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where does boston butt come from on a pig | Boston butt - wikipedia
Boston butt or pork butt is the American name for a cut of pork that comes from the upper part of the shoulder from the front leg and may contain the blade bone. Boston butt is the most common cut used for pulled pork, a staple of barbecue in the southern United States. When smoked and cured, the cut is sometimes called a picnic ham, as the resulting meat closely resembles a ham taken from the hind leg. In Louisiana cuisine, cured, smoked, and spiced pork shoulder is called tasso ham.
In the United Kingdom, Boston butt is known as pork shoulder on the bone, since regular pork shoulder normally has the bone removed and then rolled and tied back into a joint.
In pre-revolutionary New England and into the American Revolutionary War, New England butchers tended to take less prized cuts of pork like hams and shoulders and pack them into barrels for storage and transport, known as a butt. Comes from the latin word "Buttis '' meaning cask or barrel. This particular shoulder cut became known around the country as a Boston specialty, and hence it became the "Boston butt ''. In the UK it is known as "pork hand and spring '', or simply "pork hand '', or, as noted above, "pork shoulder on the bone ''.
In Latin American Spanish the cut is known as paleta de puerco, and is the main ingredient in the Mexican dish carnitas and in the Caribbean dishes lechon asado and pernil.
In Mexican Spanish, this cut is also known as the espaldilla (literally "little back '').
In Argentina, this cut is incredibly popular and is known as bondiola.
In Korea, the cut is known as moksal (목살; literally "neck meat '').
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who does freddie highmore play in the golden compass | The Golden Compass (film) - wikipedia
The Golden Compass is a 2007 fantasy adventure film based on Northern Lights, the first novel in Philip Pullman 's trilogy His Dark Materials. Written and directed by Chris Weitz, it stars Nicole Kidman, Dakota Blue Richards, Daniel Craig, Sam Elliott, Eva Green and Ian McKellen. The project was announced in February 2002, but difficulties over the script and the selection of a director caused significant delays. At US $180 million, it was one of New Line Cinema 's most expensive projects ever, and its disappointing results in the USA contributed to New Line 's February 2008 restructuring.
The film depicts the adventures of Lyra Belacqua, an orphan living in a parallel universe on a world that looks much like our own. In Lyra 's world, a dogmatic ruling power called the Magisterium opposes free inquiry. Poor, orphan and Gyptian children are disappearing at the hands of a group that the children call the Gobblers. When Lyra discovers that the powerful Mrs. Coulter, who is hosting Lyra at her house, is running the Gobblers, she flees. Rescued by the Gyptians, Lyra joins them on a trip to the far North, the land of the armoured polar bears, in search of the missing children.
Before its release, the film received criticism from secularist organisations and fans of His Dark Materials for the dilution of elements of the story which were critical of religion, as well as from some religious organisations for the source material 's anti-Catholic themes. The studio ordered significant changes late in post-production, which Weitz later called a "terrible '' experience. Although the film 's visual effects (which Weitz has called the film 's "most successful element '') won both a BAFTA and an Academy Award, critical reception was mixed and revenue lower than anticipated.
The story takes place in an alternate world dominated by a powerful church called the Magisterium, and where part of the spirit resides outside a person as an animal companion called a dæmon. Lyra Belacqua (Dakota Blue Richards) is an orphan raised at Jordan College in Oxford, while her uncle, esteemed explorer and scholar Lord Asriel (Daniel Craig), is busy seeking the elusive Dust, a cosmic particle of which the Magisterium has forbidden even the mention. When Asriel returns from his latest expedition, Lyra and her dæmon Pantalaimon (Freddie Highmore) witness a Magisterium agent poison his wine. Lyra warns her uncle, saving his life; then she watches Asriel give a presentation regarding his findings on the North Pole, where he was able to prove the Dust 's existence. The college gives Asriel a grant to fund another expedition that could lead to the discovery of the infinite worlds linked by Dust, which would severely undermine the Magisterium 's hold on the world.
At dinner, Lyra meets Mrs. Coulter (Nicole Kidman), a wealthy, powerful woman who is presented as "a friend of the college ''. Mrs. Coulter insists on taking Lyra on a trip north as her assistant. Before Lyra leaves, the Master of the college entrusts her with the only remaining alethiometer, a compass - like artifact that reveals the truth. The Magisterium has seized or destroyed all the others. He instructs her to keep it secret, especially from Mrs. Coulter.
Mrs. Coulter takes Lyra into her home, in a big city that resembles a retrofuturistic London, and starts taking her to socialite dinners and parties. In her bedroom, Lyra gazes upon the alethiometer and notices that it continuously points to a lady, a lightning bolt and a baby. She does not know what to make of her observation, however, and says nothing of it to Mrs. Coulter. Despite initially projecting the image of a free - spirited woman, she reveals herself to be extremely respectful of the Magisterium and its function. One night, Lyra casually mentions Dust; this puts Mrs. Coulter on edge as she warns Lyra never to mention it again, and also insists that she stop carrying around the bag secretly containing the aleithiometer. Mrs. Coulter 's dæmon (a golden monkey) attacks Pantalaimon, causing Lyra to give in. Lyra and Pantalaimon discover that Mrs. Coulter is head of the General Oblation Board, also known as the "Gobblers '', who have been kidnapping local children. Lyra also learns that her best friend Roger and her Gyptian friend Billy have been both taken by the Gobblers.
Lyra and Pantalaimon walk in on Mrs. Coulter 's dæmon attempting to steal the alethiometer and they escape into the streets. The Gobblers pursue her, but she is saved by Billy 's mother, who takes her to the ship of the King of the Gyptians, heading north to rescue all the captured children. Lyra shows the alethiometer to a wise Gyptian elder, Farder Coram (Tom Courtenay), and it is revealed that she is able to decipher the device 's answers.
After consulting with the Magisterium agent, Mrs. Coulter sends two mechanical spy - flies after Lyra. One is batted away but the other is caught and sealed in a can by Farder Coram, who explains that the spy - fly has a sting with a sleeping poison. Meanwhile, Lord Asriel has reached Svalbard, the kingdom of the Ice Bears, but he is captured by Samoyed tribesmen hired by Mrs. Coulter.
One night, Lyra is visited on the ship by a witch queen, Serafina Pekkala (Eva Green). She tells Lyra that the missing children are in an experimental station called Bolvangar. At a northern port, Lyra is befriended by a Texan aeronaut named Lee Scoresby (Sam Elliott), who advises her to hire himself and his friend Iorek Byrnison (Ian McKellen), an armoured bear Lee has come to rescue. Once a prince of his people, but now exiled in shame, the giant polar bear has been tricked out of his armour by the local townspeople. Using the alethiometer, Lyra tells Iorek where to find his armour. After recovering his armour, Iorek joins the Gyptian trek northward, along with Lee.
While the group is camped for the night, Lyra rides on Iorek 's back to an abandoned building the alethiometer pointed her toward. There, Lyra finds an escaped, cowering Billy separated from his dæmon named Ratter, and realises that is what the Gobblers are doing to the kidnapped children, something they call "intercision ''. Lyra reunites Billy with his mother just as the group is attacked by Samoyeds, who capture Lyra. Iorek and Lee follow her in Lee 's airship. Taken to the bear king Ragnar Sturlusson (Ian McShane), Lyra tricks him into fighting Iorek one on one. At first, Ragnar, who had already beaten Iorek while usurping his throne, seems to have the upper hand in the fight, but Iorek eventually manages to kill his rival, becoming the new and rightful king.
Iorek carries Lyra to a thin ice bridge near Bolvangar, but only Lyra is able to cross over before the bridge breaks. Upon reaching the station, Lyra is welcomed in and taken to eat dinner with the children, where she is reunited with Roger. While sneaking around, Lyra hears Mrs. Coulter tell the station scientists that Asriel has escaped capture and set up a laboratory, but Magisterium soldiers are on their way to arrest and execute him for heresy. She also hears the scientists talk about their experiments to sever the bond between a child and his or her dæmon. Caught spying, Lyra and Pantalaimon are thrown in the intercision chamber, and end up unconscious. On seeing Lyra in the chamber, Mrs. Coulter rescues her and takes her to her quarters.
When Lyra wakes up, Mrs. Coulter explains to Lyra how, in her and the Magisterium 's view, the intercision is needed to save the children from the corrupting influence of the Dust. She also reveals she is Lyra 's mother, but was forced to give her away because at the time of her birth she was not married. Lyra correctly guesses that Asriel is her father. When Mrs. Coulter asks for the alethiometer, Lyra gives her the can containing the spy - fly instead. The fly stings Mrs. Coulter, knocking her and her dæmon out. Lyra runs to the room with the intercision machine and manages to destroy it, setting off a series of explosions that tear the facility apart.
Outside, the fleeing children are attacked by Tartar mercenaries and their wolf dæmons. The battle is joined by Iorek, Lee Scoresby, the Gyptians, and a band of flying witches led by Serafina Pekkala. The Tartars are defeated and the children are rescued. Rather than returning south, Lyra, Roger, Iorek, Lee and Serafina fly further north in search of Asriel. Confirming Serafina 's prophecy of an upcoming war with Lyra at the centre, Lyra is determined to fight the Magisterium and stop their plans, which include taking over all the other worlds in the universe.
On February 11, 2002, following the success of New Line 's The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, the studio bought the rights to Philip Pullman 's His Dark Materials trilogy. In July 2003 Tom Stoppard was commissioned to write the screenplay. Directors Brett Ratner and Sam Mendes expressed interest in the film, but a year later, Chris Weitz was hired to direct after approaching the studio with an unsolicited 40 - page treatment. The studio rejected the script, asking Weitz to start from scratch. Since Weitz was a fan of Stoppard, he decided not to read the adaptation in case he "subconsciously poached things from him. '' After delivering his script, Weitz cited Barry Lyndon and Star Wars as stylistic influences on the film. In 2004, Weitz was invited by The Lord of the Rings director Peter Jackson onto the set of King Kong in order to gather information on directing a blockbuster film, and to receive advice on dealing with New Line Cinema, for whom Jackson had worked on Lord of the Rings. After a subsequent interview in which Weitz said the novel 's attacks on organised religion would have to be softened, he was criticised by some fans, and on December 15, 2004, Weitz announced his resignation as director of the trilogy, citing the enormous technical challenges of the epic. He later indicated that he had envisioned the possibility of being denounced by both the book 's fans and its detractors, as well as a studio hoping for another Lord of the Rings.
On August 9, 2005, it was announced that British director Anand Tucker would take over from Weitz. Tucker felt the film would thematically be about Lyra "looking for a family '', and Pullman agreed: "He has plenty of very good ideas, and he is n't daunted by the technical challenges. But the best thing from the point of view of all who care about the story is his awareness that it is n't about computer graphics; it is n't about fantastic adventures in amazing - looking worlds; it 's about Lyra. '' Tucker resigned on May 8, 2006, citing creative disagreements with New Line, and Weitz returned to direct. Weitz said "I 'm both the first and third director on the film... but I did a lot of growing in the interim. ''
According to producer Deborah Forte, Tucker wanted to make a smaller, less exciting film than New Line wanted. New Line production president Toby Emmerich said of Weitz 's return: "I think Chris realised that if he did n't come back in and step up, maybe the movie was n't going to get made... We really did n't have a Plan B at that point. '' Weitz was attracted back to the project after receiving a letter from Pullman asking him to reconsider. Since his departure, blueprints, production design and visual effects strategies had been put into position, and while Weitz admitted that his fears did not vanish, the project suddenly seemed feasible for the director.
Filming began at Shepperton Studios on September 4, 2006, with additional sequences shot in Switzerland and Norway. Filming also took place at the Old Royal Naval College at Greenwich, Chiswick House in London, and in Radcliffe Square, Christ Church, Oxford, Exeter College, Oxford, The Queen 's College, Oxford, The Historic Dockyard Chatham and Hedsor House in Buckinghamshire.
Production Designer Dennis Gassner says of his work on the film: "The whole project is about translation -- translation from something you would understand into something that is in a different vernacular. So, it 's a new signature, looking into another world that seems familiar but is still unique. There 's a term I use -- called ' cludging ' -- it 's taking one element and combining it with another element to make something new. It 's a hybrid or amalgamation, and that 's what this movie is about from a design perspective. It 's about amalgamating ideas and concepts and theoretical and physical environments. ''
Rhythm and Hues Studios created the main dæmons, and Framestore CFC created all the bears. British company Cinesite created the secondary dæmons.
Numerous scenes from the novel did not feature in the film or were markedly changed. On December 7, 2007, New York magazine reviewed draft scripts from both Stoppard and Weitz; both were significantly longer than the final version, and Weitz 's draft (which, unlike Stoppard 's, did not feature significant additions to the source material) was pronounced the best of the three. The magazine concluded that instead of a "likely three hours of running time '' that included such scenes as Mrs. Coulter 's London party and Lyra 's meeting with a witch representative, the studio had opted for a "failed '' length of under two hours in order to maximise revenue.
On October 9, 2007, Weitz revealed that the final three chapters from Northern Lights had been moved to the film 's potential sequel, The Subtle Knife, in order to provide "the most promising conclusion to the first film and the best possible beginning to the second, '' though he also said less than a month later that there had been "tremendous marketing pressure '' to create "an upbeat ending. '' (The San Francisco Chronicle found this "truncated '' ending abrupt.) Author Pullman publicly supported these changes, saying that "every film has to make changes to the story that the original book tells -- not to change the outcome, but to make it fit the dimensions and the medium of film ''. In addition to removing the novel 's unsettling ending, the film reverses the order in which Lyra travels to Bolvangar, the Gobbler 's outpost, and then Svalbard, the armoured bears ' kingdom. (Neither deviation from the book features in Scholastic Publishing 's The Golden Compass: The Story of the Movie novelisation.) In July 2009, Weitz told a Comic Con audience that the film had been "recut by (New Line), and my experience with it ended being quite a terrible one ''; he also told Time.com that he had felt that by "being faithful to the book I was working at odds with the studio ''. In 2011, Pullman told an audience at the British Humanist Association annual conference that he was also disappointed by this decision, and hoped that a director 's cut of the film would be released some day including the footage cut by New Line.
In the book the Jordan College Master reluctantly poisons Lord Asriel 's wine; in the film a visiting Magisterium official undertakes (more willingly) this action. The alethiometer is mentioned multiple times throughout the film as a "golden compass ''.
In the film, Billy Costa replaces Tony Makarios as the victim of intercision, and Tony is left out. Billy has the daemon Ratter, which is Tony 's in the book. Billy features in the first scene of the film, whereas, in the book, he is first seen at Bolvangar, and is saved before ever having to go through intercision.
Tasha Robinson of The A.V. Club argued that through the use of a spoken introduction and other exposition - filled dialogue, the film fails by "baldly revealing up front everything that the novel is trying to get you to wonder about and to explore slowly ''. Youyoung Lee wrote in a December 2007 Entertainment Weekly that the film "leaves out the gore '', such as the book 's ritualistic heart - eating that concludes the bear fight, "to create family - friendlier fare ''. Lee also said that the film "downplays the Magisterium 's religious nature '', but Robinson argued that the depiction of the Church in the film is as "a hierarchical organisation of formally robed, iconography - heavy priests who dictate and define morality for their followers, are based out of cathedrals, and decry teachings counter to theirs as ' heresy. '... doing ugly things to children under cover of secrecy ''. Robinson then asks, "Who are most people going to think of besides the Catholic Church? '' The film gives more prominence to scenes showing the Magisterium officials ' perspective than the novel. The novel rarely mentions explicitly the Magisterium 's intentions, relying on the gossip of others, and the comments of Mrs. Coulter.
Although the character of Mrs. Coulter has black hair in the novel, Pullman responded to the blonde Kidman 's portrayal by saying "I was clearly wrong. You sometimes are wrong about your characters. She 's blonde. She has to be. ''
Several key themes of the novels, such as the rejection of religion and the abuse of power in a fictionalised version of the Church, were diluted in the adaptation. Director Weitz said that "in the books the Magisterium is a version of the Catholic Church gone wildly astray from its roots '', but that the organization portrayed in his film would not directly match that of Pullman 's books. Instead, the Magisterium represents all dogmatic organisations. Weitz said New Line Cinema had feared the story 's anti-religious themes would make the film financially unviable in the U.S., and so religion and God ("the Authority '' in the books) would not be referenced directly.
Attempting to reassure fans of the novels, Weitz said that religion would instead appear in euphemistic terms, yet the decision was criticised by some fans, anti-censorship groups, and the National Secular Society (of which Pullman is an honorary associate), which said "they are taking the heart out of it, losing the point of it, castrating it... '' and "this is part of a long - term problem over freedom of speech. '' The Atlantic Monthly said also "With $180 million at stake, the studio opted to kidnap the book 's body and leave behind its soul. '' The changes from the novel have been present since Tom Stoppard 's rejected version of the script, and Pullman expected the film to be "faithful, '' although he also said, "They do know where to put the theology and that 's off the film. '' A Christianity Today review of the film noted that "' Magisterium ' does refer, in the real world, to the teaching authority of the Roman Catholic Church, and the film (is) peppered with religiously significant words like ' oblation ' and ' heresy ' '', adding that when one character smashes through the wall of a Magisterium building, the damaged exterior is "decorated with (Christian) Byzantine icons. ''
On October 7, 2007, the Catholic League called for a boycott of the film. League president William A. Donohue said he would not ordinarily object to the film, but that while the religious elements are diluted from the source material, the film will encourage children to read the novels, which he says denigrate Christianity and promote atheism for children. He cited Pullman telling The Washington Post in 2001 that he is trying to undermine the basis of Christian belief. The League hoped that "the film (would fail) to meet box office expectations and that (Pullman 's) books attract few buyers '', declaring the boycott campaign a success after a North American opening weekend which was lower than anticipated. One week after the film 's release, Roger Ebert said of the campaign, "any bad buzz on a family film can be mortal, and that seems to have been the case this time. ''
R. Albert Mohler Jr., the president of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, agreed that the broad appeal of the film was a dangerous lure to the novels, which he criticised for carrying a clear agenda to expose what (Pullman) believes is the "tyranny of the Christian faith '' and for "(providing) a liberating mythology for a new secular age. '' The Rev. Denny Wayman of the Free Methodist Church made the assertion that The Golden Compass is a "film trying to preach an atheistic message ''. Other evangelical groups, such as The Christian Film and Television Commission, adopted a "wait - and - see '' approach to the film before deciding upon any action, as did the Roman Catholic Church in England & Wales. Some religious scholars have challenged the view that the story carries atheistic themes, while in November 2007, a review of the film by the director and staff reviewer of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops ' Office for Film and Broadcasting appeared on the website of the Catholic News Service and in Catholic newspapers across the country. The review suggested that instead of a boycott, it may be appropriate for Catholic parents to "talk through any thorny philosophical issues '' with their children. However, on December 10, 2007 the review was removed from the website at the USCCB 's request. On December 19, 2007, the Vatican newspaper, L'Osservatore Romano, published an editorial in which it denounced the film as godless.
Pullman said of Donohue 's call for a boycott, "Why do n't we trust readers? Why do n't we trust filmgoers? Oh, it causes me to shake my head with sorrow that such nitwits could be loose in the world. '' In a discussion with Donohue on CBS 's Early Show, Ellen Johnson, president of American Atheists, said that rather than promote atheism, the film would encourage children to question authority, saying that would not be a bad thing for children to learn. Director Weitz says that he believes His Dark Materials is "not an atheistic work, but a highly spiritual and reverent piece of writing, '' and Nicole Kidman defended her decision to star in the film, saying that "I would n't be able to do this film if I thought it were at all anti-Catholic. '' Some commentators indicated that they believed both sides ' criticism would prove ultimately impotent and that the negative publicity would prove a boon for the film 's box office. Nonetheless, the film trilogy has not been continued, prompting actor Sam Elliott to blame censorship and the Catholic Church.
The film premiered in London on November 27, 2007 and was released on December 5, 2007 in British cinemas by Entertainment Film Distributors and released on December 7, 2007 in American cinemas by New Line Cinema.
The film was released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc formats in the United Kingdom on April 28, 2008 and the United States on April 29, 2008. The movie is closed - captioned by the National Captioning Institute on its first Home Video release. The extra material on the single - disc DVD consists of previews of upcoming New Line Cinema films. The two - disc edition includes a commentary from writer / director Chris Weitz, eleven "making - of '' featurettes, a photo gallery, and theatrical and teaser trailers. The Blu - ray Disc features the same extras from the two - disc DVD edition. Exclusive to Blu - ray Disc is visual commentary picture - in - picture feature which enables viewers to access behind - the - scene features while watching the movie.
Shortly before the film 's release, Weitz suggested that an extended cut of the film could be released on DVD, saying "I 'd really love to do a fuller cut of the film ''; he further speculated that such a version "could probably end up at two and a half hours. '' This proposed cut would presumably not include the original ending: MTV reported in December 2007 that Weitz hoped to include that material at the beginning of a possible The Subtle Knife adaptation, and that a Compass Director 's Cut might feature "a moment '' of it as a "teaser ''. Cast members Craig and Green have echoed this hope for such a DVD cut; so far, however, no official announcement has been made.
The North American opening weekend return was "a little disappointing '' for New Line Cinema, earning US $25.8 million with total domestic box office of $70 million compared to an estimated $180 million production budget. Despite this, the film 's fortunes rebounded as its performance outside the United States was described as "stellar '' by Variety, and as "astonishing '' by New Line. In the United Kingdom, the film grossed $53,198,635 and became the second - highest - grossing non-sequel of 2007 there (behind The Simpsons Movie). In Japan, the film was officially released in March 2008 on 700 screens, ultimately grossing $33,501,399; but previews of the film between February 23 -- 24, 2008, earned $2.5 million. By July 6, 2008, it had earned $302,127,136 internationally, totaling $372,234,864 worldwide. Overseas rights to the film were sold to fund the $180 million production budget for the film, so most of these profits did not go to New Line. This has been cited as a possible "last straw '' in Time Warner 's decision to merge New Line Cinema into Warner Bros. Pictures.
Reviews of The Golden Compass were mixed. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 43 % rating, based on 192 reviews. The critical consensus reads: "Without the bite or the controversy of the source material, The Golden Compass is reduced to impressive visuals overcompensating for lax storytelling. '' At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film has received an average score of 51, based on 33 reviews.
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said that the film "crams so many events, characters, (...) twists and turns, sumptuously appointed rooms and ethereally strange vistas (...) that (it) risks losing you in the whirl '' and that while The Golden Compass is "an honorable work, '' it is "hampered by its fealty to the book and its madly rushed pace. '' James Berardinelli of ReelReviews gave the film 21⁄2 stars out of 4, calling it "adequate, but not inspired '' and criticising the first hour for its rushed pace and sketchily - developed characters. James Christopher of The Times was disappointed, praising the "marvellous '' special effects and casting, but saying that the "books weave a magic the film simply can not match '' and citing a "lack of genuine drama. ''
Time rated it a "B '' and called it a "good, if familiar fantasy, '' saying "The find is Dakota Blue Richards (...) who 's both grounded and magical. '' Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian rated it four stars out of five, praising Nicole Kidman 's casting and saying it had "no other challengers as (2007 's) big Christmas movie. '' Leonard Maltin gave the film three out of four stars, and said that "Richards is persuasive '' and that it "does a good job of introducing us to an unfamiliar world. '' Critic Roger Ebert awarded the film four out of four stars and called it "a darker, deeper fantasy epic than the "Rings '' trilogy (The Lord of the Rings), The Chronicles of Narnia or the Potter films, '' saying that it "creates villains that are more complex and poses more intriguing questions. As a visual experience, it is superb. As an escapist fantasy, it is challenging (...) I think (it) is a wonderfully good - looking movie, with exciting passages and a captivating heroine. ''
Pullman himself was described by a Times interviewer as sounding "ambivalent '' and "guarded '' about the film, saying in March 2008: "A lot of things about it were good... Nothing 's perfect. Nothing can bring out all that 's in the book. There are always compromises ''. He hoped, however, that the rest of the trilogy would be adapted with the same cast and crew. In July 2009, after this possibility had been exhausted, Weitz told Time.com that he thought the film 's special effects ended up being its "most successful element. ''
At the British Humanist Association conference in 2011, Pullman said that there were not, after all, going to be more films with the same cast and crew. While praising the portrayals of his characters by Nicole Kidman and Dakota Blue Richards, Pullman said that he was disappointed with the final film and New Line 's re-editing of it.
In 2014 Pullman called the film "over-designed '' and criticised the screenplay: "They needed an ending that would work for a single film, but one that would also work if it was the first of a trilogy. They wanted both a cliffhanger and a resolution. You just ca n't do that. ''
Debbie Day of Premiere Magazine, said "The Golden Compass ultimately fails as a film in its broad strokes and inadequate scene development. ''
The Golden Compass won the 2008 BAFTA Film Award for Special Visual Effects and an Oscar for Best Visual Effects notably beating what many considered to be the front runner, Michael Bay 's Transformers which had swept the VES awards prior. It was also nominated for two Critics ' Choice Awards in 2007 ("Best Family Film, '' and "Best Young Actress '' for Dakota Blue Richards), five Satellite Awards and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form. The Golden Compass was nominated for the National Movie Award for Best Family movie but lost to Disney / Pixar 's WALL - E.
At the time of The Golden Compass 's theatrical release, Chris Weitz pledged to "protect (the) integrity '' of the prospective sequels by being "much less compromising '' in the book - to - film adaptation process. New Line Cinema commissioned Hossein Amini to write a screenplay based on the second book in the trilogy, The Subtle Knife, potentially for release in 2010 or 2011, with the third book of the trilogy, The Amber Spyglass, to follow. However, New Line president Toby Emmerich stressed that production of the second and third films was dependent on the financial success of The Golden Compass. When The Golden Compass did not meet expectations at the United States box office, the likelihood of a sequel was downplayed by New Line. According to studio co-head Michael Lynne, "The jury is still very much out on the movie, and while it 's performed very strongly overseas we 'll look at it early 2008 and see where we 're going with a sequel. ''
In February 2008, Weitz told The Daily Yomiuri, a Japanese newspaper, that he still hoped for the sequels ' production: "at first it looked like we were down for the count because in the U.S. (the film) underperformed, but then internationally it performed (better) than expectations. So, a lot depends on Japan, frankly... I think if it does well enough here we 'll be in good shape for that. '' Although producer Deborah Forte had, in March 2008, expressed optimism that the sequels would be made, by October 2008, the two planned sequels were officially placed on hold, according to New Line Cinema, because of financial concerns during the global recession. Sam Elliott, however, stated, "The Catholic Church... lambasted them, and I think it scared New Line off. ''
In 2011, Philip Pullman remarked at the British Humanist Association annual conference that due to the first film 's disappointing sales in the United States, there would not be any sequels made.
French composer Alexandre Desplat composed the film 's music. British singer Kate Bush wrote and performed the song "Lyra '' which is played over the end credits. The film 's soundtrack album was released on January 22, 2008 by WaterTower Music.
The video game for this film was released in November 2007 in Europe and December 2007 in North America and Australia for the PC, Wii, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable, Nintendo DS and the Xbox 360. It was developed by Shiny Entertainment and published by Sega.
Players take control of the characters Lyra Belacqua and Iorek Byrnison in Lyra 's attempt to save her friend Roger from the General Oblation Board. As this game does not fully take into account the changes made by the final version of the film, a small amount of footage from the film 's deleted ending can be viewed near the end of the game, and the order in which Lyra travels to Bolvangar and Svalbard follows the book and not the film.
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where was the titanic sailing on its maiden voyage | RMS Titanic - wikipedia
RMS Titanic (/ taɪˈtænɪk /) was a British passenger liner that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean in the early morning hours of 15 April 1912, after it collided with an iceberg during its maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City. There were an estimated 2,224 passengers and crew aboard the ship, and more than 1,500 died, making it one of the deadliest commercial peacetime maritime disasters in modern history. The RMS Titanic was the largest ship afloat at the time it entered service and was the second of three Olympic - class ocean liner s operated by the White Star Line. The Titanic was built by the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast. Thomas Andrews, her architect, died in the disaster.
Titanic was under the command of Edward Smith, who also went down with the ship. The ocean liner carried some of the wealthiest people in the world, as well as hundreds of emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland, Scandinavia and elsewhere throughout Europe who were seeking a new life in the United States. The first - class accommodation was designed to be the pinnacle of comfort and luxury, with an on - board gymnasium, swimming pool, libraries, high - class restaurants and opulent cabins. A high - powered radiotelegraph transmitter was available for sending passenger "marconigrams '' and for the ship 's operational use. Although Titanic had advanced safety features such as watertight compartments and remotely activated watertight doors, there were not enough lifeboats to accommodate all of those aboard, due to outdated maritime safety regulations. Titanic only carried enough lifeboats for 1,178 people -- slightly more than half of the number on board, and one third of her total capacity.
After leaving Southampton on 10 April 1912, Titanic called at Cherbourg in France and Queenstown (now Cobh) in Ireland before heading west to New York. On 14 April, four days into the crossing and about 375 miles (600 km) south of Newfoundland, she hit an iceberg at 11: 40 p.m. ship 's time. The collision caused the ship 's hull plates to buckle inwards along her starboard (right) side and opened five of her sixteen watertight compartments to the sea; she could only survive four flooding. Meanwhile, passengers and some crew members were evacuated in lifeboats, many of which were launched only partially loaded. A disproportionate number of men were left aboard because of a "women and children first '' protocol for loading lifeboats. At 2: 20 a.m., she broke apart and foundered -- with well over one thousand people still aboard. Just under two hours after the Titanic sank, the Cunard liner RMS Carpathia arrived at the scene, where she brought aboard an estimated 705 survivors.
The disaster was met with worldwide shock and outrage at the huge loss of life and the regulatory and operational failures that had led to it. Public inquiries in Britain and the United States led to major improvements in maritime safety. One of their most important legacies was the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), which still governs maritime safety today. Additionally, several new wireless regulations were passed around the world in an effort to learn from the many missteps in wireless communications -- which could have saved many more passengers.
The wreck of Titanic was first discovered in 1985 (more than 70 years after the disaster), and the vessel remains on the seabed. The ship was split in two and is gradually disintegrating at a depth of 12,415 feet (3,784 m). Since her discovery in 1985, thousands of artefacts have been recovered and put on display at museums around the world. Titanic has become one of the most famous ships in history; her memory is kept alive by numerous works of popular culture, including books, folk songs, films, exhibits, and memorials. Titanic is the second largest ocean liner wreck in the world, only beaten by her sister HMHS Britannic, the largest ever sunk.
The name Titanic was derived from Greek mythology and meant gigantic. Built in Belfast, Ireland, in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (as it was then known), the RMS Titanic was the second of the three Olympic - class ocean liner s -- the first was the RMS Olympic and the third was the HMHS Britannic. They were by far the largest vessels of the British shipping company White Star Line 's fleet, which comprised 29 steamers and tenders in 1912. The three ships had their genesis in a discussion in mid-1907 between the White Star Line 's chairman, J. Bruce Ismay, and the American financier J.P. Morgan, who controlled the White Star Line 's parent corporation, the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM).
The White Star Line faced an increasing challenge from its main rivals Cunard, which had recently launched the Lusitania and the Mauretania -- the fastest passenger ships then in service -- and the German lines Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd. Ismay preferred to compete on size rather than speed and proposed to commission a new class of liners that would be larger than anything that had gone before as well as being the last word in comfort and luxury. The company sought an upgrade in their fleet primarily in response to the Cunard giants but also to replace their oldest pair of passenger ships still in service, being the SS Teutonic of 1889 and SS Majestic of 1890. Teutonic was replaced by Olympic while Majestic was replaced by Titanic. Majestic would be brought back into her old spot on White Star 's New York service after Titanic 's loss.
The ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff, who had a long - established relationship with the White Star Line dating back to 1867. Harland and Wolff were given a great deal of latitude in designing ships for the White Star Line; the usual approach was for the latter to sketch out a general concept which the former would take away and turn into a ship design. Cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and Harland and Wolff was authorised to spend what it needed on the ships, plus a five percent profit margin. In the case of the Olympic - class ships, a cost of £ 3 million (£ 250 million in 2015 money) for the first two ships was agreed plus "extras to contract '' and the usual five percent fee.
Harland and Wolff put their leading designers to work designing the Olympic - class vessels. The design was overseen by Lord Pirrie, a director of both Harland and Wolff and the White Star Line; naval architect Thomas Andrews, the managing director of Harland and Wolff 's design department; Edward Wilding, Andrews ' deputy and responsible for calculating the ship 's design, stability and trim; and Alexander Carlisle, the shipyard 's chief draughtsman and general manager. Carlisle 's responsibilities included the decorations, equipment and all general arrangements, including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat davit design.
