Press Poll and USA Today Coaches Poll. This created anticipation that Texas might play for the national championship if they could win their road game against Ohio State University and if they could snap their five - game losing streak against the Oklahoma Sooners who started the season ranked at No. 7.
Ohio State had similarly high pre-season expectations with their No. 4 ranking. There was preseason speculation they might win the Big Ten Conference and possibly even to have a chance at the national championship. The team featured a "dynamic duo '' of wide receivers in Ted Ginn, Jr. and Santonio Holmes. Holmes entered his junior year as the No. 1 receiver for the Buckeyes after catching a pass in every game he played during the 2004 season; he finished the season with 769 yards and seven touchdowns on 55 catches. Ginn was known for his explosive plays and versatility. For instance in the 2004 game against the Michigan State Spartans, he scored three touchdowns (one rushing, one receiving, and one punt return).
For either team to play in the national title game, that team had to end up ranked No. 1 or No. 2 at the end of the regular season. Since the Bowl Championship Series was formed in 1998, 9 of the 14 teams were unbeaten going into the championship game. The only time the national champion has not been unbeaten during that stretch was in 2003 when LSU and USC claimed a share of the title as each finished with one loss. Ohio State tackle Kirk Barton would later say "There 'll probably be two undefeated teams at the end of the road and if you 're not one of them you 're probably not going to be playing for the championship. So you 've got to treat every game like it 's the Super Bowl. You only get one opportunity. ''
After they each won their home opener, Texas and Ohio State came into the game still ranked No. 2 and No. 4, respectively. According to observers such as USA Today, the match - up between the Longhorns and the OSU Buckeyes was one of the most - anticipated games of the 2005 season. Teams have become increasingly conservative in scheduling non-conference opponents of a high caliber, so a meeting of the number 2 and number 4 teams in the country is unusual this early in the season. Due to the high level of anticipation, ESPN chose the game for the location of its weekly College GameDay broadcast.
This meeting was also the first - ever match - up between the two storied programs; the two teams had combined to play 1,594 games before meeting. For Texas, it also meant playing a second Big Ten Conference powerhouse soon after winning the first - ever matchup between Texas and the University of Michigan at the end of the 2004 season.
The Buckeyes entered the game with an all - time record of 766 -- 298 -- 53 including an Ohio Stadium mark of 356 -- 101 -- 20. During the 115 years the school has played football, the Buckeyes had won seven national championships, the most recent being in 2002 when they finished with a perfect 14 -- 0 record. Texas came into the game with an all - time record of 788 -- 310 -- 33 since 1893. The Longhorns victory total and victory percentage are both the third highest in the NCAA annals. The Longhorns had won three national championships, most recently in 1970. OSU ranked sixth all - time winning percentage and was tied with Alabama for fifth in terms of total victories.
Before the game, it had been uncertain who would play at quarterback for Ohio State. Justin Zwick had started for OSU in the 2004 season but three straight loses and an injury to Zwick gave Troy Smith a chance to start. However, an NCAA investigation found Smith took $500 from an Ohio State booster in violation of NCAA rules. Although he could have been dismissed from the team, ultimately he had to repay the money and was forced to sit out OSU 's 2004 bowl game and the first game of 2005. Ohio State coach Jim Tressel announced ahead of time that both Zwick and Smith would play in the game.
The game was played at Ohio State University in Ohio Stadium, also known as "The Horseshoe '' or "the Shoe ''. This stadium is notoriously tough for visiting teams, as its large capacity and structural design create a tremendous amount of crowd noise that can make it difficult for the visiting team to call audibles at the line of scrimmage. The Buckeyes had an active 36 consecutive game non-conference winning streak in the stadium. The game 's attendance was 105,565, which set the all - time attendance record for Ohio Stadium. The game was televised nationally on ABC and drew 9.9 million viewers.
The Buckeyes got the ball to start the game and Justin Zwick was the starting quarterback. He led his team to advance only five yards in three plays so they punted from their own 46 yard - line to the UT eleven yard - line. Less than five minutes into the game, Texas scored first on a field goal by David Pino. The 42 - yard kick was a career - long for Pino and also the first of what would be a career - high (single game) three field goals. Ohio State strung together 11 plays for 64 yards but had to punt. With 1: 37 to play in the first quarter, Texas extended this lead to 10 -- 0 with a five - yard touchdown pass from Vince Young to Billy Pittman. Troy Smith came into the game for the first time and was still leading the Buckeyes at the end of the first quarter.
Ohio State controlled most of the second quarter. Their first score was a 45 - yd field goal by Josh Huston followed by a 36 - yard touchdown pass from Troy Smith to Santonio Holmes to tie the score at 10 -- 10. They took the lead with two more field goals from Josh Huston; the first was from 36 yards and the second was from 25 yards. Following the kick - off, Texas took possession of the ball at their own 31 yard - line with only 31 seconds remaining in the first half. Young began the drive by throwing a 36 - yard pass to the Ohio State 18 yard - line and then the receiver ran out of bounds to stop the clock with 20 seconds to play. On the next play, Young rushed for six yards and was tackled in - bounds, causing Texas to use a time out with 12 seconds on the clock. On second down, OSU 's A.J. Hawk sacked Vince Young for a loss of 8 yards, forcing Texas to take another time - out with seven seconds remaining. Texas put in David Pino to complete a 37 - yard kick with two seconds left, making the score 16 -- 13 in favor of Ohio State. Texas kicked off and time expired on the ensuing 18 - yard return by Erick Jackson.
Just as it was the first - ever meeting of the two football teams, it was also the first time that The Ohio State University Marching Band (nicknamed "The Best Damn Band in the Land '' or TBDBITL) and The University of Texas Longhorn Band (nicknamed "The Showband of the Southwest '') had ever performed back - to - back halftime performances. The OSU band performed Script Ohio and the UT band performed Script Texas. Ohio State also held a ceremony to honor one of their longtime coaches, Woody Hayes, by placing his name on the east side of the stadium.
Texas got the ball at their 20 to start the second half. On the first play from scrimmage, Jamaal Charles rushed for three yards. On second down, Vince Young 's pass was intercepted by Nate Salley at the UT 37. Two rushes by Antonio Pittman resulted in a first down at the UT 30. After a short gain on first down and an incomplete pass on second down, Troy Smith recovered his own fumble on third down to set up a successful 44 - yard field goal by Huston. Texas used six plays, including a 63 - yard pass to Billy Pittman before being stopped at the Ohio State eight yard - line. David Pino made the 25 - yard field goal. On the ensuing kick - off by Richmond McGee, OSU 's Ted Ginn, Jr. took the ball at the one yard - line and ran it out to almost mid-field. The drive ended with a successful 26 - yard field goal by Huston. The following three possessions (two for Texas and one for Ohio State) resulted in punts. The third quarter expired with Ohio State leading 22 to 16 and with control of the ball near mid-field.
Ohio State was unable to score and gave the ball back to Texas with 13: 24 left in the game. Texas was forced to punt. On the Buckeyes ' next possession they drove from their own 30 to the Texas 33 before settling for a sixth field goal attempt by Huston, this one from 50 yards out. Huston missed wide left to leave Ohio State still ahead by six points. Texas took over at their own 33 with 5: 07 left in the game.
On an incomplete pass to Brian Carter, Texas benefited from a pass interference penalty which moved the ball to the UT 48. Vince Young rushed for four yards and then threw an incomplete pass to Ramonce Taylor before taking a timeout with 4: 42 left to play. Young 's next pass was complete for a first down to Jamaal Charles who went out - of - bounds to completely stop the clock. Vince Young rushed for one yard to the OSU 38 and then took a time - out at 3: 53. Young threw to Jamaal Charles who gained eight yards and went out - of - bounds. An offsides penalty by Ohio State and a one - yard rush by Jamaal Charles gave Texas second and nine from the Ohio State 24. On second and nine with 2: 37 remaining to play, Vince Young passed a touchdown pass over the head of a defender to find Limas Sweed in the end - zone. It was the 23rd touchdown pass by Young, putting him seventh in the all - time school record book. David Pino 's kick gave Texas the lead at 23 -- 22.
Texas kicked off to the Ohio State five yard - line and Holmes returned it 26 yards to the Buckeye 31. Justin Zwick was in at quarterback for Ohio State. On first - and - ten and needing a score to win the game, Zwick rushed around the left side to the 35 but a fumble was forced by UT 's Drew Kelson. UT 's Brian Robison recovered the fumble at the 30 and advanced it nine yards before being tackled by Vernon Gholston at the Ohio State 21.
With 2: 19 to play and nursing a one - point lead, Texas was in position to win if they could run out the clock. They began with a 12 - yard rush on the left side by Jamaal Charles for a first down. Charles then carried again up the middle for a two - yard gain to the Ohio State 7. OSU called a time - out to stop the clock at 1: 36. On second - and - goal, Vince Young kept the ball and gained three yards before being tackled by A.J. Hawk. The Buckeyes again called time - out with 1: 23 left. Young carried again for three yards before being brought down by B. Carpenter and A.J. Hawk just one yard short of the goal - line. This time, Texas took a time - out with 29 seconds left to play. Following the time - out, Young handed off to Henry Melton who was stopped for no gain. Ohio State took over on downs.
Troy Smith came back in as quarterback for Ohio State. On first down, Smith was sacked for a loss of one yard by Aaron Harris. This gave Texas a safety, extending their lead to 25 -- 22. Josh Huston attempted an onside kick, but Texas was able to recover it at the Ohio State 32. Texas took a knee to end the game.
Ohio State recovered three turnovers in Texas territory, but each time the Texas defense held OSU to just a field goal. The five field goals by Josh Huston tied an Ohio State school and stadium record. He now shares the record with Mike Nugent (at North Carolina State, September 19, 2004) and Bob Atha (vs. Indiana, October 24, 1981, in Ohio Stadium). Wide receiver Ted Ginn, Jr., usually an important contributor for the Buckeyes, was held to only nine yards receiving but he also contributed 82 yards on three kick - off returns (the longest was for 46 yards) and eight yards on one punt return.
Texas ' win at 25 -- 22 was the lowest scoring game the team would experience all season, both in terms of points scored by Texas and in terms of total points. UT 's victory against fourth - ranked OSU marked the highest ranked non-conference opponent the Longhorns had ever beaten at the opponent 's home stadium. The previous high came in 1983 when third - ranked Texas pulled off a 20 -- 7 upset at fifth - ranked Auburn. Texas became the first non-conference opponent to beat The Buckeyes in Ohio Stadium since 1990, putting an end to a 36 - game home victory string over non-conference opponents. The Longhorns also were the first team to ever beat the Buckeyes in a night game at The Horseshoe. It was UT 's 10th straight victory in a night game road contest. ESPN and College Football Rivals, were among the observers who named the game one of the best football games of the season.
Texas eventually finished the season of 2005 -- 2006 as the only undefeated team, winning both the Big 12 Conference championship and the National Championship. The Longhorns ' penultimate victory of the season, in the Big 12 Championship Game, featured the biggest margin of victory in the history of that contest. Their ultimate victory in the 2006 Rose Bowl against the University of Southern California Trojans for the national championship, as well as their overall season, have both been cited as standing among the greatest performances in college football history by publications such as College Football News, the Atlanta Journal - Constitution, Scout.com, and Sports Illustrated. The Longhorns and the Trojans were together awarded the 2006 ESPY Award by ESPN for the "Best Game '' in any sport. The Longhorns finished the season as the only unbeaten team, with 13 wins and zero losses overall.
The season gave Texas its second Big 12 football championship (27 conference championships total, including 25 in the Southwest Conference), and fourth consensus national championship in football. It was the ninth perfect season in the history of Longhorn football.
UT set numerous school and NCAA records, including most points scored in a season (652). After the season ended, six Longhorns from this championship team were selected by professional football teams in the 2006 NFL Draft.
Ohio State finished the season with an appearance in the 2006 Fiesta Bowl where they defeated the Notre Dame Fighting Irish 34 -- 20. They finished the season ranked No. 4 in the nation. The two teams met the next year in Texas, with Ohio State prevailing 24 - 7 in a rematch. In 2009, they met again in the Fiesta Bowl, with Texas scoring with 16 seconds left to win 24 - 21. The two teams have n't met since then. However, they are said to meet in another home and home series in 2022 and 2023, with the 2022 game occurring in Texas and the 2023 game occurring in Columbus. However, this has since been pushed back a ways. Now, the two games are to occur in 2025 and 2026. The 2025 game will be played in Texas, and the 2026 game will be played in Columbus.
Media related to 2005 Texas Longhorns football team at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Texas Longhorns football at Wikiquote
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lambeau field how many seats in a row | Lambeau Field - Wikipedia
Lambeau Field is an outdoor athletic stadium in the north central United States, located in Green Bay, Wisconsin. The home field of the Green Bay Packers of the National Football League (NFL), it opened in 1957 as City Stadium, replacing the original City Stadium at East High School as the Packers ' home field. Informally known as New City Stadium for its first eight seasons, it was renamed in August 1965 in memory of Packers founder, player, and long - time head coach, Curly Lambeau, who had died two months earlier.
The stadium 's street address has been 1265 Lombardi Avenue since August 1968, when Highland Avenue was renamed in honor of former head coach Vince Lombardi. It sits on a block bounded by Lombardi Avenue (north); Oneida Street (east); Stadium Drive and Valley View Road (south); and Ridge Road (west). The playing field at the stadium has a conventional north - south alignment, at an elevation of 640 feet (195 m) above sea level.
The stadium completed its latest renovation in the summer of 2013 with the addition of 7,000 seats high in the south end zone. About 5,400 of the new seating is general, while the remaining 1,600 seats are club or terrace suite seating. With a capacity of 81,441, Lambeau Field is the fifth - largest stadium in the NFL with standing room, but is fourth in normal capacity. It is now the largest venue in the state, edging out Camp Randall Stadium (80,321) at the University of Wisconsin in Madison.
Lambeau Field is the oldest continually operating NFL stadium. In 2007, the Packers completed their 51st season at Lambeau, breaking the all - time NFL record set by the Chicago Bears at Wrigley Field (1921 -- 70). (While Soldier Field in Chicago is older, it was not the home of the Bears until 1971.) Only the Boston Red Sox at Fenway Park and the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley have longer active home - field tenures in American professional sports.
Since 1925, the Packers had played at 25,000 - seat City Stadium, located behind Green Bay East High School. However, by the 1950s, it was considered inadequate for the times. It was built almost entirely of wood, and East High 's locker room facilities were considered inadequate even in the 1920s; visiting teams often dressed at their hotel. Besides the school 's location which limited any expansion of the seating southward, its placement along the East River meant seating expansion on the north and east sides of the stadium was also impossible. Officials in Milwaukee, 120 miles (190 km) to the south, where the Packers had played part of their schedule since 1933, knew that City Stadium was less than ideal as an NFL venue. They built Milwaukee County Stadium in 1953 in hopes of luring the Packers there full - time. As originally built, County Stadium was double the size of City Stadium.
Soon after County Stadium opened, the other NFL owners threatened to force the Packers to move to Milwaukee unless they built a new stadium. In August 1955, the Packers announced plans for a new stadium in Green Bay, with a seating capacity of 32,000. In April 1956, Green Bay voters responded by approving (70.3 %) a bond issue to finance the new stadium. The original cost in 1957 was $960,000 (paid off in 1978) and its seating capacity was 32,500.
The new stadium was the first modern stadium built specifically for an NFL franchise. At the time, the eleven other NFL teams were playing either in facilities shared with major league baseball teams, or in other pre-existing shared facilities.
The site, now bordered on three sides by the village of Ashwaubenon, was selected because it had a natural slope, ideal for creating the bowl shape, along with expansive parking. The nearby outdoor practice fields (Clarke Hinkle Field and Ray Nitschke Field) and Don Hutson Center are in Ashwaubenon, as was the Packers Hall of Fame until 2003.
The new City Stadium was officially opened in week one of the 1957 season on September 29, as the Packers upset the rival Bears 21 -- 17 in front of a capacity crowd of 32,132. In a ceremony at halftime, the stadium was dedicated by Vice President Richard Nixon. Also in attendance on the platform were reigning Miss America Marilyn Van Derbur, NFL commissioner Bert Bell, and Bears ' owner George Halas, on a brief leave from coaching.
Although they now had a modern facility in Green Bay, the Packers continued to play two or three regular - season games in Milwaukee at County Stadium. Starting in 1995, expansions to Lambeau Field (see below) made it financially realistic for the Packers to play their entire regular season in Green Bay for the first time in over 60 years. Former Milwaukee ticket holders receive tickets to a preseason game and games 2 and 5 of the regular season home schedule, in what is referred to as the "Gold package ''. Green Bay season ticket holders receive tickets to the remaining home games as part of their "Green package ''.
Demand for tickets at the new stadium easily outstripped supply, not coincidentally after the arrival of coach Vince Lombardi in 1959. In 1961, four years after it opened, the stadium 's capacity was increased to 38,669.
Since then, the Packers have been regularly increasing the seating capacity. The bowl was increased to 42,327 in 1963, to about 50,837 in 1965 with the enclosure of the south end zone, and to 56,263 in 1970, when the north end zone was enclosed to form a continuous oval bowl. In the early 1980s, the team considered placing a dome on the stadium.
Construction of 72 private boxes in 1985 increased the seating capacity to 56,926, and a 1990 addition of 36 additional boxes and 1,920 theatre - style club seats brought the number to 59,543. In 1995, a $4.7 million project put 90 more private boxes in the previously open north end zone, again giving the stadium the feel of a complete bowl and increasing capacity to 60,890.
By the end of 1999, the Packers believed that they needed to update the facility to remain financially competitive in the NFL. Rather than build a new stadium, Chairman / CEO Bob Harlan and President / COO John Jones unveiled a $295 million plan to renovate Lambeau Field in January 2000. It was to be paid for partly by the team via the 1997 -- 98 stock sale, which netted more than $20 million. Most of the proceeds were to be paid through a 0.5 % sales tax in Brown County and personal seat license fees on season ticket holders. After their plan won approval by the Wisconsin State Legislature, it was ratified by Brown County voters on September 12, 2000 by a 53 % -- 47 % margin. Construction began early in 2001. The sales tax expired on September 30, 2015.
The massive redevelopment plan was designed to update the facilities, add more premium and suite seating, yet preserve the seating bowl, keeping the storied natural grass playing field of the "frozen tundra ''. The project was completed in time for the 2003 season, bringing the capacity to 72,515. Construction management was conducted by Turner Construction Sports, and proved to be of remarkably little disruption to the 2001 and 2002 seasons.
Although the capacity has more than doubled since Lambeau Field was opened, demand for tickets remains high. The Packers have sold out every game since 1960, and at least 115,000 names are on the waiting list (with a reported average wait time of 30 years). The sell - out streak has had the effect (intended or not) of ensuring that all Packers home games are televised in Green Bay and Milwaukee, a streak that started in 1973 (prior to that time, local telecasts of home games were disallowed regardless of how many tickets were sold); the Packers are one of four NFL teams (the others being the Washington Redskins, Denver Broncos, and Pittsburgh Steelers) that have not had a home game blacked out since the 1973 blackout rules were put into place, with the exception of a 1983 Wild Card Playoff game against the Cardinals in 1983.
During the 2007 season, Lambeau Field was voted the number one NFL stadium in game - day atmosphere and fan experience by a Sports Illustrated online poll.
In 2009, The Sports Turf Managers Association named Lambeau Field the 2009 Field of the Year.
In 2010, plans were announced by the Green Bay Packers to install new high definition scoreboards in place of their current scoreboards; plans for a new sound system were announced as well. Later the plans were expanded to include adding as many as 7,500 seats both inside and outside as well as viewing platforms and lounge areas. On May 5, 2011, the Packers sent out an online survey to 30,000 season - ticket holders, club - seat holders and individuals on the season - ticket waiting list to get feedback from the fans on several concepts being considered for the south end - zone development. On August 25, 2011 plans were officially announced to add 7,500 new seats to the south end zone. The new seats are outdoors with the exception of one indoor row. The seats include heated areas that melt snow as it falls (a concept tested on a small scale during winter 2010), intending to solve the logistical problem of shoveling snow from an "upper deck '' seating area. The snow that falls into the original bowl area is shoveled by compensated volunteers from the community using a system of temporary chutes placed in the aisles and carts to remove the snow from the stadium.
The new sound system was completed in time for the 2011 -- 2012 NFL season. On August 25, 2011 Packers president Mark Murphy announced that the expansion of Lambeau would not be paid by taxpayers but by the team itself. After construction was completed on the south end zone seating in the summer of 2013, Lambeau became the 3rd largest stadium in the NFL, with a capacity of 80,750. Additional construction included two new tower gates for the north and south end zone. Lambeau Field also installed Mitsubishi Diamond Vision Video Boards, as well as a rooftop viewing terrace in the north end zone for club seat holders during games. The rooftop viewing terrace and video boards were completed in time for the 2012 season.
On December 12, 2012, Lambeau Field was damaged by a minor fire when construction workers were cutting a metal beam near the fourth floor. The sparks from the cutting landed inside a wall and ignited the foam insulation. The area was temporarily evacuated and a minor back injury to one of the responding firefighters was reported. Green Bay Fire Lt. Nick Craig says the fire was small but in an unwieldy area. He says fire officials had to proceed slowly because they did n't want to open the wall and allow the flames an oxygen supply until they had enough water on hand. The fire happened on Aaron Rodgers Day, a day the state proclaimed in honor of the Packers quarterback because Rodgers wears No. 12, and the date that Wednesday was 12 - 12 - 12. The fire damage cost $5,000 in repairs.
In 2013, the Packers announced a new $140.5 million renovation project for the Lambeau Atrium entrance, that will be entirely paid by the Packers without public funding. The project began in March 2013 and was completed in June 2015.
The Packers removed ground between Bob Harlan Plaza and Lombardi Avenue, which is now the basement of the atrium. The Pro Shop has been moved to the new ground level, and a set of escalators were installed on the western side, leading to the atrium and the entrance of the Miller Gate. The Packers Hall of Fame moved to the second floor of the atrium where Curly 's Pub was originally located. Curly 's moved to the main floor where the Pro Shop was previously held. This renovation project was referred to as "Phase II '', with the first phase considered as the 7,500 seats that were installed previously. The new setup was made to be easier for fans to get to Curly 's as it was difficult for fans in the past.
Phase II also included the following:
The renovation project is expected to create approximately 1,500 jobs and pay more than $60 million in wages. Team president and CEO Mark Murphy said 95 % of spending on the project will be done in Wisconsin and 69 % in northeastern Wisconsin.
A 50 - foot - tall replica Lombardi Trophy was unveiled on November 14, 2014 on the east side of the stadium.
The Lambeau Field Atrium houses the Green Bay Packers Pro Shop, the Packers Hall of Fame, Lambeau Field Stadium Tours, and the 1919 Kitchen & Tap. It also hosts special events, such as meetings, weddings, receptions, and social gatherings.
The Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame is on the first level of the Atrium. The Hall of Fame is an independent, charitable association that promotes the history of the Green Bay Packers. Since 1970, 157 Packers have been inducted into the Hall, which attracts over 170,000 visitors annually.
On August 20, 2015, the Green Bay Packers presented the master plan for the Titletown District, an area that will be constructed on approximately 34 acres of land just west of Lambeau Field. Titletown will consist of three tenants including Lodge Kohler, a hotel built and managed by the Kohler Company; a Bellin Health Sports Medicine Clinic; and Hinterland Restaurant and Brewery. Development on the remaining 16 acres calls for commercial, retail, and residential elements. Completion is scheduled for Fall, 2017.
As of the end of the 2017 season, the Packers have compiled a 231 -- 120 -- 5 regular season mark at Lambeau Field. The Packers playoff record at home as of the 2017 season is 17 - 5.
There are two NFL teams that have never won a regular season game at Lambeau, which are the Arizona Cardinals (0 -- 7) and Denver Broncos (0 -- 4). No team has an undefeated record at Lambeau Field. The last remaining team with an undefeated record, the Houston Texans, was beaten by the Packers in Week 13 of the 2016 NFL season.
The original name of Lambeau Field lasted through the 1964 season. Officially "City Stadium '', the name "New City Stadium '' was used informally to distinguish it from its predecessor at East High School.
Two months after the death of Packers founder Curly Lambeau, New City Stadium was renamed "Lambeau Field '' by the Green Bay city council on August 3, 1965.
Besides founding the team in 1919, Lambeau played for the Packers in their early years and was the team 's coach for 31 seasons through 1949. He shares the distinction with rival George Halas of the Chicago Bears of coaching his team to the most NFL championships, with six. Lambeau was inducted as a charter member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio in 1963.
On November 7, 2000, two months after Brown County voters approved a sales tax to fund Lambeau Field 's renovation, a second referendum was presented to the same Brown County voters. This referendum asked whether naming rights to the renovated stadium should be sold in order to retire earlier the 0.5 % sales tax created to cover construction costs. The referendum passed 53 % - 47 %, the exact percentage by which voters approved the sales tax.
After the vote passed, the Packers entered talks with the city of Green Bay, which owns the stadium, to further explore the options. The City and team agreed to sell the rights if a price of $100 million could be realized, although no buyer has been found.
The Packers, although agreeing to be bound by the will of the voters, have consistently stressed that they would prefer Lambeau Field keep its traditional name, honoring the club 's founder.
The Packers have sold naming rights to the eight entrance gates. From the north going clockwise, they are: Bellin Health (north gate), Miller Brewing (atrium gate), American Family Insurance (northeast gate at parking lot level), the Oneida Tribe of Indians of Wisconsin (east gate on elevated plaza facing Oneida Street), Shopko (south gate), Mills Fleet Farm stores (southwest gate), Associated Bank (west gate and private box entrance), and Kwik Trip (northwest gate). Verizon was the previous sponsor of the northwest gate (2003 - 2017). Miller Brewing is also a sponsor of the atrium, and has a section in one end zone called the "Miller Lite End Zone '', giving away tickets in that area with various beer promotions.
At the 2015 Packers shareholders meeting President Mark Murphy said "We will not sell the naming rights to the stadium... We will never do that. It will always be Lambeau Field ''.
The stadium 's nickname was spawned by the Ice Bowl between the Packers and the Dallas Cowboys, played on December 31, 1967. The game was played in temperatures of − 15 ° F (− 26 ° C) with sharp winds. Journalist Tex Maule associated Lambeau Field with the term tundra in his article summarizing the game in Sports Illustrated.
Lambeau Field is alleged to have gotten its nickname, The Frozen Tundra, from The Greatest Challenge, the Packers ' authorized version of the highlight film written by Steve Sabol. In the Cowboys ' authorized version of the highlight film, A Chilling Championship, also written by Sabol, Bill Woodson used the term the Frozen Tundra when narrating the film to describe Lambeau Field. Prior to the 1967 season, an underground electric heating system had been installed but it was not able to counter the effects of the cold front that hit Green Bay at the onset of the Ice Bowl. The field had been covered overnight with the heater on, but when the cover was removed in the sub-zero cold, the moisture atop the grass flash - froze.
The underground heating and drainage system was redone in 1997, with a system of pipes filled with a solution including antifreeze replacing the electric coils. After the 2006 season, the surface, heating, and drainage system was replaced. A new grass surface was installed, using the Desso GrassMaster system, which has synthetic fibers woven into the traditional Kentucky bluegrass sod. Even the new video boards, installed in 2004, have been influenced by the field 's nickname, being called "Tundra Vision ''. These video displays measure more than 25 feet (7.6 m) high by 46 feet (14 m) wide. An artificial lighting system, based on technology used in Dutch rose - growing greenhouses, was tested in 2010 and purchased for use in the 2011 season. It operates 24 hours a day from October to early December to extend the growing season for the field 's grass. The system is also used in some soccer stadiums where shade from stands and partial roofs are a problem for the turf, not the cold and short growing season found in Green Bay.
More famously a nickname for the city than its football field, "Titletown, USA '' became popularized in 1961, even before Vince Lombardi won any of his championships. At the 1961 NFL Championship Game against the New York Giants, which the Packers won 37 -- 0, fans hung up signs around the stadium that read Welcome to Titletown, USA. Then - Giants quarterback Y.A. Tittle joked that the honor was for him, just that his name was misspelled. By the mid-60s, Titletown, USA was registered as a trademark of the Green Bay Packers, Inc. Lambeau Field has been home to seven NFL world championship seasons, five under Lombardi, one under Mike Holmgren and one under Mike McCarthy, surpassing the six world championship seasons witnessed by its predecessor, City Stadium, under Curly Lambeau.
Lambeau Field has frequently given a significant postseason home - field advantage for the Packers. Playoff games at Lambeau Field typically feature cold Wisconsin winters. The most famous example is the aforementioned Ice Bowl. More recently, in the 1997 NFL playoffs both the San Francisco 49ers in the divisional playoffs and the Carolina Panthers in the NFC Championship Game struggled to adapt to the muddy and the cold conditions respectively. The temperatures during the 2007 NFC Championship Game (in which the Packers lost in OT, 23 -- 20, to the New York Giants) reached as low as − 4 ° F (− 20 ° C), with a wind chill of − 24 ° F (− 31 ° C). From its opening in 1957 until January 2003, when they fell 27 -- 7 to the Atlanta Falcons, the Packers had never lost a postseason game at Lambeau Field. However, the Packers hosted just one postseason game (in the ad - hoc round - of - 16 in the strike - shortened 1982 season) during a lean stretch of 27 years between the Ice Bowl of 1967 and a wild - card game in December 1994. Although the Packers have won only five of their last ten playoff games at Lambeau Field, their overall home post-season record is a respectable 16 -- 5. The stadium has hosted five championship contests: three NFL title games in 1961, 1965 and 1967 (the "Ice Bowl ''); two NFC championships after the 1996 and 2007 seasons.
Many Packer players will jump into the end zone stands after scoring a touchdown, in a celebration affectionately known as the "Lambeau Leap ''. The Lambeau Leap was invented by safety LeRoy Butler, who scored after a Reggie White fumble recovery and lateral against the L.A. Raiders on December 26, 1993. It was later popularized by wide receiver Robert Brooks.
It 's not known precisely when the celebration was first coined the "Lambeau Leap '', but one of the first possible mentions was by broadcaster Al Michaels, who mentioned during a Monday Night Football broadcast in 1996, "It 's a new tradition in Green Bay, Robert Brooks leaping into the stands. ''
When the NFL banned excessive celebrations in 2000, the Lambeau Leap was grandfathered into the new rules, permitting it to continue.
Occasionally, a visiting player will attempt a Lambeau Leap, only to be denied by Packers fans. This happened to then - Minnesota Vikings cornerback Fred Smoot when he intercepted a pass and returned it for a touchdown; Packers fans proceeded to throw their beverages on Smoot. During the 2007 NFC Championship game, New York Giants running back Brandon Jacobs faked a Lambeau Leap after scoring a touchdown, angering many Green Bay faithful in the stands. Before a game against the Packers on September 20, 2009, Cincinnati Bengals wideout Chad Johnson, then known as Chad Ochocinco, announced he would do a Lambeau Leap if he scored a touchdown, and then followed through by leaping into the arms of pre-arranged fans wearing Bengals jerseys.
In 2014, a statue was made outside of Lambeau Field commemorating the Leap. Featuring a shortened replica of the end zone wall and 4 random Packers fans, the statue allows visitors to pose for pictures doing their own Lambeau Leap.
The NFL Network countdown program, NFL Top 10, named the Lambeau Leap the 3rd greatest touchdown celebration of all time.
Originally, music at Lambeau Field was provided by the Packers ' Lumberjack Band. The live band has been replaced by recorded music.
The Packers intro music for when they are introduced before each game is "Get Ready for This '' by 2 Unlimited. PA announcer Bill Jartz (also the main news anchor for WBAY - TV (Channel 2)), accompanies this by saying, "Ladies and gentlemen, here are your 13 - time World Champion Green Bay Packers. ''
Whenever the Packers score a touchdown, the Todd Rundgren hit "Bang the Drum All Day '' is played. This tradition began in 1985.
The "Go Pack Go '' jingle is usually played when the team is on defense or during the start of a drive on offense. A song built around this jingle is "Go Pack Go! '' by The 6 Packers.
The House of Pain hit "Jump Around '' is often played during one time - out at Lambeau, resulting in widespread jumping around by the crowd. This tradition began due to the popularity of the same song / crowd - participation tradition at University of Wisconsin football games.
The polka standard "Beer Barrel Polka '' (also known as "Roll Out The Barrel '') is also played at Lambeau Field, usually in the fourth quarter of games. "I Gotta Feeling '' by the Black Eyed Peas is played when the Packers win a game.
With the 1997 -- 98 sale of stock in the Packers corporation, swelling the number of owners to over 112,000, a large venue was needed for the annual shareholders meeting. The event returned to Lambeau Field in 2006 after several thousand people were turned away from the 2005 meeting at the nearby Resch Center.
When built, Lambeau Field was also slated to be used by Green Bay 's public high schools, as old City Stadium had been. However, a key 1962 game between the Packers and Detroit Lions was affected when two high schools played in the rain the preceding Friday, damaging the field. After that, Lombardi asked the schools to avoid using Lambeau, however both Southwest High and West High played there until a west side high school stadium was built in the late 1970s. In 1973, the WISAA Championship game was played there, the last at Lambeau, between Wisconsin Rapids Assumption and Marquette University High School. In 1982 and 1983, St. Norbert College hosted Fordham University (Lombardi 's alma mater) in two Division III tilts, benefitting the Vince Lombardi Cancer Foundation.
Shortly after the 2006 Wisconsin -- Ohio State hockey game (see below), newspaper reports said the Wisconsin football team might be interested in moving a non-conference road game to Lambeau Field.
In 2016, Lambeau Field hosted the Wisconsin Badgers vs. LSU Tigers in the 2nd of a two - game series which started in 2014, where the game was in Houston at NRG Stadium. The Badgers won in what was called a "Historic upset '' by ESPN and Yahoo! Sports, as the unranked Badgers defeated the # 5 ranked Tigers 16 - 14.
Following the success of the "Cold War '', collegiate ice hockey game held in 2001 at Michigan State 's Spartan Stadium, hockey teams from Wisconsin and Ohio State met in the Frozen Tundra Hockey Classic, an outdoor game played on a temporary rink inside the stadium on February 11, 2006. The Badgers defeated the Buckeyes 4 -- 2 before a capacity crowd of 40,890. There were some problems as the ice began to crack during play, but overall it was a success, ending with the Badgers doing the Lambeau Leap following their victory.
In 2004 a snowmobile racing event was held in the parking lot due to a lack of snow. In 2005 the snowmobile racing event took place over the turf, with the right amount of snow cover.
Not many concerts are held at Lambeau Field because the primary use of the stadium is football. The Lambeau Field lease between the city of Green Bay and the Packers allows for one non-football event a month between February and June, with the Packers having veto power.
For many years, Lambeau hosted a popular annual Fourth of July fireworks display, sponsored by locally based retailer Shopko Stores, Inc.
Lambeau Field is the fourth largest stadium in the NFL by seating capacity.
The Green Bay Packers have made efforts to make Lambeau Field more environmentally sustainable. In fact, extra recycling bins will be placed around the field and biodegradable food - ware will be used at restaurants and other establishments within Lambeau Field. In addition, there are plans to power the field with wind energy and biogas. Similarly, more than 500 induction lighting fixtures have been installed within it, as well as 11 high - efficiency condensing boilers for space heating in the stadium, melting snow, and heating the field. Also, two high - efficiency electric chillers have been installed for the air - conditioned regions of Lambeau Field.
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red house painters - song for a blue guitar | Songs for a Blue guitar - wikipedia
Songs for a Blue Guitar is an album by Red House Painters, released on July 22, 1996 in the UK, and a day later in the US. It is effectively a Mark Kozelek solo album, since no other members of the band are listed in the liner notes. The album introduced heavier, electric guitar driven rock to their sound in songs like "Make Like Paper '', and Kozelek 's cover of Paul McCartney & Wings ' "Silly Love Songs ''.
Recorded while still under contract to the Painters ' original label, 4AD, the label chose not to release the album and released the band from their contract. There have been many rumors over the years about the band 's departure from the label. The most popular theory claims the band were dropped because label president Ivo Watts - Russell was unhappy with the lengthy guitar solos in "Make Like Paper '' and "Silly Love Songs. ''
Another more probable scenario is that Kozelek was having strained relations with 4AD 's American branch, controlled by Warner Bros. Records at the time. (Many other 4AD artists of the time, including His Name Is Alive 's Warren Defever complained of the US management, while maintaining praise for Ivo.) It has also been said that Kozelek offered to release the album as a solo effort if the label did n't think it was a "true Red House Painters '' recording, but this offer was also rebuffed. In the end, the album was released shortly after the band signed with Supreme Recordings, a new label owned by filmmaker John Hughes and distributed by Island Records.
Watts - Russell later informally claimed that dropping Red House Painters was the worst decision that 4AD ever took.
The move to a more corporate label proved to be disastrous for the band, who became stuck in limbo during the major - label mergers of the late 1990s. Many alternative rock bands who had been signed in the wake of Nirvana 's success were either dropped, or had their recordings held up without the ability to take them elsewhere. The band 's next album, Old Ramon, was ready for release on Supreme in early 1998, but was kept in the label 's vaults until Kozelek was able to purchase it back and have it released by Sub Pop in 2001.
The album features a cover of Yes ' 1971 hit "Long Distance Runaround ''. RHP 's version on this album is a different recording from the one found on the double 10 '' vinyl pressing of the Painters ' previous album Ocean Beach.
A music video, directed by Phil Harder, was produced for the song "All Mixed Up ''. The video features all four members of Red House Painters -- Mark Kozelek on lead guitar, Phil Carney on guitar, Jerry Vessel on banjo, and Anthony Koutsos on drums.
Nearly 13 years after its initial release, Plain Recordings issued Songs for a Blue Guitar on double 12 '' heavyweight vinyl for the first time in June 2009. A limited number of 500 copies pressed on heavyweight blue - colored vinyl were made available exclusively to Aural Exploits.
All tracks written by Mark Kozelek, except where noted.
Although no commercial singles were ever released from the album, two promotional - only CD singles were issued for "All Mixed Up '' in July 1996, and for "Make Like Paper '' in February 1997. "All Mixed Up '' was also featured in the 1997 film Excess Baggage, and a promo single was issued featuring a clip from the film as its artwork.
Supreme Recordings / Island Records, PRCD 7354 - 2 (alternately titled Red House Painters Sampler):
Supreme Recordings / Island Records, PRCD - 7459 - 2:
Supreme Recordings / Island Records, PRCD 7642 - 2:
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what is on page 47 of the president's book in national treasure book of secrets | National Treasure: Book of Secrets - wikipedia
National Treasure: Book of Secrets (released on home video as National Treasure 2: Book of Secrets) is a 2007 American mystery adventure film directed by Jon Turteltaub and produced by Jerry Bruckheimer. It is a sequel to the 2004 film National Treasure and is the second part of the National Treasure film series. The film stars Nicolas Cage, Diane Kruger, Justin Bartha, Jon Voight, Harvey Keitel, Ed Harris, Bruce Greenwood, and Helen Mirren.
It was stated in the first film 's commentary that there were no plans for a sequel, but due to the first film 's impressive box - office performance (earning $347.5 million worldwide), a sequel was given the go - ahead in 2005.
The film premiered in New York City on December 13, 2007, and was released in North America by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures on December 21, 2007. Like its predecessor, the film received mixed reviews but was a box office success, grossing over $457.4 million worldwide.
On April 15, 1865, five days after the end of the American Civil War, John Wilkes Booth and Michael O'Laughlen enter a tavern in Washington, D.C., and approach Thomas Gates to decode a message in Booth 's diary. Thomas recognizes the message as using the Playfair cipher and begins to translate it. While he does so, Booth leaves for Ford 's Theatre to assassinate President Abraham Lincoln. Thomas solves the puzzle and realizes the men are members of the Knights of the Golden Circle and are Confederate sympathizers. A fight breaks out, and Thomas rips several pages from the diary and throws them in the fireplace. Thomas is shot, and the gunman retrieves only a page fragment.
Approximately 142 years later, Thomas 's great - great grandson Ben Gates delivers a lecture on the story at a Civilian Heroes conference. Black market antiquities dealer, Mitch Wilkinson, shows one of the 18 missing pages of John Wilkes Booth 's diary, with Thomas Gates ' name written on it, convincing everyone that Thomas was not only a conspirator, but also the grand architect of the Lincoln assassination. Ben sets out to prove the innocence of Thomas.
Using spectral imaging, Ben, his estranged girlfriend Abigail Chase, and friend Riley Poole discover a cipher pointing to Édouard Laboulaye, hidden on the back of the diary page. Ben and Riley travel to Paris, where they find a clue engraved on the torch of the scale model of the Statue of Liberty, referring to the two Resolute desks. One of the desks is used by the President at the Oval Office in Washington, while the other is used by the Queen of Great Britain in Buckingham Palace in London.
Ben and Riley then head to London to infiltrate the Palace and Abigail shows up, unannounced. From the Queen 's desk, he obtains an ancient wooden plank. Meanwhile, Wilkinson has broken into Patrick Gates ' house and cloned Patrick 's cell phone to track Ben 's whereabouts. Wilkinson eventually obtains the wooden plank, but not before Ben manages to photograph the symbols carved into the plank.
At Ben 's insistence, Patrick reluctantly asks his ex-wife and Ben 's mother, Dr. Emily Appleton, for help in translating the symbols. She does so, but points out that some of the glyphs are partial, leading Ben to conclude that another plank must be hidden in the other Resolute desk at the White House.
Ben and Abigail coax Abigail 's new love interest, Connor, a curator for the White House, into letting them into the office to see the desk. Ben discovers that the second plank is missing, but he does find a stamp bearing the seal of the "President 's Secret Book ''. Riley tells Ben that the Book of Secrets contains documents collected "for Presidents, by Presidents and for Presidents ' eyes only '', covering such controversial subjects as the JFK assassination, Watergate, and Area 51.
Ben crashes the President 's birthday party at Mount Vernon to convince the President to follow him into a secret tunnel under the House, where he confronts him about the book. The President warns Ben that his actions will be interpreted as an attempt to kidnap the President and Ben is now wanted for committing a federal offense. Ben convinces the President to reveal the location of the book, which is at the Library of Congress.
In the book, Ben finds a picture of the missing plank from the desk and an entry by President Coolidge, who found the plank in 1924, had it destroyed, and commissioned Gutzon Borglum to carve Mount Rushmore to erase the map 's landmarks in order to protect the treasure. However, FBI Agent Sadusky tracks Ben to the Library and the three narrowly escape capture.
Ben, Riley, Abigail, and Patrick then head to Mount Rushmore, where they meet Mitch, who has kidnapped Ben 's mother, Emily. Mitch helps them find the entrance of a cave, containing the legendary Native American city of gold, Cíbola. Once inside, they encounter several traps and everyone gets separated. Eventually, they find the city of solid gold underneath Mount Rushmore and it begins flooding with water. In order to get out alive, one person has to stay behind to hold open the door to the tunnel. After a struggle and Ben 's attempt to sacrifice himself, Mitch ends up staying behind and asking Ben to give him the credit for finding the treasure.
Ben clears his family 's name with the discovery and is cleared of all charges when the President, in an attempt to protect Ben, tells everyone that Ben saved his life. Ben also ensures Mitch receives joint credit for the find. At the end, the President mentions the favor he asked of Ben when he gave him the location of the Book, implying that a third movie would be forthcoming. A lady that 'd read Riley 's book wants it to be autographed. Riley gets his Ferrari back from the President who owes him a favor. Ben and Abigail reconcile and get back together.
Randy Travis makes a cameo appearance, playing himself. Small supporting parts are played by Joel Gretsch and Billy Unger as Gates ' ancestors Thomas Gates and Charles Carroll Gates; Christian Camargo as John Wilkes Booth; and Zachary Gordon as a boy who gets into a heated argument with Gates over a Lincoln conspiracy.
Many scenes of historic locations were filmed on location, including the scenes at Mount Vernon and Mount Rushmore. Filming at Mount Rushmore took longer than initially scheduled, due to inclement weather and the decision to change the setting of additional scenes to the area around Mount Rushmore to take advantage of Black Hills backdrop.
The soundtrack to National Treasure: Book of Secrets was released on December 18, 2007.
National Treasure: Book of Secrets grossed $44.8 million in its opening week, placing at # 1 at the box office. It remained in first at the box office for two more weeks, grossing $35.7 million and $20.1 million, respectively, until it was dethroned by The Bucket List ($19.4 million).
The film grossed $220 million in North America and $237.4 million in other territories for a total gross of $457.4 million, against a budget of $130 million, making it the ninth - highest - grossing film of 2007, and the highest - grossing film in the series. It took 38 days to outgross the first film ($347.5 million).
Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a rating of 35 %, based on 125 reviews and an average rating of 4.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "A talented cast goes to waste in the improbable National Treasure: Book of Secrets, which is eerily similar to the first film. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 48 out of 100, based on 26 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
British film critics disputed the implication of British support for the Confederate side in the American Civil War.
The film earned two Razzie Award nominations including Worst Actor for Nicolas Cage (also for Ghost Rider and Next) and Worst Supporting Actor for Jon Voight (also for Bratz: The Movie, September Dawn and Transformers), but lost both categories to Eddie Murphy for Norbit.
The film was nominated for Best Movie at the 2008 MTV Movie Awards, but lost to Transformers.
National Treasure: Book of Secrets was released on DVD, UMD, and Blu - ray Disc on May 20, 2008 (June 2, 2008 in the UK). In the opening weekend, 3,178,631 DVD units were sold, bringing in $50,826,310 in revenue. As of August 2009, 5,873,640 DVD units have been sold, generating revenue of $93,132,076. This does not include Blu - ray Disc sales or DVD rentals.
The film has been retitled National Treasure 2: Book of Secrets for all three releases. The film 's official website has also been changed accordingly.
A special edition, called the "National Treasure Presidential Edition '', contains National Treasure and National Treasure 2: Book of Secrets inside a letter book which is a replica of the Presidents ' secret book from National Treasure 2: Book of Secrets.
Disney Press published an official novelization of the screenplay titled National Treasure 2: Book of Secrets The Junior Novel on November 6, 2007. Parts of the story in the novel version differ slightly from what was actually filmed, owing to changes being made in the screenplay prior to and during production. For example, in the novel, Ben and Abigail photograph the wooden plank found hidden in the Queen 's desk and leave it behind, with the car chase following. But in the movie, they take the plank with them on the chase.
Also published on the same day as the official novelization was a companion youth novel Changing Tides: A Gates Family Mystery by Catherine Hapka. Its story is set in England in the year 1612 and is the first in a series of planned historical novels about the Gates family. The epilogue from Changing Tides is included at the back of the National Treasure book. The second youth novel by Hapka, Midnight Ride: A Gates Family Mystery, was published on March 8, 2008.
Director Jon Turteltaub said that the team will take their time on a second National Treasure sequel, but Disney has already registered the domains for NationalTreasure3DVD.com and NationalTreasure4DVD.com. Though the second film ended with the question about page 47 of the President 's book of secrets, Turteltaub responded in a press interview that the idea was not set in stone as the basis for National Treasure 3.
In October 2013, Turteltaub confirmed to Collider that the studio, himself, producer Jerry Bruckheimer and the actors all want to do the third film: "We want to do the movie, Disney wants to do the movie. We 're just having the damnedest time writing it. I 'll bet that within two years, we 'll be shooting that movie. I 'd say we 're about half - way there. It 's not only writing a great historical mystery, but we 've got ta write something that has nothing to do with anything we 've done before. The goal is to always have an original sequel, as silly as that sounds. We really want to make sure that the third one does n't just feel like a repeat of the first one, or one too many ''.
In 2014 producer Jerry Bruckheimer confirmed director John Turteltaub was coming back but with a new team of writers, saying, "Yeah, we 're working on another National Treasure. We just had a meeting... with the writers and the director, so hopefully that will come together. '' On May 25, 2016, Nicolas Cage confirmed the movie was still in the writing process. In September 2017, Bruckheimer revealed that the script was finished, but Disney was not satisfied with the story, and July 2018, Turtletaub reiterated that a script for a possible third film was "close '' but Disney still was n't completely sold by the idea.
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how many seasons of sailor moon are there in japanese | List of Sailor Moon episodes - wikipedia
Sailor Moon, known in Japan as Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon, is an anime series adapted from the manga series of the title by Naoko Takeuchi. The series was produced by Toei Animation and directed by Junichi Sato, Kunihiko Ikuhara and Takuya Igarashi and produced by TV Asahi and Toei Animation. The first four seasons were dubbed and released in North America by DIC Entertainment and Cloverway. The series concentrates on the adventures of Usagi Tsukino, a schoolgirl who learns that she and several other girls can transform into superheroines, Sailor Senshi, and fight against evil forces that threaten the world.
The series aired from March 7, 1992 to February 8, 1997, on TV Asahi in Japan. In addition to the 200 episodes, three feature - length films were produced, as well as five short films. In North America, the episodes aired from August 28, 1995 to December 21, 2000, on YTV in Canada, and in first - run syndication (and later on Cartoon Network) in the United States.
The first two seasons of the series, Sailor Moon and Sailor Moon R, were sold across 20 VHS volumes in Japan in 1995, and by the end of that year, each volume had sold more than 300,000 copies. In 2001, ADV Films released the English dubs of the first two seasons to 20 VHS volumes. The two first English language seasons were released on 14 Region 1 DVDs in 2002 by ADV. ADV also released subtitled and uncensored and uncut versions of the first two seasons in two separate Limited Edition DVD box sets in 2003. Pioneer Entertainment released both edited and unedited versions of the third and fourth seasons, Sailor Moon S and Sailor Moon Super S respectively, on DVD and VHS in 2001 and 2002. In 2004, the international rights to the series expired.
At the start of Sailor Moon S, the episode numbers for the dub were adjusted by YTV to match those of the original Japanese version. There had previously been a gap in numbering because of the seven episodes that had been cut or merged in the previous two seasons. Because of this, episode numbers 83 - 89 were never used for the dub. However, in the United States, 83 - 89 were used for the dub on Cartoon Network, and did not match those of the original Japanese version.
On May 16, 2014, the entire anime series (all 200 TV episodes, all three movies, and the TV specials) was re-licensed for an updated English - language release by Viz Media.
Two short episodes were created to be shown with the first and third theatrical films of the Sailor Moon anime. The first, entitled "Make Up! Sailor Soldier '', is a comical introduction to the cast of the series for those not familiar with the franchise, while the second, "Ami 's First Love '', is an adaptation of an extra story (omake) from the Sailor Moon manga.
The latter three shorts, collectively called the "SuperS Specials '', were released together, airing in lieu of a regular episode near the beginning of the SuperS season. The first short, "SuperS Special: An Elegant Metamorphosis? Crybaby Usagi 's Growth Diary '', is a summary of the first three seasons of the Sailor Moon series. The second short, "SuperS Special: Haruka and Michiru, Again! The Ghostly Puppet Show '', features Haruka and Michiru in a luxury hotel on a cliff. In the third short, "SuperS Special: Chibiusa 's Adventure! The Dreaded Vampire Castle '', Chibiusa uncovers one of her classmates as a monster and fights it with the other Sailor Senshi.
In 2014, Viz Media licensed the shorts for an English language release in North America.
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who was involved in the victorian gold rush | Victorian gold rush - Wikipedia
The Victorian gold rush was a period in the history of Victoria, Australia approximately between 1851 and the late 1860s. It led to a period of extreme prosperity for the Australian colony, and an influx of population growth and financial capital for Melbourne, which was dubbed "Marvellous Melbourne '' as a result of the procurement of wealth.
The Victorian Gold Discovery Committee wrote in 1854:
The discovery of the Victorian Goldfields has converted a remote dependency into a country of world wide fame; it has attracted a population, extraordinary in number, with unprecedented rapidity; it has enhanced the value of property to an enormous extent; it has made this the richest country in the world; and, in less than three years, it has done for this colony the work of an age, and made its impulses felt in the most distant regions of the earth.
For a number of years the gold output from Victoria was greater than in any other country in the world with the exception of the more extensive fields of California. Victoria 's greatest yield for one year was in 1856, when 3,053,744 troy ounces (94,982 kg) of gold were extracted from the diggings. From 1851 to 1896 the Victorian Mines Department reported that a total of 61,034,682 oz (1,898,391 kg) of gold was mined in Victoria.
Gold was first discovered in Australia on 15 February 1823, by assistant surveyor James McBrien, at Fish River, between Rydal and Bathurst (in New South Wales). The find was considered unimportant at the time, and was not pursued for policy reasons.
In the 1850s gold discoveries in Victoria, in Beechworth, Castlemaine, Daylesford, Ballarat and Bendigo sparked gold rushes similar to the California Gold Rush. At its peak some two tonnes of gold per week flowed into the Treasury Building in Melbourne.
The gold exported to Britain in the 1850s paid all her foreign debts and helped lay the foundation of her enormous commercial expansion in the latter half of the century.
Melbourne was a major boomtown during the gold rush. The city became the centre of the colony with rail networks radiating to the regional towns and ports.
Politically, Victoria 's goldminers sped up the introduction of greater parliamentary democracy in Victoria, based on British Chartist principles adopted to some extent by the miners ' activist bodies such as Bendigo 's Anti-Gold Licence Association and the Ballarat Reform League.
As the alluvial gold dwindled, pressures for land reform, protectionism and political reform generated social struggles. and a Land Convention in Melbourne during 1857 recorded demands for land reform.
By 1854 Chinese people were contributing to the gold rushes. Their presence on the goldfields of Bendigo, Beechworth and the Bright district resulted in riots, entry taxes, killings and segregation in the short term, and became the foundations of the White Australia policy. In short, the gold rush was a revolutionary event and reshaped Victoria, its society and politics.
There were rumours abroad about the presence of gold in Australia, but Government officials kept all findings secret for fear of disorganising the young colony. However the Colonial Secretary, Edward Deas Thomson, saw a great future for the country when Edward Hargraves proved his theory that Australia was a vast storehouse of gold. Hargraves had been in the California gold rush and knew gold country, when he first saw it, round Bathurst. The news spread like wildfire, and soon the race was on from coast to gold fields. Flocks were left untended, drovers deserted their teams, merchants and lawyers rushed from their desks and entire ships ' crews, captains included, marched off to seek their fortunes.
In March 1850, Mr. W. Campbell of Strath Loddon found on the station of Mr. Donald Cameron, of Clunes several minute pieces of native gold in quartz. This was concealed at the time but on 10 January 1851, Campbell disclosed it. Others had found indications of gold. Dr. George H. Bruhn, a German physician, whose services as an analyst were in great demand, had been shown specimens of gold from what afterwards became the Clunes diggings. In spite of these and other discoveries, however, it was impracticable to market the gold, and James Esmond 's "find '' which was made on Creswick 's Creek, a tributary of the Loddon River, at Clunes on 1 July 1851, was the first marketable gold field.
A party formed by Mr. Louis John Michel, consisting of himself, Mr. William Haberlin, James Furnival, James Melville, James Headon, and B. Groenig, discovered the existence of gold in the quartz rocks of the Yarra ranges, at Andersons Creek, near Warrandyte, in the latter part of June, and showed it on the spot to Dr. Webb Richmond, on behalf of the Gold Discovery Committee on 5 July.
The third discovery was by Mr. Thomas Hiscock, a resident at Buninyong; induced by the writings of the Rev. W.B. Clarke, and by the discovery of Brentani 's nugget in the Pyrenees district two years before, he had kept a constant lookout for gold in his neighbourhood. He discovered an auriferous deposit in the gully of the Buninyong ranges now bearing his name, on 8 August 1851, and he communicated the fact, with its precise locality, to the editor of the Geelong Advertiser on the 10th of that month.
Dr. George H. Bruhn, a German physician, in the month of January, 1851, (i.e. before Mr. Hargraves ' discovery at Summerhill) started from Melbourne to explore "the mineral resources of this colony '. During his lengthened tour, he found, in April, indications of gold in quartz about two miles from Mr. Barker 's station, and on arriving at Mr. Cameron 's station was shown by that gentleman specimens of gold at what are now called the Clunes diggings. This information he made widely known through the country in the course of his journey, and communicated to Mr. James Esmond, at that time engaged in erecting a building at Mr. James Hodgkinson 's station. Dr. Bruhn forwarded specimens, which were received by the Gold Discovery Committee on 30 June 1851.
The Gold Discovery Committee awarded £ 1000 to Michel and his party; £ 1000 to Hiscock, as the substantial discoverer of the Ballarat deposits; £ 1000 to Campbell as the original discoverer of Clunes; £ 1000 to Esmond as the first active producer of alluvial gold for the market and £ 500 to Dr. Bruhn.
On 20 July 1851 Thomas Peters, a hut - keeper on William Barker 's Mount Alexander station, found specks of gold at what is now known as Specimen Gully. This find was published in the Melbourne Argus on 8 September 1851, leading to a rush to the Mount Alexander or Forest Creek diggings, centred on present - day Castlemaine, claimed as the richest shallow alluvial goldfield in the world.
These discoveries were soon surpassed by Ballarat and Bendigo. Further discoveries including Beechworth in 1852, Bright, Omeo, Chiltern (1858 -- 59) and Walhalla followed.
The population of Melbourne grew swiftly as the gold fever took hold. The total number of people in Victoria also rose. By 1851 it was 75,000 people. Ten years later this rose to over 500,000.
Surface alluvial gold was the first to be exploited. It is reported that in 1851, when the first miners arrived on the Mount Alexander goldfield, near Castlemaine, nuggets could be picked up without digging. Then followed the exploitation of alluvial gold in creeks and rivers, or deposited in silt on river banks and flats. The gold - seekers used pans, sluice boxes and cradles to separate this gold from the dirt.
As surface alluvial gold ran out, gold seekers were forced to look further underground. Miners discovered so - called deep leads, which were gold - bearing watercourses that had been buried at various depths by centuries of silting and, in some Victorian goldfields such as Ballarat, volcanic action. They also began to exploit the underground gold reefs which were the original sources of the gold. Deep mining was more difficult and dangerous. Places such as Bendigo and Ballarat saw great concentrations of miners, who were forming partnerships and syndicates to enable them to sink ever - deeper shafts. Coupled with erratic and vexatious policing and licence checks, tensions flared around Beechworth, Bendigo and Ballarat. These frictions culminated in the Eureka Rebellion in Ballarat in 1854. Following that uprising, a range of reforms gave miners a greater say in resolving disputes via Mining Courts, and extended electoral franchise to them.
As gold - rush immigrants flooded into Victoria in 1852, a tent city, known as Canvas Town, was established at South Melbourne. The area soon became a massive slum, home to tens of thousands of migrants from around the world who arrived to seek their fortunes in the goldfields. Significant "Chinatowns '' became established in Melbourne, Bendigo and Castlemaine.
At Walhalla alone, Cohens Reef produced over 50 tonnes (1.6 million tr oz) of gold in 40 years of mining.
The conditions which led up to the Eureka Stockade arose mainly from the actions taken by the Government in supervising the various goldfields. To meet the expense of securing order and to restrain unauthorised mining on Crown land, a local Act of January 1852 imposed on all diggers a licence fee of 30 shillings per month, the penalty for mining without a licence being £ 6 for the first offence and afterwards imprisonment for terms up to six months. Clause 7 of this Act also appropriated half the fine to the use of the informer or prosecutor, a provocative and irritating provision. In December, 1853, an amending Act reduced the fee to £ 1 per month, but did not alter the diggers ' greatest grievance, that they could be imprisoned for not having the actual licence on them, though their possession of one could be proved from the official record. They were also unrepresented in Parliament, and in 1854 the population on the Ballarat goldfields was estimated at 20,000.
Charles Hotham, who arrived in Victoria in June 1854, was alarmed at the depleted state of the Treasury and the growing expense of goldfields administration. He ordered the police to redouble their exertions in collecting the fees. To miners just scraping by, the payment of £ 12 per annum was impossible, and there is no doubt that hundreds did endeavour to evade payment, but the innocent suffered with the guilty. The police, too, had been largely recruited from Tasmania, and many were ex-convicts. These grievances were common to all the Victorian fields, and had under Latrobe 's administration produced riots at Beechworth and Castlemaine, but Ballarat, always the most domestic of the goldfields, was renowned for its peaceful progressiveness and quietness.
On the night of 6 October, however, a Scottish miner named James Scobie was killed at the Eureka Hotel, near Ballarat, and the murdered man 's associate accused the proprietor (Bentley, a Tasmanian ex-convict) of the murder. Bentley was brought up before a magistrate, who was alleged to be financially under Bentleys ' thumb, and he was discharged. The miners were indignant; a meeting was called and a demand made for a fresh prosecution. The meeting itself was orderly, but towards the end of proceedings a cry was raised that the police (who had been ordered to protect the hotel) were trying to disperse the meeting, and the miners, becoming furious, swept aside the police, smashed the windows and furniture, and burned the building. The police arrested three men - who could not be proved to have been ringleaders or active in the riot, and they were sentenced to three, four, and six months ' imprisonment.
At an indignation meeting held on 11 November on Bakery Hill, the Ballarat Reform League was formed, with J.B. Humffray (a Welshman) as its first secretary, and Peter Lalor, Frederic Vern (a Hanoverian), Raffaello (an Italian teacher, of languages), Timothy Hayes (an Irishman), and George Black, a well - educated Englishman, as prominent members. A deputation of three men waited on Governor Hotham to demand the release of the prisoners, but he refused and had already sent additional troops to Ballarat, which gave considerable offence by marching through the town with fixed bayonets and by other exasperating conduct. On 29 November, Black, Humffray, and Kennedy reported to a mass meeting held at Bakery Hill the result of their deputation to the Governor, and Vern proposed a burning of the hated licences, which was then carried out. Next day the police carried out a specially vicious and vigorous licence - hunt, and when the troops marched back to camp, the diggers hastened to a conference with the leaders of the Reform League.
Peter Lalor was elected leader, and under a blue flag adorned with the stars of the Southern Cross the assembled diggers swore ' to stand truly by each other and fight to defend our rights and liberties. ' An area of about an acre on the present Eureka site was hastily enclosed with a pallisade and a deputation was sent to the military camp demanding the release of the morning 's prisoners and the cessation of licence - hunting. The Commissioner flatly refused the request, saying that the agitation was ' only a cloak to cover a democratic revolution. ' On 1 December the occupants of the stockade were hard at work by 5 a.m. drilling and improving the barrier, and a German blacksmith was fashioning pike - heads. But neither food nor ammunition was available within the stockade, so that by the evening of the 2nd after a very hot day, not more than 200 remained within.
Spies informed the Commissioner of the situation and about 4.30 a.m. on Sunday morning (3 December) a troop of 276 men was marched silently to the stockade. Inside the stockade only 50 diggers had rifles; there was also a troop of Californian diggers armed with revolvers and another of Irishmen with pikes. Many of them were asleep when the signal gun was fired and a storming party of 64 ' rushed ' the stockade. In the first volleys several men fell on both sides, but the line of advancing bayonets, flanked on both sides by cavalry and mounted police, was too much for the diggers. They turned to seek shelter and all was over. Of the military force Captain Wise and four private soldiers were killed, and about a dozen injured. Sixteen miners were killed, and at least eight others died of their wounds, 114 prisoners were taken, and Lalor, badly wounded, managed to escape; so did Black and Vern. The Government then offered £ 500 for the apprehension of Vern, and £ 200 each for Black and Lalor.
Australia 's population changed dramatically as a result of the rushes. In 1851 the Australian population was 437,655, of which 77,345, or just under 18 %, were Victorians. A decade later the Australian population had grown to 1,151,947 and the Victorian population had increased to 538,628; just under 47 % of the Australian total and a seven-fold increase. In some small country towns where gold was found abundantly, the population could grow by over 1000 % in a decade (e.g. Rutherglen had a population of about 2,000. Ten years later, it had approximately 60,000 which is a 3000 % increase). The rapid growth was predominantly a result of the gold rushes.
The gold rush is reflected in the architecture of Victorian gold - boom cities like Melbourne, Castlemaine, Ballarat, Bendigo and Ararat. Ballarat today has Sovereign Hill -- a 60 - acre (24 ha) recreation of a gold rush town -- as well as the Gold Museum. Bendigo has a large operating gold mine system which also functions as a tourist attraction.
The rushes left Victorian architecture in towns in the Goldfields region such as Maldon, Beechworth, Clunes, Heathcote, Maryborough, Daylesford, Stawell, Beaufort, Creswick, St Arnaud, Dunolly, Inglewood, Wedderburn and Buninyong whose economy has differing emphases on home working, tourism, farming, modern industrial and retired sectors. With the exception of Ballarat and Bendigo, many of these towns were substantially larger than they are today. Most populations moved to other districts when gold played out in a given locality. At the other end of the spectrum ghost towns, such as Walhalla, Mafeking and Steiglitz exist.
The last major gold rush in Victoria was at Berringa, south of Ballarat, in the first decade of the 20th century. Gold mining became nothing more than a hobby in Victoria for decades mainly because of the depth and cost of pumping. The First World War also drained Australia of the labour needed to work the mines. More significantly, the prohibition on the export of gold from Australia in 1915 and the abolition of the gold standard, winding down stockpiling of gold and production of sovereigns throughout the Empire saw Australian gold towns shrink, in some cases, being totally abandoned. The slump in gold production never recovered. Gold mining ceased in Stawell in 1920, but recommenced in 1982 and continues as at 2014. However, as of 2005 the recent increase in the gold price has seen a resurgence in commercial mining activity with mining resuming in both of the major fields of Bendigo and Ballarat. Exploration also proceeds elsewhere, for example, in Glen Wills, an isolated mountain area near Mitta Mitta in north - eastern Victoria.
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list of the biggest cities in the uk | List of towns and cities in England by population - wikipedia
Towns and cities in England can be defined either by their local government administrative boundaries or by the physical extent of their built - up areas.
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when was the last time the green bay packers were in the super bowl | Green Bay Packers - wikipedia
Independent (1919 -- 1920) National Football League (1921 -- present)
Dark Green, Gold, White
League championships (13) †
Conference championships (9)
Division championships (18)
The Green Bay Packers are a professional American football team based in Green Bay, Wisconsin. The Packers compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) North division. It is the third - oldest franchise in the NFL, dating back to 1919, and is the only non-profit, community - owned major league professional sports team based in the United States. Home games have been played at Lambeau Field since 1957.
The Packers are the last of the "small town teams '' which were common in the NFL during the 1920s and 30s. Founded in 1919 by Earl "Curly '' Lambeau and George Whitney Calhoun, the franchise traces its lineage to other semi-professional teams in Green Bay dating back to 1896. Between 1919 and 1920, the Packers competed against other semi-pro clubs from around Wisconsin and the Midwest, before joining the American Professional Football Association (APFA), the forerunner of today 's NFL, in 1921. Although Green Bay is by far the smallest major league professional sports market in North America, its local fan and media base extends 120 miles south into Milwaukee, where it played selected home games between 1933 and 1994. And despite its small market, Forbes ranked the Packers as the world 's 26th most valuable sports franchise in 2016, with a value of $2.35 billion.
The Packers have won 13 league championships, the most in NFL history, with nine pre-Super Bowl NFL titles in addition to four Super Bowl victories. The Packers won the first two Super Bowls in 1967 and 1968 and were the only NFL team to defeat the American Football League (AFL) prior to the AFL -- NFL merger. The Vince Lombardi Trophy is named after the Packers ' coach Lombardi, who guided them to their first two Super Bowls. Their two additional Super Bowl wins came in the 1996 and 2010 seasons.
The Packers are long - standing adversaries of the Chicago Bears, Minnesota Vikings, and Detroit Lions, who today comprise the NFL 's NFC North division, and were formerly members of the NFC Central Division. They have played over 100 games against each of those teams through history, and have a winning overall record against all of them (only the Kansas City Chiefs and Dallas Cowboys have that distinction with their division rivals). The Bears -- Packers rivalry is one of the oldest in NFL history, dating back to 1921.
The Green Bay Packers were founded on August 11, 1919 by former high - school football rivals Earl "Curly '' Lambeau and George Whitney Calhoun. Lambeau solicited funds for uniforms from his employer, the Indian Packing Company. He was given $500 ($7,100 today) for uniforms and equipment, on the condition that the team be named for its sponsor. The Green Bay Packers have played in their original city longer than any other team in the NFL.
On August 27, 1921, the Packers were granted a franchise in the new national pro football league that had been formed the previous year. Financial troubles plagued the team and the franchise was forfeited within the year before Lambeau found new financial backers and regained the franchise the next year. These backers, known as the "Hungry Five '', formed the Green Bay Football Corporation.
After a near - miss in 1927, Lambeau 's squad claimed the Packers ' first NFL title in 1929 with an undefeated 12 -- 0 -- 1 campaign, behind a stifling defense which registered eight shutouts. Green Bay would repeat as league champions in 1930 and 1931, bettering teams from New York, Chicago and throughout the league, with all - time greats and future Hall of Famers Mike Michalske, Johnny (Blood) McNally, Cal Hubbard and Green Bay native Arnie Herber. Among the many impressive accomplishments of these years was the Packers ' streak of 29 consecutive home games without defeat, an NFL record which still stands.
The arrival of end Don Hutson from Alabama in 1935 gave Lambeau and the Packers the most - feared and dynamic offensive weapon in the game. Credited with inventing pass patterns, Hutson would lead the league in receptions eight seasons and spur the Packers to NFL championships in 1936, 1939 and 1944. An iron man, Hutson played both ways, leading the league in interceptions as a safety in 1940. Hutson claimed 18 NFL records when he retired in 1945, many of which still stand. In 1951, his number 14 was the first to be retired by the Packers, and he was inducted as a charter member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1963.
After Hutson 's retirement, Lambeau could not stop the Packers ' slide. He purchased a large lodge near Green Bay for team members and families to live. Rockwood Lodge was the home of the 1946 - 1949 Packers, though the 1947 and 1948 seasons produced a record of 12 - 10 - 1, and 1949 was even worse at 3 - 9. The lodge burned down on January 24, 1950, and the insurance money paid for many of the Packers ' debts.
Curly Lambeau departed after the 1949 season. Gene Ronzani and Lisle Blackbourn could not coach the Packers back to their former magic, even as a new stadium was unveiled in 1957. The losing would descend to the disastrous 1958 campaign under coach Ray "Scooter '' McLean, whose lone 1 -- 10 -- 1 year at the helm is the worst in Packers history.
Former New York Giants assistant Vince Lombardi was hired as Packers head coach and general manager on February 2, 1959. Few suspected the hiring represented the beginning of a remarkable, immediate turnaround. Under Lombardi, the Packers would become the team of the 1960s, winning five World Championships over a seven - year span, including victories in the first two Super Bowls. During the Lombardi era, the stars of the Packers ' offense included Bart Starr, Jim Taylor, Carroll Dale, Paul Hornung (as halfback and placekicker), Forrest Gregg, and Jerry Kramer. The defense included Willie Davis, Henry Jordan, Willie Wood, Ray Nitschke, Dave Robinson, and Herb Adderley.
The Packers ' first regular season game under Lombardi was on September 27, 1959, a 9 -- 6 victory over the Chicago Bears in Green Bay. After winning their first three, the Packers lost the next five before finishing strong by sweeping their final four. The 7 -- 5 record represented the Packers ' first winning season since 1947, enough to earn rookie head coach Lombardi the NFL Coach of the Year.
The next year, the Packers, led by Paul Hornung 's 176 points, won the NFL West title and played in the NFL Championship against the Philadelphia Eagles at Philadelphia. In a see - saw game, the Packers trailed by only four points when All - Pro Eagle linebacker Chuck Bednarik tackled Jim Taylor just nine yards short of the goal line as time expired.
The Packers returned to the NFL Championship game the following season and faced the New York Giants in the first league title game to be played in Green Bay. The Packers scored 24 second - quarter points, including a championship - record 19 by Paul Hornung, on special "loan '' from the Army (one touchdown, four extra-points and three field goals), powering the Packers to a 37 -- 0 rout of the Giants, their first NFL Championship since 1944. It was in 1961 that Green Bay became known as "Titletown. ''
The Packers stormed back in the 1962 season, jumping out to a 10 -- 0 start, on their way to a 13 -- 1 season. This consistent level of success would lead to Lombardi 's Packers becoming one of the most prominent teams of their era, and to being featured as the face of the NFL on the cover of Time on December 21, 1962, as part of the magazine 's cover story on "The Sport of the ' 60s ''. Shortly after Time 's article, the Packers faced the Giants in a much more brutal championship game than the previous year, but the Packers prevailed on the surprising foot of Jerry Kramer and the determined running of Jim Taylor. The Packers defeated the Giants in New York, 16 -- 7.
The Packers returned to the championship game in 1965 following a two - year absence when they defeated the Colts in a playoff for the Western Conference title. That game would be remembered for Don Chandler 's controversial tying field goal in which the ball allegedly went wide right, but the officials signaled "good. '' The 13 -- 10 overtime win earned the Packers a trip to the NFL Championship game, where Hornung and Taylor ran through the defending champion Cleveland Browns, helping the Packers win, 23 -- 12, to earn their third NFL Championship under Lombardi and ninth overall. Goalpost uprights would be made taller the next year.
The 1966 season saw the Packers led to the first - ever Super Bowl by MVP quarterback Bart Starr. The team went 12 -- 2, and as time wound down in the NFL Championship against the Dallas Cowboys, the Packers clung to a 34 -- 27 lead. Dallas had the ball on the Packers ' two - yard line, threatening to tie the ballgame. But on fourth down the Packers ' Tom Brown intercepted Don Meredith 's pass in the end zone to seal the win. The team crowned its season by rolling over the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs 35 -- 10 in Super Bowl I.
The 1967 season was the last for Lombardi as the Packers ' head coach. The NFL Championship game, a rematch of the 1966 contest against Dallas, became indelibly known as the "Ice Bowl '' as a result of the brutal conditions at Lambeau Field. Still, the coldest NFL game ever played, it remains one of the most famous football games at any level in the history of the sport. With 16 seconds left, Bart Starr 's touchdown on a quarterback sneak brought the Packers a 21 -- 17 victory and their still unequaled third straight NFL Championship. They then won Super Bowl II with a 33 -- 14 victory over the Oakland Raiders. Lombardi stepped down as head coach after the game, and Phil Bengtson was named his successor. Lombardi remained as general manager for one season but left in 1969 to become head coach and minority owner of the Washington Redskins.
After Lombardi died unexpectedly on September 3, 1970, the NFL renamed the Super Bowl trophy the Vince Lombardi Trophy in recognition of his accomplishments with the Packers. The city of Green Bay renamed Highland Avenue in his honor in 1968, placing Lambeau Field at 1265 Lombardi Avenue ever since.
For about a quarter - century after Lombardi 's departure, the Packers had relatively little on - field success. In the 24 seasons from 1968 to 1991, they had only five seasons with a winning record, one being the shortened 1982 strike season. They appeared in the playoffs twice, with a 1 -- 2 record. The period saw five different head coaches -- Phil Bengtson, Dan Devine, Bart Starr, Forrest Gregg, and Lindy Infante -- two of whom, Starr and Gregg, were Lombardi 's era stars, while Bengtson was a former Packer coach. Each led the Packers to a worse record than his predecessor. Poor personnel decisions were rife, notoriously the 1974 trade by acting general manager Dan Devine which sent five 1975 or 1976 draft picks (two first - rounders, two second - rounders and a third) to the Los Angeles Rams for aging quarterback John Hadl, who would spend only 11⁄2 seasons in Green Bay. Another came in the 1989 NFL Draft, when offensive lineman Tony Mandarich was taken with the second overall pick ahead of Barry Sanders, Deion Sanders, and Derrick Thomas. Though rated highly by nearly every professional scout at the time, Mandarich 's performance failed to meet expectations, earning him ESPN 's ranking as the third "biggest sports flop '' in the last 25 years.
The Packers ' performance in the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s led to a shakeup, with Ron Wolf hired as general manager and given full control of the team 's football operations to start the 1991 season. In 1992, Wolf hired San Francisco 49ers offensive coordinator Mike Holmgren as the Packers ' new head coach.
Soon afterward, Wolf acquired quarterback Brett Favre from the Atlanta Falcons for a first - round pick. Favre got the Packers their first win of the 1992 season, stepping in for injured quarterback Don Majkowski and leading a comeback over the Cincinnati Bengals. He started the following week, a win against the Pittsburgh Steelers, and never missed another start for Green Bay through the end of the 2007 season. He would go on to break the record for consecutive starts by an NFL quarterback, starting 297 consecutive games including stints with the New York Jets and Minnesota Vikings with the streak finally coming to an end late in the 2010 season.
The Packers had a 9 -- 7 record in 1992, and began to turn heads around the league when they signed perhaps the most prized free agent in NFL history in Reggie White on the defense in 1993. White believed that Wolf, Holmgren, and Favre had the team heading in the right direction with a "total commitment to winning. '' With White on board the Packers made it to the second round of the playoffs during both the 1993 and 1994 seasons but lost their 2nd - round matches to their playoff rival, the Dallas Cowboys, playing in Dallas on both occasions. In 1995, the Packers won the NFC Central Division championship for the first time since 1972. After a home playoff 37 -- 20 win against Favre 's former team, the Atlanta Falcons, the Packers defeated the defending Super Bowl champion San Francisco 49ers 27 -- 17 in San Francisco on the road to advance to the NFC Championship Game, where they lost again to the Dallas Cowboys 38 -- 27.
In 1996, the Packers ' turnaround was complete. The team posted a league - best 13 -- 3 record in the regular season, dominating the competition and securing home - field advantage throughout the playoffs. They were ranked no. 1 in offense with Brett Favre leading the way, no. 1 in defense with Reggie White as the leader of the defense and no. 1 in special teams with former Heisman Trophy winner Desmond Howard returning punts and kickoffs for touchdowns. After relatively easy wins against the 49ers in a muddy 35 -- 14 beatdown and Carolina Panthers 30 -- 13, the Packers advanced to the Super Bowl for the first time in 29 years. In Super Bowl XXXI, Green Bay defeated the New England Patriots 35 -- 21 to win their 12th world championship. Desmond Howard was named MVP of the game for his kickoff return for a touchdown that ended the Patriots ' bid for a comeback. Then - Packers president Bob Harlan credited Wolf, Holmgren, Favre, and White for ultimately changing the fortunes of the organization and turning the Green Bay Packers into a model NFL franchise. A 2007 panel of football experts at ESPN ranked the 1996 Packers the 6th - greatest team ever to play in the Super Bowl.
The following season the Packers recorded another 13 -- 3 record and won their second consecutive NFC championship. After defeating the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 21 -- 7 and San Francisco 49ers 23 -- 10 in the playoffs, the Packers returned to the Super Bowl as an 111⁄2 point favorite. The team ended up losing in an upset to John Elway and the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXXII, by the score of 31 -- 24.
In 1998, the Packers went 11 -- 5 and met the San Francisco 49ers in the first - round of the NFC playoffs. It was the fourth consecutive year these teams had met in the playoffs and the sixth overall contest since the 1995 season. The Packers had won all previous games, and the media speculated that another 49ers loss would result in the dismissal of San Francisco head coach Steve Mariucci. Unlike the previous playoff matches, this game was hotly contested, with the teams frequently exchanging leads. With 4: 19 left in the 4th quarter, Brett Favre and the Packers embarked on an 89 - yard drive, which concluded with a Favre touchdown pass to receiver Antonio Freeman. This play appeared to give Green Bay the victory. But San Francisco quarterback Steve Young led the 49ers on an improbable touchdown drive, which culminated when Terrell Owens caught Young 's pass between several defenders to give the 49ers a lead with three seconds remaining. Afterwards, the game was mired in controversy. Many argued that during the 49ers game - winning drive, Niners receiver Jerry Rice fumbled the ball but officials stated he was down by contact. Television replays appeared to confirm these sentiments, and the next season the NFL reinstituted an instant replay system. In the end, this game turned out to be the end of an era in Green Bay. Days later Mike Holmgren left the Packers to become vice president, general manager and head coach of the Seattle Seahawks. Much of Holmgren 's coaching staff went with him, and Reggie White also retired after the season (but later played one season for the Carolina Panthers in 2000).
In 1999, the team struggled to find an identity after the departure of so many of the individuals responsible for their Super Bowl run. Ray Rhodes was hired in 1999 as the team 's new head coach. Rhodes had served around the league as a highly regarded defensive coordinator and more recently experienced moderate success as head coach of the Philadelphia Eagles from 1995 to 1998. Ron Wolf believed that Rhodes ' experience and player - friendly demeanor would fit nicely in Green Bay 's veteran locker room, but Rhodes was fired after one 8 -- 8 season. Wolf visited team practice late in the 1999 season and believed that players had become too comfortable with Rhodes ' style, and said the atmosphere resembled a country club.
In 2000, Wolf replaced Rhodes with Mike Sherman. Sherman had never been a head coach at any level of football and was relatively unknown in NFL circles. He had only coached in professional football for three years starting as the Packers ' tight ends coach in 1997 and 1998. In 1999, he followed Mike Holmgren to Seattle and became the Seahawks ' offensive coordinator, although Sherman did not call the plays during games. Despite Sherman 's apparent anonymity, Wolf was blown away in the interview process by the coach 's organizational skills and attention to detail. Sherman 's inaugural season started slowly, but the Packers won their final four games to achieve a 9 -- 7 record. Brett Favre praised the atmosphere Sherman had cultivated in Green Bay 's locker room and fans were optimistic about the team 's future. In the offseason, however, Wolf suddenly announced his own resignation as general manager to take effect after the April 2001 draft. Packers ' president Bob Harlan was surprised by Wolf 's decision and felt unsure of how to replace him. Harlan preferred the structure Green Bay had employed since 1991; a general manager who ran football operations and hired a subservient head coach. But with the momentum and locker room chemistry that was built during the 2000 season, Harlan was reluctant to bring in a new individual with a potentially different philosophy. Wolf recommended that Harlan give the job to Sherman. Though Harlan was wary of the structure in principle, he agreed with Wolf that it was the best solution. In 2001, Sherman assumed the duties of both general manager and head coach.
From 2001 to 2004, Sherman coached the Packers to respectable regular - season success, led by the spectacular play of Brett Favre, Ahman Green, and a formidable offensive line. But Sherman 's teams faltered in the playoffs. Prior to 2003, the Packers had never lost a home playoff game since the NFL instituted a post-season in 1933 (they were 13 -- 0, with 11 of the wins at Lambeau and two more in Milwaukee.). That ended January 4, 2003, when the Atlanta Falcons defeated the Packers 27 -- 7 in an NFC Wild Card game. The Packers would also lose at home in the playoffs to the Minnesota Vikings two years later.
By the end of the 2004 season, the Packers team depth appeared to be diminishing. Sherman also seemed overworked and reportedly had trouble communicating with players on the practice field with whom he was also negotiating contracts. Harlan felt the dual roles were too much for one man to handle and removed Sherman from the general manager position in early 2005 while retaining him as a head coach. Harlan hired the Seattle Seahawks ' vice president of operations Ted Thompson as the new executive vice president, general manager and director of football operations. The relationship between Thompson and Sherman appeared strained, as Thompson immediately began rebuilding Green Bay 's roster. Following a dismal 4 -- 12 season, Thompson fired Sherman.
In 2006, Thompson hired Mike McCarthy, the former offensive coordinator for the San Francisco 49ers and New Orleans Saints as his new head coach. McCarthy had also previously served as the quarterbacks coach for the Packers in 1999.
After missing the playoffs in 2006, Brett Favre announced that he would return for the 2007 season; it would turn out to be one of his best. The Packers won 10 of their first 11 games and finished 13 -- 3, earning a first - round bye in the playoffs. The Packers ' passing offense, led by Favre and a very skilled wide receiver group, finished second in the NFC, behind the Dallas Cowboys, and third overall in the league. Running back Ryan Grant, acquired for a sixth - round draft pick from the New York Giants, became the featured back in Green Bay and rushed for 956 yards and 8 touchdowns in the final 10 games of the regular season. In the divisional playoff round, in a heavy snowstorm, the Packers beat the Seattle Seahawks 42 -- 20. Grant rushed for three touchdowns and over 200 yards, while Favre tossed three touchdown passes and one snowball to receiver Donald Driver in celebration.
On January 20, 2008, Green Bay appeared in their first NFC Championship Game in 10 years facing the New York Giants in Green Bay. The game was lost 23 -- 20 on an overtime field goal by Lawrence Tynes. This would be Brett Favre 's final game as a Green Bay Packer with his final pass being an interception in overtime.
Mike McCarthy coached the NFC team during the 2008 Pro Bowl in Hawaii. Al Harris and Aaron Kampman were also picked to play for the NFC Pro Bowl team as starters. Donald Driver was named as a third - string wideout on the Pro Bowl roster. Brett Favre was named the first - string quarterback for the NFC, but he declined to play in the Pro Bowl and was replaced on the roster by Tampa Bay Buccaneers ' quarterback Jeff Garcia. The Packers also had several first alternates, including Chad Clifton and Nick Barnett.
In December 2007, Ted Thompson was signed to a 5 - year contract extension with the Packers, while it was announced on February 5, 2008, that head coach Mike McCarthy signed a 5 - year contract extension as well.
On March 4, 2008, Brett Favre tearfully announced his retirement. Within five months, however, he filed for reinstatement with the NFL on July 29. Favre 's petition was granted by Commissioner Roger Goodell, effective August 4, 2008. On August 6, 2008, it was announced that Brett Favre was traded to the New York Jets for a conditional draft pick in 2009.
The Packers began their 2008 season with their 2005 first - round draft pick, quarterback Aaron Rodgers, under center, as the first QB other than Favre to start for the Packers in 16 years. Rodgers played well in his first year starting for the Packers, throwing for over 4,000 yards and 28 touchdowns. However, injuries plagued the Packers ' defense, as they lost 7 close games by 4 points or less, finishing with a 6 -- 10 record. After the season, eight assistant coaches were dismissed by McCarthy, including Bob Sanders, the team 's defensive coordinator, who was replaced by Dom Capers.
In March 2009, the organization assured fans that Brett Favre 's jersey number would be retired, but not during the 2009 season. In April 2009, the Packers selected defensive lineman B.J. Raji of Boston College as the team 's first pick in the draft. The team then traded three draft picks (including the pick the Packers acquired from the Jets for Brett Favre) for another first - round pick, selecting linebacker Clay Matthews III of the University of Southern California.
During the 2009 NFL season, two match - ups between the franchise and its former quarterback Brett Favre were highly anticipated after Favre 's arrival with the division - rival Vikings in August. The first encounter took place in Week 4, on a Monday Night Football game which broke several TV audience records. The scheduling of this game was made possible when Baseball Commissioner and Packer Board of Directors member Bud Selig forced baseball 's Minnesota Twins to play 2 games within a 12 - hour span. The Vikings won the game 30 -- 23. Brett Favre threw 3 TDs, no interceptions, and had a passer rating of 135. The teams met for a second time in Week 8, Favre leading the Vikings to a second win, 38 -- 26, in Green Bay. Rodgers was heavily pressured in both games, being sacked 14 times total, but still played well, throwing five touchdowns and only one interception. The next week, the Packers were upset by the win-less Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Following a players - only meeting, the team found some stability on the offensive line with the return of tackle Mark Tauscher bringing a minor halt to sacks to Rodgers and opening the running game to Ryan Grant and the other running backs. Green Bay finished the season strongly, winning 7 out of their last 8 games, including winning their 16th regular season finale in the past 17 seasons, and earning a NFC wild - card playoff bid with an 11 -- 5 regular - season record. The Packers defense was ranked No. 2 and the offense was ranked No. 6 with rookies Brad Jones and Clay Matthews III becoming sensations at linebacker and young players like James Jones, Brandon Jackson, Jermichael Finley and Jordy Nelson becoming threats on offense. Rodgers also became the first quarterback in NFL history to throw for at least 4,000 yards in each of his first two seasons as a starter. Also, cornerback Charles Woodson won NFL Defensive Player of the Year honors after recording 9 interceptions, forcing four fumbles, 3 touchdowns and registering 74 tackles and 2 sacks. In fact, Woodson 's 9 interceptions were more than the 8 collected by all Packer opponents that season. Though the defense was ranked high, injuries to Al Harris, Tramon Williams, Will Blackmon, Atari Bigby and Brandon Underwood severely limited the depth of the secondary and teams like the Minnesota Vikings and Pittsburgh Steelers used that to their advantage by unleashing aerial assaults against inexperienced players with the NFL 's best receivers. The season ended with an overtime loss in a wild card round shootout at the Arizona Cardinals, 51 -- 45.
After finishing the 2009 season with an 11 -- 5 record, the Packers began the 2010 NFL Draft holding the 23rd pick. They selected Offensive tackle Bryan Bulaga from Iowa; with pick 2 -- 56 they selected Defensive end Mike Neal from Purdue. They then traded picks 3 -- 86 and 4 -- 122 to the Philadelphia Eagles for pick 3 -- 71, choosing Safety Morgan Burnett from Georgia Tech. With pick 5 -- 154 they selected Tight end Andrew Quarless from Penn State. With their compensatory selection pick 5 -- 169 they chose Offensive guard Marshall Newhouse from Texas Christian. With pick 6 -- 193 they selected Running back James Starks from Buffalo. In their final selection, 7 -- 230. they chose Defensive end C.J. Wilson of East Carolina.
The team lost Johnny Jolly to a season - long suspension after he violated the NFL drug policy. Their running corps suffered a blow when RB Ryan Grant sustained a season - ending ankle injury in Week 1. By the end of the season, the team had 16 people on injured reserve, including 7 starters: running back Ryan Grant, tight end Jermichael Finley, linebacker Nick Barnett, safety Morgan Burnett, linebacker Brandon Chillar, tackle Mark Tauscher, and linebacker Brad Jones.
After finishing the regular season 10 -- 6 the Packers clinched the No. 6 seed in the NFC playoffs. They first faced No. 3 seeded Philadelphia, winning 21 -- 16. In the Divisional round, they defeated No. 1 seeded Atlanta 48 -- 21. They then played the Chicago Bears at Soldier Field in the NFC Championship Game -- only the second playoff meeting between the two storied rivals (the other a 33 -- 14 Chicago victory which sent them to the 1941 NFL Championship Game). Green Bay won 21 -- 14 to move on to Super Bowl XLV. On February 6, 2011, they defeated the AFC champion Pittsburgh Steelers 31 -- 25, becoming the first No. 6 seed from the NFC to win a Super Bowl. Aaron Rodgers was named Super Bowl MVP.
In 2011, coming off their victory in Super Bowl XLV, the Packers won their first 13 games, eventually finishing the season 15 - 1. The 15 victories marked the franchise record for wins in a season, and tied for second most regular - season wins in NFL history, behind only the 2007 Patriots who went 16 -- 0. Following the season, Aaron Rodgers would be named the NFL 's MVP, his first such award.
Despite this success, the team faltered in the playoffs, losing their first game to the New York Giants 37 - 20, following the Packer 's first round bye.
In 2012, the Packers went 11 - 5. They beat the Minnesota Vikings in the NFC Wildcard round 24 - 10, and but lost in the divisional round of the playoffs to the eventual NFC Champion San Francisco 49ers by a score of 45 - 31. The Packers offense finished the season fifth in points and eleventh in yards per game. The defense finished eleventh in points allowed and twenty - second in yards allowed per game.
The Packers topped the first - ever AP Pro32 rankings, a new pro football version of the AP Top 25 college football and basketball polls.
In 2013, the Packers got to a 5 - 2 start, leading up to a Week 9 match - up against the Bears. It was in that game which the Packers lost Aaron Rodgers to a broken collarbone; Rodgers would miss the next six games, during which the club would go 2 - 3 - 1 under three different quarterbacks: Seneca Wallace (injured during first start), Scott Tolzien (benched), and Matt Flynn.
Despite having a 7 - 7 - 1 record, the Packers were still in a position to win the NFC North division, if they were able to win their final game. With Rodgers returning, the Packers managed to beat the Bears in a Week 9 rematch, 33 - 28. Finishing at 8 - 7 - 1, the Packers won their division and were awarded a home playoff game. However, despite Rodgers ' return, the Packers would lose to the San Francisco 49ers 20 - 23 in the first round of the playoffs.
The Packers recorded their 700th victory against the Bears in Week 4. The team went undefeated in its home games, for the first time since the 2011 season; they also led the league in scoring, with 486 points, the second-most in franchise history. The 2014 season also marked the first time since 2009 that the team had a 4,000 - yard passer, two 1,000 - yard receivers, and a 1,000 - yard rusher. Overall, the team went 12 - 4, clinching the # 2 seed in the NFC and a fourth consecutive NFC North division title, making the playoffs for the sixth straight season, tying a franchise record. The Packers beat the Cowboys in the divisional round, advancing to the NFC Championship to face the Seattle Seahawks. After leading throughout most of regulation, the Packers lost 28 - 22 in a historic overtime rally by Seattle.
Following the season, quarterback Aaron Rodgers was named the league 's Most Valuable Player for the second time.
During Week 2 of the preseason against the Pittsburgh Steelers, wide receiver Jordy Nelson caught an eight - yard pass from Aaron Rodgers, but then fell to the turf without contact. A few days later, it was revealed that Nelson had torn his ACL. He would remain inactive for the rest of the 2015 season. Even without Nelson, the Packers managed to get off to a 6 - 0 start. But the Packers then lost 4 of their next 5 games, falling to 7 - 4.
On the December 3rd game against the Detroit Lions, the Packers quickly fell to a 20 - 0 deficit going into halftime. Green Bay started to make a comeback in the 2nd half thanks to a touchdown by Davante Adams and a 27 - yard touchdown run by Aaron Rodgers to bring the game within 2 points at 23 - 21. The Packers then got the ball back in their possession with 23 seconds left in the game. While attempting a "lateral '' play, Rodgers was sacked with no time remaining but then a flag was thrown for a facemask penalty on Detroit. The Packers now had one more un-timed play, which Aaron Rodgers threw a 61 - yard Hail Mary touchdown to tight end Richard Rodgers. It was the longest completed Hail Mary pass thrown in NFL history. Green Bay then finished the season 10 - 6 and 2nd in the NFC North behind the Minnesota Vikings.
The Packers beat the Washington Redskins in the NFC Wild Card game to advance to the Divisional round with the Arizona Cardinals. A similar play to tie the game against the Cardinals happened between Aaron Rodgers and Jeff Janis. Janis caught a 41 - yard touchdown from Rodgers which sent the game into overtime. However, the Packers fell to the Cardinals 26 - 20, ending their season.
After a 4 -- 6 start to the season, the Packers went on a six - game winning streak to finish the regular season with a 10 -- 6 record. The team clinched the NFC North for the fifth time in six years with their Week 17 win over the Detroit Lions. They routed the fifth - seeded New York Giants, 38 -- 13, in the wild - card round of the playoffs and upset the top - seeded Dallas Cowboys, 34 -- 31, in the divisional round of the playoffs, but their season came to an end when they were beaten by the second - seeded Atlanta Falcons in the NFC Championship Game, 44 -- 21.
The Green Bay Packers began the 2017 regular season with a 4 -- 2 record. In a game against the Minnesota Vikings, Aaron Rodgers was driven to the ground after throwing a pass and suffered a broken collarbone. In week 11 of the regular season, the Packers lost to the Baltimore Ravens with a score of 23 -- 0. This is the first shutout game in Lambeau Field since 2006, where the Packers lost to the New England Patriots with a score of 35 -- 0. The Packers would finish the season 7 - 9, missing the playoffs for the first time since 2008.
The Packers are the only community - owned franchise in American professional sports. Rather than being the property of an individual, partnership, or corporate entity, they are held in 2014 by 360,584 stockholders. No one is allowed to hold more than 200,000 shares, or approximately 4 % of the 5,011,557 shares currently outstanding. It is this broad - based community support and non-profit structure which has kept the team in Green Bay for nearly a century in spite of being the smallest market in all of North American professional sports.
The city of Green Bay had a population of only 104,057 as of the 2010 census, and 600,000 in its television market, significantly less than the average NFL figures. The team, however, has long had an extended fan base throughout Wisconsin and parts of the Midwest, thanks in part to playing one pre-season and three regular - season home games each year in Milwaukee through 1995. It was only when baseball - only Miller Park preempted football there that the Packers ' home slate became played entirely in Green Bay.
There have been five stock sales to fund Packer operations over the team 's history, beginning with $5,000 being raised through 1,000 shares offered at $5 apiece in 1923. Most recently, $64 million was raised in 2011 -- 2012 towards a $143 - million Lambeau Field expansion. Demand exceeded expectations, and the original 250,000 share limit had to be increased before some 250,000 new buyers from all 50 U.S. states and Canada purchased 269,000 shares at $250 apiece, approximately 99 % online.
The original "Articles of Incorporation for the Green Bay Football Corporation '', enacted in 1923, specified that should the franchise be sold, any post-expenses money would have gone to the Sullivan - Wallen Post of the American Legion to build "a proper soldier 's memorial. '' This stipulation was included to ensure there could never be any financial inducement for shareholders to move the club from Green Bay. At the November 1997 annual meeting, shareholders voted to change the beneficiary from the Sullivan - Wallen Post to the Green Bay Packers Foundation, which makes donations to many charities and institutions throughout Wisconsin.
Even though it is referred to as "common stock '' in corporate offering documents, a share of Packers stock does not share the same rights traditionally associated with common or preferred stock. It does not include an equity interest, does not pay dividends, can not be traded, has no securities - law protection, and brings no season ticket purchase privileges. All shareholders receive are voting rights, an invitation to the corporation 's annual meeting, and an opportunity to purchase exclusive shareholder - only merchandise. Shares of stock can not be resold, except back to the team for a fraction of the original price. While new shares can be given as gifts, transfers are technically allowed only between immediate family members once ownership has been established.
Green Bay is the only team with this form of ownership structure in the NFL, which does not comply with current league rules stipulating a maximum of 32 owners per team, with one holding a minimum 30 % stake. The Packers ' corporation was grandfathered when the NFL 's current ownership policy was established in the 1980s. As a publicly held nonprofit, the Packers are also the only American major - league sports franchise to release its financial balance sheet every year.
Green Bay Packers, Inc., is governed by a seven - member Executive Committee elected from a 45 - member board of directors. It consists of a president, vice president, treasurer, secretary and three members - at - large; only the president is compensated. Responsibilities include directing corporate management, approving major capital expenditures, establishing broad policy, and monitoring management performance.
The team 's elected president normally represents the Packers in NFL owners meetings. During his time as coach Vince Lombardi generally represented the team at league meetings in his role as general manager, except at owners - only meetings, where president Dominic Olejniczak appeared.
The team created the Green Bay Packers Foundation in December 1986. It assists in a wide variety of activities and programs benefiting education, civic affairs, health services, human services and youth - related programs.
At the team 's 1997 annual stockholders meeting the foundation was designated in place of a Sullivan - Wallen Post soldiers memorial as recipient of any residual assets upon the team 's sale or dissolution.
The Packers have an exceptionally loyal fan base. Regardless of team performance, every game played in Green Bay has been sold out since 1960. Despite the Packers having by far the smallest local TV market, the team consistently ranks as one of the most popular in the NFL. They also have one of the longest season ticket waiting lists in professional sports: 86,000 names long, more than there are seats at Lambeau Field. The average wait is said to be over 30 years, but with only 90 or so tickets turned over annually it would be 955 years before the newest name on the list got theirs. As a result, season tickets are willed to next of kin and newborns placed optimistically on the waiting list.
Packers fans are often referred to as cheeseheads, a nickname for Wisconsin residents reflecting the state 's bountiful cheese production first leveled as an insult at a 1987 game between the Chicago White Sox and Milwaukee Brewers. Instead, it came to be a statewide source of pride, and particularly since 1994 has been embraced by Packers fans. Bright orange triangular cheesehead hats are a fixture wherever the team plays.
During training camp in the summer months, held outside the Don Hutson Center, young Packers fans can bring their bikes and have their favorite players ride them from the locker room to practice at Ray Nitschke Field. This old tradition began around the time of Lambeau Field 's construction in 1957. Gary Knafelc, a Packers end at the time, said, "I think it was just that kids wanted us to ride their bikes. I can remember kids saying, ' Hey, ride my bike. ' '' Each new generation of Packer fan delights at the opportunity.
The team holds an annual scrimmage called Family Night, typically an intra-squad affair, at Lambeau Field. During 2004 and 2005 sellout crowds of over 60,000 fans showed up, with an all - time mark of 62,492 set in 2005 when the Buffalo Bills appeared.
In August 2008, ESPN.com ranked Packers fans as second - best in the NFL. The team initially finished tied with the Pittsburgh Steelers (who finished ahead of the Packers) as having the best fans, but the tie was broken by ESPN 's own John Clayton, a Pittsburgh native.
Needing to outfit his new squad, team founder Curly Lambeau solicited funds from his employer, the Indian Packing Company. He was given $500 for uniforms and equipment in return for the team being named for its sponsor. An early newspaper article referred to the fledglings as "the Indians '', but by the time they played their first game "Packers '' had taken hold.
Indian Packing was purchased in 1920 by the Acme Packing Company. Acme continued to support the team, which played its first NFL season with "ACME PACKERS '' emblazoned on its jerseys.
Lambeau, a Notre Dame alumnus, borrowed its Irish 's navy blue and gold team colors, much as George Halas borrowed his Illinois alma mater 's for the Chicago Bears. As a result, the early Packers were often referred to as the "Bays '' or the "Blues '' (and even occasionally as "the Big Bay Blues '').
By 1950, Green Bay had changed its colors to hunter green and gold. Navy blue was kept as a secondary color, seen primarily on sideline capes, but was quietly dropped on all official materials shortly thereafter. The team 's current uniform combination of forest green or white jerseys and metallic gold pants was adopted soon after Vince Lombardi arrived in 1959. However, to celebrate the NFL 's 75th anniversary in 1994, the Packers joined in a league - wide donning of "throwback '' jerseys, back to navy blue and gold. The team would go throwback again for two Thanksgiving Day games against the Detroit Lions, in blue and gold 1930s - era uniforms in 2001, and 1960s green and gold (only slightly different from the current ones) in 2003.
In 1951, the team finally stopped wearing leather helmets, adopting the metallic gold plastic headgear it has used ever since. The oval "G '' logo was added in 1961 when Lombardi asked Packers equipment manager Gerald "Dad '' Braisher to design a logo. Braisher tasked his assistant, St. Norbert College art student John Gordon. Satisfied with a football - shaped letter "G '', the pair presented it to Lombardi, who then approved the addition. Tiki Barber falsely reported it to stand for "greatness '' without a reliable source to back up his claims. Other reputable media outlets then published similar stories using Barber 's false claim as a source. The Packers ' Assistant Director of PR and Corporate Communications had the following to say: "There 's nothing in our history that suggests there 's any truth to this. The Packers Hall of Fame archivist said the same thing. '' The team used a number of different logos prior to 1961, but the "G '' is the only logo that has ever appeared on the helmet. The Packers hold the trademark on the "G '' logo, and have granted limited permission to other organizations to utilize a similar logo, such as the University of Georgia and Grambling State University, in addition to the city of Green Bay itself as part of its civic logo. Adopted in 1964, the Georgia "G '', though different in design and color, was similar to the Packers ' "G ''. Then - Georgia head coach Vince Dooley thought it best to clear the use of Georgia 's new emblem with the Packers.
While several NFL teams choose to wear white jerseys at home early in the season due to white 's ability to reflect the late summer sun rays, the Packers have done so only twice, during the opening two games of the 1989 season. However, the team did wear an all - white uniform in 2016 versus the Chicago Bears during the two teams ' designated Color Rush game, in which Chicago wore all - navy uniforms. The Packers again wore an all - white uniform at Lambeau in the Color Rush game against the Bears (who again wore all - navy uniforms) in 2017. Although alternate gold jerseys with green numbers are sold on a retail basis, the team currently has no plans to introduce such a jersey to be used in actual games.
During the 2010 season, the Packers paid tribute to their historical brethren with a third jersey modeled after that worn by the club in 1929, during its first world championship season. The jersey was navy blue, again making the Packers "the Blues. ''
Upon the NFL 's switch of uniform suppliers in 2012 to Nike from Reebok, the Packers refused any changes to their uniform in any way outside of the required supplier 's logo and new league uniform logos, declining all of Nike 's "Elite 51 '' enhancements, including retaining the traditional striped collar of the jersey rather than Nike 's new collar design.
After their early seasons at Bellevue Park and Hagemeister Park the Packers played home games in City Stadium from 1925 to 1956. The team won its first six NFL world championships there.
By the 1950s the wooden 25,000 seat arena was considered outmoded. The NFL threatened to move the franchise to Milwaukee full - time unless it got a better stadium. The city responded by building a new 32,150 seat City Stadium for the team, the first built exclusively for an NFL team, which opened in time for the 1957 season. It was renamed Lambeau Field in 1965 to honor Curly Lambeau, who had died earlier in the year.
Expanded seven times before the end of the 1990s, Lambeau Field capacity reached 60,890. In 2003, it was extensively renovated to expand seating, modernize stadium facilities, and add an atrium area. Even with a current seating capacity of 72,928, ticket demand far outpaces supply, as all Packers games have been sold out since 1960. About 86,000 names are on the waiting list for season tickets.
The Packers played part of their home slate in Milwaukee starting in 1933, including two to three home games each year in Milwaukee 's County Stadium from 1953 to 1994. Indeed, County Stadium had been built partly to entice the Packers to move to Milwaukee full - time. The Packers worked to capture their growing fan base in Milwaukee and the larger crowds. By the 1960s, threat of an American Football League franchise in Milwaukee prompted the Packers to stay, including scheduling a Western Conference Playoff in 1967.
County Stadium was built primarily as a baseball stadium and made only the bare minimum adjustments to accommodate football. At its height, it only seated 56,000 people, just barely above the NFL minimum; many of those seats were badly obstructed. The field was just barely large enough to fit a football field. Both teams shared the same sideline (separated by a piece of tape) and the end zones extended onto the warning track. By 1994, improvements and seating expansions at Lambeau, along with the Brewers preparing to campaign for their new stadium prompted the Packers to play their full slate in Green Bay for the first time in 62 years. Former season ticketholders for the Milwaukee package continue to receive preference for one pre-season and the second and fifth regular - season games at Lambeau Field each season, along with playoff games through a lottery under the "Gold Package '' plan.
The Packers have three practice facilities across the street from Lambeau Field: the Don Hutson Center, an indoor facility; Ray Nitschke Field, an outdoor field with artificial FieldTurf; and Clarke Hinkle Field, an outdoor field with natural grass.
This is a partial list of the Packers ' last five completed seasons. For the full season - by - season franchise results, see List of Green Bay Packers seasons.
Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.
As of December 31, 2017
Overall record 34 wins, 22 losses
The Packers have been league champions a record 13 times, topping their nearest rival, the Chicago Bears, by four. The first three were decided by league standing, the next six by the NFL Title Game, and the final four by Super Bowl victories. The Packers are also the only team to win three consecutive NFL titles, having accomplished this twice -- from 1929 to 1931 under Lambeau, and from 1965 to 1967 under Lombardi.
From 1920 to 1932, the NFL championship was awarded based on standings, with no championship game taking place. The Packers won three such championships.
From 1933 to 1969, the NFL held a championship game to decide their champion. The Packers won 8 NFL Championship Games. From 1966 to 1969, the NFL Championship Game was followed by the Super Bowl.
Starting in 1966, the NFL began holding the Super Bowl. The Packers have won four Super Bowls.
The Packers have won three NFC Championship Games. NFC Championships did not exist until after the AFL - NFL merger in 1970.
The Packers have won 18 divisional championships.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated May 25, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 90 Active, Inactive
The Packers have the second most members in the Pro Football Hall of Fame with 24. They trail only the Chicago Bears (with 27).
In nearly nine decades of Packers football, the Packers have formally retired six numbers. All six Packers are members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame and their numbers and names are displayed on the green facade of Lambeau Field 's north endzone as well as in the Lambeau Field Atrium.
→ Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs
* Interim head coaches
The Packers are unique in having their market area cover two media markets, both Green Bay and Milwaukee. NFL blackout restrictions for the team apply within both areas. However, Packers games have not been blacked out locally since 1972 (the last year home game local telecasts were prohibited regardless of sellout status) due to strong home attendance and popularity. As mentioned above, every Packers home game -- preseason, regular season and playoffs -- has been sold out since 1960.
The flagship station of the Packers Radio Network is Scripps Radio 's WTMJ in Milwaukee, which was the former flagship of the Journal Broadcast Group before its merger with Scripps in April 2015. WTMJ has aired Packers games since 1929, the longest association between a radio station and an NFL team to date, and the only rights deal in American professional sports where a station outside of the team 's main metro area is the radio flagship. While this might be unusual, the station can be heard at city - grade strength at all hours in Green Bay proper. Games air in Green Bay on WTAQ (1360 / 97.5) and WIXX - FM (101.1), and WAPL (105.7) and WHBY (1150) in Appleton and the Fox Cities. Wayne Larrivee is the play - by - play announcer and Larry McCarren is the color analyst. Larrivee joined the team after many years as the Chicago Bears ' announcer. Jim Irwin and Max McGee were the longtime radio announcers before Larrivee and McCarren. When victory is assured for the Packers, either a game - winning touchdown, interception or a crucial 4th down defensive stop, Larrivee 's trademark declaration of "And there is your dagger! '' signifies the event. In limited circumstances where the Milwaukee Brewers are in either playoff or post-season contention and their play - by - play takes priority, WTMJ 's sister FM station WKTI (94.5) currently airs Packer games to avert game conflicts.
The TV rights for pre-season games, not nationally broadcast are held by Scripps television stations WGBA - TV (Channel 26) in Green Bay and WTMJ - TV (Channel 4) in Milwaukee, along with Quincy Media 's six ABC stations in the central, northern and western parts of the state, KQDS - TV (Channel 21) in Duluth - Superior, and in Escanaba / Marquette, Michigan, WLUC - TV (Channel 6), along with their Fox subchannel. As such, these stations are authorized to use the tagline Your official Packers station in their market area by the team, and also carry two weeknight programs; Packers Live on Tuesday evening, and the weekly coach 's show, The Mike McCarthy Show on Wednesday evenings at 6: 30 pm throughout the football season. Until the end of the 2011 season, the team 's partner in Green Bay was WFRV - TV (Channel 5), and sister satellite WJMN - TV in Escanaba. As part of the 2012 deal, McCarren resigned his duties as sports director of WFRV to move to WTMJ / WGBA as a Packers analyst, becoming WGBA 's official sports director on April 1, 2013, as his non-compete clause to appear as a sports anchor in Green Bay expired, though he retired as sports director in March 2015 to focus full - time on his duties for the Packer radio and television networks. WFRV / WJMN still airs any Packers regular season home games against an AFC team.
The 2012 TV rights deal expanded the team 's preseason network further across the Midwest. Additional stations include the Quad Cities region of Iowa / Illinois where game coverage is carried by KLJB (Channel 18) in Davenport, Iowa and KGCW (Channel 26) in Burlington, Iowa, both owned by Grant Broadcasting System II, KCWI - TV (Channel 23) in Des Moines, KWWL (Channel 7) in Waterloo, Iowa, and in Omaha, Nebraska, KMTV - TV (Channel 3), a sister Scripps station to WTMJ and WGBA. As part of a large package of preseason football from various team networks, KFVE (Channel 9) in Honolulu, Hawaii also carried Packers state network games in the 2016 preseason. The network also added its first affiliate with Spanish language play - by - play, Milwaukee 's WYTU - LD (Channel 63 / 49.4), a Telemundo affiliate, which airs statewide on Spectrum systems. The Spanish broadcast is also simulcast by Scripps ' WACY - TV (Channel 32) in the Green Bay / Appleton market (WACY is an otherwise English - language MyNetworkTV affiliate).
Pre-season coverage is produced by CBS, formerly using the NFL on CBS graphics package until the last contract ended as a remnant of WFRV 's former ownership by the CBS Corporation itself until 2007. In 2012, the pre-season coverage began to use the NBC Sports Sunday Night Football graphics package due to WTMJ / WGBA 's NBC affiliation. The TV play - by - play announcer, Kevin Harlan (also on loan from CBS), is the son of former Packers president Bob Harlan, with Rich Gannon joining him as color commentator. Since the 2008 pre-season all Packers preseason games on the statewide network are produced and aired in high definition, with WTMJ - TV subcontracting the games to minor network affiliates in Milwaukee during Summer Olympics years due to mandatory non-preemption policies by their network, NBC (this was not done in 2012 as the pre-season opener was a national ESPN game). In Green Bay, WACY carries preseason games in English if WGBA is unable to during Olympics years.
ESPN Monday Night Football games, both pre-season and season, are broadcast over the air on Fox affiliate WLUK - TV in Green Bay and ABC affiliate WISN - TV (Channel 12) in Milwaukee (ABC affiliate WBAY - TV in Green Bay carried those games from 2006 until 2015; the 2016 season was first where that station has not carried a Packer game in its history), while the stations airing Packers games in the NFL Network Thursday Night Football package have varied over the years depending on arrangements for syndication or co-network productions and simulcasts with CBS or NBC. WBAY 's evening news anchor Bill Jartz also serves as the public address system announcer for Lambeau Field.
The team 's intra-squad Lambeau scrimmage at the beginning of the season, marketed as Packers Family Night, was broadcast for over a decade by WITI (Channel 6) in Milwaukee, and produced by WLUK - TV in Green Bay, both Fox affiliates which broadcast the bulk of the team 's regular - season games, along with the state 's other Fox affiliates until the 2016 season. In 2017, Scripps and the Packers Television Network began to originate the Packers Family Night broadcast.
In 2015, six members of the Green Bay Packers -- David Bakhtiari; Don Barclay; T.J. Lang; Clay Matthews; Jordan Rodgers and Josh Sitton -- made an appearance as an a cappella group in the musical comedy, Pitch Perfect 2.
On that 70 's show season 7 episode 14, Donna Pinciotti gave away the gang including Red Forman long time Green Bay Packers fan, 6 free ticket to Lambeau field for football game against Chicago Bears. In season 8 finale, Red decline moved to Florida after Steven Hyde buy him season ticket. Something that he really wanted for so long. Sometimes in random episode, Red invited his neighbour, family friend to watch Packer game, he did pray for Packer to win the superbowl.
does not include 1966 or 1967 NFL championships
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the sign and the seal the quest for the lost ark of the covenant | The Sign and the Seal - wikipedia
The Sign and the Seal: The Quest for the Lost Ark of the Covenant is a 1992 book by British researcher Graham Hancock, in which the author describes his search for the Ark of the Covenant and proposes a theory of the ark 's historical movements and current whereabouts. The book sold well but received negative reviews.
Hancock proposes the theory that the ark was removed from Solomon 's Temple in Jerusalem by temple priests during the reign of the evil King Manasseh of Judah around 650 BC, and then it spent about 200 years in a purpose - built temple in Elephantine, Egypt before it was removed around 470 BC to Ethiopia via tributaries to the Nile River, where it was kept on the Jewish island of Tana Qirqos for about eight hundred more years as the centre of a strong Jewish community there, before it finally came into the hands of the young Ethiopian Orthodox Church in the 5th century, who took it to their capital of Axum, and it supposedly remains there until today in the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion. The Ethiopian Church believes that the Ark is indeed held today in the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion, but as opposed to the book, they believe that it was brought to Ethiopia by Menelik I, stolen from Solomon 's Temple during the reign of King Solomon himself, some 200 years earlier than the events proposed by the book.
Hancock also claims that the Holy Grail and the Ark of the Covenant may possibly be one and the same relic as a result of a comparative study of the great German epic Wolfram von Eschenbach 's Parzival, the Ethiopian national epic Kebra Nagast, and the iconography of Chartres Cathedral.
Hancock also claims that the Knights Templar searched for the lost Ark of the Covenant, among other relics, at the site of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem in the 12th century. It is likely that an Ethiopian king in exile (Lalibela) in Jerusalem in the 12th century made contact with the Knights Templar. This claim is supported by the legacy of architecture in the city of Lalibela built during the reign of King Lalibela, of which the Church of Saint George, Lalibela is of particular interest, in relation to the development of Gothic architecture.
The Ethiopian Church, apparently fearful of losing the Ark to the Knights Templar, sent emissaries in 1306 to Pope Clement V; the Catholic Church 's fear of the Knights Templar acquiring the power of the Ark of the Covenant, the book claims, is one of the reasons why Pope Clement V began prosecution and arrest of the Knights Templar in 1307.
The book sold well, but received negative reviews from critics. Jonathan Kirsch of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "It 's part travelogue, part true - adventure, part mystery - thriller. But mostly it 's a whacking big dose of amateur scholarship alloyed with a fervid imagination and the kind of narrative that comes in handy when telling ghost stories around a campfire. '' Desmond Ryan of the Philadelphia Inquirer joked, "If (Hancock) did any more speculating than what is strewn through the many pages of The Sign and the Seal, he would have to go into real estate. '' Archaeologist John Holladay of the University of Toronto called it "garbage and hogwash, '' while Edward Ullendorff, a former Professor of Ethiopian Studies at the University of London, said he "wasted a lot of time reading it. '' Richard Furlong described the book as "a thoroughly engaging read, written in an easy - to - follow, breathless style by someone who is absorbed by his task. Highly recommended for conspiracy fans; unsuitable for historians and archaeologists. ''
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will i still know what you did last summer | I Still Know What You Did Last Summer - Wikipedia
I Still Know What You Did Last Summer is a 1998 American slasher film and a sequel to the 1997 film I Know What You Did Last Summer. Directed by Danny Cannon, the film was written by Trey Callaway, and features characters originally created in Lois Duncan 's 1973 novel I Know What You Did Last Summer. Jennifer Love Hewitt, Freddie Prinze, Jr. and Muse Watson reprise their roles, with Brandy, Mekhi Phifer, Jennifer Esposito, and Matthew Settle joining the cast. I Still Know What You Did Last Summer continues after the events of the first film.
Callaway 's script was published in an edited "young adult '' format, leaving in all descriptions of violence but omitting the harsher language. Filming took place in Mexico and California. I Still Know What You Did Last Summer was released to negative reviews, but was a box office success, grossing $84 million worldwide. It is the second installment of I Know What You Did Last Summer series and was followed by I 'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer in 2006.
One year after the events of the first film, Julie James is attending summer classes in Boston, to avoid returning to her hometown of Southport, North Carolina. She suffers from memories and nightmares of the accident and brutal murders of her friends by the vengeful fisherman, Ben Willis, from the summer before.
Julie 's friend and roommate Karla Wilson receives a phone call from a local radio station, then winning an all - expenses - paid vacation to the Bahamas for the Fourth of July weekend. Julie invites her boyfriend, Ray Bronson, but he declines. He is hurt by her earlier refusal to visit him in Southport. Ray, intending to propose to Julie, changes his mind about the trip, planning to show up as a surprise.
That evening, Ray and his co-worker Dave drive to Boston to meet Julie. They stop due to a BMW and body in the middle of the road. Ray gets out to inspect the scene, only to find the body to be a mannequin dressed in fisherman 's clothing. Suddenly, Ben Willis appears and kills Dave with his hook. Ben takes Ray 's truck and chases him down the road. Ray gets away, but he is injured from falling down a hill.
The next morning, Julie and Karla depart on the trip with Karla 's boyfriend Tyrell and their friend, Will Benson. Knowing that Will has a crush on Julie, Karla invited him as a replacement for Ray, much to Julie 's discomfort. The group arrives at the hotel in Tower Bay, only to find that other guests are leaving due to the imminent hurricane season. To her surprise, Julie is sharing a hotel room with Will. That evening at the hotel 's bar, Julie is talked into singing karaoke. She stops when the words "I STILL KNOW WHAT YOU DID LAST SUMMER '' roll onto the screen. Terrified, she runs back to her room and is met by Will, who laid out flowers and a love note for her. Julie sidesteps Will 's affection for her, while Tyrell and Karla (and later Will) get into the hot tub.
Julie notices that her toothbrush is missing. Feeling something is wrong, she searches the room and finds the dockhand Darik hanging dead in the closet. She finds Tyrell, Karla, and Will, but when they return there is no sign of Darick 's body. The hotel manager refuses to believe her story and Julie tries to call the police, but the phone lines are dead due to the incoming hurricane. The group and the hotel staff prepare for the storm. Meanwhile, Ben arrives at the hotel and kills the employees. Olga, the maid, is stabbed in the back while the pool boy, Titus, is impaled with a pair of garden shears.
The following day, the group finds that the hotel staff and the manager have been murdered, and the two - way radio, their only way of contact, has been destroyed. Isolated, Julie tells the others about the previous summer. Tyrell suspects that Estes, the boat hand porter, is the killer, since he is the only one who can not be found. The group goes to Estes ' apartment, searching for clues. They find Julie 's toothbrush and Karla 's hair tie, concluding Estes has been using voodoo to protect them. Estes appears and states the capital of Brazil is not Rio, meaning the trip was a set - up. He leads them to a graveyard in the forest with the graves of Ben 's wife and daughter, and an empty grave and tombstone with Julie 's name. Estes explains that Ben and his wife Sarah had two children: son Will and daughter Susie. Ben murdered Sarah in the hotel room that Julie is staying in when he found out about her affair and her plans to leave him with their children. In anger, Julie shouts that she will not be killed by Ben and that they will fight against him.
Estes goes missing, and Will volunteers to find him. Julie, Karla, and Tyrell return to the hotel and gather supplies to defend themselves. They head to the hotel kitchen for something to eat, and find Nancy, the bartender, hiding in the freezer. Will finds Estes, but he attacks Will while Ray takes a boat to the island. Ben appears and stabs Tyrell in the throat with his hook, killing him. The girls retreat to the attic, where Karla is attacked by Ben. They both fall through to the hotel bedroom below. Karla runs from the room and jumps onto the greenhouse. Julie and Nancy rescue Karla and run to the storm cellar to take refuge. They find that the storm cellar stores Ben 's victims. Will bursts in and convinces the girls to head back to the hotel, stating that he saw Ben on the beach.
Back at the hotel, Julie sees Will is bleeding from his stomach, so Nancy takes Karla to find a first aid kit. While retrieving the kit, Nancy and Karla find Estes has been impaled with a harpoon. Ben appears and kills Nancy. Back in the lobby, Julie is tending to Will, unable to find a wound. Will admits this is because it is not his blood. He asks Julie what her favorite radio station is, revealing he was the radio host and killed Estes. Will drags Julie to the graveyard, and tells her he is Ben 's son, explaining his actions. Ben appears and attacks Julie. Ray arrives, and a fight ensues between him and Will. When Ben tries to stab Ray, he accidentally kills Will instead. While Ben is distraught from killing his son, Julie takes a gun and shoots him in the chest. Ben falls dead into the grave made for Julie. Ray comforts Julie. Back at the hotel, Karla is found alive. The three are rescued by the coast guard.
Sometime later, Ray and Julie have married and are in their new home. Ray is brushing his teeth before bed and Julie is in their bedroom. The bathroom door is quietly shut and locked while Ray is occupied. Julie sits down on her bed, looks in the mirror, and sees Ben under the bed. She screams as Ben grabs her feet with his hook and hand and pulls her under.
While the film is set in The Bahamas, it was actually shot at El Tecuan Marina Resort Costalagree, in Jalisco, Mexico; Los Angeles, California; and Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, California.
The sequel made a gross $16.5 million at 2,443 theaters during its opening weekend. Unlike the original, the sequel opened at number two at the box office and dropped to number five only a week later. At the end of its fifteen - week run, the film grossed $40,020,622 in the United States. It grossed $44 million internationally, bringing the total worldwide gross to $84 million.
The film received highly negative reviews, with an overall rating of 7 % on Rotten Tomatoes with critics consensus being "Boring; predictable. '' It also has a 21 score on Metacritic compared to 52 for the original. The highest review score on Metacritic was 60 which came from Variety, who said "Purists will find the pic 's obviousness disappointing, but there 's no question that the film delivers a sufficient shock quotient to satisfy its youthful target audience ''. The film, much like the original, has obtained a "cult following ''.
Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
The soundtrack was released on November 17, 1998 by Warner Bros. Records. On January 19, 1999, "How Do I Deal '' was released a single, backed by Jory Eve 's "Try to Say Goodbye ''. A music video for "How Do I Deal '' was made available to music television networks.
On August 15, 2006, a straight - to - DVD sequel titled I 'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer was released. The film is unrelated to the two previous films, and features no returning cast members. It was originally proposed to continue where I Still Know What You Did Last Summer left off. Instead, the film features an unrelated plot with a brief mention of the first two films.
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how did the city of darwin get its name | History of Darwin - wikipedia
The history of Darwin details the city 's growth from a fledging settlement into a thriving colonial capital and finally a modern city.
The Aboriginal people of the Larrakia language group lived in the greater Darwin Region before European settlement. They had trading routes with Southeast Asia (see Macassan contact with Australia), and imported goods from as far as South Australia and Western Australia. Established songlines penetrated throughout the country, allowing stories and histories to be told and retold along the routes.
The Dutch visited Australia 's northern coastline in the 17th century, and created the first European maps of the area, hence the Dutch names in the area, such as Arnhem Land and Groote Eylandt, which still bears the original old Dutch spelling for "large island ''.
Lieutenant John Lort Stokes of HMS Beagle was the first British person to spot Darwin harbour on 9 September 1839, 69 years after the first European settlement of Australia. The ship 's captain, Commander John Clements Wickham, named the port after Charles Darwin, the English naturalist who had sailed with them both on the earlier second expedition of the Beagle. It was not until 1869 that a permanent European settlement was established by the South Australian Government who had control of the Territory at that time.
On 5 February 1869, George Goyder, the Surveyor - General of South Australia, established a small settlement of 135 men and women at Port Darwin. Goyder named the settlement Palmerston, after the British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston. The Port of Darwin was first used for modern commerce in 1869. It was used to supply the new settlement of Palmerston.
The 3,200 - kilometre (2,000 mi) Australian Overland Telegraph Line was built in the 1870s between Port Augusta and Darwin, connecting Australia to the rest of the world. During the construction, workers uncovered some gold near Pine Creek, about 200 kilometres (120 mi) south of Darwin, which further boosted the young colony 's development. In 1872, Government House (also known as the House of Seven Gables) was built, then in the 1880s it was pulled down and rebuilt.
In February 1875, the SS Gothenburg left Darwin for Adelaide with approximately 100 passengers and 34 crew (surviving records vary). Many passengers and crew were Darwin residents. On 24 February, in heavy storms she hit a reef at low tide off the north Queensland coast and sank with the loss of about 102 lives. The tragedy severely affected Darwin 's population and economy and it was slow to recover. Another ship, the SS Ellengowan, sunk in Darwin harbour on 27 April 1888.
The Fannie Bay Gaol was built between 1882 and 1883.
In 1884, the pearling industry brought people from Japan, Timor and the Philippines, many of whose descendants are prominent families in Darwin today.
In 1897, the settlement was completely destroyed by a cyclone which killed 28 people.
The planting of the first telegraph pole on 15 September 1870.
Wreck of the SS Gothenburg.
In 1911, the city 's name changed from Palmerston to Darwin. The Northern Territory was initially settled and administered by South Australia, until its transfer to the Commonwealth in 1911.
On 17 December 1918, the Darwin Rebellion occurred. During the rebellion, members of the Australian Workers ' Union, led by Harold Nelson, burnt an effigy of the Administrator of the Northern Territory, John Gilruth at Government House, and demanded his resignation.
On 19 February 1942, at 9: 57 am, during World War II, 188 Japanese warplanes attacked Darwin in two waves. The incoming Japanese planes were first spotted by Father John McGrath at the Bathurst Island Mission north of Darwin. McGrath radioed at 9: 30 am and the sirens wailed at 9: 57 am. It was the same fleet that had bombed Pearl Harbor, though a considerably larger number of bombs were dropped on Darwin, than on Pearl Harbor.
The attack killed at least 243 people and caused immense damage to the town. These were by far the most serious attacks on Australia in time of war, in terms of fatalities and damage. They were the first of many raids on Darwin.
This event is often called the "Pearl Harbor of Australia ''. Although it was a less significant target, a greater number of bombs were dropped on Darwin than were used in the attack on Pearl Harbor. As was the case at Pearl Harbor, the Australian town was unprepared, and although it came under attack from the air another 58 times in 1942 and 1943, the raids on 19 February were massive and devastating by comparison.
Another significant raid was conducted by the Japanese on 2 May 1943.
Darwin was granted city status on Australia Day (26 January) 1959.
On 25 December 1974, Darwin was struck by Cyclone Tracy, which killed 71 people and destroyed over 70 % of the town 's buildings, including many old stone buildings such as the Palmerston Town Hall, the Old Police Station, the Court House and Cell Block all on The Esplanade which runs along Lameroo Beach which could not withstand the lateral forces generated by the strong winds.
It was Australia 's worst natural disaster. The anemometer at Darwin Airport recorded winds of 217 kilometres per hour (135 mph) at 3: 00 am before it stopped working; winds of up to 250 kilometres per hour (160 mph) were estimated to have hit the city. The total damage cost $1 billion. Sixteen people were lost at sea, their bodies never recovered. The historic schooner Booya sunk due to the cyclone.
After the disaster, an airlift evacuated 30,000 people, which was the biggest airlift in Australia 's history. The population was evacuated by air and ground transportation; due to communications difficulties with Darwin airport landing was limited to one plane every ninety minutes. At major airports teams of Salvation Army and Red Cross workers met refugees, with the Red Cross taking responsibility for keeping track of the names and temporary addresses of the refugees. Evacuations were prioritised according to need; women, children, the elderly and sick were evacuated first. There were reports of men dressing up as women to escape with the early evacuations.
By 31 December only 10,900 people (mostly men who were required to help clean up the city) remained in Darwin. The city enacted a permit system. Permits were only issued to those who were involved in either the relief or reconstruction efforts, and were used to prevent the early return of those who were evacuated.
House in Nakara, Northern suburbs, after Tracy.
The city was subsequently rebuilt with newer materials and techniques during the late 1970s by the Darwin Reconstruction Commission. A satellite city of Palmerston was built 20 kilometres (12 mi) south of Darwin in the early 1980s.
As a result of air raids and cyclones, Darwin has few historic buildings although some of the stronger stone structures survived and have been restored. Since Cyclone Tracy all buildings are constructed to a strict cyclone code. Steel is a popular building material and led to a distinctive modern style associated with Darwin known as Troppo. Southeast Asian influences are also apparent in some of the architecture. A growing population and relatively scarce land has seen a boom in high rise apartment style housing in recent years especially around the central business district and coastal fringes.
The Darwin CBD in 1986.
Aerial view of Darwin, 2007.
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where is the netflix show the ranch filmed at | The Ranch (TV series) - wikipedia
The Ranch is an American comedy web television series starring Ashton Kutcher, Danny Masterson, Debra Winger and Sam Elliott that debuted in 2016 on Netflix. The show takes place on the fictional Iron River Ranch, Colorado; detailing the life of the Bennetts, a dysfunctional family consisting of two brothers, their rancher father, and his separated wife and local bar owner. While the opening sequence shows scenes from Ouray, Colorado and surrounding Ouray County, The Ranch is filmed on a sound stage in front of a live audience in Burbank, California. Each season consists of 20 episodes broken up into two parts, each containing 10 episodes.
All episodes are named after American country music songs, predominantly Kenny Chesney in part one, George Strait in part two, and Tim McGraw in part three: the first ten episodes premiered on April 1, 2016, the second batch of ten episodes premiered on October 7, 2016. In April 2016, Netflix renewed The Ranch for a second season of 20 episodes, the first half of which premiered on June 16, 2017. On July 4, 2017, Netflix announced through its official The Ranch Twitter account that the show had been renewed for a third season of 20 episodes to air in 2018.
The Ranch has been met with mixed reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the series an approval rating of 56 % based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 5.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "A formulaic set - up and predictable plotting are elevated by The Ranch 's surprising sensitivity and strong performances. '' Metacritic gave the series a score of 56 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Writing for Slate in a positive review, television critic Willa Paskin wrote of the show, "The Ranch is a red - state sitcom, though it takes place in the swing state of Colorado, and is good enough to be watched by people of any political affiliation '' and "The goodness sneaks up on you. '' Los Angeles Times wrote: "(Elliott and Winger 's) scenes together, as restrained as they are, are the show 's most emotionally resonant. You will want to check them out. ''
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why does harry mom and snape have the same patronus | Severus Snape - wikipedia
Severus Snape is a fictional character in J.K. Rowling 's Harry Potter series. An exceptionally skilful wizard, his coldly sarcastic and controlled exterior conceals deep emotions and anguish. A Professor at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, Snape is hostile to the series ' protagonist, Harry, the moment he sets foot in Snape 's classroom; this hostility is rooted in Harry 's resemblance to Harry 's father James, who bullied and harassed Snape during their time at Hogwarts. Though philosophically attracted to the Dark Arts and Lord Voldemort 's ideology of wizard supremacy, Snape 's love for Muggle - born Lily Evans, Harry 's mother, eventually compels him to defect from the Death Eaters. Snape becomes a double agent on behalf of Albus Dumbledore and the Order of the Phoenix, and protects Harry throughout the series.
A central mystery of the series concerns Snape 's loyalties. For much of the series, Snape 's actions seem to serve Harry 's nemesis, Lord Voldemort, although Harry 's mentor, Dumbledore, insists that he trusts Snape. Snape dies at the hands of Voldemort in the final chapters of the seventh book, at which time his back story is revealed: as a teenager, Snape was a close friend of Harry 's mother Lily, and he turned on Voldemort after the latter sought to kill Lily and her family.
Snape 's character, which becomes more layered and enigmatic as the series progresses, was widely acclaimed by readers and critics. Rowling described him as "a gift of a character '' whose story she had known since the first book, and Elizabeth Hand of The Washington Post opined that Snape 's life "is the most heartbreaking, surprising and satisfying of all of Rowling 's achievements ''. Actor Alan Rickman portrayed Snape in all eight Harry Potter films, released between 2001 and 2011.
In an interview, Rowling described Snape 's character as an "antihero ''. She has said that she drew inspiration for Snape 's character from a disliked teacher from her own childhood, and described Snape as a horrible teacher, saying the "worst, shabbiest thing you can do as a teacher is to bully students. '' However, she does suggest in the books that he is generally an effective teacher. Although Rowling has said that Gilderoy Lockhart is her only character that she "deliberately based on a real person '', Snape was reportedly based, at least in part, on John Nettleship, who taught Rowling chemistry and employed her mother as an assistant at Wyedean School near Chepstow. For Snape 's surname, Rowling borrowed the name of the village of Snape, Suffolk. In a 1999 interview and again in 2004, Rowling singled out Snape as one of her favourite characters to write.
Rowling was less forthcoming about Snape than she was for other characters, because his true loyalties and motivations were not revealed until the final book. However, she hinted numerous times at Snape 's important role, suggesting that people should "keep their eye on Snape ''. In 1999, answering a question regarding Snape 's love life and the redemptive pattern to his character, Rowling expressed her surprise at the foresight. Rowling also disclosed that after the publication of Prisoner of Azkaban, there was one female fan who guessed Snape loved Lily Potter, making Rowling wonder how she had given herself away.
After the completion of the series, Rowling began to speak openly about Snape, discussing the contrast between his character arc and that of Albus Dumbledore. Rowling said "the series is built around (the Dumbledore and Snape storylines) '', and maintained that she always knew what Snape would turn out to be at the end and that she carefully plotted his storyline throughout the series. "I had to drop clues all the way through because as you know in the seventh book when you have the revelation scene where everything shifts and you realise... what Snape 's motivation was. I had to plot that through the books because at the point where you see what was really going on, it would have been an absolute cheat on the reader at that point just to show a bunch of stuff you 've never seen before. '' Rowling further said in an interview that she wanted Snape to find redemption and forgiveness: "Snape is a complicated man... he was a flawed human being, like all of us. Harry forgives him... Harry really sees the good in Snape ultimately... I wanted there to be redemption. ''
Snape first appears in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, shortly after Harry arrives at Hogwarts. He is the school 's Potions Master, though he is widely rumoured to covet the Defence Against the Dark Arts post. Snape himself confirms the rumour in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Snape is a sinister and malicious teacher who makes frequent snide and disparaging remarks at Harry 's expense. He quickly becomes the primary antagonist of the book, as Harry suspects him of plotting to steal the philosopher 's stone, and of attempting to kill him. Only the climax of the book reveals that Professor Quirrell, in league with Lord Voldemort, is the real enemy; Snape, suspicious of Quirrell, had been looking out for Harry throughout the book. In the final chapter, Dumbledore suggests that because Harry 's father James had saved Snape 's life when they were both students, even though the two detested each other, Snape felt responsible for Harry in return. As the final book reveals, this is not the full story. In any case, even after Quirrell 's true role is revealed, Harry retains feelings of suspicion and resentment towards Snape, and their relationship remains tense. Snape 's behaviour and attitude towards Harry also remain unchanged.
Snape has a minor role in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, where he helps Gilderoy Lockhart oversee Hogwarts ' short - lived Duelling Club, but he has little interaction with the main plot. It is while attending the Duelling Club that Harry learns the Expelliarmus spell, which plays a significant role in later books, by seeing Snape use it.
In Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Snape demonstrates his expertise with potions by brewing the complex Wolfsbane potion for the new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor, Remus Lupin. Throughout the third book, Snape suspects that Lupin may be helping Harry 's godfather Sirius Black enter Hogwarts castle; Sirius had been convicted (wrongly, as it is later revealed) of murdering Peter Pettigrew and innocent bystanders, and betraying the Potter family 's hiding place to Voldemort. This suspicion stems from Lupin 's friendship with Sirius and Harry 's father, James, while they were all at Hogwarts as students. Near the climax of the book, Snape attempts to apprehend Sirius, but Sirius escapes with Harry 's aid. Snape informs Dumbledore of this circumstance, and when Harry and Lupin are not punished, Snape retaliates by revealing to the entire school that Lupin is a werewolf, forcing the latter to resign his post.
Prisoner of Azkaban reveals more details about the connection between Snape and James. While in school together, Sirius once tricked Snape into almost entering the Shrieking Shack while Lupin was there, transformed into a werewolf. James realised the danger and stopped Snape, saving his life; this is the incident Dumbledore referred to at the end of the first book. Snape, however, believes James ' actions were self - serving, to avoid being expelled.
Snape 's role in the fourth novel, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, is not substantially different from that of the previous three books. He is apoplectic when Harry is unexpectedly entered into the Triwizard Tournament. Later Harry accidentally falls into Dumbledore 's Pensieve and views memories of several Death Eater trials from years before. At one point, Snape is named as a Death Eater by Igor Karkaroff, but Dumbledore comes to Snape 's defence, claiming that although Snape had indeed been a Death Eater, he changed sides before Voldemort 's downfall and turned spy against him. Later, Dumbledore assures Harry that Snape 's reformation is genuine, though he refuses to tell Harry how he knows this, saying the information "is a matter between Professor Snape and myself ''.
At the end of the book, Dumbledore attempts to convince a disbelieving Minister for Magic, Cornelius Fudge, that Voldemort has returned. As proof, Snape willingly shows Fudge the restored Dark Mark on his arm. He is subsequently sent on a secret mission by Dumbledore. This mission, as had been implied in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and revealed in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, was to rejoin the Death Eaters and spy on Voldemort as a re-doubled agent, while pretending to spy on Dumbledore on behalf of Voldemort.
In the fifth novel, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Snape returns to a more prominent role. With Voldemort having returned to a fully corporeal body, Snape continues working as a re-doubled agent for Dumbledore. He is seen prior to the start of school at Number 12, Grimmauld Place giving reports to the Order of the Phoenix. He has a very strained relationship with Sirius, who owns Grimmauld Place and must remain there in hiding. The two trade frequent snide remarks and at one point almost begin a duel. Snape taunts Sirius about the latter 's not being able to take an active role in the Order 's missions because of his fugitive status. Harry feels later that this taunting contributed to Sirius ' willingness to take unsafe risks. Back at school, Snape 's allegiance to the Order has no effect on his dislike for Harry.
Later in the book, Dumbledore has Snape teach Harry Occlumency, the protection of the mind from outside intrusion or influence. The sessions are made difficult by their mutual hostility and end prematurely when Harry uses Dumbledore 's Pensieve to view one of Snape 's worst childhood memories without the latter 's permission. He sees the memory of Snape being bullied by James and Sirius, and of calling Harry 's mother Lily a Mudblood (a highly offensive term). Only in the final book is it revealed that, prior to this confrontation, Snape and Lily had been close friends.
Towards the end of the novel, Dolores Umbridge -- the school 's politically appointed headmistress -- captures Harry and interrogates him about Dumbledore 's whereabouts. She sends for Snape, demanding that he provide the magical truth serum Veritaserum in order to force Harry to reveal any information he may be hiding. Snape claims that his supplies of the serum have been exhausted after Umbridge tries to use the drug previously on Harry. It is later revealed that Snape had in fact supplied Umbridge with fake Veritaserum on the prior attempt. Snape then carries Harry 's cryptic warning about Sirius ' capture to the other Order members, allowing them to come to the rescue in the Department of Mysteries. Harry still holds Snape partly responsible for Sirius ' death, believing Snape 's goading spurred Sirius into joining the battle.
In the second chapter of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, Bellatrix Lestrange and Narcissa Malfoy visit Snape at his home in Spinner 's End. Narcissa 's son Draco has been given a difficult task by Voldemort, and Narcissa swears Snape to an Unbreakable Vow that he will protect Draco, help him complete Voldemort 's task, and finish the task himself if Draco fails. When questioned by Bellatrix about his loyalties, Snape says he has been working for Voldemort ever since Voldemort 's return, and explains his actions in the previous books in that light. He points out that gaining Dumbledore 's trust and protection has kept him out of Azkaban and free to operate on Voldemort 's behalf.
At the start - of - term feast at Hogwarts, Dumbledore announces Snape as the new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor. Horace Slughorn, a retired Hogwarts teacher, replaces Snape as Potions Master. With Snape no longer teaching Potions, Harry enrolls in Slughorn 's class and is lent an old textbook until his new one arrives. Harry finds marginalia, including a variety of hexes and jinxes seemingly invented by an unknown student, and substantial improvements to the book 's standard potion - making instructions. The text is inscribed as being "the Property of the Half - Blood Prince ''. The notes greatly bolster Harry 's performance in Potions, so much so that he impresses Slughorn. Snape, who maintains that he "never had the impression that (he) had been able to teach Potter anything at all '', is suspicious of Harry 's newfound Potions success.
Later, during a fight with Draco, Harry casts one of the Prince 's spells marked "For Enemies, '' and is horrified by the devastating wounds it inflicts to Draco 's face and chest. Snape rushes to the scene and heals Draco, then interrogates Harry regarding the spell, using Legilimency to extract the source of Harry 's knowledge (the Potions textbook) from Harry 's mind. When Snape insists that Harry show him his Potions textbook, Harry hides the Prince 's book and gives him Ron Weasley 's book instead. As punishment for the attack and knowing Harry is lying about the textbook, Snape assigns Harry detention during the final Quidditch match of the year.
Before leaving Hogwarts to accompany Dumbledore in locating another horcrux -- part of Voldemort 's soul -- Harry discovers from Professor Trelawney that it was Snape who overheard the prophecy and told it to Voldemort, resulting in Voldemort hunting down Harry and his parents. Despite this and Harry 's angry questions, Dumbledore avers his trust in Snape. Returning to Hogwarts after retrieving Voldemort 's Horcrux, Harry and Dumbledore alight atop the school 's astronomy tower. Gravely weakened by the horcrux 's protective potion, Dumbledore tells Harry he must fetch Snape, but before Harry can leave, Draco suddenly arrives, intending to carry out Voldemort 's order to assassinate Dumbledore, closely followed by other Death Eaters (followers of Voldemort), and Snape. Snape interrupts the planned murder, killing the headmaster himself. Harry, who is paralysed under his invisibility cloak by Dumbledore for his own protection, witnesses the kill, and is released upon Dumbledore 's death. Enraged, he pursues Snape, Draco, and the Death Eaters as they flee the castle. Snape easily blocks Harry 's spells and jeeringly points out Harry 's mistakes, but never strikes back. During the confrontation, Snape reveals himself as the eponymous "Half - Blood Prince '' (being the half - blood son of Muggle Tobias Snape and pure - blood Eileen Prince). Snape passes through the school gates and Disapparates with Draco in tow at the book 's end. The full relationship between Dumbledore and Snape and the reason for Snape 's actions remain unknown until the final book. In an interview, Rowling mentioned that at this point in the series, the Harry -- Snape relationship has become "as personal, if not more so, than Harry -- Voldemort. ''
In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Voldemort and his Death Eaters have tightened their grip on the wizarding world. Snape is named Headmaster of Hogwarts, while Death Eaters Alecto and Amycus Carrow are appointed as Hogwarts staff. The novel focuses largely on Harry and his friends and events outside the school; therefore Snape plays a limited role at the start. In the course of the book, Harry and his friends find out that a few students attempted to steal the Sword of Godric Gryffindor, and that Snape subsequently sent it to be stored at Gringotts Wizarding Bank; however, that sword was only a copy. Later on, Harry and Ron are led to find the real sword by a Patronus taking the form of a doe. (Towards the end of the book, Harry learns that this was Snape 's Patronus, taking the same shape as Harry 's mother Lily 's Patronus, a visible sign of his lifelong love for Harry 's mother, and that Dumbledore had asked Snape to ensure that Harry gained possession of the sword. The novel also reveals that Snape had covertly used his position as Headmaster to protect the students and to contain the Carrows.)
Towards the end of the school year, Professors McGonagall, Flitwick, and Sprout force Snape to flee the school. Voldemort summons Snape to the Shrieking Shack. Erroneously believing Snape is the master of the Elder Wand and that Snape 's death will make him the master of the Wand, Voldemort kills Snape by having his pet snake Nagini bite him through the neck. The dying Snape releases a cloud of memories and tells Harry, who has watched the entire scene from a hidden spot, to take and view them.
From these memories, Harry sees Snape 's childhood and learns his true loyalties. In this vision, Harry learns that Snape befriended Lily as a child when they lived near each other. Upon their arrival at Hogwarts, the Sorting Hat placed Snape and Lily into Slytherin and Gryffindor Houses, respectively. They remained friends for the next few years until they were driven apart by Snape 's interest in the Dark Arts; the friendship finally ended following the bullying episode that Harry had briefly seen in the fifth book, in which Snape calls Lily "Mudblood ''. Despite this separation and Snape 's enduring animosity toward Lily 's eventual husband James Potter, Snape continued to love Lily for the rest of his life.
The memories also show that as a Death Eater, Snape had revealed to Voldemort a prophecy made by Sybill Trelawney, causing Voldemort to attempt to prevent it by killing Harry and his parents. Snape, who had not realised until too late that the prophecy was referring to Lily and her family, asked Voldemort to spare Lily. Still in terror for her life, he also approached Dumbledore, admitted his actions, and begged him to protect the Potters. Dumbledore chided him for thinking only of himself and not of Lily 's husband and child, but agreed and ensured that they were placed under the Fidelius Charm. In return, Snape secretly allied himself with Dumbledore and the Order of the Phoenix as a double agent against Voldemort, using his powers of Occlumency to hide his betrayal from Voldemort. However, Snape demanded of Dumbledore that his love for Lily (his reason for switching sides) be kept a secret, especially from Harry, because of the deep animosity he felt towards Harry 's father and his mixed feelings towards Harry (who reminded him of both his love for Lily Potter and her death, and his animosity towards James Potter). Dumbledore agreed and kept the secret throughout his life, although questioning Snape 's request to "never reveal the best of you ''. Even with his efforts to protect her, Snape felt responsible for Lily 's death at Voldemort 's hands.
Snape 's memories then reveal that Dumbledore had impetuously tried to use the Gaunt ring, which had been cursed by Voldemort, and had been suffering from a powerful curse. Snape 's knowledge of the Dark Arts enabled him to slow the spread of the curse from Dumbledore 's hand through his body, but he would have died within a year. Dumbledore, aware that Voldemort had ordered Draco to kill him, had asked Snape to kill him instead as a way of sparing the boy 's soul and of preventing his own otherwise slow, painful death. Although Snape was reluctant, even asking about the impact of such an action on his own soul, Dumbledore implied that this kind of coup de grâce would not damage a human 's soul in the same way murder would. Snape agreed to do as the Headmaster requested. Snape 's memories also provide Harry with the information he needs to ensure Voldemort 's final defeat, in the form of conversations Snape had with Dumbledore.
Rowling noted in an interview that because Snape abandoned his post before dying or officially retiring, a portrait of him does not immediately appear in the Headmaster 's office following his death. She adds, however, that she would like to think Harry made Snape 's true loyalty and heroism known in the Wizarding world, and that he lobbied to ensure that a portrait be installed in the office. In a separate interview, Rowling discussed Snape 's back story, saying she had planned it ever since she wrote the first book because the whole series is built around it and she considers him one of the most important characters of the seventh book.
In the epilogue to Deathly Hallows, set nineteen years after Harry defeats Voldemort, Harry has named his second - born son Albus Severus, after Albus Dumbledore and Severus Snape. As Albus is about to enter his first year at Hogwarts, he expresses concern that he will be sorted into Slytherin. Harry tells his son, "you were named for two headmasters of Hogwarts. One of them (Snape) was a Slytherin and he was probably the bravest man I ever knew. ''
When Draco and Astoria Greengrass ' son Scorpius Malfoy finds himself in an alternate timeline in which Voldemort won the Battle of Hogwarts, killed Harry and his allies and instituted a terrible reign of terror, he desperately searches for help in restoring history to its original course. He finds that in this reality Snape is still alive and still teaches at Hogwarts, and asks for his help. At first Snape is suspicious of him, since this timeline 's version of Scorpius is a bully and a Voldemort stalwart. But when Scorpius shows that he knows of Snape having been in love with Lily, Harry 's mother - Snape 's most closely guarded secret - Snape becomes convinced that he does indeed come from a different timeline where Harry and his friends won. Snape then reveals that he, together with the fugitive Ron and Hermione Granger, maintain the last remnants of Dumbledore 's Army - still waging hopeless resistance against the all - powerful Voldemort. In talking with Scorpius, Snape had learned that Harry would name his son "Albus Severus '' and would regard Snape as "probably the bravest man I ever knew '' - and is deeply moved. Though having guessed that in the other timeline he would die, Snape nevertheless willingly helps Scorpius recreate this timeline - and being discovered by Dementors, Snape sacrifices himself in order to cover Scorpius ' escape.
Severus Snape appears in all eight Harry Potter films, portrayed by British actor Alan Rickman. Rickman was Rowling 's personal choice to portray the character. He had conversations with Rowling about his character and is one of the few Harry Potter actors that she spoke to prior to the completion of the book series about the future direction of the character. "He knew very early on that he 'd been in love with Lily, '' said Rowling. "He needed to understand (...) where this bitterness towards this boy who 's the living example of her preference for another man came from. ''
Rickman used this knowledge of Snape 's ultimate loyalties throughout the films to decide how to play certain scenes, deliver specific lines, or use body language to convey specific emotions. When the directors of the films would ask him why he was doing a scene a certain way or delivering a line in a specific manner, Rickman would simply reply that he knew something they did n't.
Rickman himself refrained from talking about Snape, asking readers to wait and "see what unfolds '' in the course of the novels; however, he did say Snape is a complicated person, very rigid and full of himself; in an interview he went further, saying: "Snape is n't one who enjoys jokes and I strongly fear that his sense of humour is extremely limited... But in his defence, I will add that he did n't have an easy adolescence, particularly during his studies at Hogwarts. '' He also said Snape is a fascinating character, and that he takes immense pleasure in playing such an ambiguous person.
Rickman 's performance as Snape was widely acclaimed by critics, fans and Rowling herself. Entertainment Weekly listed Rickman as one of the most popular movie stars in 2007 for his performance as Snape, saying: "As the icy, humourless magic instructor Severus Snape, Rickman may not be on screen long -- but he owns every minute. '' Rickman also noted fans ' reactions; in an interview, he said he found "that people in general adore Snape. He is sarcastic, stubborn, etc, etc. But he is also fascinating. I have a lot of fun impersonating him. '' Rickman was nominated for several awards for his portrayal of Snape, and in 2011, was elected the best character portrayal in all the Harry Potter films series.
In 2011, Empire magazine published an open letter from Rickman to J.K. Rowling, ruminating on the ten years of working on the Potter films and thanking her for telling the story.
In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the fifteen - year - old Snape (portrayed by Alec Hopkins) makes a brief appearance in a flashback to Snape 's youth. In the final film, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2, the younger Snape, perhaps ten or eleven, is played by Benedict Clarke. In 2016, a fan film prequel, Severus Snape and the Marauders, was released online and Snape was played by Mick Ignis.
Before Alan Rickman was offered the role of Severus Snape, the role was originally offered to Tim Roth, who turned the role down in favour of portraying General Thade in Planet of the Apes.
Snape is described as a thin man with sallow skin, a large, hooked nose, and yellow, uneven teeth. He has shoulder - length, greasy black hair which frames his face, and cold, black eyes. He wears black, flowing robes which give him the appearance of "an overgrown bat ''. The youthful Snape had a "stringy, pallid look '', being "round - shouldered yet angular '', having a "twitchy '' walk "that recalled a spider '' and "long oily hair that jumped about his face ''.
In the chapter illustrations by Mary GrandPré in the American editions of The Prisoner of Azkaban, The Order of the Phoenix, and The Half - Blood Prince, Snape is depicted with a moustache and goatee, long black hair, and a receding hairline.
Snape is generally depicted as being cold, calculating, precise, sarcastic, and bitter. He strongly dislikes Harry and often insults him by insulting his father James. As the series progresses, it is revealed that his treatment of Harry stems from Snape 's bitter rivalry with James when they were in school together. In particular, James and Sirius bullied Snape, which according to Alan Rickman caused the already lonely boy to further "shut himself in ''. Rowling further described the young Snape as insecure and vulnerable: "Given his time over again (Snape) would not have become a Death Eater, but like many insecure, vulnerable people he craved membership of something big and powerful, something impressive. (...) (He) was so blinded by his attraction to the dark side he thought (Lily) would find him impressive if he became a real Death Eater. ''
The adult Snape, on the other hand, is portrayed as very self - assured and confident of his abilities, to a degree that Rickman described as "full of himself. '' Director David Yates said Snape is a character with gravitas, authority and power. Snape typically displays a very calm and collected demeanour, rarely at a loss for words or taken off guard. His temper, however, is sometimes short where Harry is concerned and positively flares when dealing with his erstwhile tormentor Sirius, or when accused of cowardice. His otherwise impassive and aloof attitude seems to stem from his belief that people who can not control their emotions are weak.
Like some other prominent members of Slytherin house, Snape is shown to be a clever and cunning wizard. He is intelligent and has a keen, analytical mind. In an interview, Rowling adds that Snape is immensely brave, and when asked if she considers Snape a hero, replied: "Yes, I do; though a very flawed hero. An anti-hero, perhaps. He is not a particularly likeable man in many ways. He remains rather cruel, a bully, riddled with bitterness and insecurity -- and yet he loved, and showed loyalty to that love and, ultimately, laid down his life because of it. That 's pretty heroic! ''
All seven novels show Snape to be a very powerful wizard and to have been outstanding while a student. He specialises in potion making and has talent and passion for the Dark Arts. Sirius claimed that Snape knew more hexes and curses as a first - year student at Hogwarts than most seventh - years knew. Particularly gifted in potion making, Snape added major improvements to his Potions textbook while still a student. Also as a student, Snape shows a rare gift for discovering new spells. Lupin describes Sectumsempra as Snape 's "speciality '' in Deathly Hallows. Snape is shown using this spell as a teenager against Harry 's father James and in the aerial battle in the last novel when he accidentally hits George Weasley (acting as a Potter decoy) with it while actually aiming for a Death Eater who was trying to attack Lupin, permanently severing George 's right ear. Despite Sectumsempra 's deadly power, Snape can also heal the wounds it causes. Snape is adept at reversing or containing fatal damage from other dark curses as well, due to his vast knowledge of Dark Arts, as he does when Dumbledore and then Katie Bell are cursed. Skilful in the arts of Legilimency and especially Occlumency, Snape is able to both access the minds of others and protect his own thoughts -- indeed, though Snape does not care for the term himself, Harry forms the uncomfortable impression early in the series that the Potions Master is able to "read minds. '' Being an Occlumens, Snape is able to keep his betrayal from Voldemort, who is himself described as being "the greatest Legilimens '' in history. According to Rowling, Snape is the only Death Eater capable of producing a full Patronus, which, like Lily 's, is a doe. Snape is a talented duellist, able to hold off by himself (if only briefly) a group of three Hogwarts professors that included former duelling champion Filius Flitwick. Professor McGonagall later implies that Snape learned to fly without the use of a broom, a rare skill previously displayed only by Voldemort.
Snape 's family background is mostly shown in flashbacks during the course of the last three novels. Snape was born to Eileen Prince, a witch, and Tobias Snape, a Muggle, making him a half - blood (hence the name, "Half - Blood Prince ''). This is rare for a Death Eater, as remarked in the last book, though Voldemort himself also had a Muggle father. Snape spent his early childhood living with his parents in a small house in Spinner 's End. Snape 's family was a poor one and he is described as wearing ill - fitting clothes "that were so mis - matched that it looked deliberate ''. As a child, Snape was apparently neglected and his parents often fought with one another. Snape was very eager to leave his home to go to Hogwarts. Towards the end of the last novel, Harry draws parallels between his childhood, Snape 's, and Voldemort 's.