On 29 July 1908, Harland and Wolff presented the drawings to J. Bruce Ismay and other White Star Line executives. Ismay approved the design and signed three "letters of agreement '' two days later, authorising the start of construction. At this point the first ship -- which was later to become Olympic -- had no name, but was referred to simply as "Number 400 '', as it was Harland and Wolff 's four hundredth hull. Titanic was based on a revised version of the same design and was given the number 401.
Titanic was 882 feet 9 inches (269.06 m) long with a maximum breadth of 92 feet 6 inches (28.19 m). Her total height, measured from the base of the keel to the top of the bridge, was 104 feet (32 m). She measured 46,328 gross register tons and with a draught of 34 feet 7 inches (10.54 m), she displaced 52,310 tons.
All three of the Olympic - class ships had ten decks (excluding the top of the officers ' quarters), eight of which were for passenger use. From top to bottom, the decks were:
Titanic was equipped with three main engines -- two reciprocating four - cylinder, triple - expansion steam engines and one centrally placed low - pressure Parsons turbine -- each driving a propeller. The two reciprocating engines had a combined output of 30,000 hp and a further 16,000 hp was contributed by the turbine. The White Star Line had used the same combination of engines on an earlier liner, the SS Laurentic, where it had been a great success. It provided a good combination of performance and speed; reciprocating engines by themselves were not powerful enough to propel an Olympic - class liner at the desired speeds, while turbines were sufficiently powerful but caused uncomfortable vibrations, a problem that affected the all - turbine Cunard liners Lusitania and Mauretania. By combining reciprocating engines with a turbine, fuel usage could be reduced and motive power increased, while using the same amount of steam.
The two reciprocating engines were each 63 feet (19 m) long and weighed 720 tons, with their bedplates contributing a further 195 tons. They were powered by steam produced in 29 boilers, 24 of which were double - ended and five single - ended, which contained a total of 159 furnaces. The boilers were 15 feet 9 inches (4.80 m) in diameter and 20 feet (6.1 m) long, each weighing 91.5 tons and capable of holding 48.5 tons of water.
They were heated by burning coal, 6,611 tons of which could be carried in Titanic 's bunkers, with a further 1,092 tons in Hold 3. The furnaces required over 600 tons of coal a day to be shovelled into them by hand, requiring the services of 176 firemen working around the clock. 100 tons of ash a day had to be disposed of by ejecting it into the sea. The work was relentless, dirty and dangerous, and although firemen were paid relatively generously there was a high suicide rate among those who worked in that capacity.
Exhaust steam leaving the reciprocating engines was fed into the turbine, which was situated aft. From there it passed into a surface condenser, to increase the efficiency of the turbine and so that the steam could be condensed back into water and reused. The engines were attached directly to long shafts which drove the propellers. There were three, one for each engine; the outer (or wing) propellers were the largest, each carrying three blades of manganese - bronze alloy with a total diameter of 23.5 feet (7.2 m). The middle propeller was slightly smaller at 17 feet (5.2 m) in diameter, and could be stopped but not reversed.
Titanic 's electrical plant was capable of producing more power than an average city power station of the time. Immediately aft of the turbine engine were four 400 kW steam - driven electric generators, used to provide electrical power to the ship, plus two 30 kW auxiliary generators for emergency use. Their location in the stern of the ship meant they remained operational until the last few minutes before the ship sank.
The interiors of the Olympic - class ships were subdivided into 16 primary compartments divided by 15 bulkheads which extended well above the waterline. Eleven vertically closing watertight doors could seal off the compartments in the event of an emergency. The ship 's exposed decking was made of pine and teak, while interior ceilings were covered in painted granulated cork to combat condensation. Standing above the decks were four funnels, each painted buff with black tops, (though only three were functional -- the last one was a dummy, installed for aesthetic purposes and also for kitchen ventilation) -- and two masts, each 155 feet (47 m) high, which supported derricks for working cargo.
Titanic 's rudder was so large -- at 78 feet 8 inches (23.98 m) high and 15 feet 3 inches (4.65 m) long, weighing over 100 tons -- that it required steering engines to move it. Two steam - powered steering engines were installed though only one was used at any one time, with the other one kept in reserve. They were connected to the short tiller through stiff springs, to isolate the steering engines from any shocks in heavy seas or during fast changes of direction. As a last resort, the tiller could be moved by ropes connected to two steam capstans. The capstans were also used to raise and lower the ship 's five anchors (one port, one starboard, one in the centreline and two kedging anchors).
The ship was equipped with her own waterworks, capable of heating and pumping water to all parts of the vessel via a complex network of pipes and valves. The main water supply was taken aboard while Titanic was in port, but in an emergency the ship could also distil fresh water from seawater, though this was not a straightforward process as the distillation plant quickly became clogged by salt deposits. A network of insulated ducts conveyed warm air, driven by electric fans, around the ship, and First Class cabins were fitted with additional electric heaters.
Titanic 's radiotelegraph equipment (then known as wireless telegraphy) was leased to the White Star Line by the Marconi International Marine Communication Company, which also supplied two of its employees, Jack Phillips and Harold Bride, as operators. The service maintained a 24 - hour schedule, primarily sending and receiving passenger telegrams, but also handling navigation messages including weather reports and ice warnings.
The radio room was located on the Boat Deck, in the officers ' quarters. A soundproofed "Silent Room '', next to the operating room, housed loud equipment, including the transmitter and a motor - generator used for producing alternating currents. The operators ' living quarters were adjacent to the working office. The ship was equipped with a ' state of the art ' 5 kilowatt rotary spark - gap transmitter, operating under the radio callsign MGY, and communication was conducted in Morse code. This transmitter was one of the first Marconi installations to use a rotary spark gap, which gave Titanic a distinctive musical tone that could be readily distinguished from other signals. The transmitter was one of the most powerful in the world, and guaranteed to broadcast over a radius of 350 miles (563 km). An elevated T - antenna that spanned the length of the ship was used for transmitting and receiving. The normal operating frequency was 500 kHz (600 m wavelength), however the equipment could also operate on the "short '' wavelength of 1000 kHz (300 m wavelength) that was employed by smaller vessels with shorter antennas.
The passenger facilities aboard Titanic aimed to meet the highest standards of luxury. According to Titanic 's general arrangement plans, the ship could accommodate 833 First Class Passengers, 614 in Second Class and 1,006 in Third Class, for a total passenger capacity of 2,453. In addition, her capacity for crew members exceeded 900, as most documents of her original configuration have stated that her full carrying capacity for both passengers and crew was approximately 3,547. Her interior design was a departure from that of other passenger liners, which had typically been decorated in the rather heavy style of a manor house or an English country house.
Titanic was laid out in a much lighter style similar to that of contemporary high - class hotels -- the Ritz Hotel was a reference point -- with First Class cabins finished in the Empire style. A variety of other decorative styles, ranging from the Renaissance to Louis XV, were used to decorate cabins and public rooms in First and Second Class areas of the ship. The aim was to convey an impression that the passengers were in a floating hotel rather than a ship; as one passenger recalled, on entering the ship 's interior a passenger would "at once lose the feeling that we are on board ship, and seem instead to be entering the hall of some great house on shore ''.
Among the more novel features available to first - class passengers was a 7 ft. deep saltwater swimming pool, a gymnasium, a squash court, and a Turkish bath which comprised electric bath, steam room, cool room, massage room, and hot room. First - class common rooms were impressive in scope and lavishly decorated. They included a Lounge in the style of the Palace of Versailles, an enormous Reception Room, a men 's Smoking Room, and a Reading and Writing Room. There was an À la Carte Restaurant in the style of the Ritz Hotel which was run as a concession by the famous Italian restaurateur Gaspare Gatti. A Café Parisien decorated in the style of a French sidewalk café, complete with ivy covered trellises and wicker furniture, was run as an annex to the restaurant. For an extra cost, first - class passengers could enjoy the finest French haute cuisine in the most luxurious of surroundings. There was also a Verandah Café where tea and light refreshments were served, that offered grand views of the ocean. At 114 ft. long X 92 ft. wide, the Dining Saloon on D - Deck was the largest room afloat and could seat almost 600 passengers at a time. Third Class (commonly referred to as Steerage) accommodations aboard Titanic were not as luxurious as First or Second Class, but even so were better than on many other ships of the time. They reflected the improved standards which the White Star Line had adopted for trans - Atlantic immigrant and lower - class travel. On most other North Atlantic passenger ships at the time, Third Class accommodations consisted of little more than open dormitories in the forward end of the vessels, in which hundreds of people were confined, often without adequate food or toilet facilities.
The White Star Line had long since broken that mould. As seen aboard Titanic, all White Star Line passenger ships divided their Third Class accommodations into two sections, always at opposite ends of the vessel from one another. The established arrangement was that single men were quartered in the forward areas, while single women, married couples and families were quartered aft. In addition, while other ships provided only open berth sleeping arrangements, White Star Line vessels provided their Third Class passengers with private, small but comfortable cabins capable of accommodating two, four, six, eight and 10 passengers.
Third Class accommodations also included their own dining rooms, as well as public gathering areas including adequate open deck space, which aboard Titanic comprised the Poop Deck at the stern, the forward and aft well decks, and a large open space on D Deck which could be used as a social hall. This was supplemented by the addition of a smoking room for men and a General Room on C Deck which women could use for reading and writing. Although they were not as glamorous in design as spaces seen in upper class accommodations, they were still far above average for the period.
Leisure facilities were provided for all three classes to pass the time. As well as making use of the indoor amenities such as the library, smoking rooms, and gymnasium, it was also customary for passengers to socialise on the open deck, promenading or relaxing in hired deck chairs or wooden benches. A passenger list was published before the sailing to inform the public which members of the great and good were on board, and it was not uncommon for ambitious mothers to use the list to identify rich bachelors to whom they could introduce their marriageable daughters during the voyage.
One of Titanic 's most distinctive features was her First Class staircase, known as the Grand Staircase or Grand Stairway. Built of solid English oak with a sweeping curve, the staircase descended through seven decks of the ship, between the Boat Deck to E deck, before terminating in a simplified single flight on F Deck. It was capped with a dome of wrought iron and glass that admitted natural light to the stairwell. Each landing off the staircase gave access to ornate entrance halls paneled in the William & Mary style and lit by ormolu and crystal light fixtures.
At the uppermost landing was a large carved wooden panel containing a clock, with figures of "Honour and Glory Crowning Time '' flanking the clock face. The Grand Staircase was destroyed during the sinking and is now just a void in the ship which modern explorers have used to access the lower decks. During the filming of James Cameron 's Titanic in 1997, his replica of the Grand Staircase was ripped from its foundations by the force of the inrushing water on the set. It has been suggested that during the real event, the entire Grand Staircase was ejected upwards through the dome.
Although Titanic was primarily a passenger liner, she also carried a substantial amount of cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail (and also for the United States Post Office Department). For the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables) 26,800 cubic feet (760 m) of space in her holds was allocated. The Sea Post Office on G Deck was manned by five postal clerks; three Americans and two Britons, who worked 13 hours a day, seven days a week sorting up to 60,000 items daily.
The ship 's passengers brought with them a huge amount of baggage; another 19,455 cubic feet (550.9 m) was taken up by first - and second - class baggage. In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs and even motor cars. Despite later myths, the cargo on Titanic 's maiden voyage was fairly mundane; there was no gold, exotic minerals or diamonds, and one of the more famous items lost in the shipwreck, a jewelled copy of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, was valued at only £ 405 (£ 36,200 today). According to the claims for compensation filed with Commissioner Gilchrist, following the conclusion of the Senate Inquiry, the single most highly valued item of luggage or cargo was a large neoclassical oil painting entitled La Circassienne au Bain by French artist Merry - Joseph Blondel. The painting 's owner, first class passenger Mauritz Håkan Björnström - Steffansson, filed a claim for $100,000 ($2.4 million equivalent in 2014) in compensation for the loss of the artwork.
Titanic was equipped with eight electric cranes, four electric winches and three steam winches to lift cargo and baggage in and out of the hold. It is estimated that the ship used some 415 tons of coal whilst in Southampton, simply generating steam to operate the cargo winches and provide heat and light.
Titanic carried a total of 20 lifeboats: 14 standard wooden Harland and Wolff lifeboats with a capacity of 65 people each and four Englehardt "collapsible '' (wooden bottom, collapsible canvas sides) lifeboats (identified as A to D) with a capacity of 47 people each. In addition, she had two emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each. Olympic herself did not even carry the four collapsibles A -- D during the 1911 -- 12 season. All of the lifeboats were stowed securely on the boat deck and, except for collapsible lifeboats A and B, connected to davits by ropes. Those on the starboard side were odd - numbered 1 -- 15 from bow to stern, while those on the port side were even - numbered 2 -- 16 from bow to stern.
Both cutters were kept swung out, hanging from the davits, ready for immediate use, while collapsible lifeboats C and D were stowed on the boat deck (connected to davits) immediately inboard of boats 1 and 2 respectively. A and B were stored on the roof of the officers ' quarters, on either side of number 1 funnel. There were no davits to lower them and their weight would make them difficult to launch by hand. Each boat carried (among other things) food, water, blankets, and a spare life belt. Lifeline ropes on the boats ' sides enabled them to save additional people from the water if necessary.
Titanic had 16 sets of davits, each able to handle four lifeboats. This gave Titanic the ability to carry up to 64 wooden lifeboats which would have been enough for 4,000 people -- considerably more than her actual capacity. However, the White Star Line decided that only 16 wooden lifeboats and four collapsibles would be carried, which could accommodate 1,178 people, only one - third of Titanic 's total capacity. At the time, the Board of Trade 's regulations required British vessels over 10,000 tons to only carry 16 lifeboats with a capacity of 990 occupants.
Therefore, the White Star Line actually provided more lifeboat accommodation than was legally required. At the time, lifeboats were intended to ferry survivors from a sinking ship to a rescuing ship -- not keep afloat the whole population or power them to shore. Had the SS Californian responded to Titanic 's distress calls, the lifeboats may have been adequate to ferry the passengers to safety as planned.
The sheer size of Titanic and her sister ships posed a major engineering challenge for Harland and Wolff; no shipbuilder had ever before attempted to construct vessels this size. The ships were constructed on Queen 's Island, now known as the Titanic Quarter, in Belfast Harbour. Harland and Wolff had to demolish three existing slipways and build two new ones, the largest ever constructed up to that time, to accommodate both ships. Their construction was facilitated by an enormous gantry built by Sir William Arrol & Co., a Scottish firm responsible for the building of the Forth Bridge and London 's Tower Bridge. The Arrol Gantry stood 228 feet (69 m) high, was 270 feet (82 m) wide and 840 feet (260 m) long, and weighed more than 6,000 tons. It accommodated a number of mobile cranes. A separate floating crane, capable of lifting 200 tons, was brought in from Germany.
The construction of Olympic and Titanic took place virtually in parallel, with Olympic 's keel laid down first on 16 December 1908 and Titanic 's on 31 March 1909. Both ships took about 26 months to build and followed much the same construction process. They were designed essentially as an enormous floating box girder, with the keel acting as a backbone and the frames of the hull forming the ribs. At the base of the ships, a double bottom 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) deep supported 300 frames, each between 24 inches (61 cm) and 36 inches (91 cm) apart and measuring up to about 66 feet (20 m) long. They terminated at the bridge deck (B Deck) and were covered with steel plates which formed the outer skin of the ships.
The 2,000 hull plates were single pieces of rolled steel plate, mostly up to 6 feet (1.8 m) wide and 30 feet (9.1 m) long and weighing between 2.5 and 3 tons. Their thickness varied from 1 inch (2.5 cm) to 1.5 inches (3.8 cm). The plates were laid in a clinkered (overlapping) fashion from the keel to the bilge. Above that point they were laid in the "in and out '' fashion, where strake plating was applied in bands (the "in strakes '') with the gaps covered by the "out strakes '', overlapping on the edges. Commercial oxy - fuel and electric arc welding methods, ubiquitous in fabrication today, were still in their infancy; like most other iron and steel structures of the era, the hull was held together with over three million iron and steel rivets, which by themselves weighed over 1,200 tons. They were fitted using hydraulic machines or were hammered in by hand. In the 1990s some material scientists concluded that the steel plate used for the ship was subject to being especially brittle when cold, and that this brittleness exacerbated the impact damage and hastened the sinking. It is believed that, by the standards of the time, the steel plate 's quality was good, not faulty, but that it was inferior to what would be used for shipbuilding purposes in later decades, owing to advances in the metallurgy of steelmaking. As for the rivets, considerable emphasis has also been placed on their quality and strength.
One of the last items to be fitted on Titanic before the ship 's launch was her two side anchors and one centre anchor. The anchors themselves were a challenge to make with the centre anchor being the largest ever forged by hand and weighing nearly 16 tons. Twenty Clydesdale draught horses were needed to haul the centre anchor by wagon from the Noah Hingley & Sons Ltd forge shop in Netherton, near Dudley, United Kingdom to the Dudley railway station two miles away. From there it was shipped by rail to Fleetwood in Lancashire before being loaded aboard a ship and sent to Belfast.
The work of constructing the ships was difficult and dangerous. For the 15,000 men who worked at Harland and Wolff at the time, safety precautions were rudimentary at best; a lot of the work was dangerous and was carried out without any safety equipment like hard hats or hand guards on machinery. As a result, deaths and injuries were to be expected. During Titanic 's construction, 246 injuries were recorded, 28 of them "severe '', such as arms severed by machines or legs crushed under falling pieces of steel. Six people died on the ship herself while she was being constructed and fitted out, and another two died in the shipyard workshops and sheds. Just before the launch a worker was killed when a piece of wood fell on him.
Titanic was launched at 12: 15 p.m. on 31 May 1911 in the presence of Lord Pirrie, J. Pierpoint Morgan, J. Bruce Ismay and 100,000 onlookers. 22 tons of soap and tallow were spread on the slipway to lubricate the ship 's passage into the River Lagan. In keeping with the White Star Line 's traditional policy, the ship was not formally named or christened with champagne. The ship was towed to a fitting - out berth where, over the course of the next year, her engines, funnels and superstructure were installed and her interior was fitted out.
Although Titanic was virtually identical to the class 's lead ship Olympic, a few changes were made to distinguish both ships. The most noticeable of these was that Titanic (and the third vessel in class, Britannic) had a steel screen with sliding windows installed along the forward half of the A Deck promenade. This was installed as a last minute change at the personal request of Bruce Ismay, and was intended to provide additional shelter to first class passengers. These changes made Titanic slightly heavier than her sister, and thus she could claim to be the largest ship afloat. The work took longer than expected due to design changes requested by Ismay and a temporary pause in work occasioned by the need to repair Olympic, which had been in a collision in September 1911. Had Titanic been finished earlier, she might well have missed her collision with an iceberg.
Titanic 's sea trials began at 6 a.m. on Tuesday, 2 April 1912, just two days after her fitting out was finished and eight days before she was due to leave Southampton on her maiden voyage. The trials were delayed for a day due to bad weather, but by Monday morning it was clear and fair. Aboard were 78 stokers, greasers and firemen, and 41 members of crew. No domestic staff appear to have been aboard. Representatives of various companies travelled on Titanic 's sea trials, Thomas Andrews and Edward Wilding of Harland and Wolff and Harold A. Sanderson of IMM. Bruce Ismay and Lord Pirrie were too ill to attend. Jack Phillips and Harold Bride served as radio operators, and performed fine - tuning of the Marconi equipment. Francis Carruthers, a surveyor from the Board of Trade, was also present to see that everything worked, and that the ship was fit to carry passengers.
The sea trials consisted of a number of tests of her handling characteristics, carried out first in Belfast Lough and then in the open waters of the Irish Sea. Over the course of about 12 hours, Titanic was driven at different speeds, the turning ability was tested and a "crash stop '' was performed in which the engines were reversed full ahead to full astern, bringing her to a stop in 850 yd (777 m) or 3 minutes and 15 seconds. The ship covered a distance of about 80 nautical miles (92 mi; 150 km), averaging 18 knots (21 mph; 33 km / h) and reaching a maximum speed of just under 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h).
On returning to Belfast at about 7 p.m., the surveyor signed an "Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew '', valid for 12 months, which declared the ship seaworthy. An hour later, Titanic departed Belfast to head to Southampton, a voyage of about 570 nautical miles (660 mi; 1,060 km). After a journey lasting about 28 hours and arrived about midnight on 4 April and was towed to the port 's Berth 44, ready for the arrival of her passengers and the remainder of her crew.
Both Olympic and Titanic registered Liverpool as their home port. The offices of the White Star Line as well as Cunard were in Liverpool, and up until the introduction of the Olympic, most British ocean liners for both Cunard and White Star, such as Lusitania and Mauretania, sailed out of Liverpool followed by a port of call in Queenstown, Ireland. Since the company 's founding in 1871, a vast majority of their operations had taken place out of Liverpool. However, in 1907 White Star established another service out of the port of Southampton on England 's south coast, which became known as White Star 's "Express Service ''. Southampton had many advantages over Liverpool, the first being its proximity to London.
In addition, Southampton, being on the south coast, allowed ships to easily cross the English Channel and make a port of call on the northern coast of France, usually at Cherbourg. This allowed British ships to pick up clientele from continental Europe before recrossing the channel and picking up passengers at Queenstown. The Southampton - Cherbourg - New York run would become so popular that most British ocean liners began using the port after World War I. Out of respect for Liverpool, ships continued to be registered there until the early 1960s. Queen Elizabeth 2 was one of the first ships registered in Southampton when introduced into service by Cunard in 1969.
Titanic 's maiden voyage was intended to be the first of many trans - Atlantic crossings between Southampton and New York via Cherbourg and Queenstown on westbound runs, returning via Plymouth in England while eastbound. Indeed, her entire schedule of voyages through to December 1912 still exists. When the route was established, four ships were assigned to the service. In addition to Teutonic and Majestic, the RMS Oceanic and the brand new RMS Adriatic sailed the route. When the Olympic entered service in June 1911, she replaced Teutonic, which after completing her last run on the service in late April was transferred to the Dominion Line 's Canadian service. The following August, Adriatic was transferred to White Star 's main Liverpool - New York service, and in November, Majestic was withdrawn from service impending the arrival of Titanic in the coming months, and was mothballed as a reserve ship.
White Star 's initial plans for Olympic and Titanic on the Southampton run followed the same routine as their predecessors had done before them. Each would sail once every three weeks from Southampton and New York, usually leaving at noon each Wednesday from Southampton and each Saturday from New York, thus enabling the White Star Line to offer weekly sailings in each direction. Special trains were scheduled from London and Paris to convey passengers to Southampton and Cherbourg respectively. The deep - water dock at Southampton, then known as the "White Star Dock '', had been specially constructed to accommodate the new Olympic - class liners, and had opened in 1911.
Titanic had around 885 crew members on board for her maiden voyage. Like other vessels of her time, she did not have a permanent crew, and the vast majority of crew members were casual workers who only came aboard the ship a few hours before she sailed from Southampton. The process of signing up recruits had begun on 23 March and some had been sent to Belfast, where they served as a skeleton crew during Titanic 's sea trials and passage to England at the start of April.
Captain Edward John Smith, the most senior of the White Star Line 's captains, was transferred from Olympic to take command of Titanic. Henry Tingle Wilde also came across from Olympic to take the post of Chief Mate. Titanic 's previously designated Chief Mate and First Officer, William McMaster Murdoch and Charles Lightoller, were bumped down to the ranks of First and Second Officer respectively. The original Second Officer, David Blair, was dropped altogether. The Third Officer was Herbert Pitman MBE, the only deck officer who was not a member of the Royal Naval Reserve. Pitman was the second to last surviving officer.
Titanic 's crew were divided into three principal departments: Deck, with 66 crew; Engine, with 325; and Victualling (pronounced vi - tal - ling), with 494. The vast majority of the crew were thus not seamen, but were either engineers, firemen, or stokers, responsible for looking after the engines, or stewards and galley staff, responsible for the passengers. Of these, over 97 % were male; just 23 of the crew were female, mainly stewardesses. The rest represented a great variety of professions -- bakers, chefs, butchers, fishmongers, dishwashers, stewards, gymnasium instructors, laundrymen, waiters, bed - makers, cleaners, and even a printer, who produced a daily newspaper for passengers called the Atlantic Daily Bulletin with the latest news received by the ship 's wireless operators.
Most of the crew signed on in Southampton on 6 April; in all, 699 of the crew came from there, and 40 % were natives of the town. A few specialist staff were self - employed or were subcontractors. These included the five postal clerks, who worked for the Royal Mail and the United States Post Office Department, the staff of the First Class A La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien, the radio operators (who were employed by Marconi) and the eight musicians, who were employed by an agency and travelled as second - class passengers. Crew pay varied greatly, from Captain Smith 's £ 105 a month (equivalent to £ 9,400 today) to the £ 3 10 s (£ 310 today) that stewardesses earned. The lower - paid victualling staff could, however, supplement their wages substantially through tips from passengers.
Titanic 's passengers numbered approximately 1,317 people: 324 in First Class, 284 in Second Class, and 709 in Third Class. Of these, 869 (66 %) were male and 447 (34 %) female. There were 107 children aboard, the largest number of which were in Third Class. The ship was considerably under capacity on her maiden voyage, as she could accommodate 2,453 passengers -- 833 First Class, 614 Second Class, and 1,006 Third Class.
Usually, a high prestige vessel like Titanic could expect to be fully booked on its maiden voyage. However, a national coal strike in the UK had caused considerable disruption to shipping schedules in the spring of 1912, causing many crossings to be cancelled. Many would - be passengers chose to postpone their travel plans until the strike was over. The strike had finished a few days before Titanic sailed; however, that was too late to have much of an effect. Titanic was able to sail on the scheduled date only because coal was transferred from other vessels which were tied up at Southampton, such as SS City of New York and RMS Oceanic, as well as coal Olympic had brought back from a previous voyage to New York, which had been stored at the White Star Dock.
Some of the most prominent people of the day booked a passage aboard Titanic, travelling in First Class. Among them were the American millionaire John Jacob Astor IV and his wife Madeleine Force Astor, industrialist Benjamin Guggenheim, Macy 's owner Isidor Straus and his wife Ida, Denver millionairess Margaret "Molly '' Brown, Sir Cosmo Duff Gordon and his wife, couturière Lucy (Lady Duff - Gordon), cricketer and businessman John Borland Thayer with his wife Marian and son Jack, the Countess of Rothes, author and socialite Helen Churchill Candee, journalist and social reformer William Thomas Stead, author Jacques Futrelle with his wife May, and silent film actress Dorothy Gibson, among others. Titanic 's owner J.P. Morgan was scheduled to travel on the maiden voyage but cancelled at the last minute. Also aboard the ship were the White Star Line 's managing director J. Bruce Ismay and Titanic 's designer Thomas Andrews, who was on board to observe any problems and assess the general performance of the new ship.
The exact number of people aboard is not known, as not all of those who had booked tickets made it to the ship; about 50 people cancelled for various reasons, and not all of those who boarded stayed aboard for the entire journey. Fares varied depending on class and season. Third Class fares from London, Southampton, or Queenstown cost £ 7 5s (equivalent to £ 600 today) while the cheapest First Class fares cost £ 23 (£ 2,100 today). The most expensive First Class suites were to have cost up to £ 870 in high season (£ 78,000 today).
On Wednesday 10 April 1912 Titanic 's maiden voyage began. Following the embarkation of the crew the passengers began arriving from 9: 30 a.m., when the London and South Western Railway 's boat train from London Waterloo station reached Southampton Terminus railway station on the quayside, alongside Titanic 's berth. In all, 923 passengers boarded Titanic at Southampton, 179 First Class, 247 Second Class and 494 Third Class. The large number of Third Class passengers meant they were the first to board, with First and Second Class passengers following up to an hour before departure. Stewards showed them to their cabins, and First Class passengers were personally greeted by Captain Smith on boarding. Third Class passengers were inspected for ailments and physical impairments that might lead to their being refused entry to the United States -- a prospect the White Star Line wished to avoid, as it would have to carry anyone who failed the examination back across the Atlantic. 922 passengers were recorded as having embarked Titanic at Southampton. Additional passengers were to be picked up at Cherbourg and Queenstown.
The maiden voyage began on time, at noon. An accident was narrowly averted only a few minutes later as Titanic passed the moored liners SS City of New York of the American Line and what would have been her running mate on the service from Southampton, White Star 's Oceanic. Her huge displacement caused both of the smaller ships to be lifted by a bulge of water and then drop into a trough. New York 's mooring cables could not take the sudden strain and snapped, swinging her around stern - first towards Titanic. A nearby tugboat, Vulcan, came to the rescue by taking New York under tow, and Captain Smith ordered Titanic 's engines to be put "full astern ''. The two ships avoided a collision by a matter of about 4 feet (1.2 m). The incident delayed Titanic 's departure for about an hour, while the drifting New York was brought under control.
After making it safely through the complex tides and channels of Southampton Water and the Solent, Titanic headed out into the English Channel. She headed for the French port of Cherbourg, a journey of 77 nautical miles (89 mi; 143 km). The weather was windy, very fine but cold and overcast. Because Cherbourg lacked docking facilities for a ship the size of Titanic, tenders had to be used to transfer passengers from shore to ship. The White Star Line operated two at Cherbourg, the SS Traffic and the SS Nomadic. Both had been designed specifically as tenders for the Olympic - class liners and were launched shortly after Titanic. (Nomadic is today the only White Star Line ship still afloat.) Four hours after Titanic left Southampton, she arrived at Cherbourg and was met by the tenders. 274 additional passengers were taken aboard, 142 First Class, 30 Second Class, and 102 Third Class. Twenty - four passengers who had booked passage only cross-channel from Southampton left aboard the tenders to be conveyed to shore. The process was completed within only 90 minutes and at 8 p.m. Titanic weighed anchor and left for Queenstown with the weather continuing cold and windy.
At 11: 30 a.m. on Thursday 11 April, Titanic arrived at Cork Harbour on the south coast of Ireland. It was a partly cloudy but relatively warm day, with a brisk wind. Again, the dock facilities were not suitable for a ship of Titanic 's size, and tenders were used to bring passengers aboard. In all, 123 passengers boarded Titanic at Queenstown, 3 First Class, 7 Second Class and 113 Third Class. In addition to the 24 cross-channel passengers who had disembarked at Cherbourg, another seven passengers had booked an overnight passage from Southampton to Queenstown. Among the seven was Father Francis Browne, a Jesuit trainee, who was a keen photographer and took many photographs aboard Titanic, including the last - ever known photograph of the ship. A decidedly unofficial departure was that of a crew member, stoker John Coffey, a Queenstown native who sneaked off the ship by hiding under mail bags being transported to shore. Titanic weighed anchor for the last time at 1: 30 p.m. and departed on her westward journey across the Atlantic.
Titanic was planned to arrive at New York Pier 54 on the morning of 17 April. After leaving Queenstown Titanic followed the Irish coast as far as Fastnet Rock, a distance of some 55 nautical miles (63 mi; 102 km). From there she travelled 1,620 nautical miles (1,860 mi; 3,000 km) along a Great Circle route across the North Atlantic to reach a spot in the ocean known as "the corner '' south - east of Newfoundland, where westbound steamers carried out a change of course. Titanic sailed only a few hours past the corner on a rhumb line leg of 1,023 nautical miles (1,177 mi; 1,895 km) to Nantucket Shoals Light when she made her fatal contact with an iceberg. The final leg of the journey would have been 193 nautical miles (222 mi; 357 km) to Ambrose Light and finally to New York Harbor.
From 11 April to local apparent noon the next day, Titanic covered 484 nautical miles (557 mi; 896 km); the following day, 519 nautical miles (597 mi; 961 km); and by noon on the final day of her voyage, 546 nautical miles (628 mi; 1,011 km). From then until the time of her sinking she travelled another 258 nautical miles (297 mi; 478 km), averaging about 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h).
The weather cleared as she left Ireland under cloudy skies with a headwind. Temperatures remained fairly mild on Saturday 13 April, but the following day Titanic crossed a cold weather front with strong winds and waves of up to 8 feet (2.4 m). These died down as the day progressed until, by the evening of Sunday 14 April, it became clear, calm and very cold.
The first three days of the voyage from Queenstown had passed without apparent incident. A fire had begun in one of Titanic 's coal bunkers approximately 10 days prior to the ship 's departure, and continued to burn for several days into its voyage, but passengers were unaware of this situation. Fires occurred frequently on board steamships of that day due to spontaneous combustion of the coal. The fires had to be extinguished with fire hoses, by moving the coal on top to another bunker and by removing the burning coal and feeding it into the furnace. Fortunately, the fire was over on 14 April.