Snape 's true loyalty was one of the most significant questions in the series up until the end of the final instalment, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. Although the first five novels depict him as unfair and vindictive towards Harry and his friends, he invariably ends up protecting or otherwise helping them when they or their allies are in danger. Several characters express doubts about his loyalty, but Dumbledore 's trust in him is generally taken to be the final word. The sixth novel, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, departs from that model. In the second chapter, Snape claims to have been working for Voldemort ever since the latter 's return, and only pretending to help Dumbledore. By killing Dumbledore toward the end of the novel, Snape seems to place himself firmly in Voldemort 's camp. Rowling maintains this impression through the early chapters of the seventh novel. However, near the climax of the book, Snape leaves Harry his dying thoughts (to be viewed in the Pensieve) and ultimately reveals to Harry that he had been loyal to Albus Dumbledore throughout the series. Snape 's fierce devotion to and love of his childhood friend Lily, Harry 's mother, is the foundation of that loyalty.
After Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, Snape 's loyalty was a matter of intense debate among the fans. The issue was given special attention in the marketing campaigns on behalf of the last book, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. "Is Snape Good or Evil? '' was one of the questions in Scholastic Inc. 's seven - question series, part of its marketing campaign for the book. As part of the Waldenbooks marketing campaign, two free stickers, one that said "Trust Snape '' and another that stated "Snape Is A Very Bad Man '' were available with the book. Borders Group published a separate book on the topic, The Great Snape Debate, containing essays and arguments from both sides of the debate.
The secretive attitude and gradual unfolding of Snape 's character was broadly admired, with Stephen Fry, the UK audio books narrator, saying in 2003: "Most characters like Snape are hard to love but there is a sort of ambiguity -- you ca n't quite decide -- something sad about him -- lonely and it 's fascinating when you think he 's going to be the evil one..., then slowly you get this idea he 's not so bad after all. '' David Yates, who directed the final four films of the series, also expressed his views on the character, saying: "A character like Snape, where you 're not really sure if he 's a good guy or a bad guy, that gives you a latent tension... I think the coolest thing you can do with an audience is deny them a little bit of information. '' Despite being less than kind, the character quickly gained popularity within fandom to a level that surprised Rowling herself. Joyce Millman suggests in her essay "To Sir with Love '' in the book Mapping the World of Harry Potter, that Snape is derived from a tradition of Byronic heroes such as Wuthering Heights ' Heathcliff. Jenny Sawyer from The Christian Science Monitor commented on the character 's development in the series. She claimed that Snape is the only protagonist who genuinely has a choice to make and who struggles to do the right thing, hence the only one to face a "compelling inner crisis ''. She believed the popularity of the character is due to the moral journey and inner conflict that Snape undergoes within the series, as it is the hero 's struggle and costly redemption that really matter: "(Snape 's) character ached for resolution. And it is precisely this need for resolution -- our desire to know the real Snape and to understand his choices -- that makes him the most compelling character in the Potter epic. ''
The final revelation of Snape 's loyalty in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows was viewed positively by fans and critics alike. Daniel Radcliffe, who portrays Harry Potter in the movie series, expressed his delight, saying he was pleased to see that his theory that Snape would end up being a sort of tragic hero came through. Elizabeth Hand from The Washington Post wrote, "The much - maligned loner Snape does not come onstage until the latter part of "Deathly Hallows, '' but when he does the book becomes his: Snape 's fate, more than Voldemort 's, perhaps more even than Harry 's, is the most heartbreaking, surprising and satisfying of all of Rowling 's achievements. ''
IGN listed Snape as their 4th top Harry Potter character, saying that he makes "quite an impact in the Harry Potter series '', and IGN 's Joe Utichi called Snape his favourite Harry Potter character and praised his character development. Shortly after the release of the final film, MTV held a public poll for fans to vote for the best character in the series, and Snape was voted # 1. Around the same time, Empire magazine held a public poll for fans to vote for the 25 greatest characters in the series, and Snape once again came in at # 1. In May 2011, Snape was again voted as the # 1 favourite Harry Potter character in a public poll held by the Bloomsbury publishing house. In 2014, Watchmojo.com ranked him # 1 on their "Top 10 Harry Potter Characters '' list (beating Harry Potter; who is ranked # 2) while they ranked him # 3 on their "Top 10 Most Gut - Wrenching Harry Potter Deaths '' list two years later.
The character of Severus Snape has appeared in various animated parodies of Harry Potter. He is a starring character in Neil Cicierega 's online Potter Puppet Pals parodies, and has a centric episode titled Bothering Snape. Also, the video The Mysterious Ticking Noise with the chorus "Snape, Snape, Severus Snape '' was the winner for "Best Comedy '' of the year 2007 at YouTube; it currently has over 170 million views. Snape is also parodied as Professor Santory Snapekin in Sluggy Freelance 's webcomic entitled Torg Potter. In the first parody, Torg defeats a plot by Professor Snapekin to achieve ultimate power.
In a 2004 sketch on Saturday Night Live in which Lindsay Lohan appears as Hermione Granger, Snape is portrayed by Will Forte. Snape has also been parodied in UK television. Comic Relief released a story called Harry Potter and the Secret Chamberpot of Azerbaijan, in which Snape is played by Jeremy Irons. Snape appeared in a Harry Potter parody named "Louis Potter and the Philosopher 's Scone '' in Alistair McGowan 's Big Impression show, played by Alistair McGowan himself. In the Harry Bladder sketches in All That, Snape appears as Professor Chafe (portrayed by Jeremy Rowley), whose legs were badly chafed, causing him to be unnecessarily mean. Many sketches feature students brewing potions that did silly things, like enlarge students ' behinds, give males large breasts, or change people into bras. In a sketch comedy named "Cooking With... '' on Australian TV series The Wedge, Snape catches Harry and Hermione making love. In A Very Potter Musical, Snape is played by actor Joe Moses.
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who wrote during the american and japanese periods | Ezra Pound - wikipedia
Ezra Weston Loomis Pound (30 October 1885 -- 1 November 1972) was an expatriate American poet and critic, and a major figure in the early modernist poetry movement. His contribution to poetry began with his development of Imagism, a movement derived from classical Chinese and Japanese poetry, stressing clarity, precision and economy of language. His works include Ripostes (1912), Hugh Selwyn Mauberley (1920) and the unfinished 120 - section epic, The Cantos (1917 -- 1969).
Pound worked in London during the early 20th century as foreign editor of several American literary magazines, and helped discover and shape the work of contemporaries such as T.S. Eliot, James Joyce, Robert Frost and Ernest Hemingway. Angered by the carnage of World War I, Pound lost faith in Great Britain and blamed the war on usury and international capitalism. He moved to Italy in 1924 and throughout the 1930s and 1940s embraced Benito Mussolini 's fascism, expressed support for Adolf Hitler, and wrote for publications owned by the British fascist Sir Oswald Mosley. During World War II, he was paid by the Italian government to make hundreds of radio broadcasts criticizing the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Jews, as a result of which he was arrested in 1945 by American forces in Italy on charges of treason. He spent months in detention in a U.S. military camp in Pisa, including three weeks in a 6 - by - 6 - foot (1.8 by 1.8 m) outdoor steel cage, which he said triggered a mental breakdown: "when the raft broke and the waters went over me ''. The following year he was deemed unfit to stand trial, and incarcerated in St. Elizabeths psychiatric hospital in Washington, D.C., for over 12 years.
Pound began work on sections of The Cantos while in custody in Italy. These parts were published as The Pisan Cantos (1948), for which he was awarded the Bollingen Prize in 1949 by the Library of Congress, leading to enormous controversy. Largely due to a campaign by his fellow writers, he was released from St. Elizabeths in 1958 and returned to live in Italy until his death. His political views ensure that his work remains as controversial now as it was during his lifetime; in 1933 Time magazine called him "a cat that walks by himself, tenaciously unhousebroken and very unsafe for children ''. Hemingway wrote: "The best of Pound 's writing -- and it is in the Cantos -- will last as long as there is any literature. ''
Pound was born in a small, two - story house in Hailey, Idaho Territory, the only child of Homer Loomis Pound (1858 -- 1942) and Isabel Weston (1860 -- 1948). His father had worked in Hailey since 1883 as registrar of the General Land Office.
Both parents ' ancestors had emigrated from England in the 17th century. On his mother 's side, Pound was descended from William Wadsworth (1594 -- 1675), a Puritan who emigrated to Boston on the Lion in 1632. The Wadsworths married into the Westons of New York. Harding Weston and Mary Parker were the parents of Isabel Weston, Ezra 's mother. Harding apparently spent most of his life without work, with his brother, Ezra Weston, and his brother 's wife, Frances, looking after Mary and Isabel 's needs.
On his father 's side, the immigrant ancestor was John Pound, a Quaker, who arrived from England around 1650. Ezra 's grandfather, Thaddeus Coleman Pound (1832 -- 1914), was a Republican Congressman from northwest Wisconsin who had made and lost a fortune in the lumber business. Thaddeus 's son Homer, Pound 's father, worked for Thaddeus in the lumber business until Thaddeus secured him the appointment as registrar of the Hailey land office. Homer and Isabel married the following year and Homer built a house in Hailey. Isabel was unhappy in Hailey and took Ezra with her to New York in 1887, when he was 18 months old. Homer followed them, and in 1889 he found a job as an assayer at the Philadelphia Mint. The family moved to Jenkintown, Pennsylvania, and in 1893 bought a six - bedroom house in Wyncote.
Pound 's education began in a series of dame schools, some of them run by Quakers: Miss Elliott 's school in Jenkintown in 1892, the Heathcock family 's Chelten Hills School in Wyncote in 1893, and the Florence Ridpath school from 1894, also in Wyncote. His first publication was on 7 November 1896 in the Jenkintown Times - Chronicle ("by E.L. Pound, Wyncote, aged 11 years ''), a limerick about William Jennings Bryan, who had just lost the 1896 presidential election: "There was a young man from the West, / He did what he could for what he thought best; / But election came round, / He found himself drowned, / And the papers will tell you the rest. ''
Between 1897 and 1900 Pound attended Cheltenham Military Academy, sometimes as a boarder, where he specialized in Latin. The boys wore Civil War - style uniforms and besides Latin were taught English, history, arithmetic, marksmanship, military drilling and the importance of submitting to authority. Pound made his first trip overseas in mid-1898 when he was 13, a three - month tour of Europe with his mother and Frances Weston (Aunt Frank), who took him to England, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland and Italy. After the academy he may have attended Cheltenham Township High School for one year, and in 1901, aged 15, he was admitted to the University of Pennsylvania 's College of Liberal Arts.
Pound met Hilda Doolittle (later known as the poet H.D.) at Pennsylvania in 1901, and she became his first serious romance. In 1911 she followed Pound to London and became involved in developing the Imagism movement. Between 1905 and 1907 Pound wrote a number of poems for her, 25 of which he hand - bound and called Hilda 's Book, and in 1908 he asked her father, the astronomy professor Charles Doolittle, for permission to marry her, but Doolittle dismissed Pound as a nomad. Pound was seeing two other women at the same time -- Viola Baxter and Mary Moore -- later dedicating a book of poetry, Personae (1909), to the latter. He asked Moore to marry him too, but she turned him down.
His parents and Frances Weston took Pound on another three - month European tour in 1902, after which he transferred, in 1903, to Hamilton College in Clinton, New York, possibly because of poor grades. Signed up for the Latin -- Scientific course, he studied the Provençal dialect with William Pierce Shephard and Old English with Joseph D. Ibbotson; with Shephard he read Dante and from this began the idea for a long poem in three parts -- of emotion, instruction and contemplation -- planting the seeds for The Cantos. He wrote in 1913, in "How I Began '':
I resolved that at thirty I would know more about poetry than any man living... that I would know what was accounted poetry everywhere, what part of poetry was ' indestructible ', what part could not be lost by translation and -- scarcely less important -- what effects were obtainable in one language only and were utterly incapable of being translated.
In this search I learned more or less of nine foreign languages, I read Oriental stuff in translations, I fought every University regulation and every professor who tried to make me learn anything except this, or who bothered me with "requirements for degrees ''.
Pound graduated from Hamilton College with a BPhil in 1905, then studied Romance languages under Hugo A. Rennert at the University of Pennsylvania (Penn), where he obtained an MA in early 1906 and registered to write a PhD thesis on the jesters in Lope de Vega 's plays. A Harrison fellowship covered his tuition fees and gave him a travel grant of $500, which he used to return to Europe. Pound spent three weeks in Madrid in various libraries, including one in the royal palace. There, on 31 May 1906, he happened to be standing outside when the attempted assassination of King Alfonso took place, and Pound subsequently left the country for fear he would be identified with the anarchists. After Spain he spent two weeks in Paris, attending lectures at the Sorbonne, followed by a week in London.
In July he returned to the United States, where in September his first essay, "Raphaelite Latin '', was published in Book News Monthly. He took courses in the English department at Penn in 1907, where he fell out with several lecturers; during lectures on Shakespeare by Felix Schelling, the department head, he would wind an enormous tin watch very slowly while Schelling spoke. His fellowship was not renewed. Schelling told him that he was wasting everyone 's time, and Pound left without finishing his doctorate.
I am homesick after mine own kind, Oh I know that there are folk about me, friendly faces, But I am homesick after mine own kind.
-- Personae (1909), written in Crawfordsville, Indiana, 1907
From late 1907 Pound taught Romance languages at Wabash College in Crawfordsville, Indiana, a conservative town that he called "the sixth circle of hell ''. The equally conservative college dismissed him after he deliberately provoked the college authorities. Smoking was forbidden, but he would smoke cigarillos in his office down the corridor from the president 's. He annoyed his landlords by entertaining friends, including women, and was forced out of one house after "(t) wo stewdents found me sharing my meagre repast with the lady -- gent impersonator in my privut apartments '', he told a friend.
He was asked to leave the college in 1908 after offering a stranded chorus girl tea and his bed for the night when she was caught in a snowstorm. When she was discovered the next morning by the landladies, Ida and Belle Hall, his insistence that he had slept on the floor was met with disbelief. Glad to be free of the place, he left for Europe soon after, sailing from New York in March 1908.
Pound arrived in Gibraltar on 23 March 1908, where for a few weeks he earned $15 a day working as a guide to American tourists. By the end of April he was in Venice, living over a bakery near the San Vio bridge. In July he self - published his first book of poetry, A Lume Spento (With Tapers Quenched). The London Evening Standard called it "wild and haunting stuff, absolutely poetic, original, imaginative, passionate, and spiritual ''. The title was from the third canto of Dante 's Purgatorio, which alluded to the death of Manfred, King of Sicily. The book was dedicated to his friend, the Philadelphia artist William Brooke Smith, who had recently died of tuberculosis.
In August Pound moved to London, where he lived almost continuously for the next 12 years; he told his university friend William Carlos Williams: "London, deah old Lundon, is the place for poesy. '' English poets such as Maurice Hewlett, Rudyard Kipling and Alfred Lord Tennyson had made a particular kind of Victorian verse -- stirring, pompous and propagandistic -- popular with the public. According to modernist scholar James Knapp, Pound rejected the idea of poetry as "versified moral essay ''; he wanted to focus on the individual experience, the concrete rather than the abstract.
Arriving in the city with just ₤ 3, he moved into lodgings at 48 Langham Street, near Great Titchfield Street, a penny bus ride from the British Museum. The house sat across an alley from the Yorkshire Grey pub, which made an appearance in the Pisan Cantos, "concerning the landlady 's doings / with a lodger unnamed / az waz near Gt Titchfield St. next door to the pub ''.
Pound persuaded the bookseller Elkin Mathews to display A Lume Spento, and by October 1908 he was being discussed by the literati. In December he published a second collection, A Quinzaine for This Yule, and after the death of a lecturer at the Regent Street Polytechnic he managed to acquire a position lecturing in the evenings, from January to February 1909, on "The Development of Literature in Southern Europe ''. He would spend his mornings in the British Museum Reading Room, then lunch at the Vienna Café on Oxford Street. Ford Madox Ford wrote:
Ezra... would approach with the step of a dancer, making passes with a cane at an imaginary opponent. He would wear trousers made of green billiard cloth, a pink coat, a blue shirt, a tie hand - painted by a Japanese friend, an immense sombrero, a flaming beard cut to a point, and a single, large blue earring.
Hemingway described Pound as "tall... (with) a patchy red beard, fine eyes, strange haircuts and... very shy '': "But he has the temperament of a toro di lidia from the breeding establishments of Don Eduardo Miura. No one ever presents a cape, or shakes a muleta at him without getting a charge. ''
At a literary salon in January 1909, Pound met the novelist Olivia Shakespear and her daughter Dorothy, who became his wife in 1914. Through Olivia Shakespear he was introduced to her former lover W.B. Yeats, in Pound 's view the greatest living poet. Pound had sent Yeats a copy of A Lume Spento the previous year, before he left for Venice, and Yeats had apparently found it charming. The men became close friends, although Yeats was older by 20 years.
Pound was also introduced to sculptor Henri Gaudier - Brzeska, painter Wyndham Lewis and to the cream of London 's literary circle, including the poet T.E. Hulme. The American heiress Margaret Lanier Cravens (1881 -- 1912) became a patron; after knowing him a short time she offered a large annual sum to allow him to focus on his work. Cravens killed herself in 1912, after the pianist Walter Rummel, long the object of her affection, married someone else. She may also have been discouraged by Pound 's engagement to Dorothy.
In June 1909 the Personae collection became the first of Pound 's works to have any commercial success. It was favorably reviewed; one review said it was "full of human passion and natural magic ''. Rupert Brooke was unimpressed, complaining that Pound had fallen under the influence of Walt Whitman, writing in "unmetrical sprawling lengths ''. In September a further 27 poems appeared as Exultations. Around the same time Pound moved into new rooms at Church Walk, off Kensington High Street, where he lived most of the time until 1914.
In June 1910 Pound returned to the United States for eight months; his arrival coincided with the publication of his first book of literary criticism, The Spirit of Romance, based on his lecture notes at the polytechnic. His essays on America were written during this period, compiled as Patria Mia and not published until 1950. He loved New York but felt the city was threatened by commercialism and vulgarity, and he no longer felt at home there. He found the New York Public Library, then being built, especially offensive and, according to Paul L. Montgomery, visited the architects ' offices almost every day to shout at them.
Pound persuaded his parents to finance his passage back to Europe. It was nearly 30 years before he visited the United States again. On 22 February 1911 he sailed from New York on the R.M.S. Mauretania, arriving in Southampton six days later. After a few days in London he went to Paris, where he worked on a new collection of poetry, Canzoni (1911), panned by the Westminster Gazette as a "medley of pretension ''. When he returned to London in August 1911, A.R. Orage, editor of the socialist journal The New Age, hired him to write a weekly column, giving him a steady income.
Hilda Doolittle arrived in London from Philadelphia in May 1911 with the poet Frances Gregg and Gregg 's mother; when they returned in September, Doolittle decided to stay on. Pound introduced her to his friends, including the poet Richard Aldington, whom she would marry in 1913. Before that the three of them lived in Church Walk, Kensington -- Pound at no. 10, Doolittle at no. 6, and Aldington at no. 8 -- and worked daily in the British Museum Reading Room.
At the museum Pound met regularly with the curator and poet Laurence Binyon, who introduced him to the East Asian artistic and literary concepts that inspired the imagery and technique of his later poetry. The museum 's visitors ' books show that Pound was often found during 1912 and 1913 in the Print Room examining Japanese ukiyo - e, some inscribed with Japanese waka verse, a genre of poetry whose economy and strict conventions likely contributed to Imagist techniques of composition. He was working at the time on the poems that became Ripostes (1912), trying to move away from his earlier work; he wrote that the "stilted language '' of Canzoni had reduced Ford Madox Ford to rolling on the floor with laughter. He realized with his translation work that the problem lay not in his knowledge of the other languages, but in his use of English:
What obfuscated me was not the Italian but the crust of dead English, the sediment present in my own available vocabulary... You ca n't go round this sort of thing. It takes six or eight years to get educated in one 's art, and another ten to get rid of that education. Neither can anyone learn English, one can only learn a series of Englishes. Rossetti made his own language. I had n't in 1910 made a language, I do n't mean a language to use, but even a language to think in.
While living at Church Walk in 1912, Pound, Aldington and Doolittle started working on ideas about language. While in the British Museum tearoom one afternoon, they decided to begin a ' movement ' in poetry, called Imagism. Imagisme, Pound would write in Riposte, is "concerned solely with language and presentation ''. The aim was clarity: a fight against abstraction, romanticism, rhetoric, inversion of word order, and over-use of adjectives. They agreed on three principles:
1. Direct treatment of the "thing '' whether subjective or objective.
2. To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation.
3. As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of a metronome.
Superfluous words, particularly adjectives, should be avoided, as well as expressions like "dim lands of peace '', which Pound thought dulled the image by mixing the abstract with the concrete. He wrote that the natural object was always the "adequate symbol ''. Poets should "go in fear of abstractions '', and should not re-tell in mediocre verse what has already been told in good prose.
The apparition of these faces in the crowd; Petals on a wet, black bough.
-- Poetry (1913)
A typical example is Pound 's "In a Station of the Metro '' (1913), inspired by an experience on the Paris Underground, about which he wrote, "I got out of a train at, I think, La Concorde, and in the jostle I saw a beautiful face, and then, turning suddenly, another and another, and then a beautiful child 's face, and then another beautiful face. All that day I tried to find words for what this made me feel. '' He worked on the poem for a year, reducing it to its essence in the style of a Japanese haiku.
Like other modernist artists of the period, Pound was inspired by Japanese art, but the aim was to re-make -- or as Pound said, "make it new '' -- and blend cultural styles, instead of copying directly or slavishly. He may have been inspired by a Suzuki Harunobu print he almost certainly saw in the British Library (Richard Aldington mentions the specific prints he matched to verse), and probably attempted to write haiku - like verse during this period.
Ripostes, published in October 1912, begins Pound 's shift toward minimalist language. Michael Alexander describes the poems as showing a greater concentration of meaning and economy of rhythm than his earlier work. It was published when Pound had just begun his move toward Imagism; his first use of the word Imagiste appears in his prefatory note to the volume. The collection includes five poems by Hulme and a translation of the 8th - century Old English poem The Seafarer, although not a literal translation. It upset scholars, as would Pound 's other translations from Latin, Italian, French and Chinese, either because of errors or because he lacked familiarity with the cultural context. Alexander writes that in some circles, Pound 's translations made him more unpopular than the treason charge, and the reaction to The Seafarer was a rehearsal for the negative response to Homage to Sextus Propertius in 1919. His translation from the Italian of Sonnets and ballate of Guido Cavalcanti was also published in 1912.
Pound was fascinated by the translations of Japanese poetry and Noh plays which he discovered in the papers of Ernest Fenollosa, an American professor who had taught in Japan. Fenollosa had studied Chinese poetry under Japanese scholars; in 1913 his widow, Mary McNeil Fenollosa, decided to give his unpublished notes to Pound after seeing his work; she was looking for someone who cared about poetry rather than philology. Pound edited and published Fenellosa 's The Chinese Written Character as a Medium for Poetry in 1918.
The title page of the collection Cathay (1915), refers to the poet "Rihaku '', the pronunciation in Japanese of the Tang dynasty Chinese poet, Li Bai, whose poems were much beloved in China and Japan for their technical mastery and much translated in the West because of their seeming simplicity. Alexander thinks this is the most attractive of Pound 's work. Chinese critic Wai - lim Yip writes of it: "One can easily excommunicate Pound from the Forbidden City of Chinese studies, but it seems clear that in his dealings with Cathay, even when he is given only the barest details, he is able to get into the central concerns of the original author by what we may perhaps call a kind of clairvoyance. ''
Pound could not understand Chinese himself, yet some critics see his translations of Chinese poetry as among the best (others complain of their mistakes). Cathay was the first of many translations Pound would make from the Chinese. Pound often followed the translations made by Herbert Giles in his History of Chinese Literature and used Fenollosa 's work as a starting point for what he called the ideogrammic method, which proceeded on Fenellosa 's entirely mistaken but fruitful idea that each character represented an image or pictograph, based on sight rather than sound. Robert Graves recalled "I once asked Arthur Waley how much Chinese Pound knew; Waley shook his head despondently. '' Steven Yao, scholar of American and Asian literature, sees Cathay as a "major feat ''; a work where Pound shows that translation is possible without a thorough knowledge of the source language. Yao does not view Pound 's lack of Chinese as an obstacle, and states that the poet 's trawl through centuries of scholarly interpretations resulted in a genuine understanding of the original poem.
In August 1912 Harriet Monroe hired Pound as a regular contributor to Poetry. He submitted his own poems, as well as poems by James Joyce, Robert Frost, D.H. Lawrence, Yeats, H.D. and Aldington, and collected material for a 64 - page anthology, Des Imagistes (1914). The Imagist movement began to attract attention from critics. In November 1913 Yeats, whose eyesight was failing, rented Stone Cottage in Coleman 's Hatch, Sussex, and invited Pound to accompany him as his secretary. They stayed there for 10 weeks, reading and writing, walking in the woods and fencing. It was the first of three winters they spent together at Stone Cottage, including two with Dorothy after she and Pound married on 20 April 1914.
The marriage had proceeded despite opposition from her parents, who worried about Pound 's meager income, earned from contributions to literary magazines and probably less than £ 300 a year. Dorothy 's annual income was £ 50, aided by £ 150 from her family. Her parents eventually consented, perhaps out of fear that she was getting older with no other suitor in sight. Pound 's concession to marry in church helped convince them. Afterward he and Dorothy moved into an apartment with no bathroom at 5 Holland Place Chambers, Kensington, with the newly wed Hilda (H.D.) and Richard Aldington living next door.
Pound wrote for Wyndham Lewis ' literary magazine Blast, although only two issues were published. An advertisement in The Egoist promised it would cover "Cubism, Futurism, Imagisme and all Vital Forms of Modern Art ''. Pound took the opportunity to extend the definition of Imagisme to art, naming it Vorticism: "The image is a radiant node or cluster; it is... a vortex, from which, and through which, and into which, ideas are constantly rushing. '' Reacting to the magazine, the poet Lascelles Abercrombie called for the rejection of Imagism and a return to the traditionalism of William Wordsworth; Pound challenged him to a duel on the basis that "Stupidity carried beyond a certain point becomes a public menace ''. Abercrombie suggested their choice of weapon be unsold copies of their own books. The publication of Blast was celebrated at a dinner attended by New England poet Amy Lowell, then in London to meet the Imagists. But Hilda and Richard were already moving away from Pound 's understanding of the movement, as he aligned more with Wyndham Lewis 's ideas. When Lowell agreed to finance an anthology of Imagist poets, Pound 's work was not included. Upset at Lowell, he began to call Imagisme "Amygism '', and in July 1914 he declared the movement dead and asked that the group not continue to call themselves Imagists. They dissented, not believing that the movement was Pound 's invention, and Lowell eventually Anglicized the term.
Between 1914 and 1916 Pound assisted in the serialisation of James Joyce 's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in The Egoist, then helped to have it published in book form. In 1915 he persuaded Poetry to publish T.S. Eliot 's "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock ''. Eliot had sent "Prufrock '' to almost every editor in England, but was rejected. He eventually sent it to Pound, who instantly saw it as a work of genius and submitted it to Poetry. "(Eliot) has actually trained himself AND modernized himself ON HIS OWN '', Pound wrote to Monroe in October 1914. "The rest of the promising young have done one or the other but never both. Most of the swine have done neither. ''
After the publication in 1915 of Cathay, Pound mentioned he was working on a long poem, casting about for the correct form. He told a friend in August: "It is a huge, I was going to say, gamble, but sha n't '', and in September described it as a "cryselephantine poem of immeasurable length which will occupy me for the next four decades unless it becomes a bore ''. About a year later, in January 1917, he had the first three trial cantos, distilled to one, published as Canto I in Poetry. He was now a regular contributor to three literary magazines. From 1917 he wrote music reviews for The New Age under the pen name William Atheling, and weekly pieces for The Egoist and The Little Review; many of the latter were directed against provincialism and ignorance. The volume of writing exhausted him. He feared he was wasting his time writing outside poetry, exclaiming that he "must stop writing so much prose ''.
Pound was deeply affected by the war. He was devastated when Henri Gaudier - Brzeska, from whom he had commissioned a sculpture of himself two years earlier, was killed in the trenches in 1915. He published Gaudier - Brzeska: A Memoir the following year, in reaction to what he saw as an unnecessary loss. In the autumn of 1917 his depression worsened. He blamed American provincialism for the seizure of the October issue of The Little Review. The New York Society for the Suppression of Vice applied the Comstock Laws against an article Lewis wrote, describing it as lewd and indecent. Around the same time, Hulme was killed by shell - fire in Flanders, and Yeats married Georgie Hyde - Lees. In 1918, after a bout of illness which was presumably the Spanish influenza, Pound decided to stop writing for The Little Review, mostly because of the volume of work. He asked the publisher for a raise to hire 23 - year - old Iseult Gonne as a typist, causing rumors that Pound was having an affair with her, but he was turned down.
In 1919 he published a collection of his essays for The Little Review as Instigations, and in the March 1919 issue Poetry, he published Poems from the Propertius Series, which appeared to be a translation of the Latin Poet Sextus Propertius. When he included this in his next poetry collection in 1921, he had renamed it Homage to Sextus Propertius in response to criticism of his translation skills. "Propertius '' is not a strict translation; biographer David Moody describes it as "the refraction of an ancient poet through a modern intelligence ''. Harriet Monroe, editor of Poetry, published a letter from a professor of Latin, W.G. Hale, saying that Pound was "incredibly ignorant '' of the language, and alluded to "about three - score errors '' in Homage. Monroe did not publish Pound 's response, which began "Cat - piss and porcupines!! '' and continued, "The thing is no more a translation than my ' Altaforte ' is a translation, or than Fitzgerald 's Omar is a translation ''. Moore interpreted Pound 's silence after that as his resignation as foreign editor.
There died a myriad And of the best, among them, For an old bitch gone in the teeth, For a botched civilization, Charm, smiling at the good mouth, Quick eyes gone under earth 's lid, For two gross of broken statues, For a few thousand battered books.
-- Hugh Selwyn Mauberley, Section V (1920)
His poem Hugh Selwyn Mauberley consists of 18 short parts, and describes a poet whose life has become sterile and meaningless. Published in June 1920, it marked his farewell to London. He was disgusted by the massive loss of life during the war and was unable to reconcile himself with it. Stephen J. Adams writes that, just as Eliot denied he was Prufrock, so Pound denied he was Mauberley, but the work can nevertheless be read as autobiographical. It begins with a satirical analysis of the London literary scene, before turning to social criticism, economics, and an attack on the causes of the war; here the word usury appears in his work for the first time. The critic F.R. Leavis saw the poem as Pound 's major achievement.
The war had shattered Pound 's belief in modern western civilization. He saw the Vorticist movement as finished and doubted his own future as a poet. He had only the New Age to write for; his relationship with Poetry was finished, The Egoist was quickly running out of money because of censorship problems caused by the serialization of Joyce 's Ulysses, and the funds for The Little Review had dried up. Other magazines ignored his submissions or refused to review his work. Toward the end of 1920 he and Dorothy decided their time in London was over and resolved to move to Paris.
The New Age published Pound 's Axiomata in January 1921, a statement of his views on consciousness and the universe: "the intimate essence of the universe is not of the same nature as our own consciousness. '' Orage wrote in the same issue:
Mr. Pound has shaken the dust of London from his feet with not too emphatic a gesture of disgust, but, at least, without gratitude to this country... (He) has been an exhilarating influence for culture in England; he has left his mark upon more than one of the arts, upon literature, music, poetry and sculpture, and quite a number of men and movements owe their initiation to his self - sacrificing stimulus... With all this, however, Mr. Pound, like so many others who have striven for advancement of intelligence and culture in England, has made more enemies than friends... Much of the Press has been deliberately closed by cabal to him; his books have for some time been ignored or written down; and he himself has been compelled to live on much less than would support a navvy. His fate, as I have said, is not unusual... Taken by and large, England hates men of culture until they are dead.
The Pounds settled in Paris in January 1921, and several months later moved into an inexpensive apartment at 70 bis Rue Notre - Dame - des - Champs. Pound became friendly with Marcel Duchamp, Tristan Tzara, Fernand Léger and others of the Dada and Surrealist movements, as well as Basil Bunting, Ernest Hemingway and his wife, Hadley Richardson. He spent most of his time building furniture for his apartment and bookshelves for the bookstore Shakespeare and Company, and in 1921 the volume Poems 1918 -- 1921 was published. In 1922 Eliot sent him the manuscript of The Waste Land, then arrived in Paris to edit it with Pound, who blue - inked the manuscript with comments like "make up yr. mind... '' and "georgian ''. Eliot wrote: "I should like to think that the manuscript, with the suppressed passages, had disappeared irrecoverably; yet, on the other hand, I should wish the blue pencilling on it to be preserved as irrefutable evidence of Pound 's critical genius. ''
In 1924 Pound secured funding for Ford Madox Ford 's The Transatlantic Review from American attorney John Quinn. The Review published works by Pound, Hemingway and Gertrude Stein, as well as extracts from Joyce 's Finnegans Wake, before the money ran out in 1925. It also published several Pound music reviews, later collected into Antheil and the Treatise on Harmony.
Hemingway asked Pound to blue - ink his short stories. Although Hemingway was 14 years younger, the two forged a lifelong relationship of mutual respect and friendship, living on the same street for a time, and touring Italy together in 1923. "They liked each other personally, shared the same aesthetic aims, and admired each other 's work '', writes Hemingway biographer Jeffrey Meyers, with Hemingway assuming the status of pupil to Pound 's teaching. Pound introduced Hemingway to Lewis, Ford, and Joyce, while Hemingway in turn tried to teach Pound to box, but as he told Sherwood Anderson, "(Ezra) habitually leads with his chin and has the general grace of a crayfish or crawfish ''.
Pound was 36 when he met the 26 - year - old American violinist Olga Rudge in Paris in late 1922, beginning a love affair that lasted 50 years. Biographer John Tytell believes Pound had always felt that his creativity and ability to seduce women were linked, something Dorothy had turned a blind eye to over the years. Shortly after arriving in Paris, he complained that he had been there for three months without having managed to find a mistress. He was introduced to Olga at a musical salon hosted by American heiress Natalie Barney in her home at 20 Rue Jacob, near the Boulevard Saint - Germain. The two moved in different social circles: Olga was the daughter of a wealthy Youngstown, Ohio, steel family, living in her mother 's Parisian apartment on the Right Bank, socializing with aristocrats, while his friends were mostly impoverished writers of the Left Bank. They spent the following summer in the south of France, where Pound worked with George Antheil to apply the concept of Vorticism to music, and managed to write two operas, including Le Testament de Villon. He wrote pieces for solo violin, which Olga performed.
The Pounds were unhappy in Paris; Dorothy complained about the winters and Ezra 's health was poor. At one dinner, a guest randomly tried to stab him; to Pound this underlined that their time in France was over. Hemingway saw how Pound "indulged in a small nervous breakdown '', leading to two days in an American hospital. They decided to move to a quieter place, choosing Rapallo, Italy, a town of 15,000. "Italy is my place for starting things '', he told a friend. During this period they lived on Dorothy 's income, supplemented by dividends from stock she had invested in.
Olga Rudge, pregnant with Pound 's child, followed them to Italy. She had little interest in raising a child, but may have felt that having one would maintain her connection to him. In July 1925 she gave birth to their daughter, Mary. Olga placed the child with a German - speaking peasant woman whose own child had died, and who agreed to raise Mary for 200 lire a month.
When Pound told Dorothy about the birth, she separated from him for much of that year and the next. In December 1925, she left on an extended trip to Egypt. She was pregnant by her return in March. In June she and Pound left Rapallo for Paris for the premiere of Le Testament de Villon, without mentioning the pregnancy to his friends or parents. In September, Hemingway drove Dorothy to the American Hospital of Paris for the birth of a son, Omar Pound. In a letter to his parents in October, Pound wrote, "next generation (male) arrived. Both D & it appear to be doing well ''. Dorothy gave the baby son to her mother, Olivia, who raised him in London until he was old enough to go to boarding school. When Dorothy went to England each summer to see Omar, Pound would spend the time with Olga, whose father had bought her a house in Venice. The arrangement meant his children were raised very differently. Mary had a single pair of shoes, and books about Jesus and the saints, while Omar was raised in Kensington as an English gentleman by his sophisticated grandmother.
In 1925 the literary magazine This Quarter dedicated its first issue to Pound, including tributes from Hemingway and Joyce. Pound published Cantos XVII -- XIX in the winter editions. In March 1927 he launched his own literary magazine, The Exile, but only four issues were published. It did well in the first year, with contributions from Hemingway, E.E. Cummings, Basil Bunting, Yeats, William Carlos Williams and Robert McAlmon; some of the poorest work in the magazine were Pound 's rambling editorials on Confucianism and or in praise of Lenin, according to biographer J.J. Wilhelm. He continued to work on Fenollosa 's manuscripts, and in 1928 won The Dial 's poetry award for his translation of the Confucian classic Great Learning (Dà Xué, transliterated as Ta Hio). That year his parents Homer and Isabel visited him in Rapallo, seeing him for the first time since 1914. By then Homer had retired, so they decided to move to Rapallo themselves. They took a small house, Villa Raggio, on a hill above the town.
Pound began work on The Cantos in earnest after relocating to Italy. The poems concern good and evil, a descent into hell followed by redemption and paradise. Its hundreds of characters fall into three groupings: those who enjoy hell and stay there; those who experience a metamorphosis and want to leave; and a few who lead the rest to paradiso terrestre. Its composition was difficult and involved several false starts, and he abandoned most of his earlier drafts, beginning again in 1922. The first three appear in Poetry in June -- August 1917. The Malatesta Cantos appeared in The Criterion in July 1923, and two further cantos were published in The Transatlantic Review in January 1924. Pound published 90 copies in Paris in 1925 of A Draft of XVI. Cantos of Ezra Pound for the Beginning of a Poem of some Length now first made into a Book.
Pound came to believe that the cause of World War I was finance capitalism, which he called "usury '', that the solution lay in C.H. Douglas 's idea of social credit, and that fascism was the vehicle for reform. He had met Douglas in the New Age offices and had been impressed by his ideas. He gave a series of lectures on economics, and made contact with politicians in the United States to discuss education, interstate commerce and international affairs. Although Hemingway advised against it, on 30 January 1933 Pound met Benito Mussolini. Olga Rudge played for Mussolini and told him about Pound, who had earlier sent him a copy of Cantos XXX. During the meeting Pound tried to present Mussolini with a digest of his economic ideas, but Mussolini brushed them aside, though he called the Cantos "divertente '' (entertaining). The meeting was recorded in Canto XLI: "' Ma questo ' / said the boss, ' è divertente. ' '' Pound said he had "never met anyone who seemed to get my ideas so quickly as the boss ''.
When Olivia Shakespear died in October 1938 in London, Dorothy asked Pound to organize the funeral, where he saw their 12 - year - old son Omar for the first time in eight years. He visited Eliot and Wyndham Lewis, who produced a now - famous portrait of Pound reclining. In April 1939 he sailed for New York, believing he could stop America 's involvement in World War II, happy to answer reporters ' questions about Mussolini while he lounged on the deck of the ship in a tweed jacket. He traveled to Washington, D.C., where he met senators and congressmen. His daughter, Mary, said that he had acted out of a sense of responsibility, rather than megalomania; he was offered no encouragement, and was left feeling depressed and frustrated.
In June 1939 he received an honorary doctorate from Hamilton College, and a week later returned to Italy from the States and began writing antisemitic material for Italian newspapers. He wrote to James Laughlin that Roosevelt represented Jewry, and signed the letter with "Heil Hitler ''. He started writing for Action, a newspaper owned by the British fascist Sir Oswald Mosley, arguing that the Third Reich was the "natural civilizer of Russia ''. After war broke out in September that year, he began a furious letter - writing campaign to the politicians he had petitioned six months earlier, arguing that the war was the result of an international banking conspiracy and that the United States should keep out of it.
-- Pound radio broadcast, 15 March 1942
Tytell writes that, by the 1940s, no American or English poet had been so active politically since William Blake. Pound wrote over a thousand letters a year during the 1930s and presented his ideas in hundreds of articles, as well as in The Cantos. His greatest fear was an economic structure dependent on the armaments industry, where the profit motive would govern war and peace. He read George Santayana and The Law of Civilization and Decay by Brooks Adams, finding confirmation of the danger of the capitalist and usurer becoming dominant. He wrote in The Japan Times that "Democracy is now currently defined in Europe as a ' country run by Jews, ' '' and told Sir Oswald Mosley 's newspaper that the English were a slave race governed since Waterloo by the Rothschilds.
Pound broadcast over Rome Radio, although the Italian government was at first reluctant, concerned that he might be a double agent. He told a friend: "It took me, I think it was, two years, insistence and wrangling etc., to get hold of their microphone. '' He recorded over a hundred broadcasts criticizing the United States, Roosevelt, Roosevelt 's family and the Jews, his poetry, economics and Chinese philosophy. The first was in January 1935, and by February 1940 he was broadcasting regularly; he traveled to Rome one week a month to pre-record the 10 - minute broadcasts, for which he was paid around $17, and they were broadcast every three days. The broadcasts required the Italian government 's approval, although he often changed the text in the studio. Tytell wrote that Pound 's voice had assumed a "rasping, buzzing quality like the sound of a hornet stuck in a jar '', that throughout the "disordered rhetoric of the talks he sustained the notes of chaos, hysteria, and exacerbated outrage ''. The politics apart, Pound needed the money; his father 's pension payments had stopped -- his father died in February 1942 in Rapallo -- and Pound had his mother and Dorothy to look after.
The broadcasts were monitored by the United States Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service listening station at Princeton University, and in July 1943 Pound was indicted in absentia for treason. He answered the charge by writing a letter to Attorney General Francis Biddle, which Tytell describes as "long, reasoned, and temperate '', defending his right to free speech. He continued to broadcast and write under pseudonyms until April 1945, shortly before his arrest.
The war years threw Pound 's domestic arrangements into disarray. Olga lost possession of her house in Venice and took a small house with Mary above Rapallo at Sant ' Ambrogio. In 1943 Pound and Dorothy were evicted from their apartment in Rapallo. His mother 's apartment was too small, and the couple moved in with Olga. Mary, then 19 and finished with convent school, was quickly sent back to Gais in Switzerland, leaving Pound, as she would later write, "pent up with two women who loved him, whom he loved, and who coldly hated each other. ''
Pound was in Rome early in September when Italy surrendered. He borrowed a pair of hiking boots and a knapsack and left the city, having finally decided to tell Mary about his wife and son. Heading north, he spent a night in an air - raid shelter in Bologna, then took a train to Verona and walked the rest of the way; he apparently traveled over 450 miles in all. Mary almost failed to recognize him when he arrived, he was so dirty and tired. He told her everything about his other family; she later admitted she felt more pity than anger.
He returned home to Rapallo, where on 3 May 1945, four days after Mussolini was shot, armed partisans arrived at the house to find Pound alone. He stuffed a copy of Confucius and a Chinese dictionary in his pocket before he was taken to their headquarters in Chiavari. He was released shortly afterwards, then with Olga gave himself up to an American military post in the nearby town of Lavagna.
Pound was transferred to U.S. Counter Intelligence Corps headquarters in Genoa, where he was interrogated by Frank L. Amprin, an FBI agent assigned by J. Edgar Hoover. Pound asked to send a cable to President Truman to offer to help negotiate peace with Japan. He also asked to be allowed a final broadcast, a script called "Ashes of Europe Calling '', in which he recommended peace with Japan, American management of Italy, the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine, and leniency toward Germany. His requests were denied and the script was forwarded to Hoover.
On 8 May, the day Germany surrendered, Pound told an American reporter, Ed Johnston, that Hitler was "a Jeanne d'Arc, a saint '', and that Mussolini was an "imperfect character who lost his head ''. On 24 May he was transferred to the United States Army Disciplinary Training Center north of Pisa, where he was placed in one of the camp 's "death cells '', a series of six - by - six - foot outdoor steel cages lit up at night by floodlights; engineers reinforced his cage with heavier steel for fear the fascists would try to break him out.
Pound spent three weeks in isolation in the heat, sleeping on the concrete, denied exercise and communication, except for conversations with the chaplain. After two and a half weeks he began to break down under the strain. Richard Sieburth wrote that Pound recorded it in Canto LXXX, where Odysseus is saved from drowning by Leucothea: "hast'ou swum in a sea of air strip / through an aeon of nothingness, / when the raft broke and the waters went over me. '' Medical staff moved him out of the cage the following week. On 14 and 15 June he was examined by psychiatrists, one of whom found symptoms of a mental breakdown, after which he was transferred to his own tent and allowed reading material. He began to write, drafting what became known as The Pisan Cantos. The existence of a few sheets of toilet paper showing the beginning of Canto LXXIV suggests he started it while in the cage.
On 15 November 1945 Pound was transferred to the United States. An escorting officer 's impression was that "he is an intellectual ' crackpot ' who imagined that he could correct all the economic ills of the world and who resented the fact that ordinary mortals were not sufficiently intelligent to understand his aims and motives ''. He was arraigned in Washington, D.C., on the 25th of that month on charges of treason. The charges included broadcasting for the enemy, attempting to persuade American citizens to undermine government support of the war, and strengthening morale in Italy against the United States.
He was admitted to St. Elizabeths Hospital, and in June the following year Dorothy was declared his legal guardian. He was held for a time in the hospital 's prison ward -- Howard 's Hall, known as the "hell - hole '', a building without windows -- in a room with a thick steel door and nine peepholes to allow the psychiatrists to observe him as they tried to agree on a diagnosis. Visitors were admitted for only 15 minutes at a time, while patients wandered around screaming and frothing at the mouth.
Pound 's lawyer, Julien Cornell, whose efforts to have him declared insane are credited with having saved him from life imprisonment, requested his release at a bail hearing in January 1947. The hospital 's superintendent, Winfred Overholser, agreed instead to move him to the more pleasant surroundings of Chestnut Ward, close to Overholser 's private quarters, which is where he spent the next 12 years. The historian Stanley Kutler was given access in the 1980s to military intelligence and other government documents about Pound, including his hospital records, and wrote that the psychiatrists believed Pound had a narcissistic personality, but they considered him sane. Kutler believes that Overholser protected Pound from the criminal justice system because he was fascinated by him.
Tytell writes that Pound was in his element in Chestnut Ward. He was at last provided for, and was allowed to read, write and receive visitors, including Dorothy for several hours a day. He took over a small alcove with wicker chairs just outside his room, and turned it into his private living room, where he entertained his friends and important literary figures. He began work on his translation of Sophocles 's Women of Trachis and Electra, and continued work on The Cantos. It reached the point where he refused to discuss any attempt to have him released. Olga Rudge visited him twice, once in 1952 and again in 1955, and was unable to convince him to be more assertive about his release. She wrote to a friend: "E.P. has -- as he had before -- bats in the belfry but it strikes me that he has fewer not more than before his incarceration. ''
is it blacker? was it blacker? Nυξ animae? Is there a blacker or was it merely San Juan with a belly ache writing ad posteros in short shall we look for a deeper or is this the bottom?
-- The Pisan Cantos, LXXIV / 458
James Laughlin had "Cantos LXXIV -- LXXXIV '' ready for publication in 1946 under the title The Pisan Cantos, and gave Pound an advance copy, but he held back, waiting for an appropriate time to publish. A group of Pound 's friends -- Eliot, Cummings, W.H. Auden, Allen Tate, and Julien Cornell -- met Laughlin to discuss how to get him released. They planned to have Pound awarded the first Bollingen Prize, a new national poetry award by the Library of Congress, with $1,000 prize money donated by the Mellon family.
The awards committee consisted of 15 fellows of the Library of Congress, including several of Pound 's supporters, such as Eliot, Tate, Conrad Aiken, Amy Lowell, Katherine Anne Porter and Theodore Spencer. The idea was that the Justice Department would be placed in an untenable position if Pound won a major award and was not released. Laughlin published The Pisan Cantos on 30 July 1948, and the following year the prize went to Pound. There were two dissenting voices, Francis Biddle 's wife, Katherine Garrison Chapin, and Karl Shapiro, who said that he could not vote for an antisemite because he was Jewish himself. Pound responded to the award with "No comment from the bughouse. ''
There was uproar. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette quoted critics who said "poetry (can not) convert words into maggots that eat at human dignity and still be good poetry ''. Robert Hillyer, a Pulitzer Prize winner and president of the Poetry Society of America, attacked the committee in The Saturday Review of Literature, telling journalists that he "never saw anything to admire in Pound, not one line ''. Congressman Jacob K. Javits demanded an investigation into the awards committee. It was the last time the prize was administered by the Library of Congress.
Although Pound repudiated his antisemitism in public, he maintained his views in private. He refused to talk to psychiatrists with Jewish - sounding names, dismissed people he disliked as "Jews '', and urged visitors to read the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1903), a forgery claiming to represent a Jewish plan for world domination. He struck up a friendship with the conspiracy theorist and antisemite Eustace Mullins, believed to be associated with the Aryan League of America, and author of the 1961 biography This Difficult Individual, Ezra Pound.
Even more damaging was his friendship with John Kasper, a far - right activist and Ku Klux Klan member. Kasper had come to admire Pound during literature classes at university, and after he wrote to Pound in 1950 the two had become friends. Kasper opened a bookstore in Greenwich Village in 1953 called "Make it New '', reflecting his commitment to Pound 's ideas; the store specialized in far - right material, including Nazi literature, and Pound 's poetry and translations were displayed on the window front. Kasper and another follower of Pound 's, David Horton, set up a publishing imprint, Square Dollar Series, which Pound used as a vehicle for his tracts about economic reform. Wilhelm writes that there were a lot of conventional people visiting Pound too, such as the classicist J.P. Sullivan and the writer Guy Davenport, but it was the association with Mullins and Kasper that stood out and delayed his release from St Elizabeths.
Pound 's friends continued to try to get him out. Shortly after Hemingway won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954, he told Time magazine that "this would be a good year to release poets ''. The poet Archibald MacLeish asked Hemingway in June 1957 to write a letter on Pound 's behalf. Hemingway believed Pound was unable to abstain from awkward political statements or from friendships with people like Kasper, but he signed a letter of support anyway and pledged $1,500 to be given to Pound when he was released. In an interview for the Paris Review in early 1958, Hemingway said that Kasper should be jailed and Pound released. Kasper was eventually jailed, for inciting a riot in connection with the Hattie Cotton School in Nashville, targeted because a black girl had registered as a student. He was also questioned relating to the bombing of the school.
Several publications began campaigning for Pound 's release in 1957. Le Figaro published an appeal entitled "The Lunatic at St Elizabeths ''. The New Republic, Esquire and The Nation followed suit; The Nation argued that Pound was a sick and vicious old man, but had rights. In 1958 MacLeish hired Thurman Arnold, a prestigious lawyer who ended up charging no fee, to file a motion to dismiss the 1945 indictment. Overholser, the hospital 's superintendent, supported the application with an affidavit saying Pound was permanently and incurably insane, and that confinement served no therapeutic purpose. The motion was heard on 18 April 1958 by the judge who had committed Pound to St Elizabeths. The Department of Justice did not oppose the motion, and Pound was free.
Pound arrived in Naples in July 1958, where he was photographed giving a fascist salute to the waiting press. When asked when he had been released from the mental hospital, he replied: "I never was. When I left the hospital I was still in America, and all America is an insane asylum. '' He and Dorothy went to live with Mary at Schloss Brunnenburg, near Merano in the Province of South Tyrol, where he met his grandson, Walter, and his granddaughter, Patrizia, for the first time, then returned to Rapallo, where Olga Rudge was waiting to join them.
They were accompanied by a teacher Pound had met in hospital, Marcella Spann, 40 years his junior, ostensibly acting as his secretary and collecting poems for an anthology. The four women soon fell out, vying for control over him; Canto CXIII: alluded to it: "Pride, jealousy and possessiveness / 3 pains of hell. '' Pound was in love with Spann, seeing in her his last chance for love and youth. He wrote about her in Canto CXIII: "The long flank, the firm breast / and to know beauty and death and despair / And to think that what has been shall be, / flowing, ever unstill. '' Dorothy had usually ignored his affairs, but she used her legal power over his royalties to make sure Spann was seen off, sent back to America.
By December 1959, Pound was mired in depression. He saw his work as worthless and The Cantos botched. In a 1960 interview given in Rome to Donald Hall for Paris Review, he said: "You -- find me -- in fragments. '' Hall wrote that he seemed in an "abject despair, accidie, meaninglessness, abulia, waste ''. He paced up and down during the three days it took to complete the interview, never finishing a sentence, bursting with energy one minute, then suddenly sagging, and at one point seemed about to collapse. Hall said it was clear that he "doubted the value of everything he had done in his life ''.
Those close to him thought he was suffering from dementia, and in mid-1960, Mary placed him in a clinic near Merano when his weight dropped. He picked up again, but by early 1961 he had a urinary infection. Dorothy felt unable to look after him, so he went to live with Olga in Rapallo, then Venice; Dorothy mostly stayed in London after that with Omar. Pound attended a neo-Fascist May Day parade in 1962, but his health continued to decline. The following year he told an interviewer, Grazia Levi: "I spoil everything I touch. I have always blundered... All my life I believed I knew nothing, yes, knew nothing. And so words became devoid of meaning. ''
William Carlos Williams died in 1963, followed by Eliot in 1965. Pound went to Eliot 's funeral in London and on to Dublin to visit Yeats 's widow. Two years later he went to New York where he attended the opening of an exhibition featuring his blue - inked version of Eliot 's The Waste Land. He went on to Hamilton College where he received a standing ovation.
Shortly before his death in 1972 it was proposed that he be awarded the Emerson - Thoreau Medal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, but after a storm of protest the academy 's council opposed it by 13 to 9. The sociologist Daniel Bell, who was on the committee, argued that it was important to distinguish between those who explore hate and those who approve it. Two weeks before he died, Pound read for a gathering of friends at a café: "re usury / I was out of focus, taking a symptom for a cause. / The cause is avarice. ''
On his 87th birthday, 30 October 1972, he was too weak to leave his bedroom. The next night he was admitted to the Civil Hospital of Venice, where he died in his sleep of an intestinal blockage on 1 November, with Olga at his side. Dorothy was unable to travel to the funeral. Four gondoliers dressed in black rowed the body to the island cemetery, Isola di San Michele, where he was buried near Diaghilev and Stravinsky. Dorothy died in England the following year. Olga died in 1996 and was buried next to Pound.
Critics generally agree that Pound was a strong yet subtle lyricist, particularly in his early work, such as "The River Merchant 's Wife ''. According to Witmeyer a modern style is evident as early as Ripostes, and Nadel sees evidence of modernism even before he began The Cantos, writing that Pound wanted his poetry to represent an "objective presentation of material which he believed could stand on its own '' without use of symbolism or romanticism.
Drawing on literature from a variety of disciplines, Pound intentionally layered often confusing juxtapositions, yet led the reader to an intended conclusion, believing the "thoughtful man '' would apply a sense of organization and uncover the underlying symbolism and structure. Ignoring Victorian and Edwardian grammar and structure, he created a unique form of speech, employing odd and strange words, jargon, avoiding verbs, and using rhetorical devices such as parataxis.
Pound 's relationship to music is essential to his poetry. Although he was tone deaf and his speaking voice is described as "raucous, nasal, scratchy '', Michael Ingam writes that Pound is on a short list of poets possessed of a sense of sound, an "ear '' for words, imbuing his poetry with melopoeia. His study of troubadour poetry -- words written to be sung (motz et son) -- led him to think modern poetry should be written similarly. He wrote that rhythm is "the hardest quality of a man 's style to counterfeit ''. Ingham compares the form of The Cantos to a fugue; without adhering strictly to the traditions of the form, nevertheless multiple themes are explored simultaneously. He goes on to write that Pound 's use of counterpoint is integral to the structure and cohesion of The Cantos, which show multi-voiced counterpoint and, with the juxtaposition of images, non-linear themes. The pieces are presented in fragments "which taken together, can be seen to unfold in time as music does ''.
Opinion varies about the nature of Pound 's writing style. Nadel writes that imagism was to change Pound 's poetry. Like Wyndham Lewis, Pound reacted against decorative flourishes found in Edwardian writing, saying poetry required a precise and economic use of language and that the poet should always use the "exact '' word, stripping the writing down to the "barest essence ''. According to Nadel, "Imagism evolved as a reaction against abstraction... replacing Victorian generalities with the clarity in Japanese haiku and ancient Greek lyrics. '' Daniel Albright writes that Pound tried to condense and eliminate "all but the hardest kernel '' from a poem, such as in the two - line poem "In a Station of the Metro ''. However, Pound learned that Imagism did not lend itself well to the writing of an epic, so he turned to the more dynamic structure of Vorticism for The Cantos.
Pound 's translations represent a substantial part of his work. He began his career with translations of Occitan ballads and ended with translations of Egyptian poetry. Yao says the body of translations by modernist poets in general, much of which Pound started, consists of some the most "significant modernist achievements in English ''. Pound was the first English language poet since John Dryden, some three centuries earlier, to give primacy to translations in English literature. The fullness of the achievement for the modernists is that they renewed interest in multiculturalism, multilingualism, and, perhaps of greater importance, they treated translations not in a strict sense of the word but instead saw a translation as the creation of an original work.
Michael Alexander writes that, as a translator, Pound was a pioneer with a great gift of language and an incisive intelligence. He helped popularize major poets such as Guido Cavalcanti and Du Fu, and brought Provençal and Chinese poetry to English - speaking audiences. He revived interest in the Confucian classics and introduced the west to classical Japanese poetry and drama. He translated and championed Greek, Latin and Anglo - Saxon classics, and helped keep them alive at a time when poets no longer considered translations central to their craft.
In Pound 's Fenollosa translations, unlike previous American translators of Chinese poetry, which tended to work with strict metrical and stanzaic patterns, Pound created free verse translations. Whether the poems are valuable as translations continues to be a source of controversy. Hugh Kenner contends that Cathay should be read primarily as a work about World War I, not as an attempt at accurately translating ancient Eastern poems. The real achievement of the book, Kenner argues, is in how it combines meditations on violence and friendship with an effort to "rethink the nature of an English poem ''. These ostensible translations of ancient Eastern texts, Kenner argues, are actually experiments in English poetics and compelling elegies for a warring West. Pound scholar Ming Xie explains that Pound 's use of language in his translation of "The Seafarer '' is deliberate, in that he avoids merely "trying to assimilate the original into contemporary language ''.
And then went down to the ship, Set keel to breakers, forth on the godly sea, and We set up mast and sail on that swart ship, Bore sheep aboard her, and our bodies also Heavy with weeping, and winds from sternward Bore us out onward with bellying canvas, Circe 's this craft, the trim - coifed goddess. Then sat we amidships, wind jamming the tiller, Thus with stretched sail, we went over sea til day 's end.
-- Canto I (1917)
The Cantos is difficult to decipher. In the epic poem, Pound disregards literary genres, mixing satire, hymns, elegies, essays and memoirs. Pound scholar Rebecca Beasley believes it amounts to a rejection of the 19th - century nationalistic approach in favor of early - 20th - century comparative literature. Pound reaches across cultures and time periods, assembling and juxtaposing "themes and history '' from Homer to Ovid and Dante, from Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, and many others. The work presents a multitude of protagonists as "travellers between nations ''. The nature of The Cantos, she says, is to compare and measure among historical periods and cultures and against "a Poundian standard '' of modernism.
Pound layered ideas, cultures and historical periods, writing in as many as 15 different languages, using modern vernacular, Classical languages and Chinese ideograms. Ira Nadel says The Cantos is an epic, that is "a poem including history '', and that the "historical figures lend referentiality to the text ''. It functions as a contemporary memoir, in which "personal history (and) lyrical retrospection mingle '' -- most clearly represented in the Pisan Cantos. Michael Ingham sees in The Cantos an American tradition of experimental literature, writing about it, "These works include everything but the kitchen sink, and then add the kitchen sink ''. In the 1960s William O'Connor described The Cantos as filled with "cryptic and gnomic utterances, dirty jokes, obscenities of various sorts ''.
Allen Tate believes the poem is not about anything and is without beginning, middle or end. He argues that Pound was incapable of sustained thought and "at the mercy of random flights of ' angelic insight, ' an Icarian self - indulgence of prejudice which is not checked by a total view to which it could be subordinated ''. This perceived lack of logical consistency or form is a common criticism of The Cantos. Pound himself felt this absence of form was his great failure, and regretted that he could not "make it cohere ''.
Pound 's literary criticism and essays are, according to Massimo Bacigalupo, a "form of intellectual journal ''. In early works, such as The Spirit of Romance and "I Gather the Limbs of Osiris '', Pound paid attention to medieval troubadour poets -- Arnaut Daniel and François Villon. The former piece was to "remain one of Pound 's principal sourcebooks for his poetry ''; in the latter he introduces the concept of "luminous details ''. The leitmotifs in Pound 's literary criticism are recurrent patterns found in historical events, which, he believed, through the use of judicious juxtapositions illuminate truth; and in them he reveals forgotten writers and cultures.
Pound wrote intensively about economic theory with the ABC of Economics and Jefferson and / or Mussolini, published in the mid-1930s right after he was introduced to Mussolini. These were followed by The Guide to Kulchur, covering 2500 years of history, which Tim Redman describes as the "most complete synthesis of Pound 's political and economic thought ''. Pound thought writing the cantos meant writing an epic about history and economics, and he wove his economic theories throughout; neither can be understood without the other. In these pamphlets and in The ABC of Reading, he sought to emphasize the value of art and to "aestheticize the political '', written forcefully, according to Nadel, and in a "determined voice ''. In form his criticism and essays are direct, repetitive and reductionist, his rhetoric minimalist, filled with "strident impatience '', according to Pound scholar Jason Coats, and frequently failing to make a coherent claim. He rejected traditional rhetoric and created his own, although not very successfully, in Coats 's view.
In 1922, the literary critic Edmund Wilson reviewed Pound 's latest published volume of poetry, Poems 1918 -- 21, and took the opportunity to provide an overview of his estimation of Pound as poet. In his essay on Pound, titled "Ezra Pound 's Patchwork '', Wilson wrote:
Ezra Pound is really at heart a very boyish fellow and an incurable provincial. It is true that he was driven to Europe by a thirst for romance and color that he could scarcely have satisfied in America, but he took to Europe the simple faith and pure enthusiasm of his native Idaho... His sophistication is still juvenile, his ironies are still clumsy and obvious, he ridicules Americans in Europe not very much simpler than himself...
According to Wilson, the lines in Pound 's poems stood isolated, with fragmentary wording contributing to poems that "do not hang together ''. Citing Pound 's first seven cantos, Wilson dubbed the writing "unsatisfactory ''. He found The Cantos disjointed and its contents reflecting a too - obvious reliance on the literary works of other authors, and an awkward use of Latin and Chinese translations as a device inserted among reminiscences of Pound 's own life.
The rise of New Criticism during the 1950s, in which author is separated from text, secured Pound 's poetic reputation. Nadel writes that the publication of T.S. Eliot 's Literary Essays in 1954 "initiated the recuperation of Ezra Pound ''. Eliot 's essays coincided with the work of Hugh Kenner, who visited Pound extensively at St. Elizabeths. Kenner wrote that there was no great contemporary writer less read than Pound, adding that there is also no one to appeal more through "sheer beauty of language ''. Along with Donald Davie, Kenner brought a new appreciation to Pound 's work in the 1960s and 1970s. Donald Gallup 's Pound bibliography was published in 1963 and Kenner 's The Pound Era in 1971. In the 1970s a literary journal dedicated to Pound studies (Paideuma) was established, and Ronald Bush published the first dedicated critical study of The Cantos, to be followed by a number of research editions of The Cantos.
Following Mullins ' biography, described by Nadel as "partisan '' and "melodramatic '', was Noel Stock 's factual 1970 Life of Ezra Pound, although the material included was subject to Dorothy 's approval. The 1980s saw three significant biographies: John Tytell 's "neutral '' account in 1987, followed by Wilhelm 's multi-volume biography. Humphrey Carpenter 's sprawling narrative, a "complete life '', built on what Stock began; unlike Stock, Carpenter had the benefit of working without intervention from Pound 's relatives. In 2007 David Moody published the first of his multi-volume biography, combining narrative with literary criticism, the first work to link the two.
In the 1980s Mary de Rachewiltz released the first dual - language edition of The Cantos, including "Canto LXXII '' and "Canto LXXIII ''. These cantos had originally been published in fascist magazines, and are characterized by 21st - century literary scholars as no more than war - time propaganda. In 1991 a complete facsimile edition of Pound 's prose and poetry was published, now considered a "fundamental research tool '', according to Nadel. Scholarship in the 1990s turned toward in - depth investigations of his antisemitism and Rome years. Tim Redman writes about Pound 's fascism and his relationship with Mussolini, and Leon Surrette about Pound 's economic theories, especially during the Italian period, investigating how Pound the poet became Pound the fascist. In 1999 Surrette wrote about the state of Pound criticism, that "the effort to uncover coherence in a... crazy quilt of verse styles, critical principles, crankish economic theories and distasteful political affiliations has made it difficult to perceive the genesis and development of any of these components ''. He emphasized that Pound 's "economic and political opinions have not been properly dated, nor has the suddenness of his radicalization been appreciated ''.
Nadel 's 2010 Pound in Context is a contextual literary approach to Pound scholarship. Pound 's life, "the social, political, historical, and literary developments of his period '', is fully investigated, which, according to Nadel is "the grid for reading Pound 's poetry ''. In 2012 Matthew Feldman wrote that the more than 1,500 documents in the "Pound files '' held by the FBI have been ignored by scholars, and almost certainly contain evidence that "Pound was politically cannier, was more bureaucratically involved with Italian Fascism, and was more involved with Mussolini 's regime than has been posited ''.
Pound helped advance the careers of some of the best - known modernist writers of the early 20th century. In addition to Eliot, Joyce, Lewis, Frost, Williams, Hemingway and Conrad Aiken, he befriended and helped Marianne Moore, Louis Zukofsky, Jacob Epstein, Basil Bunting, E.E. Cummings, Margaret Anderson, George Oppen and Charles Olson. Hugh Witemeyer argues that the Imagist movement was the most important in 20th - century English - language poetry because it affected all the leading poets of Pound 's generation and the two generations after him. In 1917, Carl Sandburg wrote in Poetry: "All talk on modern poetry, by people who know, ends with dragging in Ezra Pound somewhere. He may be named only to be cursed as wanton and mocker, poseur, trifler and vagrant. Or he may be classed as filling a niche today like that of Keats in a preceding epoch. The point is, he will be mentioned. ''
I have tried to write Paradise Do not move Let the wind speak. that is paradise. Let the Gods forgive what I have made Let those I love try to forgive what I have made.
-- Canto 120
The outrage after Pound 's wartime collaboration with Mussolini 's regime was so deep that the imagined method of his execution dominated the discussion. Arthur Miller considered him worse than Hitler: "In his wildest moments of human vilification Hitler never approached our Ezra... he knew all America 's weaknesses and he played them as expertly as Goebbels ever did. '' The response went so far as to denounce all modernists as fascists, and it was only in the 1980s that critics began a re-evaluation. Macha Rosenthal wrote that it was "as if all the beautiful vitality and all the brilliant rottenness of our heritage in its luxuriant variety were both at once made manifest '' in Ezra Pound.
Pound 's antisemitism has soured evaluation of his poetry. Pound scholar Wendy Stallard Flory writes that separating the poetry from the antisemitism is perceived as apologetic. She believes the positioning of Pound as "National Monster '' and "designated fascist intellectual '' made him a stand - in for the silent majority in Germany, occupied France and Belgium, as well as Britain and the United States, who, she argues, made the Holocaust possible by aiding or standing by.
Later in his life, Pound analyzed what he judged to be his own failings as a writer attributable to his adherence to ideological fallacies. Allen Ginsberg states that, in a private conversation in 1967, Pound told the young poet, "my poems do n't make sense. '' He went on to say that he "was not a lunatic, but a moron '', and to characterize his writing as "stupid and ignorant '', "a mess ''. Ginsberg reassured Pound that he "had shown us the way '', but Pound refused to be mollified:
' Any good I 've done has been spoiled by bad intentions -- the preoccupation with irrelevant and stupid things, ' (he) replied. Then very slowly, with emphasis, surely conscious of Ginsberg 's being Jewish: ' But the worst mistake I made was that stupid, suburban prejudice of anti-semitism. '
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when was the last time the bears were good | Chicago Bears - wikipedia
Independent (1919) National Football League (1920 -- present)
Dark Navy Blue, Orange, White
League championships (9)
Conference championships (4)
Division championships (18)
The Chicago Bears are a professional American football team based in Chicago, Illinois. The Bears compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) North division. The Bears have won nine NFL Championships, including one Super Bowl, and hold the NFL record for the most enshrinees in the Pro Football Hall of Fame and the most retired jersey numbers. The Bears have also recorded more victories than any other NFL franchise.
The franchise was founded in Decatur, Illinois, in 1919, and moved to Chicago in 1921. It is one of only two remaining franchises from the NFL 's founding in 1920, along with the Arizona Cardinals, which was originally also in Chicago. The team played home games at Wrigley Field on Chicago 's North Side through the 1970 season; they now play at Soldier Field on the Near South Side, next to Lake Michigan. The Bears have a long - standing rivalry with the Green Bay Packers.
The team headquarters, Halas Hall, is in the Chicago suburb of Lake Forest, Illinois. The Bears practice at adjoining facilities there during the season. Since 2002, the Bears have held their annual training camp, from late July to mid-August, at Ward Field on the campus of Olivet Nazarene University in Bourbonnais, Illinois.
In March of 1920 a man telephoned me... George Chamberlain and he was general superintendent of the A.E. Staley Company... In 1919, (the company 's Fellowship Club) had formed a football team. It had done well against other local teams but Mr. Staley wanted to build it into a team that could compete successfully with the best semi-professional and industrial teams in the country... Mr. Chamberlain asked if I would like to come to Decatur and work for the Staley Company.
Originally named the Decatur Staleys, the club was established by the A.E. Staley food starch company of Decatur, Illinois in 1919 as a company team. This was the typical start for several early professional football franchises. The company hired George Halas and Edward "Dutch '' Sternaman in 1920 to run the team. The 1920 Decatur Staleys season was their inaugural regular season completed in the newly formed American Professional Football Association (later renamed the National Football League (NFL) in 1922). Full control of the team was turned over to Halas and Sternaman in 1921. Official team and league records cite Halas as the founder as he took over the team in 1920 when it became a charter member of the NFL.
The team relocated to Chicago in 1921, where the club was renamed the Chicago Staleys. Under an agreement reached by Halas and Sternaman with Staley, Halas purchased the rights to the club from Staley for US $100.
In 1922, Halas changed the team name from the Staleys to the Bears. The team moved into Wrigley Field, which was home to the Chicago Cubs baseball franchise. As with several early NFL franchises, the Bears derived their nickname from their city 's baseball team (some directly, some indirectly -- like the Bears, whose young are called "cubs ''). Halas liked the bright orange - and - blue colors of his alma mater, the University of Illinois, and the Bears adopted those colors as their own, albeit in a darker shade of each (the blue is Pantone 5395, navy blue, and the orange is Pantone 1665, similar to burnt orange).
The Staleys / Bears dominated the league in the early years. Their rivalry with the Chicago Cardinals, the oldest in the NFL (and a crosstown rival from 1920 to 1959), was key in four out of the first six league titles. During the league 's first six years, the Bears lost twice to the Canton Bulldogs (who took two league titles over that span), and split with their crosstown rival Cardinals (going 4 -- 4 -- 2 against each other over that span), but no other team in the league defeated the Bears more than a single time. During that span, the Bears posted 34 shutouts.
The Bears ' rivalry with the Green Bay Packers is one of the oldest and most storied in American professional sports, dating back to 1921 (the Green Bay Packers were an independent team until they joined the NFL in 1921). In one infamous incident that year, Halas got the Packers expelled from the league in order to prevent their signing a particular player, and then graciously got them re-admitted after the Bears had closed the deal with that player.
The franchise was an early success under Halas, capturing the NFL Championship in 1921 and remaining competitive throughout the decade. In 1924 the Bears claimed the Championship after defeating the Cleveland Bulldogs on December 7, even putting the title "World 's Champions '' on their 1924 team photo. But the NFL had ruled that games after November 30 did not count towards league standings, and the Bears had to settle for second place behind Cleveland. Their only losing season came in 1929.
During the 1920s the club was responsible for triggering the NFL 's long - standing rule that a player could not be signed until his college 's senior class had graduated. The NFL took that action as a consequence of the Bears ' aggressive signing of famous University of Illinois player Red Grange within a day of his final game as a collegian.
Despite much of the on - field success, the Bears were a team in trouble. They faced the problem of increased operating costs and flatlined attendance. The Bears would only draw roughly 5,000 -- 6,000 fans a game, while a University of Chicago game would draw 40,000 -- 50,000 fans a game. By adding top college football draw Red Grange to the roster, the Bears knew that they found something to draw more fans to their games. C.C. Pyle was able to secure a $2,000 per game contract for Grange, and in one of the first games, the Bears defeated the Green Bay Packers, 21 -- 0. However, Grange remained on the sidelines while learning the team 's plays from Bears quarterback Joey Sternaman. Later in 1925, The Bears would go on a barnstorming tour, showing off the best football player of the day. 75,000 people paid to see Grange lead the Bears to a 17 -- 7 victory over the Los Angeles Tigers, who were a quickly put together team of West Coast college all - stars. After a loss to San Francisco, the Bears cruised to a 60 -- 3 over a semi-pro team called the Portland All Stars.
Any hopes that Grange would lead the Bears to glory in 1926 were quickly dashed. A failed contract talk led to Grange bolting to the AFL 's New York Yankees, owned by Pyle. The Bears also lost star quarterback Joey Sternaman, who joined the Chicago Bulls of the AFL. The Bears replaced Grange with Paddy Driscoll, a star football player in his own right. The Bears used the money made from the Grange barn - storming tour to sign the man that replaced him. Grange split his time between making movies and playing football. However, the time was not right to have two competing pro football leagues, and the AFL folded after only one season. Grange would return to the Bears.
After the financial losses of the 1932 Championship season, Halas ' partner Dutch Sternaman left the organization. Halas maintained full control of the Bears until his death in 1983. He also coached the team off - and - on for forty seasons, an NFL record. In the 1932 "Unofficial '' NFL Championship, the Bears defeated the Portsmouth Spartans in the first indoor American football game at Chicago Stadium.
The success of the playoff game led the NFL to institute a championship game. In the very first NFL Championship, the Bears played against the New York Giants, defeating them 23 -- 21. The teams met again in the 1934 NFL Championship where the Giants, wearing sneakers defeated the Bears 30 -- 13 on a cold, icy day at the Polo Grounds.
From 1940 -- 1947, quarterback Sid Luckman led the Bears to victories in four out of the five NFL Championship Games in which they appeared. The team acquired the University of Chicago 's discarded nickname "Monsters of the Midway '' and their now - famous helmet "C '', as well as a newly penned theme song that declared them "The Pride and Joy of Illinois ''. One famous victory during that period was their 73 -- 0 victory over the favored Washington Redskins at Griffith Stadium in the 1940 NFL Championship Game; the score is still an NFL record for lopsided results. The secret behind the one - sided outcome was the introduction of a new offensive formation by Halas. The T - formation, as Halas named it, involved two running backs instead of the traditional one in the backfield. Luckman established himself as one of the franchise 's most elite quarterbacks. Between 1939 and 1950, He set the Bears ' passing records for most career touchdowns, yards, and completions. Many of Luckman 's records stood for decades before they were eclipsed by Jay Cutler in 2014. Cutler then went on to break Luckman 's franchise record for most career passing touchdowns a year later in 2015.
After declining throughout the 1950s, the team rebounded in 1963 to capture its eighth NFL Championship, which would be its last until 1985. The late 1960s and early - 1970s produced notable players like Dick Butkus, Gale Sayers, and Brian Piccolo, who died of embryonal carcinoma in 1970. The American television network ABC aired a movie about Piccolo in 1971 entitled Brian 's Song, starring James Caan and Billy Dee Williams in the roles of Piccolo and Sayers respectively; Jack Warden won an Emmy Award for his performance as Halas. The movie was later released for theater screenings after first being shown on television. Despite Hall of Fame careers, Butkus and Sayers would also have their careers cut short due to injuries, hamstringing the Bears of this era.
Halas retired as coach in 1967 and spent the rest of his days in the front office. He became the only person to be involved with the NFL throughout the first 60 years of its existence. He was also a member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame 's first induction class in 1963. As the only living founder of the NFL at the February 1970 merger between the NFL and the American Football League, the owners honored Halas by electing him the first President of the National Football Conference, a position that he held until his death in 1983. In his honor, the NFL named the NFC Championship trophy as the George Halas Memorial Trophy.
After the merger, the Bears finished the 1970 season last place in their division, a repeat of their placing in the 1969 season. In 1975, the Bears drafted Walter Payton from Jackson State University with their first pick. He won the NFL Most Valuable Player Award in the 1977 -- 78 season. Payton would go on to eclipse Jim Brown 's NFL career rushing record in 1984 before retiring in 1987, and would hold the mark until 2002, when Emmitt Smith of the Dallas Cowboys surpassed it. Payton 's career and personality would capture the hearts of Bear fans, who called him "Sweetness ''. He died from a rare form of liver cancer in 1999 at the age of 45.
On November 1, 1983, a day after the death of George Halas, his oldest daughter, Virginia McCaskey, took over as the majority owner of the team. Her husband, Ed McCaskey, succeeded her father as the Chairman of the Board. Their son Michael became the third president in team history. Mrs. McCaskey holds the honorary title of "secretary of the board of directors '', but the 90 - year -- old matriarch has been called the glue that holds the franchise together. Mrs. McCaskey 's reign as the owner of the Bears was not planned, as her father originally earmarked her brother, George "Mugs '' Halas Jr. as the heir apparent to the franchise. However, he died of a massive heart attack in 1979. Her impact on the team is well - noted as her own family has dubbed her "The First Lady of Sports '', and the Chicago Sun - Times has listed her as one of Chicago 's most powerful women.