Titanic received a series of warnings from other ships of drifting ice in the area of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. One of the ships to warn Titanic was the Atlantic Line 's Mesaba. Nevertheless, the ship continued to steam at full speed, which was standard practice at the time. Although the ship was not trying to set a speed record, timekeeping was a priority, and under prevailing maritime practices, ships were often operated at close to full speed, with ice warnings seen as advisories and reliance placed upon lookouts and the watch on the bridge. It was generally believed that ice posed little danger to large vessels. Close calls with ice were not uncommon, and even head - on collisions had not been disastrous. In 1907 SS Kronprinz Wilhelm, a German liner, had rammed an iceberg but still had been able to complete her voyage, and Captain Smith himself had declared in 1907 that he "could not imagine any condition which would cause a ship to founder. Modern shipbuilding has gone beyond that. ''
At 11: 40 p.m. (ship 's time) on 14 April, lookout Frederick Fleet spotted an iceberg immediately ahead of Titanic and alerted the bridge. First Officer William Murdoch ordered the ship to be steered around the obstacle and the engines to be stopped, but it was too late; the starboard side of Titanic struck the iceberg, creating a series of holes below the waterline. The hull was not punctured by the iceberg, but rather dented such that the hull 's seams buckled and separated, allowing water to seep in. Five of the ship 's watertight compartments were breached. It soon became clear that the ship was doomed, as she could not survive more than four compartments being flooded. Titanic began sinking bow - first, with water spilling from compartment to compartment as her angle in the water became steeper.
Those aboard Titanic were ill - prepared for such an emergency. In accordance with accepted practices of the time, where ships were seen as largely unsinkable and lifeboats were intended to transfer passengers to nearby rescue vessels, Titanic only had enough lifeboats to carry about half of those on board; if the ship had carried her full complement of about 3,339 passengers and crew, only about a third could have been accommodated in the lifeboats. The crew had not been trained adequately in carrying out an evacuation. The officers did not know how many they could safely put aboard the lifeboats and launched many of them barely half - full. Third - class passengers were largely left to fend for themselves, causing many of them to become trapped below decks as the ship filled with water. The "women and children first '' protocol was generally followed when loading the lifeboats, and most of the male passengers and crew were left aboard.
At 2: 20 a.m., two hours and 40 minutes after Titanic struck the iceberg, her rate of sinking suddenly increased as her forward deck dipped underwater, and the sea poured in through open hatches and grates. As her unsupported stern rose out of the water, exposing the propellers, the ship began to break in two between the third and fourth funnels, due to the immense forces on the keel. With the bow underwater, and air trapped in the stern, the stern remained afloat and buoyant for a few minutes longer, rising to a nearly vertical angle with hundreds of people still clinging to it, before sinking. For many years it was generally believed the ship sank in one piece; however, when the wreck was located many years later, it was discovered that the ship had fully broken in two. All remaining passengers and crew were immersed into lethally cold water with a temperature of 28 ° F (− 2 ° C). Almost all of those in the water died of cardiac arrest or other bodily reactions to freezing water, within 15 -- 30 minutes. Only 13 of them were helped into the lifeboats, though these had room for almost 500 more people.
Distress signals were sent by wireless, rockets, and lamp, but none of the ships that responded was near enough to reach Titanic before she sank. A radio operator on board the Birma, for instance, estimated that it would be 6 a.m. before the liner could arrive at the scene. Meanwhile, the SS Californian, which was the last to have been in contact before the collision, saw Titanic 's flares but failed to assist. Around 4 a.m., RMS Carpathia arrived on the scene in response to Titanic 's earlier distress calls.
About 710 people survived the disaster and were conveyed by Carpathia to New York, Titanic 's original destination, while at least 1,500 people lost their lives. Carpathia 's captain described the place as an ice field that had included 20 large bergs measuring up to 200 feet (61 m) high and numerous smaller bergs, as well as ice floes and debris from Titanic; passengers described being in the middle of a vast white plain of ice, studded with icebergs. This area is now known as Iceberg Alley.
RMS Carpathia took three days to reach New York after leaving the scene of the disaster. Her journey was slowed by pack ice, fog, thunderstorms and rough seas. She was, however, able to pass news to the outside world by wireless about what had happened. The initial reports were confused, leading the American press to report erroneously on 15 April that Titanic was being towed to port by the SS Virginian.
Later that day, confirmation came through that Titanic had been lost and that most of her passengers and crew had died. The news attracted crowds of people to the White Star Line 's offices in London, New York, Montreal, Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast. It hit hardest in Southampton, whose people suffered the greatest losses from the sinking. Four out of every five crew members came from this town.
Carpathia docked at 9: 30 p.m. on 18 April at New York 's Pier 54 and was greeted by some 40,000 people waiting at the quayside in heavy rain. Immediate relief in the form of clothing and transportation to shelters was provided by the Women 's Relief Committee, the Travelers Aid Society of New York, and the Council of Jewish Women, among other organisations. Many of Titanic 's surviving passengers did not linger in New York but headed onwards immediately to relatives ' homes. Some of the wealthier survivors chartered private trains to take them home, and the Pennsylvania Railroad laid on a special train free of charge to take survivors to Philadelphia. Titanic 's 214 surviving crew members were taken to the Red Star Line 's steamer SS Lapland, where they were accommodated in passenger cabins.
Carpathia was hurriedly restocked with food and provisions before resuming her journey to Fiume, Austria - Hungary. Her crew were given a bonus of a month 's wages by Cunard as a reward for their actions, and some of Titanic 's passengers joined together to give them an additional bonus of nearly £ 900 (£ 80,000 today), divided among the crew members.
The ship 's arrival in New York led to a frenzy of press interest, with newspapers competing to be the first to report the survivors ' stories. Some reporters bribed their way aboard the pilot boat New York, which guided Carpathia into harbour, and one even managed to get onto Carpathia before she docked. Crowds gathered outside newspaper offices to see the latest reports being posted in the windows or on billboards. It took another four days for a complete list of casualties to be compiled and released, adding to the agony of relatives waiting for news of those who had been aboard Titanic.
In January 1912, the hulls and equipment of Titanic and Olympic had been insured through Lloyd 's of London. The total coverage was £ 1,000,000 (£ 89,000,000 today) per ship. The policy was to be "free from all average '' under £ 150,000, meaning that the insurers would only pay for damage in excess of that sum. The premium, negotiated by brokers Willis Faber & Company (now Willis Group), was 15 s (75 p) per £ 100, or £ 7,500 (£ 670,000 today) for the term of one year. Lloyd 's paid the White Star Line the full sum owed to them within 30 days.
Many charities were set up to help the victims and their families, many of whom lost their sole breadwinner, or, in the case of many Third Class survivors, everything they owned. On 29 April opera stars Enrico Caruso and Mary Garden and members of the Metropolitan Opera raised $12,000 ($300,000 in 2014) in benefits for victims of the disaster by giving special concerts in which versions of "Autumn '' and "Nearer My God To Thee '' were part of the programme. In Britain, relief funds were organised for the families of Titanic 's lost crew members, raising nearly £ 450,000 (£ 40,000,000 today). One such fund was still in operation as late as the 1960s.
Even before the survivors arrived in New York, investigations were being planned to discover what had happened, and what could be done to prevent a recurrence. Inquiries were held in both the United States and United Kingdom, the former more robustly critical of traditions and practices, and scathing of the failures involved, and the latter broadly more technical and expert - oriented.
The U.S. Senate 's inquiry into the disaster was initiated on 19 April, a day after Carpathia arrived in New York. The chairman, Senator William Alden Smith, wanted to gather accounts from passengers and crew while the events were still fresh in their minds. Smith also needed to subpoena all surviving British passengers and crew while they were still on American soil, which prevented them from returning to the UK before the American inquiry was completed on 25 May. The British press condemned Smith as an opportunist, insensitively forcing an inquiry as a means of gaining political prestige and seizing "his moment to stand on the world stage ''. Smith, however, already had a reputation as a campaigner for safety on U.S. railroads, and wanted to investigate any possible malpractices by railroad tycoon J.P. Morgan, Titanic 's ultimate owner.
The British Board of Trade 's inquiry into the disaster was headed by Lord Mersey, and took place between 2 May and 3 July. Being run by the Board of Trade, who had previously approved the ship, it was seen by some as having little interest in its own or White Star 's conduct being found negligent.
Each inquiry took testimony from both passengers and crew of Titanic, crew members of Leyland Line 's Californian, Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia and other experts. The British inquiry also took far greater expert testimony, making it the longest and most detailed court of inquiry in British history up to that time. The two inquiries reached broadly similar conclusions: the regulations on the number of lifeboats that ships had to carry were out of date and inadequate, Captain Smith had failed to take proper heed of ice warnings, the lifeboats had not been properly filled or crewed, and the collision was the direct result of steaming into a dangerous area at too high a speed.
Neither inquiry 's findings listed negligence by IMM or the White Star Line as a factor. The American inquiry concluded that since those involved had followed standard practice the disaster was an act of God. The British inquiry concluded that Smith had followed long - standing practice that had not previously been shown to be unsafe, noting that British ships alone had carried 3.5 million passengers over the previous decade with the loss of just 10 lives, and concluded that Smith had done "only that which other skilled men would have done in the same position ''. Lord Mersey did however find fault with the "extremely high speed (twenty - two knots) which was maintained '' following numerous ice warnings, noting that without hindsight, "what was a mistake in the case of the Titanic would without doubt be negligence in any similar case in the future ''.
The recommendations included strong suggestions for major changes in maritime regulations to implement new safety measures, such as ensuring that more lifeboats were provided, that lifeboat drills were properly carried out and that wireless equipment on passenger ships was manned around the clock. An International Ice Patrol was set up to monitor the presence of icebergs in the North Atlantic, and maritime safety regulations were harmonised internationally through the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea; both measures are still in force today.
On 18 June 1912, Guglielmo Marconi gave evidence to the Court of Inquiry regarding the telegraphy. Its final report recommended that all liners carry the system and that sufficient operators maintain a constant service.
One of the most controversial issues examined by the inquiries was the role played by SS Californian, which had been only a few miles from Titanic but had not picked up her distress calls or responded to her signal rockets. Californian had warned Titanic by radio of the pack ice that was the reason Californian had stopped for the night, but was rebuked by Titanic 's senior wireless operator, Jack Phillips.
Testimony before the British inquiry revealed that at 10: 10 p.m., Californian observed the lights of a ship to the south; it was later agreed between Captain Stanley Lord and Third Officer C.V. Groves (who had relieved Lord of duty at 11: 10 p.m.) that this was a passenger liner. At 11: 50 p.m., the officer had watched that ship 's lights flash out, as if she had shut down or turned sharply, and that the port light was now visible. Morse light signals to the ship, upon Lord 's order, were made between 11: 30 p.m. and 1: 00 a.m., but were not acknowledged. If Titanic were as far from the Californian as Lord claimed, then he knew, or should have known, that Morse signals would not be visible. A reasonable and prudent course of action would have been to awaken the wireless operator and to instruct him to attempt to contact Titanic by that method. Had Lord done so, it is possible he could have reached Titanic in time to save additional lives.
Captain Lord had gone to the chartroom at 11: 00 p.m. to spend the night; however, Second Officer Herbert Stone, now on duty, notified Lord at 1: 10 a.m. that the ship had fired five rockets. Lord wanted to know if they were company signals, that is, coloured flares used for identification. Stone said that he did not know and that the rockets were all white. Captain Lord instructed the crew to continue to signal the other vessel with the Morse lamp, and went back to sleep. Three more rockets were observed at 1: 50 a.m. and Stone noted that the ship looked strange in the water, as if she were listing. At 2: 15 a.m., Lord was notified that the ship could no longer be seen. Lord asked again if the lights had had any colours in them, and he was informed that they were all white.
Californian eventually responded. At around 5: 30 a.m., Chief Officer George Stewart awakened wireless operator Cyril Furmstone Evans, informed him that rockets had been seen during the night, and asked that he try to communicate with any ship. He got news of Titanic 's loss, Captain Lord was notified, and the ship set out to render assistance. She arrived well after Carpathia had already picked up all the survivors.
The inquiries found that the ship seen by Californian was in fact Titanic and that it would have been possible for Californian to come to her rescue; therefore, Captain Lord had acted improperly in failing to do so.
The number of casualties of the sinking is unclear, due to a number of factors. These include confusion over the passenger list, which included some names of people who cancelled their trip at the last minute, and the fact that several passengers travelled under aliases for various reasons and were therefore double - counted on the casualty lists. The death toll has been put at between 1,490 and 1,635 people. The tables below use figures from the British Board of Trade report on the disaster.
Fewer than a third of those aboard Titanic survived the disaster. Some survivors died shortly afterwards; injuries and the effects of exposure caused the deaths of several of those brought aboard Carpathia. The figures show stark differences in the survival rates of the different classes aboard Titanic. Although only 3 % of first - class women were lost, 54 % of those in third class died. Similarly, five of six first - class and all second - class children survived, but 52 of the 79 in third class perished. The differences by gender were even bigger: nearly all female crew members, first and second class passengers were saved. Men from the First Class died at a higher rate than women from the Third Class. In total, 50 % of the children survived, 20 % of the men and 75 % of the women.
The last living survivor, Millvina Dean from England, who at only nine weeks old was the youngest passenger on board, died aged 97 on 31 May 2009. A special survivor was crew member Violet Jessop who survived the sinkings of both Titanic and Britannic and was aboard Olympic when she was rammed in 1911.
Once the massive loss of life became known, White Star Line chartered the cable ship CS Mackay - Bennett from Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, to retrieve bodies. Three other Canadian ships followed in the search: the cable ship Minia, lighthouse supply ship Montmagny and sealing vessel Algerine. Each ship left with embalming supplies, undertakers, and clergy. Of the 333 victims that were eventually recovered, 328 were retrieved by the Canadian ships and five more by passing North Atlantic steamships.
The first ship to reach the site of the sinking, the CS Mackay - Bennett, found so many bodies that the embalming supplies aboard were quickly exhausted. Health regulations required that only embalmed bodies could be returned to port. Captain Larnder of the Mackay - Bennett and undertakers aboard decided to preserve only the bodies of first class passengers, justifying their decision by the need to visually identify wealthy men to resolve any disputes over large estates. As a result, many third class passengers and crew were buried at sea. Larnder identified many of those buried at sea as crew members by their clothing, and stated that as a mariner, he himself would be contented to be buried at sea.
Bodies recovered were preserved for transport to Halifax, the closest city to the sinking with direct rail and steamship connections. The Halifax coroner, John Henry Barnstead, developed a detailed system to identify bodies and safeguard personal possessions. Relatives from across North America came to identify and claim bodies. A large temporary morgue was set up in the curling rink of the Mayflower Curling Club and undertakers were called in from all across eastern Canada to assist. Some bodies were shipped to be buried in their home towns across North America and Europe. About two - thirds of the bodies were identified. Unidentified victims were buried with simple numbers based on the order in which their bodies were discovered. The majority of recovered victims, 150 bodies, were buried in three Halifax cemeteries, the largest being Fairview Lawn Cemetery followed by the nearby Mount Olivet and Baron de Hirsch cemeteries.
In mid-May 1912, RMS Oceanic recovered three bodies over 200 miles (320 km) from the site of the sinking who were among the original occupants of Collapsible A. When Fifth Officer Harold Lowe and six crewmen returned to the wreck site sometime after the sinking in a lifeboat to pick up survivors, they rescued a dozen males and one female from Collapsible A, but left the dead bodies of three of its occupants. After their retrieval from Collapsible A by Oceanic, the bodies were buried at sea.
The last Titanic body recovered was steward James McGrady, Body No. 330, found by the chartered Newfoundland sealing vessel Algerine on 22 May and buried at Fairview Lawn Cemetery in Halifax on 12 June.
Only 333 bodies of Titanic victims were recovered, one in five of the over 1500 victims. Some bodies sank with the ship while currents quickly dispersed bodies and wreckage across hundreds of miles making them difficult to recover. By June one of the last search ships reported that life jackets supporting bodies were coming apart and releasing bodies to sink.
Titanic was long thought to have sunk in one piece and, over the years, many schemes were put forward for raising the wreck. None came to fruition. The fundamental problem was the sheer difficulty of finding and reaching a wreck that lies over 12,000 feet (3,700 m) below the surface, in a location where the water pressure is over 6,500 pounds per square inch (450 bar). A number of expeditions were mounted to find Titanic but it was not until 1 September 1985 that a Franco - American expedition led by Robert Ballard succeeded.
The team discovered that Titanic had in fact split apart, probably near or at the surface, before sinking to the seabed. The separated bow and stern sections lie about a third of a mile (0.6 km) apart in Titanic Canyon off the coast of Newfoundland. They are located 13.2 miles (21.2 km) from the inaccurate coordinates given by Titanic 's radio operators on the night of her sinking, and approximately 715 miles (1,151 km) from Halifax and 1,250 miles (2,012 km) from New York.
Both sections struck the sea bed at considerable speed, causing the bow to crumple and the stern to collapse entirely. The bow is by far the more intact section and still contains some surprisingly intact interiors. In contrast, the stern is completely wrecked; its decks have pancaked down on top of each other and much of the hull plating was torn off and lies scattered across the sea floor. The much greater level of damage to the stern is probably due to structural damage incurred during the sinking. Thus weakened, the remainder of the stern was flattened by the impact with the sea bed.
The two sections are surrounded by a debris field measuring approximately 5 by 3 miles (8.0 km × 4.8 km). It contains hundreds of thousands of items, such as pieces of the ship, furniture, dinnerware and personal items, which fell from the ship as she sank or were ejected when the bow and stern impacted on the sea floor. The debris field was also the last resting place of a number of Titanic 's victims. Most of the bodies and clothes were consumed by sea creatures and bacteria, leaving pairs of shoes and boots -- which have proved to be inedible -- as the only sign that bodies once lay there.
Since its initial discovery, the wreck of Titanic has been revisited on numerous occasions by explorers, scientists, filmmakers, tourists and salvagers, who have recovered thousands of items from the debris field for conservation and public display. The ship 's condition has deteriorated significantly over the years, particularly from accidental damage by submersibles but mostly because of an accelerating rate of growth of iron - eating bacteria on the hull. It has been estimated that within the next 50 years the hull and structure of Titanic will eventually collapse entirely, leaving only the more durable interior fittings of the ship intermingled with a pile of rust on the sea floor.
Many artefacts from Titanic have been recovered from the sea bed by RMS Titanic Inc., which exhibits them in touring exhibitions around the world and in a permanent exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. A number of other museums exhibit artefacts either donated by survivors or retrieved from the floating bodies of victims of the disaster.
On 16 April 2012, the day after the 100th anniversary of the sinking, photos were released showing possible human remains resting on the ocean floor. The photos, taken by Robert Ballard during an expedition led by NOAA in 2004, show a boot and a coat close to Titanic 's stern which experts called "compelling evidence '' that it is the spot where somebody came to rest, and that human remains could be buried in the sediment beneath them. The wreck of the Titanic falls under the scope of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This means that all states party to the convention will prohibit the pillaging, commercial exploitation, sale and dispersion of the wreck and its artefacts. Because of the location of the wreck in international waters and the lack of any exclusive jurisdiction over the wreckage area, the convention provides a state co-operation system, by which states inform each other of any potential activity concerning ancient shipwreck sites, like the Titanic, and co-operate to prevent unscientific or unethical interventions.
After the disaster, recommendations were made by both the British and American Boards of Inquiry stating that ships should carry enough lifeboats for all aboard, mandated lifeboat drills would be implemented, lifeboat inspections would be conducted, etc. Many of these recommendations were incorporated into the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea passed in 1914. The convention has been updated by periodic amendments, with a completely new version adopted in 1974. Signatories to the convention followed up with national legislation to implement the new standards. For example in Britain, new "Rules for Life Saving Appliances '' were passed by the Board of Trade on 8 May 1914 and then applied at a meeting of British steamship companies in Liverpool in June 1914.
Further, the United States government passed the Radio Act of 1912. This act, along with the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, stated that radio communications on passenger ships would be operated 24 hours a day, along with a secondary power supply, so as not to miss distress calls. Also, the Radio Act of 1912 required ships to maintain contact with vessels in their vicinity as well as coastal onshore radio stations. In addition, it was agreed in the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea that the firing of red rockets from a ship must be interpreted as a sign of need for help. Once the Radio Act of 1912 was passed it was agreed that rockets at sea would be interpreted as distress signals only, thus removing any possible misinterpretation from other ships.
Finally, the disaster led to the formation and international funding of the International Ice Patrol, an agency of the United States Coast Guard that to the present day monitors and reports on the location of North Atlantic Ocean icebergs that could pose a threat to transatlantic sea traffic. Coast Guard aircraft conduct the primary reconnaissance. In addition, information is collected from ships operating in or passing through the ice area. Except for the years of the two World Wars, the International Ice Patrol has worked each season since 1913. During the period there has not been a single reported loss of life or property due to collision with an iceberg in the patrol area. In 1912, the Board of Trade chartered the barque Scotia to act as a weather ship in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, keeping a look - out for icebergs. A Marconi wireless was installed to enable her to communicate with stations on the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland.
Titanic has gone down in history as the ship that was called unsinkable. For more than 100 years, she has been the inspiration of fiction and non-fiction. She is commemorated by monuments for the dead and by museums exhibiting artefacts from the wreck. Just after the sinking memorial postcards sold in huge numbers together with memorabilia ranging from tin candy boxes to plates, whiskey jiggers, and even black mourning teddy bears. Several survivors wrote books about their experiences but it was not until 1955 the first historically accurate book A Night to Remember was published.
The first film about the disaster, Saved from the Titanic, was released only 29 days after the ship sank and had an actual survivor as its star -- the silent film actress Dorothy Gibson. The British film A Night to Remember (1958) is still widely regarded as the most historically accurate movie portrayal of the sinking. The most financially successful by far has been James Cameron 's Titanic (1997), which became the highest - grossing film in history up to that time, as well as the winner of 11 Oscars at the 70th Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director for Cameron.
The Titanic disaster was commemorated through a variety of memorials and monuments to the victims, erected in several English - speaking countries and in particular in cities that had suffered notable losses. These included Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast in the United Kingdom; New York and Washington, D.C. in the United States; and Cobh (formerly Queenstown) in Ireland. A number of museums around the world have displays on Titanic. In Northern Ireland, the ship is commemorated by the Titanic Belfast visitor attraction, opened on 31 March 2012, that stands on the site of the shipyard where Titanic was built.
RMS Titanic Inc., which is authorised to salvage the wreck site, has a permanent Titanic exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Nevada which features a 22 - ton slab of the ship 's hull. It also runs an exhibition which travels around the world. In Nova Scotia, Halifax 's Maritime Museum of the Atlantic displays items that were recovered from the sea a few days after the disaster. They include pieces of woodwork such as panelling from the ship 's First Class Lounge and an original deckchair, as well as objects removed from the victims. In 2012 the centenary was marked by plays, radio programmes, parades, exhibitions and special trips to the site of the sinking together with commemorative stamps and coins.
In a frequently commented - on literary coincidence, Morgan Robertson authored a novel called Futility in 1898 about a fictional British passenger liner with the plot bearing a number of similarities to the Titanic disaster. In the novel the ship is the SS Titan, a four - stacked liner, the largest in the world and considered unsinkable. But like the Titanic, she sinks after hitting an iceberg and does not have enough lifeboats.
There have been several proposals and studies for a project to build a replica ship based on the Titanic. A project by South African businessman Sarel Gaus was abandoned in 2006, and a project by Australian businessman Clive Palmer was announced in 2012, known as the Titanic II.
A Chinese shipbuilding company known as Wuchang Shipbuilding Industry Group Co., Ltd commenced construction in January 2014 to build a replica ship of the Titanic for use in a resort. The vessel will house many features of the original, such as a ballroom, dining hall, theatre, first - class cabins, economy cabins and swimming pool. Tourists will be able to reside inside the Titanic during their time at the resort. It will be permanently docked at the resort and feature an audiovisual simulation of the sinking, which has caused some criticism.
The RMS Olympic was the sister ship of the Titanic. The interior decoration of the dining salon and the grand staircase were in identical style and created by the same craftsmen. Large parts of the interior of the Olympic were later sold and are now in the White Swan Hotel, Alnwick, which gives an impression of how the interior of the Titanic looked.
Books:
Journals and news articles:
Investigations:
Coordinates: 41 ° 43 ′ 57 '' N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 '' W / 41.73250 ° N 49.94694 ° W / 41.73250; - 49.94694
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king of comedy 1999 full movie in hindi | King of comedy (film) - Wikipedia
King of Comedy (Chinese: 喜劇 之 王) is a 1999 Hong Kong comedy film directed by Lee Lik - chi and Stephen Chow. Unlike Chow 's typical mo lei tau films, King of Comedy verges on comedy drama, describing the trials and tribulation that an aspiring actor experiences on his way to stardom. Some commentators say the story is based on Chow 's early career, as he started off as a temporary actor, before becoming a successful and popular comedy actor over the course of a decade. The film does retain some of bizarre visual gags Chow is known for, such as Chow 's character bleeding from the nose and eyes during a singing number. Jackie Chan plays a cameo role during the film.
Wan Tin - sau (Chow) an actor who can not seem to catch a break, since his only professional job is limited to being a movie extra and is often tormented on stage. As well as being an actor, he is also the head of his village 's community centre.
One day a group of club girls come to ask Wan to help them act like innocent schoolgirls so they can make more money. One of the girls, Lau Piu - piu (Cecilia Cheung), although a little hardy at first due to how she was first forced into becoming a call girl due to her ex-boyfriend (who became abusive after high school) to make ends meet, becomes a better actress through Wan 's instruction and falls in love with him. When both characters finally make love, Wan searches his home for enough money to pay Piu - piu for her "services '', since he thinks she slept with him for money (not knowing it was for love). After Piu - piu leaves him in anger, he goes back to the film studio where he always harasses crew members for a role, and finally hits the big time, receiving a part as leading actor next to a legendary actress, Sister Cuckoo (Karen Mok). During this time, Wan reconciles with Piu - piu and he pledges to support her for the rest of his life.
Just as Wan is about to settle in the life of a movie star, his dreams of grandeur are crushed when his part is given to a highly sought after male lead. Luckily, he regains his confidence with the help of the misanthropic lunchman at the studio (Ng Man - tat), who is secretly a C.I.B. agent. Wan is used in an undercover operation, where he is disguised as a delivery boy and made to deliver a hidden gun and listening device inside Take - out food. Although the ruse is discovered and the C.I.B. undercover agent is shot, Wan takes up the gun and saves the day. The lunchman is rushed to the hospital and survives his wounds.
After a somewhat successful sting, Wan finally becomes famous through a performance of the Thunder Storm. The actors include Piu - piu, Sister Cuckoo, and his wan na - be Triad students. The end of the film involves a blatant marketing plug for Pringles brand potato chips. The entire cast of the play stands backstage rehearsing their lines while literally stuffing their mouths full of Pringles, with the logos of all five cans clearly facing towards the camera. At one point, Wan and one of his triad students argue over who should play the role of Bruce Lee 's character, when another actor screams "do n't fight, eat chips! '' When the closing credits roll, a quick Pringles advertisement appears on the screen.
It grossed HK $ 29,848,860 in Hong Kong.
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what episode does elena get her memories of damon back | Do You Remember the First Time? (The Vampire Diaries) - wikipedia
"Do You Remember the First Time? '' is the 7th episode of the sixth season of the American series The Vampire Diaries and the series ' 118th episode overall. "Do You Remember the First Time? '' was originally aired on November 13, 2014, on The CW. The episode was written by Rebecca Sonnenshine and directed by Darren Genet.
Elena, after everyone continues to convince her that she had once loved damon decides to run through the magic free, mystic falls border. So she does, and she gets glimpses of her and Damon but never fully remembers yet that she loves him. Damon pulls her back across the line and she asks about a kiss in the rain. He continues to try to get her to remember.
In the episode "Do You Remember the First Time? '' we can hear the songs:
In its original American broadcast, "Do You Remember the First Time? '' was watched by 1.54 million; slightly down by 0.05 from the previous episode.
"Do You Remember the First Time? '' received positive reviews.
Stephanie Flasher from TV After Dark gave a B+ rating to the episode saying that it was a nice one, especially for the fans of Damon and Elena. "Bittersweet trip down the couple 's history and an epic rain kiss. Finally, Caroline and Stefan have the feelings conversation and Alaric gets his groove back now that he 's a human again. And the music was good. ''
Rebecca Jane Stokes of Den of Geek rated the episode with 4 / 5 saying that it was a sweet episode and that Stefan finally found out about Caroline 's feelings. "The show did what it does best this week. It married romance and longing with the deliberate if piecemeal doling out of key plot points. ''
Ashley Dominique from Geeked Out Nation rated the episode with 7.9 / 10 saying that the episode "forced Damon and Elena to explore the new status of their relationship in another slow drawn out episode. However, it was made interesting by not relying on flashbacks, but let them be in the moment. ''
Sara Ditta of Next Projection rated the episode with 7.2 / 10 saying that the episode "satisfied because of its tempered tone. The drama was n't taken overboard, and viewers could relate to each of our main characters who tried to grasp on to friendships and relationships that had already fallen apart. ''
Leigh Raines from TV Fanatic rated the episode with 3.5. "All in all, a decent episode, with minor developments but not enough. ''
Caroline Preece of Den of Geek gave a good review to the episode saying that the show has improved greatly since it stopped paying attention only to Damon and Elena 's relationship. "The Damon / Elena storyline is still a frustrating mess, but it 's also not the only thing on the show anymore -- and that gives viewers no longer interested in Elena 's love life a reason to come back. Just that simple thing is what fans have been asking for and, now that we have it, it 's glorious. ''
Lindsay Sperling from We Got This Covered gave a mixed review to the episode saying that this episode was the first filler one for season six. "This season of The Vampire Diaries is arguably already better than the last two combined, but there 's a limit to the amount of Elena and Damon drama that fans should have to endure. Either let them be together, or let them move on. (...) There were a few notable plot twists in (the episode) despite the overwhelming feeling that nothing really happened to move the story along. ''
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tu pyar hai kisi or ka movie name | Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin - Wikipedia
Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin (English: The Heart Is Such, It Does n't Agree) is a 1991 Indian Hindi - language romantic comedy film. It was produced by Gulshan Kumar, directed by Mahesh Bhatt, and starred his daughter Pooja Bhatt in her first major lead female role, while the lead male role was played by Aamir Khan. Supporting roles were played by Anupam Kher, Sameer Chitre, and Tiku Talsania, while Deepak Tijori made a special appearance.
The movie was a box office success and boosted the career of newcomer Pooja Bhatt while cementing Aamir Khan 's status as a leading movie star. The movie revolves around a spoilt heiress who runs away from home to marry a gold - digging film star. En route, she is helped by a smart - alecky journalist only to end up falling for him.
It is an unofficial remake of the 1956 Bollywood film Chori Chori and 1966 Tamil language film Chandhrodhayam, which in turn were adaptations of the 1934 Hollywood film It Happened One Night. In turn, Dil Hai Ke Manta Nahin was remade in Tamil as Kadhal Rojavae (2000) and inspired the Kannada movie Hudugaata (2007).
Pooja Dharamchand (Pooja Bhatt) is the daughter of a rich Bombay shipping tycoon, Seth Dharamchand (Anupam Kher). She is head - over-heels in love with movie star Deepak Kumar (Sameer Chitre), but her father strongly disapproves of their courtship. One night, Pooja escapes from her father 's yacht and hops onto a bus to Bangalore to be with Deepak, who is shooting for a film there. Meanwhile, Seth Dharamchand, realizing his daughter has run away, dispatches private detectives to locate her.
Aboard the bus, Pooja meets Raghu Jetley (Aamir Khan), a loud - mouth journalist who has just lost his job. He offers to help her in exchange for an exclusive story on her, which would revive his flagging career. Pooja is forced to agree to his demands, as he threatens to let her father know of her whereabouts should she not comply. After both of them happen to miss the bus, Raghu and Pooja go through various adventures together and find themselves falling in love with one another.
Raghu desires to marry Pooja, but knows that financially he is in no shape to do so. He simply wanted a story on her life and never wanted to win her heart. Pooja also falls for Raghu and she decides to go with him, but a misunderstanding leads her to believe that Raghu was just looking for a story and not her love.
She calls it quits, returns home and agrees to marry Deepak. However, her father learns about Raghu when he comes to him to take back his money, spent by Raghu on Pooja on his way to Bangalore. He realises how Raghu has taken care of Pooja during the trip. Pooja misunderstands him and believes that he might have come for the reward announced by her rich father. At last her father tells Pooja that Raghu is the right man for her and that he has not come for the reward. On the wedding day she realises that Raghu really loves her and then runs away from the marriage mandap (hall) to Raghu with her father 's support.
The soundtrack of the movie is composed by the legendary music director duo Nadeem - Shravan. The song lyrics were written by Sameer and Faaiz Anwar. All the songs are sung by Anuradha Paudwal, along with co-singers Kumar Sanu, Abhijeet, Babla Mehta and Debashish Dasgupta. The Songs "Dil Tujhpe Aa Gaya '' and "Galyat Sankali Sonyachi '' were originally voiced by Kumar Sanu, but later was released with voiceover by Abhijeet and Babla Mehta respectively.
Anuradha Paudwal won Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer for the song Dil hai ke manta nahin in 1992.
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who can withdraw money from consolidated fund of india | Consolidated Fund - wikipedia
"Consolidated fund '' or "consolidated revenue fund '' is a term used in many countries with political systems derived from the Westminster system to describe the main bank account of the government. General taxation is taxation paid into the consolidated fund for general spending, as opposed to hypothecated taxes earmarked for specific purposes.
The British Consolidated Fund was so named as it consolidated together a number of existing accounts, detailed below, and facilitated proper parliamentary oversight of the spending of the executive; it was defined as "one fund into which shall flow every stream of public revenue and from which shall come the supply of every service ''.
The Treasury established this account, formerly known as The Account of Her Majesty 's Exchequer, at the Bank of England where it remains to this day, and the legal term "Consolidated Fund '' refers to the amount of credit held in this particular account. Under the Exchequer and Audit Departments Act 1866 most of the revenue from taxation, and all other money payable to the Exchequer, must be paid into the Consolidated Fund.
The General Fund was established in 1617, the Aggregate Fund in 1715, the South Sea Fund in 1717. These funds were established in relation to specific government borrowing authorised by Parliament, which had a defined type of revenue appropriated to put towards the interest and repayment. That particular revenue would be paid into the fund related to the loan. For example, the South Sea Fund was related to the debts of the South Sea Company. The Aggregate Fund was paid all the hereditary revenues of the English (and later British) Crown, such as profits from the Crown Estate and the Royal Mail. The hereditary revenues of Scotland were paid into the Consolidated Fund from 1788 onwards.
From 1716 onwards the surplus of the first three funds, after the interest and principal payments, flowed into a fourth fund, the sinking fund. This was intended to be applied to the repayment of the national debt but was instead mainly used for day - to - day necessities. It was eventually placed into the hands of the National Debt Commissioners, and was abandoned in the 1820s.
In 1752, before the Consolidated Fund was formed, the debts owed to the three existing funds had themselves been consolidated, and became irredeemable (the principal would only be repaid if the government chose to do so). They, therefore, became annuities, paying an annual rate of interest of 3 %, and known as consolidated annuities, or consols.
The Consolidated Fund Services of Great Britain and Ireland were merged by the Consolidated Fund Act 1816 into the single Consolidated Fund of the United Kingdom that exists to this day.
All tax revenue is paid into the fund unless Parliament has specifically provided otherwise by law.
Any money received by the government which is not taxation, and is not to be retained by the receiving department (for example, fines), is classed as a Consolidated Fund extra receipt (CFER). These are to be paid into the Consolidated Fund as soon as they are received.
Parliament gives statutory authority for the government to draw funds from the Consolidated Fund by Acts of Parliament known as Appropriation Acts and Consolidated Fund Acts. Funds are made available under the Acts only for a specified financial year, a concept known as annuality, although an individual Act can cover more than one financial year, listing separate amounts for each. Often a two - year period is covered by a Consolidated Fund Act, and roughly two or three are passed in each parliamentary year.
A Consolidated Fund (Appropriation) Bill is brought in and passed at the end of the parliamentary year before the Summer recess. When passed, this is known as the Appropriation Act, and allocates the monies from the Consolidated Fund to the purposes set out in the main annual departmental expenditure estimates (the annual government department budgets, known as Estimates).
In the interim period between the start of the financial year and the passing of the Appropriation Act, a process known as Votes on Account is used to grant to departments up to 45 % of the amounts they were allocated in the preceding financial year. These Votes on Account, and any necessary changes to departmental budgets (Supplementary Estimates) are passed as Consolidated Fund Acts, normally twice each year in November and February. Additional funds may be requested at any time, and will either require an additional Consolidated Fund Act, or will be included within other legislation.
The preamble of these supply acts is different from that of most other Acts of Parliament. It currently reads:
Whereas the Commons of the United Kingdom in Parliament assembled have resolved to authorise the use of resources and the issue of sums out of the Consolidated Fund towards making good the supply which they have granted to Her Majesty in this Session of Parliament: --
Until a few years ago, an older form of wording was used:
Most Gracious Sovereign,
We, Your Majesty 's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Commons of the United Kingdom in Parliament assembled, towards making good the supply which we have cheerfully granted to Your Majesty in this Session of Parliament, have resolved to grant unto Your Majesty the sums hereinafter mentioned; and do therefore most humbly beseech Your Majesty that it may be enacted and be it enacted by the Queen 's most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows: --
This follows the constitutional principle that the Crown (government) demands money, the House of Commons grants it, and the House of Lords assents to the grant. Since the Glorious Revolution of 1688 only once, in 1784, has the Commons refused to grant access to funds.
If money paid from the Consolidated Fund is not spent by the end of the financial year, it must be repaid to the fund. Grant - in - aid payments are however excluded from this rule.
Certain expenditure is by law charged directly to the Consolidated Fund and is not subject to Parliament 's annual budget process, ensuring a degree of independence of the government. Services funded in this way are known as Consolidated Fund Services and include judges ' salaries, payments to the European Union, the Civil List payments, the salary of the Comptroller and Auditor General, and the expenses paid to returning officers at elections. In the case of the judges, this is to ensure the judicial independence introduced by the Act of Settlement 1701.
The comptroller (who is also auditor general and head of the National Audit Office) controls both the Consolidated Fund and the National Loans Fund. The full official title of the role is Comptroller General of the Receipt and Issue of Her Majesty 's Exchequer.
The Comptroller must authorise each requisition request received by the Bank of England from the Treasury, to assure that the request is compliant with the amounts and purposes authorised by Parliament in statute. If funds are mistakenly paid into the Consolidated Fund then both the Comptroller and the Treasury must agree to its return.
Payments can only be made from the Consolidated Fund to one of the principal accountants defined by law. These are the Paymaster - General, the Commissioners of Revenue and Customs, the National Debt Commissioners, and the Chief Cashier at the Bank of England.
Each of the devolved government consolidated funds is held in the name of the Paymaster General at the Bank of England.
The Westminster Parliament provides a sum of money annually to provide a budget for the Scottish Government and fund the operation of the Scottish Parliament and the salaries for judges of Scottish courts. This money is transferred from the UK Consolidated Fund into an account known as the Scottish Consolidated Fund.
If the income tax varying powers of the Scottish Parliament were to be used (the rate can be changed by plus or minus three percent), the additional revenue raised would be paid by the HM Revenue and Customs directly to the Scottish Consolidated Fund. If the tax is reduced, then the amount paid from the UK Consolidated Fund in that year would be correspondingly reduced.
There is also a Welsh Consolidated Fund to provide a budget for the Welsh National Assembly.
In addition to the budget provided to the Welsh Government, the expenditures of the Welsh National Assembly, the Auditor General for Wales, and the Public Services Ombudsman for Wales are also paid directly from the Welsh Consolidated Fund.
Payments are normally made from the fund following the passing in the Assembly of a budget motion or supplementary budget motion, proposed by the Welsh ministers. There are limited exceptions for emergency situations, a failure of the Assembly to pass a budget; in addition some payments are automatically authorised by law, such as the salaries of National Assembly officials.
The Auditor General has to authorise all payments out of the Welsh Consolidated Fund to the Welsh ministers, having checked that the expenditure has been approved by the National Assembly.
The Northern Ireland Consolidated Fund has existed since 1921.
The use of consolidated funds in Australian government dates back to colonial times. Today the Australian federal and state governments all maintain their own consolidated funds, with authorisation for payments required from the relevant parliament.
The Australian Government 's Consolidated fund is known as the Consolidated Revenue Fund (CRF).
Section 81 of the Constitution of Australia provides that:
All revenues or moneys raised or received by the Executive Government of the Commonwealth shall form one Consolidated Revenue Fund (CRF), to be appropriated for the purposes of the Commonwealth in the manner and subject to the charges and liabilities imposed by this Constitution.
"Revenues or moneys raised or received '' includes for instance taxes, fines, charges, levies, borrowings, loan repayments and money held in trust.
Section 81 gives no guidance as to how the revenues or monies that form the CRF are to be kept or accounted for, and in Australia, in apparent contrast to the British Consolidated Fund, there is no actual account into which the Commonwealth 's revenues are deposited. Instead, the CRF is said to be "self ‐ executing '' -- that is, all money paid to the Commonwealth automatically forms part of the CRF, whether or not it has been credited to a fund or a bank account.
Section 83 of the Australian Constitution provides that no money shall be drawn from the Treasury of the Commonwealth except under an appropriation made by law. The "Treasury of the Commonwealth '' in Section 83 is held to be the same thing as the "Consolidated Revenue Fund '' referred to in section 81, so taken together these two sections mean that there must be an appropriation for the purposes of the Commonwealth made by law before money may be drawn from the CRF. Just as all revenues and monies received form part of the CRF, all money drawn from the Treasury "self - executes '' as drawings from the CRF.
Section 83 was intended to both safeguard parliament 's control over government spending, and restrict that expenditure to purposes authorised by the constitution. Over the years the meaning of "for the purposes of the Commonwealth '' has been broadened considerably. It has been the subject of several High Court battles, and remains in contention.
Sections 39 and 40 of the Constitution of New South Wales require that all revenues, loans and other monies collected by the state are to be paid into a single consolidated fund. This was originally formed as the Consolidated Revenue Fund in 1855, and was merged with the state 's General Loan Account to be named the Consolidated Fund from 1982.
The Indian government and each Indian state government maintain their own consolidated funds.
Article 266 of the Constitution of India requires revenues received by the Government of India to be paid to the Consolidated Fund of India. It also requires state revenues to be paid to a respective state consolidated fund.
The Comptroller and Auditor General of India audits these funds and reports to the relevant legislatures on their management.
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the vampire diaries season 4 episode 14 plot | The Vampire Diaries (season 4) - Wikipedia
The Vampire Diaries, a one - hour American supernatural drama, was renewed for a fourth season by the U.S. channel The CW on May 3, 2012, seven days before the third season 's finale. Unlike the previous seasons that aired in September, it premiered on October 11, 2012, to avoid competition from major television shows. Season 4 consisted of 23 episodes instead of the usual 22 episodes.
On January 11, 2013, it was announced that a back - door pilot focused on the Originals, titled The Originals will air on April 25 for series pick - up. On April 26, 2013, The CW announced that The Originals, The Vampire Diaries ' spin - off series, was picked up for a full season slated to premiere next fall.
On February 11, 2013, The CW renewed the series for a fifth season.
On May 3, 2012 The CW renewed The Vampire Diaries for a fourth season. Unlike previous seasons, it started on October 11. Kevin Williamson, Julie Plec, Leslie Morgenstein and Bob Levy are executive producers for the series. The season was concluded on May 16, 2013.
The series stars Nina Dobrev who plays Elena Gilbert and Katherine Pierce, Paul Wesley as Stefan Salvatore, Ian Somerhalder as Damon Salvatore, Steven R. McQueen as Jeremy Gilbert, Kat Graham as Bonnie Bennett, Candice Accola as Caroline Forbes, Zach Roerig as Matt Donovan, Michael Trevino as Tyler Lockwood, Joseph Morgan as Klaus Mikaelson and Claire Holt as Rebekah Mikaelson.
On August 7, 2012 it was announced that Phoebe Tonkin and Todd Williams will join the show as recurring characters in the fourth season. Phoebe Tonkin will portray Hayley, a friend of Tyler 's. Todd Williams will portray Connor, a vampire hunter.
The Olympic gymnast Gabby Douglas made an appearance in "My Brother 's Keeper '' as a volunteer decorator for the Miss Mystic Falls Beauty Pageant. On the CW website, an interview with Douglas shares her experience on set and with the cast.
Starting with episode 13, Charlie Bewley will join the show as Vaughn, like Connor a vampire hunter, and Camille Guaty as Professor Shane 's dead wife Caitlin, who is going to reveal information about him.
On February 2013, it was announced that Daniella Pineda was cast as the witch Sophie for episode 20 "The Originals ''. This episode serves as a backdoor - pilot for a possible spin - off series, revolving around the Originals and taking place in the French Quarter of New Orleans. If the series gets picked up for the 2013 - 2014 season, she 'd be a regular cast member.
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how many cigarettes in a pack in the uk | Cigarette pack - wikipedia
A pack or packet of cigarettes is a rectangular container, mostly of paperboard, which contains cigarettes. The pack is designed with a flavor - protective foil, paper or biodegradable plastic, and sealed through a transparent airtight plastic film. By pulling the "pull - tabs '', the pack is opened. Hard packs can be closed again after opening, whereas soft packs can not.
Cigarette packs often contain warning messages depending on which country they are sold in.
The size of a pack is often regulated. Government agencies usually set a minimum pack size.
In Australia, the most common quantity per pack is 25, although some brands have changed them to 26, second to 20 which by law, is the minimum. 30, 40 and even 50 packs are also sold.
In Canada, most packs sold have 25 cigarettes, but packs of 20 are also popular.
In many European countries, increases of cigarette tax can cause the quantity of cigarettes in the pack to change, in order to achieve the same end price.
In Malaysia, the selling of packs containing fewer than 20 cigarettes is prohibited.
In the United States of America, the quantity of cigarettes in a pack must be at least 20. Certain brands, such as Export As, come in a pack of 25. For many years, half - packs of 10 (or even 14) cigarettes were commonly available.
In the United Kingdom brands are only sold in packets of 20, following a May, 2017 law prohibiting the sale of 10 - stick packs. The legislation also outlawed branded packaging, introducing boxes which are a plain, green color. The packaging has the brand name in a basic typeface, with most of the packet dedicated to textual and photographic health warnings. Vending machines sometimes dispense packets containing 16 or 18 cigarettes, although the dimensions of the packaging are the same as the equivalent packet containing 20.
A carton of cigarettes usually contains 10 packs, totaling 200 cigarettes. Some cartons contain twenty packs, totaling 400 cigarettes.
A hard pack is the usual style of paperboard packaging for store bought cigarettes, which consists of a relatively stable box. This successfully prevents the crumpling of cigarettes when kept in a person 's pocket or handbag. The flip - top hard pack cigarette case was introduced in 1955 by Philip Morris.
A soft pack is a box packaging made of thin paper, usually containing 20 cigarettes. Soft packs may be considered inconvenient as they rupture easily and can not be resealed. They offer the immediate convenience of not having to open the package each time the smoker wants a cigarette. They require less physical ' pocket space ' when fewer cigarettes remain in the pack. With American brands, cigarettes from a soft pack are usually a few millimeters longer than their hard - boxed counterparts.
To encourage cigarette pack collectors, some cigarette packs were made to present a particular interest for collectors. There are cigarette packs labeled "collectible ''.
Some brands introduce promotional packs to bypass advertising laws. An example would be a limited time promotion where the pack is made from tin with the shape, purpose, and look of a cigarette case to entice potential buyers. They are distinguished by unique décor or are very old or they were removed from manufacturing for some reasons and consequently became rare.
Most cigarette packs have no features at all and are just made up of a single container filled with cigarettes. However, some cigarette packs have been proposed that also contain an empty container for disposing the cigarette butts into. This could reduce cigarette butts of being discarded unto the street, where they contaminate the environment.
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write the equation for p demand = 0 as a function of r and p in the negative binomial model | Negative binomial distribution - wikipedia
In probability theory and statistics, the negative binomial distribution is a discrete probability distribution of the number of successes in a sequence of independent and identically distributed Bernoulli trials before a specified (non-random) number of failures (denoted r) occurs. For example, if we define a 1 as failure, all non-1s as successes, and we throw a dice repeatedly until the third time 1 appears (r = three failures), then the probability distribution of the number of non-1s that had appeared will be a negative binomial.
The Pascal distribution (after Blaise Pascal) and Polya distribution (for George Pólya) are special cases of the negative binomial. There is a convention among engineers, climatologists, and others to reserve "negative binomial '' in a strict sense or "Pascal '' for the case of an integer - valued stopping - time parameter r, and use "Polya '' for the real - valued case.
For occurrences of "contagious '' discrete events, like tornado outbreaks, the Polya distributions can be used to give more accurate models than the Poisson distribution by allowing the mean and variance to be different, unlike the Poisson. "Contagious '' events have positively correlated occurrences causing a larger variance than if the occurrences were independent, due to a positive covariance term.
Suppose there is a sequence of independent Bernoulli trials. Thus, each trial has two potential outcomes called "success '' and "failure ''. In each trial the probability of success is p and of failure is (1 − p). We are observing this sequence until a predefined number r of failures has occurred. Then the random number of successes we have seen, X, will have the negative binomial (or Pascal) distribution:
When applied to real - world problems, outcomes of success and failure may or may not be outcomes we ordinarily view as good and bad, respectively. Suppose we used the negative binomial distribution to model the number of days a certain machine works before it breaks down. In this case "success '' would be the result on a day when the machine worked properly, whereas a breakdown would be a "failure ''. If we used the negative binomial distribution to model the number of goal attempts a sportsman makes before scoring r goals, though, then each unsuccessful attempt would be a "success '', and scoring a goal would be "failure ''. If we are tossing a coin, then the negative binomial distribution can give the number of heads ("success '') we are likely to encounter before we encounter a certain number of tails ("failure ''). In the probability mass function below, p is the probability of success, and (1 − p) is the probability of failure.
The probability mass function of the negative binomial distribution is
where k is the number of successes, r is the number of failures, and p is the probability of success. Here the quantity in parentheses is the binomial coefficient, and is equal to
This quantity can alternatively be written in the following manner, explaining the name "negative binomial '':
Note that by the last expression and the binomial series, for every 0 ≤ p < 1,
hence the terms of the probability mass function indeed add up to one.
To understand the above definition of the probability mass function, note that the probability for every specific sequence of k successes and r failures is (1 − p) p, because the outcomes of the k + r trials are supposed to happen independently. Since the rth failure comes last, it remains to choose the k trials with successes out of the remaining k + r − 1 trials. The above binomial coefficient, due to its combinatorial interpretation, gives precisely the number of all these sequences of length k + r − 1.
The following recurrence relation holds:
When counting the number k of successes before r failures, the expected number of successes is rp / (1 − p).
When counting the number k + r of trials before r failures, the expected total number of trials of a negative binomial distribution with parameters (r, p) is r / (1 − p). To see this intuitively, imagine the above experiment is performed many times. That is, a set of trials is performed until r failures are obtained, then another set of trials, and then another etc. Write down the number of trials performed in each experiment: a, b, c,... and set a + b + c +... = N. Now we would expect about N (1 − p) failures in total. Say the experiment was performed n times. Then there are nr failures in total. So we would expect nr = N (1 − p), so N / n = r / (1 − p). See that N / n is just the average number of trials per experiment. That is what we mean by "expectation ''. The average number of successes per experiment is N / n − r, which must have expected value equal to r / (1 − p) − r = rp / (1 − p). This agrees with the mean given in the box on the right - hand side of this page.
When counting the number k of successes given the number r of failures, the variance is rp / (1 − p).
Some sources may define the negative binomial distribution slightly differently from the primary one here. The most common variations are where the random variable X is counting different things. These variations can be seen in the table here:
(using equivalent binomial)
(simplified using: n = k + r (\ textstyle n = k + r))
Each of these definitions of the negative binomial distribution can be expressed in slightly different but equivalent ways. The first alternative formulation is simply an equivalent form of the binomial coefficient, that is: (a b) = (a a − b) for 0 ≤ b ≤ a (\ textstyle (\ binom (a) (b)) = (\ binom (a) (a-b)) \ quad (\ text (for)) \ 0 \ leq b \ leq a). The second alternate formulation somewhat simplifies the expression by recognizing that the total number of trials is simply the number of successes and failures, that is: n = k + r (\ textstyle n = k + r). These second formulations may be more intuitive to understand, however they are perhaps less practical as they have more terms.
In negative binomial regression, the distribution is specified in terms of its mean, m = p r 1 − p (\ textstyle m = (\ frac (pr) (1 - p))), which is then related to explanatory variables as in linear regression or other generalized linear models. From the expression for the mean m, one can derive p = m m + r (\ textstyle p = (\ frac (m) (m + r))) and 1 − p = r m + r (\ textstyle 1 - p = (\ frac (r) (m + r))). Then, substituting these expressions in the one for the probability mass function when r is real - valued, yields this parametrization of the probability mass function in terms of m:
The variance can then be written as m + m 2 r (\ textstyle m+ (\ frac (m ^ (2)) (r))). Some authors prefer to set α = 1 r (\ textstyle \ alpha = (\ frac (1) (r))), and express the variance as m + α m 2 (\ textstyle m+ \ alpha m ^ (2)). In this context, and depending on the author, either the parameter r or its reciprocal α is referred to as the "dispersion parameter '', "shape parameter '' or "clustering coefficient '', or the "heterogeneity '' or "aggregation '' parameter. The term "aggregation '' is particularly used in ecology when describing counts of individual organisms. Decrease of the aggregation parameter r towards zero corresponds to increasing aggregation of the organisms; increase of r towards infinity corresponds to absence of aggregation, as can be described by Poisson regression.
For the special case where r is an integer, the negative binomial distribution is known as the Pascal distribution. It is the probability distribution of a certain number of failures and successes in a series of independent and identically distributed Bernoulli trials. For k + r Bernoulli trials with success probability p, the negative binomial gives the probability of k successes and r failures, with a failure on the last trial. In other words, the negative binomial distribution is the probability distribution of the number of successes before the rth failure in a Bernoulli process, with probability p of successes on each trial. A Bernoulli process is a discrete time process, and so the number of trials, failures, and successes are integers.
Consider the following example. Suppose we repeatedly throw a dice, and consider a 1 to be a "failure ''. The probability of success on each trial is 5 / 6. The number of successes before the third failure belongs to the infinite set (0, 1, 2, 3,...). That number of successes is a negative - binomially distributed random variable.
When r = 1 we get the probability distribution of number of successes before the first failure (i.e. the probability of the first failure occurring on the (k + 1) st trial), which is a geometric distribution:
The negative binomial distribution, especially in its alternative parameterization described above, can be used as an alternative to the Poisson distribution. It is especially useful for discrete data over an unbounded positive range whose sample variance exceeds the sample mean. In such cases, the observations are overdispersed with respect to a Poisson distribution, for which the mean is equal to the variance. Hence a Poisson distribution is not an appropriate model. Since the negative binomial distribution has one more parameter than the Poisson, the second parameter can be used to adjust the variance independently of the mean. See Cumulants of some discrete probability distributions.
An application of this is to annual counts of tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic or to monthly to 6 - monthly counts of wintertime extratropical cyclones over Europe, for which the variance is greater than the mean. In the case of modest overdispersion, this may produce substantially similar results to an overdispersed Poisson distribution.
The negative binomial distribution is also commonly used to model gene expression in the form of discrete read count data from high - throughput RNA sequencing experiments.
Consider a sequence of negative binomial random variables where the stopping parameter r goes to infinity, whereas the probability of success in each trial, p, goes to zero in such a way as to keep the mean of the distribution constant. Denoting this mean λ, the parameter p will be p = λ / (λ + r)
Under this parametrization the probability mass function will be
Now if we consider the limit as r → ∞, the second factor will converge to one, and the third to the exponent function:
which is the mass function of a Poisson - distributed random variable with expected value λ.
In other words, the alternatively parameterized negative binomial distribution converges to the Poisson distribution and r controls the deviation from the Poisson. This makes the negative binomial distribution suitable as a robust alternative to the Poisson, which approaches the Poisson for large r, but which has larger variance than the Poisson for small r.
The negative binomial distribution also arises as a continuous mixture of Poisson distributions (i.e. a compound probability distribution) where the mixing distribution of the Poisson rate is a gamma distribution. That is, we can view the negative binomial as a Poisson (λ) distribution, where λ is itself a random variable, distributed as a gamma distribution with shape = r and scale θ = p / (1 − p) or correspondingly rate β = (1 − p) / p.
To display the intuition behind this statement, consider two independent Poisson processes, "Success '' and "Failure '', with intensities p and 1 − p. Together, the Success and Failure processes are equivalent to a single Poisson process of intensity 1, where an occurrence of the process is a success if a corresponding independent coin toss comes up heads with probability p; otherwise, it is a failure. If r is a counting number, the coin tosses show that the count of successes before the rth failure follows a negative binomial distribution with parameters r and p. The count is also, however, the count of the Success Poisson process at the random time T of the rth occurrence in the Failure Poisson process. The Success count follows a Poisson distribution with mean pT, where T is the waiting time for r occurrences in a Poisson process of intensity 1 - p, i.e., T is gamma - distributed with shape parameter r and intensity 1 - p. Thus, the negative binomial distribution is equivalent to a Poisson distribution with mean pT, where the random variate T is gamma - distributed with shape parameter r and intensity 1 − p. The preceding paragraph follows, because λ = pT is gamma - distributed with shape parameter r and intensity (1 − p) / p.
The following formal derivation (which does not depend on r being a counting number) confirms the intuition.
Because of this, the negative binomial distribution is also known as the gamma -- Poisson (mixture) distribution.
Note: The negative binomial distribution was originally derived as a limiting case of the gamma - Poisson distribution.
If Y is a random variable following the negative binomial distribution with parameters r and p, and support (0, 1, 2,...), then Y is a sum of r independent variables following the geometric distribution (on (0, 1, 2,...)) with parameter 1 - p. As a result of the central limit theorem, Y (properly scaled and shifted) is therefore approximately normal for sufficiently large r.
Furthermore, if B is a random variable following the binomial distribution with parameters s + r and 1 − p, then
In this sense, the negative binomial distribution is the "inverse '' of the binomial distribution.
The sum of independent negative - binomially distributed random variables r and r with the same value for parameter p is negative - binomially distributed with the same p but with r - value r + r.
The negative binomial distribution is infinitely divisible, i.e., if Y has a negative binomial distribution, then for any positive integer n, there exist independent identically distributed random variables Y,..., Y whose sum has the same distribution that Y has.
The negative binomial distribution NB (r, p) can be represented as a compound Poisson distribution: Let (Y, n ∈ N) denote a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables, each one having the logarithmic distribution Log (p), with probability mass function
Let N be a random variable, independent of the sequence, and suppose that N has a Poisson distribution with mean λ = − r ln (1 − p). Then the random sum
is NB (r, p) - distributed. To prove this, we calculate the probability generating function G of X, which is the composition of the probability generating functions G and G. Using
and
we obtain
which is the probability generating function of the NB (r, p) distribution.
The following table describes four distributions related to the number of successes in a sequence of draws:
The cumulative distribution function can be expressed in terms of the regularized incomplete beta function:
Suppose p is unknown and an experiment is conducted where it is decided ahead of time that sampling will continue until r successes are found. A sufficient statistic for the experiment is k, the number of failures.
In estimating p, the minimum variance unbiased estimator is
The maximum likelihood estimate of p is
but this is a biased estimate. Its inverse (r + k) / r, is an unbiased estimate of 1 / p, however.
Suppose Y is a random variable with a binomial distribution with parameters n and p. Assume p + q = 1, with p, q ≥ 0. Then the binomial theorem implies that
Using Newton 's binomial theorem, this can equally be written as:
in which the upper bound of summation is infinite. In this case, the binomial coefficient
is defined when n is a real number, instead of just a positive integer. But in our case of the binomial distribution it is zero when k > n. We can then say, for example
Now suppose r > 0 and we use a negative exponent:
Then all of the terms are positive, and the term
is just the probability that the number of failures before the rth success is equal to k, provided r is an integer. (If r is a negative non-integer, so that the exponent is a positive non-integer, then some of the terms in the sum above are negative, so we do not have a probability distribution on the set of all nonnegative integers.)
Now we also allow non-integer values of r. Then we have a proper negative binomial distribution, which is a generalization of the Pascal distribution, which coincides with the Pascal distribution when r happens to be a positive integer.
Recall from above that
This property persists when the definition is thus generalized, and affords a quick way to see that the negative binomial distribution is infinitely divisible.
The maximum likelihood estimator only exists for samples for which the sample variance is larger than the sample mean. The likelihood function for N iid observations (k,..., k) is
from which we calculate the log - likelihood function
To find the maximum we take the partial derivatives with respect to r and p and set them equal to zero:
where
Solving the first equation for p gives:
Substituting this in the second equation gives:
This equation can not be solved for r in closed form. If a numerical solution is desired, an iterative technique such as Newton 's method can be used. Alternatively, the expectation -- maximization algorithm can be used.
Pat is required to sell candy bars to raise money for the 6th grade field trip. There are thirty houses in the neighborhood, and Pat is not supposed to return home until five candy bars have been sold. So the child goes door to door, selling candy bars. At each house, there is a 0.4 probability of selling one candy bar and a 0.6 probability of selling nothing.
What 's the probability of selling the last candy bar at the nth house?
Recall that the NegBin (r, p) distribution describes the probability of k failures and r successes in k + r Bernoulli (p) trials with success on the last trial. Selling five candy bars means getting five successes. The number of trials (i.e. houses) this takes is therefore k + 5 = n. The random variable we are interested in is the number of houses, so we substitute k = n − 5 into a NegBin (5, 0.4) mass function and obtain the following mass function of the distribution of houses (for n ≥ 5):
What 's the probability that Pat finishes on the tenth house?
What 's the probability that Pat finishes on or before reaching the eighth house?
To finish on or before the eighth house, Pat must finish at the fifth, sixth, seventh, or eighth house. Sum those probabilities:
What 's the probability that Pat exhausts all 30 houses in the neighborhood?
This can be expressed as the probability that Pat does not finish on the fifth through the thirtieth house:
Hospital length of stay is an example of real world data that can be modelled well with a negative binomial distribution.
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how do you play doki doki literature club | Doki Doki Literature Club! - Wikipedia
Doki Doki Literature Club! is a visual novel developed by Team Salvato. It was released on September 22, 2017 for Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux, and later on October 6 for Steam. The story follows a male high school student who joins the school 's Literature Club and interacts with its four female members. The game features a mostly linear story, with some alternate scenes and endings depending on the choices the player makes. While it appears at first glance to be a lighthearted dating simulator, it is in fact a psychological horror game that involves heavy use of breaking the fourth wall.
The game was developed in an estimated two - year period by a team led by Dan Salvato, known previously for his modding work for Super Smash Bros. Melee. According to Salvato, the inspiration for the game came from his mixed feelings toward anime, and a fascination for surreal and unsettling experiences. Upon its release, Doki Doki Literature Club! received critical praise for its metafictional and horror elements, with PC Gamer calling it "one of the most surprising games of the year. ''
Doki Doki Literature Club! is a visual novel, as such, the majority of the gameplay consists of the player reading the game 's story with little impact on what direction the plot takes. At certain points in the game the player is prompted to make decisions which may affect how the story progresses. The game also features a poetry writing mechanic as part of the Literature Club. The player is given a list of various words to select from that will make up their poem. Each girl in the Literature Club has different word preferences, and will react when the player picks a word that they like. Additional scenes can be unlocked for each girl if the player writes poems targeted at that girl 's tastes, and chooses the correct dialogue options. Which scenes the player has viewed during their playthrough will determine what ending the story has. At one point in the game, the player is forced to access the game 's files and delete a specific file to progress further.
The protagonist is invited by his childhood friend, Sayori, to join their high school 's literature club. The protagonist then meets the other members of the club: Natsuki, Yuri, and the club president Monika. The protagonist starts to participate in the club 's activities such as writing and sharing poetry, and grows close to the four girls.
Whilst preparing for an upcoming school festival, Sayori reveals that she suffers from depression and confesses her love for the protagonist. As the day of the festival approaches, Sayori 's usually bittersweet poem is replaced with a dark and morbid note repeatedly telling someone to get out of her head. When Sayori does not answer his text messages, the protagonist leaves the club meeting and rushes to Sayori 's home, where he discovers that she has hanged herself. The game begins to glitch, and as the protagonist wonders if they could have saved Sayori, the game abruptly ends.
The player is sent back to the main menu, with all previous save files erased. The game starts as usual, but what used to be Sayori 's text and name is replaced with unreadable text. The game suddenly glitches and restarts; however, Sayori is absent, and any previous references to her are either completely removed or replaced by glitches and meshes of portions of other characters ' sprites. Monika instead invites the protagonist to the club. Unsettling events begin occurring: the game rewinds after the protagonist finds Yuri cutting herself, and refuses to accept dialog options that do not favor Monika. Just before the festival, Yuri presents the protagonist with a poem consisting of illegible writing, bloodstains, and a yellow stain. She confesses her love to the protagonist, then stabs herself to death. The protagonist unwittingly spends the weekend sitting by her body. On Monday, Natsuki enters, vomits at the sight of Yuri 's corpse, and flees. Monika then appears, apologizing, and deletes the "character files '' for Yuri and Natsuki, causing the game to restart once again.