Mike Ditka, a tight end for the Bears from 1961 to 1966, was hired to coach the team by George Halas in 1982. His gritty personality earned him the nickname "Iron Mike ''. In the 1985 season the fire in the Bears -- Packers rivalry was relit when Ditka used 315 pound defensive tackle "Refrigerator '' Perry as a running back in a touchdown play at Lambeau Field, against the Packers. The Bears won their ninth NFL Championship, first since the AFL - NFL merger, in Super Bowl XX after the 1985 season in which they dominated the NFL with their then - revolutionary 46 defense and a cast of characters that recorded the novelty rap song "The Super Bowl Shuffle ''. The season was notable in that the Bears had only one loss, the "unlucky 13th '' game of the season, a Monday night affair in which they were defeated by the Miami Dolphins. At the time, much was made of the fact that the 1972 Dolphins were the only franchise in history to have had an undefeated season and post-season. The Dolphins came close to setting up a rematch in the Super Bowl, but lost to the New England Patriots in the AFC title game. "The Super Bowl Shuffle '' was videotaped the day after that Monday night loss in Miami.
After the 1985 Championship season, the Bears remained competitive throughout the 1980s but failed to return to the Super Bowl under Ditka. Between the firing of Ditka and the hiring of Lovie Smith, the Bears had two head coaches, Dick Jauron and Dave Wannstedt. While both head coaches led the team to the playoffs once (Wannstedt in 1994 and Jauron in 2001), neither was able to accumulate a winning record or bring the Bears back to the Super Bowl. Therefore, the 1990s was largely considered to be a disappointment.
Before the Bears hired Jauron in January 1999, Dave McGinnis (Arizona 's defensive coordinator, and a former Bears assistant under Ditka and Wannstedt) backed out of taking the head coaching position. The Bears scheduled a press conference to announce the hiring before McGinnis agreed to contract terms. Soon after Jauron 's hiring, Mrs. McCaskey fired her son Michael as president, replacing him with Ted Phillips and promoting Michael to chairman of the board. Phillips, the current Bears president, became the first man outside of the Halas - McCaskey family to run the team.
Lovie Smith, hired on January 15, 2004, is the third post-Ditka head coach. Joining the Bears as a rookie head coach, Smith brought the highly successful Tampa 2 defensive scheme with him to Chicago. Before his second season with the Bears, the team rehired their former offensive coordinator and then Illinois head coach Ron Turner to improve the Bears ' struggling offense. In 2005, the Bears won their division and reached the playoffs for the first time in four years. Their previous playoff berth was earned by winning the NFC Central in 2001. The Bears improved upon their success the following season, by clinching their second consecutive NFC North title during Week 13 of the 2006 season, winning their first playoff game since 1995, and earning a trip to Super Bowl XLI. However, they fell short of the championship, losing 29 -- 17 to the Indianapolis Colts. Following the 2006 season, the club decided to give Smith a contract extension through 2011, at roughly $5 million per year. This comes a season after being the lowest paid head coach in the National Football League.
The club has played in over a thousand games since becoming a charter member of the NFL in 1920. Through the 2010 season, they led the NFL in overall franchise wins with 704 and had an overall record of 704 -- 512 -- 42 (going 687 -- 494 -- 42 during the regular season and 17 -- 18 in the playoffs). On November 18, 2010 the Bears recorded franchise win number 700 in a win against the Miami Dolphins.
The Bears made one of the biggest trades in franchise history, acquiring Pro Bowl quarterback Jay Cutler from the Denver Broncos in exchange for Kyle Orton and draft picks on April 2, 2009. After a disappointing 2009 campaign with the team going 7 -- 9, Mike Martz was hired as the team 's offensive coordinator on February 1, 2010. On March 5, 2010, the Bears signed defensive end Julius Peppers, running back Chester Taylor, and tight end Brandon Manumaleuna, spending over $100 million on the first day of free agency. Also during the 2010 offseason, Michael McCaskey was replaced by brother George McCaskey as chairman of the Bears. With a 38 -- 34 win against the New York Jets, the Bears clinched the No. 2 seed and a first - round bye for the 2010 -- 11 NFL playoffs. In their first Playoff game since Super Bowl XLI, The Bears defeated the No. 4 seed Seattle Seahawks 35 -- 24 in the Divisional Round. The Bears reached the NFC Championship Game, where they played Green Bay Packers at Soldier Field -- only the second playoff meeting between the two storied rivals, the only other game played in 1941. The Bears lost the game, 21 -- 14.
The team started the 2011 season strong with a 7 -- 3 record, and running back Matt Forté led the NFL in total yards from scrimmage. Eventually, quarterback Jay Cutler fractured his thumb, and Forté also was lost for the season against the Kansas City Chiefs after spraining his MCL, and the Bears, with Caleb Hanie playing, lost five straight before winning against the Minnesota Vikings with Josh McCown starting in favor over Hanie. At season 's end, general manager Jerry Angelo was fired, and former Chiefs director of scouting and former Bears scout Phil Emery was brought in. Offensive coordinator Mike Martz resigned, and eventually retired, and was replaced by offensive line coach Mike Tice. The Bears made another notable move by trading for Miami Dolphins receiver and Pro Bowl MVP Brandon Marshall. The Bears became the first team in NFL history to return six interceptions for touchdowns in the first seven games of the season, with another pick - six by Brian Urlacher in Week 9 bringing Chicago two behind the record set by the 1961 San Diego Chargers. However, the Bears missed the playoffs with a record of 10 -- 6 (after starting the season 7 -- 1, the first team to start with the record and miss the playoffs since the 1996 Washington Redskins), and Smith was fired on December 31.
Then - CFL head coach and former NFL journeyman Marc Trestman was hired to succeed Smith after an exhaustive search that included at least 13 known candidates. On March 20, 2013, Brian Urlacher 's 13 - year tenure with the Bears ended when both sides failed to agree on a contract. The Trestman era began on September 8 with a 24 -- 21 win over the Cincinnati Bengals, making Trestman the fourth head coach in Bears history to win in his coaching debut, after George Halas (1920), Neill Armstrong (1978) and Dick Jauron (1999). The Bears ended the 2013 season 8 -- 8. The following season was a disaster for the Bears, as they finished 5 -- 11 and last in the NFC North. Trestman and Emery were fired after the season ended.
The Bears hired Ryan Pace of the New Orleans Saints to be their new general manager on January 8, 2015. On January 16, 2015, John Fox accepted a four - year deal to become head coach. In Fox 's first season as head coach, the Bears saw improvements from 2014; after USA Today projected the Bears to win three games, they doubled that total and finished the season with a 6 -- 10 record, including a Thanksgiving win over the Packers at Lambeau Field.
However, during the 2016 season, the Bears regressed heavily, compiling a 3 -- 13 record, their worst since the NFL 's change to 16 - game seasons in 1978. The season included several injuries to starters and secondary players, including Jay Cutler, who only played five games as a result of two separate injuries. The team 's backup quarterback Brian Hoyer would then start the next three games before being out for the season with a broken arm and was replaced by Matt Barkley, who made his first career start with the Bears. None of the three quarterbacks returned for the 2017 season.
In the 2017 NFL Draft, the team selected quarterback Mitchell Trubisky, who sat behind newly - signed quarterback Mike Glennon for the first four games before taking over. The Bears ended the season 5 -- 11 and again finished last in the NFC North. On January 1, 2018, Fox was fired, ending his tenure in Chicago with a 14 -- 34 record.
Virginia Halas McCaskey, her children, and grandchildren control 80 percent of the team, and Mrs. McCaskey votes her children 's stock as well as her own. Patrick Ryan, executive chairman of Aon Corp., and Aon director Andrew McKenna own 19.7 % of the club. In a Crain 's Chicago Business article, one businessman described his wishes for the team to maximize its potential. In 2009, Yahoo! Sports listed the McCaskeys as the third worst owner in the NFL, stating "(T) hey get less for what they 've got than any team in our league. '' There have been rumors that the McCaskey family might split up over the team.
In 2012, Forbes magazine reported that the franchise is worth $1.19 billion, making it the eighth richest franchise in the NFL. Chicago is the third largest media market in the United States.
The team has major sponsorship deals with Dr Pepper Snapple Group, Miller Brewing Company, PNC Financial Services, United Airlines, Verizon, Xfinity and Proven IT. The team was the first in the NFL to have a presenting sponsor, with the 2004 season advertised as "Bears Football presented by BankOne (now Chase) ''. Additionally, the Bears have an agreement with WFLD (the Fox owned - and - operated station in Chicago) to broadcast pre-season football games.
The club 's first logo was introduced in the early 1950s as a black bear on top of a football. They kept this until 1962, when the Bears trademark ' C ' logo was first introduced.
The change in their logo from the black bear was due to the addition of logos on helmets, which pro football teams started adding in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Unlike some NFL franchises that have had many different looks over time, the Bears have kept the wishbone ' C ' for over 40 years.
In 1974, the team decided to keep the same ' C ' logo but change the color from white to orange with white trim. This is the current logo; however, the club has since introduced alternate logos, including a black bear inside of the orange wishbone ' C ', introduced in 1995, and an orange bear head, introduced in 1999.
In 1920 the team introduced uniforms containing brown and blue stripes. In the 1930s, the franchise 's uniform underwent substantial alterations. By 1933 the Bears donned all - orange jerseys with navy numbers and matching navy blue helmets. In 1936, they modified this design into "an early version of psychedelia '' by adding three orange stripes to their helmets, changing the color of the jerseys from orange to white, complementing the new white jerseys with 14 navy and orange alternating stripes on the sleeves, and introducing socks with a similar striped pattern extending from ankle to knee. Because of poor response from the fans and the media, this design lasted only one season.
By 1949, the team was wearing the familiar navy blue shirts with white, rounded numbers. In 1956, the team added "TV numbers '' to the sleeves. The Bears ' C ' logo first appeared on the helmets in 1962. The logo changed from white to a white - bordered orange logo 11 years later, and has remained unchanged ever since. The Bears added the initials GSH to the left sleeve of their jerseys in 1984 in memory of George Halas.
For decades, the team was known as the only NFL team to wear jersey numbers that were not the traditional block - style numbers (though during the 1971 season, the Bears ' road jerseys used the block - style numbers). Although a handful of other NFL teams and the Houston Oilers during their early AFL days experimented with rounder jersey numbers, by the mid-1960s the Bears were the only team left to continue wearing rounded jersey numbers. Since the mid-1990s, however, several teams have shifted away from the block numbers in favor of numbers that match a specific team font (e.g. Denver Broncos, Baltimore Ravens, Philadelphia Eagles, etc.) or in the case of the Pittsburgh Steelers, match the jersey number font with the helmet numbers while otherwise leaving the jersey design alone.
Other variations to the Bears uniforms over the years include the addition of navy blue pants as a part of the road kit in 1984. During the 1994 season, the Bears -- with most of the other NFL franchises -- introduced throwback uniforms to be worn in the honor of the NFL 's 75th anniversary. These uniforms with brown and blue stripes resemble the original Bears uniforms worn in the 1920s. On October 7, 2002 the Bears wore navy blue pants with their navy blue home jerseys for the first time, and lost at home to Green Bay before a national Monday Night Football audience. The Bears did not wear the all - blue combination again until the 2006 regular season finale against the Packers, also a loss, on December 31. A variation of the all - blue look, this time featuring blue socks with orange stripes, was used on October 20, 2016 against the Packers as part of the NFL Color Rush initiative, a game the Bears also lost. Then on September 10, 2017, the Bears played the Atlanta Falcons at home in their all - blue uniforms and lost, giving the combination an 0 -- 4 all - time record.
On November 13, 2005 and October 29, 2006 (both times in games against the San Francisco 49ers), the Bears introduced an orange alternate home jersey. The orange swaps roles with the navy blue on this alternate jersey, as it becomes the dominant color while the navy complements. The orange jerseys were worn again on October 19, 2008 at home against the Minnesota Vikings in a 48 -- 41 victory.
The Bears also wore the orange jerseys against the Detroit Lions in 2007, a 2009 game vs. the Cleveland Browns, as well as in 2011 against the Packers and Lions. The Bears previously wore orange jerseys as part of a throwback uniform in a Thanksgiving Day game at the Dallas Cowboys in 2004. Their uniforms, especially for their classic look, have been cited as one of the best in the league.
Since 2005, the Bears have worn their alternate orange jerseys for one home game a season that is near Halloween. For the 2005 -- 07 and 2010 home openers, the team wore the white jerseys with the navy blue pants. The team is 4 -- 0 in these games, beating the Lions in 2005, 2006, and 2010, and beating the Chiefs in 2007.
The Bears honored the original Monsters of the Midway during the 2010 season by wearing throwback uniforms of the era for selected games. The uniforms are a nod to the 1940s when the Bears won four NFL titles with Hall of Famers Danny Fortman, Sid Luckman, George McAfee, George Musso, Bronko Nagurski, Joe Stydahar and Clyde "Bulldog '' Turner. The Bears wore the throwbacks once again for the 2012 season.
In 2012, after Nike took over the NFL uniform supplier from Reebok, the Bears uniform received changes. One of the changes include moving the numbers on the sleeves onto the shoulder pad, as well as enlarging the GSH on the stripes.
The team 's official mascot, Staley Da Bear, made his debut at Soldier Field in 2003. He is named after A.E. Staley, the team 's founder.
The team also formerly had their own cheerleading squad called the Chicago Honey Bears. However, Bears owner Virginia Halas McCaskey terminated them after the 1985 season. The squad 's uniforms have changed 3 times: from 1977 -- 1979 was a white bodysuit with navy blue sleeves, from 1980 -- 1984 was also a white bodysuit, but with orange sleeves and the navy was moved to the trim, and in the squad 's final season in 1985, the uniform was redesigned with an orange sequin vest.
The Green Bay Packers are the Bears ' biggest rivals since their team 's inception in 1920. The Green Bay Packers currently have the lead at 95 -- 94 -- 6, and the teams have met twice in the postseason. The Bears won the 1941 meeting, 33 -- 14, and eventually defeated the New York Giants in the 1941 NFL Championship Game, and the Packers won the 2011 meeting, 21 -- 14, en route to a Super Bowl XLV win over the Pittsburgh Steelers. The teams ' first meeting was a victory for the Bears (known as the Staleys at the time) in 1921 in a shutout, 20 -- 0. The Packers claimed their first win over the Bears in 1925, 14 -- 10. The 1924 matchup (which ended in a 3 -- 0 win for Chicago) was notable for featuring the first ever ejection of players in a game in NFL history, as Frank Hanny of the Bears and Walter Voss of the Packers were ejected for punching each other. The rivalry also featured one of the last successful fair catch kicks in 1968, when Bears kicker Mac Percival kicked the game - winning field goal.
Chicago and Minnesota took each other on in the Vikings ' inaugural game, with the Vikings defeating the Bears in a 37 -- 13 rout, and Minnesota currently holds the series lead 54 -- 50 -- 2.
The Detroit Lions and Bears have faced off since the Lions ' inception in 1930, when they were known as the Portsmouth Spartans, with the Spartans winning, 7 -- 6, and Chicago winning the second meeting, 14 -- 6. Since then, the Bears have led the series, 95 -- 66 -- 5. The rivalry grew in 1932, when the Bears and Spartans met in the first ever postseason game in NFL history, with the Bears winning the game 9 -- 0. The game also was known as the first "indoor football '' game, as the game took place in indoor Chicago Stadium due to a blizzard at the time. The game also started the forward pass.
Former cross-town rivals, the Bears and the Cardinals have faced each other more times than any other teams not currently in the same division. Highlights of the rivalry include Ernie Nevers scoring 40 points against the Bears in 1929 in a 40 -- 7 rout. In 2006, the Bears defeated the Cardinals in a 24 -- 23 comeback from a 20 - point deficit in the 2nd half, which resulted in Cardinals coach Dennis Green 's famous rant. The Bears currently lead the all - time series, 57 -- 27 -- 6.
Soldier Field, located on Lake Shore Drive in Chicago, is the current home of the Bears. The Bears moved to Soldier Field in 1971 after outgrowing Wrigley Field, the team 's home for 50 years. Northwestern University 's residential neighbors objected to their playing at Dyche Stadium, now called Ryan Field. After the AFL - NFL Merger, the newly merged league wanted their teams to play in stadiums that could hold at least 50,000 fans. Even with the portable bleachers that the team brought into Wrigley, the stadium could still only hold 46,000. Soldier Field 's playing turf was changed from natural grass to astroturf before the 1971 season, and then back to natural grass in time for the start of the 1988 season. The stadium was the site of the infamous Fog Bowl playoff game between the Bears and Philadelphia Eagles.
In 2002, the stadium was closed and rebuilt with only the exterior wall of the stadium being preserved. It was closed on Sunday, January 20, 2002, a day after the Bears lost in the playoffs. It reopened on September 27, 2003 after a complete rebuild (the second in the stadium 's history). Many fans refer to the rebuilt stadium as "New Soldier Field ''. During the 2002 season, the Bears played their home games at the University of Illinois ' Memorial Stadium in Champaign, where they went 3 -- 5.
Many critics have negative views of the new stadium. They believe that its current structure has made it more of an eyesore than a landmark; some have dubbed it the "Mistake on the Lake ''. Soldier Field was stripped of its National Historic Landmark designation on February 17, 2006.
In the 2005 season, the Bears won the NFC North Division and the No. 2 Seed in the NFC Playoffs, entitling them to play at least one home game in the postseason. The team hosted (and lost) their divisional round match on January 15, 2006 against the Carolina Panthers. This was the first playoff game at Soldier Field since the stadium reopened.
The stadium 's end zones and midfield were not painted until the 1982 season. The design sported on the field included the bolded word "Chicago '' rendered in Highway Gothic in both end zones. In 1983, the end zone design returned, with the addition of a large wishbone "C '' Bears logo painted at midfield. These field markings remained unchanged until the 1996 season. In 1996 the midfield wishbone "C '' was changed to a large blue Bears head, and the end zone design were painted with "Bears '' in cursive. This new design remained until the 1999 season, at which point the artwork was returned to the classic "Chicago '' and the "C ''. In the new Soldier Field, the artwork was tweaked to where one end zone had the word "Chicago '' bolded and the other had "Bears ''.
While the Super Bowl XX Champion Bears were a fixture of mainstream American pop culture in the 1980s, the Bears made a prior mark with the 1971 American TV movie Brian 's Song starring Billy Dee Williams as Gale Sayers and James Caan as Brian Piccolo. The film told of how Piccolo helped Sayers recover from a devastating knee injury to return to his status as one of the league 's best players, and how Sayers in turn helped the Piccolo family through Brian 's fatal illness. A 2001 remake of the movie for ABC starred Sean Maher as Piccolo and Mekhi Phifer as Sayers.
The 1985 team is also remembered for recording the song "The Super Bowl Shuffle '', which reached number forty - one on the Billboard Hot 100 and was nominated for a Grammy Award. The music video for the song depicts the team rapping that they are "not here to start no trouble '' but instead "just here to do the Super Bowl Shuffle ''. The team took a risk by recording and releasing the song before the playoffs had even begun, but were able to avoid embarrassment by going on to win Super Bowl XX by a then - record margin of 46 -- 10. That game was one of the most watched television events in history according to the Nielsen ratings system; the game had a rating of 48.3, ranking it 7th in all - time television history.
In addition to the "Super Bowl Shuffle '' rap song, the Bears ' success in the 1980s -- and especially the personality of head coach Mike Ditka -- inspired a recurring sketch on the American sketch comedy program Saturday Night Live, called "Bill Swerski 's Superfans ''. The sketch featured Cheers co-star George Wendt, a Chicago native, as host of a radio talk - show (similar in tone to WGN radio 's "The Sportswriters ''), with co-panelists Carl Wollarski (Robert Smigel), Pat Arnold (Mike Myers) and Todd O'Connor (Chris Farley). To hear them tell it, "Da Bears '' and Coach Ditka could do no wrong. The sketch stopped after Ditka was fired in 1993. The sketch usually showed the panelists drinking lots of beer and eating lots of Polish sausage, and often featured Todd getting so agitated about what was happening with the Bears that he suffered a heart attack, but quickly recovered (through self - administered CPR). The sketch also features the cast predicting unrealistic blowout victories for Bears games. Da Super Fan sketch has not been brought back by SNL, with the exception of a single appearance by Horatio Sanz as a Super Fan for the Cubs on "Weekend Update '' in 2003. Outside of SNL, George Wendt reprised his role of Swerski in the opening promo of Super Bowl XL on ABC.
On TV shows based in Chicago such as The Bob Newhart Show, Married... with Children, Family Matters, Still Standing, According to Jim, Early Edition and The Bernie Mac Show, the main characters are all Bears fans, and have worn Bears ' jerseys and T - shirts on some occasions. Some episodes even show them watching Bears games. Roseanne is another TV show based in Illinois (albeit not in Chicago itself) to feature the Bears as the consensus household favorite, as ' Dan Connor ' John Goodman is seen wearing Bears hats in several episodes. That ' 70s Show featured several Bears references, as it was based in Wisconsin, home of the Packers. On one episode while the gang is at a Bears vs. Packers game, Eric comes to the seat in a Walter Payton jersey and is booed by the surrounding Packers fans. In an episode of the Disney Channel show Shake It Up, based in Chicago, recurring character Dina Garcia (Ainsley Bailey) sold scalped Chicago Bears tickets. More recently, Modern Family character Cameron Tucker has been shown as a Bears fan. In an episode of the Disney Channel show "I Did n't Do It '', based in Chicago, Lindy Watson (Olivia Holt) and Logan Watson (Austin North) try to get a football signed by NFL Hall of Famer Dick Butkus after destroying their fathers Butkus signed ball, Alshon Jeffery also makes a cameo appearance as well.
Ditka 's success and popularity in Chicago has led him to land analyst roles on various American football pregame shows. Ditka worked for both the NFL on NBC and CBS 's The NFL Today, and he currently works on ESPN 's Sunday NFL Countdown and provided Friday night analysis on the Bears on WBBM - TV 's 2 on Football with former WBBM - TV sports director Mark Malone. He is also the color analyst for all local broadcasts of Bears preseason games. Ditka also co-starred himself alongside actor Will Ferrell in the 2005 comedy film Kicking & Screaming.
Also, Ditka, Dick Butkus, Walter Payton, Jim McMahon, William "Refrigerator '' Perry and Brian Urlacher are among Bears figures known for their appearances in TV commercials. Urlacher, whose jersey was among the league 's best - selling in 2002, was featured on Nike commercials with former Atlanta Falcons quarterback Michael Vick.
In the 1961 Hanna - Barbera animated short "Rah Rah Bear '', Yogi Bear helps the Bears beat the New York Giants. The Bears were later depicted in an episode of the 1985 cartoon version of the NBC sitcom Punky Brewster, where the Bears are playing the Green Bay Packers.
Clark Griswold (Chevy Chase) from the National Lampoon 's Vacation series appears in some scenes wearing a navy blue with burnt orange scripting Chicago Bears ball cap. He wears the same Chicago Bears cap throughout all four Vacation movies.
Chicago Bears Network
Currently, WBBM (780 AM) and its simulcasting partner, WCFS - FM (105.9 FM) broadcast Bears games with Jeff Joniak doing the play - by - play, along with color commentator Tom Thayer, who played for the Bears from 1985 -- 1992, and sideline reporter Zach Zaidman. Over the years, many Bears play - by - play broadcasters have included play - by - play announcers Jack Brickhouse, Joe McConnell and Wayne Larrivee, and color commentators Hub Arkush, Dick Butkus, Jim Hart and Irv Kupcinet.
Spanish radio station WLEY - FM aired the Bears games from 2012 to 2014. Since 2015, WRTO and WVIV - FM air Bears games in Spanish.
Their current preseason TV announcers on WFLD (channel 32), which also carries the majority of the team 's regular season games through the NFL on Fox, are Sam Rosen (play - by - play), Erik Kramer (color commentary) and Lou Canellis (sideline reporter). When the games are played against an AFC team, it can be aired on the CBS O&O station, WBBM - TV. Sunday Night games are broadcast on WMAQ - TV, the NBC O&O station.
Patrick Mannelly holds the record for the most seasons in a Bears uniform with 16. On the other hand, Steve McMichael holds the record for most consecutive games played by a Bear with 191; he accomplished the feat from 1981 to 1993. In second place is Payton, who played 186 games from 1975 to 1987 at running back, a position considered to be conducive to injury, only missing one game in a span of 13 seasons.
Kicker Robbie Gould became the Bears ' all - time scoring leader in Week 5 of 2015 season overtaking placekicker Kevin Butler who previously held the club record for scoring the most points in his ten - year Bear career. He scored 1,116 points as the Bears kicker from 1985 to 1995. He is followed by running back Walter Payton, with 750 points. Payton holds the team record for career rushing yards with 16,726. That was an NFL record until Emmitt Smith of the Dallas Cowboys broke it in 2002. Former Bears running back Matt Forte, who started playing for the Bears in 2008, is the closest to Payton 's record with 6,985 yards. Forte also holds the team 's single season record for rookies in rushing attempts, rushing yards and receptions. Mark Bortz holds the record for most Bear playoff appearances, with 13 between 1983 and 1994, and is followed by Kevin Butler, Dennis Gentry, Dan Hampton, Jay Hilgenberg, Steve McMichael, Ron Rivera, Mike Singletary, and Keith Van Horne, who have each played in 12 playoff games.
The 1940 Chicago Bears team holds the record for the biggest margin of victory in an NFL game (playoff or regular season) with a 73 -- 0 victory over the Washington Redskins in the 1940 NFL Championship Game. The largest home victory for the Bears came in a 61 -- 7 result against the Green Bay Packers in 1980. The largest defeat in club history was a 52 -- 0 loss against the Baltimore Colts in 1964. The club recorded undefeated regular seasons in 1934 and 1942, but (unlike the 1972 Dolphins) did not win the championship game in either season. In 1934, the club completed a 13 -- 0 record but were defeated by the New York Giants, and in 1942 the club completed an 11 -- 0 record but were defeated by the Redskins. Had the Bears won either championship, the club would have completed a championship three - peat -- a feat completed only by the Packers (twice), although no team has done it since the AFL - NFL merger. Halas holds the team record for coaching the most seasons with 40 and for having the most career victories of 324. Halas ' victories record stood until Don Shula surpassed Halas in 1993. Ditka is the closest Bears coach to Halas, with 112 career victories. No other Bears coach has recorded over 100 victories with the team.
During the 2006 season, return specialist Devin Hester set several kick return records. He currently holds the franchise record for most return yards with 2,261. He had six touchdown returns, setting a record for most returns in a single season. In 2007, he recorded another six touchdown season from returns. One of the most notable of these returns came on November 12, 2006, when he returned a missed field goal for a 108 - yard touchdown. The record tied former teammate Nathan Vasher 's previous record, which was set almost a year earlier. Additionally, Hester set a Super Bowl record by becoming the first player to return an opening kick of a Super Bowl for a touchdown. On December 20, 2010, Hester set an NFL record for most touchdowns on a punt or kickoff return with his 14th career return coming against the Minnesota Vikings. In 2011, Hester broke the record for the most punt returns against the Carolina Panthers.
In 2012, Charles Tillman has the record for most forced fumbles in a single game with 4 against the Tennessee Titans. Also against the Titans, Chicago became the first team in league history to score a touchdown pass, a touchdown run, an interception return for a touchdown, and a blocked kick / punt for a score in the same quarter. Tillman and teammate Lance Briggs became the first pair in NFL history to return an interception for a touchdown in consecutive games against the Jacksonville Jaguars and Dallas Cowboys.
Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.
Record as of December 28, 2014
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated December 31, 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 15 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
In the Pro Football Hall of Fame, the Bears have the most enshrined primary members with 27, however the club also have had five Hall of Famers spend a minor portion of their career with the franchise. Founder, owner, head coach, and player George Halas, halfback Bronko Nagurski, and Red Grange were a part of the original class of inductees in 1963. The franchise saw 14 individuals inducted into the Hall of Fame from 1963 -- 1967. Defensive end Richard Dent, a member of the Super Bowl XX team is the most recent Bear inducted, a part of the Class of 2011.
The Bears have retired 14 uniform numbers, which is the most in the NFL, and ranks fourth behind the basketball Boston Celtics (21), baseball New York Yankees (21), and hockey Montreal Canadiens (15) for the most in North American professional sports. The Bears retired Mike Ditka 's number 89 jersey on December 9, 2013. It is the last number that the Bears retired.
→ Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs
Since 1998, the Bears have partnered with ' A Safe Place, ' a domestic violence shelter in Waukegan, Illinois. In June 2017, current and former Bears employees helped with renovations at the shelter by ripping up carpet, painting walls, demolishing a kitchen and building a fence. The Bears have also provided financial support throughout the years.
† = Never played in the league
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was never say never again unofficial bond movie | Never Say Never Again - wikipedia
Never Say Never Again is a 1983 James Bond spy film starring Sean Connery, directed by Irvin Kershner, produced by Jack Schwartzman, and written by Lorenzo Semple Jr. with uncredited additional co-writers Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais, from a story by Kevin McClory, Jack Whittingham, and Ian Fleming. It is the second adaptation of Fleming 's Thunderball, which was previously adapted as the 1965 film of the same name. Unlike the majority of James Bond films, Never Say Never Again was not produced by Eon Productions, but by an independent production company, one of whose members was Kevin McClory, one of the original writers of the Thunderball story, who retained the filming rights of the novel following a legal dispute over them.
Connery played the role of James Bond for the seventh and final time, marking his return to the character 12 years after Diamonds Are Forever. The film 's title is a reference to Connery 's reported declaration in 1971 that he would "never again '' play that role. As Connery was 52 at the time of filming, the storyline features an aging Bond, who is brought back into action to investigate the theft of two nuclear weapons by SPECTRE. Filming locations included France, Spain, the Bahamas and Elstree Studios in England.
Never Say Never Again was released by Warner Bros. in October 1983, opening to positive reviews and was a commercial success, grossing $160 million at the box office, although less overall than the Eon - produced Octopussy released in the same year. Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer, to date, owns the distribution rights and also distributes Eon 's Bond films, and the company has handled subsequent home video releases of the film.
After MI6 agent James Bond, 007, fails a routine training exercise, his superior, M, orders Bond to a health clinic outside London to get back into shape. While there, Bond witnesses a mysterious nurse named Fatima Blush giving a sadomasochistic beating to a patient in a nearby room. The man 's face is bandaged and after Blush finishes her beating, Bond sees the patient using a machine which scans his eye. Bond is seen by Blush, who then attempts to kill him in the clinic gym, but Bond manages to defeat the assassin.
Blush and her charge, a United States Air Force pilot named Jack Petachi, are operatives of SPECTRE, a criminal organisation run by Ernst Stavro Blofeld. Petachi has undergone an operation on his right eye to make it match the retinal pattern of the US President, which he uses to circumvent iris recognition security at the fictitious RAF Station Swadley, an American military base in England. While doing so, he replaces the dummy warheads of two cruise missiles with live nuclear warheads; SPECTRE then steals the warheads, intending to extort billions of dollars from NATO governments. Blush murders Petachi to cover SPECTRE 's tracks.
Under orders from the Prime Minister, M reluctantly reactivates the double - 0 section and Bond is assigned the task of tracking down the missing weapons. He meets Domino Petachi, the pilot 's sister, and her wealthy lover, Maximillian Largo, a SPECTRE agent. Bond follows Largo and his yacht to the Bahamas, where he spars with Blush and Largo.
Bond is informed by Nigel Small - Fawcett of the British Consulate that Largo 's yacht is now heading for Nice, France. There, Bond joins forces with his French contact Nicole and his CIA counterpart, Felix Leiter. Bond goes to a health and beauty centre where he poses as an employee and, whilst giving Domino a massage, is informed by her that Largo is hosting an event at a casino that evening. At the charity event, Largo and Bond play a 3 - D video game called Domination; the loser of each turn receives a series of electric shocks of increasing intensity or pays a corresponding cash bet. Bond ultimately wins. While dancing with Domino, Bond informs her that her brother had been killed on Largo 's orders. Bond returns to his villa to find Nicole dead, drowned in a water bed by Blush. After a vehicle chase on his motorbike, Blush captures Bond. She admits that she is impressed with him, and forces Bond to declare in writing that she is his "Number One '' sexual partner. Bond distracts her with promises, then uses his Q - branch - issue fountain pen to shoot Blush with an explosive dart.
Bond and Leiter attempt to board Largo 's motor yacht, the Flying Saucer, in search of the missing nuclear warheads. Bond finds Domino. He attempts to make Largo jealous by kissing Domino in front of a two way mirror. Largo becomes enraged, traps Bond and takes him and Domino to Palmyra, Largo 's base of operations in North Africa. Largo coldly punishes Domino for her betrayal by selling her to some passing Arabs. Bond subsequently escapes and rescues her.
Domino and Bond reunite with Leiter on a United States Navy submarine and track Largo to a location known as the Tears of Allah, below a desert oasis on the Ethiopian Coast. Bond and Leiter infiltrate the underground facility and a gun battle erupts between Leiter 's team and Largo 's men in the temple. In the confusion Largo makes a getaway with one of the warheads. Bond catches and fights Largo underwater. Just as Largo tries to detonate the last bomb, he is killed by Domino, taking revenge for her brother 's death. Bond returns to the Bahamas with Domino.
Never Say Never Again had its origins in the early 1960s, following the controversy over the 1961 Thunderball novel. Fleming had worked with independent producer Kevin McClory and scriptwriter Jack Whittingham on a script for a potential Bond film, to be called Longitude 78 West, which was subsequently abandoned because of the costs involved. Fleming, "always reluctant to let a good idea lie idle '', turned this into the novel Thunderball, for which he did not credit either McClory or Whittingham; McClory then took Fleming to the High Court in London for breach of copyright and the matter was settled in 1963. After Eon Productions started producing the Bond films, it subsequently made a deal with McClory, who would produce Thunderball, and then not make any further version of the novel for a period of ten years following the release of the Eon - produced version in 1965.
In the mid-1970s McClory again started working on a project to bring a Thunderball adaptation to production and, with the working title Warhead, he brought writer Len Deighton together with Sean Connery to work on a script. The script ran into difficulties after accusations from Eon Productions that the project had gone beyond copyright restrictions, which confined McClory to a film based on the Thunderball novel only, and once again the project was deferred.
Towards the end of the 1970s developments were reported on the project under the name James Bond of the Secret Service, but when producer Jack Schwartzman became involved and cleared a number of the legal issues that still surrounded the project he brought on board scriptwriter Lorenzo Semple, Jr. to work on the screenplay. Connery was unhappy with some aspects of the work and asked Tom Mankiewicz, who had rewritten Diamonds Are Forever, to work on the script; however, Mankiewicz declined as he felt he was under a moral obligation to Cubby Broccoli. Connery then hired British television writers Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais to undertake re-writes, although they went uncredited for their efforts because of a restriction by the Writers Guild of America.
The film underwent one final change in title: after Connery had finished filming Diamonds Are Forever he had pledged that he would "never '' play Bond again. Connery 's wife, Micheline, suggested the title Never Say Never Again, referring to her husband 's vow and the producers acknowledged her contribution by listing on the end credits "Title "Never Say Never Again '' by: Micheline Connery ". A final attempt by Fleming 's trustees to block the film was made in the High Court in London in the spring of 1983, but this was thrown out by the court and Never Say Never Again was permitted to proceed.
When producer Kevin McClory had first planned the film in 1964 he held initial talks with Richard Burton for the part of Bond, although the project came to nothing because of the legal issues involved. When the Warhead project was launched in the late 1970s, a number of actors were mentioned in the trade press, including Orson Welles for the part of Blofeld, Trevor Howard to play M and Richard Attenborough as director.
In 1978 the working title James Bond of the Secret Service was being used and Connery was in the frame once again, potentially going head - to - head with the next Eon Bond film, Moonraker. By 1980, with legal issues again causing the project to founder, Connery thought himself unlikely to play the role, as he stated in an interview in the Sunday Express: "when I first worked on the script with Len I had no thought of actually being in the film ''. When producer Jack Schwartzman became involved, he asked Connery to play Bond; Connery agreed, asking (and getting) a fee of $3 million, ($7 million in 2016 dollars) a percentage of the profits, as well as casting and script approval. Subsequent to Connery reprising the role, the script has several references to Bond 's advancing years -- playing on Connery being 52 at the time of filming -- and academic Jeremy Black has pointed out that there are other aspects of age and disillusionment in the film, such as the Shrubland 's porter referring to Bond 's car ("They do n't make them like that anymore. ''), the new M having no use for the 00 section and Q with his reduced budgets.
For the main villain in the film, Maximillian Largo, Connery suggested Klaus Maria Brandauer, the lead of the 1981 Academy Award - winning Hungarian film Mephisto. Through the same route came Max von Sydow as Ernst Stavro Blofeld, although he still retained his Eon - originated white cat in the film. For the femme fatale, director Irvin Kershner selected former model and Playboy cover girl Barbara Carrera to play Fatima Blush -- the name coming from one of the early scripts of Thunderball. Carrera 's performance as Fatima Blush earned her a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress, which she lost to Cher for her role in Silkwood. Micheline Connery, Sean 's wife, had met up - and - coming actress Kim Basinger at a hotel in London and suggested her to Connery, which he agreed upon. For the role of Felix Leiter, Connery spoke with Bernie Casey, saying that as the Leiter role was never remembered by audiences, using a black Leiter might make him more memorable. Others cast included comedian Rowan Atkinson, who would later parody Bond in his role of Johnny English.
Former Eon Productions ' editor and director of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service, Peter R. Hunt, was approached to direct the film but declined due to his previous work with Eon. Irvin Kershner, who had achieved success in 1980 with The Empire Strikes Back was then hired. A number of the crew from the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark were also appointed, including first assistant director David Tomblin, director of photography Douglas Slocombe and production designers Philip Harrison and Stephen Grimes.
Filming for Never Say Never Again began on 27 September 1982 on the French Riviera for two months before moving to Nassau, the Bahamas in mid-November where filming took place at Clifton Pier, which was also one of the locations used in Thunderball. The Spanish city of Almería was also used as a location. Largo 's Palmyran fortress was actually historic Fort Carré in Antibes. Largo 's ship, the Flying Saucer, was portrayed by the yacht Kingdom 5KR, then owned by Saudi billionaire Adnan Khashoggi and called the Nabila. Principal photography finished at Elstree Studios where interior shots were filmed. Elstree also housed the Tears of Allah underwater cavern, which took three months to construct. Most of the filming was completed in the spring of 1983, although there was some additional shooting during the summer of 1983.
Production on the film was troubled, with Connery taking on many of the production duties with assistant director David Tomblin. Director Irvin Kershner was critical of producer Jack Schwartzman, saying that whilst he was a good businessman, "he did n't have the experience of a film producer ''. After the production ran out of money, Schwartzman had to fund further production out of his own pocket and later admitted he had underestimated the amount the film would cost to make.
Steven Seagal, who was the fight choreographer for this film, broke Connery 's wrist while training. On an episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Connery revealed he did not know his wrist was broken until over a decade later.
Many of the elements of the Eon - produced Bond films were not present in Never Say Never Again for legal reasons. These included the gun barrel sequence, where a screen full of 007 symbols appeared instead, and similarly there was no "James Bond Theme '' to use, although no effort was made to supply another tune. A pre-credits sequence was filmed but not used; instead the film opens with the credits run over the top of the opening sequence of Bond on a training mission.
The music for Never Say Never Again was written by Michel Legrand, who composed a score similar to his work as a jazz pianist. The score has been criticised as "anachronistic and misjudged '', "bizarrely intermittent '' and "the most disappointing feature of the film ''. Legrand also wrote the main theme "Never Say Never Again '', which featured lyrics by Alan and Marilyn Bergman -- who had also worked with Legrand in the Academy Award winning song, "The Windmills of Your Mind '' -- and was performed by Lani Hall after Bonnie Tyler, who disliked the song, had reluctantly declined.
Phyllis Hyman also recorded a potential theme song, written by Stephen Forsyth and Jim Ryan, but the song -- an unsolicited submission -- was passed over given Legrand 's contractual obligations with the music.
Never Say Never Again premiered in New York on 7 October 1983, grossing $9.72 million ($23 million in 2016 dollars) on its first weekend, which was reported to be "the best opening record of any James Bond film '' up to that point and surpassing Octopussy 's $8.9 million ($21 million in 2016 dollars) from June that year. The film went on general release in the US in 1,500 cinemas on 14 October 1983 and had its UK premiere at the Warner West End cinema in Leicester Square on 14 December 1983. Worldwide, Never Say Never Again grossed $160 million in box office returns, which was a solid return on the budget of $36 million.
Warner Bros. released Never Say Never Again on VHS and Betamax in 1984, and on laserdisc in 1995. After Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer purchased the distribution rights in 1997 (see Legacy, below), the company has released the film on both VHS and DVD in 2001, and on Blu - ray in 2009.
Never Say Never Again was broadly welcomed and praised by the critics: Ian Christie, writing in the Daily Express, said that Never Say Never Again was "one of the better Bonds '', finding the film "superbly witty and entertaining,... the dialogue is crisp and the fight scenes imaginative. '' Christie also thought that "Connery has lost none of his charm and, if anything, is more appealing than ever as the stylish resolute hero. '' David Robinson, writing in The Times also concentrated on Connery, saying that: "Connery... is back, looking hardly a day older or thicker, and still outclassing every other exponent of the role, in the goodnatured throwaway with which he parries all the sex and violence on the way ''. For Robinson, the presence of Connery and Klaus Maria Brandauer as Maximillian Largo "very nearly make it all worthwhile. '' The reviewer for Time Out summed up Never Say Never Again saying "The action 's good, the photography excellent, the sets decent; but the real clincher is the fact that Bond is once more played by a man with the right stuff. ''
Derek Malcolm in The Guardian showed himself to be a fan of Connery 's Bond, saying the film contains "the best Bond in the business '', but nevertheless did not find Never Say Never Again any more enjoyable than the recently released Octopussy (starring Roger Moore), or "that either of them came very near to matching Dr. No or From Russia with Love. '' Malcolm 's main issue with the film was that he had a "feeling that a constant struggle was going on between a desire to make a huge box - office success and the effort to make character as important as stunts. '' Malcolm summed up that "the mix remains obstinately the same - up to scratch but not surpassing it. '' Writing in The Observer, Philip French noted that "this curiously muted film ends up making no contribution of its own and inviting damaging comparisons with the original, hyper - confident Thunderball ''. French concluded that "like an hour - glass full of damp sand, the picture moves with increasing slowness as it approaches a confused climax in the Persian Gulf. ''
Writing for Newsweek, critic Jack Kroll thought the early part of the film was handled "with wit and style '', although he went on to say that the director was "hamstrung by Lorenzo Semple 's script ''. Richard Schickel, writing in Time magazine praised the film and its cast. He wrote that Klaus Maria Brandauer 's character was "played with silky, neurotic charm '', whilst Barbara Carrera, playing Fatima Blush, "deftly parodies all the fatal femmes who have slithered through Bond 's career ''. Schickel 's highest praise was saved for the return of Connery, observing "it is good to see Connery 's grave stylishness in this role again. It makes Bond 's cynicism and opportunism seem the product of genuine worldliness (and world weariness) as opposed to Roger Moore 's mere twirpishness. ''
Janet Maslin, writing in The New York Times, was broadly praising of the film, saying she thought that Never Say Never Again "has noticeably more humor and character than the Bond films usually provide. It has a marvelous villain in Largo. '' Maslin also thought highly of Connery in the role, observing that "in Never Say Never Again, the formula is broadened to accommodate an older, seasoned man of much greater stature, and Mr. Connery expertly fills the bill. '' Writing in The Washington Post, Gary Arnold was ample in his praise, saying that Never Say Never Again is "one of the best James Bond adventure thrillers ever made '', going on to say that "this picture is likely to remain a cherished, savory example of commercial filmmaking at its most astute and accomplished. '' Arnold went further, saying that "Never Say Never Again is the best acted Bond picture ever made, because it clearly surpasses any predecessors in the area of inventive and clever character delineation ''.
The critic for The Globe and Mail, Jay Scott, also praised the film, saying that Never Say Never Again "may be the only instalment of the long - running series that has been helmed by a first - rate director ''. According to Scott, the director, with high - quality support cast, resulted in the "classiest of all the Bonds ''. Roger Ebert gave the film 31⁄2 out of 4 stars, and wrote that Never Say Never Again, while consisting of a basic "Bond plot '', was different from other Bond films: "For one thing, there 's more of a human element in the movie, and it comes from Klaus Maria Brandauer, as Largo. '' Ebert went on to add, "there was never a Beatles reunion... but here, by God, is Sean Connery as Sir James Bond. Good work, 007. ''
Because Never Say Never Again is not an Eon - produced film, it has not been included in a number of subsequent reviews. Norman Wilner of MSN said that 1967 's Casino Royale and Never Say Never Again "exist outside the ' official ' continuity, (and) are excluded from this list, just as they 're absent from MGM 's megabox. But take my word for it; they 're both pretty awful ''. Of the more recent reviews, opinion on Never Say Never Again is still mixed: film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes lists the film with a 63 % rating from 46 reviews. The score is still more positive than some of the Eon films, with Rotten Tomatoes ranking Never Say Never Again 16th among all Bond films in 2008. Empire gives the film three of a possible five stars, observing that "Connery was perhaps wise to call it quits the first time round ''. IGN gave Never Say Never Again a score of 5 out of 10, claiming that the film "is more miss than hit ''. The review also thought that the film was "marred with too many clunky exposition scenes and not enough moments of Bond being Bond ''.
In 1995 Michael Sauter of Entertainment Weekly rated Never Say Never Again as the ninth best Bond film to that point, after 17 films had been released. Sauter thought the film "is successful only as a portrait of an over-the - hill superhero. '' He did admit, however, that "even past his prime, Connery proves that nobody does it better ''. James Berardinelli, in his review of Never Say Never Again, thinks the re-writing of the Thunderball story has led to a film which has "a hokey, jokey feel, (it) is possibly the worst - written Bond script of all ''. Berardinelli concludes that "it 's a major disappointment that, having lured back the original 007, the film makers could n't offer him something better than this drawn - out, hackneyed story. '' Critic Danny Peary wrote that "it was great to see Sean Connery return as James Bond after a dozen years ''. He also thought the supporting cast was good, saying that Klaus Maria Brandauer 's Largo was "neurotic, vulnerable... one of the most complex of Bond 's foes '' and that Barbara Carrera and Kim Basinger "make lasting impressions. '' Peary also wrote that the "film is exotic, well acted, and stylishly directed... It would be one of the best Bond films if the finale were n't disappointing. When will filmmakers realize that underwater fight scenes do n't work because viewers usually ca n't tell the hero and villain apart and they know doubles are being used? ''
In the 1990s, McClory announced plans to make another adaptation of the Thunderball story starring Timothy Dalton entitled Warhead 2000 AD, but the film was eventually scrapped. In 1997 the Sony Corporation acquired some or all of McClory 's rights in an undisclosed deal, and subsequently announced that it intended to make a series of Bond films, as the company also held the rights to Casino Royale. This move prompted a round of litigation from MGM, which was settled out - of - court, forcing Sony to give up all claims on Bond; McClory still claimed he would proceed with another Bond film, and continued his case against MGM and Danjaq; On 27 August 2001 the court rejected McClory 's suit. McClory died in 2006.
On 4 December 1997, MGM announced that the company had purchased the rights to Never Say Never Again from Schwartzman 's company Taliafilm. The company has since handled the release of both the DVD and Blu - ray editions of the film.
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cheers episode where sam and diane get together | Sam and Diane - Wikipedia
Sam Malone and Diane Chambers, collectively known as Sam and Diane, are fictional characters in the American situation comedy television series Cheers. Sam Malone is a working - class, retired baseball player - turned - bartender played by Ted Danson; Diane Chambers is a college - graduate cocktail waitress played by Shelley Long. Danson appeared on Cheers for its entire run of the series; Long was part of the regular cast from the 1982 series premiere ("Give Me a Ring Sometime '') until the fifth - season finale, "I Do, Adieu '' (1987). Long returned for a special appearance in the 1993 series finale, "One for the Road. ''
During the first five seasons Sam and Diane both flirt with and condemn each other as social opposites, repeatedly consummating their relationship and breaking up. When they are not together, Sam has affairs with many women; Diane has relationships with men fitting her upper - class aspirations, such as Frasier Crane (Kelsey Grammer), long - running character who initially debuts in the third season as Diane 's love interest in the romantic pair 's dynamic. Each of the first four - season finales ends with a cliffhanger involving the story arc. In "I Do, Adieu '' (1987) Sam and Diane are due to marry, but they cancel the wedding when Diane leaves Sam and the bar to begin a career as a writer. In the series finale Sam and Diane are reunited, become engaged and break up again, realizing that they are never meant to be together.
The pairing of Sam and Diane has evoked mixed reactions. Some critics disliked the relationship, either for alienating viewers by dominating the show (and removing its original premise) or because they saw Sam and Diane as a mismatch. Others praised the pair, seeing them as strengthening the show. Some writers compared them to couples in later shows, such as Moonlighting, with their sexual tension and intermittent relationships.
Before the series was produced, the creators auditioned three pairings of six actors, three male and three female, for their respective roles: William Devane and Lisa Eichhorn, Fred Dryer and Julia Duffy, and Ted Danson and Shelley Long. Originally, Sam Malone was "a former wide receiver for the New England Patriots (football team) '', and Fred Dryer was initially considered for that role because he was a football player. However, NBC executives praised test scenes between Ted Danson and Shelley Long, so the creators chose this pairing. Sam 's character was changed into a former relief pitcher for the Boston Red Sox baseball team.
The creators of Cheers, Glen and Les Charles and James Burrows, originally planned Sam and Diane to be an ex-athlete and an executive businesswoman involved in a "mixture of romance and antagonism '' from movies starring Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn for Sam and Diane, but they decided to scrap it. The concept evolved into a "pretentious, college - student relationship with Sam, '' an ex-baseball player. After Shelley Long 's departure from the show and replacement with Kirstie Alley as Rebecca Howe, the original concept was revisited. Heide Perlman said, "It was n't quite Tracy - Hepburn, because she was a tight - ass, and he was a hound. ''
The creators had intended Cheers to be a comedy about "family '' of characters in a Boston bar, but quickly realized that the "Sam and Diane '' romance was popular and decided that every episode would depict it. Burrows told the others several weeks after filming began, "Sam & Diane -- that 's your show. '' The "Sam and Diane '' romance dominated the show for five years. As Burrows hypothesized, the couple would have diminished the importance and relevance of the bar setting if Long had not left the show in 1987. While the writers were developing the sexual tension between the two characters in the first season, the Charles brothers recognized that the relationship had to mature, so they paired them up in the first - season finale. With the exceptions of Long 's last regular episode "I Do, Adieu '' (1987) and the series finale "One for the Road '', every season finale that primarily focuses on Sam and Diane ends with a cliffhanger. With Long leaving Cheers, producers planned to revamp the show without losing its initial premise, and credited Long 's departure for saving the series from cancellation. As Les Charles observed, Sam was a "straight man '' to Diane; after Long 's departure, he became more "carefree '' and a "goof - off '' in later seasons.
Shelley Long said in January 1983, "the core of the show is Sam and Diane... the relationship has a wonderful chemistry, although they try to resist each other ''. She said that the producers felt that they did not want the relationship to proceed too quickly. The creators stated that Long and Danson "were easier to write for and had more potential than (other tested auditioning pairs). ''
In the series premiere, "Give Me a Ring Sometime '' (1982), Diane Chambers, a college student, enters Cheers and meets Sam Malone, a recovering alcoholic and a womanizer. While she waits for her fiancé Sumner Sloan (Michael McGuire), Diane realizes that Sumner has left her, and that she is jobless and penniless with nothing else in her life. Sam offers Diane a job as a cocktail waitress, and she accepts. In the next episode, "Sam 's Women '' (1982), Diane snootily teases Sam for preferring just beautiful women with below average intelligence. In response, Sam involves his ex-wife, Debra (Donna McKechnie), in a pretend relationship to prove Diane wrong. (In some syndicated prints, Sam 's past marriage is omitted.) When Sam and Debra are leaving "for '' an opera, Diane retrieves the opera pamphlet from Debra only to find it two years old, foiling Sam 's scheme. Sam blames Diane for making his romantic life less fun anymore, and Diane assures that he would never win an intelligent woman. They argue but then make up. When Sam explains a color of the sky at a ski resort and compares it to Diane 's eyes in vivid detail, apparently distracted Diane is nearly touched but then averts herself and treats it as repulsive to an intelligent woman. Throughout the season, Sam and Diane are attracted to each other and trade each other flirts and innuendos, but they never consummate their relationship. In the two - part season finale, "Showdown '' (1983), Diane briefly dates Sam 's successful, handsome, well - educated brother Derek, making Sam jealous. No longer able to suppress their feelings, Sam and Diane kiss passionately in the bar 's office.
Throughout the second season of Cheers, Sam and Diane consummate their relationship, which becomes dysfunctional. Sam and Diane love each other but maintain their antagonistic relationship style toward each other. Their pride and jealousy are often the cause of conflict, and their characteristic bickering continues, though often their love for each other overcomes any problems, such as their on - off relationship. Major conflicts arise toward the end of the second season. Robert David Sullivan wrote in December 2012 that trying to change each other and hurting each other took its toll on their relationship. In "Fortune and Men 's Weight '' (1984), Diane admits to Sam that she spent a platonic evening with a fellow student who shares her common interests, and feels guilty for not telling Sam. In "Snow Job '' (1984), Sam plans to have a weekend of debauchery with his friends on a ski trip, and he hides it from Diane. Carla tells Diane about Sam 's trip and Diane takes advantage of Sam 's lies to teach him a lesson.
In the two - part season finale, "I 'll Be Seeing You '' (1984), Philip Semenko (Christopher Lloyd), an arrogant, eccentric painter, whom Sam wants to commission for a portrait of Diane, comes to the bar. Sam strongly dislikes Semenco but Diane praises his talent and begs Sam to do the same, but Sam orders her not to sit for him. However, Diane is convinced that Sam will appreciate the final work despite his reaction to the artist, and has Semenko paint the portrait. Sam hires a lesser artist, who produces a botched portrait of Diane. When she takes the wrapped portrait by Semenko into the bar, Sam and Diane begin to argue until she declares that she is through with the fighting. Finally, Sam and Diane break up with no intention to be together again. At the cliffhanger, Sam unwraps Semenko 's portrait and says "Wow! ''
In summer 1984, before the third - season premiere, The show 's producers announced the character Frasier Crane, portrayed by Kelsey Grammer, was to be Diane 's love interest and Sam 's intellectual rival. They intended for Diane to end her relationship with Frasier within a few episodes, and for him to leave the show, but Grammer 's performance was well - received, so his role was extended for the whole season. Long was still married to stockbroker Bruce Tyson and was pregnant with his child, and a storyline involving Diane Chambers 's out - of - wedlock pregnancy was speculated with either Sam or Frasier as the father. The producers deemed the pregnancy idea undesirable and abandoned it. Instead, Diane was written as childless.
In the two - part season premiere, "Rebound '' (1984), within months after her breakup with Sam, Diane meets psychiatrist Frasier Crane in a psychiatric hospital and begins to date him. Meanwhile, spurred by the collapse of his romance with Diane, Sam relapses into alcoholism. When she leaves the hospital, Coach (Nicholas Colasanto) tells Diane about Sam 's relapse. Diane and Frasier help Sam to regain his sobriety. When Diane refuses to work as a waitress again, Coach convinces Diane that Sam will relapse again, tells Sam that Diane will lose her mind if she leaves Cheers again, and convinces Frasier that Sam and Diane will long for each other if she does not return to work there. Diane returns to Cheers as a waitress.
In "Diane 's Allergy '' (1984), Diane moves into Frasier 's apartment and becomes allergic, which she believes is caused by Frasier 's bitch puppy Pavlov. Frasier gives Pavlov to Sam, who renames her "Diane ''. However, Diane suffers allergies, so the apartment is renovated to alleviate her suffering. Later, Frasier regrets giving up the puppy and begs Sam to return her; Sam declares that he loves "Diane '', which Diane interprets his as a confession of his love for her. In "A Ditch in Time '' (1984), Diane admits to him that she told people in the ward about their relationship, including his failed attempt to go on a ski trip with his "buddies in debauchery '' in "Snow Job '' and watching football right after his lovemaking with Diane for the very first time. Hearing them, Sam apologizes and admits that he failed to be a "very good boyfriend '', but tells her that he never cheated on her and that the good times with her were some of the best of his life. Then Diane stops him from saying something "stupid '', i.e. his almost love confession to her.
Later in "Cheerio, Cheers '' (1985), Sam is told of Diane 's plans to leave Boston with Frasier for London. At night in the bar, Sam and Diane try to have sex after their passionate embrace, but realize that they are not sure what else to do in their future together. Before she leaves, Sam advises her to call him if she wants to revive their relationship again. Diane arrives in London with Frasier and then calls Sam at the bar to tell him. Despite her obvious misgivings about her relationship with Frasier, and Sam 's pain at her choice, Diane stays in Europe with Frasier. She contacts Sam in two episodes before the season finale "Rescue Me '' (1985), in which Frasier proposes to Diane in Italy; she accepts and tells Sam about it by telephone. Suddenly, Sam daydreams of stopping the wedding. Back in reality, Carla assures Sam that he is still a womanizer, regardless of his feelings about Diane. With the help of Cliff Clavin 's (John Ratzenberger) travel reservation, Sam goes to Italy to stop Diane from marrying Frasier. Diane tries to call Sam but hears part of his answering machine message, and then hangs up. Frasier and Diane are set to be married immediately.
In the season premiere, "Birth, Death, Love, and Rice '' (1985), Sam arrives too late to stop Diane and Frasier 's wedding. Several months later, Sam discovers that Diane had abandoned Frasier at the altar and feeling guilty for her promiscuity, joins a convent. Sam rescues her and gives her back her job at Cheers. Throughout the season, Sam and Diane try to simply be friends again, fighting their attraction to each other.
In "The Triangle '' (1986), Sam and Diane feel bad about Frasier 's deterioration, so they plan to help him regain his self - confidence by making Sam feign symptoms. Frasier concludes that Sam is still in love with Diane and advises him to tell her. For Frasier 's sake, Sam and Diane try to be in love but begin arguing again, and Sam furiously tells Frasier that he and Diane faked their love for each other to help Frasier sober up and boost his self - esteem. Frasier angrily tells Sam and Diane that they still love each other but deny and loathe their feelings. He declares himself not to be part of their love triangle it and walks away. In the three - part season finale "Strange Bedfellows '' (1986), Sam dates an intellectual politician, Janet Eldridge (Kate Mulgrew), whom Diane opposes politically. When Sam and Janet start and then continue dating, Diane accuses Janet of using Sam for political purposes, not loving him, and planning to dump him. However, after the election is over, Janet and Sam are still together, much to Diane 's dismay. One night in the bar, Diane overhears Janet ask Sam to fire Diane, but Diane resigns the next day. At Janet 's press conference in the bar, Diane questions Sam and Janet 's future together, resulting in a conflict between Sam and Diane, which humiliates Janet. Finally, Janet breaks up with Sam because she feels that he is still in love with Diane. At the end of the final installment, Sam dials the telephone and proposes marriage to the call 's unknown recipient.
In the season premiere "The Proposal '' (1986), the unseen character is revealed to be Diane Chambers. Although she is thrilled, Diane tells Sam that a proposal by telephone is not how she envisioned getting engaged. Sam agrees and invites her for a night of romance on a yacht, where he proposes again. Diane rejects him, thinking that Sam is proposing on the rebound from Janet. Diane wants to marry Sam, but Sam is furious with her for turning him down. Regardless, Diane returns to work at the bar and waits for Sam to propose again. Meanwhile, they continue dating other people. In "Chambers vs. Malone '' (1987), after Sam proposes again and Diane rejects him, Sam chases Diane up the street, causing her to fall and injure herself. Diane charges Sam with assault, leading to a trial. In the courtroom, at the judge 's behest, Sam proposes to Diane again, and she finally accepts. In "A House Is Not a Home '', Sam and Diane buy a house together.
In the season finale "I Do, Adieu '' (1987), Diane 's ex-fiancé, Sumner Sloan, who dumped her in the series pilot, returns to Cheers and tells Diane that he sent one of her unfinished manuscripts to his colleague, who praised it and gave it to the publishers. Although Diane is excited, Sumner warns her that simultaneously being married and having a career is impossible, and that choosing marriage over career would put her talents to waste. Later, Sam and Diane want to be married immediately at the bar. At the wedding, Diane receives a telephone call informing her that the publisher wants her work, but she must finish it immediately. Although she wants to be married to Sam, he convinces Diane to finish the book and delay the wedding, so that she has no regrets about giving up her dream of being a great writer. In their last scene together, Diane tells Sam that she will return to him for six months, but Sam doubts it. She leaves Boston behind to pursue her writing career.
Long decided to leave the series to develop her movie career and family, and the characters ' relationship story was concluded, even though she and Danson "(had) done some really terrific work at Cheers ''. In February 1987, the creators decided to replace Diane with a female lead without blonde hair or any other resemblances to Long, while Danson signed a contract for the next season (1987 -- 1988).
In the series finale, "One for the Road, '' after six years of separation, Sam watches Diane win an award for writing a cable television movie and sends her a congratulatory telegram. Diane accepts Sam 's invitation on the telephone. The following day, Sam and Diane reunite at last. Diane confesses to Sam that six months of leaving Boston in 1987, her novel was not published but became a television movie, and she did not want to return to Cheers as a failure. They both admit that despite their good times, they are never meant to be together because they are total opposites. As Diane prepares to leave Boston again, Sam stops her and begs her to have sex with him for old times ' sake. The next day, they are engaged again and then plan to move to Los Angeles together. However, as the airplane is leaving Boston, they have doubts about their relationship with help of rhetorical questions from announcers. Their flight is delayed, so Sam and Diane end their relationship once more, parting as friends as they have made their peace after their many years apart. Sam returns to Boston and Diane returns to Los Angeles.
In May 1984, Mike Boone of the Montreal Gazette wrote that when Sam and Diane 's relationship was consummated, their sexual tension evaporated; their relationship dominated the series, alienating viewers and critics and "diminish (ing) the appeal of Cheers ''. Although the show won the Emmy Award in 1984 for Outstanding Comedy Series, because the show was seen as dominated by Sam and Diane during its second season (1983 -- 1984), Fred Rothenberg of the Associated Press wrote in September 1984 that Cheers did not deserve an award. According to Ron Weiskind of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, the series suffered after Sam and Diane became lovers. Weiskind wrote in 1987 that the relationship "ran out of steam long ago '', and was relieved when Long 's departure ended it.
In October 1984 television critic Rick Sherwood wrote that although the sexual tension between Sam and Diane provided a focus for Cheers ' other characters, their later romance and "the removal of the love - hate subplot (caused) much of the edge of the series (to be) lost ''. In October 1985, Sherwood 's interest in the show lessened because of the romance; Diane 's affair with Frasier Crane "made things worse ''. According to Howard Rosenberg of the Los Angeles Times in 1986, Glenn Caron (executive producer of Moonlighting) said: "... I think it 's masochistic to take two people who seem destined for each other and ask an audience not to see them get together ''. In 1989, Michael Hill of The Baltimore Evening Sun found the similarity between the Cheers characters and real - life news anchors Sam Donaldson and Diane Sawyer of Primetime Live "remarkable ''.
Fred Rothenberg of the Associated Press (in October 1983) and Diana E. Lundin of the Los Angeles Daily News (in 1991) considered Sam and Diane the next Rhoda (Valerie Harper) and Joe (David Groh) -- of the 1970s television show Rhoda -- with respect to the decline of the show after their marriage and divorce. In the "Youth Beat '' column of the western Pennsylvania Observer -- Reporter in 1992, Jeremy Ross called Sam and Diane "the most - discussed (romantic characters) since Romeo and Juliet '' and the model for later television romances.
In April 1993 there was media debate about whether Sam should be with Diane or her replacement, Rebecca Howe (Kirstie Alley). According to an April 1 -- 4, 1993 telephone survey of 1,011 people by the Times Mirror Center for the People and the Press (now the Pew Research Center), Sam Malone was the favorite character of 26 percent of respondents and Diane Chambers the favorite of four percent. Asked whom Sam should marry, 21 percent favored Diane, 19 percent favored Rebecca, 48 percent favored neither and 12 percent had no opinion. According to a May 1993 People magazine article, newspaper columnist Mike Royko chose Diane to be with Sam, novelist Jackie Collins picked Rebecca, Zsa Zsa Gabor chose both for Sam, tennis player Martina Navratilova thought Sam too good for either of them, and novelist and archaeologist Clive Cussler saw Carla Tortelli (Rhea Perlman) as "Sam 's best bet. '' That month, George Wendt (who played Norm Peterson) told the Los Angeles Times that "the first two or three years '' of the Sam - and - Diane story arc were his favorite Cheers seasons.
Some Sacramento bar patrons were dissatisfied with the series ' finale, and thought that Sam and Diane should have been together at the end. Bret Watson of Entertainment Weekly wrote in 1994 that Sam 's flirtation with Diane in Cheers might be considered sexual harassment by contemporary standards.
In February 2002 Bill Simmons, a former writer for ESPN, appreciated Sam and Diane 's sexual tension but called their engagement a "jumping the shark '' moment. In November 2002 Mathew Gilbert of The Boston Globe called Sam and Diane one of "TV 's classic couples. '' They were 50th on Bravo 's 100 Greatest TV Characters 2004 list, and in February 2007 Sam and Diane were number one on IGN 's Top 10 Favorite TV Couples list. Cynthia Greenwood wrote in her 2008 book The Complete Idiot 's Guide to Shakespeare 's Plays that Sam and Diane 's relationship was comparable to that of Beatrice and Benedick in Much Ado About Nothing, filled with tension and insults concealing their feelings for each other.
In 2009, Josh Bell of About.com called Sam and Diane "the template for countless future sitcom couples (filled) with sexual tension ''. In March 2009 Dave & Dave of WQED - TV wrote, "The whole Sam - Dianne (sic) thing got in the way of a lot of humor but the sight (of) George (sic) and Cliffy sitting at the bar makes me laugh every time. '' At the September 2009 Comic - Con, Johnny Galecki of The Big Bang Theory exemplified a "non-traditional relationship '' with Sam and Diane and said that "not all couples meet, get together, and marry. ''
On January 28, 2011 a critic wrote on CraveOnline, "The ill - fated love affair of a prissy barmaid and a retired, egomaniacal relief pitcher made an art out of teasing a love story... ", ranking Cheers one of the "Best TV Romance Shows ''. In the March 2, 2011 issue of the Chicago Sun Times, Walter Podrazik wrote that both characters were the focus of Cheers. However, since Shelley Long departed from the series in 1987, Podrazik observed that the series changed its focus into an ensemble. On March 11, 2011, Beth Brindle of HowStuffWorks called their relationship "completely unrealistic ''. In that same year, Ben Shapiro wrote that Sam has influenced Diane to loosen "uptight sexuality '' and become "the sexualized feminist, the liberated woman. ''
Steve Silverman wrote on the Screen Junkies website in January 2012 that Diane was "too needy and insecure for anyone (like Sam) to have a legitimate relationship with. '' In February 2012, Kevin Fitzpatrick of UGO Entertainment placed them second on a list of "the Most Absolutely Awful TV Couples ''. In the May 4, 2012 Medford, Oregon Mail Tribune, Robert Galvin criticized the relationship 's lack of "common sense ''. On May 30, 2012, Amber Humphrey wrote on the Film School Rejects website that the unresolved sexual tension between Flash Forward characters Tucker (Ben Foster) and Becca (Jewel Staite) was comparable to that between Sam and Diane. In April 2013, Josh Robertson called Diane a "total drag '' and "almost impossible to (be) in a sexual situation '' on the complex.com website. Robertson considered Diane 's replacement, Rebecca Howe, "way more attractive than Diane '' and cited Sam and Rebecca as one of "The 25 Most Sexual Sitcom Couples of All Time ''.
The Huffington Post viewed Sam and Diane differently. In May 2007, Julia Ward called their relationship one of a number of "inevitable, yet doomed romances. '' In January 2010, Sharon Knolle placed them fourth on a top 10 "Worst TV Couples Ever '' list: "When Diane showed up on the series finale and nearly got back together with Sam, we were honestly relieved when they both realized (a marriage between them) would be a terrible mistake. '' However, on February 10, 2010 David Hofstede ranked their kisses seventh on the website 's "10 Best Smooches in Television ''. Two days later, Oliver Miller wanted the couple to be together but found their breakups heartbreaking (including the final breakup in the series finale). In April 2010, Jane Boursaw called Sam and Diane 's wedding one of her favorite "weddings that did n't happen ''.
Critics on The A.V. Club have reviewed the relationship, with Noel Murray calling them one of "(Ten) TV Romances for the Ages '' in February 2006. In September 2009, critics considered Sam and Diane 's relationship fun to watch; it did not spoil Cheers, since the show 's genius lay in the writers ' freedom to risk alienating the audience. In April 2012, they noted Sam 's "insecurities '' about his intelligence and Diane 's enthusiasm about "pretentious creative types. ''
Sam and Diane have been called either one of the best or personal favorite television couples of all - time, particularly by TV Guide and MSN writer Jessica Piha.
The 2012 Entertainment Weekly article called Ross (David Schwimmer) and Rachel (Jennifer Aniston) of Friends the "modern - day Sam and Diane ''. The 2016 Vulture.com article said that Ross and Rachel are "the better couple '' than Sam and Diane. Other people have compared Sam and Diane to other television couples, like the titular characters of Ned & Stacey, whose relationship counters the "delayed romance strategy '', portrayed respectively by Thomas Haden Church and Debra Messing; Chelsea (Laura Prepon) and Rick (Jake McDorman) of Are You There, Chelsea?; and Sonny (Demi Lovato) and Chad (Sterling Knight) of Sonny with a Chance.
In the novel When Angels Fail to Fly, a female character compares the sexual tension between Sam and Diane to that between David and Maddie of Moonlighting, and the first - person narrator mentions Sam and Diane 's arguments "about something stupid ''. In an episode of Community, Sam and Diane are satirized. Alan Sepinwall of The Star - Ledger said that, from the season three episode of How I Met Your Mother, "Everything Must Go '', the taxicab ride scene of regular character Barney Stinson (Neil Patrick Harris) and recurring character Abby (Britney Spears) includes a homage to the Sam and Diane 's office scene from "Showdown '', which includes lines, like "Are you as turned on right now as I am? '' and "More! ''
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steve harvey's book think like a man | Act Like a Lady, Think Like a Man - Wikipedia
Act Like a Lady, Think Like a Man is a book by Steve Harvey which describes for women Harvey 's concept of what men really think about love, relationships, intimacy, and commitment.
He writes:
In his book, Harvey instructs women on how to be a "keeper '' rather than a "sports fish ''. He asserts that men are "simple '', and that women should understand that they can never be first in a man 's life without understanding and accepting that men are driven by:
He says it 's "just plain dumb '' to let a man lock you into a monogamous premarital relationship, where you share a bed, bills, and even kids. The only way to convert your "committed relationship '' into a marriage is to insist on setting a date for the wedding.
Act Like a Lady, Think Like a Man: What Men Really Think About Love, Relationships, Intimacy, and Commitment (2009) ISBN 9780061728976
A feature film based on the book, titled Think Like a Man, was released by Sony Pictures ' Screen Gems subsidiary on April 20, 2012. Harvey served as an executive producer on the film and made a cameo appearance as himself.
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in what ways does the basilica-plan church differ from the central-plan church | Basilica - wikipedia
The Latin word basilica (derived from Greek βασιλική στοά, Royal Stoa, the tribunal chamber of a king), has three distinct applications in modern English. The word was originally used to describe an ancient Roman public building, where courts were held, as well as serving other official and public functions. It usually had the door at one end and a slightly raised platform and an apse at the other, where the magistrate or other officials were seated. The basilica was centrally located in every Roman town, usually adjacent to the main forum.
As the Roman Empire adopted Christianity, the major church buildings were typically constructed with this basic architectural plan and thus it became popular throughout Europe. It continues to be used in an architectural sense to describe rectangular buildings with a central nave and aisles, and usually a raised platform at the opposite end from the door. In Europe and the Americas the basilica remained the most common architectural style for churches of all Christian denominations, though this building plan has become less dominant in new buildings since the later 20th century.
Later, the term came to refer specifically to a large and important Catholic church that has been given special ceremonial rights by the Pope, whatever its architectural plan. These are divided into four major basilicas, all ancient churches in Rome, and, as of 2017, 1,757 minor basilicas around the world.
Some Catholic basilicas are Catholic pilgrimage sites, receiving tens of millions of visitors per year. In December 2009 the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe set a new record with 6.1 million pilgrims during Friday and Saturday for the anniversary of Our Lady of Guadalupe.
The Latin word basilica derives from the Greek βασιλικὴ στοά (basilikè stoá), lit. "royal stoa (walkway) '', originally referring to the tribunal chamber of a king. In Rome the word was at first used to describe an ancient Roman public building where courts were held, as well as serving other official and public functions. To a large extent these were the town halls of ancient Roman life. The basilica was centrally located in every Roman town, usually adjacent to the main forum. These buildings, an example of which is the Basilica Ulpia, were rectangular, and often had a central nave and aisles, usually with a slightly raised platform and an apse at each of the two ends, adorned with a statue perhaps of the emperor, while the entrances were from the long sides.
By extension the name was applied to Christian churches which adopted the same basic plan and it continues to be used as an architectural term to describe such buildings, which form the majority of church buildings in Western Christianity, though the basilican building plan became less dominant in new buildings from the later 20th century.
The Roman basilica was a large public building where business or legal matters could be transacted. The first basilicas had no religious function at all. As early as the time of Augustus, a public basilica for transacting business had been part of any settlement that considered itself a city, used in the same way as the late medieval covered market houses of northern Europe, where the meeting room, for lack of urban space, was set above the arcades, however. Although their form was variable, basilicas often contained interior colonnades that divided the space, giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides, with an apse at one end (or less often at each end), where the magistrates sat, often on a slightly raised dais. The central aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking aisles, so that light could penetrate through the clerestory windows.
The oldest known basilica, the Basilica Porcia, was built in Rome in 184 BC by Cato the Elder during the time he was Censor. Other early examples include the basilica at Pompeii (late 2nd century BC).
Probably the most splendid Roman basilica (see below) is the one begun for traditional purposes during the reign of the pagan emperor Maxentius and finished by Constantine I after 313 AD.
In the Roman Imperial period (after about 27 BCE), a basilica for large audiences also became a feature in palaces. In the 3rd century AD, the governing elite appeared less frequently in the forums.
They now tended to dominate their cities from opulent palaces and country villas, set a little apart from traditional centers of public life. Rather than retreats from public life, however, these residences were the forum made private. (Peter Brown, in Paul Veyne, 1987)
Seated in the tribune of his basilica, the great man would meet his dependent clientes early every morning.
A private basilica excavated at Bulla Regia (Tunisia), in the "House of the Hunt '', dates from the first half of the 5th century. Its reception or audience hall is a long rectangular nave - like space, flanked by dependent rooms that mostly also open into one another, ending in a semi-circular apse, with matching transept spaces. Clustered columns emphasised the "crossing '' of the two axes.
The remains of a large subterranean Neopythagorean basilica dating from the 1st century AD were found near the Porta Maggiore in Rome in 1915. The ground - plan of Christian basilicas in the 4th century was similar to that of this Neopythagorean basilica, which had three naves and an apse.
In the 4th century, once the Imperial authorities had decriminalised Christianity with the 313 Edict of Milan, and with the activities of Constantine the Great and his mother Helena, Christians were prepared to build larger and more handsome edifices for worship than the furtive meeting - places (such as the Cenacle, cave - churches, house churches such as that of the Roman consuls John and Paul) they had been using. Architectural formulas for temples were unsuitable, for their pagan associations, and because pagan cult ceremonies and sacrifices occurred outdoors under the open sky in the sight of the gods, with the temple, housing the cult figures and the treasury, as a backdrop. The usable model at hand, when Constantine wanted to memorialise his imperial piety, was the familiar conventional architecture of the basilicas.
There were several variations of the basic plan of the secular basilica, always some kind of rectangular hall, but the one usually followed for churches had a central nave with one aisle at each side and an apse at one end opposite to the main door at the other end. In, and often also in front of, the apse was a raised platform, where the altar was placed, and from where the clergy officiated. In secular building this plan was more typically used for the smaller audience halls of the emperors, governors, and the very rich than for the great public basilicas functioning as law courts and other public purposes. Constantine built a basilica of this type in his palace complex at Trier, later very easily adopted for use as a church. It is a long rectangle two storeys high, with ranks of arch - headed windows one above the other, without aisles (there was no mercantile exchange in this imperial basilica) and, at the far end beyond a huge arch, the apse in which Constantine held state.
Basilical structure: The central nave extends to one or two storeys more than the lateral aisles, and it has upper windows.
Pseudobasilica (i. e. false basilica): The central nave extends to an additional storey, but it has no upper windows.
Stepped hall: The vaults of the central nave begin a bit higher than those of the lateral aisles, but there is no additional storey.
Hall church: All vaults are almost on the same level.
Aisleless church with wallside pilasters, a barrel - vault and upper windows above lateral chapels
Putting an altar instead of the throne, as was done at Trier, made a church. Basilicas of this type were built in western Europe, Greece, Syria, Egypt, and Palestine, that is, at any early centre of Christianity. Good early examples of the architectural basilica include the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (6th century AD), the church of St Elias at Thessalonica (5th century AD), and the two great basilicas at Ravenna.
The first basilicas with transepts were built under the orders of Emperor Constantine, both in Rome and in his "New Rome '', Constantinople:
Thus, a Christian symbolic theme was applied quite naturally to a form borrowed from civil semi-public precedents. The first great Imperially sponsored Christian basilica is that of St John Lateran, which was given to the Bishop of Rome by Constantine right before or around the Edict of Milan in 313 and was consecrated in the year 324. In the later 4th - century, other Christian basilicas were built in Rome: Santa Sabina, and St Paul 's Outside the Walls (4th century), and later St Clement (6th century).
A Christian basilica of the 4th or 5th century stood behind its entirely enclosed forecourt ringed with a colonnade or arcade, like the stoa or peristyle that was its ancestor or like the cloister that was its descendant. This forecourt was entered from outside through a range of buildings along the public street. This was the architectural ground - plan of St Peter 's Basilica in Rome, until in the 15th century it was demolished to make way for a modern church built to a new plan.
In most basilicas, the central nave is taller than the aisles, forming a row of windows called a clerestory. Some basilicas in the Caucasus, particularly those of Armenia and Georgia, have a central nave only slightly higher than the two aisles and a single pitched roof covering all three. The result is a much darker interior. This plan is known as the "oriental basilica '', or "pseudobasilica '' in central Europe.
Gradually, in the early Middle Ages there emerged the massive Romanesque churches, which still kept the fundamental plan of the basilica.
In the United States the style was copied with variances. An American church built imitating the architecture of an Early Christian basilica, St. Mary 's (German) Church in Pennsylvania, was demolished in 1997.