Upon starting a new game, the protagonist is placed in a room with Monika seated across from them. Monika explains that she is aware that she is a character in a game, and that she is able to manipulate the game 's files to alter the other characters ' personalities or erase them altogether. She admits to making Sayori "more and more depressed '' and "amplifying Yuri 's obsessive personality '' to make them more unlikable so the player would focus on her instead. She confesses her love directly not to the protagonist, but to the person playing the game. Monika will sit and talk to the player indefinitely about various topics until the player manually enters the game 's directory and deletes Monika 's character file. Upon doing this, the game glitches once more and Monika panics as she is deleted from the game 's world. Monika initially lashes out at the player, but after a pause, she confesses that she still loves the player, and expresses regret for everything she has done. Monika then restores the other girls, and removes herself from the game.
The game starts over once again with Sayori, Yuri and Natsuki all alive, playing out similarly to the initial playthrough. Shortly after meeting everyone, Sayori tells the player that now that she is the president of the literature club, she knows everything about the game and what happened with Monika, and intends to stay with the player forever. Monika immediately intervenes once more via text prompt and deletes Sayori for endangering the player. Monika then speaks audibly to the player, and sings a song titled "Your Reality '' to the player while the credits roll and the game is slowly deleted. After the credits, the game displays a note from Monika, stating that she has disbanded the literature club because "there is no happiness '' in it. Further playthroughs require the game to be re-installed or hard reset.
However, if the player viewed all of the optional scenes in a single playthrough, requiring saving and loading at several points before witnessing Sayori 's initial suicide, an alternate ending is presented. Sayori instead accepts the nature of her reality and tearfully expresses her gratitude to the player for trying to make all of the girls happy. She says goodbye, hoping that the player will visit again sometime and concluding that the girls all love the player. After the credits, the player is presented with a thank - you note from the game 's developer, Dan Salvato. This time, the character files of all four girls are preserved during the game world 's data wipe.
Dan Salvato spent an estimated two years working on Doki Doki Literature Club! in secret before releasing it as his first game. Prior to its release, Salvato was known for creating the FrankerFaceZ extension for Twitch.tv, his modding work in the Super Smash Bros scene, and for his custom Super Mario Maker levels.
Doki Doki Literature Club! was first released on September 22, 2017 on itch.io, and was later also released on Steam. The game is available as freeware with an optional pay what you want model. Paying US $10 or more unlocks a bonus "Fan Pack '' that includes desktop and mobile wallpapers, the game 's official soundtrack, and a digital concept art booklet.
Salvato cited his "love - hate relationship '' with anime as inspiration for creating Doki Doki Literature Club!. Discussing the horror elements of the game, Salvato explained that he was inspired by "things that are scary because they make you uncomfortable, not because they shove scary - looking things in your face. ''
After its release, Doki Doki Literature Club! quickly gained a cult following.
Gita Jackson from Kotaku described Doki Doki Literature Club! as "a truly special game, '' adding "if you like horror games, especially ones that really get under your skin, please check out Doki Doki Literature Club. '' GQ 's Tom Philip called it "one of the scariest games I have ever played. '' He went on to praise the game 's writing saying it contained "some of the most wickedly inventive narrative techniques I 've ever seen, '' but commented that at times it felt like "a slog, clicking through endless amounts of inane, flirty conversation about poetry. ''
In its first three months of release, Doki Doki Literature Club! was downloaded over one million times, and exceeded two million downloads about a month later.
At IGN 's Best of 2017 Awards, the game won the People 's Choice Award each for "Best PC Game '', "Best Adventure Game '' (for which it was also a runner - up), "Best Story '', and "Most Innovative ''. EGMNow ranked the game 16th in their list of the 25 Best Games of 2017. It won the "Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award '' and was nominated for "Trending Game of the Year '' at the 2018 SXSW Gaming Awards.
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when was the first new testament book written | New Testament - wikipedia
The New Testament (Greek: Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē; Latin: Novum Testamentum) is the second part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first - century Christianity. Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament (in whole or in part) has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world. It reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are also incorporated (along with readings from the Old Testament) into the various Christian liturgies. The New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music.
The New Testament is a collection of Christian works written in the common (Koine) Greek language of the first century, at different times by various writers, and the modern consensus is that it also provides important evidence regarding Judaism in the first century AD. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books. The original texts were written in the first and perhaps the second centuries of the Christian Era, in Greek, which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean from the Conquests of Alexander the Great (335 -- 323 BC) until the Muslim conquests in the 7th century AD. All the works that eventually became incorporated into the New Testament are believed to have been written no later than around 120 AD,. John A.T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Others give a final date of 80 AD, or at 96 AD.
Collections of related texts such as letters of the Apostle Paul (a major collection of which must have been made already by the early 2nd century) and the Canonical Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John (asserted by Irenaeus of Lyon in the late - 2nd century as the Four Gospels) gradually were joined to other collections and single works in different combinations to form various Christian canons of Scripture. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation and the Minor Catholic (General) Epistles were introduced into canons in which they were originally absent. Other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. The Old Testament canon is not completely uniform among all major Christian groups including Roman Catholics, Protestants, the Greek Orthodox Church, the Slavic Orthodox Churches, and the Armenian Orthodox Church. However, the twenty - seven - book canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity (see Development of the New Testament canon).
The New Testament consists of:
The term "new testament '' (Koine Greek: Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē), or "new covenant '' (Hebrew בְּרִית חֲדָשָׁה bərîṯ ḥăḏāšâ) first occurs in Jeremiah 31: 31 (Greek Septuagint καινὴ διαθήκη kainḕ diathḗkē, cited in Hebrews 8: 8). The same Greek phrase for "new covenant '' is found elsewhere in the New Testament (Luke 22: 20, 1 Corinthians 11: 25, 2 Corinthians 3: 6, Hebrews 8: 8, and Hebrews 9: 15; cf. 2 Corinthians 3: 14). In early Bible translations into Latin, the phrase was rendered foedus, "federation '', in Jeremiah 31: 31, and was rendered testamentum in Hebrews 8: 8 and other instances from which comes the English term "New Testament. ''
Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, and consequently the treatment of the term διαθήκη diathḗkē varies in Bible translations into English. John Wycliffe 's 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews:
Use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second - century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian (in Against Praxeas 15). In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of
the Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the law and the gospel.
And Tertullian continues later in the book, writing:
it is certain that the whole aim at which he (Marcion) has strenuously laboured, even in the drawing up of his Antitheses, centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own Christ may be separate from the Creator, as belonging to this rival god, and as alien from the law and the prophets.
By the 4th century, the existence -- even if not the exact contents -- of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd -- 4th century Christian author wrote in his early - 4th - century Latin Institutiones Divinae (Divine Institutes):
But all scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ -- that is, the law and the prophets -- is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord. ''... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect; but that which was to be given by Christ would be complete.
The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired and constituting the New Testament of the Christian Biblical Canon.
In the period extending roughly from 50 to 150 AD, a number of documents began to circulate among the churches, including epistles, gospel accounts, memoirs, prophecies, homilies, and collections of teachings. While some of these documents were apostolic in origin, others drew upon the tradition the apostles and ministers of the word had utilized in their individual missions, and still others represented a summation of the teaching entrusted to a particular church center. Several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality.
In general, among Christian denominations the New Testament canon came to be agreed - upon as a list of 27 books, although the order of the books can vary from one version of the printed scriptures to the next. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant traditions. The Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders.
Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. The word "gospel '' derives from the Old English gōd - spell (rarely godspel), meaning "good news '' or "glad tidings ''. The gospel was considered the "good news '' of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, the central Christian message. Gospel is a calque (word - for - word translation) of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion (eu - "good '', - angelion "message '').
Since the 2nd century, the four narrative accounts of the life and work of Jesus Christ have been referred to as "The Gospel of... '' or "The Gospel according to... '' followed by the name of the supposed author. Whatever these admittedly early ascriptions may imply about the sources behind or the perception of these gospels, they are anonymous compositions.
The first three gospels listed above are classified as the Synoptic Gospels. They contain similar accounts of the events in Jesus ' life and his teaching, due to their literary interdependence. The Gospel of John is structured differently and includes stories of several miracles of Jesus and sayings not found in the other three.
These four gospels that were eventually included in the New Testament were only a few among many other early Christian gospels. The existence of such texts is even mentioned at the beginning of the Gospel of Luke. Other early Christian gospels such as the so - called "Jewish - Christian Gospels '' or the Gospel of Thomas, also offer both a window into the context of early Christianity and may provide some assistance in the reconstruction of the historical Jesus.
The Acts of the Apostles is a narrative of the apostles ' ministry and activity after Christ 's death and resurrection, from which point it resumes and functions as a sequel to the Gospel of Luke. Examining style, phraseology, and other evidence, modern scholarship generally concludes that Acts and the Gospel of Luke share the same author, referred to as Luke -- Acts. Luke - Acts does not name its author. Church tradition identified him as Luke the Evangelist, the companion of Paul, but the majority of scholars reject this due to the many contradictions between Acts and the authentic Pauline letters. The most probable date of composition is around 80 -- 100 AD, and there is evidence that it was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.
The epistles of the New Testament are considered by Christians to be divinely inspired and holy letters, written by the apostles and disciples of Christ, to either local congregations with specific needs, or to New Covenant Christians in general, scattered about; or "General Epistles. ''
The Pauline epistles are the thirteen New Testament books that present Paul the Apostle as their author. Six of the letters are disputed. Four are thought by most modern scholars to be pseudepigraphic, i.e., not actually written by Paul even if attributed to him within the letters themselves. Opinion is more divided on the other two disputed letters (2 Thessalonians and Colossians). These letters were written to Christian communities in specific cities or geographical regions, often to address issues faced by that particular community. Prominent themes include the relationship both to broader "pagan '' society, to Judaism, and to other Christians.
(Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk (*).)
The last four Pauline letters in the New Testament are addressed to individual persons. They include the following:
(Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk (*).)
All of the above except for Philemon are known as the Pastoral epistles. They are addressed to individuals charged with pastoral oversight of churches and discuss issues of Christian living, doctrine and leadership. They often address different concerns to those of the preceding epistles. These letters are believed by many to be pseudepigraphic. Some scholars (e.g., Bill Mounce, Ben Witherington) will argue that the letters are genuinely Pauline, or at least written under Paul 's supervision.
The Epistle to the Hebrews addresses a Jewish audience who had come to believe that Jesus was the anointed one (Hebrew: מָשִׁיחַ -- transliterated in English as "Moshiach '', or "Messiah ''; Greek: Χριστός -- transliterated in English as "Christos '', for "Christ '') who was predicted in the writings of the Hebrew Bible. The author discusses the "better - ness '' of the new covenant and the ministry of Jesus, over the Mosaic covenant and urges the readers in the practical implications of this conviction through the end of the epistle.
The book has been widely accepted by the Christian church as inspired by God and thus authoritative, despite the acknowledgment of uncertainties about who its human author was. Regarding authorship, although the Epistle to the Hebrews does not internally claim to have been written by the Apostle Paul, some similarities in wordings to some of the Pauline Epistles have been noted and inferred. In antiquity, some began to ascribe it to Paul in an attempt to provide the anonymous work an explicit apostolic pedigree.
In the 4th century, Jerome and Augustine of Hippo supported Paul 's authorship. The Church largely agreed to include Hebrews as the fourteenth letter of Paul, and affirmed this authorship until the Reformation. The letter to the Hebrews had difficulty in being accepted as part of the Christian canon because of its anonymity. As early as the 3rd century, Origen wrote of the letter, "Men of old have handed it down as Paul 's, but who wrote the Epistle God only knows. ''
Contemporary scholars often reject Pauline authorship for the epistle to the Hebrews, based on its distinctive style and theology, which are considered to set it apart from Paul 's writings.
The General epistles (or "catholic epistles '') consist of both letters and treatises in the form of letters written to the church at large. The term "catholic '' (Greek: καθολική, katholikē), used to describe these letters in the oldest manuscripts containing them, here simply means "general '' or "universal ''. The authorship of a number of these is disputed.
The final book of the New Testament is the Book of Revelation, also known as the Apocalypse of John. In the New Testament canon, it is considered prophetical or apocalyptic literature. Its authorship has been attributed either to John the Apostle (in which case it is often thought that John the Apostle is John the Evangelist, i.e. author of the Gospel of John) or to another John designated "John of Patmos '' after the island where the text says the revelation was received (1: 9). Some ascribe the writership date as circa 81 -- 96 AD, and others at around 68 AD. The work opens with letters to seven churches and thereafter takes the form of an apocalypse, a literary genre popular in ancient Judaism and Christianity.
The order in which the books of the New Testament appear differs between some collections and ecclesiastical traditions. In the Latin West, prior to the Vulgate (an early 5th - century Latin version of the Bible), the four Gospels were arranged in the following order: Matthew, John, Luke, and Mark. The Syriac Peshitta places the major General epistles (James, 1 Peter, and 1 John) immediately after Acts and before the Pauline epistles.
The order of an early edition of the letters of Paul is based on the size of the letters: longest to shortest, though keeping 1 and 2 Corinthians and 1 and 2 Thessalonians together. The Pastoral epistles were apparently not part of the Corpus Paulinum in which this order originated and were later inserted after 2 Thessalonians and before Philemon. Hebrews was variously incorporated into the Corpus Paulinum either after 2 Thessalonians, after Philemon (i.e. at the very end), or after Romans.
The New Testament of the 16th - century Luther Bible continues, to this day, to place Hebrews, James, Jude, and the Apocalypse last. This reflects the thoughts of the Reformer Martin Luther on the canonicity of these books.
The books that eventually found a permanent place in the New Testament were not the only works of Christian literature produced in the earliest Christian centuries. The long process of canonization began early, sometimes with tacit reception of traditional texts, sometimes with explicit selection or rejection of particular texts as either acceptable or unacceptable for use in a given context (e.g., not all texts that were acceptable for private use were considered appropriate for use in the liturgy).
Over the course of history, those works of early Christian literature that survived but that did not become part of the New Testament have been variously grouped by theologians and scholars. Drawing upon, though redefining, an older term used in early Christianity and among Protestants when referring to those books found in the Christian Old Testament although not in the Jewish Bible, modern scholars began to refer to these works of early Christian literature not included in the New Testament as "apocryphal '', by which was meant non-canonical.
Collected editions of these works were then referred to as the "New Testament apocrypha ''. Typically excluded from such published collections are the following groups of works: The Apostolic Fathers, the 2nd - century Christian apologists, the Alexandrians, Tertullian, Methodius of Olympus, Novatian, Cyprian, martyrdoms, and the Desert Fathers. Almost all other Christian literature from the period, and sometimes including works composed well into Late Antiquity, are relegated to the so - called New Testament apocrypha.
Although not considered to be inspired by God, these "apocryphal '' works may be helpful in the study of the New Testament in that they were produced in the same ancient context and often using the same language as those books that would eventually form the New Testament. Some of these later works are dependent (either directly or indirectly) upon books that would later come to be in the New Testament or upon the ideas expressed in them. There is even an example of a pseudepigraphical letter composed under the guise of a presumably lost letter of the Apostle Paul, the Epistle to the Laodiceans.
The books of the New Testament were all or nearly all written by Jewish Christians -- that is, Jewish disciples of Christ, who lived in the Roman Empire, and under Roman occupation. Luke, who wrote the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts, is frequently thought of as an exception; scholars are divided as to whether Luke was a Gentile or a Hellenistic Jew. A few scholars identify the author of the Gospel of Mark as probably a Gentile, and similarly for the Gospel of Matthew, though most assert Jewish - Christian authorship.
Authorship is an area of longstanding and current research and debate, with different works posing different problems for identification. While the various works have traditional ascriptions of authorship, these ascriptions are in some cases defended by scholars, and in other cases disputed or rejected. According to many (if not most) critical scholars, none of the authors of the Gospels were eyewitnesses or even explicitly claimed to be eyewitnesses. Bart Ehrman of the University of North Carolina has argued for a scholarly consensus that many New Testament books were not written by the individuals whose names are attached. He further argues that the Gospels were originally anonymous, and names were not ascribed to them until around 185 AD. Other scholars concur. It is the perspective of some writers that none were written in Palestine.
There is a tradition that the Apostle John was the author of the Gospel of John. Traditionalists (such as Biblical commentators Albert Barnes and Matthew Henry) claim that the writer of the Gospel of John himself claimed to be an eyewitness in their commentaries of John 21: 24 and therefore the gospel was written by an eyewitness; however, this idea is rejected by the majority of modern scholars.
A review of Richard Bauckham 's book Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony states "The common wisdom in the academy is that stories and sayings of Jesus circulated for decades, undergoing countless retellings and embellishments before being finally set down in writing. ''
Most scholars hold to the two - source hypothesis, which claims that the Gospel of Mark was written first. According to the hypothesis, the authors of the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke then used the Gospel of Mark and the hypothetical Q document, in addition to some other sources, to write their individual gospel accounts. These three gospels are called the Synoptic gospels because they include many of the same stories, often in the same sequence, and sometimes exactly the same wording. Scholars agree that the Gospel of John was written last, by using a different tradition and body of testimony. In addition, most scholars agree that the author of Luke wrote the Acts of the Apostles. Scholars hold that these books constituted two halves of a single work, Luke - Acts.
Strictly speaking, each gospel and the book of Acts is arguably anonymous. The Gospel of John is somewhat of an exception, although the author simply refers to himself as "the disciple Jesus loved '' and claims to be a member of Jesus ' inner circle. The identities of each author were agreed upon at an early date, certainly no later than the early 2nd century. It is likely that the issue of the authorship of each gospel had been settled at least somewhat earlier, as the earliest sources are in complete agreement on the issue. No one questioned the early 2nd century consensus until the 18th century.
Some scholars today maintain the traditional claim that Luke the Evangelist, an associate of St. Paul who was probably not an eyewitness to Jesus ' ministry, wrote the Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles. Scholars are also divided on the traditional claim that Mark the Evangelist, an associate of St. Peter who may have been an eyewitness to Jesus ' ministry, wrote the Gospel of Mark. Scholars are more divided over the traditional claim that Matthew the Apostle wrote the Gospel of Matthew and that John the Apostle wrote the Gospel of John. Opinion, however, is widely divided on this issue and there is no widespread consensus.
The Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles were both written by the same author, and are thus referred to as the Lucan texts. The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book; both were addressed to Theophilus, and the preface to the Acts of the Apostles references "my former book '' about the ministry of Jesus. Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author.
The Pauline epistles are the thirteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to Paul of Tarsus. The anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is, despite unlikely Pauline authorship, often functionally grouped with these thirteen to form a corpus of fourteen "Pauline '' epistles.
Seven letters are generally classified as "undisputed '', expressing contemporary scholarly near consensus that they are the work of Paul: Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philemon. Six additional letters bearing Paul 's name do not currently enjoy the same academic consensus: Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy and Titus.
While many scholars uphold the traditional view, some question whether the first three, called the "Deutero - Pauline Epistles '', are authentic letters of Paul. As for the latter three, the "Pastoral epistles '', some scholars uphold the traditional view of these as the genuine writings of the Apostle Paul; most, however, regard them as pseudepigrapha.
One might refer to the Epistle to the Laodiceans and the Third Epistle to the Corinthians as examples of works identified as pseudonymous. Since the early centuries of the church, there has been debate concerning the authorship of the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews, and contemporary scholars generally reject Pauline authorship.
The epistles all share common themes, emphasis, vocabulary and style; they exhibit a uniformity of doctrine concerning the Mosaic Law, Jesus, faith, and various other issues. All of these letters easily fit into the chronology of Paul 's journeys depicted in Acts of the Apostles.
The author of the Epistle of James identifies himself in the opening verse as "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ ''. From the middle of the 3rd century, patristic authors cited the Epistle as written by James the Just. Ancient and modern scholars have always been divided on the issue of authorship. Many consider the epistle to be written in the late 1st or early 2nd centuries.
The author of the First Epistle of Peter identifies himself in the opening verse as "Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ '', and the view that the epistle was written by St. Peter is attested to by a number of Church Fathers: Irenaeus (140 -- 203), Tertullian (150 -- 222), Clement of Alexandria (155 -- 215) and Origen of Alexandria (185 -- 253). Unlike The Second Epistle of Peter, the authorship of which was debated in antiquity, there was little debate about Peter 's authorship of this first epistle until the 18th century. Although 2 Peter internally purports to be a work of the apostle, many biblical scholars have concluded that Peter is not the author. For an early date and (usually) for a defense of the Apostle Peter 's authorship see Kruger, Zahn, Spitta, Bigg, and Green.
The Epistle of Jude title is written as follows: "Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James '' (NRSV). The debate has continued over the author 's identity as the apostle, the brother of Jesus, both, or neither.
The First Epistle of John is traditionally held to have been composed by John the Apostle (the author of the Gospel of John) when the writer was in advanced age. The epistle 's content, language and conceptual style indicate that it may have had the same author as the Gospel of John, 2 John and 3 John. Eusebius claimed that the author of 2nd and 3rd John was not John the Apostle, but an "elder John '' which refers either to the apostle at an advanced age or a hypothetical second individual ("John the Elder ''). Scholars today are divided on the issue.
The author of the Book of Revelation identifies himself several times as "John ''. and states that he was on Patmos when he received his first vision. As a result, the author is sometimes referred to as John of Patmos. The author has traditionally been identified with John the Apostle to whom the Gospel and the epistles of John were attributed. It was believed that he was exiled to the island of Patmos during the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian, and there wrote Revelation. Justin Martyr (c. 100 -- 165 AD) who was acquainted with Polycarp, who had been mentored by John, makes a possible allusion to this book, and credits John as the source. Irenaeus (c. 115 -- 202) assumes it as a conceded point. According to the Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, modern scholars are divided between the apostolic view and several alternative hypotheses put forth in the last hundred years or so. Ben Witherington points out that linguistic evidence makes it unlikely that the books were written by the same person.
The earliest works that became part of the New Testament are the letters of the Apostle Paul. The earliest of the books of the New Testament was First Thessalonians, an epistle of Paul, written probably in 51, or possibly Galatians in 49 according to one of two theories of its writing.
In the 1830s German scholars of the Tübingen school tried to date the books as late as the 3rd century, but the discovery of some New Testament manuscripts and fragments from the 2nd and 3rd centuries, one of which dates as early as 125 (Papyrus 52), disproves a 3rd - century date of composition for any book now in the New Testament. Additionally, a letter to the church at Corinth in the name of Clement of Rome in 95 quotes from 10 of the 27 books of the New Testament, and a letter to the church at Philippi in the name of Polycarp in 120 quotes from 16 books. Therefore, some of the books of the New Testament must have been in circulation by the end of the first century.
Scholars hold a wide spectrum of views on exactly when the books of the new testament were written, with non-fundamentalist scholars tending to argue for later dates, and more conservative scholars arguing for an earlier one. Most contemporary scholars regard Mark as a source used by Luke (see Marcan priority). If it is true that Mark was written around the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, around 70, they theorize that Luke would not have been written before 70. Some who take this view believe that Luke 's prediction of the destruction of the temple could not be a result of Jesus predicting the future but with the benefit of hindsight regarding specific details. They believe that the Olivet Discourse in Luke 21: 5 -- 30 is specific enough (more specific than Mark 's or Matthew 's) that a date after 70 seems likely. These scholars have suggested dates for Luke from 75 to 100.
Support for a later date comes from a number of reasons. Differences of chronology, "style '', and theology suggest that the author of Luke - Acts was not familiar with Paul 's distinctive theology but instead was writing a decade or more after his death, by which point significant harmonization between different traditions within Early Christianity had occurred. Furthermore, Luke - Acts has views on Jesus ' divine nature, the end times, and salvation that are similar to those found in Pastoral epistles, which are often seen as pseudonymous and of a later date than the undisputed Pauline Epistles.
Most conservative scholars however, argue that both internal and external evidence strongly points to dates prior to 70 AD for the Synoptic Gospels, Acts, and the Pauline Epistles. They note that there is no mention of the deaths of Paul, Peter, and James, all of which happened between 60 - 65 AD, in any book of the New Testament. These were all extremely important figures in the early church, writers would have mentioned their deaths if the New Testament had been written later. Furthermore, the Gospels contain numerous attacks on the Sadducees, a sect of Judaism that was wiped out with the destruction of the temple. Why, they ask, would later writers devote so much narrative space to attacking a group that no longer existed?
John Robinson also notes that each book of the New Testament had to be written prior to the destruction of The Temple. Robinson notes that most scholars interpret the Olivet Discourse as a post 70 AD account of the destruction of The Temple, couched in language to make it appear to be a prophecy, culminating in the Second Coming of Jesus to end the world. Robinson notes that the Second Coming did not occur after the destruction of The Temple, leading him to ask, why would a writer in the 80s or 90s forge a prophecy of an event that that is proven not to have occurred 20 years earlier?
The major languages spoken by both Jews and Greeks in the Holy Land at the time of Jesus were Aramaic and Koine Greek, and also a colloquial dialect of Mishnaic Hebrew. It is generally agreed by most scholars that the historical Jesus primarily spoke Aramaic, perhaps also some Hebrew and Koine Greek. The majority view is that all of the books that would eventually form the New Testament were written in the Koine Greek language.
As Christianity spread, these books were later translated into other languages, most notably, Latin, Syriac, and Egyptian Coptic. However, some of the Church Fathers imply or claim that Matthew was originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and then soon after was written in Koine Greek. Nevertheless, the Gospel of Matthew known today was composed in Greek and is neither directly dependent upon nor a translation of a text in a Semitic language.
The process of canonization of the New Testament was complex and lengthy. In the initial centuries of early Christianity, there were many books widely considered by the church to be inspired, but there was no single formally recognized New Testament canon. The process was characterized by a compilation of books that apostolic tradition considered authoritative in worship and teaching, relevant to the historical situations in which they lived, and consonant with the Old Testament. Writings attributed to the apostles circulated among the earliest Christian communities and the Pauline epistles were circulating, perhaps in collected forms, by the end of the 1st century AD.
One of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by Marcion, circa 140 AD, who accepted only a modified version of Luke (the Gospel of Marcion) and ten of Paul 's letters, while rejecting the Old Testament entirely. His canon was increasingly rejected by other groups of Christians, notably the proto - orthodox Christians, as was his theology, Marcionism. Adolf Harnack in Origin of the New Testament (1914) observed that the church gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion.
Justin Martyr, Irenaeus and Tertullian held the letters of Paul to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired, yet others rejected him. Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of New Testament apocrypha. Justin Martyr, in the mid 2nd century, mentions "memoirs of the apostles '' as being read on Sunday alongside the "writings of the prophets ''.
The Muratorian fragment, dated at between 170 and as late as the end of the 4th century (according to the Anchor Bible Dictionary), may be the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream Christianity. It is similar, but not identical, to the modern New Testament canon.
The oldest clear endorsement of Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John being the only legitimate gospels was written circa 180 AD. A four gospel canon (the Tetramorph) was asserted by Irenaeus, who refers to it directly in his polemic Against the Heresies, "It is not possible that the gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are. For, since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the church is scattered throughout all the world, and the "pillar and ground '' of the church is the gospel and the spirit of life; it is fitting that she should have four pillars, breathing out immortality on every side, and vivifying men afresh. '' The books considered to be authoritative by Irenaeus included the four gospels and many of the letters of Paul, although, based on the arguments Irenaeus made in support of only four authentic gospels, some interpreters deduce that the fourfold Gospel must have still been a novelty in Irenaeus 's time.
By the early 200s, Origen may have been using the same twenty - seven books as in the Catholic New Testament canon, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of the Letter to the Hebrews, Epistle of James, II Peter, II John and III John and the Book of Revelation, known as the Antilegomena. Likewise, the Muratorian fragment is evidence that, perhaps as early as 200, there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to the twenty - seven book NT canon, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them. Thus, while there was a good measure of debate in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the major writings are claimed to have been accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the 3rd century.
Origen was largely responsible for the collection of usage information regarding the texts that became the New Testament. The information used to create the late - 4th - century Easter Letter, which declared accepted Christian writings, was probably based on the Ecclesiastical History (HE) of Eusebius of Caesarea, wherein he uses the information passed on to him by Origen to create both his list at HE 3: 25 and Origen 's list at HE 6: 25. Eusebius got his information about what texts were then accepted and what were then disputed, by the third - century churches throughout the known world, a great deal of which Origen knew of firsthand from his extensive travels, from the library and writings of Origen.
In fact, Origen would have possibly included in his list of "inspired writings '' other texts kept out by the likes of Eusebius -- including the Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas, and 1 Clement. Notwithstanding these facts, "Origen is not the originator of the idea of biblical canon, but he certainly gives the philosophical and literary - interpretative underpinnings for the whole notion. ''
Eusebius, circa 300, gave a detailed list of New Testament writings in his Ecclesiastical History Book 3, Chapter XXV:
The Book of Revelation is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp Lake translation: "Recognized '') and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. From other writings of the church fathers, it was disputed with several canon lists rejecting its canonicity. EH 3.3. 5 adds further detail on Paul: "Paul 's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul. '' EH 4.29. 6 mentions the Diatessaron: "But their original founder, Tatian, formed a certain combination and collection of the gospels, I know not how, to which he gave the title Diatessaron, and which is still in the hands of some. But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle Paul, in order to improve their style. ''
In his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list of the books that would become the twenty - seven - book NT canon, and he used the word "canonized '' (kanonizomena) in regards to them. The first council that accepted the present canon of the New Testament may have been the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa (393 AD); the acts of this council, however, are lost. A brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419). These councils were under the authority of St. Augustine, who regarded the canon as already closed.
Pope Damasus I 's Council of Rome in 382, if the Decretum Gelasianum is correctly associated with it, issued a biblical canon identical to that mentioned above, or, if not, the list is at least a 6th - century compilation. Likewise, Damasus ' commissioning of the Latin Vulgate edition of the Bible, c. 383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West. In c. 405, Pope Innocent I sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop, Exsuperius of Toulouse. Christian scholars assert that, when these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, however, they were not defining something new but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church. ''
The New Testament canon as it is now was first listed by St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt, Festal Letter 39. Also cited is the Council of Rome, but not without controversy. That canon gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the Third Council of Carthage in 397 and 419.
Even this council did not settle the matter, however. Certain books, referred to as Antilegomena, continued to be questioned, especially James and Revelation. Even as late as the 16th century, the Reformer Martin Luther questioned (but in the end did not reject) the Epistle of James, the Epistle of Jude, the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of Revelation. To this day, German - language Luther Bibles are printed with these four books at the end of the canon, rather than in their traditional order as in other editions of the Bible.
In light of this questioning of the canon of Scripture by Protestants in the 16th century, the (Roman Catholic) Council of Trent reaffirmed the traditional western canon (i.e., the canon accepted at the 4th - century Council of Rome and Council of Carthage), thus making the Canon of Trent and the Vulgate Bible dogma in the Catholic Church. Later, Pope Pius XI on 2 June 1927 decreed the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute and Pope Pius XII on 3 September 1943 issued the encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu, which allowed translations based on other versions than just the Latin Vulgate, notably in English the New American Bible.
Thus, some claim that, from the 4th century, there existed unanimity in the West concerning the New Testament canon (as it is today), and that, by the 5th century, the Eastern Church, with a few exceptions, had come to accept the Book of Revelation and thus had come into harmony on the matter of the canon. Nonetheless, full dogmatic articulations of the canon were not made until the Canon of Trent of 1546 for Roman Catholicism, the Thirty - Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for the Greek Orthodox.
On the question of NT Canon formation generally, New Testament scholar Lee Martin McDonald has written that:
Although a number of Christians have thought that church councils determined what books were to be included in the biblical canons, a more accurate reflection of the matter is that the councils recognized or acknowledged those books that had already obtained prominence from usage among the various early Christian communities.
Christian scholars assert that when these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, they were not defining something new, but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church ''.
Some synods of the 4th century published lists of canonical books (e.g. Hippo and Carthage). The existing 27 - book canon of the New Testament was reconfirmed (for Roman Catholicism) in the 16th century with the Council of Trent (also called the Tridentine Council) of 1546, the Thirty - Nine Articles of 1563 for the Church of England, the Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647 for Calvinism, and the Synod of Jerusalem of 1672 for Eastern Orthodoxy. Although these councils did include statements about the canon, when it came to the New Testament they were only reaffirming the existing canon, including the Antilegomena.
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia article on the Canon of the New Testament: "The idea of a complete and clear - cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the Tridentine Council. ''
In 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius (Apol. Const. 4) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus may be examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. There is no evidence among the canons of the First Council of Nicaea of any determination on the canon.
Like other literature from antiquity, the text of the New Testament was (prior to the advent of the printing press) preserved and transmitted in manuscripts. Manuscripts containing at least a part of the New Testament number in the thousands. The earliest of these (like manuscripts containing other literature) are often very fragmentarily preserved. Some of these fragments have even been thought to date as early as the 2nd century (i.e., Papyrus 90, Papyrus 98, Papyrus 104, and famously Rylands Library Papyrus P52, though the early date of the latter has recently been called into question).