Old St Peter 's, Rome, as the 4th century basilica had developed by the mid-15th century, in a 19th - century reconstruction
Romanesque basilica of nowadays Lutheran Bursfelde Abbey in Germany
Chester Cathedral in England, a Perpendicular style basilica
St. Sebald 's in Nuremberg has a basilical nave and a hall choir
Palma Cathedral on Mallorca in Spain has windows on three levels, one above the aisles, one above the file of chapels and one in the chapels.
A rare American church built imitating the architecture of an Early Christian basilica, St. Mary 's (German) Church in Pennsylvania, now demolished.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, in general, the basilica is a mere architectural description of churches built in the ancient style. It bears no significance with regard to precedence or importance of the particular building or clerics associated with it. Eastern basilicas may be single - naved, or have the nave flanked by one or two pairs of lower aisles; it may have a dome in the middle: in this case, it is called a "domed basilica ''.
In Romania, the word for church both as a building and as an institution is biserică, derived from the term basilica.
The style influenced the construction of early wooden churches.
The Early Christian purpose - built basilica was the cathedral basilica of the bishop, on the model of the semi-public secular basilicas, and its growth in size and importance signalled the gradual transfer of civic power into episcopal hands, which was under way in the 5th century. Basilicas in this sense are divided into classes, the major ("greater '') basilicas and the minor basilicas; there are three other papal and several pontifical minor basilicas in Italy, and over 1,400 lesser basilicas around the world.
Churches designated as papal basilicas, in particular, possess a papal throne and a papal high altar, at which no one may celebrate Mass without the pope 's permission.
Numerous basilicas are notable shrines, often even receiving significant pilgrimages, especially among the many that were built above a confessio or the burial place of a martyr -- although this term now usually designates a space before the high altar that is sunk lower than the main floor level (as in the case in St Peter 's and St John Lateran in Rome) and that offer more immediate access to the burial places below.
The papal or major basilicas outrank in precedence all other churches. Other rankings put the cathedral (or co-cathedral) of a bishop ahead of all other churches in the same diocese, even if they have the title of minor basilica. If the cathedral is that of a suffragan diocese, it yields precedence to the cathedral of the metropolitan see. The cathedral of a primate is considered to rank higher than that of other metropolitan (s) in his circonscription (usually a present or historical state). Other classifications of churches include collegiate churches, which may or may not also be minor basilicas.
To this class belong only the four great papal churches of Rome, which among other distinctions have a special "holy door '' and to which a visit is always prescribed as one of the conditions for gaining the Roman Jubilee. Upon relinquishing in 2006 the title of Patriarch of the West, Pope Benedict XVI renamed these basilicas from "Patriarchal Basilicas '' to "Papal Basilicas ''.
The four papal or major basilicas were formerly known as "patriarchal basilicas ''. Together with the minor basilica of St Lawrence outside the Walls, they were associated with the five ancient patriarchal sees of Christendom (see Pentarchy): St John Lateran was associated with Rome, St Peter 's with Constantinople (present - day Istanbul), St Paul 's with Alexandria (in Egypt), St Mary Major with Antioch (the Levant) and St Lawrence with Jerusalem.
The privileges attached to the status of minor basilica, which is conferred by papal brief, include a certain precedence before other churches, the right of the conopaeum (a baldachin resembling an umbrella; also called umbraculum, ombrellino, papilio, sinicchio, etc.) and the bell (tintinnabulum), which are carried side by side in procession at the head of the clergy on state occasions, and the cappa magna which is worn by the canons or secular members of the collegiate chapter when assisting at the Divine Office. In the case of major basilicas these umbraculae are made of cloth of gold and red velvet, while those of minor basilicas are made of yellow and red silk -- the colours traditionally associated with both the Papal See and the city of Rome.
There are five "pontifical '' minor basilicas in the world (the word "pontifical '' referring to the title "pontiff '' of a bishop, and more particularly of the Bishop of Rome): Pontifical Basilica of Our Lady of the Rosary of Pompeii, the Pontifical Basilica of Saint Nicholas in Bari, the Pontifical Basilica of Saint Anthony in Padua, the Pontifical Basilica of the Holy House at Loreto, the Pontifical Basilica of St Michael in Madrid, Spain.
Until Pope Benedict XVI, the title "patriarchal '' (now "papal '') was officially given to two minor basilicas associated with Saint Francis of Assisi situated in or near his home town:
The description "patriarchal '' still applies to two minor basilicas associated with archbishops who have the title of patriarch: the Patriarchal Cathedral Basilica of St Mark in Venice and the Patriarchal Basilica of Aquileia.
Not all Patriarchal cathedrals are minor basilicas, notably: the Patriarchal Cathedral of St Mary Major in Lisbon, Portugal, the Patriarchal Cathedral of Santa Catarina, Old Goa, India.
In recent times, the title of minor basilica has been attributed to important pilgrimage churches. In 1999 Bishop Francesco Giogia stated that the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City (constructed in the 20th century) was the most visited Catholic shrine in the world, followed by San Giovanni Rotondo and Basilica of the National Shrine of Our Lady of Aparecida in Brazil. Millions of pilgrims visit the shrines of Our Lady of Lourdes and Our Lady of Fatima. Pilgrimage basilicas continue to attract well over 30 million pilgrims per year.
Every year, on 13 May and 13 October, the significant dates of the Fatima apparitions, pilgrims fill the country road that leads to the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima with crowds that approach one million on each day. In December 2009 the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe set a new record with 6.1 million pilgrims during Friday and Saturday for the anniversary of Our Lady of Guadalupe.
As of 2017, there were 1,761 churches that bore the title of basilica.
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why doesn t the nfl football have stripes | Football (ball) - wikipedia
A football is a ball inflated with air that is used to play one of the various sports known as football. In these games, with some exceptions, goals or points are scored only when the ball enters one of two designated goal - scoring areas; football games involve the two teams each trying to move the ball in opposite directions along the field of play.
The first balls were made of natural materials, such as an inflated pig bladder, later put inside a leather cover, which has given rise to the American slang - term "pigskin ''. Modern balls are designed by teams of engineers to exacting specifications, with rubber or plastic bladders, and often with plastic covers. Various leagues and games use different balls, though they all have one of the following basic shapes:
The precise shape and construction of footballs is typically specified as part of the rules and regulations.
The oldest football still in existence, which is thought to have been made circa 1550, was discovered in the roof of Stirling Castle, Scotland, in 1981. The ball is made of leather (possibly from a deer) and a pig 's bladder. It has a diameter of between 14 -- 16 cm (5.5 -- 6.3 in), weighs 125 g (4.4 oz) and is currently on display at the Smith Art Gallery and Museum in Stirling.
In the United States and Canada, the term football usually refers to a ball made of cow hide leather, which is required in professional and collegiate football. Footballs used in recreation and in organized youth leagues may be made of rubber or plastic materials (the high school football rulebooks still allow the inexpensive all - rubber footballs, though they are less common than leather). Since 1941, Horween Leather Company has been the exclusive supplier of leather for National Football League footballs. The arrangement was established by Arnold Horween, who had played and coached in the NFL. Horween Leather Company also supplies leather to Spalding, supplier of balls to the Arena Football League.
Leather panels are typically tanned to a natural brown color, which is usually required in professional leagues and collegiate play. At least one manufacturer uses leather that has been tanned to provide a "tacky '' grip in dry or wet conditions. Historically, white footballs have been used in games played at night so that the ball can be seen more easily however, improved artificial lighting conditions have made this no longer necessary. At most levels of play (but not, notably, the NFL), white stripes are painted on each end of the ball, halfway around the circumference, to improve nighttime visibility and also to differentiate the college football from the pro football. However, the NFL once explored the usage of white - striped footballs -- in Super Bowl VIII.
In the CFL the stripes traverse the entire circumference of the ball. The UFL used a ball with lime - green stripes. The XFL used a novel color pattern, a black ball with red curved lines in lieu of stripes, for its footballs; this design was redone in a tan and navy color scheme for the Arena Football League in 2003. A ball with red, white and blue panels was introduced in the American Indoor Football League in 2005 and used by its successors, as well as the Ultimate Indoor Football League of the early 2010s and the Can - Am Indoor Football League during its lone season in 2017.
Footballs used in gridiron - style games have prominent points on both ends. The shape is generally credited to official Hugh "Shorty '' Ray, who introduced the new ball in 1934 as a way to make the forward pass more effective.
Law 2 of the game specifies that the ball is an air - filled sphere with a circumference of 68 -- 70 cm (27 -- 28 in), a weight of 410 -- 450 g (14 -- 16 oz), inflated to a pressure of 0.6 to 1.1 atmospheres (60 -- 111 kPa or 8.7 -- 16.1 psi) "at sea level '', and covered in leather or "other suitable material ''. The weight specified for a ball is the dry weight, as older balls often became significantly heavier in the course of a match played in wet weather. There are a number of different types of football balls depending on the match and turf including: training footballs, match footballs, professional match footballs, beach footballs, street footballs, indoor footballs, turf balls, futsal footballs and mini / skills footballs.
Most modern Association footballs are stitched from 32 panels of waterproofed leather or plastic: 12 regular pentagons and 20 regular hexagons. The 32 - panel configuration is the spherical polyhedron corresponding to the truncated icosahedron; it is spherical because the faces bulge from the pressure of the air inside. The first 32 - panel ball was marketed by Select in the 1950s in Denmark. This configuration became common throughout Continental Europe in the 1960s, and was publicised worldwide by the Adidas Telstar, the official ball of the 1970 World Cup. This design in often referenced when describing the truncated icosahedron Archimedean solid, carbon buckyballs, or the root structure of geodesic domes.
The football used in Australian football is similar to a rugby ball but generally slightly smaller and more rounded at the ends, but more elongated in overall appearance, being longer by comparison with its width than a rugby ball. A regulation football is 720 -- 730 millimetres (28 -- 29 in) in circumference, and 545 -- 555 mm (21.5 -- 21.9 in) transverse circumference, and inflated to a pressure of 62 -- 76 kPa (9.0 -- 11.0 psi). In the AFL, the balls are red for day matches and yellow for night matches.
The first games of Australian football were played with a round ball, because balls of that shape were more readily available. In 1860, Australian football pioneer Tom Wills argued that the oval rugby ball travelled further in the air and made for a more exciting game. It became customary in Australian football by the 1870s.
The Australian football ball was invented by T.W. Sherrin in 1880, after he was given a misshapen rugby ball to fix. Sherrin designed the ball with indented rather than pointy ends to give the ball a better bounce.
Australian football ball brands include Burley, Ross Faulkner, and Sherrin (the brand used by the Australian Football League).
The game is played with a round leather football made of 18 stitched leather panels, similar in appearance to a traditional volleyball (but larger), with a circumference of 68 -- 70 cm (27 -- 28 in), weighing between 480 -- 500 g (17 -- 18 oz) when dry. It may be kicked or hand passed. A hand pass is not a punch but rather a strike of the ball with the side of the closed fist, using the knuckle of the thumb.
Until 1870, rugby was played with a near spherical ball with an inner - tube made of a pig 's bladder. In 1870 Richard Lindon and Bernardo Solano started making balls for Rugby school out of hand stitched, four - panel, leather casings and pigs ' bladders. The rugby ball 's distinctive shape is supposedly due to the pig 's bladder, although early balls were more plum - shape than oval. The balls varied in size in the beginning depending upon how large the pig 's bladder was. Because of the pliability of rubber the shape gradually changed from a sphere to an egg. In 1892 the RFU endorsed ovalness as the compulsory shape. The gradual flattening of the ball continued over the years. The introduction of synthetic footballs over the traditional leather balls, in both rugby codes, was originally governed by weather conditions. If the playing surface was wet, the synthetic ball was used, because it would n't absorb water and become heavy. Eventually, the leather balls were phased out completely.
Rugby league is played with a prolate spheroid shaped football which is inflated with air. A referee will stop play immediately if the ball does not meet the requirements of size and shape. Traditionally made of brown leather, modern footballs are synthetic and manufactured in a variety of colours and patterns. Senior competitions should use light - coloured balls to allow spectators to see the ball more easily. The football used in rugby league is known as "international size '' or "size 5 '' and is approximately 27 cm (11 in) long and 60 cm (24 in) in circumference at its widest point. Smaller - sized balls are used for junior versions of the game, such as "Mini '' and "Mod ''. A full size ball weighs between 383 and 440 g (13.5 and 15.5 oz). Rugby league footballs are slightly more pointed than rugby union footballs and larger than American footballs.
The Australasian National Rugby League and European Super League use balls made by Steeden. Steeden is also sometimes used in Australia as a noun to describe the ball itself.
The ball used in rugby union, usually referred to as a rugby ball, is a prolate spheroid essentially elliptical in profile. Traditionally made of brown leather, modern footballs are manufactured in a variety of colours and patterns. A regulation football is 28 -- 30 cm (11 -- 12 in) long and 58 -- 62 cm (23 -- 24 in) in circumference at its widest point. It weighs 410 -- 460 g (14 -- 16 oz) and is inflated to 65.7 -- 68.8 kPa (9.5 -- 10.0 psi).
In 1980, leather - encased balls, which were prone to water - logging, were replaced with balls encased in synthetic waterproof materials. The Gilbert Synergie was the match ball of the 2007 Rugby World Cup.
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who is the black guy in all the dirty harry movies | Albert Popwell - wikipedia
Albert Popwell (July 15, 1926 -- April 9, 1999) was an African American stage, television and film actor with a career spanning six decades.
Born in New York City, Popwell started as a professional dancer before taking up a career in acting. Popwell made his professional debut on Broadway at age 16 in The Pirate.
Popwell was featured on many television series, but is perhaps best known for his appearances in films opposite Clint Eastwood, whom he acted with in five films, starting with Coogan 's Bluff and in the first four films of the Dirty Harry series. Popwell was a wounded bank robber at the receiving end of Eastwood 's "Do you feel lucky? '' monologue from Dirty Harry. Popwell was a murderous pimp in Magnum Force, appeared as Big Ed Mustapha in The Enforcer and as Harry 's detective colleague Horace King in Sudden Impact. He did not appear in the last film in the series, The Dead Pool, due to a scheduling conflict.
His final film role was opposite Sharon Stone in Scissors. He died eight years later, at age 72, from complications following open heart surgery.
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who pays for refugee camps and their needed supplies | Refugee camp - wikipedia
A refugee camp is a temporary settlement built to receive refugees and people in refugee - like situations. Refugee camps usually accommodate displaced persons who have fled their home country, but there are also camps for internally displaced persons. Usually refugees seek asylum after they 've escaped war in their home countries, but some camps also house environmental - and economic migrants. Camps with over a hundred thousand people are common, but as of 2012 the average - sized camp housed around 11,400. They are usually built and run by a government, the United Nations, international organizations (such as the International Committee of the Red Cross), or NGOs. There are also unofficial refugee camps, like Idomeni in Greece or the Calais jungle in France, where refugees are largely left without support of governments or international organizations.
Refugee camps generally develop in an impromptu fashion with the aim of meeting basic human needs for only a short time. Facilities that make a camp look or feel more permanent are often prohibited by host country governments. If the return of refugees is prevented (often by civil war), a humanitarian crisis can result or continue.
According to UNHCR, the majority of refugees worldwide do not live in refugee camps. At the end of 2015, some 67 per cent of refugees around the world lived in individual, private accommodations. This can be partly explained by the high number of Syrian refugees renting apartments in urban agglomerations across the Middle East. Worldwide, slightly over a quarter (25.4 %) of refugees was reported to be living in planned / managed camps. At the end of 2015, about 56 per cent of the total refugee population in rural locations resided in a planned / managed camp, compared with 2 per cent who resided in individual accommodation. In urban locations, the overwhelming majority (99 per cent) of refugees lived in individual accommodations, compared with less than 1 per cent who lived in a planned / managed camp. A small percentage of refugees also live in collective centers, transit camps and in self - settled camps.
In spite of the fact that 74 percent of refugees are in urban areas, the service delivery model of international humanitarian aid agencies remains focused on the establishment and operation of refugee camps.
The average camp size is recommended by UNHCR to be 45 sqm per person of accessible camp area. Within this area the following facilities can usually be found:
Schools and markets may be prohibited by the host country government in order to discourage refugees from settling permanently in camps. Many refugee camps also have:
In order to understand and monitor an emergency over a period of time, the development and organisation of the camps can be tracked by satellite and analyzed via GIS.
Most new arrivals travel distances of up to 500 km by foot. The journey can be dangerous, e.g. wild animals, armed bandits or militias, or landmines. Some refugees are supported by IOM, some use smugglers. Many new arrivals suffer from acute malnutrition and dehydration. There can be long queues outside the reception centres and waiting times of up to two months are possible. People outside the camp are not entitled to official support (but refugees from inside may support them). Some locals sell water or food for excessive prices and make large profits with it. It is not uncommon that some refugees die while waiting outside the reception centre. They stay in the reception centre until their refugee status is approved and the degree of vulnerability assessed. This usually takes two weeks. They are then taken, usually by bus, to the camp. New arrivals are registered, fingerprinted and interviewed by the host country government and the UNHCR. Health and nutrition screenings follow. Those who are extremely malnourished will be taken to therapeutic feeding centres and the sick to hospital. Men and women receive counselling separate from each other to determine their needs. After registration they are given food rations (until then only high energy biscuits), receive ration cards (the primary marker of refugee status), soap, jerrycans, kitchen sets, sleeping mats, plastic tarpaulins to build shelters (some receive tents or pre-fabricated shelters). Leaders from the refugee community may provide further support to the new arrivals.
Residential plots are allocated (e.g. 10m x12 m for a family of 4 to 7 people). Shelters may sometimes be built by refugees themselves with locally available materials, but aid agencies may supply materials or even prefabricated housing. Shelters are frequently very close to each other, and many families frequently share a single dwelling, rendering privacy for couples nonexistent. Camps may have communal unisex pit latrines shared by many households, but aid agencies may provide improved sanitation facilities. Household pit latrines may be built by families themselves. Latrines may not always be kept sufficiently clean and disease - free. In some areas there is limited space for new pits. Each refugee is supposed to receive around 20 liters of water a day. However, many have to survive on much less than that (some may get as little as 8 litres per day). There may be a high number of persons per usable tap stand (against a standard number of one per 80 persons). Drainage of water from bathroom and kitchen use may be poor and garbage may be disposed in a haphazard fashion. There may be few or no sanitary facilities accessible for people with disabilities. Poor sanitation may lead to outbreaks of infectious disease, and rainy season flooding of latrine pits increases the risk of infection.
The World Food Programme (WFP) provides food rations twice a month: 2,100 calories / person / day. Ideally it should be:
Diet is insensitive to cultural differences and household needs. WFP is frequently unable to provide all of these staples, thus calories are distributed through whatever commodity is available, e.g. only maize flour. Up to 80 or 90 % of the refugees sell part or most of their food ration to get cash. Loss of the ration card means no entitlement to food. In 2015 the WFP introduced electronic vouchers.
Research found that if enough aid is provided, the refugees ' stimulus effects can boost the host countries economy. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has a policy of helping refugees work and be productive, using their existing skills to meet their own needs and needs of the host country, to:
However, refugee hosting countries do not usually follow this policy and instead do not allow refugees to work legally. In many countries the only option is either to work for a small incentive (with NGOs based in the camp) or to work illegally with no rights and often bad conditions. In some camps it is accepted that refugees set up their own businesses. Some refugees even became rich with that. Those without a job or without relatives and friends who send remittances, need to sell parts of their food rations to get cash. As support does not usually provide cash effective demand may not be created
The main markets of bigger camps usually offer electronics, groceries, hardware, medicine, food, clothing, cosmetics, and services such as prepared food (restaurants, coffee -- tea shops), laundry, internet and computer access, banking, electronic repairs and maintenance, and education. Some traders specialize in buying food rations from refugees in small quantities and selling them in large quantities to merchants outside the camp. Many refugees buy in small quantities because they do n't have enough money to buy normal sizes, i.e. the goods are put in smaller packages and sold for a higher price.
According to UNHCR vocabulary a refugee camp consists of: settlements, sectors, blocks, communities, and families. 16 families make up a community, 16 communities make up a block, four blocks make up a sector, and four sectors are called a settlement. A large camp may consist of several settlements. Each block elects a community leader to represent the block. Settlements and markets in bigger camps are often arranged according to nationalities, ethnicities, tribes, and clans of their inhabitants, such as at Dadaab and Kakuma.
In those camps where elections are held, elected refugee community leaders are the contact point within the community for both community members and aid agencies. They mediate and negotiate to resolve problems and liaise with refugees, UNHCR, and other aid agencies. Refugees are expected to convey their concerns, messages, or reports of crimes, etc. through their community leaders. Therefore, community leaders are considered to be part of the disciplinary machinery and many refugees mistrust them. There are allegations of aid agencies bribing them. Community leaders can decide what a crime is and thus, whether it is reported to police or other agencies. They can use their position to marginalize some refugees from minority groups. In Kakuma and Dadaab Refugee Camps in Kenya, Somali refugees have been allowed to establish their own ' court ' system which is funded by charities. Elected community leaders and the elders of the communities provide an informal kind of jurisdiction in refugee camps. They preside over these courts and are allowed to pocket the fines they impose. Refugees are left without legal remedies against abuses and can not appeal against their own ' courts '.
Security in a refugee camp is usually the responsibility of the host country and is provided by the military or local police. The UNHCR only provides refugees with legal protection, not physical protection. However, local police or the legal system of the host countries may not take responsibility for crimes that occur within camps. In many camps refugees create their own patrolling systems as police protection is insufficient. Most camps are enclosed with barbed wire fences. This is not only for the protection of the refugees, but also to prevent refugees from moving freely or interacting with local people.
Refugee camps may sometimes serve as headquarters for the recruitment, support and training of guerrilla organizations engaged in fighting in the refugees ' area of origin; such organizations often use humanitarian aid to supply their troops. Cambodian refugee camps in Thailand and Rwandan refugee camps in Zaire supported armed groups until their destruction by military forces.
Refugee camps are also places where terror attacks, bombings, militia attacks, stabbings and shootings take place and abductions of aid workers are not unheard of. The police can also play a role in attacks on refugees.
Due to crowding and lack of infrastructure, refugee camps are often unhygienic, leading to a high incidence of infectious diseases and epidemics. Sick or injured refugees rely on free health care provided by aid agencies in camps, and may not have access to health services outside of a camp setting. Some aid agencies employ outreach workers who make visits from tent to tent to offer medical assistance to ill and malnourished refugees, but resources are often scarce. Vulnerable persons who have difficulties accessing services may be supported through individual case management. Common infectious diseases include diarrhea from various causes, malaria, viral hepatitis, measles, meningitis, respiratory infections such as influenza, and urinary / reproductive tract infections. These are exacerbated by malnutrition.
The UNHCR is responsible for providing reproductive heath services to refugee populations and in camps. This includes educating refugees on reproductive health, family planning, giving them access to healthcare professionals for their reproductive needs and providing necessary supplies such as feminine hygiene products.
Once admitted to a camp, refugees usually do not have freedom to move about the country but are required to obtain Movement Passes from the UNHCR and the host country government. Yet informally many refugees are mobile and travel between cities and the camps, or otherwise make use of networks or technology in maintaining these links. Due to widespread corruption in public service there is a grey area that creates space for refugees to manoeuvre. Many refugees in the camps, given the opportunity, try to make their way to cities. Some refugee elites even rotate between the camp and the city, or rotate periods in the camp with periods elsewhere in the country in family networks, sometimes with another relative in a Western country that contributes financially. Refugee camps may serve as a safety net for people who go to cities or who attempt to return to their countries of origin. Some refugees marry nationals so that they can bypass the police rules regarding movements out of the camps. It is a lucrative side - business for many police officers working the area around the camps to have many unofficial roadblocks and to target refugees travelling outside the camps who must pay bribes to avoid deportation.
Although camps are intended to be a temporary solution, some of them exist for decades. Some Palestinian refugee camps have existed since 1948, camps for Eritreans in Sudan (such as the Shagarab camp) have existed since 1968, the Sahrawi refugee camps in Algeria have existed since 1975, camps for Burmese in Thailand (such as the Mae La refugee camp) have existed since 1986, Buduburam in Ghana since 1990, or Dadaab and Kakuma in Kenya since 1991 and 1992, respectively. In fact "protracted refugee situations now account for the vast majority of the world 's refugee population ''. The average time a refugee stays in a camp is 17 years. The longer a camp exist the lower tends to be the annual international funding and the bigger the implications for human rights. Some camps grow into permanent settlements and even merge with nearby older communities, such as Ain al - Hilweh, Lebanon and Deir al - Balah, Palestine.
People may stay in these camps, receiving emergency food and medical aid, for many years and possibly even for their whole life. To prevent this the UNHCR promotes three alternatives to that:
The largest refugee settlements in the world are in the eastern Sahel region of Africa. For many years the Dadaab complex was the largest, until it was surpassed by Bidi Bidi in 2017.
As head of the International Rescue Committee, David Miliband has advocated for abolishing refugee camps and the accompanying material aid altogether. He argues that given the long duration of many ongoing conflicts, refugees and local economies would be better off if refugees were settled in conventional housing and given work permits, with international financial support both for refugees and local government infrastructure and educational services.
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who is the guy that plays mayhem on the commercials | Dean Winters - wikipedia
Dean Gerard Winters (born July 20, 1964) is an American actor.
He is known for his role as Ryan O'Reily on the HBO prison drama Oz, and has also appeared on such television series as Rescue Me, 30 Rock, and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, as well as the character "Mayhem '' in a series of Allstate Insurance commercials. Winters co-starred with Josh Duhamel in one season of the CBS Network cop drama series Battle Creek.
Dean Winters was born in New York City and raised on Long Island. He has two brothers, actor Scott William Winters and writer Bradford Winters, and a sister, Blair Winters.
Winters grew up on Long Island and spent his teenage years in Scottsdale, Arizona. He attended Chaparral High School and graduated from Brophy College Preparatory, a Jesuit school in Phoenix graduating in 1982, and graduated from Colorado College in 1986.
Winters has appeared in two of the Law & Order television series: Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, where he was a regular in the first season, and as a guest star in the Law & Order: Criminal Intent episode "Purgatory ''. More than ten years after his final appearance on SVU, he again portrayed Detective Brian Cassidy in the 13th - season finale "Rhodium Nights '', became a recurring character in the 14th season and, in the 15th season, also became Sergeant Olivia Benson 's love interest. He has also made guest appearances on Homicide: Life on the Street, Sex and the City, Third Watch, NYPD Blue, CSI: Miami and as Dennis Duffy in 30 Rock as well as previously having an accompanying role in Rescue Me.
He starred in the 1999 romantic comedy Undercover Angel with Yasmine Bleeth and the 2002 direct - to - video horror film Hellraiser: Hellseeker. He played Tom in PS, I Love You. Winters played Detective Sam Tyler 's father in the US version of Life On Mars. He also played Charley Dixon, Sarah Connor 's love interest, in Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles.
Winters was cast in the ABC drama pilot Happy Town, from the creators of October Road, but was replaced by Steven Weber after shooting the pilot.
On June 20, 2010, Winters was introduced as "Mayhem '', the recurring character in a new television and radio advertising campaign for Allstate Insurance created by the agency Leo Burnett Chicago.
Winters co-starred in one season of the CBS Network cop drama series Battle Creek, playing a small town police force detective opposite Josh Duhamel, the FBI Resident Agent assigned to the town. The series was cancelled in May 2015. Most recently, he reprised his role on Brooklyn Nine - Nine as The Vulture and had a supporting role as a divorce attorney on the HBO series Divorce. In 2018, he was cast as Mr. Town in the second season of Starz American Gods.
In June 2009, Winters contracted a bacterial infection and collapsed upon arrival at his doctor 's office. While being transported across Central Park in an ambulance, he went into cardiac arrest for over two minutes. Paramedics were able to revive him, and he was hospitalized in intensive care for three weeks.
Over the course of the next year, he developed gangrene, requiring the amputation of two toes and half of one thumb, and ten subsequent operations including a skin graft.
Winters was away from acting until 2010, when Tina Fey brought him back to 30 Rock, and he started work on the Mayhem television commercial campaign.
Nominated - Gold Derby award for Best Guest Actor in a Comedy Series Nominated - Online Film & Television Association award for Best Guest Actor in a Comedy Series
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which of the following countries did not participate in the partition of poland | Partitions of Poland - wikipedia
The Partitions of Poland were three partitions of the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place towards the end of the 18th century and ended the existence of the state, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years. The partitions were conducted by the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia and Habsburg Austria, which divided up the Commonwealth lands among themselves progressively in the process of territorial seizures.
The First Partition of Poland was decided on August 5, 1772. Two decades later, Russian and Prussian troops entered the Commonwealth again and the Second Partition was signed on January 23, 1793. Austria did not participate in the Second Partition. The Third Partition of Poland took place on October 24, 1795, in reaction to the unsuccessful Polish Kościuszko Uprising the previous year. With this partition, the Commonwealth ceased to exist.
In English, the term "Partitions of Poland '' is sometimes used geographically as toponymy, to mean the three parts that the partitioning powers divided the Commonwealth into the Austrian Partition, the Prussian Partition and the Russian Partition. In Polish, there are two separate words for the two meanings. The consecutive acts of dividing and annexation of Poland are referred to as rozbiór (plural: rozbiory), while the term zabór (pl. zabory) means each part of the Commonwealth annexed in 1772 -- 95 becoming part of Imperial Russia, Prussia, or Austria.
In Polish historiography, the term "Fourth Partition of Poland '' has also been used, in reference to any subsequent annexation of Polish lands by foreign invaders. Depending on source and historical period, this could mean the events of 1815, or 1832 and 1846, or 1939 (see below), bringing the total number of Poland 's names for the ceding of territory to neighboring empires to seven. The term "Fourth Partition '' in a temporal sense can also mean the diaspora communities that played an important political role in re-establishing the Polish sovereign state after 1918.
During the reign of Władysław IV (1632 -- 48), the liberum veto: a policy of parliamentary procedure was developed, based on the assumption of the political equality of every "gentleman '', with the corollary that unanimous consent was needed for all measures. A single member of parliament 's belief that a measure was injurious to his own constituency (usually simply his own estate), even after the act had been approved, became enough to strike the act. It became increasingly difficult to undertake action. The liberum veto also provided openings for foreign diplomats to get their ways, through bribing nobles to exercise it. Thus, one could characterise Poland -- Lithuania in its final period (mid-18th century) before the partitions as already in a state of disorder and not a completely sovereign state; almost as a vassal state, or in modern terms, a Russian satellite state, with Russian tsars effectively choosing Polish kings. This applies particularly to the last Commonwealth King Stanisław August Poniatowski, who for some time had been a lover of Russian Empress Catherine the Great.
In 1730 the neighbors of the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth (Rzeczpospolita), namely Prussia, Austria and Russia, signed a secret agreement to maintain the status quo: specifically, to ensure that the Commonwealth laws would not change. Their alliance later became known in Poland as the "Alliance of the Three Black Eagles '' (or Löwenwolde 's Treaty), because all three states used a black eagle as a state symbol (in contrast to the white eagle, a symbol of Poland). The Commonwealth had been forced to rely on Russia for protection against the rising Kingdom of Prussia, which demanded a slice of the northwest in order to unite its Western and Eastern portions; this would leave the Commonwealth with a Baltic coast only in Latvia and Lithuania. The Commonwealth could never be liquidated unless its long - time ally, Austria, allowed it, so Catherine had to use diplomacy to win Austria to her side.
The Commonwealth had remained neutral in the Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 1763), yet it sympathized with the alliance of France, Austria, and Russia, and allowed Russian troops access to its western lands as bases against Prussia. Frederick II retaliated by ordering enough Polish currency counterfeited to severely affect the Polish economy. Through the Polish nobles whom Russia controlled and the Russian Minister to Warsaw, ambassador and Prince Nicholas Repnin, Empress Catherine the Great forced a constitution on the Commonwealth at the so - called Repnin Sejm of 1767, named after ambassador Repnin, who effectively dictated the terms of that Sejm (and ordered the capture and exile to Kaluga of some vocal opponents of his policies, including bishop Józef Andrzej Załuski and others). This new constitution undid the reforms made in 1764 under Stanisław II. The liberum veto and all the old abuses of the last one and a half centuries were guaranteed as unalterable parts of this new constitution (in the so - called Cardinal Laws). Repnin also demanded religious freedom for the Protestant and Orthodox Christians, and the resulting reaction among some of Poland 's Roman Catholics, as well as the deep resentment of Russian intervention in the Commonwealth 's domestic affairs, led to the War of the Confederation of Bar of 1768 -- 1772, formed in Bar, where the Poles tried to expel Russian forces from Commonwealth territory. The irregular and poorly commanded Polish forces had little chance in the face of the regular Russian army and suffered a major defeat. Adding to the chaos was a Ukrainian Cossack and peasant rebellion, the Koliyivshchyna, which erupted in 1768 and resulted in massacres of noblemen (szlachta), Jews, Uniates, and Catholic priests, before it was put down by Polish and Russian troops.
In 1769 Austria annexed a small territory of Spisz and in 1770 -- Nowy Sącz and Nowy Targ. These territories had been a bone of contention between Poland and Hungary, which was a part of the Austrian crown lands.
In February 1772, the agreement of partition was signed in Vienna. Early in August, Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops simultaneously invaded the Commonwealth and occupied the provinces agreed upon among themselves. On August 5, 1772, the occupation manifesto was issued, much to the consternation of a country too exhausted by the endeavors of the Confederation of Bar to offer successful resistance; nevertheless, several battles and sieges took place, as Commonwealth troops refused to lay down their arms (most notably, in Tyniec, Częstochowa and Kraków).
The partition treaty was ratified by its signatories on September 22, 1772. Frederick II of Prussia was elated with his success; Prussia took most of Royal Prussia (without Danzig) that stood between its possessions in the Kingdom of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, as well as Ermland (Warmia), northern areas of Greater Poland along the Noteć River (the Netze District), and parts of Kuyavia (but not the city of Toruń). Despite token criticism of the partition from Austrian Empress Maria Theresa, Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz - Rietberg, was proud of wresting as large a share as he did, with the rich salt mines of Bochnia and Wieliczka. To Austria fell Zator and Auschwitz (Oświęcim), part of Lesser Poland embracing parts of the counties of Kraków and Sandomir and the whole of Galicia, less the city of Kraków. Catherine of Russia was also very satisfied. By this "diplomatic document '' Russia came into possession of that section of Livonia that had remained in Commonwealth control, and of Belarus embracing the counties of Vitebsk, Polotsk and Mstislavl.
By this partition, the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth lost about 30 % of its territory and half of its population (four million people), of which a large portion had not been ethnically Polish. By seizing northwestern Poland, Prussia instantly gained control over 80 % of the Commonwealth 's total foreign trade. Through levying enormous customs duties, Prussia accelerated the collapse of the Commonwealth.
After having occupied their respective territories, the three partitioning powers demanded that King Stanisław and the Sejm approve their action. When no help was forthcoming and the armies of the combined nations occupied Warsaw to compel by force of arms the calling of the assembly, no alternative could be chosen save passive submission to their will. The so - called Partition Sejm, with Russian military forces threatening the opposition, on September 18, 1773, signed the treaty of cession, renouncing all claims of the Commonwealth to the occupied territories.
By 1790 the First Polish Republic had been weakened to such a degree that it was forced into an unnatural and terminal alliance with its enemy, Prussia. The Polish -- Prussian Pact of 1790 was signed. The conditions of the Pact contributed to the succeeding and final two partitions of Poland -- Lithuania.
The May Constitution of 1791 enfranchised the bourgeoisie, established the separation of the three branches of government, and eliminated the abuses of the Repnin Sejm. Those reforms prompted aggressive actions on the part of its neighbours, wary of the potential renaissance of the Commonwealth. Arguing that Poland had fallen prey to the radical Jacobinism then at high tide in France, Russian forces invaded the Commonwealth in 1792.
In the War in Defense of the Constitution, pro-Russian conservative Polish magnates, the Confederation of Targowica, fought against Polish forces supporting the constitution, believing that Russians would help them restore the Golden Liberty. Abandoned by their Prussian allies, Polish pro-constitution forces, faced with Targowica units and the regular Russian army, were defeated. Prussia signed a treaty with Russia, agreeing that Polish reforms would be revoked and both countries would receive chunks of Commonwealth territory. In 1793, deputies to the Grodno Sejm, last Sejm of the Commonwealth, in the presence of the Russian forces, agreed to Russian territorial demands. In the Second Partition, Russia and Prussia helped themselves to enough land so that only one - third of the 1772 population remained in Poland. Prussia named its newly gained province South Prussia, with Posen (and later Warsaw) as the capital of the new province.
Targowica confederates, who did not expect another partition, and the king, Stanisław August Poniatowski, who joined them near the end, both lost much prestige and support. The reformers, on the other hand, were attracting increasing support, and in 1794 the Kościuszko Uprising began.
Kosciuszko 's ragtag insurgent armies won some initial successes, but they eventually fell before the superior forces of the Russian Empire. The partitioning powers, seeing the increasing unrest in the remaining Commonwealth, decided to solve the problem by erasing any independent Polish state from the map. On 24 October 1795 their representatives signed a treaty, dividing the remaining territories of the Commonwealth among their three countries.
The Russian part included 120,000 km (46,332 sq mi) and 1.2 million people with Vilnius, the Prussian part (new provinces of New East Prussia and New Silesia) 55,000 km (21,236 sq mi) and 1 million people with Warsaw, and the Austrian 47,000 km (18,147 sq mi) with 1.2 million and Lublin and Kraków.
With regard to population, in the First Partition, Poland lost over four to five million citizens (about a third of its population of 14 million before the partitions). Only about 4 million people remained in Poland after the Second Partition which makes for a loss of another third of its original population, about a half of the remaining population. By the Third Partition, Prussia ended up with about 23 % of the Commonwealth 's population, Austria with 32 %, and Russia with 45 %.
(Wandycz also offers slightly different total annexed territory estimates, with 18 % for Austria, 20 % for Prussia and 62 % for Russia.)
During the Napoleonic Wars and in their immediate aftermath the borders between partitioning powers shifted several times, changing the numbers seen in the preceding table. Ultimately, Russia ended up with most of the Polish core at the expense of Prussia and Austria. Following the Congress of Vienna, Russia controlled 82 % of the pre-1772 Commonwealth 's territory (this includes its puppet state of Congress Poland), Austria 11 %, and Prussia 7 %.
The King of Poland, Stanisław August Poniatowski, under Russian military escort left for Grodno where he abdicated on November 25, 1795; next he left for Saint Petersburg, Russia, where he would spend his remaining days. This act ensured that Russia would be seen as the most important of the partitioning powers.
As a result of the Partitions, Poles were forced to seek a change of status quo in Europe. Polish poets, politicians, noblemen, writers, artists, many of whom were forced to emigrate (thus the term Great Emigration), became the revolutionaries of the 19th century, as desire for freedom became one of the defining parts of Polish romanticism. Polish revolutionaries participated in uprisings in Prussia, the Austrian Empire and Imperial Russia. Polish legions fought alongside Napoleon and, under the slogan of For our freedom and yours, participated widely in the Spring of Nations (particularly the Hungarian Revolution of 1848).
Poland would be briefly resurrected -- if in a smaller frame -- in 1807, when Napoleon set up the Duchy of Warsaw. After his defeat and the implementation of the Congress of Vienna treaty in 1815, the Russian - dominated Congress Kingdom of Poland was created in its place. After the Congress, Russia gained a larger share of Poland (with Warsaw) and, after crushing an insurrection in 1831, the Congress Kingdom 's autonomy was abolished and Poles faced confiscation of property, deportation, forced military service, and the closure of their own universities. After the uprising of 1863, Russification of Polish secondary schools was imposed and the literacy rate dropped dramatically. In the Austrian portion, Poles fared better, and were allowed to have representation in Parliament and to form their own universities, and Kraków and Lemberg (Lwów / Lviv) became centers of Polish culture and education. Meanwhile, Prussia Germanized the entire school system of its Polish subjects, and had no more respect for Polish culture and institutions than the Russian Empire. In 1915 a client state of the German Empire and Austria - Hungary was proposed and accepted by the Central Powers of World War I: the Regency Kingdom of Poland. After the end of World War I, the Central Powers ' surrender to the Western Allies, the chaos of the Russian Revolution and the Treaty of Versailles finally allowed and helped the restoration of Poland 's full independence after 123 years.
The terminology describing the partitions of Poland can be somewhat confusing, as the first three partitions are sometimes used to refer to the three dates on which Poland was divided (1772, 1793, and 1795) and sometimes to the three geographic divisions (the German or Prussian partition, Austrian partition, and Russian partition). The term "Fourth Partition '' has also been used in both a temporal and a spatial sense.
The term "Fourth Partition of Poland '' may refer to any subsequent division of Polish lands, specifically:
If one accepts more than one of those events as partitions, fifth and sixth partitions can be counted, but these terms are very rare.
The term "Fourth Partition '' was also used in the 19th and 20th centuries to refer to diaspora communities who maintained a close interest in the project of regaining Polish independence. Sometimes termed Polonia, these expatriate communities often contributed funding and military support to the project of regaining the Polish nation - state. Diaspora politics were deeply affected by developments in and around the homeland, and vice versa, for many decades.
More recent studies claim that partitions happened when the Commonwealth had been showing the beginning signs of a slow recovery and see the last two partitions as an answer to strengthening reforms in the Commonwealth and the potential threat they represented to its power - hungry neighbours.
As historian Norman Davies stated, because the balance of power equilibrium was observed, many contemporary observers accepted explanations of the "enlightened apologists '' of the partitioning state. 19th - century historians from countries that carried out the partitions, such as 19th - century Russian scholar Sergey Solovyov, and their 20th century followers, argued that partitions were justified, as the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth had degenerated to the point of being partitioned because the counterproductive principle of liberum veto made decision - making on divisive issues, such as a wide - scale social reform, virtually impossible. Solovyov specified the cultural, language and religious break between the supreme and lowest layers of the society in the east regions of the Commonwealth, where the Belarusian and Ukrainian serf peasantry was Orthodox. Russian authors emphasized the historical connections between Belarus, Ukraine and Russia, as former parts of the medieval old Russian state where dynasty of Rurikids reigned (Kievan Rus '). Thus, Nikolay Karamzin wrote: "Let the foreigners denounce the partition of Poland: we took what was ours. '' Russian historians often stressed that Russia annexed primarily Ukrainian and Belorussian provinces with Eastern Slavic inhabitants, although many Ruthenians were no more enthusiastic about Russia than about Poland, and ignoring ethnically Polish and Lithuanian territories also being annexed later. A new justification for partitions arose with the Russian Enlightenment, as Russian writers such as Gavrila Derzhavin, Denis Fonvizin, and Alexander Pushkin stressed degeneration of Catholic Poland and the need to "civilize '' it by its neighbors.
Nonetheless other 19th century contemporaries were much more skeptical; for example, British jurist Sir Robert Phillimore discussed the partition as a violation of international law; German jurist Heinrich Bernhard Oppenheim presented similar views. Other older historians who challenged such justifications for the Partitions included French historian Jules Michelet, British historian and politician Thomas Babington Macaulay, and Edmund Burke. Edmund Burke was alone in criticizing the immorality of this act.
Several scholars focused on the economic motivations of the partitioning powers. Jerzy Czajewski wrote that the Russian peasants were escaping from Russia to the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth in significant enough numbers to become a major concern for the Russian Government sufficient to play a role in its decision to partition the Commonwealth. Increasingly in the 18th century until the partitions solved this problem, Russian armies raided territories of the Commonwealth, officially to recover the escapees, but in fact kidnapping many locals. Hajo Holborn noted that Prussia aimed to take control of the lucrative Baltic grain trade through Danzig (Gdańsk).
Some scholars use the term ' sector ' in reference to Commonwealth territories consisting of Polish (not Polish - Lithuanian) cultural heritage as well as historical monuments dating as far back as the first days of Poland 's statehood.
The Ottoman Empire was one of only two countries in the world that refused to accept the partitions and reserved a place in its diplomatic corps for an Ambassador of Lehistan (Poland).
Il Canto degli Italiani, the Italian National Anthem, contains a reference to the partition.
The ongoing partitions of Poland were a major topic of discourse in The Federalist Papers, where the structure of the government of Poland, and of foreign influence over it, is used in several papers (Federalist No. 14, Federalist No. 19, Federalist No. 22, Federalist No. 39 for examples) as a cautionary tale for the writers of the U.S. Constitution.
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why was the 1862 battle of fair oaks virginia considered an early turning point in the civil war | Battle of Seven Pines - wikipedia
The Battle of Seven Pines, also known as the Battle of Fair Oaks or Fair Oaks Station, took place on May 31 and June 1, 1862, in Henrico County, Virginia, as part of the Peninsula Campaign of the American Civil War. It was the culmination of an offensive up the Virginia Peninsula by Union Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, in which the Army of the Potomac reached the outskirts of Richmond.
On May 31, Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston attempted to overwhelm two Federal corps that appeared isolated south of the Chickahominy River. The Confederate assaults, although not well coordinated, succeeded in driving back the IV Corps and inflicting heavy casualties. Reinforcements arrived, and both sides fed more and more troops into the action. Supported by the III Corps and Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick 's division of Maj. Gen. Edwin V. Sumner 's II Corps (which crossed the rain - swollen river on Grapevine Bridge), the Federal position was finally stabilized. Gen. Johnston was seriously wounded during the action, and command of the Confederate army devolved temporarily to Maj. Gen. G.W. Smith. On June 1, the Confederates renewed their assaults against the Federals, who had brought up more reinforcements, but made little headway. Both sides claimed victory.
Although the battle was tactically inconclusive, it was the largest battle in the Eastern Theater up to that time (and second only to Shiloh in terms of casualties thus far, about 11,000 total). Gen. Johnston 's injury also had profound influence on the war: it led to the appointment of Robert E. Lee as Confederate commander. The more aggressive Lee initiated the Seven Days Battles, leading to a Union retreat in late June. Seven Pines therefore marked the closest Union forces came to Richmond in this offensive.
Johnston withdrew his 75,000 - man army from the Virginia Peninsula as McClellan 's army pursued him and approached the Confederate capital of Richmond. Johnston 's defensive line began at the James River at Drewry 's Bluff, site of the recent Confederate naval victory, and extended counterclockwise so that his center and left were behind the Chickahominy River, a natural barrier in the spring when it turned the land to the east of Richmond into swamps. Johnston 's men burned most of the bridges over the Chickahominy and settled into strong defensive positions north and east of the city. McClellan positioned his 105,000 - man army to focus on the northeast sector, for two reasons. First, the Pamunkey River, which ran roughly parallel to the Chickahominy, offered a line of communication that could enable McClellan to get around Johnston 's left flank. Second, McClellan anticipated the arrival of the I Corps under Maj. Gen. Irwin McDowell, scheduled to march south from Fredericksburg to reinforce his army, and thus needed to protect their avenue of approach.
The Army of the Potomac pushed slowly up the Pamunkey, establishing supply bases at Eltham 's Landing, Cumberland Landing, and White House Landing. White House, the plantation of W.H.F. "Rooney '' Lee, son of General Robert E. Lee, became McClellan 's base of operations. Using the Richmond and York River Railroad, McClellan could bring his heavy siege artillery to the outskirts of Richmond. He moved slowly and deliberately, reacting to faulty intelligence that led him to believe the Confederates outnumbered him significantly. By the end of May, the army had built bridges across the Chickahominy and was facing Richmond, straddling the river, with one third of the Army south of the river, two thirds north.
The Union Army of the Potomac of 105,000 men was near the outskirts of Richmond to the northeast, straddling the Chickahominy River. There were three corps north of the river, protecting the Union railroad supply line: the V Corps under Brig. Gen. Fitz John Porter; the VI Corps, under Brig. Gen. William B. Franklin; and the II Corps, under Brig. Gen. Edwin V. Sumner. South of the river were the IV Corps, under Brig. Gen. Erasmus D. Keyes, in a position far forward and close to the Confederate lines; and the III Corps, under Brig. Gen. Samuel P. Heintzelman. At the start of the battle on May 31, McClellan was confined to bed, ill with a flare - up of his chronic malaria.
Johnston had 60,000 men in his Army of Northern Virginia protecting the defensive works of Richmond in eight divisions commanded by Maj. Gen James Longstreet, Maj. Gen D.H. Hill, Maj. Gen Benjamin Huger, Maj. Gen Gustavus Smith, Maj. Gen A.P. Hill (who had just gotten command of a brand - new division on May 27), Maj. Gen John B. Magruder, Brig. Gen David Rumph Jones, and Maj. Gen Lafayette McLaws. Just prior to the battle, Johnson appointed Longstreet, Smith, and Magruder as wing commanders. Longstreet had the left wing, consisting of his own division, D.H. Hill 's, and Huger 's. Smith had the right wing, consisting of his division and A.P. Hill 's, while Magruder had his division, Jones, and McLaws in the reserve wing. Brig. Gen Richard H. Anderson and Brig. Gen William H.C. Whiting had operational command of Longstreet and Smith 's divisions.
Johnston, who had retreated up the Peninsula to the outskirts of Richmond, knew that he could not survive a massive siege and decided to attack McClellan. His original plan was to attack the Union right flank, north of the Chickahominy River, before McDowell 's corps, marching south from Fredericksburg, could arrive. However, on May 27, the same day the Battle of Hanover Court House was fought northeast of Richmond, Johnston learned that McDowell 's corps had been diverted to the Shenandoah Valley and would not be reinforcing the Army of the Potomac. He decided against attacking across his own natural defense line, the Chickahominy, and planned to capitalize on the Union army 's straddle of the river by attacking the two corps south of the river, leaving them isolated from the other three corps north of the river.
If executed correctly, Johnston would engage two thirds of his army (22 of its 29 infantry brigades, about 51,000 men) against the 33,000 men in the III and IV Corps. The Confederate attack plan was complex, calling for the divisions of A.P. Hill and Magruder to engage lightly and distract the Union forces north of the river, while Longstreet, commanding the main attack south of the river, was to converge on Keyes from three directions: six brigades under Longstreet 's immediate command and four brigades under D.H. Hill were to advance on separate roads at a crossroads known as Seven Pines (because of seven large pine trees clustered at that location); three brigades under Huger were assigned to support Hill 's right; Whiting 's division was to follow Longstreet 's column as a reserve. The plan had an excellent potential for initial success because the division of the IV Corps farthest forward, manning the earthworks a mile west of Seven Pines, was that of Brig. Gen. Silas Casey, 6000 men who were the least experienced and equipped in Keyes 's corps. If Keyes could be defeated, the III Corps, to the east, could be pinned against the Chickahominy and overwhelmed.
The complex plan was mismanaged from the start. Johnston chose to issue his orders to Longstreet orally in a long and rambling meeting on May 30. The other generals received written orders that were vague and contradictory. He also failed to notify all of the division commanders that Longstreet was in tactical command south of the river. (This missing detail was a serious oversight because both Huger and Smith technically outranked Longstreet.) On Longstreet 's part, he either misunderstood his orders or chose to modify them without informing Johnston. Rather than taking his assigned avenue of advance on the Nine Mile Road, his column joined Hill 's on the Williamsburg Road, which not only delayed the advance, but limited the attack to a narrow front with only a fraction of its total force. Exacerbating the problems on both sides was a severe thunderstorm on the night of May 30, which flooded the river, destroyed most of the Union bridges, and turned the roads into morasses of mud.
The attack got off to a bad start on May 31 when Longstreet marched down the Charles City Road and turned onto the Williamsburg Road instead of the Nine Mile Road. Huger 's orders had not specified a time that the attack was scheduled to start and he was not awakened until he heard a division marching nearby. Johnston and his second - in - command, Smith, unaware of Longstreet 's location or Huger 's delay, waited at their headquarters for word of the start of the battle. Five hours after the scheduled start, at 1 p.m., D.H. Hill became impatient and sent his brigades forward against Casey 's division.
Hill 's division, some 10,000 men strong, came charging out of the woods. The 100th and 81st New York regiments had been placed up front as heavy skirmish lines, and Hill 's assault rolled completely over them. Casey 's line, manned by inexperienced troops, buckled with some men retreating, but fought fiercely for possession of their earthworks, resulting in heavy casualties on both sides. The Confederates only engaged four brigades of the thirteen on their right flank that day, so they did not hit with the power that they could have concentrated on this weak point in the Union line. Casey sent a frantic request for help, but Keyes was slow in responding. Eventually the mass of Confederates broke through, seized a Union redoubt, and Casey 's men retreated to the second line of defensive works at Seven Pines. During this period, both of the high commanders were unaware of the severity of the battle. As late as 2: 30 p.m., Heintzelman reported to McClellan, still sick in bed, that he had received no word from Keyes. Johnston was only 21⁄2 miles from the front, but an acoustic shadow prevented him from hearing the sounds of cannons and musketry and he and his staff did not know the battle had begun until 4 p.m. Hill, whose four brigades had been fighting alone for almost four hours, sent a message to Longstreet requesting reinforcements, but Longstreet sent forward only Richard Anderson 's brigade. Brig. Gen Robert Rodes went down wounded in the desperate fighting around Seven Pines. Col. John B. Gordon of the 6th Alabama, a future major general, took over command of Rodes 's brigade. Most of the officers in the 6th Alabama went down, although Gordon himself survived the battle without an injury despite his clothing and canteen being pierced by several bullets. Gordon also glimpsed his 19 - year - old brother Augustus, a captain in the regiment, laying among a pile of dead and dying men with a chest wound, but with the battle raging, had no time to stop and tend to him (Augustus Gordon ultimately survived his injury). Rodes ' brigade in total lost more than 50 % of its strength. Also wounded was Brig. Gen Gabriel Rains, a few days shy of his 59th birthday and one of the oldest officers in the Army of the Northern Virginia. Command of his brigade devolved on Col. Alfred Colquitt of the 6th Georgia, who would eventually be appointed permanent commander of the brigade.
The Army of the Potomac was accompanied by the Union Army Balloon Corps commanded by Prof. Thaddeus S.C. Lowe, who had established two balloon camps on the north side of the river, one at Gaines 's Farm and one at Mechanicsville. Lowe reported on May 29 the buildup of Confederate forces to the left of New Bridge or in front of the Fair Oaks train station. With constant rain on May 30 and heavy winds the morning of May 31, the aerostats Washington and Intrepid did not launch until noon. Lowe observed Confederate troops moving in battle formation and this information was relayed verbally to McClellan 's headquarters by 2 p.m. Lowe continued to send reports from the Intrepid via telegraph the remainder of May 31. On June 1, Lowe reported that the Confederate barracks to the left of Richmond as being free from smoke. McClellan did not follow up on this information with a counterattack by his corps north of the Chickahominy River.
Around 4: 40 p.m., Hill, now strengthened by the arrival of Richard Anderson 's brigade, hit the secondary Union line near Seven Pines, which was manned by the remnants of Casey 's division, the IV Corps division of Brig. Gen. Darius N. Couch, and Brig. Gen. Philip Kearny 's division from Heintzelman 's III Corps. Hill organized a flanking maneuver, sending four regiments under Col. Micah Jenkins from Longstreet 's command to attack Keyes 's right flank. The attack collapsed the Federal line back to the Williamsburg Road, a mile and a half beyond Seven Pines. Meanwhile, another of Longstreet 's brigades under Col. James L. Kemper, arrived on the field and charged the Union lines, but artillery fire forced them to retreat. The fighting in that part of the line died out by 7: 30 p.m. During the evening, Longstreet himself arrived on the field along with the remaining four brigades of his division, as well as the three brigades of Huger 's division. On the Union side, Brig. Gen Israel Richardson 's division of the II Corps arrived on the field, along with Joe Hooker 's division of the III Corps (minus one brigade and the division artillery which were left guarding the bridges over White Oak Swamp).
Just before Hill 's attack began, Johnston received a note from Longstreet requesting that he join the battle, the first news he had heard of the fighting. Johnston went forward on the Nine Mile Road with four brigades of Whiting 's division and encountered stiff resistance from Brig. Gen William W. Burns 's brigade of Couch 's division. Meanwhile, the commander of the II Corps, Brig. Gen Edwin V. Sumner, had brought his command into action from its entrenchments north of the Chickahominy. When told that crossing the rain - swollen river was impossible, Sumner replied "Impossible!? Sir, I tell you I can cross. I am ordered! '' The first II Corps brigade to arrive on the field was Brig. Gen William W. Burns 's brigade of Brig. Gen John Sedgwick 's division, which contacted Brig. Gen Wade Hampton 's brigade. After Hampton managed some initial success in forcing back Burns, the latter was quickly reinforced by the other two brigades of Sedgwick 's division. Brig. Gen. Robert Hatton, one of the Army of Northern Virginia 's newest brigadiers, having just been promoted from colonel of the 7th Tennessee a few weeks earlier, was shot in the head leading his brigade into action and died instantly. Hampton meanwhile was shot in the ankle, and Brig. Gen J. Johnson Pettigrew gravely wounded and left for dead on the field, later being taken prisoner by Sedgwick 's division. Repeated assaults on Sedgwick 's line were unsuccessful, and the latter 's artillery also pounded Whiting 's troops, who had no artillery to answer back. Hampton was forced to stretch his brigade 's line to near breaking point to prevent his left flank from being overlapped. Meanwhile, Whiting 's brigade, commanded by Col. William D. Pender, attempted to attack the Union artillery off to the right, but was cut off by Sedgwick 's infantry. With darkness approaching, over 1000 casualties, and most of his officers killed or wounded, Whiting called off the attacks. Sedgwick 's division had lost less than 400 men. Two of Magruder 's brigades reached the field at dusk, but had no involvement in any of the fighting. Whiting 's fifth brigade, the famous Texas Brigade of Brig. Gen John B. Hood, had not fought either; it had been sent off to reinforce Longstreet and was stationed in the woods some distance to the west of Fair Oak Station.
The most historically significant incident of the day occurred around dusk, when Johnston was struck in the right shoulder by a bullet, immediately followed by a shell fragment hitting him in the chest. He fell unconscious from his horse with a broken right shoulder blade and two broken ribs and was evacuated to Richmond. G.W. Smith assumed temporary command of the army. Smith, plagued with ill health, was indecisive about the next steps for the battle and made a bad impression on Confederate President Jefferson Davis and General Robert E. Lee, Davis 's military adviser. After the end of fighting the following day, Davis replaced Smith with Lee as commander of the Army of Northern Virginia.
During the night of May 31 - June 1, scouts in Israel Richardson 's division reported two Confederate regiments camped only about 100 yards away. Richardson declined to make a risky night attack, but had his troops form a line of battle just in case. By daybreak however, the enemy regiments had withdrawn from their exposed location. At 6: 30 AM, the Confederates resumed their attacks. Two of Huger 's three brigades, commanded by Brig. Gens William Mahone and Lewis Armistead (the third under Brig. Gen Albert G. Blanchard was held in reserve) assaulted Richardson 's division and momentarily drove part of it back, but Richardson 's men rallied. They were reinforced by Brig. Gen David Birney 's brigade of Kearny 's division, which had not been engaged the previous day as Birney had accidentally taken the wrong road and gotten lost. He was arrested by Heintzelman for disobeying orders and the brigade was temporarily commanded by Col. James H.H. Ward of the 38th New York (Heintzelman attempted to have Birney court - martialed, but a military tribunal cleared him of all charges and he was restored to command of his brigade two weeks later). After fierce fighting, Huger 's division was forced to retreat. In his official report of the battle, Mahone stated his casualties at 338 men. Armistead 's report did not give a casualty figure, but his losses were undoubtedly heavy as well. On the Union side, total losses in Richardson and Birney 's outfits numbered 948 men, including Brig. Gen Oliver O. Howard, whose right arm was shattered by a Minie ball, necessitating an amputation that kept Howard out of action for months. Approximately 60 % of Richardson 's total casualties came from Howard 's brigade. Pickett 's brigade, to the right of Armistead, lost 350 men. To the south, the brigades of Roger Pryor and Cadmus Wilcox were attacked by Hooker 's division. Although both brigades resisted stubbornly, the order was given to retreat, which they did with some reluctance. By mid-morning, the Confederates withdrew to Casey 's earthworks west of Seven Pines and the fighting ended.
Both sides claimed victory with roughly equal casualties, but neither side 's accomplishment was impressive. George B. McClellan 's advance on Richmond was halted and the Army of Northern Virginia fell back into the Richmond defensive works. Union casualties were 5,031 (790 killed, 3,594 wounded, 647 captured or missing) and Confederate 6,134 (980 killed, 4,749 wounded, 405 captured or missing), making it the largest and bloodiest battle of the war to date after Shiloh eight weeks earlier. The battle was frequently remembered by the Union soldiers as the Battle of Fair Oaks Station because that is where they did their best fighting, whereas the Confederates, for the same reason, called it Seven Pines. Historian Stephen W. Sears remarked that its current common name, Seven Pines, is the most appropriate because it was at the crossroads of Seven Pines that the heaviest fighting and highest casualties occurred.
Despite claiming victory, McClellan was shaken by the experience. He wrote to his wife, "I am tired of the sickening sight of the battlefield, with its mangled corpses & poor suffering wounded! Victory has no charms for me when purchased at such cost. '' He redeployed all of his army except for the V Corps south of the river, and although he continued to plan for a siege and the capture of Richmond, he lost the strategic initiative. Casey 's division was unjustly blamed for the near - disaster, and McClellan had Casey removed from command. The hapless division would play no further role in the campaign, being relegated to guard duty at Harrison 's Landing along the James River, and was left behind permanently on the peninsula after the Army of the Potomac returned to Washington D.C. in early August. An offensive begun by the new Confederate commander, Gen. Robert E. Lee, would be planned while the Union troops passively sat in the outskirts of Richmond. The Seven Days Battles of June 25 through July 1, 1862, drove the Union Army back to the James River and saved the Confederate capital.
After taking command, Robert E. Lee embarked on a reorganization of the Confederate army, breaking up and reassigning some brigades, nominating replacements for dead and wounded officers, and removing two brigadiers, Albert G. Blanchard and Raleigh Colston, who had failed to get their units into action during the battle and generally delivered a below - average performance. The change in leadership of the Confederate Army in the field as a result of Seven Pines had a profound effect on the war. On June 24, 1862, McClellan 's massive Army of the Potomac was within 6 miles (9.7 km) of the Confederate capital of Richmond; Union soldiers wrote that they could hear church bells ringing in the city. Within 90 days, however, Robert E. Lee had driven McClellan from the Peninsula, Pope had been soundly beaten at the Second Battle of Bull Run, and the battle lines were 20 miles (32 km) from the Union capital in Washington. It would take almost two more years before the Union Army again got that close to Richmond, and almost three years before it finally captured it.
Additionally, the battle is notable for being where Henry Wirz lost the use of his right arm, after being shot by a Minie ball while fighting as a private of the Confederate army. He was taken out of combat duty, eventually becoming the commandant of Camp Sumter, a Confederate prisoner - of - war camp notorious for its terrible conditions where nearly 13,000 Union detainees died. The camp became one of the best known horrors of the Civil War, and Wirz was later one of only two men tried and executed for war crimes during the war.
Coordinates: 37 ° 31 ′ 15 '' N 77 ° 18 ′ 15 '' W / 37.5209 ° N 77.3042 ° W / 37.5209; - 77.3042
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who made the most money on one tree hill | One Tree Hill (TV series) - wikipedia
One Tree Hill is an American television drama series created by Mark Schwahn, which premiered on September 23, 2003 on The WB. After the series ' third season, The WB merged with UPN to form The CW, and since September 27, 2006, the network has been the official broadcaster of the series in the United States. The show is set in the fictional town of Tree Hill in North Carolina and originally follows the lives of two half - brothers, Lucas Scott (Chad Michael Murray) and Nathan Scott (James Lafferty), who compete for positions on their school 's basketball team, and the drama that ensues from the brothers ' romances.
Most of the filming took place in and around Wilmington, North Carolina. Many of the scenes were shot near the battleship USS North Carolina and on the University of North Carolina Wilmington campus. The first four seasons of the show focus on the main characters ' lives through their high school years. With the beginning of the fifth season, Schwahn advanced the timeline by four years to show their lives after college, and he made it jump a further fourteen months from the end of the sixth to the start of the seventh season. The opening credits were originally accompanied by the song "I Do n't Want to Be '' by Gavin DeGraw. The theme was removed from the opening in the fifth season; Schwahn said that this was to lower production costs, to add more time for the storyline, and because he felt that the song was more representative of the core characters ' adolescent past than their present maturity. The credits then consisted only of the title written on a black background. The theme was restored for season 8, in response to audience demand, and was sung by different artists each week.
The series premiered to 2.5 million viewers and rose to 3.3 million in its second week, becoming one of only three shows to rise in their second episode during the 2003 -- 2004 television season. Season one went on to average 3.5 million viewers, and the second season was the highest rated in the series, averaging 4.3 million viewers weekly and a 1.9 Adults 18 -- 49 rating. The series received numerous award nominations, winning two Teen Choice Awards.
On May 12, 2009, it was confirmed that Murray and Hilarie Burton had declined to return for the seventh season, although accounts of what transpired vary. Their characters (Lucas and Peyton) had been two of the five main protagonists, and had provided one of its central love stories, throughout the show. On May 17, 2011, The CW renewed One Tree Hill for a ninth and final season, placing an order for 13 episodes. Bethany Joy Lenz (Haley) and Sophia Bush (Brooke) were signed as full - time regulars for one final season, and Lafferty appeared as a part - time regular. Murray returned for a special appearance during the final season, which premiered on January 11, 2012. The show is the fourth longest running series on The CW network, or the networks that came together to make it up (The WB and UPN), only behind Smallville, Supernatural, and 7th Heaven. The series concluded on April 4, 2012.
The main storyline in the early seasons is the relationship between two half - brothers, Lucas and Nathan Scott, who start out as enemies but bond as the show progresses. In the pilot episode, Lucas becomes a member of the Tree Hill Ravens (the high school basketball team) with the help of his uncle Keith. Nathan, the head of the team, dislikes Lucas from the start, and this becomes the basis of their rivalry. Lucas 's romantic interest in Nathan 's girlfriend Peyton Sawyer also strengthens their feud. Peyton 's best friend Brooke Davis tries to date Lucas, and Nathan attempts to date Lucas 's best friend Haley James. The story of Lucas and Nathan 's father Dan Scott is occasionally explored through flashbacks, which show his relationships with Karen Roe, Lucas 's mother, and Deb Scott, Nathan 's mother, and how he ended up with one woman rather than the other. He had a high school romance with Karen, resulting in Lucas 's birth, but he refused to claim Lucas as his son. Leaving Karen, he married Deb, and the couple bore Nathan. Seventeen years later, Deb begins a strong friendship and partnership with Karen against Dan 's will. In later seasons of the show, Dan and Deb get a divorce. Karen dates her college professor Andy Hargrove after losing Keith.
The first season deals with the first half of the main teenage characters ' junior year. The focus is on the rivalry between Lucas and Nathan during the state basketball championship. Other major storylines are Nathan and Haley 's developing relationship, the Peyton - Lucas - Brooke love triangle and the love quadrangle involving Lucas and Nathan 's parents.
The second season focuses on the second half of the characters ' junior year and sets aside basketball and explores new romances. Lucas dates Anna Taggaro, Jake Jagielski dates Peyton, and there is a love triangle between Felix Taggaro, Brooke and Mouth McFadden. This season also shows the disintegration of Nathan and Haley 's relationship because of Chris Keller, and the repercussions -- especially for Lucas -- of Dan 's hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, an inherited disease. Peyton deals with drug problems and the return of her biological mother and Karen starts the Tric club and begins a relationship with her school teacher Andy Hargrove. A troubled Deb struggles with a drug addiction.
The third season focuses on the characters ' first half of their senior year, and also has the return of basketball. It features the arrival of Rachel Gatina, who brings conflict to the romance between Brooke and Lucas when she sets out to date Lucas. Peyton deals with the return of her mom, and tries to get to know her when she finds out she is dying from cancer. Jake and Peyton 's relationship draws to a close and Peyton 's romantic feelings for Lucas resurface later in the season. Chris Keller returns and helps Nathan and Haley reunite, also causing damage between Brooke and Lucas. The later of the season sees Nathan and Haley plan their wedding. A major subplot consists of Dan 's efforts to solve the murder attempt that was made against him during the previous season 's cliffhanger. A major episode ("With Tired Eyes, Tired Minds, Tired Souls, We Slept '') involves most of the main cast in a hostage situation at Tree Hill High and culminates in Peyton getting shot in the leg, Jimmy Edwards committing suicide and Dan murdering Keith. At the end of the season finale after Nathan and Haley renew their vows he, Rachel, and Cooper are fighting for their lives after a car accident.
The fourth season features the second half of the characters ' senior year, and the love triangle of Peyton, Lucas and Brooke. Haley 's pregnancy is threatened by Nathan 's risky forays into gambling and loan sharks. Peyton is stalked by an impostor posing as her half - brother Derek and is saved by Lucas and the real Derek. Lucas looks for the truth behind his uncle 's death as he documents his life since joining the Ravens basketball team. Lucas and Peyton enter into an official relationship after the Ravens win the state championship, meanwhile Dan rekindles his romance with Karen, Brooke explores a romantic relationship with Chase Adams and a friendship with Rachel. Chris Keller makes an appearance, and the group enjoy a "real prom '' in a small town called Honneygrove after their original one is ruined by further interactions with the impostor who is known to everyone as "Psycho Derek ''. The season ends with the group 's graduation from high school, Lucas discovering that Dan killed Keith, and Haley and Karen having their babies.
The fifth season jumps four years into the future. The characters struggle with adulthood after college and return to Tree Hill for various reasons. Lucas, a published author, is in a committed relationship with his editor, Lindsey Strauss. This relationship turns into a love triangle when Peyton returns after a failed music career in Los Angeles. The marriage of Nathan and Haley goes into crisis as Nathan faces major depression after being seriously injured the night he was drafted into the NBA. Brooke looks for life beyond success in her work and struggles to get acceptance from her mother Victoria. Peyton, with help from Brooke, launches a music label. Lucas and Skills return to the Tree Hill Ravens as coaches and ask for Nathan 's help with star player Quentin. Mouth begins a relationship with his boss Alice, to get ahead in his job. He later settles down with Brooke 's assistant, Millicent Huxtable.
The sixth season features the progression of Peyton 's romance with Lucas as they reunite and deal with her dangerous pregnancy. Peyton meets her birth father, Lucas 's book is optioned for a feature film by Peyton 's ex-boyfriend, producer Julian Baker, and Nathan and Haley struggle to reach their dreams after being terrorized by Nanny Carrie who tried to kidnap their son Jamie and also held Dan hostage. Brooke is attacked in her store, leaving her scarred mentally. She later takes in foster child Sam. Star player Quentin is killed, leaving Nathan more determined to reach the NBA. Mouth and Millicent 's relationship hits the rocks when Mouth 's ex, Gigi, returns later in the season the pair reunite. Brooke battles with her mother for her company, and her attacker, who we find out is the guy who killed Quentin. Skills and Deb end their relationship. Dan comes to terms with his life and how much time he has left. Brooke enters a relationship with Julian.
The seventh season jumps fourteen months ahead. Rachel returns and two new regular characters are introduced: Haley 's sister Quinn and Nathan 's agent Clay. Lucas and Peyton have moved away, Quinn and Clay 's relationship develops after the death of Clay 's wife Sarah. Nathan 's NBA career is jeopardized by a growing scandal that also affects Haley. Dan becomes a motivational speaker with the support of his new wife, Rachel Gatina. Brooke releases her new clothing line in the midst of conflicts with Julian and Alex, a model she hired for her company. Millicent struggles with a drug addiction which causes Mouth to break it off with her. The second half of the season deals with Haley 's depression due to her mother 's death. At the end of the season, the characters travel to Utah for the premiere of Julian 's completed film, Haley announces she 's pregnant, Julian proposes to Brooke, and Clay and Quinn are shot by Katie.
The eighth season centers around the wedding of Brooke and Julian and the arrival of Julian 's mother Sylvia, Haley and Nathan 's pregnancy, Clay and Quinn survive their life - threatening attack, and Brooke losing her company. Mia returns and the romance between Alex and Chase turns into a love triangle, while Mouth and Millicent reconcile. Nathan returns to college, and struggles to fit in due to his professor. Nathan and Clay start a sports management company named Fortitude, which is a reoccurring theme during this season. A fierce storm reaches Tree Hill, endangering the lives of Brooke and Jamie. Katie returns to take revenge on Quinn. Brooke and Julian look into adoption and are connected to a pregnant teen who keeps her baby, leaving Brooke heartbroken. Haley gives birth to a baby girl and names her Lydia (the first name of Haley 's mother). Nathan discovers who was responsible for Brooke and Jamie almost drowning. Alex and Chase finally get together. Brooke becomes pregnant and has twins.
The ninth and final season deals with Haley facing multiple problems involving a busy Karen 's Cafe, putting up with Dan and searching for Nathan as he is kidnapped after returning from Europe. Brooke and Julian adjust to life as parents which leads Julian to make a life - changing mistake. A mysterious problem haunts Clay, while Quinn attempts to get him help. Clay is hospitalized at a sanitarium, where he meets his son, Logan, with the support of Quinn. Millicent is forced to deal with Mouth 's sudden weight gain, and Chase starts a friendship with Chris Keller. Chase Adams takes care of Chuck. Lucas returns to Tree Hill as Haley reaches out to him for help. The series ends as Tric celebrates its tenth anniversary while the Tree Hill family face new and exciting possibilities for their futures.
Schwahn originally planned to make One Tree Hill a feature length film with the title Ravens, the name of the show 's high school basketball team. However, he became convinced that it would be more interesting as a television series. He said the idea for the story came from his own personal experiences. As in the setting of the show, Schwahn went to school in a small town and played on a basketball team. He described himself as similar to the character of Mouth McFadden. Schwahn said that in designing the show, he created Lucas as "this underdog kid from the wrong side of the tracks '' who crosses over to the pretty and popular; he wanted to show the life of such a person in a basketball context, feeling that basketball was a great platform for telling stories.
The title of the show and the name of the fictional town where the series takes place are derived from the song "One Tree Hill '', which is named after the landmark in New Zealand. Most of the show 's episodes are titles of songs, bands or albums. Schwahn named the town "Tree Hill '' because, while he was writing the idea for the show, he had been listening to the album The Joshua Tree by U2. In the early days, fans often asked Schwahn why the show was named One Tree Hill when the town was just called Tree Hill. The question is ostensibly answered when Karen tells Lucas in episode 1.22, "There is only one Tree Hill... and it 's your home. '' The same sentence was said by Haley to Jamie on the roof of Karen 's Cafe in episode 9.13, the series finale.
One Tree Hill consists of various themes, such as love, friendship, rivalries and betrayal, and explores the reasons behind them. Neal Solon of DVD Verdict stated, "Much of the show is based on the mistakes the teens ' parents have made and the way these mistakes manifest themselves in the students ' lives. '' Two of the show 's most prominent themes have been basketball and romance.
Basketball is a core aspect of the show, helping to create an atmosphere of masculinity and attract male viewers. TheCinemaSource.com said of the show 's early seasons, "The only thing you might notice that 's strange is that the teens ' school lives are heavily focused on basketball and cheerleading. If they do happen to be in a classroom, the only teacher they have is Coach Whitey. ''
Schwahn stated of the basketball element, "A lot of times, the basketball games for us are like the crimes, or it 's the courtroom, the police precinct, or the medical operating arena -- it was like our home turf. '' He said the other shows rarely focus on the court case or medical problem being dealt with, but are more about the people. "For us, that 's what basketball was. It was never about playing basketball, but it was about what was happening to the people when this game or tournament was approaching. ''
In season 2, the basketball drama was completely removed from the series, as executives felt that the show was geared more toward a male audience. David Janollari, then entertainment president at The WB, attributed the show 's sophomore success partly to its shift in focus from a male - driven sports plot to expanding the stories of its girls. He felt they had time to "step back and learn from audience response '' and that Schwahn tailored the show toward the "core audience ''. Schwahn said, "Girls watch the show in large numbers. (In the first season), the girls were sort of appendages to the boys. '' Show producer Joe Davola and Schwahn agreed with the "sex sells '' and "skin to win '' sentiments. Less time on the basketball court could afford One Tree Hill more time for plots fueled by sex and drugs. Lack of basketball drama, however, meant a decrease in male viewership. In a 2006 interview, Schwahn said, "In the second TV season, we did n't play any basketball, which was the rest of their junior year, and I felt that the show suffered a little bit. ''
Schwahn made Lucas and Peyton 's love affair a central theme of the show, saying he "designed a world where Peyton and Lucas were meant to be together '' and that "the seeds were planted for (Lucas) to pick Peyton in the pilot -- in (that) first episode... When Lucas is at the Rivercourt at the end of that pilot, you know. I think we feel like this is the girl (who) is his soulmate. And, you know, the pilot ends with him saying, ' I 'll be seeing you. ' ''
Lucas and Peyton have been referred to as star - crossed. Schwahn described the theme of their relationship as "two kids that carry around the weight of the world quite a bit. Can they agree together to let go of that weight? The theme for Lucas and Peyton is, ' How do you learn to be happy when you 've spent so much time carrying grief around? Do you feel guilty for being happy? Is it OK to let it go? ' '' The couple was also given theme music to enhance the scenes where Lucas rescues Peyton (from despair, dangerous situations, or herself). The theme, titled "Saving Peyton '', was composed by John Nordstrom and first heard in the school shooting episode "With Tired Eyes, Tired Minds, Tired Souls, We Slept '', in which Lucas strives to save a dying Peyton.
Making Lucas and Peyton the central love story created an intense rivalry between their fans and those who would prefer him to be with or end up with Brooke. "(These) are two very passionate camps. And do n't think I do n't know it, '' acknowledged Schwahn. "I think sometimes one camp thinks they 're being ignored. '' Schwahn said that although he designed Lucas and Peyton to be together from the start, this did not preclude Brooke and Lucas ending up together, and that he was aware of the "great chemistry '' between their portrayers, real - life ex-spouses Murray and Bush. He was not stubbornly holding on to the idea of (Lucas and Peyton). Schwahn said the Peyton - Lucas - Brooke love triangle is also by design and became a staple of the show. "There is a huge fanbase dedicated to Brooke and Lucas, and sometimes (those people) feel a bit betrayed, just as the fanbase dedicated to Peyton and Lucas felt betrayed (in season 2 and parts of season 3) '', said Schwahn. "That tells me that we 've done things correctly -- that 's the strength of a love triangle. ''
The idea that fanbases could be betrayed was first expressed in the season 2 episode "Do n't Take Me For Granted '', in which Lucas says that a girl is "slipping away '' and he needs to confess his love for her, but shows up at Brooke 's house instead of Peyton 's. Most viewers (including Lucas - Peyton and Brooke - Lucas fans) could not relate the "slipping away '' line to Brooke, since Peyton had been the girl Lucas was in love with in season 1 and had since become estranged from him. Sources cited fans as pondering four questions: When was Brooke slipping away? Did Lucas simply mean he did not want to lose her? Was it a plot device to make it seem like Peyton? Or was it Peyton? Speculation that Murray and Bush 's marriage affected Lucas 's sudden change of heart, including whether or not Brooke and Lucas would be together, was also rampant. Schwahn stated:
That 's a much debated line... "I feel like she 's slipping away. '' Obviously, I planted it there and specifically then cut from his words to a close up of Peyton because I wanted to tell the audience, "Well, he 's talking about Peyton. Clearly, he 's talking about Peyton. '' As we know, that was n't ultimately where his journey led him and it 's been debated online and in certain circles that he never really said who it was. So there are camps that root for Lucas and Peyton and camps that root for Brooke and Lucas, and camps that root for others, which is all good for the show.