For each subsequent century, more and more manuscripts survive that contain a portion or all of the books that were held to be part of the New Testament at that time (for example, the New Testament of the 4th - century Codex Sinaiticus, once a complete Bible, contains the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas), though occasionally these manuscripts contain other works as well (e.g., Papyrus 72 and the Crosby - Schøyen Codex). The date when a manuscript was written, however, does not necessarily reflect the date of the form of text it contains. That is, later manuscripts can, and occasionally do, contain older forms of text or older readings.
Some of the more important manuscripts containing an early text of books of the New Testament are:
Textual criticism deals with the identification and removal of transcription errors in the texts of manuscripts. Ancient scribes made errors or alterations (such as including non-authentic additions). The New Testament has been preserved in more than 5,800 Greek manuscripts, 10,000 Latin manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages including Syriac, Slavic, Ethiopic and Armenian. Even if the original Greek versions were lost, the entire New Testament could still be assembled from the translations.
In addition, there are so many quotes from the New Testament in early church documents and commentaries that the entire New Testament could also be assembled from these alone. Not all biblical manuscripts come from orthodox Christian writers. For example, the Gnostic writings of Valentinus come from the 2nd century AD, and these Christians were regarded as heretics by the mainstream church. The sheer number of witnesses presents unique difficulties, but it also gives scholars a better idea of how close modern Bibles are to the original versions.
On noting the large number of surviving ancient manuscripts, Bruce Metzger sums up the view on the issue by saying "The more often you have copies that agree with each other, especially if they emerge from different geographical areas, the more you can cross-check them to figure out what the original document was like. The only way they 'd agree would be where they went back genealogically in a family tree that represents the descent of the manuscripts.
A similar type of textual criticism is applied to other ancient texts. There are far fewer witnesses to classical texts than to the Bible, and unlike the New Testament where the earliest witnesses are often within a couple decades of the original, the earliest existing manuscripts of most classical texts were written about a millennium after their composition. For example, the earliest surviving copies of parts of the Roman historian Tacitus ' main work, the Annals of Imperial Rome (written in 116 AD), come from a single manuscript written in 850 AD, although for other parts of his work, the earliest copies come from the 11th century, while other parts of his work have been lost.
The earliest copies of The Jewish War by Josephus (originally composed in the 1st century AD), in contrast, come from nine manuscripts written in the 10th, 11th and 12th centuries. After the Bible, the next best preserved ancient work is Homer 's Iliad, with 650 copies originating about 1,000 years after the original copy. Caesar 's Commentaries on the Gallic War (written in the 50s BC) survives in nine copies written in the 8th century. Thucydides ' history of the Peloponesian War and Herodotus ' history of the Persian War (both written in the 5th century BC) survives in about eight early copies, the oldest ones dating from the 10th century AD.
Biblical scholar F.F. Bruce has said "the evidence for our New Testament writings is ever so much greater than the evidence for many writings of classical authors, the authenticity of which no one dreams of questioning... It is a curious fact that historians have often been much readier to trust the New Testament records than have many theologians. ''
In attempting to determine the original text of the New Testament books, some modern textual critics have identified sections as additions of material, centuries after the gospel was written. These are called interpolations. In modern translations of the Bible, the results of textual criticism have led to certain verses, words and phrases being left out or marked as not original. According to Bart D. Ehrman, "These scribal additions are often found in late medieval manuscripts of the New Testament, but not in the manuscripts of the earlier centuries. ''
Most modern Bibles have footnotes to indicate passages that have disputed source documents. Bible Commentaries also discuss these, sometimes in great detail. While many variations have been discovered between early copies of biblical texts, almost all have no importance, as they are variations in spelling, punctuation, or grammar. Also, many of these variants are so particular to the Greek language that they would not appear in translations into other languages. For example, order of words (i.e. "man bites dog '' versus "dog bites man '') often does not matter in Greek, so textual variants that flip the order of words often have no consequences.
Outside of these unimportant variants, there are a couple variants of some importance, although even these are minor and can be left out of modern Bibles without affecting any matter of theology or interpretation. The two most commonly cited examples are the last verses of the Gospel of Mark and the story of the adulterous woman in the Gospel of John. Many scholars and critics also believe that the Comma Johanneum reference supporting the Trinity doctrine in 1 John to have been a later addition. According to Norman Geisler and William Nix, "The New Testament, then, has not only survived in more manuscripts than any other book from antiquity, but it has survived in a purer form than any other great book -- a form that is 99.5 % pure ''
The often referred to Interpreter 's Dictionary of the Bible, a book written to prove the validity of the New Testament, says: "A study of 150 Greek (manuscripts) of the Gospel of Luke has revealed more than 30,000 different readings... It is safe to say that there is not one sentence in the New Testament in which the (manuscript) is wholly uniform. '' Most of the variation took place within the first three Christian centuries.
By the 4th century, textual "families '' or types of text become discernible among New Testament manuscripts. A "text - type '' is the name given to a family of texts with similar readings due to common ancestors and mutual correction. Many early manuscripts, however, contain individual readings from several different earlier forms of text. Modern texual critics have identified the following text - types among textual witnesses to the New Testament: The Alexandrian text - type is usually considered to generally preserve many early readings. It is represented, e.g., by Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus and the Bodmer Papyri.
The Western text - type is generally longer and can be paraphrastic, but can also preserve early readings. The Western version of the Acts of the Apostles is, notably, 8.5 % longer than the Alexandrian form of the text. Examples of the Western text are found in Codex Bezae, Codex Claromontanus, Codex Washingtonianus, the Old Latin (i.e., Latin translations made prior to the Vulgate), as well as in quotations by Marcion, Tatian, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Cyprian.
A text - type referred to as the "Caesarean text - type '' and thought to have included witnesses such as Codex Koridethi and minuscule 565, can today be described neither as "Caesarean '' nor as a text - type as was previously thought. However, the Gospel of Mark in Papyrus 45, Codex Washingtonianus and in Family 13 does indeed reflect a distinct type of text.
Increasing standardization of distinct (and once local) text - types eventually gave rise to the Byzantine text - type. Since most manuscripts of the New Testament do not derive from the first several centuries, that is, they were copied after the rise of the Byzantine text - type, this form of text is found the majority of extant manuscripts and is therefore often called the "Majority Text. '' As with all of the other (earlier) text - types, the Byzantine can also occasionally preserve early readings.
Biblical criticism is the scholarly "study and investigation of biblical writings that seeks to make discerning judgments about these writings. '' Viewing biblical texts as having human rather than supernatural origins, it asks when and where a particular text originated; how, why, by whom, for whom, and in what circumstances it was produced; what influences were at work in its production; what sources were used in its composition; and what message it was intended to convey.
It will vary slightly depending on whether the focus is on the Old Testament, the letters of the New Testament, or the Canonical Gospels. It also plays an important role in the quest for the historical Jesus. It also addresses the physical text, including the meaning of the words and the way in which they are used, its preservation, history, and integrity. Biblical criticism draws upon a wide range of scholarly disciplines including archaeology, anthropology, folklore, linguistics, Oral Tradition studies, history, and religious studies.
The textual variation among manuscript copies of books in the New Testament prompted attempts to discern the earliest form of text already in antiquity (e.g., by the 3rd - century Christian author Origen). The efforts began in earnest again during the Renaissance, which saw a revival of the study of ancient Greek texts. During this period, modern textual criticism was born. In this context, Christian humanists such as Lorenzo Valla and Erasmus promoted a return to the original Greek of the New Testament. This was the beginning of modern New Testament textual criticism, which over subsequent centuries would increasingly incorporate more and more manuscripts, in more languages (i.e., versions of the New Testament), as well as citations of the New Testament by ancient authors and the New Testament text in lectionaries in order to reconstruct the earliest recoverable form of the New Testament text and the history of changes to it.
Books that later formed the New Testament, like other Christian literature of the period, originated in a literary context that reveals relationships not only to other Christian writings, but also to Graeco - Roman and Jewish works. Of singular importance is the extensive use of and interaction with the Jewish Bible and what would become the Christian Old Testament. Both implicit and explicit citations, as well as countless allusions, appear throughout the books of the New Testament, from the Gospels and Acts, to the Epistles, to the Apocalypse.
The first translations (usually called "versions '') of the New Testament were made beginning already at the end of 2nd century. The earliest versions of the New Testament are the translations into the Syriac, Latin, and Coptic languages. These three versions were made directly from the Greek, and are frequently cited in the apparatuses of modern critical editions.
Syriac was spoken in Syria, and Mesopotamia, and with dialect in Roman and Byzantine Palestine where it was known as Jewish Palestinian Aramaic. Several Syriac translations were made and have come to us. Most of the Old Syriac, however, as well as the Philoxonian version have been lost.
Tatian, the Assyrian, created the Diatessaron, a gospel harmony written in Syriac around 170 AD and the earliest form of the gospel not only in Syriac but probably also in Armenian.
In the 19th century, manuscript evidence was discovered for an "Old Syriac '' version of the four distinct (i.e., not harmonized) gospels. These "separated '' (Syriac: da - Mepharreshe) gospels, though old, have been shown to be later than the Diatessaron. The Old Syriac gospels are fragmentarily preserved in two manuscripts: the 5th - century Curetonian Syriac and the Sinaitic Syriac from the 4th or 5th century.
No Old Syriac manuscripts of other portions of the New Testament survive, though Old Syriac readings, e.g. from the Pauline Epistles, can be discerned in citations made by Eastern fathers and in later Syriac versions. The Old Syriac version is a representative of the Western text - type. The Peshitta version was prepared in the beginning of the 5th century. It contains only 22 books (neither the Minor Catholic Epistles of 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude, nor the Book of Revelation were part of this translation).
The Philoxenian probably was produced in 508 for Philoxenus, Bishop of Mabung.
The Gospels were likely translated into Latin as early as the last quarter of the 2nd century in North Africa (Afra). Not much later, there were also European Latin translations (Itala). There are about 80 Old Latin mansucripts. The Vetus Latina ("Old Latin '') versions often contain readings with a Western type of text. (For the avoidance of confusion, these texts were written in Late Latin, not the early version of the Latin language known as Old Latin, pre 75 BC.)
The bewildering diversity of the Old Latin versions prompted Jerome to prepare another translation into Latin -- the Vulgate. In many respects it was merely a revision of the Old Latin. There are currently around 8,000 manuscripts of the Vulgate.
There are several dialects of the Coptic language: Bohairic (northern dialect), Fayyumic, Sahidic (southern dialect), Akhmimic, and others. The first translation was made by at least the 3rd century into the Sahidic dialect (cop). This translation represents a mixed text, mostly Alexandrian, though also with Western readings.
A Bohairic translation was made later, but existed already in the 4th century. Though the translation makes less use of Greek words than the Sahidic, it does employ some Greek grammar (e.g., in word - order and the use of particles such as the syntactic construction μεν -- δε). For this reason, the Bohairic translation can be helpful in the reconstruction of the early Greek text of the New Testament.
The continued spread of Christianity, and the foundation of national churches, led to the translation of the Bible -- often beginning with books from the New Testament -- into a variety of other languages at a relatively early date: Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Persian, Soghdian, and eventually Gothic, Old Church Slavonic, Arabic, and Nubian.
Modern Literal Version is the most recent literal translation of the books of the new testament, with the largest number of translation experts being involved in the final translation.
Historically, throughout the Christian world and in the context of Christian missionary activity, the New Testament (or portions thereof) has been that part of the Christian Bible first translated into the vernacular. The production of such translations grew out of the insertion of vernacular glosses in biblical texts, as well as out of the production of biblical paraphrases and poetic renditions of stories from the life of Christ (e.g., the Heliand).
The 16th century saw the rise of Protestantism and an explosion of translations of the New (and Old) Testament into the vernacular. Notable are those of Martin Luther (1522), Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples (1523), the Froschau Bible (1525 -- 1529, revised in 1574), William Tyndale (1526, revised in 1534, 1535 and 1536), the Brest Bible (1563), and the Authorized Version (also called the "King James Version '') (1611).
Most of these translations relied (though not always exclusively) upon one of the printed editions of the Greek New Testament edited by Erasmus, a form of this Greek text emerged as the standard and is known as the Textus Receptus. This text, based on the majority of manuscripts is also used in the majority of translations that were made in the years 100 to 400 AD.
Translations of the New Testament made since the appearance of critical editions of the Greek text (notably those of Tischendorf, Westcott and Hort, and von Soden) have largely used them as their base text. Unlike the Textus Receptus, these have a pronounced Alexandrian character. Standard critical editions are those of Souter, Vogels, Bover, Merk, and Nestlé - Aland (the text, though not the full critical apparatus of which is reproduced in the United Bible Societies ' "Greek New Testament '').
Notable translations of the New Testament based on these most recent critical editions include the Revised Standard Version (1946, revised in 1971), La Bible de Jérusalem (1961, revised in 1973 and 2000), the Einheitsübersetzung (1970, final edition 1979), the New American Bible (1970, revised in 1986), the Traduction Oecuménique de la Bible (1988, revised in 2004), and the New Revised Standard Version (1989).
Though all Christian churches accept the New Testament as Scripture, they differ in their understanding of the nature, extent, and relevance of its authority. Views of the authoritativeness of the New Testament often depend on the concept of inspiration, which relates to the role of God in the formation of the New Testament. Generally, the greater the role of God in one 's doctrine of inspiration, the more one accepts the doctrine of biblical inerrancy and / or authoritativeness of the Bible. One possible source of confusion is that these terms are difficult to define, because many people use them interchangeably or with very different meanings. This article will use the terms in the following manner:
The self - witness of the Bible to its inspiration demands a commitment to its unity. The ultimate basis for unity is contained in the claim of divine inspiration in 2 Timothy 3: 16 that "all Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness '' (KJV). The term "inspiration '' renders the Greek word theopneustos. This term only occurs here in the New Testament and literally means "God - breathed '' (the chosen translation of the NIV).
All of these concepts depend for their meaning on the supposition that the text of Bible has been properly interpreted, with consideration for the intention of the text, whether literal history, allegory or poetry, etc. Especially the doctrine of inerrancy is variously understood according to the weight given by the interpreter to scientific investigations of the world.
The notion of unity in diversity of Scripture claims that the Bible presents a noncontradictory and consistent message concerning God and redemptive history. The fact of diversity is observed in comparing the diversity of time, culture, authors ' perspectives, literary genre, and the theological themes.
Studies from many theologians considering the "unity in diversity '' to be found in the New Testament (and the Bible as a whole) have been collected and summarized by New Testament theologian Frank Stagg. He describes them as some basic presuppositions, tenets, and concerns common among the New Testament writers, giving to the New Testament its "unity in diversity '':
For the Roman Catholic Church, there are two modes of Revelation: Scripture and Tradition. Both of them are interpreted by the teachings of the Church. The Roman Catholic view is expressed clearly in the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1997):
§ 82: As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted, does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence. § 107: The inspired books teach the truth. Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.
In Catholic terminology the teaching office is called the Magisterium. The Catholic view should not be confused with the two - source theory. As the Catechism states in § § 80 and 81, Revelation has "one common source... two distinct modes of transmission. ''
While many Eastern Orthodox writers distinguish between Scripture and Tradition, Bishop Kallistos Ware says that for the Orthodox there is only one source of the Christian faith, Holy Tradition, within which Scripture exists.
Traditional Anglicans believe that "Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation '', (Article VI), but also that the Catholic Creeds "ought thoroughly to be received and believed '' (Article VIII), and that the Church "hath authority in Controversies of Faith '' and is "a witness and keeper of Holy Writ '' (Article XX). Classical Anglicanism, therefore, like Orthodoxy, holds that Holy Tradition is the only safe guardian against perversion and innovation in the interpretation of Scripture.
In the famous words of Thomas Ken, Bishop of Bath and Wells: "As for my religion, I dye in the holy catholic and apostolic faith professed by the whole Church before the disunion of East and West, more particularly in the communion of the Church of England, as it stands distinguished from all Papal and Puritan innovations, and as it adheres to the doctrine of the Cross. ''
Following the doctrine of sola scriptura, Protestants believe that their traditions of faith, practice and interpretations carry forward what the scriptures teach, and so tradition is not a source of authority in itself. Their traditions derive authority from the Bible, and are therefore always open to reëvaluation. This openness to doctrinal revision has extended in Liberal Protestant traditions even to the reevaluation of the doctrine of Scripture upon which the Reformation was founded, and members of these traditions may even question whether the Bible is infallible in doctrine, inerrant in historical and other factual statements, and whether it has uniquely divine authority. However, the adjustments made by modern Protestants to their doctrine of scripture vary widely.
Within the US, the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (1978) is a statement, articulating evangelical views on this issue. Paragraph four of its summary states: "Being wholly and verbally God - given, Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching, no less in what it states about God 's acts in creation, about the events of world history, and about its own literary origins under God, than in its witness to God 's saving grace in individual lives. ''
Mainline American Protestant denominations, including the United Methodist Church, Presbyterian Church USA, The Episcopal Church, and Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, do not teach the doctrine of inerrancy as set forth in the Chicago Statement. All of these churches have more ancient doctrinal statements asserting the authority of scripture, but may interpret these statements in such a way as to allow for a very broad range of teaching -- from evangelicalism to skepticism. It is not an impediment to ordination in these denominations to teach that the scriptures contain errors, or that the authors follow a more or less unenlightened ethics that, however appropriate it may have seemed in the authors ' time, moderns would be very wrong to follow blindly.
For example, ordination of women is universally accepted in the mainline churches, abortion is condemned as a grievous social tragedy but not always a personal sin or a crime against an unborn person, and homosexuality is sometimes recognized as a genetic propensity or morally neutral preference that should be neither encouraged nor condemned. In North America, the most contentious of these issues among these churches at the present time is how far the ordination of gay men and lesbians should be accepted.
Officials of the Presbyterian Church USA report: "We acknowledge the role of scriptural authority in the Presbyterian Church, but Presbyterians generally do not believe in biblical inerrancy. Presbyterians do not insist that every detail of chronology or sequence or prescientific description in scripture be true in literal form. Our confessions do teach biblical infallibility. Infallibility affirms the entire truthfulness of scripture without depending on every exact detail. ''
Those who hold a more liberal view of the Bible as a human witness to the glory of God, the work of fallible humans who wrote from a limited experience unusual only for the insight they have gained through their inspired struggle to know God in the midst of a troubled world. Therefore, they tend not to accept such doctrines as inerrancy. These churches also tend to retain the social activism of their evangelical forebears of the 19th century, placing particular emphasis on those teachings of scripture that teach compassion for the poor and concern for social justice.
The message of personal salvation is, generally speaking, of the good that comes to oneself and the world through following the New Testament 's Golden Rule admonition to love others without hypocrisy or prejudice. Toward these ends, the "spirit '' of the New Testament, more than the letter, is infallible and authoritative.
There are some movements that believe the Bible contains the teachings of Jesus but who reject the churches that were formed following its publication. These people believe all individuals can communicate directly with God and therefore do not need guidance or doctrines from a church. These people are known as Christian anarchists.
Messianic Judaism generally holds the same view of New Testament authority as evangelical Protestants. According to the view of some Messianic Jewish congregations, Jesus did not annul the Torah, but that its interpretation is revised and ultimately explained through the Apostolic Scriptures.
The Christian Congregation of Jehovah 's Witnesses accepts the New Testament as divinely inspired Scripture, and as infallible in every detail, with equal authority as the Hebrew Scriptures. They view it as the written revelation and good news of the Messiah, the ransom sacrifice of Jesus, and the Kingdom of God, explaining and expounding the Hebrew Bible, not replacing but vitally supplementing it. They also view the New Testament as the primary instruction guide for Christian living, and church discipline. They generally call the New Testament the "Christian Greek Scriptures '', and see only the "covenants '' as "old '' or "new '', but not any part of the actual Scriptures themselves.
Oneness Pentecostalism subscribes to the common Protestant doctrine of sola scriptura. They view the Bible as the inspired Word of God, and as absolutely inerrant in its contents (though not necessarily in every translation). They regard the New Testament as perfect and inerrant in every way, revealing the Lord Jesus Christ in the Flesh, and his Atonement, and which also explains and illuminates the Old Testament perfectly, and is part of the Bible canon, not because church councils or decrees claimed it so, but by witness of the Holy Spirit.
The Seventh - day Adventist Church holds the New Testament as the inspired Word of God, with God influencing the "thoughts '' of the Apostles in the writing, not necessarily every word though. The first fundamental belief of the Seventh - Day Adventist church stated that "The Holy Scriptures are the infallible revelation of (God 's) will. '' Adventist theologians generally reject the "verbal inspiration '' position on Scripture held by many conservative evangelical Christians. They believe instead that God inspired the thoughts of the biblical authors and apostles, and that the writers then expressed these thoughts in their own words. This view is popularly known as "thought inspiration '', and most Adventist members hold to that view. According to Ed Christian, former JATS editor, "few if any ATS members believe in verbal inerrancy ''.
Regarding the teachings of the New Testament compared to the Old, and the application in the New Covenant, Adventists have traditionally taught that the Decalogue is part of the moral law of God, which was not abrogated by the ministry and death of Jesus Christ. Therefore, the fourth commandment concerning the Sabbath is as applicable to Christian believers as the other nine. Adventists have often taught a distinction between "moral law '' and "ceremonial law ''. According to Adventist beliefs, the moral law continues into the "New Testament era '', but the ceremonial law was done away with by Jesus.
How the Mosaic law should be applied came up at Adventist conferences in the past, and Adventist theologians such as A.T. Jones and E.J. Waggoner looked at the problem addressed by Paul in Galatians as not the ceremonial law, but rather the wrong use of the law (legalism). They were opposed by Uriah Smith and George Butler at the 1888 Conference. Smith in particular thought the Galatians issue had been settled by Ellen White already, yet in 1890 she claimed justification by faith is "the third angel 's message in verity. ''
Ellen White interpreted Colossians 2: 14 as saying that the ceremonial law was nailed to the cross.
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) believe that the New Testament, as part of the Christian biblical canon, is accurate "as far as it is translated correctly ''. They believe the Bible as originally revealed is the word of God, but that the processes of transcription and translation have introduced errors into the texts as currently available, and therefore they can not be regarded as completely inerrant. In addition to the Old and New Testaments, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price are considered part of their scriptural canon.
Despite the wide variety among Christian liturgies, texts from the New Testament play a role in almost all forms of Christian worship. In addition to some language derived from the New Testament in the liturgy itself (e.g., the Trisagion may be based on Apocalypse 4: 8, and the beginning of the "Hymn of Praise '' draws upon Luke 2: 14), the reading of extended passages from the New Testament is a practice common to almost all Christian worship, liturgical or not.
These readings are most often part of an established lectionary (i.e., selected texts to be read at church services on specific days), and (together with an Old Testament reading and a Psalm) include a non-gospel reading from the New Testament and culminate with a Gospel reading. No readings from the Book of Revelation, however, are included in the standard lectionary of the Eastern Orthodox churches.
Central to the Christian liturgy is the celebration of the Eucharist or "Holy Communion ''. The Words of Institution that begin this rite are drawn directly from 1 Corinthians 11: 23 -- 26. In addition, the communal recitation of the Lord 's Prayer (in the form found in the Gospel of Matthew 6: 9 -- 13) is also a standard feature of Christian worship.
Most of the influence of the New Testament upon the arts has come from the Gospels and the Book of Revelation. Literary expansion of the Nativity of Jesus found in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke began already in the 2nd century, and the portrayal of the Nativity has continued in various art forms to this day. The earliest Christian art would often depict scenes from the New Testament such as the raising of Lazarus, the baptism of Jesus or the motif of the Good Shepherd.
Biblical paraphrases and poetic renditions of stories from the life of Christ (e.g., the Heliand) became popular in the Middle Ages, as did the portrayal of the arrest, trial and execution of Jesus in Passion plays. Indeed, the Passion became a central theme in Christian art and music. The ministry and Passion of Jesus, as portrayed in one or more of the New Testament Gospels, has also been a theme in film, almost since the inception of the medium (e.g., "La Passion '', France, 1903).
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how long has there been triple crown races | Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing (United States) - wikipedia
In the United States, the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing, commonly known as the Triple Crown, is a title awarded to a three - year - old Thoroughbred horse who wins the Kentucky Derby, Preakness Stakes, and Belmont Stakes. The three races were inaugurated in different years, the last being the Kentucky Derby in 1875. These races are now run annually in May and early June of each year. The Triple Crown Trophy, commissioned in 1950 but awarded to all previous winners as well as those after 1950, is awarded to a Triple Crown winner.
The first winner of all three Triple Crown races was Sir Barton in 1919. Some journalists began using the term Triple Crown to refer to the three races as early as 1923, but it was not until Gallant Fox won the three events in 1930 that Charles Hatton of the Daily Racing Form put the term into common use.
In the history of the Triple Crown, 13 horses have won all three races: Sir Barton (1919), Gallant Fox (1930), Omaha (1935), War Admiral (1937), Whirlaway (1941), Count Fleet (1943), Assault (1946), Citation (1948), Secretariat (1973), Seattle Slew (1977), Affirmed (1978), American Pharoah (2015), and Justify (2018). As of 2018, American Pharoah and Justify are the only living Triple Crown winners.
James E. "Sunny Jim '' Fitzsimmons was the first trainer to win the Triple Crown more than once; he trained both Gallant Fox and his son Omaha for the Belair Stud breeding farm. Gallant Fox and Omaha are the only father - son duo to win the Triple Crown. Bob Baffert became the second trainer to win the Triple Crown twice, training American Pharoah and Justify. Belair Stud and Calumet Farm are tied as the owners with the most Triple Crown victories with two apiece. Calumet Farms won with Whirlaway and Citation. Eddie Arcaro rode both of Calumet Farms ' Triple Crown champions and is the only jockey to win more than one Triple Crown.
Secretariat holds the stakes record time for each of the three races. His time of 2: 24 for 1 ⁄ miles in the 1973 Belmont Stakes also set a world record that still stands.
The three Triple Crown races had been run for decades before the series received its name; the Belmont Stakes was first run in 1867; the Preakness, in 1873; and the Kentucky Derby, in 1875. The term was in use at least by 1923, although Daily Racing Form writer Charles Hatton is commonly credited with originating the term in 1930.
Their order has varied. Before 1931, the Preakness was run before the Kentucky Derby eleven times. On May 12, 1917, and May 13, 1922, the Kentucky Derby and Preakness were run on the same day. Since 1931, the Kentucky Derby has been run first, followed by the Preakness, and then the Belmont.
Each Triple Crown race is open to both colts and fillies. Although fillies have won each of the individual Triple Crown races, none has won the Triple Crown itself. Despite attempts to develop a "Filly Triple Crown '' or a "Triple Tiara '' for fillies only, no set series of three races has consistently remained in the public eye, and at least four different configurations of races have been used. Two fillies won the series of the Kentucky Oaks, the Pimlico Oaks (now the Black - Eyed Susan Stakes), and the Coaching Club American Oaks, in 1949 and 1952, but the racing press did not designate either accomplishment as a "triple crown ''. In 1961, the New York Racing Association created a filly triple crown of in - state races only, but the races changed over the years. Eight fillies won the NYRA Triple Tiara between 1968 and 1993.
Gelded colts may run in any of the three races today, but they were prohibited from entering the Belmont between 1919 and 1957. Geldings have won each of the individual races, but like fillies, no gelding has ever won the Triple Crown. The closest was Funny Cide, who won the Derby and the Preakness in 2003.
All the races are held on dirt tracks, rather than the turf commonly used for important races in Europe.
At completion of the 2016 season, the three Triple Crown races have attracted 4,224 entrants. Of these, 292 horses have won a single leg of the Triple Crown, 52 horses have won two of the races (23 the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes, 18 the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes, and 11 the Kentucky Derby and Belmont Stakes), and 13 horses have won all three races. Pillory won both the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes in 1922, a year when it was impossible to win the Triple Crown because the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes were run on the same day.
10 of the 13 winners have been "homebreds '', owned at the time of their win by their breeders.
Jim Fitzsimmons and Bob Baffert are the only two trainers to have two horses win the Triple Crown, with Fitzsimmons training the sire / son combination of 1930 winner Gallant Fox and 1935 winner Omaha and Baffert training 2015 winner American Pharoah and 2018 winner Justify. The wins by Fitzsimmons were also the first time that an owner and the first time that a breeder, Belair Stud holding both duties, had a repeat win of the Triple Crown. Calumet Farm is the only other owner with two Triple Crown horses, 1941 winner Whirlaway and 1948 winner Citation. Eddie Arcaro is the only jockey to ride two horses to the Triple Crown, both for Calumet, Whirlaway and Citation. Those two horses ' trainers, Ben Jones and Jimmy Jones, were father and son.
All 13 horses, and most owners, trainers, and jockeys were born in the United States. The exceptions were jockey Johnny Longden, born in England and raised in Canada; French - born jockey Jean Cruguet; trainer Laz Barrera, from Cuba; and jockey Victor Espinoza, from Mexico. Secretariat 's trainer, Lucien Laurin and jockey, Ron Turcotte were both Canadians. Owner Fannie Hertz was married to John D. Hertz, who was born in Slovakia; owner Ahmed Zayat was born in Egypt. Jockey Willie Saunders is considered a Canadian jockey because he grew up and established his career there, but was born in Montana. The horse Sir Barton was foaled in the United States but had a Canadian owner, J.K.L. Ross, at the time of his Triple Crown win, while Justify 's owners were from both the United States and China.
Secretariat holds the stakes record for each of the Triple Crown races, the Kentucky Derby (1: 59 2 / 5), the Preakness Stakes (1: 53), and the Belmont Stakes (2: 24).
At 18, Steve Cauthen became the youngest jockey to win the Triple Crown, riding Affirmed in 1978. At 52, Mike Smith became the oldest jockey to win the Triple Crown, riding Justify in 2018.
Only one horse, Alydar, has placed (finished second) in all three races. He was defeated by Affirmed in all three races in 1978 by a combined margin of two lengths. His trainer John Veitch is the only trainer to have done this with one horse. In 1995, D. Wayne Lukas became the first and only major figure (owner, jockey, or trainer) to win all three Triple Crown races with different horses, Thunder Gulch in the Derby and Belmont, Timber Country in the Preakness. Lukas also is the only trainer to have won six straight Triple Crown races, adding his 1995 wins, having won the 1994 Preakness and Belmont with Tabasco Cat and the 1996 Derby with Grindstone.
Like Veitch, only with two different horses, Bob Baffert also had second - place finishes in all three legs of the Triple Crown, both owned by Ahmed Zayat: in 2012, Bodemeister finished second in the Kentucky Derby and Preakness stakes to I 'll Have Another, then Paynter was entered and finished second to Union Rags. Baffert and Zayat teamed up again for the 2015 Triple Crown victory of American Pharoah.
Gallant Fox is the only Triple Crown winner to sire another U.S. Triple Crown winner, Omaha. Affirmed sired Peteski, winner of the 1993 Canadian Triple Crown.
Whirlaway, in addition to winning the 1941 Triple Crown, also won the Travers Stakes that year, becoming the first and only horse to date to accomplish that feat.
American Pharoah, in addition to winning the 2015 Triple Crown, also won the Breeders ' Cup Classic that year. As the Breeders ' Cup was not established until 1984, American Pharoah was the first (and, as of 2018, only) horse to sweep all four races, a feat that came to be known as the Grand Slam.
After the first Triple Crown winner, Sir Barton, in 1919, there was not another winner until Gallant Fox in 1930, a gap of 11 years. Between 1930 and 1948, seven horses won the Triple Crown, with five years being the longest gap between winners. However, following the 1948 win of Citation, there was a considerable gap of 25 years before Secretariat ended the drought of Triple Crown champions in 1973. Between 1973 and 1978, there were three Triple Crown winners.
After Affirmed 's Triple Crown in 1978, the longest drought in Triple Crown history began in 1979 with Spectacular Bid 's failed Triple Crown attempt at the Belmont Stakes, and lasted until American Pharoah won in 2015. Between 1979 and 2014 thirteen horses won both the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes, but either failed to win the Belmont Stakes or could not start in the race. Of those, Real Quiet came the closest to winning the Triple Crown, losing the Belmont Stakes by a nose in 1998. Spectacular Bid finished 3rd in 1979. Pleasant Colony finished 3rd in 1981. Alysheba finished 4th in 1987. Sunday Silence finished 2nd in 1989. Real Quiet finished 2nd in 1998. Charismatic finished 3rd in 1999. War Emblem finished 8th in 2002. Funny Cide finished 3rd in 2003. Smarty Jones finished 2nd in 2004. Big Brown did not finish in 2008. I 'll Have Another did not start (injury) 2012. California Chrome finished 4th in 2014.
In the 1979 - 2015 period, horses who contested all three races, losing the Kentucky Derby but winning the Preakness and the Belmont were Risen Star in 1988, Hansel in 1991, Tabasco Cat in 1994, Point Given in 2001, and Afleet Alex in 2005. In 1984, Swale and in 1995, Thunder Gulch ran all three races, winning the Derby and the Belmont, but not the Preakness.