The show 's other prominent pairing, Nathan and Haley, emerged as a supercouple. James Lafferty, Nathan 's portrayer, said, "I think Nathan and Haley... Well Schwahn always says that he had that sort of as an ' ace in the hole ' the entire time. As he was writing the pilot script, he was planning on doing that, he really did n't know how it would pan out or what would happen. But, the fans have responded so passionately towards it, and I 'm not really sure why. '' However, Lafferty has said that there is a genuine relationship between Nathan and Haley: "It started as something sort of based on betrayal and deceit. It then kind of transgressed over into something based on actual true love. So, I think that it 's a transition that the fans really bought into, and I think that people really enjoy to watch. '' Schwahn called the couple "gold '' and said, "I love Nathan and Haley, and most of our audience does as well. '' He explained that Nathan and Haley 's fan base is strong because they have always been the most stable couple on the show, admitting that it confuses him when people ask when he is going to let them be happy. "They have a lot of obstacles come their way, '' said Schwahn, "but I see them growing -- especially with the jump (the four years that elapse between seasons 4 and 5) ahead and aging them a little bit -- I see them growing into some really great places, not only as individuals, but as a family. ''
Music plays a significant part in the plot and the movement of the scenes throughout the show. Schwahn revealed that each episode is named after a particular song, band or album that has something in common with the theme of the episode. Popular indie music has been featured on the show, and various artists have guest - starred.
Three soundtrack albums from the show have been released: One Tree Hill -- Music From The WB Television Series, Vol. 1, Friends with Benefit: Music from the Television Series One Tree Hill, Volume 2, and The Road Mix: Music from the Television Series One Tree Hill, Volume 3. A portion of the proceeds of the second soundtrack go to the National Breast Cancer Foundation (NBCF), tying in with a storyline on the show involving breast cancer. On November 13, 2008, iTunes published a soundtrack called Music From One Tree Hill, which contained songs from the sixth season.
Episodes follow a regular structure. An episode normally begins with a recap of events relevant to the upcoming narrative, although this is sometimes dropped to satisfy time constraints. During the first four seasons, the theme tune is played either immediately after the recap or after the first few scenes. Whenever an episode features sensitive or violent subjects, or when an episode 's running length is close to the total allotted time, there is no opening montage, but only One Tree Hill written on a black background. From the beginning of season 5, the theme song, "I Do n't Want to Be '' by Gavin DeGraw, was abandoned, and only the single white - on - black title was used. The theme was restored for season 8, sung by different artists each week. Schwahn 's reasons for removing the theme were various:
It 's interesting about the theme song. Not only is it costly -- and that never sort of drives what we do creatively, but I think fans do n't understand that there 's money on the table every time they hear the theme song. That sounds like a bullshit producer response, too, but that 's a part of it because every year our budget is pretty challenged. Knowing that, when I looked at the jump ahead, the four year jump, I felt like "I Do n't Wanna Be '' was very much an anthem for their adolescent lives. It was very much about who am I going to be and who am I and who am I going to be someday. Not to mention that it was 42 seconds of screen time that I knew I could use for story. So a lot went into the decision to drop the theme song, it was n't done lightly.
One Tree Hill is known for its numerous voice - overs featuring either literary quotes or characters reflecting on events of the episode. Most of them have been made by Chad Michael Murray 's character Lucas. However, other characters have done so several times. Guest stars Bryan Greenberg, Sheryl Lee, Torrey DeVitto, and Ashley Rickards have also done voice - overs for single episodes. Characters who interact with the main cast, such as Bevin, Chase, Shelly and Glenda, helped to narrate the joint episodes, being portrayed by Bevin Prince, Stephen Colletti, Elisabeth Harnois and Amber Wallace. As the show progresses, songs continue to replace voiceovers occasionally. At the beginning of season 7, Paul Johansson 's character, Dan Scott, has taken over the narrator 's role.
In 2008, a black and white episode on a Film noir theme was planned, to be written by Chad Michael Murray. Schwahn said, "I think that noir - themed is very risky, because I think that can be very dark and very guy - ish in its approach. I 'd say this is more Casablanca infused. ''
One Tree Hill starts in 2003 and has an ever more complicated timeline, which varies between contrasting with and corresponding to the real world. In the first season, the main teenage characters are aged sixteen. The first and second seasons cover one year, and the third and fourth seasons another, so the main teenage characters are nearly eighteen at the end of the fourth season. The timeline was further complicated in the fifth season, when the show was "dramatically retooled and set four years into the future -- after the characters (had) already graduated from college ''. The fifth season began shooting on July 30, 2007, and premiered January 8, 2008. In it, the characters were stated to be aged twenty - two. In 2009, Schwahn altered the timeline again, setting the seventh season fourteen months after the sixth, thus giving a better explanation for the somewhat abrupt departures of series leads Chad Michael Murray and Hilarie Burton.
Explaining the decision to start the series with the teenagers as juniors, Schwahn said, "Lucas and Nathan were important players on the (basketball) team, the most important, and I just could n't see that happening to freshmen. '' He also wanted to keep the characters in high school longer, saying, "I know a lot of the shows that we started with, the kids are out of high school now and into college and what have you, and I always thought that there was a loss of energy when that happened. It 's hard to have everyone go to the same college and everyone stay together for whatever reason, or you lose some of your principles. '' Schwahn wanted to reinvigorate the show. "The show in many ways has been refaced and reinvigorated. It 's very much a twenty - something show now with some relevant adult characters, and I really like that energy for the show, '' he said, and elaborated:
The reason that this compels me is, first of all, I can drop into a world that feels new and, yet, familiar. What I mean by that is this: you know the characters and you 've been with them for four years, but you do n't know what happened for the last four, and you can drop the audience into new situations. The (actors) can play closer to their age, and we 've done a lot of what we would do in college in high school, in terms of that accelerated behavior. The other cool thing it does, and this was not by design, I 'm not smart enough to design it this way, but the fact that Lucas and his mom and his dad, Dan, the fact that there was history, that we can always reach back and grab a piece of something over the last four years, like what happened with Dan and Karen, what happened before Lucas joined the team, etc. Like we dropped the audience into this world, but there was so much life before that, that you could always go back and grab a piece when you needed it. If Lucas is with a girl that we 've never met, or with Peyton, or with Brooke, or living with Haley and Nathan or whatever, how did that happen and what choices framed that?
Schwahn felt that altering the series in this way allowed the storylines to be a little more complex, and said the actors welcomed the change. One critic said, "The fifth season of One Tree Hill completely reinvented the series... It was a risky move, but one that ultimately paid off. ''
By the end of the seventh season, Schwahn and the production team assumed that the network had given the show its last season, decided on creating a "mini '' series finale in case the show was n't renewed. For the season eight finale, the episode spanned an entire year, showing the progression of Brooke 's pregnancy over the course of the episode. It was announced by the network a day after the finale that the show was to be renewed for a ninth and final season. The show features a further time jump of one year in the season opener, and a further flash forward in the series finale, showing Jamie playing a high school basketball game on the Tree Hill Ravens, his Jersey hanging on the wall with a plaque that reads "All Time Leading Scorer ''.
AT&T has been a sponsor of the show. An example includes allowing fans to text whether or not Nathan should kiss Haley 's sister, Taylor, in season 2, and having that be the storyline 's outcome. Sunkist is another sponsor; it is visible at concerts in episodes such as "Just Watch the Fireworks '' and "When it Is n't Like it Should Be, '' in the characters ' fridges, and often on the school 's vending machines. It held a contest to choose which town the characters would visit in "It Gets the Worst at Night '', and Honey Grove, Texas won.
In episode 4.04, "Ca n't Stop This Thing We Started '', Rachel takes part in a Maxim photoshoot, which mirrored a real - life photoshoot for Danneel Harris, Hilarie Burton and Sophia Bush in 2006. In episode 4.07, "All These Things That I 've Done '', CariDee English, winner of a challenge on America 's Next Top Model, played a small role as a model named Tia in a fashion show. In episode 5.17, "Hate is Safer Than Love '', Mia, played by Kate Voegele, agrees to take part in both Rock the Vote and a Starburst - funded concert. In 2008, The CW, Warner Bros. and Macy 's partnered to offer eight "passionate '' fans the chance for a walk - on role on the show and a weekend with the cast, billed as the "Ultimate Fan Weekend in Wilmington ''. In 2008, One Tree Hill was the only scripted show ranked among the top 10 shows with product placements according to Nielsen Media Research.
In 2009, Murray and Burton were confirmed as having declined to return to the series. For months, it was speculated that they would not be returning for the seventh season. Then, in February, The CW announced a series renewal without specifying which cast members had renewed their contracts. A video of Murray, seemingly unaware he was being filmed, saying the show was not bringing him back because they wanted to save money, and encouraging fans to rally behind him, intensified speculation. A video of Burton saying she would stay if she had creative control also surfaced, fueling speculation that The CW did not want to keep Burton on the show without Murray. To some fans, One Tree Hill without Murray and Burton sounded "kind of like Seinfeld without Seinfeld... and Elaine ''. It elicited skepticism from fans who consider the heart of the show to be the dynamic between their characters, Lucas and Peyton. A TVGuide.com poll found that nearly half of respondents, however, were willing to take a "wait and see '' approach to a revamped version of the series. In April, Schwann told a crowd in Paris that all of the actors had signed on for season 7, except for Murray and Burton. "They 're in negotiations right now and I know they 've been offered great things, and hopefully they 'll decide to come back '', he said. "If they do n't, that 's always a possibility... (the show) has made it through some of the riskier moves we 've done. '' In May, CW entertainment president Dawn Ostroff stated, "We tried to get them to stay; we would have been thrilled if they wanted to. '' She said that since Murray and Burton were moving on, Tree Hill now had to reinvent itself a bit -- as it did in 2007, with the four - year flash - forward. "A show going into its seventh year is very open to reinventing itself, '' said Ostroff. "And one thing I have to give Mark Schwahn a lot of credit for is that he has kept the show so fresh all these years. ''
Burton told Entertainment Weekly that there was a possibility that she would return for guest appearances if asked, and clarified what happened behind the scenes regarding her contract, stating, "(W) hen I hear that there 's turmoil or negotiations based on money, it kind of hurts my feelings, because it 's not what 's been going on at all. '' She said, "I think my fan base in particular knows that money is n't necessarily a big motivator for me, that 's why I work in the world of independent film. '' Burton had known for some time that she was leaving, adding, "For me, it was definitely an emotional decision. And a professional decision as well. I got really, really lucky. One Tree Hill was my very first television audition; it was a fairytale. I feel really lucky to have that level of success right out of the gate. '' Referring to a video she had sent to her fans, she said:
The purpose of that video was to dispel the rumors that were being circulated. I was on your end of it for a very long time when I worked at MTV, and I understand how the rumor mill works. Everybody wants a sensational story. People even back then were blaming it on money, and (on me) being high maintenance... Those rumors were really hurtful. Of anybody on the show, I was the one who was very excited about doing all the extracurricular stuff -- the mall tours, the radio tours, going to the upfronts... I loved my involvement with this show, and I really just wanted my fan base to know that I was n't turning my nose up at this wonderful opportunity I 've had for the last six years. There 's an ugly trend where actors think they 've surpassed the show that made them or the film that made them and badmouth it. I will never say a bad word about One Tree Hill. The entire shape of my world changed because of that show, so I 'll always be very affectionate toward it.
Criticism of how their characters, Lucas and Peyton, were written out of the series focused mainly on a lack of explanation about where they went, and the exit not having been morbid enough for a star - crossed couple. Although the episode featuring their departure is initially grim, the episode 's tone is drastically different by the end. Fans expected a tragic ending because of Lucas and Peyton 's star - crossed history and the show 's penchant for shocker - finales. MTV composed tragic scenarios for how to write the couple out of the series, but concluded by saying, "OK, OK. Maybe after all they 've been through in six seasons, these two deserved their happy ending. Lucas and Peyton, you were this generation 's Joey and Pacey: the overly dramatic couple we could n't help but root for. We 'll miss you. '' The exit was picked as one of the "12 most essential episodes of One Tree Hill '' in 2009 by fans at starnewsonline.com. Schwahn said:
I know there are a lot of fans who are going to watch to see how we explain Peyton and Lucas 's absence. (...) They 're traveling, they 're spending time with (Lucas 's mother) Karen and (her husband) Andy, they 're raising their child, he 's working on his book. They 're living their lives. I sort of buy that they 're out living their lives. I 've been very upfront with the studio and network in saying, Look, the audience may not accept a new version of the show. But we 've reinvented it a few times before. I do n't want to be dismissive of (Murray and Burton). But when you see the first couple of episodes (in the new season), you 're either in for this new show or not. So every week, to talk about Lucas and Peyton actually feels like it hurts us more than it helps us. Obviously, they were a huge part of One Tree Hill. But you move forward.
To fill the void of Murray and Burton 's departures, Robert Buckley and Shantel VanSanten were cast as Nathan 's agent Clay and Haley 's sister Quinn respectively. Austin Nichols, who plays Julian Baker, was also upgraded to series regular status. Plans for Murray and Burton to return to the series in Season 8 were confirmed. Schwahn said that the actors ' busy schedules could possibly prevent a return in time for Brooke 's wedding, but he hoped they could return later in the season. On December 7, 2010, Kristin Dos Santos stated that Murray and Burton would definitely not be back for Brooke 's wedding, but that they were still expected to return. In January 2011, Burton confirmed that she would not be returning. In August 2011, The CW revealed that Murray would return for a guest appearance in the final season. Burton did not return, as she was not asked back that time around.
In an attempt to improve Life Unexpected 's ratings by attracting One Tree Hill viewers, The CW aired a crossover event involving both programs on October 12, 2010. Beginning with One Tree Hill installment "Nobody Taught Us to Quit '', Haley James Scott (Bethany Joy Galeotti) and Mia Catalano (Kate Voegele) traveled to Portland (where Life Unexpected is set) to perform at the Sugar Magnolia Music Festival hosted by K - 100. Haley and Cate meet in the crossover and are "surprised to learn that they share a similar back story (as) mothers ''. "Music Faced '', the Life Unexpected episode of the crossover, also featured Sarah McLachlan, Ben Lee, and Rain Perry, whose song "Beautiful Tree '' serves as the series ' opening theme.
The show has received mixed reviews. Critics have compared it to The O.C. and Dawson 's Creek, but with a more masculine appeal, and a significant number of fans have debated the relative merits of One Tree Hill versus The O.C.. Lucas and Ryan Atwood have been noted for their similarities in being brooding blond male leads in a new environment, having a wealthy nemesis and falling in love with the nemesis 's popular girlfriend (Peyton / Marissa Cooper). Comparisons have also been made between Brooke and Summer Roberts for being dark - haired vixens and best friends of the popular female lead. Chad Michael Murray was originally chosen for the part of Ryan Atwood and had guest - starred on Dawson 's Creek as a minor character, which led to One Tree Hill referencing Dawson 's Creek in the first episode. "Where Dawson 's was about relationships, especially between boys and girls, One Tree Hill tries to be about masculinity, especially as negotiated through sports '', wrote Tracy McLoone of PopMatters, who predicted that, despite this, it would probably be pinned as a girl 's show. "This does n't mean boys wo n't watch it, just that they wo n't talk about it. '' Allison McCracken of flowtv.org, on the other hand, called it a "boy soap opera '', saying, "The new boy - centered soap employs ' feminine ' generic serial elements to explore male adolescence and relationships between males, often focusing around brothers or fathers & sons '', and, "The boy soap is as pleasurable a text for female viewers as television offers today. ''
Chris Carle of IGN said: "One Tree Hill, like The O.C. is helping to infuse network television with a much - needed renaissance of teen drama. The series is a bit less fun and more dramatic than Fox 's, and the themes and storylines hold a little more gravity than The O.C. 's sometimes soap opera dynamic, but it 's a solid show. '' Keith Helinski of Moviefreak.com disagreed with The O.C. comparisons, stating, "Ever so often I hear people refer to the show as The WB 's version of The O.C., but I disagree. Summerland is more like The O.C. with similar scenarios and settings, while One Tree Hill is more suited as a Dawson 's Creek knock off. '' He added, "In fact, story lines, characters, and even the themes are so similar that one would think One Tree Hill is like Dawson 's Creek: The Next Generation. ''
The Wall Street Journal said, "The WB 's One Tree Hill, a slick prime - time drama about a small town packed with hunky teenagers and simmering family secrets, is one of the fastest - growing shows on network television. '' The Star - Ledger commented, "One Tree Hill is a welcome surprise... Every choice it makes from pacing to photography to music seems just about right, and the casting is inspired. '' Alynda Wheat of Entertainment Weekly called the show a "guilty pleasure '' and said they had not had one "this guilty '' since Melrose Place. "Their relationships change so quickly you 'd need a spreadsheet to keep up, '' she stated. "As Brooke put it to Peyton, ' I think Nathan likes Tutor Girl, but I think Tutor Girl likes Lucas. And I know I like Lucas, and I do n't know who the hell you like anymore. ' '' However, Wheat criticized the lack of parents in most of the teenage characters ' lives. "Any time order threatens to reign, the writers ship out the parents -- to Italy, a boating accident, whatever, '' said Wheat. Daniel Fienberg of zap2it.com said that, though the show has all the elements that make for a good show about teenagers / young adults, "it 's also a show that has stubbornly refused to be categorized merely as a guilty pleasure and its myriad artistic pretensions -- Lucas 's Bartlett 's Familiar Quotations - spewing narration, Peyton 's (Hilarie Burton) pedantic lectures on indie rock, countless expositional monologues lifted from a Philosophy 101 lecture -- have often rendered it merely bad, rather than so - bad - its - good ''. Fienberg did, however, compliment the school shooting episode. Cynthia Boris of DVDVerdict.com, on the other hand, said, "One Tree Hill does n't claim to be anything more than it is. They acknowledge that they 're a teen fantasy complete with an appropriately emo WB soundtrack. ''
Ginia Bellefante of The New York Times criticized the show 's lack of insight into the consequences of teenage pregnancy. "In the wake of the discussion surrounding Juno and the horror over Jamie Lynn Spears, the show displays an almost aggressive aversion to moralizing about teenage pregnancy '', she said. "Refusing to lay out the grim consequences of premature motherhood, it seems as if it wants to make fans on either end of the political spectrum stick their heads in fiery hampers. '' Author Emily B. Anzicek said that pregnancy seems to be the only possible physical consequence for the residents of One Tree Hill and that discussion of STDs is non-existent, criticizing the "potential threat '' due to the amount of promiscuity, such as several characters having sex with people they hardly know. "Of all the episodes in the first three seasons, there are two mentions of condoms. One happens when Deb catches Brooke and Lucas at the drug store buying condoms and whipped cream '', said Anzicek. "The second happens in season two when Brooke throws a wedding reception for Nathan and Haley and decorates the room with condoms blown up like balloons. '' Anzicek said the teenagers, who are only supposed to be sixteen and seventeen at this time, are presented as very sexually - experienced, especially Brooke, and that the one exception is Haley.
Ian Arbuckle of Chud.com complimented the series on its musical aspect. "Pop music is built on repetition of themes and structures. Pop television follows a similar pattern, revisiting old plots with new characters in a sort of ' Here comes the new show, same as the old show ' mode '', he said. "One Tree Hill is firmly couched in both the pop television and pop music traditions. '' Chris Carle of IGN said, "Like the series itself, the offering is a little more adult (read: adult contemporary) and a little less fresh than other similar soundtracks. It 's not without its standouts, but overall the selection is plucked from the lighter fare on alt rock radio. ''
Regarding the show 's flexibility, Arbuckle stated, "One Tree Hill does n't focus exclusively on the teenagers, but also stretches out to include dedicated subplots for their parents and other adults. '' He said there is not much of a maturity gap between the two sides. "(In) stead, to keep the structure somewhat separate, the respective focuses are on different emotions. For the teens, it 's love; for the adults, it 's revenge. '' For example, one of the audience 's main concerns has been "Who should Lucas end up with? '' "If you 're a huge fan of One Tree Hill, chances are you 've had a debate at some point about who Lucas Scott should ultimately settle down with, '' stated Don Williams of BuddyTV.com. "... these shippers can be an extremely rabid bunch. There are some fans who want Lucas with Peyton, others who 'd like to see him go back to Brooke, and even a few who think that Lindsey was his perfect match. ''
The show 's first season was well regarded. "One Tree Hill: The Complete First Season is a surprisingly rewarding experience '', said Neal Solon of DVD Verdict. "Throughout its first season, One Tree Hill distinguishes itself from other teen dramas by dealing with more than just the backstabbing, backbiting, and backwards morals of today 's youth, '' he said. "Certainly, the show contains its fair share of this petty drama, but it also explores the reasons behind it. '' He gives the effect of the parents ' mistakes on the teenagers as an example. Solon felt that the Season 1 finale was strong partly because its creators did not know if the WB would renew the show. "The last few episodes bring some form of closure to the major story arcs, while leaving the door wide open for further development should the show continue. It is an artfully employed strategy that paid off, '' he said. Also reviewing season 1, Paul Cooke of DVDActive.com stated, "If you take the time to invest some emotional capital in the lives of the characters, you usually will find yourself absorbed in their trials and tribulations. One Tree Hill is no different, in fact, it may be notch above some of the other teen angst shows. '' Cooke added, "All of the actors are pleasant to look at, the storylines are interesting and the music is fresh and enjoyable. How could someone not enjoy this show? Do yourself a favour, and visit One Tree Hill. ''
Though season 2 is the show 's highest - rated season, it is also one of its most criticized. The complaints include: the loss of basketball, confusion over which girl is Lucas 's true love, backstabbing and plotting with nothing to make the show unique and Dan being turned into an almost cartoon - ish villain. "Dan is a jealous man, and the writers come dangerously close to making him nothing more than an evil man '', said Arbuckle. Amy Kane of Film.com called the character "the most ridiculous villain never to twirl a mustache ''. Though he called the plot - level elements satisfying, Arbuckle also criticized the dialogue, saying that the writers fail to convince with the slang or Black English of the teens, or the language of businessmen. He credited male viewers with watching partly for the physically attractive girls. In contrast, TheCinemaSource.com said of the show 's third season that the dialogue is "clever and sarcastic from the last word of a scene to the very first of the next. Whoever writes Dan 's witty comeback lines is hilarious ''. One of the more complimented additions to season 2 was the character Anna Taggaro, credited by AfterEllen.com as the first recurring bisexual character of color on television; though whether the character is "truly bisexual '' or simply gay is debated among fans.
Jeffrey Robinson commented, "As the show progressed, the focus changed to melodrama from backstabbing, scheming, murder attempts, love affairs / triangles. '' The season 5 timeline skip, showing the characters in their lives after high school and college, was successful. It is thought to have successfully avoided jumping the shark, and viewership returned to an all - time high. Ginia Bellefante of The New York Times, on the other hand, said, "Not one of the newly minted 22 - year - olds on One Tree Hill blogs or dresses coolly or speaks cleverly or gives any indication of having learned anything at all in college. '' She characterized the portrayal of twenty - somethings as "so wildly inauthentic and unfamiliar as to make watching it feel like foreign correspondence '', but added that "One Tree Hill is a no - arrogance, no - entitlement zone, and I 'm (shamefully) happy to pull up and park ''. AOL TV placed the show in its list of TV 's Biggest Guilty Pleasures.
The series premiere was watched by 2.5 million viewers and achieved a 1.9 Adults 18 -- 49 rating on September 23, 2003. The following week, it rose to 3.3 million and a 2.4 demo, becoming one of the three shows to rise in its second episode in the 2003 -- 2004 TV season.
The CW only attracts a fraction of the audience its competitors do. "So the strategy is super-serving a young coveted demographics. The network 's sweet spot is women 18 -- 34 and with a viewer median age of 33, it boasts the youngest audience among its broadcast competitors by almost a dozen years. '' Averaging 4.3 million viewers weekly, season two was One Tree Hill 's highest - rated season. During this season, the show emerged as one of The WB 's hits. "Of all the shows that they 've launched in the last two years, this one has the most traction '', said Stacey Lynn Koerner, at the time an executive vice president at Initiative, a media planning agency. "It does have an audience it 's connecting with -- a loyal audience that comes back week in and week out. '' The show was particularly popular among the young viewership. It became the first choice of prime - time television for teenage girls and was reported in January 2005 to be the program in Tuesday 's 9 pm time slot most viewed by women aged 12 to 34.
The series finale was the highest rated among women 18 - 34 (1.4 / 4) for The CW in more than a year. It was The CW 's best Wednesday night in adults 18 - 34 since premiere week which took place on September 14, 2011 and best adults 18 - 49 and women 18 - 49 ratings since December 7, 2011. Comparing to a year earlier, One Tree Hill 's last episode was up 50 % in adults 18 - 34, 40 % in women 18 - 34 and 33 % in adults 18 - 49. The first hour of the finale event, a series of interviews with the cast, garnered approximately 1.37 million viewers, with 1.42 million tuning in for the actual series finale.
Below are the seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of One Tree Hill on The WB and The CW.
Over its 9 - year run, One Tree Hill has been nominated for and won various awards, most commonly being honored by the Teen Choice Awards.
On February 7, 2007, Soapnet announced that it would broadcast reruns of The O.C. and One Tree Hill. The deal, made with the show 's production company Warner Brothers, stated that SOAPnet retained the option of picking up the fifth season for syndication. SOAPnet did so, starting to air season 5 episodes in January 2009.
In India, One Tree Hill premiered on STAR World India on February 27, 2013. STAR World India aired Season 1 -- 7 of One Tree Hill at 10 pm on weekdays and Season 8 -- 9 at 7 pm on weekdays. One Tree Hill ended its run on STAR World India on November 14, 2013. In Australia, One Tree Hill premiered on Network Ten in Late 2003, the channel aired seasons 1 -- 2 and 4 -- 6 with re-runs airing on both Network Ten and its Digital channel "Eleven ''. The show was aired in its entirety (Seasons 1 -- 9) on the paid service, Foxtel on the Arena channel. In Philippines, One Tree Hill premiered on RPN on March 7, 2007.
It is available on the internet streaming service Netflix until October 1, 2017.
Seasons 1 -- 9 of One Tree Hill were released on DVD in regions 1, 2 and 4, with commentary on selected episodes by cast and crew members, deleted scenes, gag reels and featurettes. Four box set collectors ' editions were released: the first in August 2009 containing the complete seasons 1 -- 6, and the second in August 2010 containing seasons 1 -- 7 and in 2011 seasons 1 - 8. On May 12, the complete box set of One Tree Hill was revealed, and released on June 11, 2012. This box set was initially for sale in the UK only; however, the set became available in Australia on October 31, 2012.
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how old do you have to be to smoke a cuban cigar | Smoking age - wikipedia
The smoking age is the minimum legal age required to purchase or smoke tobacco products. Most countries have laws that restrict those below a minimum age from legally purchasing tobacco products. However, many of these countries do not require a minimum age for smoking in public.
The federal law requires states to have a minimum age of 18 years for sale / purchase of tobacco products (21 U.S.C. § 387f. (3) (a) (ii)). State laws may extend this ban and also prohibit supply, possession and consumption to / by person underage. But most of the states do not directly ban the consumption of tobacco by a minor. The federal law requiring states to have a minimum purchasing age at 18 is enforced by withholding FEMA disaster and non-disaster grants from states that have purchasing ages under 18, and currently no state falls under that category.
Before June 9, the age to purchase tobacco was 18 years of age. Amended after the 2016 election it is legal for persons age 18 and older to buy tobacco products with no filter. (Cigars, e-cigarettes, chewing tobacco, etc.)
The minimum age of 15 years was introduced on November 11, 1890. The minimum age was raised from 15 to 18 on January 1, 1988. The minimum age was raised from 18 to 21 on January 1, 2016.
No Minimum age prior 1908.
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how many capital cities of indiam states contain the word nagar in their names | List of towns in India by population - Wikipedia
The entire work of this article is based on Census of India, 2011, conducted by the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, under Ministry of Home Affairs (India), Government of India.
Census of India (2011) states the following criteria in defining towns. They are:
Statutory Town (ST): All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee etc.
Census Town (CT): A Town according to Indian census is defined as
(a). minimum 5000 people populate Census
(b). 75 % male population working other than agricultural pursuits
(c). Density of population = 400 / km
Note: 2011 population includes only the Towns which are not cities.
Sources:
fa
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it's a new day it's a new life bryan adams | It 's a New Day (will.i.am song) - wikipedia
"It 's a New Day '' is a song produced and organised by rapper and producer will.i.am. It was released as promotional single on November 7, 2008 from political compilation album Change Is Now: Renewing America 's Promise,. Will performed the song for the first time on The Oprah Winfrey Show. The song was written as a tribute to President Barack Obama 's victory. It was used in an episode of the second season of Gossip Girl. A parody of the song was featured on the Boondocks episode "It 's a Black President, Huey Freeman. '' It was titled "Dick Riding Obama '', and featured will.i.am, rapper Thugnificent, Gangstalicious and a George Clooney lookalike debating whether Obama 's victory was really a success. A scene from the episode was released on YouTube before the episode aired as a form of viral marketing.
The song 's music video was released in November 2008, and features cameos by various celebrities, including:
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where does the name of kangaroo come from | Kangaroo - Wikipedia
4 species, see text.
The kangaroo is a marsupial from the family Macropodidae (macropods, meaning "large foot ''). In common use the term is used to describe the largest species from this family, especially those of the genus Macropus: the red kangaroo, antilopine kangaroo, eastern grey kangaroo, and western grey kangaroo. Kangaroos are endemic to Australia. The Australian government estimates that 34.3 million kangaroos lived within the commercial harvest areas of Australia in 2011, up from 25.1 million one year earlier.
As with the terms "wallaroo '' and "wallaby '', "kangaroo '' refers to a polyphyletic grouping of species. All three refer to members of the same taxonomic family, Macropodidae, and are distinguished according to size. The largest species in the family are called "kangaroos '' and the smallest are generally called "wallabies ''. The term "wallaroos '' refers to species of an intermediate size. There is also the tree - kangaroo, another genus of macropod, which inhabits the tropical rainforests of New Guinea, far northeastern Queensland and some of the islands in the region. A general idea of the relative size of these informal terms could be:
Kangaroos have large, powerful hind legs, large feet adapted for leaping, a long muscular tail for balance, and a small head. Like most marsupials, female kangaroos have a pouch called a marsupium in which joeys complete postnatal development.
The large kangaroos have adapted much better than the smaller macropods to land clearing for pastoral agriculture and habitat changes brought to the Australian landscape by humans. Many of the smaller species are rare and endangered, while kangaroos are relatively plentiful.
The kangaroo is a symbol of Australia and appears on the Australian coat of arms and on some of its currency and is used by some of Australia 's well known organisations, including Qantas and the Royal Australian Air Force. The kangaroo is important to both Australian culture and the national image, and consequently there are numerous popular culture references.
Wild kangaroos are shot for meat, leather hides, and to protect grazing land. Although controversial, kangaroo meat has perceived health benefits for human consumption compared with traditional meats due to the low level of fat on kangaroos.
The word "kangaroo '' derives from the Guugu Yimithirr word gangurru, referring to grey kangaroos. The name was first recorded as "kanguru '' on 12 July 1770 in an entry in the diary of Sir Joseph Banks; this occurred at the site of modern Cooktown, on the banks of the Endeavour River, where HMS Endeavour under the command of Lieutenant James Cook was beached for almost seven weeks to repair damage sustained on the Great Barrier Reef. Cook first referred to kangaroos in his diary entry of 4 August. Guugu Yimithirr is the language of the people of the area.
A common myth about the kangaroo 's English name is that "kangaroo '' was a Guugu Yimithirr phrase for "I do n't understand you. '' According to this legend, Cook and Banks were exploring the area when they happened upon the animal. They asked a nearby local what the creatures were called. The local responded "Kangaroo '', meaning "I do n't understand you '', which Cook took to be the name of the creature. This myth was debunked in the 1970s by linguist John B. Haviland in his research with the Guugu Yimithirr people.
Kangaroos are often colloquially referred to as "roos ''. Male kangaroos are called bucks, boomers, jacks, or old men; females are does, flyers, or jills, and the young ones are joeys. The collective noun for kangaroos is a mob, troop, or court.
There are four species that are commonly referred to as kangaroos:
In addition, there are about 50 smaller macropods closely related to the kangaroo in the family Macropodidae. Kangaroos and other macropods share a common ancestor with Phalangeridae from the mid-Miocene. This ancestor was likely arboreal and lived in the canopies of the extensive forests that covered most of Australia at that time, when the climate was much wetter, and fed on leaves and stems. From the late Miocene though the Pliocene and into the Pleistocene the climate got drier which led to a decline of forests and expansion of grasslands. At this time there was a radiation of macropodids characterised by enlarged body size and adaptation to the low quality grass diet with the development of foregut fermentation. The most numerous early macropods, the Balbaridae and Bulungmayinae, became extinct in the late Miocene around 5 -- 10 mya. There is dispute over the relationships of the two groups to modern kangaroos and rat kangaroos. Some argue that the balbarines were the ancestors of rat kangaroos and the bulungmayines were the ancestors of kangaroos. while others hold the contrary view.
The middle to late bulungmayines, Gungaroo and Wanburoo lacked digit 1 of the hind foot and digits 2 and 3 were reduced and partly under the large digit 4, much like the modern kangaroo foot. This would indicate that they were bipedal. In addition their ankle bones had an articulation that would have prohibited much lateral movements, an adaptation for bipedal hopping. Species related to the modern grey kangaroos and wallaroos begin to appear in the Pliocene. The red kangaroo appears to be the most recently evolved kangaroo with its fossil record not going back beyond the Pleistocene period, 1 -- 2 mya.
Europeans have long regarded kangaroos as strange animals. Early explorers described them as creatures that had heads like deer (without antlers), stood upright like men, and hopped like frogs. Combined with the two - headed appearance of a mother kangaroo, this led many back home to dismiss them as travellers ' tales for quite some time. The first kangaroo to be exhibited in the western world was an example shot by John Gore, an officer on Captain Cook 's Endeavour in 1770. The animal was shot and its skin and skull transported back to England whereupon it was stuffed (by taxidermists who had never seen the animal before) and displayed to the general public as a curiosity. The first glimpse of a kangaroo for many 18th - century Britons was a painting by George Stubbs.
Kangaroos and wallabies belong to the same taxonomic family (Macropodidae) and often the same genera, but kangaroos are specifically categorised into the six largest species of the family. The term wallaby is an informal designation generally used for any macropod that is smaller than a kangaroo or wallaroo that has not been designated otherwise.
Kangaroos are the only large animals to use hopping as a means of locomotion. The comfortable hopping speed for a red kangaroo is about 20 -- 25 km / h (12 -- 16 mph), but speeds of up to 70 km / h (43 mph) can be attained over short distances, while it can sustain a speed of 40 km / h (25 mph) for nearly 2 km (1.2 mi). This fast and energy - efficient method of travel has evolved because of the need to regularly cover large distances in search of food and water, rather than the need to escape predators. At slow speeds, it employs pentapedal locomotion, using its tail to form a tripod with its two forelimbs while bringing its hind feet forward. Kangaroos are adept swimmers, and often flee into waterways if threatened by a predator. If pursued into the water, a kangaroo may use its forepaws to hold the predator underwater so as to drown it.
Kangaroos have chambered stomachs similar to those of cattle and sheep. They regurgitate the vegetation they have eaten, chew it as cud, and then swallow it again for final digestion. Different species of kangaroos have different diets, although all are strict herbivores. The eastern grey kangaroo is predominantly a grazer, eating a wide variety of grasses, whereas some other species (e.g. the red kangaroo) include significant amounts of shrubs in their diets. The smaller species of kangaroos also consume hypogeal fungi. Many species are nocturnal, and crepuscular, usually spending the days resting in shade, and the cool evenings, nights and mornings moving about and feeding.
Because of its grazing, the kangaroo has developed specialised teeth. Its incisors are able to crop grass close to the ground, and its molars chop and grind the grass. Since the two sides of the lower jaw are not joined together, the lower incisors are farther apart, giving the kangaroo a wider bite. The silica in grass is abrasive, so kangaroo molars move forward as they are ground down, and eventually fall out, replaced by new teeth that grow in the back. This process is known as polyphyodonty and amongst other mammals, only occurs in elephants and manatees.
Despite having herbivorous diets similar to ruminants such as cattle, which release large quantities of methane through exhaling and eructation (burping), kangaroos release virtually none. The hydrogen byproduct of fermentation is instead converted into acetate, which is then used to provide further energy. Scientists are interested in the possibility of transferring the bacteria responsible from kangaroos to cattle, since the greenhouse gas effect of methane is 23 times greater than that of carbon dioxide, per molecule.
Groups of kangaroos are called mobs. Mobs usually have 10 or more kangaroos in them. Living in mobs provides protection for some of the weaker members of the group. The size and stability of the mobs vary between geographic regions, with eastern Australia having larger and more stable aggregations than in arid areas farther west. Larger aggregations display high amounts of interactions and complex social structures, comparable to that of ungulates. One common behaviour is nose touching and sniffing, which mostly occurs when an individual joins a group. The kangaroos performing the sniffing gain much information from smell cues. This behaviour enforces social cohesion without consequent aggression. During mutual sniffing, if one kangaroo is smaller, it will hold its body closer to the ground and its head will quiver; this is possibly a form of submission. Greetings between males and females are common, with larger males being the most involved in meeting females. Most other non-antagonistic behaviour occurs between mothers and their young. Mother and young reinforce their bond though grooming. A mother will groom her young during or after it is suckling. A joey will nuzzle its mother 's pouch if it wants access to it.
Sexual activity of kangaroos consists of consort pairs. Oestrous females roam widely and attract the attention of males with conspicuous signals. A male will monitor a female and follow her every movement. He sniffs her urine to see if she is in oestrus, a process exhibiting the flehmen response. The male will then proceed to approach her slowly to avoid alarming her. If the female does not run away, the male will continue by licking, pawing, and scratching her, and copulation will follow. After copulation is over, the male will move on to another female. Consort pairing may take several days and the copulation is also long. Thus, a consort pair is likely to attract the attention of a rival male. As larger males are tending bonds with females near oestrus, smaller males will tend to females that are farther from oestrus. Dominant males can avoid having to sort through females to determine their reproductive status by searching for tending bonds held by the largest male they can displace without a fight.
Fighting has been described in all species of kangaroos. Fights between kangaroos can be brief or long and ritualised. In highly competitive situations, such as males fighting for access to oestrous females or at limited drinking spots, the fights are brief. Both sexes will fight for drinking spots, but long, ritualised fighting or "boxing '' is largely done by males. Smaller males fight more often near females in oestrus, while the large males in consorts do not seem to get involved. Ritualised fights can arise suddenly when males are grazing together. However, most fights are preceded by two males scratching and grooming each other. One or both of them will adopt a high standing posture, with one male issuing a challenge by grasping the other male 's neck with its forepaw. Sometimes, the challenge will be declined. Large males often reject challenges by smaller males. During fighting, the combatants adopt a high standing posture and paw at each other 's heads, shoulders and chests. They will also lock forearms and wrestle and push each other as well as balance on their tails to kick each other in the abdomens.
Brief fights are similar except there is no forearm locking. The losing combatant seems to use kicking more often, perhaps to parry the thrusts of the eventual winner. A winner is decided when a kangaroo breaks off the fight and retreats. Winners are able to push their opponents backwards or down to the ground. They also seem to grasp their opponents when they break contact and push them away. The initiators of the fights are usually the winners. These fights may serve to establish dominance hierarchies among males, as winners of fights have been seen to displace their opponent from resting sites later in the day. Dominant males may also pull grass to intimidate subordinates.
Kangaroos have few natural predators. The thylacine, considered by palaeontologists to have once been a major natural predator of the kangaroo, is now extinct. Other extinct predators included the marsupial lion, Megalania and the Wonambi. However, with the arrival of humans in Australia at least 50,000 years ago and the introduction of the dingo about 5,000 years ago, kangaroos have had to adapt. Wedge - tailed eagles and other raptors usually eat kangaroo carrion. Goannas and other carnivorous reptiles also pose a danger to smaller kangaroo species when other food sources are lacking.
Along with dingos, introduced species such as foxes, feral cats, and both domestic and feral dogs, pose a threat to kangaroo populations. Kangaroos and wallabies are adept swimmers, and often flee into waterways if presented with the option. If pursued into the water, a large kangaroo may use its forepaws to hold the predator underwater so as to drown it. Another defensive tactic described by witnesses is catching the attacking dog with the forepaws and disembowelling it with the hind legs.
Kangaroos have developed a number of adaptations to a dry, infertile country and highly variable climate. As with all marsupials, the young are born at a very early stage of development -- after a gestation of 31 -- 36 days. At this stage, only the forelimbs are somewhat developed, to allow the newborn to climb to the pouch and attach to a teat. In comparison, a human embryo at a similar stage of development would be about seven weeks old, and premature babies born at less than 23 weeks are usually not mature enough to survive. When the joey is born, it is about the size of a lima bean. The joey will usually stay in the pouch for about nine months (180 -- 320 days for the Western Grey) before starting to leave the pouch for small periods of time. It is usually fed by its mother until reaching 18 months.
The female kangaroo is usually pregnant in permanence, except on the day she gives birth; however, she has the ability to freeze the development of an embryo until the previous joey is able to leave the pouch. This is known as diapause, and will occur in times of drought and in areas with poor food sources. The composition of the milk produced by the mother varies according to the needs of the joey. In addition, the mother is able to produce two different kinds of milk simultaneously for the newborn and the older joey still in the pouch.
Unusually, during a dry period, males will not produce sperm, and females will only conceive if enough rain has fallen to produce a large quantity of green vegetation.
Kangaroos and wallabies have large, elastic tendons in their hind legs. They store elastic strain energy in the tendons of their large hind legs, providing most of the energy required for each hop by the spring action of the tendons rather than by any muscular effort. This is true in all animal species which have muscles connected to their skeletons through elastic elements such as tendons, but the effect is more pronounced in kangaroos.
There is also a link between the hopping action and breathing: as the feet leave the ground, air is expelled from the lungs; bringing the feet forward ready for landing refills the lungs, providing further energy efficiency. Studies of kangaroos and wallabies have demonstrated, beyond the minimum energy expenditure required to hop at all, increased speed requires very little extra effort (much less than the same speed increase in, say, a horse, dog or human), and the extra energy is required to carry extra weight. For kangaroos, the key benefit of hopping is not speed to escape predators -- the top speed of a kangaroo is no higher than that of a similarly sized quadruped, and the Australian native predators are in any case less fearsome than those of other countries -- but economy: in an infertile country with highly variable weather patterns, the ability of a kangaroo to travel long distances at moderately high speed in search of food sources is crucial to survival.
New research has revealed that a kangaroos tail acts as a third leg rather than just a balancing strut. Kangaroos have a unique three - stage walk where they plant their front legs and tail first, then push off their tail, followed lastly by the back legs. The propulsive force of the tail is equal to that of both the front and hind legs combined and performs as much work as what a human leg walking can at the same speed.
A DNA sequencing project of the genome of a member of the kangaroo family, the tammar wallaby, was started in 2004. It was a collaboration between Australia (mainly funded by the state of Victoria) and the National Institutes of Health in the US. The tammar 's genome was fully sequenced in 2011. The genome of a marsupial such as the kangaroo is of great interest to scientists studying comparative genomics, because marsupials are at an ideal degree of evolutionary divergence from humans: mice are too close and have not developed many different functions, while birds are genetically too remote. The dairy industry has also expressed some interest in this project.
Eye disease is rare but not new among kangaroos. The first official report of kangaroo blindness took place in 1994, in central New South Wales. The following year, reports of blind kangaroos appeared in Victoria and South Australia. By 1996, the disease had spread "across the desert to Western Australia ''. Australian authorities were concerned the disease could spread to other livestock and possibly humans. Researchers at the Australian Animal Health Laboratories in Geelong detected a virus called the Wallal virus in two species of midges, believed to have been the carriers. Veterinarians also discovered fewer than 3 % of kangaroos exposed to the virus developed blindness.
Kangaroo reproduction is similar to that of opossums. The egg (still contained in the evolutionary remnant of a shell, a few micrometres thick, and with only a small quantity of yolk within it) descends from the ovary into the uterus. There it is fertilised and quickly develops into a neonate. Even in the largest kangaroo (the red kangaroo) the neonate emerges after only 33 days. Usually, only one young is born at a time. It is blind, hairless, and only a few centimetres long; its hindlegs are mere stumps; it instead uses its more developed forelegs to climb its way through the thick fur on its mother 's abdomen into the pouch, which takes about three to five minutes. Once in the pouch, it fastens onto one of the four teats and starts to feed. Almost immediately, the mother 's sexual cycle starts again. Another egg descends into the uterus and she becomes sexually receptive. Then, if she mates and a second egg is fertilised, its development is temporarily halted. Meanwhile, the neonate in the pouch grows rapidly. After about 190 days, the baby (joey) is sufficiently large and developed to make its full emergence out of the pouch, after sticking its head out for a few weeks until it eventually feels safe enough to fully emerge. From then on, it spends increasing time in the outside world and eventually, after about 235 days, it leaves the pouch for the last time. The lifespan of kangaroos averages at six years in the wild to in excess of 20 years in captivity, varying by species. Most individuals, however, do not reach maturity in the wild.
The kangaroo has always been a very important animal for Australian Aborigines, for its meat, hide, bone, and tendon. Kangaroo hides were also sometimes used for recreation; in particular there are accounts of some tribes (Kurnai) using stuffed kangaroo scrotum as a ball for the traditional football game of marngrook. In addition, there were important Dreaming stories and ceremonies involving the kangaroo. Aherrenge is a current kangaroo dreaming site in the Northern Territory.
Unlike many of the smaller macropods, kangaroos have fared well since European settlement. European settlers cut down forests to create vast grasslands for sheep and cattle grazing, added stock watering points in arid areas, and have substantially reduced the number of dingoes.
Kangaroos are shy and retiring by nature, and in normal circumstances present no threat to humans. In 2003, Lulu, an eastern grey which had been hand - reared, saved a farmer 's life by alerting family members to his location when he was injured by a falling tree branch. She received the RSPCA Australia National Animal Valour Award on 19 May 2004.
There are very few records of kangaroos attacking humans without provocation; however, several such unprovoked attacks in 2004 spurred fears of a rabies - like disease possibly affecting the marsupials. The only reliably documented case of a fatality from a kangaroo attack occurred in New South Wales, in 1936. A hunter was killed when he tried to rescue his two dogs from a heated fray. Other suggested causes for erratic and dangerous kangaroo behaviour include extreme thirst and hunger. In July 2011, a male red kangaroo attacked a 94 - year - old woman in her own backyard as well as her son and two police officers responding to the situation. The kangaroo was capsicum sprayed (pepper sprayed) and later put down after the attack.
A collision with a vehicle is capable of killing a kangaroo. Kangaroos dazzled by headlights or startled by engine noise often leap in front of cars. Since kangaroos in mid-bound can reach speeds of around 50 km / h (31 mph) and are relatively heavy, the force of impact can be severe. Small vehicles may be destroyed, while larger vehicles may suffer engine damage. The risk of harm or death to vehicle occupants is greatly increased if the windscreen is the point of impact. As a result, "kangaroo crossing '' signs are commonplace in Australia.
Vehicles that frequent isolated roads, where roadside assistance may be scarce, are often fitted with "roo bars '' to minimise damage caused by collision. Bonnet - mounted devices, designed to scare wildlife off the road with ultrasound and other methods, have been devised and marketed.
If a female is the victim of a collision, animal welfare groups ask that her pouch be checked for any surviving joey, in which case it may be removed to a wildlife sanctuary or veterinary surgeon for rehabilitation. Likewise, when an adult kangaroo is injured in a collision, a vet, the RSPCA Australia or the National Parks and Wildlife Service can be consulted for instructions on proper care. In New South Wales, rehabilitation of kangaroos is carried out by volunteers from WIRES. Council road signs often list phone numbers for callers to report injured animals.
The kangaroo is a recognisable symbol of Australia. The kangaroo and emu feature on the Australian Coat of Arms. Kangaroos have also been featured on coins, most notably the five kangaroos on the Australian one dollar coin. The Australian Made logo consists of a golden kangaroo in a green triangle to show that a product is grown or made in Australia.
The kangaroo and wallaby feature predominantly in Australian sports teams names and mascots. Examples include the Australian national rugby league team (the Kangaroos) and the Australian national rugby union team (the Wallabies). Australia 's national airline, Qantas, uses a bounding kangaroo for its logo.
Kangaroos are well represented in films, television, books, toys and souvenirs around the world. Skippy the Bush Kangaroo was the star of the popular 1960s Australian children 's television series of the same name. Kangaroos are featured in the Rolf Harris song Tie Me Kangaroo Down, Sport and several Christmas carols.
Historically, the kangaroo has been a source of food for indigenous Australians. Kangaroo meat is high in protein and low in fat (about 2 %). Kangaroo meat has a high concentration of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) compared with other foods, and is a rich source of vitamins and minerals. Low fat diets rich in CLA have been studied for their potential in reducing obesity and atherosclerosis.
Most kangaroo meat is currently sourced from wild animals as a byproduct of population control programs. Kangaroos are hunted by licensed shooters in accordance with a strict code of practice and are protected by state and federal legislation. Kangaroo meat is exported to many countries around the world.
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who chaired the commission of human rights from 1946 to 1951 | United Nations Commission on Human Rights - wikipedia
The United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) was a functional commission within the overall framework of the United Nations from 1946 until it was replaced by the United Nations Human Rights Council in 2006. It was a subsidiary body of the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), and was also assisted in its work by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNOHCHR). It was the UN 's principal mechanism and international forum concerned with the promotion and protection of human rights.
On 15 March 2006, the UN General Assembly voted overwhelmingly to replace UNCHR with the UN Human Rights Council.
The UNCHR was established in 1946 by ECOSOC, and was one of the first two "Functional Commissions '' set up within the early UN structure (the other being the Commission on the Status of Women). It was a body created under the terms of the United Nations Charter (specifically, under Article 68) to which all UN member states are signatories.
It met for the first time in January 1947 and established a drafting committee for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was adopted by the United Nations on December 10, 1948.
The body went through two distinct phases. From 1947 to 1967, it followed the policy of absenteeism, which meant that the Commission would concentrate on promoting human rights and helping states elaborate treaties, but not on investigating or condemning violators. It was a period of strict observance of the sovereignty principle.
In 1967, the Commission adopted interventionism as its policy. The context of the decade was of decolonization of Africa and Asia, and many countries of the continent pressed for a more active UN policy on human rights issues, especially in light of massive violations in apartheid South Africa. The new policy meant that the Commission would also investigate and produce reports on violations.
To allow better fulfillment of this new policy, other changes took place. In the 1970s, the possibility of geographically - oriented workgroups was created. These groups would specialize their activities on the investigation of violations on a given region or even a single country, as was the case with Chile. With the 1980s came the creation of theme - oriented workgroups, which would specialize in specific types of abuses.
None of these measures, however, were able to make the Commission as effective as desired, mainly because of the presence of human rights violators and the politicization of the body. During the following years until its extinction, the UNCHR became increasingly discredited among activists and governments alike.
The Commission held its final meeting in Geneva on March 27, 2006 and was replaced by the United Nations Human Rights Council in the same year.
The Commission on Human Rights was intended to examine, monitor and publicly report on human rights situations in specific countries or territories (known as country mechanisms or mandates) as well as on major phenomena of human rights violations worldwide (known as thematic mechanisms or mandates). The Human Rights division of the U.N. is also expected to uphold and protect the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
At the time it was extinguished, the Commission consisted of representatives drawn from 53 member states, elected by the members of ECOSOC. There were no permanent members; each year (usually in May) approximately a third of the seats of the Commission would come up for election, and the representatives were appointed for a three - year term.
Seats on the Commission were apportioned by region, using the mechanism of the United Nations Regional Groups. During its last year of service in 2005, the representation by region was as follows:
The Commission would meet each year in regular session for six weeks during March and April in Geneva, Switzerland. In January 2004, Australia was elected as chair of the 60th Session. In January 2005, Indonesia was elected chair of the 61st Session. Peru was elected chair of the 62nd Session in January 2006. The Commission held its final meeting in Geneva on March 27, 2006.
In 1999 the Economic and Social Council changed its title from the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities to the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights ".
The Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights was the main subsidiary body of the Commission on Human Rights. It was composed of twenty - six experts whose responsibility was to undertake studies, particularly in light of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and make recommendations to the Commission concerning the prevention of discrimination of any kind relating to human rights and fundamental freedoms and the protection of racial, national, religious and linguistic minorities. Membership was selected with regard to equitable geographical distribution.
The Sub-Commission established seven Working Groups that investigate specific human rights concerns, including:
The United Nations Human Rights Council assumed responsibility for the Sub-Commission when it replaced the Commission on Human Rights in 2006.
The Commission on Human Rights established 30 special procedures, or mechanisms, to address specific country situations or thematic issues such as freedom of expression and opinion, torture, the right to food, and the right to education.
Individuals with expertise in particular areas of human rights were appointed by the chair of the Commission to serve as Special Rapporteurs for a maximum of six years. They are unpaid, independent experts who receive personnel and logistical support from the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights for their work. Their main activities are to examine, monitor, advise and publicly report on human rights situations in specific countries or territories. They are able to write to governments about reported violations and conduct fact - finding visits to countries that invite them.
The special mechanisms are categorised according to:
Special procedures also include working groups made up of up to five experts who monitor and investigate specific human rights concerns. Three groups were established by the Commission:
The special procedures are now under the direction of the United Nations Human Rights Council.
The Commission was repeatedly criticized for the composition of its membership. In particular, several of its member countries themselves had dubious human rights records, including states whose representatives had been elected to chair the commission.
Another criticism was that the Commission did not engage in constructive discussion of human rights issues, but was a forum for politically selective finger - pointing and criticism. The desire of states with problematic human rights records to be elected to the Commission was viewed largely as a way to defend themselves from such attacks.
Activist groups had long expressed concern over the memberships of the People 's Republic of China, Zimbabwe, Russia, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan, and the past memberships of Algeria, Syria, Libya, Uganda and Vietnam on the Commission. These countries had extensive records of human rights violations, and one concern was that by working against resolutions on the commission condemning human rights violations, they indirectly promoted despotism and domestic repression.
On May 4, 2004, United States ambassador Sichan Siv walked out of the Commission following the uncontested election of Sudan to the commission, calling it an "absurdity '' in light of Sudan 's ethnic cleansing in the Darfur region. One major consequence of the election of Sudan to the Commission was the lack of willingness for some countries to work through the commission. Indeed, on July 30, 2004, it was the United Nations Security Council, not the Commission, that passed a resolution -- by 13 -- 0, with China and Pakistan abstaining -- threatening Sudan with unspecified sanctions if the situation in the Darfur region did not improve within the following 30 days. The reasons given for the action were the attacks by the Janjaweed Arab militias of Sudan on the non-Arab African Muslim population of Darfur, a region in western Sudan.
The commission had also come under repeated criticism from the United States for its unwillingness to address real human rights concerns. In 2002, the United States was kicked off the commission by the other member states, many of whom have been criticized for their human rights violations, and in 2003 Syria put forward a proposal to discuss US war crimes in Iraq. But journalist Anne Applebaum wrote, "the European Union and the United States are n't exempt from blame, either '', citing their hesitance in voting to criticize Russia 's actions in Chechnya.
The Commission was also criticized by advocates of Israel for bias against Israel. In 2002 Anne Bayefsky, a professor of international law at York University in Toronto, wrote that "commission members seek to avoid directly criticizing states with human rights problems, frequently by focusing on Israel, a state that, according to analysis of summary records, has for over 30 years occupied 15 percent of commission time and has been the subject of a third of country - specific resolutions ''. On April 15, 2002, the Commission approved a resolution affirming the "legitimate right of the Palestinian people to resist the Israeli occupation in order to free its land and be able to exercise its right of self - determination ''. In so doing, the Palestinian people was declared "fulfilling its mission, one of the goals and purposes of the United Nations ''. Of the 53 - member commission, 40 countries voted yes, five voted no, and seven abstained. Although widely reported that the resolution condoned resistance to Israel by "all available means, including armed struggle '', the resolution itself does not contain those words. Alfred Moses, a former United States ambassador to the commission and now chairman of the monitoring group UN Watch, said that "A vote in favour of this resolution is a vote for Palestinian terrorism. '' In a letter to the UNHRC on November 15, 2002, following an attack by Palestinians on Israelis in the town of Hebron, Nabil Ramlawi, the permanent observer for Palestine at the U.N., appealed to the resolution as justification for the attack.
In 1977, the commission formed a "Sub-Commission to study, with a view to formulating guidelines, if possible, the question of the protection of those detained on the grounds of mental ill - health against treatment that might adversely affect the human personality and its physical and intellectual integrity ''. The sub-commission was charged with "determin (ing) whether adequate grounds existed for detaining persons on the grounds of mental ill - health ''.
The guidelines that resulted have been criticized for failing to protect the rights of involuntary patients.
The United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) passed a number of resolutions concerning genocide, these were: UNCHR Decision 9 (XXXV).
1986 / 18; 1987 / 25; 1988 / 28; 1989 / 16; 1990 / 19; "Fiftieth Anniversary of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide '', 1998 / 10; and "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide '', 1999 / 67.
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when does jim and pam get together in the office | Pam Beesly - wikipedia
Pamela Morgan Halpert (née Beesly) is a fictional character on the U.S. television sitcom The Office, played by Jenna Fischer. Her counterpart in the original UK series of The Office is Dawn Tinsley. Her character is initially the receptionist at the paper distribution company Dunder Mifflin, before becoming a saleswoman and eventually office administrator until her termination in the series finale. Her character is shy, growing assertive but amiable, and artistically inclined, and shares romantic interest with Jim Halpert, whom she begins dating in the fourth season and marries and starts a family with as the series continues.
The character was originally created to be very similar to the British counterpart, Dawn Tinsley. Even minute details, such as how Pam wore her hair each day, were considered by executive producer, Greg Daniels.
"When I went in for The Office, the casting director said to me, ' Please look normal ', '' recalls Jenna Fischer. "Do n't make yourself all pretty, and dare to bore me with your audition. Those were her words. Dare to bore me. ''
Heeding the advice, Fischer said little during the auditions, during which she was interviewed in character by show producers, in an improvisational format, to imitate the show 's documentary premise. "My take on the character of Pam was that she did n't have any media training, so she did n't know how to be a good interview. And also, she did n't care about this interview, '' she told NPR. "So, I gave very short one - word answers and I tried very hard not to be funny or clever, because I thought that the comedy would come out of just, you know, the real human reactions to the situation... and they liked that take on it. ''
"When I went in to the audition, the first question that they asked me in the character of Pam -- they said, ' Do you like working as a receptionist? ' I said, ' No. ' And that was it. I did n't speak any more than that. And they started laughing. ''
Fischer found herself creating a very elaborate backstory for the character. For the first few seasons, she kept a list of the character history revealed on - screen by the creators, as well as her own imaginative thoughts on Pam 's history. She created a rule with the set 's hair and make - up department that it could n't look as though it took Pam more than 30 minutes to do her hair, and she formulated ideas as to who gave Pam each piece of jewelry she wore or where she went to college. Fischer also carefully crafted Pam 's quiet persona. "Well, my character of Pam is really stuck, '' she explained to NPR. "I mean, she 's a subordinate in this office. And so, I think that for her, the only way she can express herself is in the silences, but you can say so much by not saying anything. ''
Originally meek and passive, the character grew more assertive as the seasons passed, prompting Fischer to reassess her portrayal. "I have to approach Pam differently (now), '' she explained in Season 4, a defining season in which her character finally begins a long - awaited relationship with Jim and is accepted into the Pratt Institute. "She is in a loving relationship, she has found her voice, she has started taking art classes. All of these things must inform the character and we need to see changes in the way she moves, speaks, dresses, etc. ''
At the beginning of the series, Pam and Roy have been dating for eight years and engaged for three years. Their open - ended engagement has become one of Michael 's running gags and a sore spot for Pam.
Pam does not want her current job to become permanent, remarking that "I do n't think it 's many little girls ' dream to be a receptionist. '' Pam is apathetic toward her work, evidenced by her frequent games of FreeCell on her office computer. However, in the pilot episode, she breaks down crying when Michael pulls an ill - advised prank by telling her that she will be fired.
Michael has criticized Pam for simply forwarding calls to voice mail without answering and (in a deleted scene) for not sounding enthusiastic enough when speaking on the telephone. Pam is usually happy to abandon her work if asked to do something else by Jim. She will do extra, unnecessary work (such as making a casket for a dead bird or paper doves for the Office Olympics) to make other people happy.
Despite the abuse she takes from Michael, she never goes any further than calling him a jerk in the pilot. In later seasons, however, she becomes more honest and forward with Michael and will often make sarcastic comments toward him.
While engaged to Roy, Pam denies, or is in denial about, having any romantic feelings for Jim. When Jim confesses his love for her at the Dunder Mifflin "Casino Night '' she turns him down. She later talks to her mom on the phone and says Jim is her best friend (though she does n't say his name), and says "Yeah, I think I am '' to an unheard question. She is interrupted by Jim, who enters and kisses her; she responds by kissing back.
Season three marks a turning point for Pam 's character: she gains self - confidence and appears less passive and more self - assured as the season progresses. In "Gay Witch Hunt, '' the season 's opener, it is revealed that Pam got cold feet before her wedding and did not marry Roy after all, and that Jim transferred to a different Dunder Mifflin branch, in Stamford, shortly after Pam rejected him a second time, after their kiss. Pam moves into her own apartment, begins taking art classes, a pursuit that Roy had previously dismissed as a waste of time, and buys a new car, a blue Toyota Yaris. Jim returns to Scranton later on as a result of "The Merger '', and brings along a female co-worker, Karen Filippelli, whom he begins dating. Jim and Pam appeared to have ended all communication after Jim transfers to the Stamford branch (aside from an episode in which Jim accidentally calls Pam at the end of the work day), and their episodes together following the branch merge are tense, despite both admitting to still harboring feelings for the other during the presence of the documentary cameras.
Meanwhile, Roy vows to win Pam back. Roy 's efforts to improve his relationship with Pam are quite successful, but once Pam and Roy are back together, he falls back into old habits almost immediately. When Roy and Pam attend an after work get - together at a local bar with their co-workers, Pam, feeling that she should be more honest with Roy, tells him about Jim kissing her at, "Casino Night. '' Roy yells, smashes a mirror, and trashes the bar. Pam, frightened and embarrassed by his reaction, breaks up with Roy immediately. Roy vows to kill Jim and in, "The Negotiation '', Roy unsuccessfully tries to attack Jim at work (Jim is saved by Dwight 's intervention), and is subsequently fired. Pam later reluctantly agrees to meet Roy for coffee at his request, and after the polite but brief meeting, it appears that their relationship has ended amicably with Roy encouraging Pam to pursue Jim.
Pam participates in an art show, but few people attend. Her co-worker, Oscar, brings his partner along who, not knowing that Pam is standing behind him, criticizes her work by proclaiming that "real art requires courage. '' Oscar then goes on to say that courage is n't one of Pam 's strong points. Affected by this statement, Pam tells the documentary crew that she is going to be more honest, culminating in a dramatic coal walk during the next - to - last episode of the season, "Beach Games '', and a seemingly sincere speech to Jim in front of the entire office about their relationship. Michael also comes to the art show and reveals his erratically kind heart and loyalty by buying, framing and hanging Pam 's drawing of the Dunder Mifflin building in the office. In the season finale, "The Job, '' she leaves a friendly note in Jim 's briefcase and an old memento depicting the ' gold medal ' yogurt lid from the Office Olympics, which he sees during an interview for a job at Corporate in New York City. While he is asked how he "would function here in New York '', Jim is shown to have his mind back in Scranton, still distracted by the thought of Pam. Jim withdraws his name from consideration and drives back to the office, where he interrupts a talking head Pam is doing for the documentary crew by asking her out for dinner. She happily accepts, visibly moved, abandoning a train of thought about how she would be fine if Jim got the job and never came back to Scranton. Karen quits soon after, becoming the regional manager at Dunder Mifflin 's Utica branch.
In Season 4, Pam retains the assertiveness she developed in the third season. She wears her hair down and has updated her old dowdy wardrobe.
In the season 4 premiere, "Fun Run '', Jim and Pam confess that they have started dating after the camera crew catches them kissing. The office ultimately learns of their relationship in "Dunder Mifflin Infinity ''. In "Chair Model '', after teasing Pam about his impending proposal, Jim tells the documentary crew he is not kidding around about an engagement and shows them a ring he bought a week after he and Pam started dating. In the next few episodes, Jim fake - proposes to Pam multiple times. In "Goodbye, Toby '', Pam discovers she 's been accepted at Pratt Institute, an art and design school in Brooklyn. In an interview later in the episode, Jim announces that he will propose to Pam that evening. Just as Jim is preparing to propose, however, Andy Bernard stands up and makes his own impromptu proposal to Angela. Having had his thunder stolen by Andy, Jim reluctantly puts the ring back in his jacket pocket, leaving Pam visibly disappointed as she was expecting Jim to propose that night.
In the Season 5 premiere, "Weight Loss '', Pam begins her three - month course at the Pratt Institute. In this episode, Jim proposes in the pouring rain at a rest stop, saying that he "ca n't wait ''. In "Business Trip '', Pam learns that she is failing one of her classes and will have to remain in New York another three months to retake it. Although Jim is supportive and tells her he will wait for her to come back "the right way '', she ultimately makes the decision to return home, saying that she realized she hated graphic design and missed Scranton. A deleted scene for the episode shows Jim looking through Pam 's graphic design projects, which he thinks are "cool '', as well as a notebook filled with pencil sketches, which he finds a lot more impressive than her graphic design projects, implying her talents lie in hand - drawn works. In "Two Weeks '', Pam agrees to become Michael 's first saleswoman in his not - yet - established company, The Michael Scott Paper Co., as a supportive Jim looks on. When David Wallace makes an offer to buy the company Michael negotiates in order to get their jobs at Dunder Mifflin back instead, including adding Pam to the sales team. In "Company Picnic '', Pam, after dominating the company volleyball tournament, injures her ankle during a game and is taken to the hospital against her wishes. At the hospital, the camera crew is stationed outside an exam room while a doctor updates Jim and Pam on her condition. There is no audio as the camera shows Jim and Pam embrace, looking shocked and ecstatic. It is implied that she is pregnant and is confirmed in the Season 6 premiere, "Gossip ''.
Jim and Pam marry early in the season, at Niagara Falls, during the highly anticipated, hour long episode, "Niagara ''. The ending of the episode, in which their co-workers dance down the aisle, is an imitation of a viral YouTube video -- JK Wedding Entrance Dance. Following the wedding, a multi-episode story arc begins in which it is revealed that Michael hooked up with Pam 's mother the night of the wedding. The two break up during "Double Date '', an episode that ends with Pam slapping Michael in response to his actions.
In "The Delivery '' of Season 6, Pam and Jim have their first child, a daughter named Cecelia Marie Halpert. Jenna Fischer was granted naming rights by show producers, and chose to name her after her own niece.
In "Counseling '', Pam feels inadequate about her poor performance in sales and tricks Gabe into promoting her to a phony new salaried position called office administrator. In "China '', Pam tries to use her authority as office administrator to force building manager Dwight to stop his annoying cost - cutting measures. Pam threatens to move the office to a new building, which Dwight discovers does n't exist. Pam saves face, however, when Dwight secretly has his assistant provide her with a book on building regulations that proves Dwight 's measures were not allowed. The episode is another example of Dwight 's covert protectiveness and fondness for Pam (as previously demonstrated in "The Injury '', "Back from Vacation '', "The Job '' and "Diwali ''); Mindy Kaling said during an online Q&A session that Dwight has a soft spot for her that he does not extend to anyone else at the office. She also uses her position to buy Erin Hannon an expensive desk top computer to replace the terrible one she had to use for years, as well as discreetly giving Andy a new computer, and giving Daryll three sick days. At the end of the episode she proudly says that she is, "Full on corrupt. ''
In "Goodbye, Michael '', Pam almost misses saying good - bye to Michael, as she spends most of the day out of the office trying to price shredders. Jim figures out Michael 's plan to leave early and tells her by text. Pam reaches the airport in time and is the last person to see Michael before he leaves.
At the beginning of Season 8, Pam is revealed to be pregnant with her and Jim 's second child, Philip Halpert. The child coincided with Jenna Fischer 's actual pregnancy. She begins her maternity leave after "Gettysburg ''. Pam returns in "Jury Duty '', where she and Jim bring Cece and Phillip into the office. In both "Tallahassee '' and "Test the Store '' Pam is shown helping, and developing her friendship with Andy.
Early in season 9, Jim is restless about his life in Scranton and helps a friend start a Sports Marketing business, Athlead, in Philadelphia but he keeps it a secret from Pam until the third episode "Andy 's Ancestry ''. Although Pam is happy for his decision, she is concerned about the fact that he had kept it a secret from her and she is later disturbed to hear about just how much of their money he had invested. Jim begins spending part of each work week in Philadelphia, but in "Customer Loyalty '', the strain of this on Pam is evident when she breaks down in tears, and is comforted by Brian, the boom mic operator of the film crew.
In "Moving On '', Pam interviews for a job in Philadelphia to be closer to Jim, but she is turned off by the idea when her prospective new boss bears a striking resemblance in behavior to Michael Scott. Over dinner, Pam reveals to Jim that she does n't really want to move to Philadelphia after all. However, in "Livin ' the Dream '', when Athlead is bought out and Jim is offered a large sum of money for 3 months to pitch the company across the country, Pam overhears Jim refuse the opportunity because of her and appears to have mixed feelings about this decision. In "A.A.R.M. '', Pam tells Jim that she 's afraid that he will resent her for making him stay and that she might not be enough for him. Jim asks the camera crew to compile documentary footage of the two of them to show her. When she finishes the montage, which shows Jim taking back a letter he intended to give her with his teapot gift during Christmas; Jim finally gives her that letter, and she reads it, visibly moved. In the series finale, which takes place a year later, she reveals to Jim that she secretly put the house on the market, so that they can move to Austin, Texas, and take his job back at Athlead (now Athleap).
From her years working the front desk, Pam has become well - acquainted with the Dunder - Mifflin staff and is consistently shown to have a thorough understanding of her coworkers ' personalities, including the more eccentric individuals Dwight Schrute and Michael Scott. She uses this familiarity to manipulate them, often for their and the company 's best interests (such as her giving the staff elaborate instructions on how to handle a heartbroken Michael in "The Chump '') but also occasionally for her own. This familiarity plays a large part in her efficiency as office administrator and was crucial to her being promoted to the previously non-existent position.
The "will they or wo n't they '' tension between Jim and Pam is a strong storyline in the early episodes of The Office, encompassing much of Seasons 1 to 3. In the opener of Season 4, the two characters are revealed to be dating, and as such, other character romances, such as the romance between fellow co-workers Dwight Schrute and Angela Martin, begin to move more toward the forefront of episodes. In Season 6, Jim and Pam are married in the season 's 4th and 5th episodes (hour long), a feat considered noteworthy by many television critics, as bringing together the two lead love interests in a television series is often thought to be a risky venture. Their child is born in the second half of the season, during another hour long, "The Delivery ''. Pam and Jim 's second child is born during season 8. In season 9, their marriage becomes strained when Jim takes up a second job in Philadelphia. They ultimately decide to leave Dunder Mifflin together so Jim can pursue his dream job.
When the series begins, Pam is engaged to her high school sweetheart Roy Anderson; this engagement is revealed to be three years old and running. They finally set a date, but Pam calls off the wedding at the last minute. They get back together once, briefly, but Pam is much more assertive, and finally breaks up with him after he has a violent outburst. Roy is deeply flawed - he is overbearing, neglectful, dismissive of her desire to be an artist, and offers her sex as a gift on Valentine 's Day. Jim comments in Season 2 that Pam does not like to "bother '' Roy with her "thoughts or feelings ''. He tells the camera crew that the only two problems in Pam 's life seemed to be Roy and her job at Dunder Mifflin.
In the early seasons, there is a great deal of tension between Jim and Roy, with Roy often acting threateningly towards Jim. In "Basketball '', when Jim starts to impress Pam with his basketball skills, Roy elbows Jim in the nose. In season 2, when Jim encourages Pam to pursue a graphic arts internship offered by Dunder Mifflin, Roy objects to the opportunity and eventually convinces her that the idea is foolish. Pam ultimately calls off her wedding to Roy, but they remain friendly and he is determined to win her back by being less of a jerk. She reconciles with Roy at Phyllis 's wedding as a response to watching Jim date Karen. In an attempt at a fresh start with Roy, Pam comes clean about Jim kissing her during "Casino Night ''. Roy flies into a violent rage and Pam ends the relationship on the spot. The next day, Roy attempts to attack Jim in the office but is stopped by Dwight 's pepper spray and is summarily fired. After losing his job, Roy meets Pam for coffee and says that even though Jim is dating Karen, she should at least make an effort to date him (inasmuch as she called off the wedding because of him).
In season 5, Jim and Roy run into each other at a bar and Roy learns that Jim and Pam are engaged. The mood is somewhat awkward, but Roy is congratulatory, but then makes a somewhat passive - aggressive comment, seemingly meant to make Jim feel insecure about his current role in Pam 's life, which tempts him to drive to Pratt, where she is attending art classes. Jim gets on the freeway, but changes his mind and remembers that he trusts Pam. Jim did n't want to treat Pam the same way Roy treated her.
In the series pilot, Michael is overtly rude to Pam and at one point fakes her firing, leaving her in tears. He often makes suggestive if harmless remarks about her beauty and general appearance, and at one point lies to the camera that they used to date (inspiring a horrified "WHAT??? '' from Pam when an interviewer relays the message to her). However, his impulsive attempt to kiss her during Diwali is shot down and marked the end of any romantic dreams for Michael with Pam. Over time, the combination of Michael being supportive of her goals, her transition from a bad relationship with Roy to a great one with Jim as well as her finding a job she not only enjoys but is effective at in the office administrator position and Michael finding his own soulmate in Holly Flax made Pam soften her stance towards Michael, and the experience at the Michael Scott Paper Company further bonded them (as did Michael 's decision to choose Pam instead of Ryan Howard as the only MSPC salesman to keep that job when Michael returned as Branch Manager). Pam was furious at Michael for dating her mom Helene, and excoriated him at length during "The Lover '' before eventually slapping him in "Double Date '', but they once again were able to be civil to each other afterward. Pam does set up boundaries around her personal life that Michael ca n't cross, like telling him that he was n't Cece 's godfather. By Season 7, Pam acts as something of a guardian angel for Michael, steering him away from (numerous) bad ideas and towards his (fewer but real) good ones, such as his successful efforts to propose to Holly. In Michael 's finale "Goodbye, Michael '', Pam spends the whole day looking for a shredder, believing that the next day Michael was leaving. As Michael takes off his microphone and heads down the airport concourse, Pam runs to him with no shoes and hugs him as he kisses her cheek. The two have a nice moment and he walks off, leaving her holding her shoes. She then tells the camera that he was happy, wanting to be an advanced rewards member, and was glad to be going home to see Holly. She then is there to watch Michael 's plane take off. In a deleted scene from "The Inner Circle '', we learn Pam is flattered that Michael named his new puppy "Pamela Beagsley '', and in "The List '' she playfully teases Jim by calling their second child "Little Michael Scott '', further proving that the two have developed a genuine friendship.
Toby, the Human Resources Representative for Dunder Mifflin in the Scranton branch, has a secret crush on Pam. In "A Benihana Christmas '' she gives him her Dunder - Mifflin bathrobe, a display of friendly affection, after he spent the day feeling bad that Dwight took his. In "Night Out '', Toby awkwardly rubs her knee while they share a laugh (and while Jim sits just on her other side), and the rest of the office watches in horror. In his mortification, Toby immediately announces that he is moving to Costa Rica before jumping over the locked gate and fleeing. In "Goodbye, Toby '', he purchases a DSLR camera just to get a picture with Pam. On the eve of his departure, she confesses to the cameras that she always thought he was "kind of cute ''. The crush receives less attention after Toby 's return. However, in "Niagara '', Pam and Jim are late for their wedding and he is visibly excited at the prospect that the wedding might not happen. In "Finale '', Pam and Toby dance with each other at Dwight 's wedding, with Toby beginning to cry as Pam comforts him. When she asks, "is it me? '', he replies that "it 's everything! ''.
Pam Halpert has appeared in every episode with the exceptions of "Business Ethics '' (except for the deleted scenes), "St. Patrick 's Day '', and "New Leads '' in which only her voice is heard, and several season 8 episodes from "Mrs. California '' to "Pool Party '', where she did not appear at all as Fischer was on maternity leave.
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what are 2 major nascar events that occur in daytona beach | Daytona Beach and Road course - wikipedia
The Daytona Beach Road Course was a race track that was instrumental in the formation of the National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing, or NASCAR. It originally became famous as the location where fifteen world land speed records were set.
The course started on the pavement of highway A1A (at 4511 South Atlantic Avenue, Ponce Inlet 29 ° 06 ′ 32 '' N 80 ° 56 ′ 37 '' W / 29.108890 ° N 80.943669 ° W / 29.108890; - 80.943669). A restaurant named "Racing 's North Turn '' now stands at that location. It went south two miles (3.2 km) parallel to the ocean on A1A (S. Atlantic Ave) to the end of the road, where the drivers accessed the beach at the south turn at the Beach Street approach 29 ° 05 ′ 05 '' N 80 ° 55 ′ 32 '' W / 29.084705 ° N 80.925566 ° W / 29.084705; - 80.925566, returned two miles (3.2 km) north on the sandy beach surface, and returned to A1A at the north turn. The lap length in early events was 3.2 miles (5.1 km), and it was lengthened to 4.2 miles (6.8 km) in the late 1940s. In the video game NASCAR Thunder 2004 by EA Sports, the course is shortened to about half its distance, but still shows how the basic course was set up.
March 29, 1927 Major Henry Segrave and his Sunbeam 1000 hp Mystery set a world land speed record on the Daytona Beach Road Course, at 203.79 mph (327.97 km / h), peaking at a top speed of 211 mph. Washington, D.C. resident William France, Sr. was familiar with the history of Daytona. He moved there in 1935 to escape the Great Depression and he set up a car repair shop.
Daytona Beach officials asked local racer Sig Haugdahl to organize and promote an automobile race along the 3.2 - mile (5.1 km) course in 1936. Haugdahl is credited for designing the track. The city posted a $5,000 purse. The ticket - takers arrived at the event on March 8 to find thousands of fans already at the track. The sandy turns became virtually impassable, which caused numerous scoring disputes and technical protests. The event was stopped after 75 of 78 laps. Milt Marion was declared the winner by the AAA (the sanctioning body). Second place finisher Ben Shaw and third - place finisher Tommy Elmore protested the results, but their appeal was overturned. France finished fifth in the event. The city lost a reported $22,000 ($387981 in 2016 dollars), and has not promoted an event since.
Haugdahl talked with France, and they talked the Daytona Beach Elks Club into hosting another event in 1937. The event was more successful, but still lost money. Haugdahl did n't promote any more events.
France took over the job of running the course in 1938. There were two events that year. Danny Murphy beat France in the July event, which made $200. France beat Lloyd Moody and Pig Ridings to win the Labor Day weekend event, this time making $20,000.
There were three races in 1939 and three races in 1940. France finished fourth in March, first in July, and sixth in September.
Lloyd Seay finished fourth in the July 27, 1941 event after rolling twice. He returned on August 24 that year to win the event. He was killed by a family member in a dispute over the family moonshine business.
Roy Hall won on the course several times.
France was busy planning the 1942 event, until the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor. France spent World War II working at the Daytona Boat Works. Most racing stopped until after the war. Car racing returned to the track in 1946.
France knew that promoters needed to organize their efforts. Drivers were frequently victimized by unscrupulous promoters who would leave events with all the money before drivers were paid. On December 14, 1947 France began talks at the Ebony Bar at the Streamline Hotel at Daytona Beach, Florida that ended with the formation of NASCAR on February 21, 1948. The Daytona Beach Road Course hosted the premiere event of the fledgling series until Darlington Speedway was completed in 1950.
NASCAR held a Modified division race at the track on February 15, 1948. Red Byron beat Marshall Teague. NASCAR had several divisions in its early years.
1949
The first NASCAR Strictly Stock (now Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series) race was held in 1949 at the Charlotte Speedway. The second race on the series schedule was held at Daytona Beach in July. 28 cars raced, including Curtis Turner, Buck Baker, Bob Flock, Fonty Flock, Marshall Teague, Herb Thomas, and second - place finisher Tim Flock. Red Byron won for his fourth win at the track in the decade. Byron went on to win the series ' first championship in his 1949 Oldsmobile.
1950
The Strictly Stock series was renamed the Grand National Series. The race is moved to February, which becomes a tradition still held to this day with the modern Daytona 500. Harold Kite won the race in a 1949 Lincoln. He took the lead on lap 25 when Red Byron pitted with gear shift problems. Kite led the rest of the way. Byron surged from seventh to finish second. A second race is added to the weekend, the 100 - mile (160 km) Modified Stock race, the day before. Gober Sosebee wins.
1951
Marshall Teague glided his 1951 Fabulous Hudson Hornet into victory lane for his first career victory. He beat Tim Flock by 1 minute and 14 seconds. Gober Sosebee wins the Modified Stock race for the second year in a row.
1952
Marshall Teague made it two in a row in his 1952 Hudson. Teague gained the lead on lap two. The race was shortened by two laps because of an incoming tide. Teague won by 1 minute and 21 seconds over Herb Thomas. A day earlier, Tim Flock wins the Modified / Sportsmen race.
1953
Polesitter Bob Pronger and second place starter Fonty Flock had a bet as to who would lead the first lap. They both raced wildly into the north corner. Pronger went too fast into corner, and wrecked his car. Flock had over a one - minute lead in the race, but ran out of gas taking the white flag at the start of the final lap. Flock 's teammate pushed his car into the pits. Bill Blair passed to win the race in a 1953 Oldsmobile. Flock finished second by 26 seconds.
136 cars started the 100 - mile (160 km) Modified / Sportsman race that year, making it the largest field ever in any NASCAR sanctioned event. Cotton Owens is the victor.
1954
The "Speedweeks '' weekend is expanded to three events, the 100 - mile (160 km) Sportsmen race, the 125 - mile (201 km) Modified race, and the 160 - mile (260 km) main event. Dick Joslin and Cotton Owens win the preliminaries, respectively. Tim Flock finished the main event first, but was disqualified on a minor technicality. Second place finisher Lee Petty edged out Buck Baker, and Petty was declared the winner of the 160 - mile (260 km) contest. Flock became the first driver to have radio contact with his crew.
1955
The 1955 race was won by Fireball Roberts. He was later disqualified, so the official win went to Tim Flock. Roberts was disqualified after NASCAR 's tech director found pushrods that were 0.016 inches (0.41 mm) too long.
Preliminary races were won by Speedy Thompson (100 - mile Sportsmen) and Banjo Matthews (125 - mile Modified).
1956
Tim Flock won his second consecutive Daytona race from the pole in his 1956 Chrysler. The car was owned by legendary NASCAR car owner Carl Kiekhaefer. He led every lap except for the four after his first pit stop. Charlie Scott became the first African - American to compete in a NASCAR Grand National race, driving another Carl Kiekhaefer entered Chrysler.
1957
The three - race weekend is revised with new preliminary formats. The first race is a 125 - mile (201 km) Modifield / Sportsmen race, and the second is a 160 - mile (260 km) Late Model Convertible event. Tim Flock and Curtis Turner are the victors.
In the main event, Cotton Owens moved from his third place starting position to lead the first lap. Paul Goldsmith took the lead briefly after 40 miles (of 160 miles). Goldsmith took the lead back from Owens after Owens pitted after 94 miles (151 km). Goldsmith 's quick pit stop gave him a lead that he maintained until he went out with a blown piston with 36 miles (58 km) left in the race. Owens led the rest of the way for his first career win. The win was the first NASCAR win for Pontiac, and the first Grand National race speed average over 100 mph (101.541 mph).
1958
Paul Goldsmith started from the pole to win the final event at the course. He drove a Pontiac which was prepared by Ray Fox. Curtis Turner finished second, Jack Smith third, Joe Weatherly fourth. Lee Petty, Buck Baker, Fireball Roberts, and Cotton Owens finished in the top ten.
On Friday, Banjo Matthews won the 125 - mile (201 km) Sportsmen / Modified race, while on Saturday, Curtis Turner won the 160 - mile (260 km) Convertible race.
By 1953, France knew it was time for a permanent track to hold the large crowds that were gathering for races. Hotels were popping up all along the beachfront. On April 4, 1953, France proposed a new superspeedway called Daytona International Speedway. France began building a new 2.5 - mile (4.0 km) tri-oval superspeedway in 1956 to host the new premiere event of the series -- the Daytona 500. In 1958, the Daytona Beach road course hosted its last event. The first Daytona 500 was held in 1959. Daytona Speed Week on only the beach sand and not the adjoining road, continued however through 1961 with time / distance records for the standing mile and flying mile in multiple classes. The six fastest stock cars ever on the beach were the 1960 Chrysler 300F Specials.
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national council of architectural registration boards washington dc | National Council of Architectural registration boards - wikipedia
Gregory Erny, President
The National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB) is a nonprofit corporation comprising the legally constituted architectural registration boards of the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands as its members. Its mission is to protect the public health, safety, and welfare by leading the regulation of the practice of architecture through the development and application of standards for licensure and credentialing of architects.
NCARB recommends model law, model regulations, and other guidelines for adoption by its member jurisdictions, but each makes its own laws and registration requirements. As a service to its members, NCARB develops, administers, and maintains the Architectural Experience Program (AXP) and the Architect Registration Examination (ARE) as well as facilitates reciprocity between jurisdictions through the NCARB Certificate.
Illinois became the first state in to enact laws regulating the practice of architecture in 1897. In May 1919, during an American Institute of Architects (AIA) convention in Nashville, TN, 15 architects from 13 states came together to form an organization that would become NCARB. Emil Lorch from Ann Arbor, MI, was elected the organization 's first president in May 1920.
As expressed by its founding members, NCARB 's stated goals were:
NCARB is led by a Board of Directors elected by the member registration boards at its Annual Meeting and Conference each June. It has six officers (president / chair of the Board, first vice president / president - elect, second vice president, treasurer, secretary, and the past president) and eight directors (one from each of the six regions and a member board executive and public directors).
Additionally, a chief executive officer and two vice presidents lead the headquarters in Washington, DC. The office is split into two divisions, programs and operations. Between 90 and 100 people are on staff in Washington, DC.
Today, NCARB comprises the registration boards from the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and three U.S. territories (Guam, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands). These boards are organized into six regional conferences:
Each U.S. jurisdiction grants individuals an architectural license. To become licensed, there are three essential components: education, experience, and examination. NCARB maintains intern and architect records as a service to their customers and their member registration boards. Additionally, NCARB develops and administers the programs most often required to complete jurisdictions ' experience and examination requirements. NCARB also facilitates reciprocity between jurisdictions and acts on behalf of its Member Boards when negotiating international agreements.
Most U.S. jurisdictions require a professional degree from a program that is accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB). NCARB publishes the NCARB Education Standard as a recommendation to its Member Boards, but requirements often vary between jurisdictions. Those who do not have a degree from a NAAB - accredited program may have their degree evaluated through the NAAB 's Education Evaluation Services for Architects (EESA) if they would like to earn an NCARB Certificate. More information on the education requirement can be found in the NCARB Education Guidelines.
All U.S. jurisdictions accept completion of NCARB 's Architectural Experience Program (AXP) to help satisfy their experience requirements. The AXP is a comprehensive training program that was created to ensure that interns in the architecture profession gain the knowledge and skills required for the independent practice of architecture.
The Architect Registration Examination (ARE) is required by all U.S. jurisdictions and accepted by 11 Canadian provinces to satisfy examination requirements for licensure. It is a computerized exam that assesses candidates for their knowledge, skills, and ability to provide the various services required to practice architecture independently.
An NCARB Record is a detailed, verified record of education and training, and is used to establish qualifications for examination, registration, and certification. An architectural intern must have an NCARB Record to participate in the Intern Development Program (IDP), the Architect Registration Examination (ARE), or apply for the NCARB Certificate.
The NCARB Certificate facilitates reciprocal registration among all 54 NCARB Member Boards, 11 Canadian jurisdictions, and can be used to support an application for registration in other countries. Although certification does not qualify a person to practice architecture in a jurisdiction, it does signify that he or she has met the highest professional standards established by the registration boards responsible for protecting the health, safety, and welfare of the public. The standard requirements for NCARB Certificate are:
There are two alternative ways to earn an NCARB Certificate, the Broadly Experienced Architect (BEA) and the Broadly Experienced Foreign Architect (BEFA) programs. Earning an NCARB Certificate through one of these alternatives is not accepted by all jurisdictions. Architects interested in earning the NCARB Certificate through one of these programs should verify acceptance with the jurisdiction in which they wish to be licensed prior to pursuing certification.
Architects who do not hold a professional architecture degree from a NAAB - accredited architecture program are eligible to apply for an NCARB Certificate through the Broadly Experienced Architect (BEA) program. To be eligible for the BEA program, architects must hold a current registration from a U.S. registration boards and have comprehensive experience as a registered architect between 6 and 10 years depending on their educational background.
To earn an NCARB Certificate through the BEA program, architects must have an NCARB Record, have their education evaluated through the Education Evaluation Services for Architects (EESA), prepare and submit an education dossier that demonstrates learning through experience to satisfy any education deficiencies, and complete an interview with NCARB 's Broadly Experienced Architect Committee.
NOTE: Effective July 1, 2016, NCARB is no longer accepting applications for certification through the Broadly Experience Architect Program. A new certification path for architects with a NAAB - accredited degree will launch in July, 2017.
The Broadly Experienced Foreign Architect (BEFA) program has been phased out and is no longer available as a path to NCARB certification for foreign architects. According to NCARB, "Foreign architects seeking NCARB certification can complete two programs required for licensure in the United States: the Architectural Experience Program (AXP) and the Architect Registration Exam (ARE). '' The Foreign Architect Path to Certification requires candidates to hold a degree from an accredited, validated, or officially recognized architecture program that leads to a license or credential for the unlimited practice of architecture in the foreign country. This path also requires that you be a registered architect in good standing in the foreign country.
Foreign registered architects are eligible to apply for an NCARB Certificate through the Broadly Experienced Foreign Architect (BEFA) program. To be eligible for the BEFA program, foreign architects must have graduated with a professional degree from an accredited / validated / officially recognized architecture program, be credentialed in a foreign county, and have completed at least seven years of comprehensive practice as an architect exercising responsible control in the foreign country.
NCARB assists architects in keeping their skills and knowledge up to date through its Professional Development Program of self - study courses. The objective of the NCARB monograph and mini-monograph series is to provide a quality continuing education resource, both economical and convenient, that investigates current and emerging topics of interest to practicing architects. The series explores everything from sustainable design to fire safety in buildings to professional conduct to post-occupancy evaluation. All learning units are Health, Safety, and Welfare (HSW) and Sustainable Design (SD) units.
NCARB announced in June 2010 that it will discontinue production of monographs and mini-monographs. Existing inventory will continue to be sold.
NCARB has established reciprocal registration for architects in the United States, Canada, and Mexico, and is engaged in similar discussions with additional countries. NCARB is also administers the Asia - Pacific Economic Cooperation Architects program in the United States.
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who sang summertime in porgy and bess movie | Summertime (Gershwin song) - wikipedia
"Summertime '' is an aria composed in 1934 by George Gershwin for the 1935 opera Porgy and Bess. The lyrics are by DuBose Heyward, the author of the novel Porgy on which the opera was based, although the song is also co-credited to Ira Gershwin by ASCAP.
The song soon became a popular and much recorded jazz standard, described as "without doubt... one of the finest songs the composer ever wrote... Gershwin 's highly evocative writing brilliantly mixes elements of jazz and the song styles of blacks in the southeast United States from the early twentieth century ''. Composer and lyricist Stephen Sondheim has characterized Heyward 's lyrics for "Summertime '' and "My Man 's Gone Now '' as "the best lyrics in the musical theater ''. The song is recognized as among the most covered songs in the history of recorded music, with more than 33,000 covers by groups and solo performers.
Gershwin began composing the song in December 1933, attempting to create his own spiritual in the style of the African American folk music of the period. Gershwin had completed setting DuBose Heyward 's poem to music by February 1934, and spent the next 20 months completing and orchestrating the score of the opera.
The song is sung several times throughout Porgy and Bess. Its lyrics are the first words heard in act 1 of the opera, following the communal "wa - do - wa ''. It is sung by Clara as a lullaby. The song theme is reprised soon after as counterpoint to the craps game scene, in act 2 in a reprise by Clara, and in act 3 by Bess, singing to Clara 's now - orphaned baby after both its parents died in the storm. It was recorded for the first time by Abbie Mitchell on July 19, 1935, with George Gershwin playing the piano and conducting the orchestra (on: George Gershwin Conducts Excerpts from Porgy & Bess, Mark 56 667).
The 1959 movie version of the musical featured Loulie Jean Norman singing the song. That rendition finished at # 52 in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema.
Heyward 's inspiration for the lyrics was the southern folk spiritual - lullaby "All My Trials '', of which he had Clara sing a snippet in his play Porgy. The lyrics have been highly praised by Stephen Sondheim. Writing of the opening line, he says
That "and '' is worth a great deal of attention. I would write "Summertime when '' but that "and '' sets up a tone, a whole poetic tone, not to mention a whole kind of diction that is going to be used in the play; an informal, uneducated diction and a stream of consciousness, as in many of the songs like "My Man 's Gone Now ''. It 's the exact right word, and that word is worth its weight in gold. "Summertime when the livin ' is easy '' is a boring line compared to "Summertime and ''. The choices of "ands '' (and) "buts '' become almost traumatic as you are writing a lyric -- or should, anyway -- because each one weighs so much.
Musicologist K.J. McElrath wrote of the song:
Gershwin was remarkably successful in his intent to have this sound like a folk song. This is reinforced by his extensive use of the pentatonic scale (C -- D -- E -- G -- A) in the context of the A minor tonality and a slow - moving harmonic progression that suggests a "blues ''. Because of these factors, this tune has been a favorite of jazz performers for decades and can be done in a variety of tempos and styles.
While in his own description, Gershwin did not use any previously composed spirituals in his opera, Summertime is often considered an adaptation of the African American spiritual "Sometimes I Feel Like a Motherless Child '', which ended the play version of Porgy. Alternatively, the song has been proposed as an amalgamation of that spiritual and the Ukrainian Yiddish lullaby Pipi - pipipee. The Ukrainian - Canadian composer and singer Alexis Kochan has suggested that some part of Gershwin 's inspiration may have come from having heard the Ukrainian lullaby "Oi Khodyt Son Kolo Vikon '' ("A Dream Passes by the Windows '') at a New York City performance by Alexander Koshetz 's Ukrainian National Chorus in 1929 (or 1926).
The song 's hook may pull from Rachmaninoff 's Barcarolle, Op. 10, No. 3.
There are over 25,000 recordings of "Summertime ''. In September 1936, a recording by Billie Holiday was the first to hit the US pop charts, reaching no. 12. Other versions to make the pop charts include those by Sam Cooke (US no. 81, 1957), Al Martino (UK no. 49, 1960), The Marcels (US no. 78, 1961), Ricky Nelson (US no. 89, 1962), and the Chris Columbo Quintet (US no. 93, 1963). The most commercially successful version was by Billy Stewart, who reached no. 10 on the Billboard Hot 100, and no. 7 on the R&B chart in 1966; his version reached no. 39 in the UK and no. 13 in Canada. Janis Joplin 's version with Big Brother and the Holding Company has been highly praised. David Starkey in his article "Summertime '' says that Joplin sings the song "with the authority of a very old spirit ''. In Britain, a version by the Fun Boy Three reached no. 18 on the UK Singles Chart in 1982.
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the name given to the noble class of russia is | Russian nobility - wikipedia
The Russian nobility (Russian: дворянство dvoryanstvo) arose in the 14th century. Its members (1,900,000 at 1914, 1.1 %) staffed most of the Russian government apparatus until the February Revolution of 1917.
The Russian word for nobility, dvoryanstvo (дворянство), derives from the Polish word dwor (двор), meaning the court of a prince or duke (kniaz) and later, the court of the tsar or emperor. A nobleman is called a dvoryanin (plural: dvoryane). Pre-Soviet Russia shared with other countries the concept that nobility connotes a status or a social category rather than a title.
The nobility arose in the 12th and 13th centuries as the lowest part of the feudal military class, which composed the court of a prince or of an important boyar. From the 14th century land ownership by nobles increased, and by the 17th century the bulk of feudal lords and the majority of landowners were nobles. The nobles were granted estates out of State lands in return for their service to the Tsar, for as long as they performed service, or for a lifetime, but by the 18th century these estates had become their private property. They made up the Landed army (Russian: поместное войско) -- the basic military force of Russia. Peter the Great (reigned 1682 -- 1721) finalized the status of the nobility, while abolishing the boyar title.
The assimilation of the Russian nobility to the fashions, mannerisms, and intellectual ideas of Western Europe was a gradual process rooted in the strict guidelines of Peter the Great and the educational reforms of Catherine the Great. While cultural westernization was primarily an aesthetic court phenomenon, it coincided with the efforts of Russian autocrats to link Russia to Western Europe in more fundamental ways -- socially, economically, and politically. However, Russia 's existing economic system, which lacked a sizable middle class and which relied on forced labor, was an impassable obstacle to the development of a free market. Furthermore, the lower classes -- the overwhelming majority of the Russian population -- lived virtually isolated from the upper classes and the imperial court. Thus, most of the nobility 's "western '' tendencies were largely superficial and confined to a tiny portion of the populace.
As different rulers ascended the throne in the nineteenth century, each figure brought a unique attitude and approach to ruling the nobility; yet the cultural impact of the "Greats '' -- Peter and Catherine -- was set in stone. Ironically, by introducing the nobility to political literature from Western Europe, Catherine exposed Russia 's autocracy to them as archaic and illiberal. While the nobility was conservative as a whole, a liberal and radical minority remained constant throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, resorting to violence on multiple occasions in order to challenge Russia 's traditional political system (see Decembrist Revolt, Narodnaya Volya).
Although Peter the Great is considered by many to be the first westernizer of Russia, there were, in fact, contacts between the Muscovite nobility and Western Europe before his reign. Ivan III, starting in 1472, sent numerous agents to Italy to study architecture. Both Michael Romanov (1613 -- 1645) and his son Alexis (1645 -- 1676) invited and sponsored European visitors -- mostly military, medical, and building specialists -- who came to Moscow in foreign dress, speaking foreign languages. When the boyars began to imitate the westerners in dress and hair style, Tsar Alexis in 1675 and then Tsar Feodor in 1680 restricted foreign fashions in order to distinguish between Russians and outsiders, but ineffective enforcement rendered these efforts futile until the 1690s, when Peter I began his reforms.
Peter the Great was, first and foremost, eager to do away with Russia 's reputation as an Asiatic land and to propel his new empire onto the political stage of Western Europe. One of the many tools he would use to reach this goal was upper class culture; he believed that forcing selected features of western fashion, education, and language onto the nobility would hasten Russia 's rise to international prestige. In 1697, he began to send nobles on compulsory trips abroad to England, Holland, and Italy. While the tsar primarily designed these expeditions for naval training, he also encouraged the noblemen to learn about the arts of the west. Furthermore, Peter prioritized sending Russian natives as opposed to foreign expatriates; he was intent on "breeding '' a new nobility that conformed to western customs but represented the Slavic people as a whole. When the travelers returned to Moscow, Peter tested them on their training, insisting on further education for those whose accumulated knowledge was unsatisfactory. By 1724, he had established -- for the purpose of scientific study and discovery -- the Academy of Sciences, which he modeled after "the ones in Paris, London, Berlin and other places ''.
Peter 's westernizing efforts became quite radical after 1698, when he returned from his expedition through Europe, known as the Grand Embassy. Upon arriving, Peter summoned the nobility to his court and personally shaved almost every beard in the room. In 1705 he decreed a beard tax on all ranked men in Moscow, and ordered certain officers to seek out noble beards and shave them on sight. He only allowed the peasants, priests, and serfs to retain the ingrained and religious Russian tradition of wearing beards, which the Orthodox populace considered an essential aspect of their duty to convey the image of God. He also reformed the clothing of the nobility, abandoning the long - sleeved, traditional Muscovite robes for European fashion. Beginning in 1699 the tsar decreed strict dress requirements borrowing from German, Hungarian, French, and British styles, fining any noblemen who failed to obey. Peter himself, usually sporting German dress and a trimmed mustache, acted as a prime example. While the nobility universally followed Peter 's fashion preferences at court, they greatly resented these styles, which they saw as blasphemous. Away from St. Petersburg, very few noblemen followed Peter 's guidelines and enforcement was lax.
Peter also demanded changes in mannerisms and language among nobles. In order to supply Russians with a basic set of "proper '' morals and habits, he ordered publication of manuals on Western etiquette. The most popular of these was The Honourable Mirror of Youth, or A Guide to Social Conduct Gathered from Various Authors, a compilation of rules of conduct from numerous European sources, initially published in St. Petersburg in 1717. He also encouraged the learning of foreign languages, especially French, which was the foremost political and intellectual language of Europe at the time. For the nobility, these changes felt even more forced than the fashion regulations. As with clothing, there was uniform acceptance of Western mannerisms at court but general disregard for them outside of St. Petersburg. Furthermore, when Westerners visited Peter 's court they found the image and personality of the courtiers to appear forced and awkward. Friedrich Christian Weber, a representative of Britain, commented in 1716 that the nobles "wear the German Dress; but it is easy to observe on many, that they have not been long used to it ''.
While none of the rulers in power from 1725 to 1762 focused as strongly on cultural westernization, Peter sparked a transformation that was now unstoppable. Through their education and travels, some members of the nobility began to understand the extent to which Russia lagged behind Western Europe in the complexity of their political and educational systems, their technology, and their economy. By 1750, the ideas of secular skepticism, humanism, and freemasonry had reached sects of the elite class, providing some with a new worldview and giving Russia a taste of the Enlightenment, of which they had experienced little. While even the most educated of the nobility still supported the autocracy that upheld the feudal system on which they depended, some considered how to make it more representative and to improve the bureaucracy.
The period between Peter I and Catherine II represents gradual yet significant developments in western culture among the nobility. Tsarina Anna gave many privileges to the nobility. In 1730 she repealed the primogeniture law of Peter the Great, allowing the sub-division of estates again. In 1736 the age when nobles had to start service was raised from 15 to 20, service was now for 25 years not life and families with more than one son could keep one to manage the family estate. Catherine I in 1726 and Empress Elizabeth in 1743 further regulated noble dress in a Western direction. In 1755, also during Elizabeth 's reign, advanced secondary schools and the University of Moscow came into being with curricula that included foreign languages, philosophy, medicine, and law; the material was chiefly based on imported texts from the west. Most significantly, Peter III freed the nobility from obligatory civil and military service in 1762, allowing them to pursue personal interests. While some used this liberty as an excuse to lead lavish lives of leisure, a select group became increasingly educated in Western ideas through schooling, reading, and travel. As before, these changes applied to few and represented a gradual shift in noble identity rather than a sudden or universal one. Marc Raeff in Origins of the Russian Intelligentsia has suggested this was not a noble victory but a sign the state did n't need them as much now that they had plenty of trained officials.
When Catherine II ascended the throne, she quickly made her political and philosophical opinions clear in the "Instruction '' of 1767, a lengthy document which she prepared for the nobility, drawing largely from and even plagiarizing ideas from the west, especially those of Jean - Jacques Rousseau. The point she emphasized first and foremost was that Russia was a truly European state, and her reforms of the court and education reflect this belief. While Catherine was primarily preoccupied with impressing westerners (especially the philosophers, with whom she corresponded in writing), in doing so she also made significant efforts to educate the nobility and expose them to western philosophy and art. She designed an imperial court in the style of Louis XIV, entertaining the nobility with performances of western theatre and music. She encouraged understanding of French, German, and English languages so that nobles could read classic, historical, and philosophical literature from the west. For the first time in the history of the Russian court, "intellectual pursuits became fashionable ''. When foreigners visited the court, Catherine expected the noblemen and their ladies to flaunt not only their western appearance but also their ability to discuss current events in western languages.
Catherine also made specific reforms in institutional education that pushed the nobility 's culture further westward. She based Russian education on that of Austria, importing German textbooks and adopting in 1786 a standardized curriculum to be taught in her newly created public schools. While many members of the lower classes were allowed into these schools, Catherine hoped that they could become educated enough to rise through the meritocratic Table of Ranks and eventually become nobles themselves. Catherine also established the Society for the Translation of Foreign Books, "to bring enlightenment to those Russians who could not read either French or German. '' It is clear that, like Peter I, Catherine the Great desired to construct a new nobility, a "new race, '' which would both resemble western noblemen and prove knowledgeable in discussions of modern issues. And, according to accounts from foreign visitors, the noblemen did, in fact, resemble those of Western Europe in their dress, topics of discussion, and taste in literature and performance.
She also gave away 66,000 serfs in 1762 -- 72, 202,000 in 1773 -- 93, and 100,000 in one day: 18 August 1795. Thus she was able to bind the nobility to her. From 1782, a kind of uniform was introduced for civilian nobles called uniform of civilian service or simply civilian uniform. The uniform prescribed colors that depended on the territory. The uniform was required at the places of service, at the Court, and at other important public places. The privileges of the nobility were fixed and were legally codified in 1785 in the Charter to the Gentry. The Charter introduced an organization of the nobility: every province (guberniya) and district (uyezd) had an Assembly of Nobility. The chair of an Assembly was called Province / District Marshal of Nobility. In 1831 Nicholas I restricted the assembly votes to those with over 100 serfs, leaving 21,916 voters.
By 1805 the various ranks of the nobility had become confused, as is apparent in War and Peace. Here, we see counts who are wealthier and more important than princes. We see many noble families whose wealth has been dissipated, partly through lack of primogeniture and partly through extravagance and poor estate - management. We see young noblemen serving in the Army, but we see none who acquire new landed estates that way. (This refers to the era of the Napoleonic Wars. Tolstoy reported some improvement afterwards: some nobles paid more attention to estate management, and some, like Andrey Bolkonsky, freed their serfs even before the tsar did so in 1861.) Of Russia 's nobles, 62.8 % were szlachta from the nine western gubernii in 1858 and still 46.1 % in 1897.
Obrok or cash rent was most common in the north while barshchina or labour rent was found mainly in the southern Black Earth Region. In the reign of Nicholas I (1825 -- 1855) the latter brought three times the income of cash rent (though this needed less administration). In 1798 Ukrainian landlords were banned from selling serfs separately from land. In 1841 landless nobles were banned also.
The nobility was too weak to oppose the Emancipation reform of 1861. In 1858, 3 million serfs were held by 1,400 landlords (1.4 %) while 2 million by 79,000 (78 %). In 1820 a fifth of the serfs were mortgaged, half by 1842. By 1859, a third of nobles ' estates and two thirds of their serfs were mortgaged to noble banks or to the state. The nobility was also weakened by the scattering of their estates, lack of primogeniture and the high turnover and mobility from estate to estate.
After the peasant reform of 1861 the economic position of the nobility weakened. The influence of the nobility was further reduced by the new law statutes of 1864, which repealed their right of electing law officer. The reform of the police in 1862 limited the landowners ' authority locally, and the establishment of all - estate Zemstvo local government did away with exclusive influence of nobility in local self - government.
These changes occurred despite the nobles keeping nearly all the meadows and forests and having their debts paid by the state, while the ex-serfs paid 34 % over the market price for the shrunken plots they kept. This figure was 90 % in the northern regions, 20 % in the black - earth region but zero in the Polish provinces. In 1857, 6.79 % of serfs were domestic, landless servants who stayed landless after 1861. Only Polish and Romanian domestic serfs got land. Ninety percent of the serfs who got larger plots lived in the eight ex-Polish provinces where the Tsar wanted to weaken the Szlachta. The other 10 % lived in Astrakhan and in the barren north. In the whole Empire, peasant land declined 4.1 % - 13.3 % outside the ex Polish zone and 23.3 % in the 16 black - earth provinces. Georgia 's serfs suffered the loss of ⁄ of their land in Tiflis province, ⁄ in Kutaisi province. These redemption payments were not abolished till January 1, 1907.
The influx of New World grain caused a slump in grain prices, forcing the peasants to farm more land. At the same time, despite their efficiency, large peasant households split up (from 9.5 to 6.8 persons per household in central Russia, 1861 -- 1884). The resulting land hunger increased prices 7-fold and made it easier for nobles to sell or rent land rather than farm it themselves. From 1861 to 1900 40 % of noble land was sold to peasants (70 % of this went to the Commune and by 1900 two thirds of the nobles ' arable land was rented to the peasantry. 1900 -- 1914, over 20 % of remaining noble land was sold but only 3 % of the 155 estates over 50,000 desiatiny. According to the 1897 census, 71 % of the top 4 ranks of the civil service were nobles. But in the civil service as a whole, noble membership declined from 49.8 % in 1755 to 43.7 % in the 1850s and to 30.7 % in 1897. There were 1.2 million nobles, about 1 % of the population (8 % in Poland; compare with 4 % in Hungary and 1 to 1.5 % in France). Their military influence waned: in the Crimean War 90 % of officers were noble, by 1913 the proportion had sunk to 50 %. They lived increasingly away from their estates: in 1858 only 15 to 20 % of Russian nobles lived in cities, by 1897 it was 47.2 %.
By 1904 ⁄ of noble land was mortgaged to the noble bank. During the 1905 Russian Revolution 3,000 manors were burnt (15 % of the total).
The Russian imperial nobility was multiethnic. Native non-Russians such as the Poles, Georgians, Lithuanians, Tatars, and Germans formed an important segment of the noble estate. According to the 1897 census, only 0.87 % of Russians were classified as hereditary nobles versus 5.29 % of Georgians and 4.41 % of Poles, followed by Lithuanians, Tatars, Azerbaijanis, and Germans. After the abolition of serfdom, the non-Russian nobility, with the exception of Finland, lost their special status. Later, many of the impoverished or déclassé Polish and Georgian nobles became leaders of nationalist and radical political movements, including Bolshevism.
After the October Revolution of 1917 the new Soviet government legally abolished all classes of nobility. Many members of the Russian nobility who fled Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution played a significant role in the White Emigre communities which settled in Europe, in North America, and in other parts of the world. In the 1920s and 1930s several Russian nobility associations were established outside Russia, including groups in France, Belgium, and the United States. In New York, the Russian Nobility Association in America was founded in 1938. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 interest among Russians in the role that the Russian nobility played in the historical and cultural development of Russia has grown.
Nobility was transferred by inheritance or was bestowed by a fount of honour, i.e. the sovereign of the Russian Empire, and was typically ranked as per below, with those of the highest noble prestige ranked first.
Unlike the ancient nobility, which was exclusively hereditary, the remaining classes of nobility could be acquired.
A newly designated noble was usually entitled to landownership. A loss of land did not automatically mean loss of nobility. In later Imperial Russia, higher ranks of state service (see Table of Ranks) were automatically granted nobility, not necessarily associated with landownership.
Russian did not employ a nobiliary particle before a surname (as von in German or de in French), but Russian noblemen were accorded an official salutation, or style, that varied by their ranks: your high born (Russian: ваше высокородие), your high well born (Russian: ваше высокоблагородие), your well born (Russian: ваше благородие), etc.
Titled nobility (Russian: титулованное дворянство) was the highest category: those who had titles such as prince, count and baron. The latter two titles were introduced by Peter the Great. A baron or count could be either proprietary (actual) (владетельный (действительный)) -- i.e., who owned land in the Russian Empire -- or titular (титулярный), i.e., only endowed with the title.
Hereditary nobility (Russian: потомственное дворянство) was transferred to wife, children, and further direct legal descendants along the male (agnatic) line. In exceptional cases, the emperor could transfer nobility along indirect or female lines, e.g., to preserve a notable family name.
Personal nobility (Russian: личное дворянство) could for instance be acquired by admission to orders of knighthood of the Russian Empire. It was transferable only to the wife.
Estateless nobility (Russian: беспоместное дворянство) was nobility gained by state service, but which was not entitled to land estate.
In addition, the ancient nobility (Russian: Древнее дворянство) was recognised, descendants of Rurik, Gediminas and historical boyars and knyazes, e.g., the Shuyskies, Galitzins, Naryshkins, Khilkoffs, Gorchakovs, Belosselsky - Belozerskys and Chelyadnins.
Russian nobility possessed the following privileges:
Hereditary nobility could be achieved by the following ways: 1) by a special discretion of the autocracy; 2) by achieving a certain military or civil rank while being on active service; 3) by being awarded a certain order of the Russian Empire; 4) it could be given to descendants of the most distinguished personal nobles and prominent citizens.
Between 1722 and 1845 hereditary nobility was given to military officers who achieved the 14th rank of ensign, to civil servants who achieved the 8th rank of Collegiate Assessor and to any person who was awarded any order of the Russian Empire (since 1831 года -- except the Polish order of Virtuti Militari).
Between 1845 and 1856 hereditary nobility was given to military officers who achieved the 8th rank of major / captain 3rd rank, to civil servants who achieved the 5th rank of State Counsellor and to any person who was awarded the Order of Saint George or the Order of Saint Vladimir of any class, or any order of the Russian Empire of the first class.
From 1856 to 1917 hereditary nobility was given to military officers who achieved the 6th rank of colonel / captain 1st rank, to civil servants who achieved the 4th rank of Active State Councellor and to any person who was awarded the Order of Saint George of any class or the Order of Saint Vladimir of any class (since 1900 - of the third class or higher), or any order of the Russian Empire of the first class.
Personal nobility could be acquired by the following ways: 1) by a special discretion of the autocracy; 2) by achieving the 14th military rank of ensign or the 9th civil rank of Titular Councillor; 3) by being awarded the orders of the Russian Empire unless those gave hereditary nobility; except merchants (unless those were awarded between 1826 and 1832), who acquired honorary citizenship instead. The personal nobility was n't inherited by children but was given to the wife of a personal noble.
Prince Mikhail Skopin - Shuisky
Boyar Ivan Chemodanov
Boyar Afanasy Ordin - Nashchokin
Boyar Pyotr Potemkin
Boyar Ivan Repnin
Boyar Artamon Matveyev
Prince Fyodor Romodanovsky
Prince Vasily Galitzine
Prince Fyodor Golovin
Count Boris Sheremetev
Count Gavriil Golovkin
Count Fyodor Apraksin
Prince Vasily Dolgorukov
Count Alexey Bestuzhev - Ryumin
Count Pyotr Rumyantsev - Zadunaisky
Count Alexander Stroganov
Prince Nikolay Saltykov
Princess Yekaterina Dashkova
Count Aleksei Musin - Pushkin
Count Semyon Vorontsov
Prince Alexander Kurakin
Prince Yakov Lobanov - Rostovsky
Count Nikolai Demidov
Countess Anna Lopukhina
Count Sergey Uvarov
Prince Alexander Menshikov
Prince Alexey Orlov
Prince Alexander Gorchakov
Princess Zinaida Volkonskaya
Prince Alexander Baryatinsky
Count Aleksey Tolstoy
Prince Georgy Lvov
Prince Felix Yusupov, Count Sumarokov - Elston
Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy
Prince Andrey Gagarin
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who played taylor in 50 shades of grey | Fifty Shades of Grey (film) - wikipedia
Fifty Shades of Grey is a 2015 American psychological erotic romantic thriller film directed by Sam Taylor - Johnson, with a screenplay by Kelly Marcel. The film is based on the eponymous 2011 novel by British author E.L. James and stars Dakota Johnson as Anastasia Steele, a college graduate who begins a sadomasochistic relationship with young business magnate Christian Grey, played by Jamie Dornan.
The film premiered at the 65th Berlin International Film Festival on February 11, 2015 and was released on February 13, 2015, by Universal Pictures and Focus Features. Despite receiving generally negative reviews, it was an immediate box office success, breaking numerous box office records and earning over $571 million worldwide.
The film was the most awarded at the 36th Golden Raspberry Awards, winning five of six nominations, including Worst Picture (tied with Fantastic Four) and both leading roles. In contrast, Ellie Goulding 's single "Love Me like You Do '' was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song, while The Weeknd 's single "Earned It '' was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song.
It is the first film in the Fifty Shades film series and was followed by two sequels, Fifty Shades Darker (2017) and Fifty Shades Freed (2018).
Twenty - one - year - old Anastasia "Ana '' Steele (Dakota Johnson) is an English literature major at Washington State University ("WSU '') 's satellite campus near Vancouver, Washington. When her roommate, Kate Kavanagh (Eloise Mumford), becomes ill and is unable to interview Christian Grey (Jamie Dornan), a 27 - year - old billionaire entrepreneur, for the college newspaper, Ana agrees to go in her place. At Christian 's Seattle headquarters called Grey House, Ana stumbles her way through the meeting. Christian, who is that year 's WSU commencement speaker, takes an interest in her; soon after, he visits the hardware store where Ana works. He agrees to Ana 's request for a photo shoot to accompany the article for which Ana had interviewed him.
Christian invites Ana for coffee, but he leaves abruptly, saying he is not the man for her. Christian later sends Ana first edition copies of two Thomas Hardy novels, including Tess of the d'Urbervilles, as a gift.
Ana and her friends celebrate graduation at a local bar. After drinking too much, Ana spontaneously calls Christian, saying she is returning the books and berates his behavior towards her. Christian goes to the bar and finds Ana, who passes out. She wakes up the next morning in Christian 's hotel room, relieved that they were not intimate.
Ana and Christian begin seeing each other, though he insists that she sign a non-disclosure agreement preventing her from revealing details about their dalliance. Christian explains that he only has interrelations involving bondage that is clearly defined in a signed contract. Ana reveals that she is a virgin. While considering the agreement and negotiating her own terms, and after visiting his "playroom '', a room stocked with a variety of BDSM toys, furniture, and gear, she and Christian have coitus.
Christian bestows Ana with gifts and favors, such as a new car and laptop computer. After Ana and Kate move to Seattle, Ana continues seeing Christian. During dinner at Christian 's parents, Ana suddenly mentions she is leaving the next day to visit her mother in Georgia. Later, Christian becomes frustrated when Ana expresses she wants more than the one - sided relationship he proposes. She is shocked when Christian unexpectedly arrives in Georgia, they have coitus again but he leaves soon afterward, to tend to an emergency in Seattle.
After returning home, Ana continues seeing Christian, who wants further sexual experimentation. Ana initially consents, but Christian keeps emotionally distant, upsetting her. While still considering the contract, and in an effort to understand Christian psychologically, Ana asks him to demonstrate how he would "punish '' her for rule breaking. Christian whips Ana 's buttocks six times with a belt. Upset and disgusted, Ana leaves Christian after concluding that he is wrong for her and his practices border on being deviant and excessive.
In an alternative ending, both Ana and Christian experience flashbacks. Christian jogs in the rain, while Ana sobs in her apartment. Christian encounters a gift Ana gave him with the note: "This reminded me of a happy time. -- Ana ''.
By early 2013, several Hollywood studios were keen to obtain film rights to The New York Times bestselling Fifty Shades trilogy of novels. Warner Bros., Sony, Paramount, Universal, and Mark Wahlberg 's production company submitted bids for the film rights. Universal Pictures and Focus Features secured the rights to the trilogy in March 2013. Author James sought to retain some control during the movie 's creative process. James chose The Social Network producers Michael De Luca and Dana Brunetti to produce the film.
Although American Psycho writer Bret Easton Ellis publicly expressed his desire to write the screenplay for Fifty Shades of Grey, Kelly Marcel, screenwriter of Saving Mr. Banks, was hired for the job. Patrick Marber was brought in by Taylor - Wood to polish the screenplay, specifically to do some "character work ''. Universal hired Mark Bomback for script doctoring. Mark Bridges served as the costume designer. Entertainment Weekly estimated the film 's budget as "$40 million - or - so ''.
Allison Rawlings of London, Ontario directed Fifty Shades of Gray. By May 9, 2013, the studio was considering Joe Wright to direct, but this proved unworkable due to Wright 's schedule. Other directors who had been under consideration included Patty Jenkins, Bill Condon, Bennett Miller, and Steven Soderbergh. In June 2013, E.L. James announced Sam Taylor - Johnson would direct the film adaptation. Johnson was paid over $2 million for directing the film.
91⁄2 Weeks, Last Tango in Paris, and Blue Is the Warmest Colour were all cited by Taylor - Johnson as inspirations for the film.
Bret Easton Ellis stated that Robert Pattinson had been James ' first choice for the role of Christian Grey, but James felt that casting Pattinson and his Twilight co-star Kristen Stewart in the film would be "weird ''. Ian Somerhalder and Chace Crawford both expressed interest in the role of Christian. Somerhalder later admitted if he had been considered, the filming process would ultimately have conflicted with his shooting schedule for The CW 's series The Vampire Diaries. On September 2, 2013, James revealed that Charlie Hunnam and Dakota Johnson had been cast as Christian Grey and Anastasia Steele, respectively. The short list of other actresses considered for the role of Anastasia included Alicia Vikander, Imogen Poots, Elizabeth Olsen, Shailene Woodley, and Felicity Jones. Keeley Hazell auditioned for an unspecified role. Lucy Hale also auditioned for the film. Emilia Clarke was also offered the role of Anastasia but turned down the part because of the nudity required. Taylor - Johnson would give every actress who auditioned for the role of Anastasia four pages to read of a monologue from Ingmar Bergman 's Persona.
The studio originally wanted Ryan Gosling for Christian, but he was not interested in the role. Garrett Hedlund was also considered, but he could not connect with the character. Stephen Amell said he would not have wanted to play the role of Grey because "I actually did n't find him to be that interesting... nothing about Christian Grey really spoke to me. '' Hunnam initially turned down the role of Christian but later reconsidered it, following a meeting with studio heads. Hunnam said of the audition process: "I felt really intrigued and excited about it so I went and read the first book to get a clearer idea of who this character was, and I felt even more excited at the prospect of bringing him to life. We (Taylor - Johnson and I) kind of both suggested I do a reading with Dakota, who was her favorite, and as soon as we got in the room and I started reading with Dakota I knew that I definitely wanted to do it. There 's just like a tangible chemistry between us. It felt exciting and fun and weird and compelling. '' In response to the negative fan reaction the casting drew, producer Dana Brunetti said: "There is a lot that goes into casting that is n't just looks. Talent, availability, their desire to do it, chemistry with other actor, etc. So if your favorite was n't cast, then it is most likely due to something on that list. Keep that in mind while hating and keep perspective. ''
During October 2013, actress Jennifer Ehle was in talks for the role of Anastasia 's mother Carla. On October 12, 2013, Universal Pictures announced that Hunnam had exited the film due to conflicts with the schedule of his FX series Sons of Anarchy. Alexander Skarsgård, Jamie Dornan, Theo James, François Arnaud, Scott Eastwood, Luke Bracey, and Billy Magnussen were at the top of the list to replace Hunnam as Christian Grey. Finally, on October 23, 2013, Dornan was cast as Christian Grey. On October 31, 2013, Victor Rasuk was cast as José Rodriguez, Jr. On November 22, 2013, Eloise Mumford was cast as Kate Kavanagh. On December 2, 2013, singer Rita Ora was cast as Christian 's younger sister Mia. Ora originally wanted to work on the soundtrack. On December 3, 2013, Marcia Gay Harden was cast as Christian 's mother, Grace.
In September, filming was scheduled to start on November 5, 2013, in Vancouver, British Columbia. The following month, producer Michael De Luca announced filming would begin on November 13, 2013.
Principal photography was again delayed and eventually started on December 1, 2013. Scenes were filmed in the Gastown district of Vancouver. Bentall 5 was used as the Grey Enterprises building.
The University of British Columbia serves as Washington State University Vancouver, from which Ana graduates. The Fairmont Hotel Vancouver was used as the Heathman Hotel.
The film was also shot at the North Shore Studios. The production officially ended on February 21, 2014. Reshoots involving scenes between Dornan and Johnson took place in Vancouver during the week of October 13, 2014. The film was shot under the working title "The Adventures of Max and Banks. ''
James said that the film 's soundtrack would be released on February 10, 2015. The first single, "Earned It '', by The Weeknd, was released on December 24, 2014. On January 7, 2015, the second single, "Love Me like You Do '' by Ellie Goulding was released, later reaching the top three on the Billboard Hot 100, and becoming a hit for the soundtrack. A promotional single, "Salted Wound '' by Australian recording artist Sia, was released on January 27, 2015. To date, the soundtrack has sold 516,000 copies in the United States.
In February 2013, Universal chairman Adam Fogelson said the film "could be ready to release... as early as next summer. '' The studio initially announced an August 1, 2014, release. However, in November 2013, it was pushed back to February 13, 2015, in time for Valentine 's Day. Fifty Shades of Grey was first screened at the 65th Berlin International Film Festival on February 11, 2015. The film was released in 75 IMAX screens across the US on February 13, 2015.
On January 25, 2014, more than a year prior to release, Universal displayed posters with the phrase, "Mr. Grey will see you now '', in five locations across the United States. On February 14, 2014, the first photograph of Johnson as Anastasia was released. On June 18, 2014, the film 's official Twitter account released the first still of Dornan as Christian in honor of Christian 's birthday.
On July 9, 2014, the book 's author, E.L. James, said on Twitter that the film 's trailer would be released on July 24, 2014. Beyoncé debuted a teaser for the trailer on her Instagram account five days before the trailer 's release. On July 24, Dornan and Johnson were on The Today Show to present part of the trailer appropriate for morning television; the full trailer, which contained more racy scenes, was released later the same day on the internet (200 days before its initial theatrical release). The trailer featured a new version of "Crazy in Love '' by Beyoncé, which was scored and arranged by her frequent collaborator Boots. The trailer was viewed 36.4 million times in the week after its July 24 release. This made it the most viewed trailer on YouTube in 2014, until it was surpassed in October by the trailer for Avengers: Age of Ultron. However, in mid-December the trailer reached 93 million views and was again the most viewed of 2014. The trailer accumulated over 100 million views in its first week of release through different channels and websites, becoming the biggest trailer ever released in history. By February 2015, the trailer had been viewed more than 193 million times on YouTube alone. And by late February, Fifty Shades of Grey related material garnered over 329 million views including 113 million views for its official trailer. A second trailer was released on November 13, 2014. A third trailer aired during Super Bowl XLIX, on February 1, 2015.
The film was promoted through an ad campaign that asked people whether they were "curious ''. Nick Carpou, Universal 's president of domestic distribution, said: "Our campaign gave people permission to see the film. '' "Valentines is a big deal for couples and a great relationship event, and the date with the long Presidents Day weekend created a perfect storm for us. This date positioned us to take full advantage of the romance angle, which is how we sold the film in our marketing campaign, '' he said.
There was initial speculation that the film could receive an NC - 17 rating in the United States. Studios typically steer away from the adults - only rating due to the impact the classification has on a film 's commercial viability, with some theater chains refusing to exhibit NC - 17 rated films. While screenwriter Marcel said she expected the film to be NC - 17 rated, producer De Luca anticipated the less restrictive R rating. On January 5, 2015, the MPAA did give the film an R rating, basing its decision on "strong sexual content including dialogue, some unusual behavior and graphic nudity, and language. ''
On January 30, in Australia, the film was rated MA15+ by the ACB for "strong sex scenes, sexual themes and nudity ''. On February 2, 2015, the British BBFC classified the film an 18 certificate, mentioning "strong sex ''. In Canada, Ontario, Manitoba, Alberta, and British Columbia, the film was rated at 18A by the OFRB, MFCB, AFR, and BCFCO respectively due to its "occasional upsetting or disturbing scenes, and partial or full nudity in a brief sexual situation. '' In Quebec, the Régie du cinéma rated the movie under the 16 + category for its eroticism. In France, the film earned a 12 rating. In Lebanon, the film earned an NC - 21 rating. In Argentina, the Advisory Commission of Cinematographic Exhibition (the rating arm of the INCAA) rated the film SAM16 / R.
Anti-pornography watchdog group Morality in Media argued that the film 's R rating "severely undermines the violent themes in the film and does not adequately inform parents and patrons of the film 's content '', and that the MPAA was encouraging sexual violence by letting the film by without an NC - 17 rating.
The film was scheduled for a February 12, 2015, release in Malaysia, but it was denied a certificate by the Malaysian Film Censorship Board (LPF) for its "unnatural '' and "sadistic '' content. The LPF chairman, Abdul Halim Abdul Hamid, said Fifty Shades was "more pornography than a movie. '' The film was also banned in Indonesia, Kenya, Russia 's North Caucasus, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Papua New Guinea, Cambodia, and India. The film was released in Nigeria for a week, before being removed from cinemas by the National Film and Video Censors Board (NFVCB). Studios will not pursue a theatrical release in China.
The film 's sex scenes were censored after protests from various religious groups in the Philippines, and as a result it is in limited release in that country with an R - 18 rating from the MTRCB. A similarly cut version was released in Zimbabwe.
Roughly 20 minutes were cut from the film for screening in Vietnam, leaving no sex scenes. The scene in which Ana is beaten with a belt is skipped entirely.
On January 28, 2015, a campaign in the United States by the National Center on Sexual Exploitation started two petitions to boycott the film 's release. Their website makes more than 50 allegations that the film has a negative impact on the community. It said, "Hollywood is advertising the Fifty Shades story as an erotic love affair, but it is really about sexual abuse and violence against women. The porn industry has poised men and women to receive the message that sexual violence is enjoyable. Fifty Shades models this porn message and Hollywood cashes the check. '' By February 7, one of the petitions had garnered more than 53,000 signatures.
On February 2, in Michigan, a man petitioned to halt the film 's release at a local Celebration! Cinema. Despite the man 's efforts, the president of the cinemas declined to cancel the release of the film. He said, "We 've been in business for 70 years and people often times object to content, and it 's not our job to censor the content of a widespread movie. It 's not in our best interest. It 's not in the community 's best interest. '' The film sold 3,000 tickets before the release and was expected to sell a total of 10,000 tickets.
The American Family Association called for theaters not to show the film: "The irony is not lost that the film 's main character is named, ' Christian, ' while this film presents anything but a ' Christian ' view of intimacy... It is the epitome of elevating abuse, and we call on all theaters to reject promoting such abuse on their screens. ''
Thomas Williams of the Notre Dame Center for Ethics and Culture commented on the release of the film in the United States on Valentine 's Day, stating "The irony of Universal Pictures ' decision to release its bondage - erotica film Fifty Shades of Grey on the day dedicated to honoring a Christian martyr has not gone unnoticed to many observers, who seem to find the choice unclassy at best. ''
Fifty Shades of Grey was released via DVD and Blu - ray on May 8, 2015. The Blu - ray edition features an unrated cut of the film; the version includes an additional three minutes of footage, the bulk of which are in the form of an alternate ending.
Upon its release on home media in the U.S., the film topped both the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert chart, which tracks combined Blu - ray Disc and DVD sales, as well as the Blu - ray Disc sales chart for two consecutive weeks up to the week ending May 17, 2015.
Fifty Shades of Grey grossed $166.2 million in North America and $404.8 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $571 million, against a budget of $40 million. It is the fourth - highest - grossing film directed by a woman (behind Kung Fu Panda 2, Wonder Woman and Mamma Mia!), and the fourth - highest - grossing R - rated film of all - time. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $256.55 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
Tickets went on sale in the United States from January 11, 2015. According to ticket - selling site Fandango, Fifty Shades of Grey is the fastest selling R - rated title in the site 's 15 - year history, surpassing Sex and the City 2. It also had the biggest first week of ticket sales on Fandango for a non-sequel film, surpassing 2012 's The Hunger Games. It is fourth overall on Fandango 's list of top advance ticket sales behind The Twilight Saga: New Moon, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2, and The Hunger Games. The demand prompted US theatre owners to add new showtimes. Weeks before the film 's release, several box office analysts suggested as much as a $60 million domestic four - day opening while Box Office Mojo reported that a $100 million opening could be possible.
Outside the United States, Fifty Shades of Grey pre-sold 4.5 million tickets in 39 markets. In the UK, it sold £ 1.3 million ($1.9 million) worth of tickets a week before release. On release, it set several records at the box office, including:
In the U.S. and Canada, it is the highest - grossing sex film, the seventeenth highest - grossing film of 2015, and the fourth - highest - grossing romantic film of all time. It opened in the U.S. and Canada simultaneously with Kingsman: The Secret Service on Thursday, February 12, 2015, across 2,830 theaters and was widened to 3,646 theaters the next day making it the widest R - rated opening (surpassed by Mad Max: Fury Road), and the fourth widest R - rated release of all time. It earned $8.6 million from Thursday night previews which is the second highest late - night gross for a film released in February (behind Deadpool) and the third - highest for an R - rated film (behind Deadpool and The Hangover Part II). The film topped the box office on its opening day grossing $30.2 million (including Thursday previews) from 3,646 theaters setting a record for highest February opening day (previously held by The Passion of the Christ) and fourth - highest overall among R - rated films. During its traditional three - day opening the film opened at No. 1 at the box office earning $85.1 million, setting records for the biggest opening weekend for a film released in February (a record previously held by The Passion of the Christ). Women comprised 82 % of the total audiences during its opening day, and 68 % on Valentine 's Day.
Revenue from the second weekend dropped massively by 73.9 % to $22.25 million, which is the second - biggest drop for a 3,000 + screen release (only behind Friday the 13th 's 80.4 % drop) and the biggest for a 3,500 + screen release. It is just the eighth film to open on more than 3,000 screens to drop by 70 % or more. The film topped the box office for two consecutive weekends before falling to No. 4 in its third weekend while Focus took the top spot.
Outside the U.S. and Canada, box office analysts were predicting as much as $158 million opening. It opened Wednesday, February 11, 2015, in 4 countries, earning $3.7 million. It opened in 34 more countries on February 12, earning $28.6 million in two days. The film set opening day records for Universal Pictures in 25 markets and opening day records for an R - rated film in 34 territories. Through Sunday, February 15, it earned an opening - weekend total of $156 million from 58 countries from 10,979 screens ($173.6 million through Monday) where it opened at No. 1 in 54 of the 58 countries, marking the biggest overseas opening for an R - rated film, the fourth - biggest of 2015, and Universal 's third - biggest overseas opening weekend ever. The film set an all - time opening record in 13 markets, Universal 's biggest opening weekend ever in 30 markets and biggest opening for any R - rated film in 31 markets.
The biggest opener outside of the United States was witnessed in the UK, Ireland and Malta, where it earned £ 13.55 million ($20.8 million) in its opening weekend, which is the biggest debut ever for an 18 - rated film and the second biggest for a non-sequel film (behind I Am Legend). In just 10 days of release it became the highest - grossing 18 - rated film of all time. It topped the UK box office for two consecutive weekends. Other high openings include Germany ($14.1 million), France ($12.3 million), Russia ($11 million), Italy ($10.1 million), Spain ($8.7 million), Brazil ($8.3 million), Mexico ($8.1 million), Australia ($8 million). In Japan, the film was unsuccessful opening at No. 5 with $682,000 but falling out of the top 10 the following week. The Hollywood Reporter cited out possible reasons for the film 's failure, attributing it to the "delayed release of the new Japanese - language editions of the books, poor timing for the film release and an R - 15, re-edit blurring out parts of the sex scenes. ''
It topped the box office outside of North America for three consecutive weekends until it was overtaken by Warner Bros. ' Jupiter Ascending in its fourth weekend. It became Universal Pictures ' highest - grossing R - rated film of all time overseas (breaking Ted 's record), Universal Pictures ' highest - grossing film in 14 countries, and Universal Pictures ' eight - highest - grossing film overseas. In total earnings, its largest markets overseas are the UK, Ireland and Malta ($52.5 million), Germany ($43.7 million), Brazil, ($31.3 million), France ($29.5 million) and Spain ($22.6 million).
Fifty Shades of Grey was criticized for its acting, writing, and pacing; however, some critics noted it as an improvement over the book and praised the performance of Dakota Johnson. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 25 % based on 251 reviews, with an average rating of 4.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "While creatively better endowed than its print counterpart, Fifty Shades of Grey is a less than satisfying experience on the screen. '' The review aggregator website Metacritic gave the film a score of 46 out of 100, based on 46 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the film an average grade of "C + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Claudia Puig of USA Today wrote that "the dialogue is laughable, the pacing is sluggish and the performances are one - note. '' Moira Macdonald of The Seattle Times wrote: "Fifty Shades of Grey the movie, for the record, is not quite as bad as Fifty Shades of Grey the book. But that 's not saying much. '' We Got This Covered critic Isaac Feldberg gave the film one and a half stars out of five and wrote that it "feels like two, distinct films grappling for dominance over the screen: one a sensual and stylish romance, and the other a numbingly explicit Harlequin bodice - ripper brought to life. Regrettably, the latter and lesser of the two ends up on top. ''. The Guardian lead film critic Peter Bradshaw gave the film one star out of five, calling it "the most purely tasteful and softcore depiction of sadomasochism in cinema history '' with "strictly daytime soap '' performances. A.O. Scott of The New York Times called the movie "terrible '', but wrote that "it might nonetheless be a movie that feels good to see, whether you squirm or giggle or roll your eyes or just sit still and take your punishment. ''
In a positive review for The Daily Telegraph, Robbie Collin called the film "sexy, funny and self - aware in every way the original book is n't. '' Elizabeth Weitzman of New York 's Daily News praised the directing, screenplay, and Johnson 's performance, but called Dornan 's performance, the leads ' chemistry, and the supporting cast "underused ''. She praised the film for honoring the essence of its source and the director 's way of balancing "atmosphere with action ''. In The Guardian, Jordan Hoffmann awarded the film three out of five stars, writing, "this big screen adaptation still manages to be about people, and even a little bit sweet '', and that the sex scenes "are there to advance the plot, and only the most buttoned - up prude will be scandalised. '' Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B −, writing: "This perfectly normal way of consuming erotica suggests that the movie Fifty Shades of Grey will work better as home entertainment, when each viewer can race past the blah - blah about how well Christian plays the piano and pause on the fleeting image of the man minus his pants. '' In The Sydney Morning Herald, Timothy Laurie and Jessica Kean argue that "the film provides a language for decision - making around violence more developed than most Hollywood fodder '', and that "film fleshes out an otherwise legalistic concept like ' consent ' into a living, breathing, and at times, uncomfortable interpersonal experience. It dramatises the dangers of unequal negotiation and the practical complexity of identifying one 's limits and having them respected. ''
Various critics have noted the similarities between Fifty Shades of Grey and Adrian Lyne 's 91⁄2 Weeks (1986). Both films are literary adaptations, centering on a sadomasochistic affair.
In June 2012, the film company Smash Pictures announced its intent to film a pornographic version of the Fifty Shades trilogy, entitled Fifty Shades of Grey: An XXX Adaptation. A release date of January 10, 2013, was announced. In November 2012, Universal, which had secured the Fifty Shades film rights, filed a lawsuit against Smash Pictures, stating that the film violated its copyright in that it was not filmed as a parody adaptation but "copies without reservation from the unique expressive elements of the Fifty Shades trilogy, progressing through the events of Fifty Shades of Grey and into the second book, Fifty Shades Darker ''.
The lawsuit asked for an injunction, for the profits from all sales of the film, as well as damages, saying that "a quickly and cheaply produced pornographic work (...) is likely to cause Plaintiffs irreparable harm by poisoning public perception of the Fifty Shades Trilogy and the forthcoming Universal films. '' Smash Pictures responded to the lawsuit by issuing a counterclaim and requesting a continuance, stating that "much or all '' of the Fifty Shades material was part of the public domain because it was originally published in various venues as a fan fiction based on the Twilight series. A lawyer for Smash Pictures further commented that the federal copyright registrations for the books were "invalid and unenforceable '' and that the film "did not violate copyright or trademark laws ''. The lawsuit was eventually settled out of court for an undisclosed sum and Smash Pictures agreed to stop any further production or promotion of the film.
In April 2015, The Hollywood Reporter reported that E.L. James ' husband, Niall Leonard, was enlisted to write the script for the film 's sequel. In the same month, at the 2015 Universal CinemaCon in Las Vegas, Universal announced the release dates of the sequels, with Fifty Shades Darker being released on February 10, 2017, and Fifty Shades Freed scheduled for February 9, 2018. However, the sequels will not see Sam Taylor - Johnson returning as director. On August 20, 2015, the U.S. House of Cards director James Foley was a frontrunner to direct the sequel. In November 2015, Universal Studios announced that both films will be shot back - to - back.
A spoof version of the film, Fifty Shades of Black, was released on January 29, 2016, in North America. Marlon Wayans and Rick Alvarez wrote the script, in which Wayans stars as Christian Black. The film was distributed by SquareOne Entertainment in Germany and Open Road Films in the United States; IM Global produce and finance it, as well as handling international releases. Kali Hawk parodied the role of Anastasia Steele, with supporting cast including Affion Crockett, Mike Epps, Jane Seymour and Fred Willard. Principal photography began on August 11, 2015, in Los Angeles, with a production budget of around $5 million.
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who played teenage clark kent in superman the movie | Jeff East - wikipedia
Jeff East (born October 27, 1957) is an American actor. Beginning his professional acting career at the age of fourteen, East is known for his portrayal of Huckleberry Finn in the United Artists feature films Tom Sawyer (1973) and Huckleberry Finn (1974), as well as for his portrayal of a teenage Clark Kent in Alexander Salkind 's Superman: The Movie (1978).
East was born Jeffrey Franklin East on October 27, 1957, in Kansas City, Missouri, to parents Ira and Joan Ann East. His father worked in real estate and his mother was a home - maker. East grew up with three siblings; an older sister named Anne, an older brother named Ronald, and a twin sister named Jane.
East 's feature film credits include Flight of the Wolf (1974), Summer Of Fear aka "Stranger In Our House '' (1978), Mary and Joseph: A Story of Faith (1979), Klondike Fever (1980), Deadly Blessing (1981), Up the Creek (1984), Dream West (1986), Pumpkinhead (1988), Another Chance (1989), and Deadly Exposure (1993).
Unbeknownst to East when the film was being made, his Superman dialogue was dubbed over by Christopher Reeve.
East also starred in the 1983 television film The Day After. His TV guest appearances include M * A * S * H ("Settling Debts ''), Otherworld, and Shades of L.A.
In 1987, East became involved in real estate development with his father. In February 2004, he moved back to Kansas City to take over his father 's commercial real estate company.
Jeff 's first marriage was to Lori Gates. Though the marriage ended in divorce, they produced two kids, Alexander Gates East (1984) and Madison Gates East (1987).
In 2014, East married for the 3rd time, Pascale Lambert East and moved to Nice, France.
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who sang listen to the rhythm of the falling rain | Rhythm of the Rain - wikipedia
"Rhythm of the Rain '' is a song performed by The Cascades, released in November 1962. It was written by Cascades band member John Claude Gummoe. It rose to number three on the US pop chart on March 9, 1963, and spent two weeks at number one on the US Easy Listening chart. Billboard ranked the record as the No. 4 song of 1963.
The song was also a top 5 hit in March 1963 in the United Kingdom and, in May 1963, was a number - one single in Ireland. In Canada, the song was on the CHUM Chart for a total of 12 weeks and reached number 1 in March 1963. In 1999 BMI listed the song as the ninth most performed song on radio / TV in the 20th century.
The Cascades ' recording was used in the soundtrack of the 1979 film Quadrophenia and included in its soundtrack album.
The song arrangement features distinctive use of a celesta.
The lyrics are sung by a man who wishes the rain would stop falling and reminding him of the error of his ways, and to let him cry alone, as his lover has left him.
The song was adapted into French (under the title "En écoutant la pluie '', meaning "Listening to the Rain '') by Richard Anthony. It was recorded by Sylvie Vartan, who released it as a single in 1963.
According to the charts published by the U.S. magazine Billboard (in its "Hits of the World '' section), the song "En écoutant la pluie '' reached number one in France.
7 '' single RCA Victor 45.277 (1963, France)
7 '' EP Sylvie à l'Olympia RCA 86.007 (1963, France)
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what is the order of the aurora teagarden books | Aurora Teagarden - wikipedia
Aurora Teagarden is a fictional character created by author Charlaine Harris, in a series of eleven crime novels written from 1990 to 2017.
In the first book of the series, twenty - eight - year - old Aurora (Roe) Teagarden is a professional librarian and belongs to the Real Murders club, a group of 12 enthusiasts who gather monthly to study famous baffling or unsolved crimes in the town of Lawrenceton, Georgia.
On June 4, 2014, author Charlaine Harris announced on her Facebook page that the Aurora Teagarden books would be adapted into a series of two - hour films, starring Candace Cameron Bure and would air on the Hallmark Movies and Mysteries Channel.
The films in the series have been shot largely in Vancouver, British Columbia.
The films are broadcast in the USA on Hallmark Movies & Mysteries. Channel 5 took over the broadcast rights for the series in the UK.
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what is the warmest recorded temperature in antarctica | Climate of Antarctica - wikipedia
Antarctica has the coldest climate on Earth. Antarctica 's lowest air temperature recorded by a weather station was set on 21 July 1983, with a temperature of − 89.2 ° C (− 128.6 ° F) at Vostok Station. But the coldest sites on the East Antarctic Plateau have actually reached − 98 ° C (− 144.4 ° F) making this location 81 ° 48 ′ S 63 ° 30 ′ E / 81.8 ° S 63.5 ° E / - 81.8; 63.5 the "Coldest Place on Earth ''.
It is also extremely dry (technically a desert), averaging 166 mm (6.5 in) of precipitation per year. On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet. Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, because of the katabatic winds. Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate (Köppen EF) with very cold, generally extremely dry weather.
The lowest reliably measured temperature of a continuously occupied station on Earth of − 89.2 ° C (− 128.6 ° F) was on 21 July 1983 at Vostok Station. For comparison, this is 10.7 ° C (19.3 ° F) colder than subliming dry ice (at sea level pressure). The altitude of the location is 3,900 meters (12,800 feet).
The lowest recorded temperature of any location on Earth 's surface at 81 ° 48 ′ S 63 ° 30 ′ E / 81.8 ° S 63.5 ° E / - 81.8; 63.5 was revised with new data in 2018 in nearly 100 locations, ranging from − 93.2 ° C (− 135.8 ° F) to − 98 ° C (− 144.4 ° F). This unnamed part of the Antarctic plateau, between Dome A and Dome F, was measured on August 10, 2010, and the temperature was deduced from radiance measured by the Landsat 8 and other satellites, and discovered during a National Snow and Ice Data Center review of stored data in December, 2013 but revice by researcher on June 25 2018. This temperature is not directly comparable to the - 89.2 quoted above, since it is a skin temperature deduced from satellite - measured upwelling radiance, rather than a thermometer - measured temperature of the air 1.5 m (4.9 ft) above the ground surface.
The highest temperature ever recorded on the Antarctic continent was 17.5 ° C (63.5 ° F) at Esperanza Base, on the Antarctic Peninsula, on 24 March 2015. A higher temperature of 19.8 ° C (67.6 ° F) at Signy Research Station on 30 January 1982 is the record for the Antarctic region encompassing all land and ice south of 60S.
The mean annual temperature of the interior is − 57 ° C (− 70.6 ° F). The coast is warmer; on the coast Antarctic average temperatures are around - 10 ° C (in the warmest parts of Antarctica) and in the elevated inland they average about - 55 ° C in Vostok.. Monthly means at McMurdo Station range from − 26 ° C (− 14.8 ° F) in August to − 3 ° C (26.6 ° F) in January. At the South Pole, the highest temperature ever recorded was − 12.3 ° C (9.9 ° F) on 25 December 2011. Along the Antarctic Peninsula, temperatures as high as 15 ° C (59 ° F) have been recorded, though the summer temperature is below 0 ° C (32 ° F) most of the time. Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean. East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation. The Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate. Higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing.
The total precipitation on Antarctica, averaged over the entire continent, is about 166 millimetres (6.5 inches) per year (Vaughan et al., J Climate, 1999). The actual rates vary widely, from high values over the Peninsula (15 to 25 inches a year) to very low values (as little as 50 millimetres (2.0 inches) in the high interior (Bromwich, Reviews of Geophysics, 1988). Areas that receive less than 250 millimetres (9.8 inches) of precipitation per year are classified as deserts. Almost all Antarctic precipitation falls as snow. Rainfall is rare and mainly occurs during the summer in coastal areas and surrounding islands. Note that the quoted precipitation is a measure of its equivalence to water, rather than being the actual depth of snow. The air in Antarctica is also very dry. The low temperatures result in a very low absolute humidity, which means that dry skin and cracked lips are a continual problem for scientists and expeditioners working in the continent.
The weather in Antarctica can be highly variable, and the weather conditions can often change dramatically in short periods of time. There are various classifications for describing weather conditions in Antarctica; restrictions given to workers during the different conditions vary by station and nation.
Nearly all of Antarctica is covered by a sheet of ice that is, on average, a mile thick or more (1.6 km). Antarctica contains 90 % of the world 's ice and more than 70 % of its fresh water. If all the land - ice covering Antarctica were to melt -- around 30 million cubic kilometres (7.2 million cubic miles) of ice -- the seas would rise by over 60 metres (200 feet). This is, however, very unlikely within the next few centuries. The Antarctic is so cold that even with increases of a few degrees, temperatures would generally remain below the melting point of ice. Higher temperatures are expected to lead to more precipitation, which takes the form of snow. This would increase the amount of ice in Antarctica, offsetting approximately one third of the expected sea level rise from thermal expansion of the oceans. During a recent decade, East Antarctica thickened at an average rate of about 1.8 centimetres per year while West Antarctica showed an overall thinning of 0.9 centimetres per year. For the contribution of Antarctica to present and future sea level change, see sea level rise. Because ice flows, albeit slowly, the ice within the ice sheet is younger than the age of the sheet itself.
About 75 % of the coastline of Antarctica is ice shelves. The utmost parts consist of floating ice until the grounding line of land based glaciers is reached, which is determined through affords such as Operation IceBridge. Ice shelves lose mass through iceberg breakup (calving), or basal melting due to warm ocean water under the ice. Melting or breakup of floating shelf ice does not directly affect global sea levels; however, ice shelves have a buttressing effect on the ice flow behind them. If ice shelves break up, the ice flow behind them may accelerate, resulting in increasing melt of the Antarctic ice sheet and an increasing contribution to sea level.
Known changes in coastline ice:
The George VI Ice Shelf, which may be on the brink of instability, has probably existed for approximately 8,000 years, after melting 1,500 years earlier. Warm ocean currents may have been the cause of the melting. Not only the ice sheets are losing mass, but they are losing mass at an accelerating rate.
The continent - wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is positive and significant at > 0.05 ° C / decade since 1957. The West Antarctic ice sheet has warmed by more than 0.1 ° C / decade in the last 50 years, and is strongest in winter and spring. Although this is partly offset by fall cooling in East Antarctica, this effect is restricted to the 1980s and 1990s.
Research published in 2009 found that overall the continent had become warmer since the 1950s, a finding consistent with the influence of man - made climate change:
The British Antarctic Survey, which has undertaken the majority of Britain 's scientific research in the area, stated in 2009:
The area of strongest cooling appears at the South Pole, and the region of strongest warming lies along the Antarctic Peninsula. A possible explanation is that loss of UV - absorbing ozone may have cooled the stratosphere and strengthened the polar vortex, a pattern of spinning winds around the South Pole. The vortex acts like an atmospheric barrier, preventing warmer, coastal air from moving into the continent 's interior. A stronger polar vortex might explain the cooling trend in the interior of Antarctica.
In their latest study (20 September 2007) NASA researchers have confirmed that Antarctic snow is melting farther inland from the coast over time, melting at higher altitudes than ever and increasingly melting on Antarctica 's largest ice shelf.
There is also evidence for widespread glacier retreat around the Antarctic Peninsula.
Researchers reported on 21 December 2012 in Nature Geoscience that from 1958 to 2010, the average temperature at the mile - high Byrd Station rose by 2.4 ° C (4.3 ° F), with warming fastest in its winter and spring. The spot which is in the heart of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is one of the fastest - warming places on Earth. In 2015, the temperature showed changes but in a stable manner and the only months that have drastic change in that year are August and September. It also did show that the temperature was very stable throughout the year.
Notes
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where does jo from married at first sight work | Married at first Sight (Australian TV series) - Wikipedia
Married at First Sight Australia is an Australian reality television series based on the Danish program of the same name. The show is premiered 7: 00pm every Sunday and 7: 30pm every Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday on the Nine Network. The show features four to eleven couples, matched by three experts, who agree to marry when they first meet. However, unlike other versions of the show around the world, the couples do not partake in a legally binding marriage due to legal restrictions, but instead meet as strangers at the altar of a commitment ceremony. The couples spend their wedding night in a hotel, then leave for a honeymoon. Upon returning they live together for a month, whereafter they choose whether they will continue their relationship.
The first season premiered on 18 May 2015 on the Nine Network. A second season began on 4 April 2016 with the third season premiering later in the same year on 29 August 2016. A fourth season premiered on Monday 30 January 2017. The fifth season premiered on Monday 29 January 2018.
During the first season, four female contestants were matched with their ' perfect ' male partner by a panel of experts. In the first episode, two couples (Michael & Roni, Clare & Lachlan) met and wed. In the second episode, another two couples (Zoe & Alex, Michelle & James) did the same. They all embarked on married life together for the rest of the season. In the fourth episode, all couples meet each other for the first time and discuss their current experiences.
Lachlan and Clare met and wed in Sydney in the show 's first episode. Despite their decision to continue their relationship at the end of the season, Lachlan and Clare revealed they had split but remain good friends. The Nine Network announced on 26 June 2015, that Lachlan would participate in the networks upcoming revival of The Farmer Wants a Wife.
Roni and Michael met and wed in Melbourne in the show 's first episode. By the fifth episode, Roni and Michael found that their relationship was not working for them and they mutually decided to split.
Zoe and Alex met and wed in Melbourne in the show 's second episode. Following the conclusion of the season, Zoe and Alex are the only couple currently still together. In March 2016, Zoe and Alex revealed that they are planning to get married legally. After suffering a miscarriage in June 2015, Zoe and Alex revealed that they were expecting their first child in October 2016. On November 14, 2016, Zoe gave birth to their baby girl named Harper - Rose Garner.
James and Michelle met and wed in Sydney in the show 's second episode. In early June 2015, news reports revealed that James and Michelle had split, with Michelle having remarried to a former boyfriend. It was revealed that the two are no longer in contact with each other.
After airing only one episode, the Nine Network on 19 May 2015, announced that the series had been renewed for a second season which aired on 4 April 2016. During the second season, four female contestants are matched with their ' perfect ' male partner by a panel of experts. In the first episode, two couples (Erin & Bryce, Christie & Mark) meet and wed. In the second episode, another two couples (Clare & Jono, Simone & Xavier) do the same. They all embark on married life together for the rest of the series. In the fifth episode, all couples meet each other for the first time and discuss their current experiences.
Erin and Bryce met and wed in Melbourne in the show 's first episode. In the final episode, they both decided to stay together. They are the only couple currently still together. Since the show ended Erin has started her own fashion label called Boy Is Mine and is writing a fashion lifestyle blog, erinbateman.com.
Christie and Mark met and wed in Sydney in the show 's first episode. In the final episode, they both decided to stay together. On 15 June 2016, they announced that they had split up.
Clare and Jono met and wed in Melbourne in the show 's second episode and quickly became the season 's most controversial couple. By the fifth episode, Clare decided that their relationship was not working as she felt ' uncomfortable ' with Jono 's constant aggressive outbursts and she decided to end the relationship prior to the couple 's dinner. After the show it was revealed by investigative journalist Siobhan Duck of the Herald Sun that Jono Pitman had previously been arrested and charged with assault after a bar brawl and completed a court ordered anger management course. Jono was then matched with Clare Verrall, who had been open about being attacked on the street by a stranger only months prior to filming and suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder after the incident. A Nine Network spokesperson confirmed they were aware of Jono Pitman 's violent history prior to coupling up the pair.
Simone and Xavier met and wed in Sydney in the show 's second episode. In the final decision, Simone decided to walk away from the relationship and they are now separated.