The 37 - year gap between the Triple Crown wins of Affirmed and American Pharoah drew criticism of the system. As far back as 1986, reporters noted that horses who were fresh for the Belmont had an advantage. In 2003, Gary Stevens stated in an interview with Charlie Rose that he did not believe there would be another Triple Crown winner because of the tendency for owners to put fresh horses in the Preakness and Belmont Stakes. California Chrome co-owner Steve Coburn was particularly critical of the Triple Crown system in post-Belmont remarks in 2014; he considered the system to be unfair, arguing that there would never be another Triple Crown winner in his lifetime unless only horses that competed in the Kentucky Derby and Preakness competed at the Belmont. By 2014, six of the previous eight Belmont winners had not competed in either of the first two legs of the Triple Crown. Additionally, from 2006 to 2014, the Belmont winner was a horse who had not competed in the Preakness. American Pharoah was the first Belmont winner since Afleet Alex in 2005 to have run all three Triple Crown races.
Since all three races were inaugurated, as of 2017, 23 horses have won the Derby and Preakness but not the Belmont:
Originally, the three races largely organized their own nominations procedure, marketing and television broadcast rights. In 1985, Triple Crown Productions was created when the owner of Spend a Buck chose not to run in the other two Triple Crown races because of a financial incentive offered to any Kentucky Derby winner who could win a set of competing races in New Jersey. The organizers of the three races realized that they needed to work together.
Efforts to unify the sponsorship and marketing of all three Triple Crown races began in 1987 when ABC Sports negotiated a deal with Chrysler to pay $5 million to any horse that swept all three races, and $1 million each year there was no Triple Crown sweep to the horse with the highest combined Triple Crown finish. This sponsorship lasted until 1993. The end of the $1 million participation bonus was linked to the breakdown of Prairie Bayou at the Belmont Stakes that year and the uncomfortable situation that arose when the Kentucky Derby winner, Sea Hero, was given the bonus following a seventh - place finish.
In 1995, Visa USA took over the sponsorship with a 10 - year contract, naming the series the Visa Triple Crown and offering only the $5 million bonus to a horse that could sweep the Triple Crown. Along with sponsorship by VISA, NBC Sports paid $51.5 million for broadcast rights to all three races, with the revenue split giving 50 % of the total to Churchill Downs and 25 % each to Pimlico and to the New York Racing Association (NYRA).
The Visa deal -- and the cooperative effort -- ended after 2005. The NYRA felt that they did not get a fair share of the revenue, particularly when the Belmont had the highest ratings of all three races in the years where a Triple Crown was on the line. From 2001 through 2013, average viewership for the Belmont was 7 million when the Triple Crown was not at stake, whereas viewership averaged 13 million when it was. With the contract term ending, the NYRA went to ESPN on ABC for the 2006 Belmont, while the broadcasts of the Derby and Preakness remained with NBC. Visa chose to remain as a sponsor of only Kentucky Derby for the next five years. As a result of the divided broadcast, Triple Crown Productions was unable to obtain a new sponsor.
In February 2011, ABC / ESPN dropped out of the negotiations to renew broadcast rights to the Belmont Stakes. NBC obtained the contract through 2015, once again uniting all three races on the same network. In 2014, NBC extended their contract for the Kentucky Derby through 2025. As of August 2015, NBC obtained a broadcast contract for the Belmont through 2020 and the Preakness through 2022.
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the cast of disney's beauty and the beast | Beauty and the Beast (1991 film) - wikipedia
Beauty and the Beast is a 1991 American animated musical romantic fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The 30th Disney animated feature film and the third released during the Disney Renaissance period, it is based on the French fairy tale of the same name by Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont (who was also credited in the English version as well as in the French version), and ideas from the 1946 French film of the same name directed by Jean Cocteau. Beauty and the Beast focuses on the relationship between the Beast (voice of Robby Benson), a prince who is magically transformed into a monster and his servants into household objects as punishment for his arrogance, and Belle (voice of Paige O'Hara), a young woman whom he imprisons in his castle. To become a prince again, Beast must learn to love Belle and earn her love in return before the last petal from the enchanted rose that the enchantress who cursed the Beast had offered falls, or else the Beast will remain a monster forever. The film also features the voices of Richard White, Jerry Orbach, David Ogden Stiers, and Angela Lansbury.
Walt Disney first attempted unsuccessfully to adapt Beauty and the Beast into an animated film during the 1930s and 1950s. Following the success of The Little Mermaid (1989), Walt Disney Pictures decided to adapt the fairy tale, which Richard Purdum originally conceived as a non-musical. Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg eventually dismissed Purdum 's idea and ordered that the film be a musical similar to The Little Mermaid instead. The film was directed by Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise, with a screenplay by Linda Woolverton story first credited to Roger Allers. Lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken wrote the film 's songs. Ashman, who additionally served as the film 's executive producer, died of AIDS - related complications eight months before the film 's release, and the film is thus dedicated to his memory.
Beauty and the Beast premiered as an unfinished film at the New York Film Festival on September 29, 1991, followed by its theatrical release as a completed film at the El Capitan Theatre on November 13. The film was a box office success, grossing $425 million worldwide on a $25 million budget. Beauty and the Beast won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy, the first animated film to ever win that category. It also became the first animated film to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture at the 64th Academy Awards, where it won the Academy Award for Best Original Score and Best Original Song for its title song and received additional nominations for Best Original Song and Best Sound. In April 1994, Beauty and the Beast became Disney 's first animated film to be adapted into a Broadway musical. The success of the film spawned two direct - to - video follow - ups: Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas (1997) and Beauty and the Beast: Belle 's Magical World (1998), both of which take place in the timeline of the original. This was followed by a spin - off television series, Sing Me a Story with Belle.
An IMAX version of the film was released in 2002, and included "Human Again '', a new five - minute musical sequence. That same year, the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. After the success of the 3D re-release of The Lion King, the film was reissued in 3D in 2012. A live - action remake of the film directed by Bill Condon was released on March 17, 2017.
One winter 's night, an enchantress disguised as a beggar offers a cold - hearted prince a rose in exchange for shelter from the bitter cold. When he refuses, she transforms him into a beast and his servants into household objects. She bestows the Beast with a magic mirror before hexing the rose and warning him that, unless he learns to love another and earns their love in return by the time the last petal falls, he and his servants will lose their humanity forever.
Ten years later, a beautiful girl named Belle dreams of adventure and brushes off advances from Gaston, an arrogant hunter. Lost in the forest while traveling to a fair to present his latest invention, Belle 's father Maurice seeks refuge in the Beast 's castle. After Maurice befriends the castle 's servants, however, the Beast discovers and imprisons him. Belle ventures out in search for him and finds him locked in the castle 's dungeon. The Beast agrees to let her take Maurice 's place.
Befriending the castle 's servants, Belle is treated to a spectacular dinner. When she wanders into the forbidden West Wing where the rose is kept, the Beast flies into a rage, causing Belle to flee the castle and into the woods. She is attacked by wolves, but the Beast rescues Belle and gets injured in the process. He begins to develop feelings for her while she nurses his wounds and he delights her by showing his extensive library.
Returning to the village, Maurice tells the townsfolk of Belle 's predicament, but Gaston convinces the townsfolk to send Maurice to an insane asylum if Belle refuses to marry Gaston.
After sharing a romantic dance with the Beast, Belle discovers her father 's predicament using the magic mirror. The Beast releases her to save Maurice, giving her the mirror to remember him with. Back at the village, Belle proves Maurice 's sanity by revealing the Beast in the mirror to the townsfolk. Realizing that Belle loves the Beast, Gaston has her thrown into the basement with her father and rallies the villagers to follow him to the castle to kill the Beast. With Chip 's aid, Maurice and Belle escape and rush back to the castle.
The servants battle the invading villagers, driving them out of the castle. Gaston attacks the Beast in his tower, who is too depressed to fight back, but regains his will upon seeing Belle return. He spares Gaston 's life before reuniting with Belle. Gaston stabs the Beast, but he loses his footing and falls to his death. The Beast dies from Gaston 's stab before the last petal falls. When Belle tearfully professes her love to him, the curse is broken, repairing the castle and restoring the Beast 's and servants ' human forms. The Prince and Belle host a ball for the kingdom, where they dance happily.
After the success of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937, Walt Disney sought out other stories to adapt into feature films, with Beauty and the Beast being among the stories he considered. Attempts to develop the Beauty and the Beast story into a film were made in the 1930s and 1950s, but were ultimately given up because it "proved to be a challenge '' for the story team. Peter M. Nichols states Disney may later have been discouraged by Jean Cocteau having already done his 1946 version.
Decades later, during the production of Who Framed Roger Rabbit in 1987, the Disney studio resurrected Beauty and the Beast as a project for the satellite animation studio it had set up in London, England to work on Roger Rabbit. Richard Williams, who had directed the animated portions of Roger Rabbit, was approached to direct but declined in favor of continuing work on his long - gestating project The Thief and the Cobbler. In his place, Williams recommended his colleague, English animation director Richard Purdum, and work began under producer Don Hahn on a non-musical version of Beauty and the Beast set in 19th - century France. At the behest of Disney CEO Michael Eisner, Beauty and the Beast became the first Disney animated film to use a screenwriter. This was an unusual production move for an animated film, which is traditionally developed on storyboards rather than in scripted form. Linda Woolverton wrote the original draft of the story before storyboarding began, and worked with the story team to retool and develop the film.
Upon seeing the initial storyboard reels in 1989, Walt Disney Studios chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg ordered that the film be scrapped and started over from scratch. A few months after starting anew, Purdum resigned as director. The studio had approached Ron Clements and John Musker to direct the film, but they turned down the offer, saying they were "tired '' after just having finished directing Disney 's recent success The Little Mermaid. Disney then hired first - time feature directors Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale. Wise and Trousdale had previously directed the animated sections of Cranium Command, a short film for a Disney EPCOT theme park attraction. In addition, Katzenberg asked songwriters Howard Ashman and Alan Menken, who had written the song score for The Little Mermaid, to turn Beauty and the Beast into a Broadway - style musical film in the same vein as Mermaid. Ashman, who at the time had learned he was dying of complications from AIDS, had been working with Disney on a pet project of his, Aladdin, and only reluctantly agreed to join the struggling production team. To accommodate Ashman 's failing health, pre-production of Beauty and the Beast was moved from London to the Residence Inn in Fishkill, New York, close to Ashman 's New York City home. Here, Ashman and Menken joined Wise, Trousdale, Hahn, and Woolverton in retooling the film 's script. Since the original story had only two major characters, the filmmakers enhanced them, added new characters in the form of enchanted household items who "add warmth and comedy to a gloomy story '' and guide the audience through the film, and added a "real villain '' in the form of Gaston.
These ideas were somewhat similar to elements of the 1946 French film version of Beauty and the Beast, which introduced the character of Avenant, an oafish suitor somewhat similar to Gaston, as well as inanimate objects coming to life in the Beast 's castle. The animated objects were, however, given distinct personalities in the Disney version. By early 1990, Katzenberg had approved the revised script, and storyboarding began again. The production flew story artists back and forth between California and New York for storyboard approvals from Ashman, though the team was not told the reason why.
Disney had originally considered casting Jodi Benson from The Little Mermaid as Belle. They eventually decided upon Broadway actress and singer Paige O'Hara in favor of having a heroine who sounded "more like a woman than a girl ''. According to co-director Kirk Wise, O'Hara was given the role because she "had a unique quality, a tone she would hit that made her special '', reminiscent to that of American actress and singer Judy Garland. O'Hara, who, after reading about the film in The New York Times, competed for the role against 500 hopefuls, believes the fact that lyricist Howard Ashman admired her cast recording of the musical Show Boat proved integral in her being cast.
Production of Beauty and the Beast was to be completed on a compressed timeline of two years rather than the traditional four - year Disney Feature Animation production schedule; this was due to the loss of production time spent developing the earlier Purdum version of the film. Most of the production was done at the main Feature Animation studio, housed in the Air Way facility in Glendale, California. A smaller team at the Disney - MGM Studios theme park in Lake Buena Vista, Florida assisted the California team on several scenes, particularly the "Be Our Guest '' number.
Beauty and the Beast was the second film, after The Rescuers Down Under, produced using CAPS (Computer Animation Production System), a digital scanning, ink, paint, and compositing system of software and hardware developed for Disney by Pixar. The software allowed for a wider range of colors, as well as soft shading and colored line effects for the characters, techniques lost when the Disney studio abandoned hand inking for xerography in the late 1950s. CAPS also allowed the production crew to simulate multiplane effects: placing characters and / or backgrounds on separate layers and moving them towards / away from the camera on the Z - axis to give the illusion of depth, as well as altering the focus of each layer.
In addition, CAPS allowed an easier combination of hand - drawn art with computer - generated imagery, which before had to be plotted to animation paper and then xeroxed and painted traditionally. This technique was put to significant use during the "Beauty and the Beast '' waltz sequence, in which Belle and Beast dance through a computer - generated ballroom as the camera dollies around them in simulated 3D space. The filmmakers had originally decided against the use of computers in favor of traditional animation, but later, when the technology had improved, decided it could be used for the one scene in the ballroom. The success of the ballroom sequence helped convince studio executives to further invest in computer animation.
Ashman and Menken wrote the Beauty song score during the pre-production process in Fishkill, the opening operetta - styled "Belle '' being their first composition for the film. Other songs included "Be Our Guest, '' sung (in its original version) to Maurice by the objects when he becomes the first visitor to eat at the castle in a decade, "Gaston, '' a solo for the swaggering villain, "Human Again, '' a song describing Belle and Beast 's growing love from the objects ' perspective, the love ballad "Beauty and the Beast (Tale as Old as Time) '' and the climactic "The Mob Song. '' As story and song development came to a close, full production began in Burbank while voice and song recording began in New York City. The Beauty songs were mostly recorded live with the orchestra and the voice cast performing simultaneously rather than overdubbed separately, in order to give the songs a cast album - like "energy '' the filmmakers and songwriters desired.
During the course of production, many changes were made to the structure of the film, necessitating the replacement and re-purposing of songs. After screening a mostly animated version of the "Be Our Guest '' sequence, story artist Bruce Woodside suggested that the objects should be singing the song to Belle rather than her father. Wise and Trousdale agreed, and the sequence and song were retooled to replace Maurice with Belle. The film 's title song went through a noted bit of uncertainty during production. Originally conceived as a rock - oriented song, it was changed to a slow, romantic ballad. Howard Ashman and Alan Menken asked Angela Lansbury to perform the song, but she did not think her voice was suited for the melody. When she voiced her doubts, Menken and Ashman asked her for at least one take and told her to perform the song as she saw fit. Lansbury reportedly reduced everyone in the studio to tears with her rendition, nailing the song in the one take asked of her. This version went on to win the Oscar for Best Original Song. "Human Again '' was dropped from the film before animation began, as its lyrics caused story problems about the timeline over which the story takes place. This required Ashman and Menken to write a new song in its place. "Something There, '' in which Belle and Beast sing (via voiceover) of their growing fondness for each other, was composed late in production and inserted into the script in place of "Human Again. ''
Menken would later revise "Human Again '' for inclusion in the 1994 Broadway stage version of Beauty and the Beast, and another revised version of the song was added to the film itself in a new sequence created for the film 's Special Edition re-release in 2002. Ashman died of AIDS - related complications at the age of 40 on March 14, 1991, eight months before the film 's release. He never saw the finished film, though he did get to see it in its unfinished format. Ashman 's work on Aladdin was completed by another lyricist, Tim Rice. Before Ashman 's death, members of the film 's production team visited him after the film 's well - received first screening, with Don Hahn commenting that "the film would be a great success. Who 'd have thought it? '', to which Ashman replied with "I would. '' A tribute to the lyricist was included at the end of the credits crawl: "To our friend, Howard, who gave a mermaid her voice, and a beast his soul. We will be forever grateful. Howard Ashman: 1950 -- 1991. '' A pop version of the "Beauty and the Beast '' theme, performed by Céline Dion and Peabo Bryson over the end credits, was released as a commercial single from the film 's soundtrack, supported with a music video. The Dion / Bryson version of "Beauty and the Beast '' became an international pop hit and performed considerably well on charts around the world. The song became Dion 's second single to land within the top - 10 of the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number nine. The song peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary chart. In Canada, "Beauty and the Beast '' peaked at number two. Outside of North America, the song peaked within the top ten in New Zealand and the United Kingdom, while peaking within the top twenty in Australia, Netherlands, and Ireland. The song sold over a million copies worldwide. This version of the song was also nominated for Record of the Year and Song of the Year at the Grammys, and it won the Grammy for Dion and Bryson for Best Pop Duo / Group Vocal Performance.
In a first - time accomplishment for The Walt Disney Company, an unfinished version of Beauty and the Beast was shown at the New York Film Festival on September 29, 1991. The film was deemed a "work in progress '' because roughly only 70 % of the animation had been completed; storyboards and pencil tests were used in replacement of the remaining 30 %. Additionally, certain segments of the film that had already been finished were reverted to previous stages of completion. At the end of the screening, Beauty and the Beast received a ten - minute - long standing ovation from the film festival audience. The completed film was also screened out of competition at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival. The finished film premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood on November 13, 1991, beginning a limited release before expanding wide on November 22.
The film was restored and remastered for its New Year 's Day, 2002 re-release in IMAX theatres in a special - edition edit, including a new musical sequence. For this version of the film, much of the animation was cleaned up, a new sequence set to the deleted song "Human Again '' was inserted into the film 's second act, and a new digital master from the original CAPS production files was used to make the high - resolution IMAX film negative.
A sing along edition of the film, hosted by Jordin Sparks, was released in select theaters on September 29 and October 2, 2010. Prior to the showing of the film, Sparks showed an exclusive behind - the - scenes look at the newly restored film and the making of her new Beauty and the Beast music video. There was also commentary from producer Don Hahn, interviews with the cast and an inside look at how the animation was created.
A Disney Digital 3D version of the film, the second of a traditionally animated film, was originally scheduled to be released in US theatres on February 12, 2010, but the project was postponed. On August 25, 2011, Disney announced that the 3D version of the film would make its American debut at Hollywood 's El Capitan Theatre from September 2 -- 15, 2011. Disney spent less than $10 million on the 3D conversion. After the successful 3D re-release of The Lion King, Disney announced a wide 3D re-release of Beauty and the Beast in North America beginning January 13, 2012.
The film was released to VHS on October 30, 1992 as part of the Walt Disney Classics series, and was later put on moratorium on April 30, 1993; it was not included in the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection line. This version contains a minor edit to the film: skulls that appear in Gaston 's pupils for two frames during his climactic fall to his death were removed for the original home video release. No such edit was made to later reissues of the film. The "work - in - progress '' version screened at the New York Film Festival was also released on VHS and LaserDisc at this time; however, said version was the only one available on the latter format until the fall of 1993, when the completed theatrical version was released. This measure was to diminish the threat of video pirates making copies derived from the LaserDisc (which are not copy - protected) and selling them in international markets, where the film was yet to be available for home release.
Beauty and the Beast: Special Edition, as the enhanced version of the film released in IMAX / large - format is called, was released on two - disc "Platinum Edition '' DVD and VHS on October 8, 2002. The DVD set features three versions of the film: the extended IMAX Special Edition with the "Human Again '' sequence added, the original theatrical version, and the New York Film Festival "work - in - progress '' version. This release went to "Disney Vault '' moratorium status in January 2003, along with its direct - to - video follow - ups Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas and Belle 's Magical World.
The film was released from the vault on October 5, 2010 as the second of Disney 's Diamond Editions, in the form of a three - disc Blu - ray Disc and DVD combination pack -- the first release of Beauty and the Beast on home video in high - definition format. This edition consists of four versions of the film: the original theatrical version, an extended version, the New York Film Festival storyboard - only version, and a fourth iteration displaying the storyboards via picture - in - picture alongside the original theatrical version. Upon its first week of release, the Blu - ray sold 1.1 million units, topping the Blu - ray sales chart and finishing in third place on the combined Blu - ray and DVD sales chart for the week ending on October 10, 2010. It was the second - best - selling Blu - ray of 2010, behind Avatar. A two - disc DVD edition was released on November 23, 2010. A five - disc combo pack, featuring Blu - ray 3D, Blu - ray 2D, DVD and a digital copy, was released on October 4, 2011. The 3D combo pack is identical to the original Diamond Edition, except for the added 3D disc and digital copy. The Blu - ray release went into the Disney Vault along with the two sequels on April 30, 2012.
A 25th - anniversary Signature Edition was released on Digital HD September 6, 2016 and was followed by Blu - ray / DVD combo pack on September 20, 2016. Upon its first week of release on home media in the U.S., the film topped the Blu - ray Disc sales chart, and debuted at number 3 in the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert chart, which tracks overall disc sales, behind Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows and Captain America: Civil War.
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 94 % based on reviews from 110 critics, with an average rating of 8.5 out of 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Enchanting, sweepingly romantic, and featuring plenty of wonderful musical numbers, Beauty and the Beast is one of Disney 's most elegant animated offerings. '' The film also holds a 95 / 100 on Metacritic. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare "A + '' grade.
Janet Maslin of The New York Times praised the film with the following statement, "Two years ago, Walt Disney Pictures reinvented the animated feature, not only with an eye toward pleasing children, but also with an older, savvier audience in mind. Disney truly bridged a generation gap with The Little Mermaid... Now, lightning has definitely struck twice with Beauty and the Beast. '' Awarding the film a perfect score of four stars, Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times compared Beauty and the Beast positively to Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Pinocchio, writing, "Beauty and the Beast reaches back to an older and healthier Hollywood tradition in which the best writers, musicians and filmmakers are gathered for a project on the assumption that a family audience deserves great entertainment, too. '' In 2001 Ebert again gave the IMAX re-release a full 4 out of 4 stars. James Berardinelli of ReelViews rated the film similarly while hailing it as "the finest animated movie ever made '', writing, "Beauty and the Beast attains a nearly - perfect mix of romance, music, invention, and animation. '' The use of computer animation, particularly in the ballroom sequence, was singled out in several reviews as one of the film 's highlights. Hal Hinson of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review, calling the film "A delightfully satisfying modern fable, a near - masterpiece that draws on the sublime traditions of the past while remaining completely in sync with the sensibility of its time. '' Janet Maslin of The New York Times gave the film a positive review, saying "It is a surprise, in a time of sequels and retreads, that the new film is so fresh and altogether triumphant in its own right. '' Dave Kehr of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Beauty and the Beast is certainly adequate holiday entertainment for children and their more indulgent parents... But the film has little of the technical facility, vivid characterization and emotional impact of Disney past. ''
Jay Boyar of the Orlando Sentinel gave the film four out of five stars, saying "It 's not an especially scary movie, but right from the start, you can tell that this Beauty and the Beast has a beauty of a bite. '' John Hartl of The Seattle Times gave the film three - and - a-half stars out of four, saying "It 's exceptionally difficult to make an audience care for animated characters unless they 're mermaids or anthropomorphized animals or insects, yet the Disney animators, with a big assist from the vocal talents of a superb cast, have pulled it off. '' Gene Siskel, also of the Chicago Tribune, gave the film four out of four stars, saying "Beauty and the Beast is one of the year 's most entertaining films for both adults and children. '' On their Beauty and the Beast edition of Siskel & Ebert, both Siskel and Roger Ebert proclaimed that the film is "a legitimate contender for Oscar consideration as Best Picture of the Year. '' Michael Sragow of The New Yorker gave the film a positive review, saying "It 's got storytelling vigor and clarity, bright, eclectic animation, and a frisky musical wit. '' Eric Smoodin writes in his book Animating Culture that the studio was trying to make up for earlier gender stereotypes with this film. Smoodin also states that, in the way it has been viewed as bringing together traditional fairy tales and feminism as well as computer and traditional animation, the film 's "greatness could be proved in terms of technology narrative or even politics ''. Animation legend Chuck Jones praised the film, in a 1992 guest appearance on Later with Bob Costas he claimed he "Loved it. I think it should have won (Best Picture)... I think the animation on the beast is one of the greatest pieces of animation I 've seen ''.
Animation historian Michael Barrier wrote that Belle "becomes a sort of intellectual less by actually reading books, it seems, than by hanging out with them '', but says that the film comes closer than other "Disney - studio '' films to "accepting challenges of the kind that the finest Walt Disney features met ''. David Whitley writes in The Idea of Nature in Disney Animation that Belle is different from earlier Disney heroines in that she is mostly free from the burdens of domestic housework, although her role is somewhat undefined in the same way that "contemporary culture now requires most adolescent girls to contribute little in the way of domestic work before they leave home and have to take on the fraught, multiple responsibilities of the working mother ''. Whitley also notes other themes and modern influences, such as the film 's critical view of Gaston 's chauvinism and attitude towards nature, the cyborg - like servants, and the father 's role as an inventor rather than a merchant.
In 2010, IGN named Beauty and the Beast as the greatest animated film of all time, directly ahead of WALL - E, The Incredibles, Toy Story 2, and The Iron Giant.
Several critics regard the 1991 animated film as superior to the 2017 live - action remake. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune said that the 1991 film "worked wonderfully because it was pure Broadway, written for the screen, blending comedy and romance and magic and just enough snark in the margins '', while the 2017 remake got lost in translation since "The movie takes our knowledge and our interest in the material for granted. It zips from one number to another, throwing a ton of frenetically edited eye candy at the screen, charmlessly. '' Phillips also wrote of the 2017 film that "too often we 're watching highly qualified performers, plus a few less conspicuously talented ones (Watson, primarily), stuck doing karaoke, or motion - capture work of middling quality ''. Dana Schwartz of the Observer criticized some of the 2017 film changes to the characters like Gaston and the Beast as regressive by watering down their distinguishing personalities from the 1991 film, also arguing that the added backstory to the characters in the 2017 version failed to "advance the plot or theme in any meaningful way ''. David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that the 2017 film "feels particularly egregious, in part, because it 's so slavishly devoted to the original; every time it falls short of its predecessor (which is quite often), it 's hard not to notice ''.
During its initial release in 1991, the film grossed $145.9 million in revenues in North America and $351.9 million worldwide. It ranked as the third-most successful film of 1991 in North America, surpassed only by the summer blockbusters Terminator 2: Judgment Day and Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves. At the time Beauty and the Beast was the most successful animated Disney film release, and the first animated film to reach $100 million in the United States and Canada in its initial run. In its IMAX re-release, it earned $25.5 million in North America and $5.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $31 million. It also earned $9.8 million from its 3D re-release overseas. During the opening weekend of its North American 3D re-release in 2012, Beauty and the Beast grossed $17.8 million, coming in at the No. 2 spot, behind Contraband, and achieved the highest opening weekend for an animated film in January. The film was expected to make $17.5 million over the weekend; however, the results topped its forecast and the expectations of box office analysts. The re-release ended its run on May 3, 2012, and earned $47.6 million, which brought the film 's total gross in North America to $219 million. It made an estimated $206 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $425 million.
Alan Menken and Howard Ashman 's song "Beauty and the Beast '' won the Academy Award for Best Original Song, while Menken 's score won the award for Best Original Score. Two other Menken and Ashman songs from the film, "Belle '' and "Be Our Guest '', were also nominated for Best Original Song. Beauty and the Beast was the first picture to receive three Academy Award nominations for Best Original Song, a feat that would be repeated by The Lion King (1994), Dreamgirls (2006), and Enchanted (2007). Academy rules have since been changed to limit each film to two nominations in this category, due to the consecutive unintentional failures of Dreamgirls and Enchanted to win the award.
The film was also nominated for Best Picture and Best Sound. It was the first animated film ever to be nominated for Best Picture, and remained the only animated film nominated until 2009 when the Best Picture field was widened to ten nominees, and it remains the only animated film nominated for the award when it had five nominees. It became the first musical in twelve years to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture of the Year, following All That Jazz (1979), and the last one to be nominated until Moulin Rouge! (2001), ten years later. It lost the Best Picture award to The Silence of the Lambs. With six nominations, the film currently shares the record for the most nominations for an animated film with WALL - E (2008), although, with three nominations in the Best Original Song category, Beauty and the Beast 's nominations span only four categories, while WALL - E 's nominations cover six individual categories.
While The Little Mermaid was the first to be nominated, Beauty and the Beast became the first animated film to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy. This feat was later repeated by The Lion King and Toy Story 2.
In 2002, Beauty and the Beast was added to the United States National Film Registry as being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. '' In June 2008, the American Film Institute revealed its "Ten Top Ten '' lists of the best ten films in ten "classic '' American film genres, based on polls of over 1,500 people from the creative community. Beauty and the Beast was acknowledged as the seventh - best film in the animation genre. In previous lists, it ranked number 22 on the Institutes 's list of best musicals and number 34 on its list of the best romantic American films. On the list of the greatest songs from American films, Beauty and the Beast ranked number 62.
American Film Institute recognition:
According to an article in the Houston Chronicle, "The catalyst for Disney 's braving the stage was an article by The New York Times theater critic Frank Rich that praised Beauty and the Beast as 1991 's best musical... Theatre Under The Stars executive director Frank Young had been trying to get Disney interested in a stage version of Beauty about the same time Eisner and Katzenberg were mulling over Rich 's column. But Young could n't seem to get in touch with the right person in the Disney empire. Nothing happened till the Disney execs started to pursue the project from their end... When they asked George Ives, the head of Actors Equity on the West Coast, which Los Angeles theater would be the best venue for launching a new musical, Ives said the best theater for that purpose would be TUTS. Not long after that, Disney 's Don Frantz and Bettina Buckley contacted Young, and the partnership was under way. '' A stage condensation of the film, directed by Robert Jess Roth and choreographed by Matt West, both of whom moved on to the Broadway development, had already been presented at Disneyland at what was then called the Videopolis stage. Beauty and the Beast premiered in a joint production of Theatre Under The Stars and Disney Theatricals at the Music Hall, Houston, Texas, from November 28, 1993, through December 26, 1993.
On Monday, April 18, 1994, Beauty and the Beast premiered on Broadway at the Palace Theatre in New York City to mixed reviews. The show transferred to the Lunt - Fontanne Theatre on November 11, 1999. The commercial (though not critical) success of the show led to productions in the West End, Toronto, and all over the world. The Broadway version, which ran for over a decade, received a Tony Award, and became the first of a whole line of Disney stage productions. The original Broadway cast included Terrence Mann as the Beast, Susan Egan as Belle, Burke Moses as Gaston, Gary Beach as Lumière, Heath Lamberts as Cogsworth, Tom Bosley as Maurice, Beth Fowler as Mrs. Potts, and Stacey Logan as Babette the feather duster. Many well - known actors and singers also starred in the Broadway production during its thirteen - year run, including Kerry Butler, Debbie Gibson, Toni Braxton, Andrea McArdle, Jamie - Lynn Sigler, Christy Carlson Romano, Ashley Brown, and Anneliese van der Pol as Belle; Chuck Wagner, James Barbour, and Jeff McCarthy as the Beast; Meshach Taylor, Patrick Page, Bryan Batt, Jacob Young, and John Tartaglia as Lumière; and Marc Kudisch, Christopher Sieber, and Donny Osmond as Gaston. The show ended its Broadway run on July 29, 2007 after 46 previews and 5,461 performances. As of 2017, it is Broadway 's tenth - longest - running show in history.
In June 2014, Walt Disney Pictures announced that a live - action film adaptation of the original film was in the works, with Bill Condon directing and Evan Spiliotopoulos writing the script. Condon originally planned on not only drawing inspiration from the original film, but also to include most, if not all, of the Menken / Rice songs from the Broadway musical, with the intention of making the film as a "straight - forward, live - action, large - budget movie musical ''. In September 2014, it was announced that Stephen Chbosky (The Perks of Being a Wallflower) would re-write the script. In January 2015, Emma Watson announced on her Facebook page that she would portray Belle in the new live action remake film. In March 2015, Dan Stevens, Luke Evans, Emma Thompson, Josh Gad, Audra McDonald, and Kevin Kline joined the film as the Beast, Gaston, Mrs. Potts, Lefou, Garderobe, and Maurice, respectively. The following month, Ian McKellen, Ewan McGregor, Stanley Tucci, and Gugu Mbatha - Raw joined the cast, as Cogsworth, Lumière, Cadenza, and Plumette, respectively. Composer Alan Menken returned to score the film 's music, with new material written by Menken and Tim Rice. In June 2015, Menken said the film would not include the songs that were written for the Broadway musical. Filming began on May 18, 2015 in London, and production officially wrapped in August 2015. The film was released on March 17, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast merchandise cover a wide variety of products, among them storybook versions of the film 's story, a comic book based on the film published by Disney Comics, toys, children 's costumes, and other items. In addition, the character of Belle has been integrated into the "Disney Princess '' line of Disney 's Consumer Products division, and appears on merchandise related to that franchise. In 1995, a live - action children 's series entitled Sing Me a Story with Belle began running in syndication, remaining on the air through 1999. Two direct - to - video followups (which take place during the timeline depicted in the original film) were produced by Walt Disney Television Animation: Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas in 1997 and Belle 's Magical World in 1998; in contrast to the universal acclaim of the original, reception to the sequels was extremely negative. Disney on Ice produced an ice version of the movie that opened in 1992 in Lakeland, Florida. The show was such a huge commercial and critical success, touring around the world to sell - out crowds, that a television special was made when it toured Spain in 1994. The show ended its run in 2006, after 14 years.