It was announced in February 2016 that show should would return with two seasons, season two & three, there will be a bold casting move this season. This season will be the first to include five couples & is set to include the series ' first ever same - sex male couple. During the third season, four female contestants are matched with their ' perfect ' male partner & for the first time a male contestant is matched with his ' perfect ' male partner by a panel of experts. In the first episode, two couples (Keller & Nicole, Mark & Monica) met and wed. In the second episode, another two couples (Jess & Dave, Bella & Michael) did the same. In the third episode, one more couple (Craig & Andy) were wed. They all embark on married life together for the rest of the series. In the sixth episode, all couples (bar one) meet each other for the first time and discuss their current experiences.
Keller and Nicole met and wed in Brisbane in the show 's first episode. In the final episode, they both decided to stay together. Since filming, the couple have called it quits.
Mark and Monica met and wed in Sydney in the show 's first episode. In the final episode, they decided to stay in the relationship. Since filming, the couple have decided to break up.
Jess and Dave met and wed in Sydney in the show 's second episode. In the fifth episode, Dave felt their relationship was going nowhere so they broke up.
Bella and Michael met and wed in Brisbane in the show 's second episode. In the final episode, they both agreed to stay together. Since filming, the couple had decided to split up.
Craig and Andy met and wed in New Zealand in the show 's third episode. In the fifth episode, Craig decided to walk away from the relationship during the honeymoon, due to a lack of intimacy.
It was announced on 12 September 2016 the season would return in 2017 with an extended series which saw 10 couples being wed. During the fourth season, 10 female contestants were matched with their ' perfect ' male partner by a panel of experts. In the first episode, two couples (Cheryl & Jonathan, Sean & Susan) met and wed in Sydney and Melbourne. In the second episode, another two couples (Michael & Scarlett, Nadia & Anthony) met and wed in Sydney. In the third episode, two more couples (Alene & Simon, Andy & Vanessa) met and wed in Sydney and Melbourne respectively. In the fourth episode, another two couples (Lauren & Andrew, John & Deborah) met and wed in Sydney. In the fifth episode, the final two couples at the same time (Michelle & Jesse, Sharon & Nick) met and wed in Perth.
Despite having a good start, Jonathan and Cheryl began to develop cracks during their honeymoon in New Zealand. These cracks further deepened at the dinner party which resulted in Jonathan exchanging numbers with Scarlett and the duo spent the night texting. At the first commitment ceremony, Cheryl claimed she did n't wish to continue with Jonathan as "he seemed more interested in someone else ''. The duo called it quits at the commitment ceremony. Jonathan is now dating someone else.
Sean and Susan broke up but decided to "stay friends '' citing the fact that they lived too far away from one another and Susan could not live on Sean 's farm. Since the show ended, Susan has not spoken to Sean and is said to be quite upset with the way the producers portrayed her.
Things started unraveling for the couple when Michael told Scarlett that he would not move to meet her halfway between their current states due to the fact that he was "established '' and he thought that because she was less tied down so she could move to him. From that point they really only saw each other as friends and nothing really was going to happen as Scarlett was not Michael 's dream girl. After the first commitment ceremony, the couple decided to go different ways and later that night it came out that Scarlett and Jonathan (Cheryl 's husband) had sent text messages to each other for hours the night before.
As of the last Commitment Ceremony, they decided to stay together and Anthony said that Nadia would have to move in order for him to provide for them both as he was in a "niche market ''. Nadia turned up to the reunion dinner alone, and when asked where Anthony was she confided that he had dumped her the day after filming had stopped saying that "his feelings were n't progressing ''
As of the Final Commitment Ceremony before the Final Decision they had both decided to stay and said that they told everyone that they had feelings for each other. They had decided to stay committed to each other after the experiment. They have since separated.
The Final Commitment Ceremony before the Final Decision they decided to stay, though the fact that they may have to do long distance for a while before they decides what happens may cause contention in the long run. Even though the difference in communication made it hard the couple have decided to stay together after the experiment. Andy and Vanessa broke up because of the difference in communication styles.
On the wedding night Lauren disappeared leaving Andrew unaware of her whereabouts. After a confrontation meeting, Lauren said she wanted to try again, but Andrew decided that he did not wish to continue the experiment with Lauren. Andrew has since re-entered the experiment with Hair Salon Manager Cheryl. A friend of Lauren 's has since done an interview in which she said the reason that Lauren ran away is because when she went out to a club with Andrew he started abusing a bouncer who would n't let them in because it was past 1am.
After meeting and Deborah 's initial disappointment that John was not a Polynesian man or someone with culture, John and Deborah seemed to get on each other 's nerves because John was simply everything she hated. During the honeymoon in Samoa they ended up sleeping in separate beds, and John removed his wedding ring which caused further tension between them. At the commitment ceremony Deborah wanted to give it another crack and so they ended up staying, but the next day John left the experiment saying "They would n't be anything but friends and that 's not what he was there for ''.
As of the Final Commitment Ceremony they are still together, despite Michelle 's doubt on whether she sees Jesse more as a friend than her husband. In their Vow Renewal ceremony, Jesse told Michelle he wants to stay in the relationship but Michelle reveals to him that she wants him in her life forever, but not as her partner, they are now broken up.
As of the Final Commitment Ceremony they have decided to stay, Nick even going so far as to say "That he would go where as long as Sharon was by his side ''. Although the original plan was for Nick to move to Perth because of Sharon 's cleaning business, Nick got news that his father has a medical condition so he is unable to leave his family as they would need his help. They have since broken up.
After Cheryl left the experiment after the Jonathan & Scarlett texting scandal, she spoke to the experts and ask if they could set up a date between Andrew and herself. They went on two dates before they deciding that they would re-enter the experiment together as an unmarried couple, this caused controversy around the table at the dinner party as she was at the dinner the week prior with Jonathan. Even though the couple originally had some sparks, they were thrown into the deep end of the experiment having to jump right into the home stays, tensions started to rise when Andrew met Cheryl 's abrasive father for the first time and it did n't go well, Andrew feeling like Cheryl did n't have his back enough against her bullying dad. Andrew chose to leave while Cheryl chose to stay to see if the relationship could be salvaged.
When the couples all had a family get together the couple was put into an intense boot camp to see if John the expert could overhaul the bond that they had. They decided to give it another go, but when the boys and girls night came about Andrew spent most of the night bagging out and putting down Cheryl even going as far to say that his runaway bride, Lauren, "was way more fun ''. Some of the boys took offense to this, namely Sean and Simon, and even silently Andy. Sean and Susan told Cheryl about it the next day but when Cheryl confronted Andrew about it he got snarky and condescending even going so far to start mimicking Cheryl. Andrew and Cheryl chose to leave the experiment at the Final Commitment Ceremony after the video of the boys night was aired to the girls.
In February 2017, the season was renewed for a fifth season which aired on January 29, 2018. On 11 October 2017, the fifth season was officially confirmed at Nine 's upfronts and again will include 11 couples like the previous season. During the fifth season, 11 female contestants are matched with their ' perfect ' male partner by a panel of experts. In the first episode, the first two couples (Tracey & Dean, Sarah & Telv) met and wed in Sydney and Melbourne. In the second episode, another two couples (Jo & Sean, Alycia & Mat) met and wed in Sydney and Melbourne. In the third episode, two more couples (Davina & Ryan, Charlene & Patrick) met and wed in Warrawong and Melbourne. In the fifth episode, two more couples (Ashley & Troy, Melissa & John) met and wed in Gold Coast and Melbourne. In the sixth episode, another two couples (Gabrielle & Nasser, Carly & Justin) met and wed in Sydney. In the seventh episode, the final couple (Blair & Sean) met and wed in Sydney.
As of the fifth commitment ceremony they were still together but are now separated.
In the first commitment ceremony, Dean chose to leave (which blindsided Tracey), while Tracey decided to stay, meaning that they had to stay another week. When they had a second week he stepped up, but at the same time he started a secret flirtationship with Davina. At the dinner party, Dean hooked up with Davina, and at the end of the night Dean and Tracey decided to be intimate. Dean confessed that he had a thing with Davina and that he wanted to make it work with Tracey. As of the fifth commitment ceremony, they are still together. When it came to the vow renewal, Dean said yes and said that he was falling in love with Tracey, but a bomb was dropped when Tracey said that she could not get past the betrayal and hurt at the first two weeks of the experiment. She ultimately said no, leaving Dean gobsmacked at the ' altar '.
They have left the experiment between the first and second commitment ceremonies.
Jo and Sean met in the second episode of the weddings and from the start, Sean was n't very interested. When the first commitment ceremony came about Jo decided to stay while Sean decided to leave so they had to stay. Even though Jo tried Sean had no communication. As of the second commitment, they have both decided to leave.
Between the first and second commitment ceremonies, Davina started a secret flirtationship with Dean. At the dinner party, Davina hooked up with Dean, leading her to write leave at the second commitment ceremony. Ryan had written stay, so the couple had to stay another week. As of the third commitment ceremony Davina and Ryan have called it quits after the shock of Davina 's cheating scandal.
At their final decision they stated that they would stay together and are still currently together to common knowledge. In March 2018, the couple announced they had split up.
As of the fifth commitment ceremony they are still in the experiment. At the Dinner Party, Melissa had to leave early due to her daughter being in labour, and as of the Commitment Ceremony there was still no baby so John was flying solo. As of the fifth commitment ceremony they are still together.
As of the fifth commitment ceremony they are still in the experiment. However at the altar both Ashley and Troy said the relationship was n't working out.
As of the third commitment ceremony, Gabrielle decided to leave due to a lack of intimacy past the friend stage. Nasser decided to stay, and they came to an impasse at the end meaning that Nasser had a week to turn around. On the wife homestay, Gabrielle rented a apartment so that she would n't bring a strange man around her daughter. On the first night the bed broke and Nasser wanted to leave, but he stayed until they got into an argument and he left refusing to meet Gabrielle 's friends who were on their way over for drinks and a chat. They finally left in the fifth ceremony, they were at peace with everything that went on
As of the second commitment ceremony Carly decided to leave where as Justin decided to stay, so they have to stay for another week. As of the third commitment ceremony, they have decided to stay even though they only spent three days at the homestay. After the blow up at the dinner party, Carly got fed up with Justin 's lack of trying. They have decided to split up. A few weeks after the experiment she entered a relationship with Troy who originally married Ashley.
They both choose to stay at the second commitment ceremony, but during the grooms home - stay, Sean revealed he had no feelings for Blair. He chose to leave at the third commitment ceremony, while Blair wanted to stay. Although obligated to work it out over the next week, Sean refused to go on Blair 's home stay, essentially ending their relationship. Sean is now in a relationship with Tracey who was in the experiment with Dean.
Before the first season went to air, an online petition calling for the series to be axed attracted over 15,000 signatures.
There was also criticism that, unlike the original Danish series, such marriages would not be legal under Australian law. Channel 9 admitted that participants would not actually marry. A spokesman said "In order to comply with the Australian Marriage Act (1961) which requires one month and one day notification, a marriage in law was not conducted. Each participant embarked on a commitment ceremony with a wedding celebrant with all due intention to commit fully to this union for the duration of the experiment. At the end of the experiment, they are given the option to continue with the relationship or go their separate ways ''.
Second season participant Simone Lee Brennan described the program as "never (being) portrayed to its full authenticity, '' suggesting the man she had been paired with, Xavier Forsberg, had been recruited by producers and was seeking a sports - presenting role, rather than an applicant also looking for a relationship.
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american dragon jake long all episodes in hindi | List of American Dragon: Jake Long episodes - wikipedia
The following is an episode list for the Disney Channel Series, American Dragon: Jake Long, created by Jeff Goode. It premiered January 21, 2005 and the series finale aired on September 1, 2007.
American Dragon: Jake Long tells the story of 13 - year - old Jake Long (Dante Basco) who must balance ordinary adolescent transformation with the amazing power and ability to change into the form of a dragon who has to overcome obstacles to protect the magical creatures living in the city. Jake navigates the city with fellow skateboarders Trixie (Miss Kittie) and Spud (Charlie Finn) with help from his maternal grandfather (Keone Young), his Grandpa 's gruff sidekick, a magical Shar - Pei named Fu Dog (John DiMaggio) and the love of his life Rose (Mae Whitman).
A total of 52 original episodes aired overall.
Note: In this season, Jake Long is 13.
When Jake gets shapeshifting abilities for a dragon mission, he misuses them to get out of a parent - teacher conference and impress his peers.
While Grandpa takes Haley trick or treating, Jake seizes the opportunity to throw the wildest Halloween party ever mixing humans and magical creatures.
Note: All main, recurring, and supporting characters have vastly different appearances compared to the first season, as a new hand - drawn animation team and style was brought in order to give the show a sleeker look. The Animation had been provided by Wang Film Productions (14 episodes), Starburst Animation (10 episodes), and Jade Animation (8 episodes). In this season, Jake Long is 14.
While using his Dream Charm to have secret dates with Rose, Jake gets the idea to use his charm to access Rotwood 's mind in order to obtain the answer key for a future test. But when he inadvertently releases a dangerous Chimera creature into the Dream Realm, Jake, Rose, Spud, and Trixie must work quickly in order to stop it.
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who were the actors in scent of a woman | Gabrielle Anwar - wikipedia
Gabrielle Anwar (born 4 February 1970) is an English actress known for her roles as Margaret Tudor on The Tudors, Fiona Glenanne on Burn Notice, Lady Tremaine in the seventh season of Once Upon a Time, and for dancing the tango with Al Pacino in Scent of a Woman.
Anwar was born in Laleham, Surrey. Her mother, Shirley Hills, is an actress, and her father, Tariq Anwar, is an award - winning film producer and editor. Her paternal grandmother was an Austrian Jew, while her paternal grandfather was an Indian Muslim. Anwar attended Laleham C of E Primary and Middle School from 1975 to 1982; an end - of - term St Trinian 's sketch in the school concert of 1982 gave an early indication of her theatrical leanings. She studied drama and dance at the Italia Conti Academy of Theatre Arts in London.
Anwar 's acting debut was in the British miniseries Hideaway. She made her film début in Manifesto, which was followed by more British television productions including First Born, Summer 's Lease, Press Gang, and The Mysteries of the Dark Jungle. While working on films and television in London, she met American actor Craig Sheffer, and moved with him to Hollywood. Anwar and Sheffer have co-starred in a number of American films together, such as In Pursuit of Honor, The Grave, Turbulence 3: Heavy Metal, Flying Virus, Save It for Later, Water Under the Bridge, and Long Lost Son.
Her first American film was If Looks Could Kill, in which she played the daughter of a murdered British agent (played by Roger Daltrey). In 1992, she made a guest appearance on Beverly Hills, 90210 as Tricia Kinney. She followed that with the films Wild Hearts Ca n't Be Broken (inspired by A Girl and Five Brave Horses), Scent of a Woman, Body Snatchers, For Love or Money, The Three Musketeers, and Things to do in Denver When You 're Dead. In 1994, People magazine named her one of the 50 most beautiful people in the world.
One of her most memorable moments on screen came in 1992 's Scent of a Woman, when she danced a tango with Al Pacino, whose character was blind.
Anwar appeared in the television series John Doe and acted in The Librarian: Return to King Solomon 's Mines. Anwar played Princess Margaret, sister of King Henry VIII, on Showtime 's The Tudors in 2007. She later played Fiona Glenanne in the long - running television series Burn Notice. In 2008, Anwar made an appearance as Eva Sintzel, a woman trying to get pregnant through the fictitious Hudson Cryobank in the Law & Order: SVU episode "Inconceivable ''. She played Eddie 's (Johnny Depp) girlfriend in Tom Petty 's Into the Great Wide Open music video. She also played a role in the seventh season of Once Upon a Time.
Anwar and actor Craig Sheffer had a daughter, Willow (born 1993), before separating. She was later married to actor John Verea, with whom she had a son, Hugo, and daughter, Paisley, before divorcing. Sheffer is godfather to Hugo and Paisley.
Anwar gained U.S. citizenship in 2008.
In April 2010, Anwar began dating Shareef Malnik. In August 2015, they were married in Montana. They reside in Palm Island, Florida.
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what do you mean by object is an instance of a class | Instance (computer science) - wikipedia
In object - oriented programming (OOP), an instance is a concrete occurrence of any object, existing usually during the runtime of a computer program. Formally, "instance '' is synonymous with "object '' as they are each a particular value (realization), and these may be called an instance object; "instance '' emphasizes the distinct identity of the object. The creation of an instance is called instantiation.
In class - based programming, objects are created from classes by subroutines called constructors, and destroyed by destructors. An object is an instance of a class, and may be called a class instance or class object; instantiation is then also known as construction. Not all classes can be instantiated -- abstract classes can not be instantiated, while classes that can be instantiated are called concrete classes. In prototype - based programming, instantiation is instead done by copying (cloning) a prototype instance.
An object may be varied in a number of ways. Each realized variation of that object is an instance of its class. Each time a process runs, it is an instance of some program. That is, it is a member of a given class that has specified values rather than variables. In a non-programming context, you could think of "dog '' as a type and your particular dog as an instance of that class.
An important distinction is between the data type, which is interface, and the class, which is implementation.
The meaning of the term "type '' in computer science is rather similar to the meaning of the word "type '' in everyday language. For example, a barman can ask a client what type of beverage does he or she want -- coffee, tea or beer? A particular cup of coffee that the client receives is in the role of an instance, while two cups of coffee would form a set of two instances of coffee, determining its type at the same time.
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which animal was associated with the chicago cubs curse | Curse of the Billy goat - wikipedia
The Curse of the Billy Goat was a sports - related curse supposedly placed on the Chicago Cubs Major League Baseball franchise in 1945, by Billy Goat Tavern owner William Sianis. The curse lasted 71 years, from 1945 to 2016. Because the odor of his pet goat, named Murphy, was bothering other fans, Sianis was asked to leave Wrigley Field, the Cubs ' home ballpark, during game 4 of the 1945 World Series. Outraged, Sianis allegedly declared, "Them Cubs, they ai n't gon na win no more, '' which had been interpreted to mean that either the Cubs would never win another National League (NL) pennant, or that they would never again win a World Series.
The Cubs lost the 1945 World Series to the Detroit Tigers, and did not win a World Series championship again until 2016. After the incident with Sianis and Murphy, the Cubs did not play in the World Series for the next 71 years until, on the 46th anniversary of Billy Sianis 's death, they defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers 5 -- 0 in game 6 of the 2016 National League Championship Series to win the NL pennant. The Cubs defeated the American League (AL) champion Cleveland Indians 8 -- 7 in game 7 (which lasted 10 innings) to win the 2016 World Series, thus ending the curse.
The exact nature of Sianis 's curse differs in various accounts of the incident. Some state that he declared that no World Series games would ever again be played at Wrigley Field, while others believe that his ban was on the Cubs appearing in the World Series, making no mention of a specific venue. Sianis 's family claims that he dispatched a telegram to team owner Philip K. Wrigley which read, "You are going to lose this World Series and you are never going to win another World Series again. You are never going to win a World Series again because you insulted my goat. ''
Whatever the truth, the Cubs were up two games to one in the 1945 Series, but ended up losing Game 4, as well as the best - of - seven series, four games to three. The curse was immortalized in newspaper columns over the years, particularly by syndicated columnist Mike Royko. The curse gained widespread attention during the 2003 postseason, when Fox television commentators played it up during the Cubs - Marlins matchup in the National League Championship Series (NLCS). According to an account in the Chicago Sun of October 7, 1945, the goat was turned away at the gate, and Sianis left the goat tied to a stake in a parking lot and went into the game alone. There was mention of a lawsuit that day, but no mention of a curse.
Some believe that the curse actually goes back to 1908, the last time the Cubs won the World Series, due to the ' underhanded ' way the Cubs advanced to that year 's World Series, which ' angered ' the baseball gods. Between that 1908 triumph, which was the Cubs ' second world championship (they 'd also won the Series in 1907 to become baseball 's first back - to - back winners as well as the first franchise to appear in three consecutive World Series), and 1945, the first year of the alleged Billy Goat curse, the Cubs won the National League pennant six times but failed to win the Series: in 1910, in 1918 (won by the Boston Red Sox who themselves would soon become victims of an alleged baseball curse and not win another Series for 86 years), in 1929, in 1932 (known for Babe Ruth 's called shot at Wrigley Field), in 1935 (a re-match of the 1908 series against the Detroit Tigers, with the Tigers winning this time, their first Series triumph in five appearances dating back to the early 1900s), and in 1938.
On September 9, 1969, at Shea Stadium, the Cubs played the New York Mets in a critical pennant race game. A stray black cat walked between Cubs captain Ron Santo, who was on deck, and the Cubs dugout. The Mets would pull ahead of the Cubs in that series and eventually win both the newly formed NL East and the 1969 World Series.
In 1984, the Cubs ' postseason appearance was dashed by the San Diego Padres. The Cubs were victorious in the first two games of the best - of - five series. However, in game five, first baseman Leon Durham let a ground ball get past his allegedly wet glove in the bottom of the seventh inning. The Padres went on to score four runs to win the game and the series.
Bill Buckner played for the Chicago Cubs for seven seasons before being traded to the Boston Red Sox halfway through the 1984 season. The Red Sox were at the time also considered a cursed franchise, and had not won a World Series since 1918 - when, coincidentally, they had beaten the Cubs. Buckner and the Red Sox advanced to the 1986 World Series against the New York Mets, and took a 3 -- 2 series lead coming into Game 6. On October 25, 1986, in one of the most famous baseball errors of all time, Buckner allowed a ball to pass between his legs at first base, allowing the Mets to score the winning run in the 10th inning and win Game 6. Later analysis of a photograph of Buckner walking off the field after his blooper showed that he had been wearing a Cubs batting glove under his glove at the moment he committed his error.
In 1989, the Cubs won 93 games and faced the San Francisco Giants in the National League Championship Series, now a best - of - seven series. After splitting the first two games at home, the Cubs headed to the Bay Area, where despite holding a lead at some point in each of the next three games, bullpen meltdowns and managerial blunders ultimately led to three straight losses.
In 1998, behind NL MVP Sammy Sosa, the Cubs won the Wild Card after winning a tiebreaker game vs the Giants. However, they were swept in the National League Division Series by the Atlanta Braves.
In 2001, the Cubs led the Wild Card by 2.5 games in early September. The run died when Preston Wilson hit a three run walk off home run off of closer Tom "Flash '' Gordon, which halted the team 's momentum. The Cubs were unable to make another serious charge, and finished at 88 -- 74, five games behind both Houston and St. Louis, who tied for first.
On October 14, 2003, in the eighth inning of Game 6 of the NLCS, with Chicago ahead 3 -- 0 and holding a three games to two lead in the best of seven series, several spectators attempted to catch a foul ball off the bat of Marlins second baseman Luis Castillo. One of the fans, Steve Bartman, reached for the ball, deflecting it and disrupting a potential catch by Cubs outfielder Moisés Alou. If Alou had caught the ball, it would have been the second out in the inning and the Cubs would have been just four outs away from winning their first National League pennant since 1945. Instead, the Cubs ended up surrendering eight runs in the inning and losing the game, 8 -- 3. When they were eliminated in the seventh game the next day, the incident was seen as the "first domino '' in the turning point of the series.
In 2004, the Cubs were leading the Wild Card by 1.5 games over San Francisco and Houston on September 25, and both of those teams lost that day, giving the Cubs a chance at increasing the lead to a commanding 2.5 games with only eight games remaining in the season. However, reliever LaTroy Hawkins blew a save to the Mets, and the Cubs lost the game in extra innings, a defeat that seemingly deflated the team, as they proceeded to drop 6 of their last 8 games as the Astros won the Wild Card.
The Cubs won their division in both 2007 and 2008, but were swept in the NLDS both years by the Arizona Diamondbacks and Los Angeles Dodgers respectively.
In 2015, the Cubs finished second in the National League Wild Card race and defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates in the Wild Card Game and the St. Louis Cardinals in the NLDS to advance to the NLCS against the New York Mets. However, the Cubs batted an NLCS record low of. 164 and lost the series in a 4 - game sweep. (The Cubs thus became the first team ever to get swept in a playoff series by a team they swept in their regular season series.)
Sianis 's goat was named Murphy. In the 2015 National League Championship Series, this was referenced by fans of the New York Mets, who joked that Daniel Murphy, the Mets second baseman, was "not the first GOAT (Greatest of All Time, in reference to Murphy 's postseason heroics to that point) named Murphy to keep the Cubs out of the World Series. ''
Prior to his death on October 22, 1970, Billy Sianis himself attempted to lift the curse. Sam Sianis, his nephew, has gone to Wrigley Field with a goat multiple times in attempts to break the curse, including on Opening Day in 1984 and again in 1989, both years in which the Cubs went on to win their division. In 1994, Sam Sianis went again, with a goat, to stop a home losing streak, and in 1998 for the Wild Card tie - breaker game, which the Cubs won.
In 2003 (the Chinese zodiac 's Year of the Goat), a group of Cubs fans headed to Houston with a billy goat named "Virgil Homer '' and attempted to gain entrance to Minute Maid Park, home of the Astros, division rivals of the Cubs at the time. After they were denied entrance, they unfurled a scroll, read a verse and proclaimed they were "reversing the curse. '' The Cubs won the division that year and then came within five outs of playing in the World Series, but were undone by the Florida Marlins ' eight - run rally immediately following the Steve Bartman incident. The Cubs then lost the following game and with it the series. (The Marlins went on to win the World Series against the New York Yankees.) Further salting the wound, the Astros earned their first World Series berth two years later and their crosstown rival the Chicago White Sox won the series.
On February 26, 2004, at the Harry Caray Restaurant in downtown Chicago, the Bartman baseball was electrocuted in an attempt to break the curse, leaving nothing but a heap of string behind.
In another bizarre twist, it was reported that a butchered goat was hung from the Harry Caray statue on October 3, 2007, to which The Chicago Sun - Times noted: "If the prankster intended to reverse the supposed billy goat curse with the stunt, it does n't appear to have worked. '' While the Cubs did win the NL Central division title in 2007 and 2008, they were swept in the first round of the postseason in both years: by the Arizona Diamondbacks in 2007 and the Los Angeles Dodgers in 2008. The elimination by Arizona came on October 6, the same date that the goat appeared at Wrigley Field in 1945. The act was repeated before the home opener in 2009, this time a goat 's butchered head being hung from the statue. The act was futile as the Cubs were eliminated from postseason contention on September 26, 2009.
In 2008, a Greek Orthodox priest sought to end the curse during the 2008 playoffs with a spraying of holy water in and around the Cubs dugout to no avail.
On April 1, 2011, a social enterprise called Reverse The Curse, dedicated to bringing innovations to poverty by giving goats to families in developing countries, was initiated. The goats provide the family with milk, cheese, and alternative income to help lift them out of poverty. Reverse The Curse has expanded into reversing the "curses '' that afflict the world 's children in education and obesity.
On February 25, 2012, a group of five Chicago Cubs fans calling themselves Crack the Curse set out on foot from Mesa, Arizona (home to the Cubs ' spring training facilities) to Wrigley Field. They brought along a goat named Wrigley whom they believed would be able to break the Curse of the Billy Goat upon arrival at Wrigley Field. Additionally, they attempted to raise $100,000 for the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center.
On April 10, 2013, a severed goat 's head was delivered to the Cubs in a possible effort to lift the curse on the team. It was addressed to the club 's owner Thomas S. Ricketts.
On September 22, 2015, Patrick Bertoletti, Tim Brown, Takeru Kobayashi, Kevin Strahle and Bob Shoudt consumed a 40 - pound goat in 13 minutes and 22 seconds at Taco in a Bag restaurant in Chicago.
On October 7, 2016, The owners of The Chicago Diner, a local vegetarian eatery near Wrigley Field, teamed up with Farm Sanctuary to try to reverse the Curse of the Billy Goat by displaying posters in the windows at their locations. The posters feature a goat named Peanut who urges Chicagoans to "reverse the curse '' by going meat - free.
Another factor that may play a role in the curse is the number of players (42 of them are listed below) who won World Series titles after leaving the Cubs (known as the Ex-Cubs Factor). These players include Andy Pafko (who, coincidentally, played in the 1945 World Series as a member of the Cubs), Gene Baker, Smoky Burgess, Don Hoak, Dale Long, Lou Brock (whose first title was in 1964 after a mid-season trade to the St. Louis Cardinals), Lou Johnson, Jim Brewer, Moe Drabowsky, Don Cardwell, Ken Holtzman, Paul Noce, Billy North, Fred Norman, Bill Madlock, Manny Trillo, Greg Gross, Rick Monday, Burt Hooton, Bruce Sutter, Willie Hernández, Milt Wilcox, Joe Niekro, Dennis Eckersley, Joe Carter, Greg Maddux, Joe Girardi (as both a player and a manager), José Vizcaíno, Glenallen Hill (after his second stint with the Cubs; his title came in 2000 after a mid-season trade), Luis Gonzalez, Mike Morgan, Mark Grace, Mark Bellhorn, Bill Mueller, Scott Eyre (whose title came in 2008 after he had been traded from the Cubs during the season), Tom Gordon, Matt Stairs, Jamie Moyer, Mark DeRosa, Mike Fontenot, Ryan Theriot, Ángel Pagán, and, in 2013, Ryan Dempster. Dontrelle Willis and Jon Garland were traded as minor leaguers (coincidentally, the former won a World Series ring with the Marlins team that defeated the Cubs in the 2003 NLCS). Tim Lincecum, who went on to win three World Series titles, was originally drafted by the Cubs, but he did not sign with them.
In 2016, the Cubs won the World Series for the first time since 1908, ending the historic 108 - year drought and destroying the "curse. ''
The Cubs ended the 2016 season with a 103 -- 58 (. 640) record. It was their first 100 - win season since 1935 (100 -- 54,. 649), their best since 1910 (104 -- 50,. 675), and the sixth 100 - win season in franchise history.
The Cubs won the National League Championship Series (NLCS), their first pennant in 71 years, with a 5 -- 0 shutout in Game 6 against the Los Angeles Dodgers at Wrigley Field on October 22, 2016, the 46th anniversary of Billy Sianis 's death.
The Cubs beat the Cleveland Indians in the 2016 World Series in seven games after trailing in the series 3 games to 1. They won game 7 by a score of 8 -- 7 in 10 innings at Progressive Field in Cleveland, Ohio.
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what kinds of jurisdiction does the supreme court have | Supreme Court - Wikipedia
A supreme court is the highest court within the hierarchy of many legal jurisdictions. Other descriptions for such courts include court of last resort, instance court, judgment court, apex court, and highest court of appeal. Broadly speaking, the decisions of a supreme court are not subject to further review by any other court. Supreme courts typically function primarily as appellate courts, hearing appeals from decisions of lower trial courts, or from intermediate - level appellate courts.
However, not all highest courts are named as such. Civil law states tend not to have a single highest court. Additionally, the highest court in some jurisdictions is not named the "Supreme Court '', for example, the High Court of Australia; this is because decisions by the High Court could formerly be appealed to the Privy Council. On the other hand, in some places the court named the "Supreme Court '' is not in fact the highest court; examples include the New York Supreme Court, the Supreme Courts of several Canadian provinces / territories and the former Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales and Supreme Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland, which are all subordinate to higher courts of appeal.
Some countries have multiple "supreme courts '' whose respective jurisdictions have different geographical extents, or which are restricted to particular areas of law. Some countries with a federal system of government may have both a federal supreme court (such as the Supreme Court of the United States), and supreme courts for each member state (such as the Supreme Court of Nevada), with the former having jurisdiction over the latter only to the extent that the federal constitution extends federal law over state law. However, other federations, such as Canada, may have a supreme court of general jurisdiction, able to decide any question of law. Jurisdictions with a civil law system often have a hierarchy of administrative courts separate from the ordinary courts, headed by a supreme administrative court as is the case in the Netherlands. A number of jurisdictions also maintain a separate constitutional court (first developed in the Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920), such as Austria, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Portugal, Russia, Spain and South Africa. Within the former British Empire, the highest court within a colony was often called the "Supreme Court '', even though appeals could be made from that court to the United Kingdom 's Privy Council (based in London). A number of Commonwealth jurisdictions retain this system, but many others have reconstituted their own highest court as a court of last resort, with the right of appeal to the Privy Council being abolished.
In jurisdictions using a common law system, the doctrine of stare decisis applies, whereby the principles applied by the supreme court in its decisions are binding upon all lower courts; this is intended to apply a uniform interpretation and implementation of the law. In civil law jurisdictions the doctrine of stare decisis is not generally considered to apply, so the decisions of the supreme court are not necessarily binding beyond the immediate case before it; however, in practice the decisions of the supreme court usually provide a very strong precedent, or jurisprudence constante, for both itself and all lower courts.
The Supreme Court of Bangladesh is created by the provisions of the Constitution of Bangladesh, 1972. There are two Divisions of the Supreme Court, i.e. (a) Appellate Division and (b) High Court Division. Appellate Division is the highest Court of Appeal and usually does not exercise the powers of a court of first instance. Whereas, the High Court Division is a Court of first instance in company and admiralty matters.
In Canada, the Supreme Court of Canada was established in 1875 but only became the highest court in the country in 1949 when the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was abolished. This court hears appeals from the courts of appeal from the provinces and territories, and also appeals from the Federal Court of Appeal. The Supreme Court is a "General Court of Appeal. '' It can decide any question of law considered by the lower courts, including constitutional law, federal law, and provincial law. The court 's decisions are final and binding on the federal courts and the courts from all provinces and territories. The title "Supreme '' can be confusing because, for example, the Supreme Court of British Columbia does not have the final say and controversial cases heard there often get appealed in higher courts - it is in fact one of the lower courts in such a process.
In Hong Kong, the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (now known as the High Court of Hong Kong) was the final court of appeal during its colonial times which ended with transfer of sovereignty in 1997. The final adjudication power, as in any other British Colonies, rested with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London, United Kingdom. Now the power of final adjudication is vested in the Court of Final Appeal created in 1997. Under the Basic Law, its constitution, the territory remains a common law jurisdiction. Consequently, judges from other common law jurisdictions (including England and Wales) can be recruited and continue to serve in the judiciary according to Article 92 of the Basic Law. On the other hand, the power of interpretation of the Basic Law itself is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress (NPCSC) in Beijing (without retroactive effect), and the courts are authorised to interpret the Basic Law when trying cases, in accordance with Article 158 of the Basic Law. This arrangement became controversial in light of the right of abode issue in 1999, raising concerns for judicial independence.
In India, the Supreme Court of India was created on January 28, 1950 after adoption of the Constitution. Article 141 of the Constitution of India states that the law declared by Supreme Court is to be binding on all Courts within the territory of India. It is the highest court in India and has ultimate judicial authority to interpret the Constitution and decide questions of national law (including local bylaws). The Supreme Court is also vested with the power of judicial review to ensure the application of the rule of law.
Note that within the constitutional framework of India, Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) has a special status vis - a-vis the other states of India. Article 370 of the Constitution of India carves out certain exceptions for J&K. However, the Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order 1954 makes Article 141 applicable to the state of J&K and hence law declared by the Supreme Court of India is equally applicable to all courts of J&K including the High Court.
The Supreme Court is the highest court in the Republic of Ireland. It has authority to interpret the constitution, and strike down laws and activities of the state that it finds to be unconstitutional. It is also the highest authority in the interpretation of the law. Constitutionally it must have authority to interpret the constitution but its further appellate jurisdiction from lower courts is defined by law. The Irish Supreme Court consists of its presiding member, the Chief Justice, and seven other judges. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President in accordance with the binding advice of the Government. The Supreme Court sits in the Four Courts in Dublin.
Israel 's Supreme Court is at the head of the court system in the State of Israel. It is the highest judicial instance. The Supreme Court sits in Jerusalem. The area of its jurisdiction is the entire State. A ruling of the Supreme Court is binding upon every court, other than the Supreme Court itself. The Israeli supreme court is both an appellate court and the high court of justice. As an appellate court, the Supreme Court considers cases on appeal (both criminal and civil) on judgments and other decisions of the District Courts. It also considers appeals on judicial and quasi-judicial decisions of various kinds, such as matters relating to the legality of Knesset elections and disciplinary rulings of the Bar Association. As the High Court of Justice (Hebrew: Beit Mishpat Gavoha Le'Zedek בית משפט גבוה לצדק; also known by its initials as Bagatz בג "ץ), the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, primarily in matters regarding the legality of decisions of State authorities: Government decisions, those of local authorities and other bodies and persons performing public functions under the law, and direct challenges to the constitutionality of laws enacted by the Knesset. The court has broad discretionary authority to rule on matters in which it considers it necessary to grant relief in the interests of justice, and which are not within the jurisdiction of another court or tribunal. The High Court of Justice grants relief through orders such as injunction, mandamus and Habeas Corpus, as well as through declaratory judgments. The Supreme Court can also sit at a further hearing on its own judgment. In a matter on which the Supreme Court has ruled - whether as a court of appeals or as the High Court of Justice - with a panel of three or more justices, it may rule at a further hearing with a panel of a larger number of justices. A further hearing may be held if the Supreme Court makes a ruling inconsistent with a previous ruling or if the Court deems that the importance, difficulty or novelty of a ruling of the Court justifies such hearing. The Supreme Court also holds the unique power of being able to order "trial de novo '' (a retrial).
In Nauru, there is no single highest court for all types of cases. The Supreme Court has final jurisdiction on constitutional matters, but any other case may be appealed further to the Appellate Court. In addition, an agreement between Nauru and Australia in 1976 provides for appeals from the Supreme Court of Nauru to the High Court of Australia in both criminal and civil cases, with the notable exception of constitutional cases.
In New Zealand, the right of appeal to the Privy Council was abolished following the passing of the Supreme Court Act (2003). A right of appeal to the Privy Council remains for criminal cases which were decided before the Supreme Court was created, but it is likely that the successful appeal by Mark Lundy to the Privy Council in 2013 will be the last appeal to the Board from New Zealand.
The new Supreme Court of New Zealand was officially established at the beginning of 2004, although it did not come into operation until July. The High Court of New Zealand was until 1980 known as the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court has a purely appellate jurisdiction and hears appeals from the Court of Appeal of New Zealand. In some cases, an appeal may be removed directly to the Supreme Court from the High Court. For certain cases, particularly cases which commenced in the District Court, a lower court (typically the High Court or the Court of Appeal) may be the court of final jurisdiction.
The Supreme Court has been the apex court for Pakistan since the declaration of the republic in 1956 (previously the Privy Council had that function). The Supreme Court has the final say on matters of constitutional law, federal law or on matters of mixed federal and provincial competence. It can hear appeals on matters of provincial competence only if a matter of a constitutional nature is raised.
With respect to Pakistan 's territories (i.e. FATA, Azad Kashmir, Northern Areas and Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)) the Supreme Court 's jurisdiction is rather limited and varies from territory to territory; it can hear appeals only of a constitutional nature from FATA and Northern Areas, while ICT generally functions the same as provinces. Azad Kashmir has its own courts system and the constitution of Pakistan does not apply to it as such; appeals from Azad Kashmir relate to its relationship with Pakistan.
The provinces have their own courts system, with the High Court as the apex court, except insofar as where an appeal can go to the Supreme Court as mentioned above.
The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the ultimate court for criminal and civil matters in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland. (The supreme court for criminal matters in Scotland is the High Court of Justiciary.) The Supreme Court was established by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 with effect from 1 October 2009, replacing and assuming the judicial functions of the House of Lords. Devolution issues under the Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act and Northern Ireland Act were also transferred to the new Supreme Court by the Constitutional Reform Act, from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.
In respect of Community Law the Supreme Court is subject to the decisions of the European Court of Justice. Since there can be no appeal from the Supreme Court, there is an interlocutory procedure by which the Supreme Court may refer to the European Court questions of European law which arise in cases before it, and obtain a definitive ruling before the Supreme Court gives its judgment.
The Supreme Court shares its members and accommodation at the Middlesex Guildhall in London with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which hears final appeals from certain smaller Commonwealth countries, admiralty cases, and certain appeals from the ecclesiastical courts and statutory private jurisdictions, such as professional and academic bodies.
(The Constitutional Reform Act also renamed the Supreme Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland to the Court of Judicature, and the rarely cited Supreme Court of Judicature for England and Wales as the Senior Courts of England and Wales).
The Supreme Court was set up in 2009; until then the House of Lords was the ultimate court in addition to being a legislative body, and the Lord Chancellor, with legislative and executive functions, was also a senior judge in the House of Lords.
The Supreme Court of the United States, established in 1789, is the highest Federal court in the United States, with powers of judicial review first asserted in Calder v. Bull (1798) in Justice Iredell 's dissenting opinion. The power was later given binding authority by Justice Marshall in Marbury v. Madison (1803). There are currently nine seats on the US Supreme Court.
Each U.S. state has a state supreme court, which is the highest authority interpreting that state 's law and administering that state 's judiciary. Two states, Oklahoma and Texas, each have two separate highest courts that respectively specialize in criminal cases and civil cases. Although Delaware has a specialized court, the Court of Chancery, to hear cases in equity, it is not a supreme court because the Delaware Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction over it.
The titles of state supreme court vary, which can cause confusion between jurisdictions because one state may use a name for its highest court that another uses for a lower court. In New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia the highest court is called the Court of Appeals, a name used by many states for their intermediate appellate courts. Further, trial courts of general jurisdiction in New York are called the Supreme Court, and the intermediate appellate court is called the Supreme Court, Appellate Division. In West Virginia, the highest court of the state is the Supreme Court of Appeals. In Maine and Massachusetts the highest court is styled the "Supreme Judicial Court ''; the last is the oldest appellate court of continuous operation in the Western Hemisphere.
The Roman law and the Corpus Juris Civilis are generally held to be the historical model for civil law. From the late 18th century onwards, civil law jurisdictions began to codify their laws, most of all in civil codes.
In Austria, the Austrian Constitution of 1920 (based on a draft by Hans Kelsen) introduced judicial review of legislative acts for their constitutionality. This function is performed by the Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof), which is also charged with the review of administrative acts on whether they violate constitutionally guaranteed rights. Other than that, administrative acts are reviewed by the Administrative Court (Verwaltungsgerichtshof). The Supreme Court (Oberste Gerichtshof (OGH)), stands at the top of Austria 's system of "ordinary courts '' (ordentliche Gerichte) as the final instance in issues of private law and criminal law.
In Brazil, the Supreme Federal Tribunal (Supremo Tribunal Federal) is the highest court. It is both the constitutional court and the court of last resort in Brazilian law. It only reviews cases that may be unconstitutional or final habeas corpus pleads for criminal cases. It also judges, in original jurisdiction, cases involving members of congress, senators, ministers of state, members of the high courts and the President and Vice-President of the Republic. The Superior Court of Justice (Tribunal Superior de Justiça) reviews State and Federal Circuit courts decisions for civil law and criminal law cases, when dealing with federal law or conflicting rulings. The Superior Labour Tribunal (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho) reviews cases involving labour law. The Superior Electoral Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Eleitoral) is the court of last resort of electoral law, and also oversees general elections. The Superior Military Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Militar) is the highest court in matters of federal military law.
In Croatia, the supreme jurisdiction is given to the Supreme Court, which secures a uniform application of laws. The Constitutional Court exists to verify constitutionality of laws and regulations, as well as decide on individual complaints on decisions on governmental bodies. It also decides on jurisdictional disputes between the legislative, executive and judicial branches.
In Denmark, all ordinary courts have original jurisdiction to hear all types of cases, including cases of a constitutional or administrative nature. As a result, there exists no special constitutional court, and therefore final jurisdiction is vested with the Danish Supreme Court (Højesteret) which was established 14 February 1661 by king Frederik III.
In France, supreme appellate jurisdiction is divided among three judicial bodies:
When there is jurisdictional dispute between judicial and administrative courts: the Court of Arbitration (Tribunal des conflits), which is empanelled half from the Court of Cassation and half from the Council of State and presided over by the Minister of Justice, is called together to settle the dispute or hand down a final decision.
The High Court (Haute Cour) exists only to impeach the President of the French Republic in case of "breach of his duties patently incompatible with his continuing in office ''. Since a constitutional amendment of 2007, the French Constitution states that the High Court is composed of all members of both Houses of Parliament. As of 2012, it has never been convened.
In Germany, there is no de jure single supreme court. Instead, cases are handled by numerous federal courts, depending on their nature.
Final interpretation of the German Constitution, the Grundgesetz, is the task of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court), which is the de facto highest German court, as it can declare both federal and state legislation ineffective, and has the power to overrule decisions of all other federal courts, despite not being a regular court of appeals on itself in the German court system. It is also the only court possessing the power and authority to outlaw political parties, if it is deemed that these parties have repeatedly violated articles of the Constitution.
When it comes to civil and criminal cases, the Bundesgerichtshof (Federal Court of Justice) is at the top of the hierarchy of courts. The other branches of the German judicial system each have their own appellate systems, each topped by a high court; these are the Bundessozialgericht (Federal Social Court) for matters of social security, the Bundesarbeitsgericht (Federal Labour Court) for employment and labour, the Bundesfinanzhof (Federal Fiscal Court) for taxation and financial issues, and the Bundesverwaltungsgericht (Federal Administrative Court) for administrative law. The so - called Gemeinsamer Senat der Obersten Gerichtshöfe (Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts) is not a supreme court in itself, but an ad - hoc body that is convened in only when one supreme court intends to diverge from another supreme court 's legal opinion or when a certain case exceeds the authority of one court. As the courts have well - defined areas of responsibility, situations like these are rather rare and so, the Joint Senate gathers very infrequently, and only to consider matters which are mostly definitory.
In the Netherlands, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands is the highest court. Its decisions, known as "arresten '', are absolutely final. The court is banned from testing legislation against the constitution, pursuant to the principle of the sovereignty of the States - General; the court can, however, test legislation against some treaties. Also, the ordinary courts in the Netherlands, including the Hoge Raad, do not deal with administrative law, which is dealt with in separate administrative courts, the highest of which is the Council of State (Raad van State)
The Supreme Court of Iceland (Icelandic: Hæstiréttur Íslands, lit. Highest Court of Iceland) was founded under Act No. 22 / 1919 and held its first session on 16 February 1920. The Court holds the highest judicial power in Iceland, where the court system has two levels.
The Supreme Court of India, also known colloquially as the ' apex court ', is the highest judicial body in the Republic of India. Any decision taken by it is final and binding, and can only be modified in some cases (death sentence, etc.) by the President of India. It has several jurisdiction like 1. Original 2. Appellate 3. Advisory
It is also known as court of records, i.e. all judgements are recorded and printed. These are cited in lower courts as case - law in various cases.
Italy follows the French system of different supreme courts.
The Italian court of last resort for most disputes is the Corte Suprema di Cassazione. There is also a separate constitutional court, the Corte costituzionale, which has a duty of judicial review, and which can strike down legislation as being in conflict with the Constitution.
In Japan, the Supreme Court of Japan is called 最高 裁判所 (Saikō - Saibansho; called 最高 裁 Saikō - Sai for short), located in Chiyoda, Tokyo, and is the highest court in Japan. It has ultimate judicial authority within Japan to interpret the Constitution and decide questions of national law (including local by laws). It has the power of judicial review (i.e., it can declare Acts of Diet and Local Assembly, and administrative actions, unconstitutional).
In Luxembourg, challenges on the conformity of the law to the Constitution are brought before the Cour Constitutionnelle (Constitutional Court). -- The most used and common procedure to present these challenges is by way of the "question préjudicielle '' (prejudicial question). The Court of last resort for civil and criminal proceedings is the "Cour de Cassation ''. For administrative proceedings the highest court is the "Cour Administrative '' (Administrative Court).
The supreme court of Macau is the Court of Final Appeal (Portuguese: Tribunal de Última Instância; Chinese: 澳門 終審 法院).
While the Philippines is generally considered a civil law nation, its Supreme Court is heavily modelled after the American Supreme Court. This can be attributed to the fact that the Philippines was colonized by both Spain and the United States, and the system of laws of both nations strongly influenced the development of Philippine laws and jurisprudence. Even as the body of Philippine laws remain mostly codified, the Philippine Civil Code expressly recognizes that decisions of the Supreme Court "form part of the law of the land '', belonging to the same class as statutes. The 1987 Philippine Constitution also explicitly grants to the Supreme Court the power of judicial review over laws and executive actions. The Supreme Court is composed of 1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. The court sits either en banc or in divisions, depending on the nature of the case to be decided.
In the judicial system of mainland China the highest court of appeal is the Supreme People 's Court. This supervises the administration of justice by all subordinate "local '' and "special '' people 's courts, and is the court of last resort for the whole People 's Republic of China except for Macau and Hong Kong
In Portugal, there are several supreme courts, each with a specific jurisdiction:
Until 2003, a fifth supreme court also existed for the military jurisdiction, this being the Supreme Military Court (Supremo Tribunal Militar). Presently, in time of peace, the supreme court for military justice matters is the Supreme Court of Justice, which now includes four military judges.
In the Republic of China (Taiwan), there are three different courts of last resort:
The Council of Grand Justices, consisting of 15 justices and mainly dealing with constitutional issues, is the counterpart of constitutional courts in some countries.
All three courts are directly under the Judicial Yuan, whose president also serves as Chief Justice in the Council of Grand Justices.
Founded by papal bull in 1532, the Court of Session is the supreme civil court of Scotland, and the High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court. However, the absolute highest court (excluding criminal matters) is the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
Spanish Supreme Court is the highest court for all cases in Spain (both private and public). Only those cases related to human rights can be appealed at the Constitutional Court (which also decides about acts accordance with Spanish Constitution). In Spain, high courts can not create binding precedents; however, lower rank courts usually observe Supreme Court interpretations. In most private law cases, two Supreme Court judgements supporting a claim are needed to appeal at the Supreme Court. Five sections form the Spanish Supreme court:
In Sweden, the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court respectively function as the highest courts of the land. The Supreme Administrative Court considers cases concerning disputes between individuals and administrative organs, as well as disputes among administrative organs, while the Supreme Court considers all other cases. The judges are appointed by the Government. In most cases, the Supreme Courts will only grant leave to appeal a case (prövningstillstånd) if the case involves setting a precedent in the interpretation of the law. Exceptions are issues where the Supreme Court is the court of first instance. Such cases include an application for a retrial of a criminal case in the light of new evidence, and prosecutions made against an incumbent minister of the Government for severe neglect of duty. If a lower court has to try a case which involves a question where there is no settled interpretation of the law, it can also refer the question to the relevant Supreme Court for an answer.
In Switzerland, the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland is the final court of appeals. Due to Switzerland 's system of direct democracy, it has no authority to review the constitutionality of federal statutes, but the people can strike down a proposed law by referendum. According to settled case law, however, the Court is authorised to review the compliance of all Swiss law with certain categories of international law, especially the European Convention of Human Rights.
In Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka was created in 1972 after the adoption of a new Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The Sri Lanka judicial system is complex blend of both common - law and civil - law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the Republic for clemency petitions. However, when there is 2 / 3 majority in the parliament in favour of president (as with present), the supreme court and its judges ' powers become nullified as they could be fired from their positions according to the Constitution, if the president wants. Therefore, in such situations, Civil law empowerment vanishes.
In South Africa, a "two apex '' system existed from 1994 to 2013. The Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) was created in 1994 and replaced the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa as the highest court of appeal in non-constitutional matters. The SCA is subordinate to the Constitutional Court, which is the highest court in matters involving the interpretation and application of the Constitution. But in August 2013 the Constitution was amended to make the Constitutional Court the country 's single apex court, superior to the SCA in all matters, both constitutional and non-constitutional.
Historically, citizens appealed directly to the King along his route to places out of the Palace. A Thai King would adjudicate all disputes. During the reign of King Chulalongkorn, an official department for appeals was set up, and, after Thailand adopted a western - styled government, Thai Supreme Court was established in 1891.
At present, the Supreme Court of Thailand retains the important status as the highest court of justice in the country. Operating separately from the Administrative Court and the Constitutional Court, the judgement of the Supreme Court is considered as final.
In the United Arab Emirates, the Federal Supreme Court of the United Arab Emirates was created in 1973 after the adoption of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The Emirati judicial system is complex blend of both Islamic law and civil law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the country (currently Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan).
Law of Indonesia at the national level is based on a combination of civil law from the tradition of Roman - Dutch law and customary law from the tradition of Adat. Law in regional jurisdictions can vary from province to province, including even Sharia law, for example Islamic criminal law in Aceh, though even at the national level, individual justices can cite sharia or other forms of non-Dutch law in their legal opinions.
The Supreme Court of Indonesia is the main judicial arm of the state, functioning as the final court of appeal as well as a means to re-open cases previously closed. The Supreme Court, which consists of a total of 51 justices, also oversees the regional high courts. It was founded at the country 's independence in 1945.
The Constitutional Court of Indonesia, on the other hand, is a part of the judicial branch tasked with review of bills and government actions for constitutionality, as well as regulation of the interactions between various arms of the state. The constitutional amendment to establish the court was passed in 2001, and the court itself was established in 2003. The Constitutional Court consists of nine justices serving nine year terms, and they 're appointed in tandem by the Supreme Court, the President of Indonesia and the People 's Representative Council.
In most nations with constitutions modelled after the Soviet Union, the legislature was given the power of being the court of last resort. In the People 's Republic of China, the final power to interpret the law is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress (NPCSC). This power includes the power to interpret the basic laws of Hong Kong and Macau, the constitutional documents of the two special administrative regions which are common law and Portuguese - based legal system jurisdictions respectively. This power is a legislative power and not a judicial one in that an interpretation by the NPCSC does not affect cases which have already been decided.
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when did puerto rican immigrants come to america | Puerto Rican migration to New York City - Wikipedia
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Puerto Ricans have both immigrated and migrated to New York City. The first group of Puerto Ricans immigrated to New York City in the mid-19th century when Puerto Rico was a Spanish Province and its people Spanish citizens. The following wave of Puerto Ricans to move to New York City did so after the Spanish -- American War in 1898. Puerto Ricans were no longer Spanish subjects and citizens of Spain, they were now Puerto Rican citizens of an American possession and needed passports to travel to the mainland of the United States.
That was until 1917, when the United States Congress approved Jones - Shafroth Act which gave Puerto Ricans in Puerto Rico a U.S. citizenship with certain limitations. Puerto Ricans living in the mainland United States however, were given full American citizenship and were allowed to seek political office in the states which they resided. Two months later, when Congress passed the Selective Service Act, conscription was extended to the Puerto Ricans both in the island and in the mainland. It was expected that Puerto Rican men 18 years and older serve in the U.S. military during World War I. The Jones - Shafroth Act also allowed Puerto Ricans to travel between Puerto Rico and the U.S. mainland without the need of a passport, thereby becoming migrants. The advent of air travel was one of the principal factors that led to the largest wave of migration of Puerto Ricans to New York City in the 1950s, known as "The Great Migration ''. Similar to many other eastcoast cities, Puerto Ricans were the first Hispanic group to move to New York City in large numbers.
From 1970 until about 1990, the city 's Puerto Rican population was at its height, they represented up to 80 % of the city 's Hispanic community and 12 % of the city 's total population, at that time nearly 70 % of Puerto Ricans lived in New York. It was n't until the 1990s, that the percentage Puerto Ricans made up of the city 's Hispanic community and the total population as a whole started to decrease, largely due to a declining Puerto Rican population, increasingly diversifying Hispanic community, and New York City rebounding its economy after deindustrialization, which ultimately resulted in a faster growing city population and dwindling Puerto Rican influence. However, since the early 2010s, New York 's Puerto Rican population started to grow again, being in the midst of another major migration wave out of Puerto Rico.
According to the 2010 census, Puerto Ricans represent 8.9 percent of New York City alone (32 % of the city 's Hispanic community), and 5.5 % of New York State as a whole. Over a million Puerto Ricans in the state, about 70 % are present in the city, with the remaining portion scattered in the city 's suburbs and other major cities throughout New York State. Although Florida has received some dispersal of the population, there has been a resurgence in Puerto Rican migration to New York and New Jersey, primarily for economic and cultural considerations - consequently, the New York City Metropolitan Area has witnessed a significant increase in its Puerto Rican population from 1,177,430 in 2010 to a Census - estimated 1,494,670 in 2016, maintaining its status by a significant margin as the most important cultural and demographic center for Puerto Ricans outside San Juan.
During the 19th century, commerce existed between the ports of the East Coast of the United States and the Spanish colony of Puerto Rico. Ship records show that many Puerto Ricans traveled on ships that sailed from and to the U.S. and Puerto Rico. Many of them settled in places such as New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. Upon the outbreak of the American Civil War, many Puerto Ricans, such as Lieutenant Augusto Rodriguez, joined the ranks of military armed forces, however since Puerto Ricans were Spanish subjects they were inscribed as Spaniards. The earliest Puerto Rican enclave in New York City was in Manhattan. Most of the Puerto Ricans who moved there came from well - to - do families or were people whose economic situation could permit them the luxury of traveling from the island to New York City by way of steamship, an expensive and long trip. Amongst the first Puerto Ricans to immigrate to New York City were men and women who were exiled by the Spanish Crown for their political beliefs and struggles for the cause of Puerto Rican independence. By 1850, Puerto Rico and Cuba were the only two remaining Spanish colonies in the New World. The Spanish Crown would either imprison or banish any person who promoted the independence of these two nations. Two of these exiles were Ramón Emeterio Betances and Segundo Ruiz Belvis who together founded "The Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico '' in New York. They were the planners of the short and failed 1868 revolt against Spain in Puerto Rico known as El Grito de Lares. Another prominent Puerto Rican who in 1871 immigrated to New York was Arturo Alfonso Schomburg, considered by many as the "Father of Black History ''. He too became a member of the "Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico '' and was an outspoken promoter of not only the independence of Puerto Rico but of Cuba 's also.
Four other Puerto Ricans who moved to New York because of political reasons were Manuel Besosa, Antonio Vélez Alvarado, Juan Ríus Rivera and Francisco Gonzalo Marín. These four Puerto Ricans joined the Cuban Liberation Army whose headquarters was in New York City.
Some sources document Francisco Gonzalo Marín with presenting a Puerto Rican flag prototype in 1895 for adoption by the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee in New York City. Marín has since been credited by some with the flag 's design. There is a letter written by Juan de Mata Terreforte which gives credit to Marin. The original contents of the letter in Spanish are the following:
Which translated in English states the following:
It is also believed that on June 12, 1892, Antonio Vélez Alvarado was at his apartment at 219 Twenty - Third Street in Manhattan, when he stared at a Cuban flag for a few minutes, and then took a look at the blank wall in which it was being displayed. Vélez suddenly perceived an optical illusion, in which he perceived the image of the Cuban flag with the colors in the flag 's triangle and stripes inverted. Almost immediately he visited a nearby merchant, Domingo Peraza, from whom he bought some crepe paper to build a crude prototype. He later displayed his prototype in a dinner meeting at his neighbor 's house, where the owner, Micaela Dalmau vda. de Carreras, had invited José Martí as a guest.
In a letter written by Maria Manuela (Mima) Besosa, the daughter of the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee member Manuel Besosa, she stated that she sewed the flag. This created a belief that her father could have been its designer.
Even though Marín presented the Puerto Rican Flag in New York 's "Chimney Corner Hotel '', it may never be known who designed the current flag. What is known, however, is that on December 22, 1895, the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee officially adopted a design which is today the official flag of Puerto Rico.
In 1897, Antonio Mattei Lluberas, a wealthy coffee plantation owner from Yauco, visited the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee in New York City. There he met with Ramón Emeterio Betances, Juan de Mata Terreforte and Aurelio Méndez Martinez and together they proceeded to plan a major coup. The uprising, which became known as the Intentona de Yauco was to be directed by Betances, organized by Aurelio Mendez Mercado and the armed forces were to be commanded by General Juan Ríus Rivera from Cuba. The political immigration to New York practically came to a halt in 1898 after the Spanish -- American War when Puerto Rico became a possession of the United States. It is estimated that 1,800 Puerto Rican citizens (they were not American citizens until 1917) had immigrated to New York during this period.
In 1902, the United States Treasury Department issued new immigration guidelines that changed the status of all Puerto Ricans to "foreigners. '' Isabel Gonzalez was a young single mother who was expecting her second child. Her fiancé, who was in New York, sent for her with the intention of getting married. When Gonzalez arrived in New York, she and all the Puerto Ricans who were with her, were detained in Ellis Island and denied entry. She was accused of being an alien and as an unwed parent she was deemed as a burden to the welfare system of the country. Gonzalez challenged the Government of the United States in the groundbreaking case "GONZALES v. WILLIAMS ' (her surname was misspelled by immigration officials). The Supreme Court ruled that under the immigration laws González was not an alien, and therefore could not be denied entry into New York. It also stated that Puerto Ricans were not U.S. citizens, they were "noncitizen nationals. '' Gonzalez, who became an activist on behalf of all Puerto Ricans, paved the way for the Jones - Shafroth Act, which conferred United States citizenship on all citizens of Puerto Rico.
In 1917, the United States entered World War I and that same year the United States Congress approved the Jones - Shafroth Act which gave Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship. Puerto Ricans no longer needed a passport to travel to the U.S. and were allowed to seek public office in the mainland U.S. The economic situation in the island was bad and continued to worsen as a result of the many hurricanes which destroyed most of its crops. Many Puerto Rican families migrated to the United States, the bulk of whom went to New York, in search of a better way of life. In New York, they faced the same hardships and discrimination that earlier groups of immigrants, such as the Irish, the Italians, and the Jews, had faced before them. It was difficult for them to find well paying jobs because of the language barrier and their lack of technical working skills. The few men who found jobs worked for low salaries in factories. The women usually stayed home as housewives and tended to their children. Those who did not find jobs had the option of joining the United States Military. Prior to the Jones - Shafroth Act, Puerto Ricans in the mainland United States as all other non-citizens, who were permanent residents were required to register with the Selective Service System by law and could be drafted, however one of the effects of the Act was that all Puerto Ricans were now eligible for the military "draft '' (conscription). One of the military units at that time was New York 's U.S. 369th Infantry Regiment. Rafael Hernández was a Puerto Rican who served in the almost all Afro - American unit. The unit fought against the Germans in France and became known as the "Harlem Hell Fighters ''. Hernández, his brother Jesus and 16 other Puerto Ricans was assigned to the United States Army 's Harlem Hell fighters musical band, the Orchestra Europe.
Nero Chen was one of the many Puerto Ricans who settled in East Harlem. He became the first Puerto Rican boxer to gain acclaim when in 1917 he fought against "Panama Joe Gans '' at Harlem 's Palace Casino which was located at 28 East 135th St., between Fifth and Madison Avenues, in Manhattan. As evidenced by an early 1924 poster, migrants in New York organized baseball teams which played against each other. The poster announces a game which was held at Howard Field in Brooklyn between two teams, the San Juan B.B.C. and the Porto Rican Stars, made of Puerto Ricans from the East Side section of Manhattan.
As the economic situation in the United States worsened in a prelude to the Great Depression, many Puerto Ricans in the mainland found themselves competing with other groups for the positions of unskilled labor such as dishwashers, maintenance and laundry workers. This led to the "Harlem Riots '' of July 1926. between unemployed Jews and Puerto Ricans. Various Puerto Rican organizations in East Harlem, organized a media campaign to ease the tensions between the groups involved and called upon the mayor, governor of the state to restore order and provide protection to the area.
In 1937, Oscar Garcia Rivera, Sr. (1900 -- 1969), a native of Mayagüez and resident of East Harlem, became the first Puerto Rican to be elected to public office in the continental United States as a member of the New York State Assembly. A witness of the discrimination which Puerto Ricans were subject to, he created the "Unemployment Insurance Bill '' which paved the way for the passage of bills which established minimum hours and wages for working people, the creation of a Wage Board within the Labor Department, and the right of employees to organize and negotiate grievances. In 1956, he also became the first Puerto Rican to be nominated as the Republican candidate for Justice of the City Court.
Several factors contributed and led to what came to be known as "The Great Migration '' of Puerto Ricans to New York. These were the following: the Great Depression, World War II and the advent of air travel.
The Great Depression which spread throughout the world was also felt in Puerto Rico. Since the island 's economy was and still is dependent to that of the United States, it was to be expected that when the American banks and industries began to fail the effect would be felt in the island. Unemployment was on the rise as a consequence and therefore, many families fled to the mainland U.S.A. in search of jobs.
The outbreak of World War II opened the doors to many of the migrants who were searching for jobs. Since a large portion of the male population of the U.S. was sent to war, there was a sudden need of manpower to fulfill the jobs left behind. Puerto Ricans, both male and female, found themselves employed in factories and ship docks, producing both domestic and warfare goods. The new migrants gained the knowledge and working skills which in the future would serve them well. The military also provided a steady source of income, in 1944, the Puerto Rican WAC unit, Company 6, 2nd Battalion, 21st Regiment of the Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps, a segregated Hispanic unit, was assigned to the New York Port of Embarkation, after their basic training at Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia. They were assigned to work in military offices which planned the shipment of troops around the world.
The advent of air travel provided Puerto Ricans with an affordable and faster way of travel to New York. The one thing that most migrants had in common was that they wanted a better way of life than was available in Puerto Rico, and although each held personal reasons for migrating, their decision generally was rooted in the island 's impoverished conditions as well as the public policies that sanctioned migration.
In 1948, the Migration Division of the Department of Labor of Puerto Rico opened its office in New York City. Its mission was to mediate between the island and the New York / Puerto Rican community, assuage the adjustment experience of new arrivals, and generally inform them about jobs, housing and other critical concerns. It was n't long before the Puerto Rican "Barrios '' in the Williamsburg, Bushwick, South Bronx, Spanish Harlem, and Manhattan 's Lower East Side began to resemble "Little Puerto Ricos '' with their "Bodegas '' (small grocery stores) and "Piragueros '' (Puerto Rican shaved ice venders) in every corner. It is estimated that from 1946 to 1950 there were 31,000 Puerto Rican migrants each year to New York.
Puerto Ricans began to form their own small "barrios '', in The Bronx, Brooklyn and in East Harlem (which would become known as Spanish Harlem). It was in East Harlem where the Puerto Rican migrants established a cultural life of great vitality and sociality. They also participated in some of the sports, such as boxing and baseball which were first introduced in the island by the American Armed Forces after the Spanish -- American War.
Puerto Ricans who moved to New York not only took with them their customs, traditions, they also took with them their piraguas, a Puerto Rican frozen treat, shaped like a pyramid, made of shaved ice and covered with fruit flavored syrup. According to Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: by Winston James, piraguas were introduced in New York by Puerto Ricans as early as 1926.
Puerto Rican music flourished with the likes of Rafael Hernández and Pedro Flores who formed the "Trio Borincano '' and gained recognition in the city. Myrta Silva who later joined Hernandez 's "Cuarteto Victoria '' also gained fame as a singer after the group traveled and played throughout the United States.
The South Bronx became a hub for Puerto Rican music. Theaters which had served to previous groups of immigrants, such as the Irish and the Italians, for their dramatic works or vaudeville style shows, now served the growing Puerto Rican and Latino population with musical performances from musicians from Puerto Rico and Latin America. Plus, the local Bronx 's burgeoning Latino musicians. Among these theaters were the historical Teatro Puerto Rico at E. 138th St. and Hunts Point Palace in Southern Blvd. During the Teatro Puerto Rico 's "golden era '', which lasted from 1947 to 1956, musician José Feliciano made his stateside debut
New York City also became the mecca for freestyle music in the 1980s, of which Puerto Rican singer - songwriters represented an integral component. Puerto Rican influence in popular music continues in the 21st century, encompassing major artists such as Jennifer Lopez.
The third great wave of domestic migration from Puerto Rico came after World War II. Nearly 40,000 Puerto Ricans settled in New York City in 1946, and 58,500 in 1952 -- 53. Many soldiers who returned after World War II made use of the GI Bill and went to college. Puerto Rican women confronted economic exploitation, discrimination, racism, and the insecurities inherent in the migration process on a daily basis, however they fared better than did men in the job market. The women left their homes for the factories in record numbers. By 1953, Puerto Rican migration to New York reached its peak when 75,000 people left the island.
Operation Bootstrap ("Operación Manos a la Obra '') is the name given to the ambitious projects which industrialized Puerto Rico in the mid-20th century engineered by Teodoro Moscoso. The industry that was attracted did not provide sufficient jobs. With increased population growth and displacement from traditional labor pursuits, the growing population could not be accommodated. Much of the surplus labor migrated to the United States. In 1948, Puerto Ricans elected their first governor Luis Muñoz Marín, who together with his government initiated a series of social and economic reforms with the introduction of new programs in the island. Some of these programs met some resistance from the American government and therefore, the local government had some trouble implementing the same. New York Mayor Robert F. Wagner, Jr. began a campaign to recruit Puerto Rican laborers in the island to work in the city 's factories. Mayor Wagner figured that the city would benefit greatly by the luring of what was considered to be "cheap labor ''.
Discrimination was rampant in the United States and it was no different in New York. As stated by Lolita Lebrón, there were signs in restaurants which read "No dogs or Puerto Ricans allowed ''. The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party established an office in New York in the 1950s and attracted many migrants. Leaders of the party conceived a plan that would involve an attack on the Blair House with the intention of assassinating United States President Harry S. Truman and an attack on the House of Representatives. These events had a negative impact on the Puerto Rican migrants. Americans viewed Puerto Ricans as anti-Americans and the discrimination against them became even more widespread.
Many Puerto Ricans were able to overcome these obstacles and became respected members of their communities. Many such as Antonia Pantoja, established organizations such as "ASPIRA '', that helped their fellow countrymen to reach their goals.
In 1954, a group of politicians close to Carmine Gerard DeSapio, then the leader of Tammany Hall, chose Tony Méndez to lead the eastern section of the district, known as the 14th Assembly District. He was chosen by the group, which was also known as the Democratic County Committee, because in those days there was no direct election of district leaders. Plus, the influx of Puerto Ricans moving to the 14th Assembly District, in which East Harlem is located, replaced the members of the Italian Community who preceded them and eventually moved out. Méndez became the first native - born Puerto Rican to become a district leader of a major political party in New York City.
The first New York Puerto Rican Day Parade, founded by Tony Méndez was held on Sunday, April 13, 1958 in the "Barrio '' in Manhattan. Its first President was Victor López and it was coordinated by José Caballero. The grand marshals were Oscar González Suarez and Tony Méndez Esq. Prominent personalities from Puerto Rico headed by then Governor Luis Muñoz Marín, attended the initial parade. The parade was organized as a show of Puerto Rican pride and is a tradition which not only continues today in the city of New York but, that has also extended to other cities such as Chicago, Illinois and Orlando, Florida. By 1960, the United States census showed that there were well over 600,000 New Yorkers of Puerto Rican birth or parentage. Estimates were that more than one million Puerto Ricans had migrated during that period.
Puerto Rican writer Jesús Colón founded an intellectual movement involving poets, writers, musicians and artists who are Puerto Rican or of Puerto Rican descent and who live in or near New York City which became known as the Nuyorican Movement. The phenomenon of the "Nuyoricans '' came about when many Puerto Ricans who migrated to New York City faced difficult situations and hardships, such as racial discrimination. A "Nuyorican '' subculture developed. In 1980, Puerto Rican poets Miguel Algarín, Miguel Piñero and Pedro Pietri established the "Nuyorican Poets Café '' on Manhattan 's Lower East Side (236 E 3rd Street, between Avenues B and C) which is now considered a New York landmark.
By 1964, the Puerto Rican community made up 9.3 percent of the total New York City 's population. The Puerto Rican migrants who gained economic success began to move away from the "Barrios '' and settled in Westchester County, Staten Island, and Long Island or moved to other cities in other states like New Jersey (especially North Jersey which is still apart of the NYC metropolitan area), Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and Florida, among others. New immigrants from the Dominican Republic, Mexico and South America moved into the Barrios which were once mainly occupied by the Puerto Ricans. The 1970s saw what became known as reverse - migration. Many Puerto Ricans returned to the island to buy homes and to invest in local businesses. Puerto Ricans have made many important contributions to New York and the society of the United States in general. They have contributed in the fields of entertainment, the arts, music, industry, science, politics, and military. Other Puerto Ricans have moved from New York to settle in smaller cities throughout the northeastern United States. For example, in 2009 Puerto Ricans alone made up 29.1 % of Reading, Pennsylvania 's population, which was over 53 % Hispanic, and 25.0 % of Lawrence, Massachusetts ' population, which was over 70 % Hispanic.
However, since 2006, there has been a resurgence in immigration from Puerto Rico to New York City and New Jersey, with an apparently multifactorial allure to Puerto Ricans, primarily for economic and cultural considerations. The Census estimate for the New York City, the city proper with the largest Puerto Rican population by a significant margin, has increased from 723,621 in 2010, to 730,848 in 2012; while New York State 's Puerto Rican population was estimated to have increased from 1,070,558 in 2010, to 1,103,067 in 2013.
New York State overall has also resumed its net in - migration of Puerto Rican Americans since 2006, a dramatic reversal from being the only state to register a decrease in its Puerto Rican population between 1990 and 2000. The Puerto Rican population of New York State, still the largest in the United States, is estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau to have increased from 1,070,558 in 2010 to 1,103,067 in 2013. New York State gained more Puerto Rican migrants from Puerto Rico as well as from elsewhere on the mainland between 2006 and 2012 than any other state in absolute numbers. Also, unlike the initial pattern of migration several decades ago, this second Puerto Rican migration into New York and surrounding states is being driven by movement not only into New York City proper, but also into the city 's surrounding suburban areas, such that the New York City Metropolitan Area gained the highest number of additional Puerto Rican Americans of any metropolitan area between 2010 and 2016, to 1,494,670 in 2016.
Northern New Jersey has also received a robust influx of Puerto Rican migration in the 21st century, given its proximity to both New York City 's and Philadelphia 's Puerto Rican establishments. Within the metropolitan area surrounding New York City, Paterson and Newark in New Jersey are important homes for Puerto Rican Americans. Jose "Joey '' Torres was elected mayor of Paterson in 2014, where he had served two prior terms as mayor as well; while Luis A. Quintana, born in Añasco, Puerto Rico, was sworn in as Newark 's first Latino mayor in November 2013, assuming the unexpired term of Cory Booker, who vacated the position to become a U.S. Senator from New Jersey. However, as Puerto Ricans continue to climb the socioeconomic ladder and achieve a greater degree of professional occupations, the community is also purchasing homes in New Jersey 's more affluent suburban towns. After Hurricane Maria struck Puerto Rico in September 2017, devastating the infrastructure of the island, New York State was expected to be the likeliest destination for Puerto Rican migrants to the U.S. mainland when premised upon family ties, with New Jersey being the third likeliest destination.
Brooklyn has several neighborhoods with a Puerto Rican presence, and many of the ethnic Puerto Rican neighborhoods in Brooklyn formed before the Puerto Rican neighborhoods in the South Bronx because of the work demand in the Brooklyn Navy Yard in the 1940s and 50s. Bushwick has the highest concentration of Puerto Ricans in Brooklyn. Other neighborhoods with significant populations include Williamsburg, East New York, Brownsville, Coney Island, Red Hook, and Sunset Park. In Williamsburg; Graham Avenue is nicknamed "Avenue of Puerto Rico '' because of the high density and strong ethnic enclave of Puerto Ricans who have been living in the neighborhood since the 1950s. The Puerto Rican Day Parade is also hosted on the avenue.
Ridgewood, Queens, also has a significant Puerto Rican population, as does the neighboring community of Bushwick, Brooklyn.
Puerto Rican neighborhoods in Manhattan include Spanish Harlem and Loisaida. Spanish Harlem was "Italian Harlem '' from the 1880s until the 1940s. By 1940, however, the name "Spanish Harlem '' was becoming widespread, and by 1950, the area was predominately Puerto Rican and African American. Loisaida is an enclave east of Avenue A that originally comprised German, Jewish, Irish, and Italian working class residents who lived in tenements without running water; the German presence, already in decline, virtually ended after the General Slocum disaster in 1904. Since them, the community has become Puerto Rican and Latino in character, despite the "gentrification '' that has affected the East Village and the Lower East Side since the late 20th century.
Staten Island has a fairly large Puerto Rican population along the North Shore, especially in the Mariners ' Harbor, Arlington, Elm Park, Graniteville, Port Richmond, and Stapleton neighborhoods, where the population is in the 20 % range.
In New York and many other cities, Puerto Ricans usually live in close proximity with Dominicans and African Americans. High concentrations of Puerto Ricans are also present in numerous public housing developments throughout the city.
Puerto Ricans are present in large numbers throughout the Bronx, the Bronx has the highest percentage of Puerto Ricans of any borough. In some places in the South Bronx, Spanish is the primary language. Throughout the 1970s, the South Bronx became known as the epitome of urban decay, but has since made a recovery.
As of 1990, New Yorkers of Puerto Rican descent (Nuyoricans), numbered 143,974. Nearly 41,800 state residents (Nuyoricans) in 1990 had lived in Puerto Rico in 1985. According to the Census taken in the year 2000, Puerto Rican migrants made up 1.2 % of the total population of the United States, with a population of well over 3 million Puerto Ricans (including those of Puerto Rican descent). If taken into account together with the almost 4 million Puerto Ricans who are U.S. citizens (nevertheless, excluded by the U.S. Census statistics of U.S. population), Puerto Ricans make up about 2.5 % of the total population of U.S. citizens around the world (within and outside the U.S. mainland).
New York City 's total Puerto Rican population was 723,621 and they represented 8.9 % of the population. The Puerto Rican population and the percentage Puerto Ricans make up of each borough, as of the 2010 census, is:
In July 1930, Puerto Rico 's Department of Labor established an employment service in New York City. The Migration Division (known as the "Commonwealth Office ''), also part of Puerto Rico 's Department of Labor, was created in 1948, and by the end of the 1950s, was operating in 115 cities and towns stateside. The Department of Puerto Rican Affairs in the United States was established in 1989 as a cabinet - level department in Puerto Rico. Currently, the Commonwealth operates the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration, which is headquartered in Washington, D.C. and has 12 regional offices throughout the United States.
Puerto Ricans in New York have preserved their cultural heritage by being involved actively in the different political and social rights movements in the United States. They founded "Aspira '', a leader in the field of education, in 1961. Aspira is now one of the largest national Latino nonprofit organizations in the United States. Other educational and social organizations founded by Puerto Ricans in New York and else where are the National Puerto Rican Coalition in Washington, DC, the National Puerto Rican Forum, the Puerto Rican Family Institute, Boricua College, the Center for Puerto Rican Studies of the City University of New York at Hunter College, the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund, the National Conference of Puerto Rican Women, and the New York League of Puerto Rican Women, Inc., among others.
Hostos Community College in the Bronx, was named after a Puerto Rican Eugenio Maria de Hostos, and was founded as an all - Puerto Rican college. The college now accepts students of all races, however it largely caters to Hispanics with up to 80 % of its students being of Hispanic descent. Boricua College is another originally all - Puerto Rican college with campuses in East Williamsburg and Manhattan.
Cultural ties between New York and Puerto Rico are strong. In September 2017, following the immense destruction wrought upon Puerto Rico by Hurricane Maria, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo led an aid delegation to San Juan, including engineers form the New York Power Authority to help restore Puerto Rico 's electrical grid.
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