There are several video games that are loosely based on the film:
The first video game based on the film was titled Beauty and the Beast: Belle 's Quest and is an action platformer for the Sega Genesis. Developed by Software Creations, the game was released in North America in 1993. It is one of two video games based on the film that Sunsoft published for the Genesis, the other being Beauty & The Beast: Roar of the Beast. Characters from the film like Gaston can help the player past tricky situations. As Belle, the player must reach the Beast 's castle and break the spell to live happily ever after. To succeed, she must explore the village, forest, castle, and snowy forest to solve puzzles and mini-games while ducking or jumping over enemies. Belle 's health is represented by a stack of blue books, which diminishes when she touches bats, rats, and other hazards in the game. Extra lives, keys and other items are hidden throughout the levels. While there is no continue or game saving ability, players can use a code to start the game at any of the seven levels.
The second video game based on the film was titled ' Beauty and the Beast: Roar of the Beast and is a side - scrolling video game for the Genesis. As the Beast, the player must successfully complete several levels, based on scenes from the film, in order to protect the castle from invading villagers and forest animals and rescue Belle from Gaston.
The third and fourth video games based on the film are action platformers developed by Probe Software and published by Hudson Soft. One, titled Beauty and the Beast, was released in Europe in 1994 for the NES, while the other, Disney 's Beauty and the Beast, was released in North America in July 1994 and in Europe on February 23 1995 for the SNES. The entire games are played through the perspective of the Beast. As the Beast, the player must get Belle to fall in love so that the curse cast upon him and his castle will be broken. The final boss of the game is Gaston. The Beast can walk, jump, swipe, stomp, super stomp, and roar, the last of which is used to both damage enemies and reveal hidden objects.
The fifth video game based on the film was titled Disney 's Beauty and the Beast: A Boardgame Adventure and is a Disney Boardgame adventure for the Game Boy Color. It was released on October 25, 1999.
The video game series Kingdom Hearts features a world based on the film, named "Beast 's Castle '', along with several of the film 's characters. In the first game, the world has been destroyed and Belle kidnapped by the Heartless, led by Maleficent, but the Beast travels to Maleficent 's stronghold and works with Sora to defeat Maleficent and rescue Belle and the other captured princesses. In Kingdom Hearts II, the world has since been restored following Ansem 's defeat, but Beast and Belle are having difficulties due to the enigmatic Xaldin of Organization XIII attempting to bring out the Beast 's darker side in order to turn him into a Heartless and a Nobody, but the Beast eventually comes to his senses and works with Sora once again to defeat Xaldin once and for all. In the game 's ending credits, the Beast turns back into the Prince. In Kingdom Hearts: 358 / 2 Days, the world is featured as a playable level but the story is not essential to the main plot. In Kingdom Hearts χ, the world is featured again, this time as a hallucination that follows the plot of the movie more closely. The characters featured in the series are Beast, Belle, Lumiere, Gaston, Cogsworth, Mrs. Potts, Chip, Maurice, and the Wardrobe. After Gaston is defeated, the Beast transforms back into the Prince. Gaston does not appear in Kingdom Hearts II, the world 's primary antagonist being Xaldin, an original character created for the series, but who shares several traits with Forte, the main antagonist of Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas.
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when was by the waters of babylon written | By the Waters of Babylon - wikipedia
"By the Waters of Babylon '' is a post-apocalyptic short story by American writer Stephen Vincent Benét, first published July 31, 1937, in The Saturday Evening Post as "The Place of the Gods ''. It was republished in 1943 in The Pocket Book of Science Fiction, and was adapted in 1971 into a one - act play by Brainerd Duffield.
Set in a future following the destruction of industrial civilization, the story is narrated by a young man who is the son of a priest. The priests of John 's people (the hill people) are inquisitive people associated with the divine. They are the only ones who can handle metal collected from the homes (called the "Dead Places '') of long - dead people whom they believe to be gods. The plot follows John 's self - assigned mission to get to the Place of the Gods. His father allows him to go on a spiritual journey, but does not know he is going to this forbidden place.
John journeys through the forest for eight days and crosses the river Ou - dis - sun (Hudson). Once John gets to the Place of the Gods, he feels the energy and magic there. He sees a statue of a "god '' -- in point of fact, a human -- that says "ASHING '' (George Washington) on its base. He also sees a building marked "UBTREAS '' (Sub Treasury). After being chased by dogs and climbing the stairs of a large building, John sees a dead god. Upon viewing the visage, he has an epiphany that the gods were humans whose power overwhelmed their good judgment. After John returns to his tribe, he tells his father of "the place New York. '' His father warns him against recounting his experiences to others in the tribe, for sometimes too much truth is a bad thing, that it must be told little by little. The story ends with John stating his conviction that, once he becomes the head priest, "We must build again. ''
Benét wrote the story in response to the April 25, 1937 bombing of Guernica, in which Fascist military forces destroyed the majority of the Basque town of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. This story took place before the public knowledge of nuclear weapons, but Benét 's description of "The Great Burning '' is similar to later descriptions of the effects of the atomic bombings at Nagasaki and Hiroshima. His "deadly mist '' and "fire falling from the sky '' seem eerily prescient of the descriptions of the aftermath of nuclear blasts. However, the "deadly mist '' may also be a reference to chemical weapons in World War I, particularly mustard gas, a feared weapon of war that Benét 's generation was very familiar with. The story was written in 1937, two years before the Manhattan Project started, and eight years before there was widespread public knowledge of the project.
In 1955 Edgar Pangborn wrote "The Music Master of Babylon '', a post-apocalyptic story told from the point of view of a pianist living alone in a ruined New York City, and after decades of total isolation encountering two youths from a new culture which had arisen in the world, who come exploring the ruined city.
Pangborn depicted a different world than that of Benét, but referred to Benét 's story in the title and in many of the story 's details. Pangborn returned to that devastated world in his later writings, including the novel Davy.
Elements of the plot and themes of By the Waters of Babylon appear in the 1970 feature film Beneath the Planet of the Apes.
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how many unesco world heritage sites does alberta have | List of World Heritage sites in Canada - wikipedia
This is a list of World Heritage Sites in Canada. The names in the tables below are the names of the properties as used on the website of UNESCO. There are three different types of properties possible: cultural, natural, and mixed. Selection criteria i, ii, iii, iv, v, and vi are the cultural criteria, and selection criteria vii, viii, ix, and x are the natural criteria. The dates for the properties on the World Heritage List are the dates of inscription, the dates for the tentative list are those of submission. The numbers are the reference numbers as used by UNESCO, and they link directly to the description pages of the properties on the UNESCO website.
Site -- official designation of the World Heritage Committee. Location -- the province or territory where the site is located, with geocoordinates. In the case of multinational or multi-regional sites, names are sorted alphabetically after being sorted by country. Criteria -- as defined by the World Heritage Committee. Area -- in hectares and acres, followed by buffer zones if applicable. A value of zero implies that no data has been published by UNESCO. Year -- during which the site was inscribed to the World Heritage Sites list. Description -- brief information about the site, including reasons for inscription.
The Tentative List is an inventory of important heritage and natural sites that a country is considering for inscription on the World Heritage List. The Tentative List can be updated at any time, but inclusion on the list is a prerequisite to being considered for inscription.
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what is the population of the phoenix area | Phoenix Metropolitan area - wikipedia
The Phoenix Metropolitan Area -- often referred to as the Valley of the Sun, the Salt River Valley or Metro Phoenix -- is a metropolitan area, centered on the city of Phoenix, that includes much of the central part of the U.S. State of Arizona. The United States Census Bureau designates the area as the Phoenix - Mesa - Scottsdale Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), defining it as Maricopa and Pinal counties. As of the Census Bureau 's 2015 population estimates, Metro Phoenix had 4,574,351 residents, making it the 12th largest Metropolitan Area in the nation by population. The gross domestic product of the Phoenix Metropolitan Area was $215 billion in 2014, 15th largest amongst metro areas in the United States.
It is also one of the fastest growing major metropolitan areas, gaining nearly 400,000 residents from 2010 to 2015, and more than 1.3 million since 2000. The population of the Phoenix Metropolitan Area increased by 45.3 % from 1990 through 2000, compared to the average United States rate of 13.2 %, helping to make Arizona the second fastest growing state in the nation in the 1990s (the fastest was Nevada). The 2000 Census reported the population of the metropolitan area to be 3,251,876.
As for the 2010 Census, the two - county metropolitan area was reported to have a population of 4,192,887. Metro Phoenix grew by 941,011 people from April 2000 to April 2010, making it one of the fastest growing metro areas in the country. This also contributed to the entire state 's exceptional growth, as the area is home to just over two - thirds of Arizona 's population.
As of the 2010 census, there were 4,192,887 people, 1,537,137 households, and 1,024,971 families residing within the MSA. The racial makeup of the MSA was 73.0 % White (58.7 % White Non-Hispanic), 5.0 % Black, 3.3 % Asian, 2.4 % Native American or Alaska Native (virtually all Native American) and 16.2 % of other or mixed race. 29.5 % were Hispanic of any race.
In 2010 the median income for a household in the MSA was $50,385 and the median income for a family was $58,497. The per capita income was $24,809.
What follows is a list of places in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area (populations as of 2014). The Office of Management and Budget defines a metropolitan area as the core city plus its county and any nearby counties that are economically dependent on the core city. However, Arizona has relatively large counties and a harsh, rugged desert landscape. For these reasons, much of the land that is part of the Metropolitan Statistical Area is rural or completely uninhabited. The core part of the Phoenix Metropolitan Area is the Phoenix -- Mesa, Arizona Urban Area, which is far smaller than the Metropolitan Statistical Area.
Places that fall completely or partially within the boundaries of the Phoenix - Mesa, AZ UA are in bold below.
Principal city
Places with 250,000 + inhabitants
Places with 150,000 -- 249,999 inhabitants
Places with 75,000 to 149,999 inhabitants
Places with 30,000 to 74,999 inhabitants
Places with 10,000 -- 29,999 inhabitants
Fewer than 10,000 inhabitants
Over 10,000 inhabitants
Under 10,000 inhabitants
As of 2010, the Phoenix Metropolitan area consists of Maricopa and Pinal counties, comprising a total area of about 14,600 square miles. Because of the size of counties in Arizona, even though Maricopa and Pinal counties together contain nearly 4.5 million people, most of the area is uninhabited, which gives the MSA an extremely low density compared to other major MSAs in the nation.
The average elevation is about 2,000 feet (610 m), with the highest point being 2,704 feet (824 m).
The Phoenix Metropolitan area is notable for its warm, desert climate. On average, the area receives about 9 inches of rain annually, with less than 1 inch of snow every decade. In total, the region will see about 32 days of measurable precipitation each year. The MSA is one of the sunniest major metropolitan areas, receiving 295 days of sunshine, compared to the national average of 205. The average July high is about 104 ° F (40 ° C), with the average January low being about 37 ° F (3 ° C), still above freezing. Bestplaces gives the Phoenix Metropolitan Area a comfort index of 44 / 100, which is also the national average.
Below is a chart showing climate data collected from Sky Harbor Airport. Note that due to the vast area covered by the MSA, climates may differ depending on where in the valley you are located.
The Phoenix Metropolitan area has historically been the center of the state 's economy. As with the state of Arizona, the area relied on the 5 C 's (copper, cattle, climate, citrus, and cotton) for its economic growth and expansion. However, after World War II, the area entered the manufacturing industry, which spurred the growth of what would eventually be one of the largest urban areas in the nation. Currently, the two largest industries are manufacturing and tourism. About 10 million people visit from other States and Canada each year, due to the area 's mild winters and long, sunny days. The technology and service industries currently account for almost 77 % of total employment in the region. As well as a strong tourism industry, the Phoenix area has a significant business sector. Several Fortune 500 and Fortune 1000 companies have their international headquarters in the area, including Avnet, PetSmart, Insight Technologies, Apollo Education Group, and Sprouts Farmers Market. Other Fortune 500 companies with significant presence include Banner Health, the state 's largest private employer, American Airlines, which merged with Tempe - based US Airways, and Intel, which has a large regional campus in Chandler.
The Metropolitan Area ranks 5th in the nation in economic growth, which is a major comeback from the recession. The unemployment rate of the area is 5.3 %, lower than the national rate of 6.3 %. It also has slightly higher recent job growth (1.99 % compared to 1.18 %) and higher projected job growth (38.7 % compared to 36.1 %). Although the area has significantly higher sales tax rates compared with the nation as a whole (8.3 % to 6 %), income tax rates are lower than the national average (3.36 % to 4.72 %). The largest occupation by population is in the office / administrative sector, comprising more than a quarter of all jobs in the region.
The Phoenix Metropolitan Area is served by several controlled - access freeways, including:
Many new freeways are planned to be built in the future, either through upgrades of existing roads such as SR 74, SR 85, and Northern Parkway; or through the construction of new freeways where no road existed before such as SR 24, SR 30, I - 11, and the South Mountain Freeway portion of Loop 202.
Most of the arterial roads in the Phoenix metropolitan area are laid out on a regular grid, following the section lines established in the Public Land Survey System. As a result, arterial roads in cities that had once been geographically separate may have been given different names while occupying the same section line. When these roads were extended to accommodate the growth in the area they eventually merged into a single road while the previous segments retained their existing names. This results in several cases of a road abruptly changing names; for example, Dunlap Avenue in Phoenix becomes Olive Avenue west of 43rd Avenue, in Glendale.
Another quirk of a grid system based upon the Public Land Survey System is due to the occasional corrections in the grid caused by the curvature of the earth. This results in arterial roadways deviating slightly from a straight line, as can be seen in many locations where roads abruptly curve either just north or just south of Baseline Road to follow a new section line.
The majority of the cities in the metropolitan area, as well as unincorporated areas in Maricopa County, observe the addressing system employed by the City of Phoenix. A number of cities, however, retain their own addressing systems with differing reference points, creating the potential for multiple instances of a house number being found on the same named road.
In terms of numbering systems, some roads that continue through multiple cities will switch numbering conventions several times. A drive eastward along Broadway Road, for example, will pass through Goodyear, Avondale, Phoenix, Tempe, Mesa, and Apache Junction, each with their own reference point for address numbering. Though the street does not curve, the direction changes from west to east in each city and back again when moving from one city to the next, causing considerable overlap in numbers.
Most communities in Maricopa County use the Phoenix - County numbering system, with the point of origin at Central Avenue and Washington Street. In the Phoenix - County system, north - south numbered roads labeled "avenue '', "drive '', and "lane '' are located West of Central Avenue, while those labeled "street '', "place '' and "way '' are located east of Central Avenue. Starting with 579th Avenue in the west near Tonopah the avenues count down with approximately 8 numbers per mile to 19th Avenue and count up again to from 16th Street to 228th Street near Queen Creek in the east. They go, in order from west to east (although not all necessarily exist):
This has been a source of confusion for some newcomers, who might end up, for example, at 91st Avenue and Thunderbird Road, when in fact they intended to go to 91st Street and Thunderbird Road, between 30 minutes and an hour away from one another depending on traffic.
One beneficial quality of this arrangement for unfamiliar travelers is that the major north - south arterial roads are rarely similarly named; the "avenue '' arterials in the West Valley are all odd - numbered and the "street '' arterials in the East Valley are even - numbered, with the exception of 7th Ave. & 7th St., both being major roadways running parallel and each one - half mile from Central Ave.
Communities in Maricopa County that have their own street numbering systems include:
Additional confusion can be encountered in Mesa in its urban core, with east - west numbered avenues and drives counting down from 11th Avenue north towards Main Street), and numbered streets and places counting down from 11th Place south towards Main Street. Then, in the eastern part of the city, north - south streets and places count up from 22nd St east of Gilbert Rd, to 112th Street on the Apache Junction border. Also, numerous trailer parks inside the city limits run their own contradictory variations of the numbered street system.
Most communities in Pinal County use the Pinal County street numbering system, whose point of origin is at SR 287 and 11 Mile Corner Road (the intersection of which is known as "11 Mile Corner ''). Exceptions include:
Note that Apache Junction continues Mesa 's convention of numbered street names by having the north - south sequence continue up from 112th St while simultaneously having east - west numbered avenues south of Apache Trail and east - west numbered streets north of Apache Trail.
Amtrak 's Los Angeles - New Orleans Sunset Limited served Phoenix from 1971 until it was rerouted on June 2, 1996, to a more southerly route between Tucson and Yuma, Arizona, in order to accommodate the Union Pacific Railroad 's desire to abandon a portion of its Phoenix - to - Yuma "West Line. '' This made Phoenix one of the largest cities in the nation without direct passenger service. The designated Phoenix - area stop is in Maricopa, about 40 miles south of downtown Phoenix.
A light rail system (dubbed the "METRO Light Rail, '' or "Worm '') runs more than 20 miles from suburban Mesa, through Tempe and into Phoenix, traveling through the downtown area, offering access to Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport and linking two of the four metro area campuses of Arizona State University. The light rail began public operation on December 27, 2008, and it was projected to initially accommodate 26,000 boardings a day, or more than 8 million boardings in its first year. The Valley Metro Rail boardings has experienced constant growth since the beginning. In the year 2012, the light rail boarded just over 14 million people.
Many expansions to the METRO system are currently in the early planning stages, and two are under construction. The Central Mesa extension project, which extends the Main Street line 21⁄2 miles from its current terminus at Sycamore to Mesa Drive in Downtown Mesa, has finished construction and opened on August 22, 2015. The Northwest rail project opened March 2016. The project extended the 19th Avenue track from its former terminus at Montebello Ave to Dunlap Avenue, 3 miles north. Many more extensions are funded, with further projects being studied for feasibility.
In 2010, Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport was the 24th busiest passenger facility in the world and the 10th busiest in the United States, with more than 38 million passengers using the facility. With three terminal buildings encompassing 120 gates, more than 20 airlines offer daily non-stop flights to destinations throughout the world.
The Phoenix - Mesa Gateway Airport started commercial passenger flights in 2004. The airport currently provides service to 39 destinations.
There are several municipal and regional airports in the metropolitan area; however, none of them are currently used by commercial airlines for passenger flights. They include, but are not limited to, Glendale Airport, Phoenix Deer Valley Airport, Phoenix Goodyear Airport, Scottsdale Airport, Falcon Field, Chandler Airport, Buckeye Airport, Phoenix Regional Airport, Pleasant Valley Airport, Estrella Sailport, Stellar Airpark, Skyranch at Carefree, Gila River Memorial Airport, Pegasus Airpark.
Changes in house prices for the area are publicly tracked on a regular basis using the Case -- Shiller index; the statistic is published by Standard & Poor 's and is also a component of S&P 's 20 - city composite index of the value of the U.S. residential real estate market.
Coordinates: 33 ° 10 ′ N 112 ° 02 ′ W / 33.17 ° N 112.04 ° W / 33.17; - 112.04
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who takes over if the president and vice dies | United States Presidential line of succession - wikipedia
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which persons may become or act as President of the United States if the incumbent President becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns, or is removed from office (by impeachment by the House of Representatives and subsequent conviction by the Senate). The line of succession is set by the United States Constitution and the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 as subsequently amended to include newly created cabinet offices. The succession follows the order of Vice President, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the heads of federal executive departments who form the Cabinet of the United States. The Cabinet currently has fifteen members, beginning with the Secretary of State, and followed by the rest in the order of their positions ' creation. Those heads of department who are ineligible to act as President are also ineligible to succeed the President by succession, for example most commonly if they are not a natural - born U.S. citizen.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency, and in 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission raised a number of other issues with the current line of succession.
The current presidential order of succession is as follows:
Cabinet officers are in line according to the chronological order of their department 's creation or the department of which their department is the successor (the Department of Defense being successor to the Department of War, and the Department of Health and Human Services being successor to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare).
To be eligible to serve as President, a person must be a natural - born U.S. citizen, at least 35 years of age, and a resident within the United States for at least 14 years. These eligibility requirements are specified both in the U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 1, Clause 5, and in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (3 U.S.C. § 19 (e)).
Acting officers may be eligible. In 2009, the Continuity of Government Commission, a private non-partisan think tank, reported,
The language in the current Presidential Succession Act is less clear than that of the 1886 Act with respect to Senate confirmation. The 1886 Act refers to "such officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the Senate to the office therein named... '' The current act merely refers to "officers appointed, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Read literally, this means that the current act allows for acting secretaries to be in the line of succession as long as they are confirmed by the Senate for a post (even for example, the second or third in command within a department). It is common for a second in command to become acting secretary when the secretary leaves office. Though there is some dispute over this provision, the language clearly permits acting secretaries to be placed in the line of succession. (We have spoken to acting secretaries who told us they had been placed in the line of succession.)
Two months after succeeding Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Harry S. Truman proposed that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate be granted priority in the line of succession over the Cabinet so as to ensure the President would not be able to appoint his successor to the Presidency.
The Secretary of State and the other Cabinet officials are appointed by the President, while the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate are elected officials. The Speaker is chosen by the U.S. House of Representatives, and every Speaker has been a member of that body for the duration of their term as Speaker, though this is not technically a requirement; the President pro tempore is chosen by the U.S. Senate and customarily the Senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service fills this position. The Congress approved this change and inserted the Speaker and President pro tempore in line, ahead of the members of the Cabinet in the order in which their positions were established.
In his speech supporting the changes, Truman noted that the House of Representatives is more likely to be in political agreement with the President and Vice President than the Senate. The succession of a Republican to a Democratic Presidency would further complicate an already unstable political situation. However, when the changes to the succession were signed into law, they placed Republican House Speaker Joseph W. Martin first in the line of succession after the Vice President.
Some of Truman 's critics said that his ordering of the Speaker before the President pro tempore was motivated by his dislike of the then - current holder of the latter rank, Senator Kenneth McKellar. Further motivation may have been provided by Truman 's preference for House Speaker Sam Rayburn to be next in the line of succession, rather than Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.
The line of succession is mentioned in three places in the Constitution:
Article II, Section 1 of the United States Constitution provides that:
In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President... until the disability be removed, or a President elected.
This originally left open the question whether "the same '' refers to "the said office '' or only "the powers and duties of the said office. '' Some historians, including Edward Corwin and John D. Feerick, have argued that the framers ' intention was that the Vice President would remain Vice President while executing the powers and duties of the Presidency; however, there is also much evidence to the contrary, the most compelling of which is Article I, section 3, of the Constitution itself, the relevant text of which reads:
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse (sic) their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.
This text appears to answer the hypothetical question of whether the office or merely the powers of the Presidency devolved upon the Vice President on his succession. Thus, the 25th Amendment merely restates and reaffirms the validity of existing precedent, apart from adding new protocols for Presidential disability. Not everyone agreed with this interpretation when it was first actually tested, and it was left to Vice President John Tyler, the first presidential successor in U.S. history, to establish the precedent that was respected in the absence of the 25th Amendment.
Upon the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841 and after a brief hesitation, Tyler took the position that he was the President and not merely acting President upon taking the presidential oath of office. However, some contempories -- including John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and other members of Congress Whig party leaders and even Tyler 's own cabinet -- believed that he was only acting as President and did not have the office itself.
Nonetheless, Tyler adhered to his position, even returning, unopened, mail addressed to the "Acting President of the United States '' sent by his detractors. Tyler 's view ultimately prevailed when the Senate voted to accept the title "President, '' and this precedent was followed thereafter. The question was finally resolved by Section 1 of the 25th Amendment, which specifies that "In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President. '' The Amendment does not specify whether officers other than the Vice President can become President rather than Acting President in the same set of circumstances. The Presidential Succession Act refers only to other officers acting as President rather than becoming President.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1792 was the first succession law passed by Congress. The act was contentious because the Federalists did not want the then Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, who had become the leader of the Democratic - Republicans, to follow the Vice President in the succession. There were also separation of powers concerns over including the Chief Justice of the United States in the line. The compromise they worked out established the President pro tempore of the Senate as next in line after the Vice President, followed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
In either case, these officers were to "act as President of the United States until the disability be removed or a president be elected. '' The Act called for a special election to be held in November of the year in which dual vacancies occurred (unless the vacancies occurred after the first Wednesday in October, in which case the election would occur the following year; or unless the vacancies occurred within the last year of the presidential term, in which case the next election would take place as regularly scheduled). The people elected President and Vice President in such a special election would have served a full four - year term beginning on March 4 of the next year, but no such election ever took place.
In 1881, after the death of President Garfield, and in 1885, after the death of Vice President Hendricks, there had been no President pro tempore in office, and as the new House of Representatives had yet to convene, no Speaker either, leaving no one at all in the line of succession after the vice president. When Congress convened in December 1885, President Cleveland asked for a revision of the 1792 act, which was passed in 1886. Congress replaced the President pro tempore and Speaker with officers of the President 's Cabinet with the Secretary of State first in line. In the first 100 years of the United States, six former Secretaries of State had gone on to be elected President, while only two congressional leaders had advanced to that office. As a result, changing the order of the line of succession seemed reasonable.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1947, signed into law by President Harry S. Truman, added the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore back in the line, but switched the two from the 1792 order. It remains the sequence used today. Since the reorganization of the military in 1947 had merged the War Department (which governed the Army) with the Department of the Navy into the Department of Defense, the Secretary of Defense took the place in the order of succession previously held by the Secretary of War. The office of Secretary of the Navy, which had existed as a Cabinet - level position since 1798, had become subordinate to the Secretary of Defense in the military reorganization, and so was dropped from the line of succession in the 1947 Succession Act.
Until 1971, the Postmaster General, the head of the Post Office Department, was a member of the Cabinet, initially the last in the presidential line of succession before new officers were added. Once the Post Office Department was re-organized into the United States Postal Service, a special agency independent of the executive branch, the Postmaster General ceased to be a member of the Cabinet and was thus removed from the line of succession.
The United States Department of Homeland Security was created in 2002. On March 9, 2006, pursuant to the renewal of the Patriot Act as Pub. L. 109 -- 177, the Secretary of Homeland Security was added to the line of succession. The order of Cabinet members in the line has always been the same as the order in which their respective departments were established. Despite custom, many in Congress had wanted the Secretary to be placed at number eight on the list -- below the Attorney General, above the Secretary of the Interior, and in the position held by the Secretary of the Navy prior to the creation of the Secretary of Defense -- because the Secretary, already in charge of disaster relief and security, would presumably be more prepared to take over the presidency than some of the other Cabinet secretaries. Despite this, the 2006 law explicitly specifies that the "Secretary of Homeland Security '' follows the "Secretary of Veterans Affairs '' in the succession, effectively at the end of the list.
While nine Vice Presidents have succeeded to the office upon the death or resignation of the President, and two Vice Presidents have temporarily served as acting President, no other officer has ever been called upon to act as President. On March 4, 1849, President Zachary Taylor 's term began, but he declined to be sworn in on a Sunday, citing religious beliefs, and the Vice President was not sworn either. As the last President pro tempore of the Senate, David Rice Atchison was thought by some to be next in line after the Vice President, and his tombstone claims that he was US President for the day. However, Atchison took no oath of office to the presidency either, and his term as Senate President pro tempore had by then expired.
In 1865, when Andrew Johnson assumed the Presidency on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the office of Vice President became vacant. At that time, the Senate President pro tempore was next in line to the presidency. In 1868, Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives and subjected to trial in the Senate, and if he had been convicted and thereby removed from office, Senate President pro tempore Benjamin Wade would have become acting President. This posed a conflict of interest, as Wade 's "guilty '' vote could have been decisive in removing Johnson from office and giving himself presidential powers and duties. (Johnson was acquitted by a one - vote margin.)
In his book The Shadow Presidents, which he published in 1979, Michael Medved describes a situation that arose prior to the 1916 election, when the First World War was raging in Europe. In view of the contemporary international turmoil, President Woodrow Wilson thought that if he lost the election it would be better for his opponent to begin his administration straight away, instead of waiting through the lame duck period, which at that time had a duration of almost four months. President Wilson and his aides formed a plan to exploit the rule of succession so that his rival Charles Evans Hughes could take over the Presidency as soon as the result of the election was clear. The plan was that Wilson would appoint Hughes to the post of Secretary of State. Wilson and his Vice President Thomas R. Marshall would then resign, and as the Secretary of State was at that time designated next in line of succession, Hughes would become President immediately. As it happened, President Wilson won re-election, so the plan was never put into action.
Since the 25th Amendment 's ratification, its Second Section, which addresses Vice Presidential succession as noted above, has been invoked twice.
During the 1973 Vice Presidential vacancy, House Speaker Carl Albert was first in line. As the Watergate scandal made President Nixon 's removal or resignation possible, Albert would have become Acting President and -- under Title 3, Section 19 (c) of the U.S. Code -- would have been able to "act as President until the expiration of the then current Presidential term '' on January 20, 1977. Albert openly questioned whether it was appropriate for him, a Democrat, to assume the powers and duties of the presidency when there was a public mandate for the Presidency to be held by a Republican. Albert announced that should he need to assume the Presidential powers and duties, he would do so only as a caretaker. However, with the nomination and confirmation of Gerald Ford to the Vice Presidency, which marked the first time the Second Section of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked, these series of events were never tested. Albert again became first - in - line during the first four months of Ford 's Presidency, before the confirmation of Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, which marked the second time Section 2 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked.
In 1981, when President Ronald Reagan was shot, Vice President George H.W. Bush was traveling in Texas. Secretary of State Alexander Haig responded to a reporter 's question regarding who was running the government by stating:
Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the President, the Vice President and the Secretary of State in that order, and should the President decide he wants to transfer the helm to the Vice President, he will do so. He has not done that. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending return of the Vice President and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course.
A bitter dispute ensued over the meaning of Haig 's remarks. Most people believed that Haig was referring to the line of succession and erroneously claimed to have temporary Presidential authority, due to his implied reference to the Constitution. Haig and his supporters, noting his familiarity with the line of succession from his time as White House Chief of Staff during Richard Nixon 's resignation, said he only meant that he was the highest - ranking officer of the Executive branch on - site, managing things temporarily until the Vice President returned to Washington.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency. James Madison, one of the authors of the Constitution, raised similar constitutional questions about the Presidential Succession Act of 1792 in a 1792 letter to Edmund Pendleton. Two of these issues can be summarized:
In 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission suggested that the current law has "at least seven significant issues... that warrant attention '', specifically:
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where did stu get married in the hangover | The Hangover - wikipedia
The Hangover is a 2009 American comedy film directed by Todd Phillips, co-produced with Daniel Goldberg, and written by Jon Lucas and Scott Moore. It is the first installment in The Hangover trilogy. The film stars Bradley Cooper, Ed Helms, Zach Galifianakis, Heather Graham, Justin Bartha, and Jeffrey Tambor. It tells the story of Phil Wenneck, Stu Price, Alan Garner, and Doug Billings, who travel to Las Vegas for a bachelor party to celebrate Doug 's impending marriage. However, Phil, Stu, and Alan wake up with Doug missing and no memory of the previous night 's events, and must find the groom before the wedding can take place.
Lucas and Moore wrote the script after executive producer Chris Bender 's friend disappeared and had a large bill after being sent to a strip club. After Lucas and Moore sold it to the studio for $2 million, Philips and Jeremy Garelick rewrote the script to include a tiger as well as a subplot involving a baby and a police cruiser, and also including boxer Mike Tyson. Filming took place in Nevada for 15 days, and during filming, the three main actors (Cooper, Helms, and Galifianakis) formed a real friendship.
The Hangover was released on June 5, 2009, and was a critical and commercial success. The film became the tenth - highest - grossing film of 2009, with a worldwide gross of over $467 million. The film won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy, and received multiple other accolades. It is the tenth - highest - grossing worldwide film of 2009, as well as the second - highest - grossing R - rated comedy ever in the United States, surpassing a record previously held by Beverly Hills Cop for almost 25 years. It is the sixth - highest - grossing R - rated film in the U.S., behind The Passion of the Christ, The Matrix Reloaded, American Sniper, It, and Deadpool.
A sequel, The Hangover Part II, was released on May 26, 2011, and a third and final installment, The Hangover Part III, was released on May 23, 2013.
To celebrate his upcoming marriage to Tracy Garner, Doug Billings travels to Las Vegas with his best friends Phil Wenneck, Stuart "Stu '' Price, and Tracy 's brother Alan, in Doug 's future father - in - law Sid 's vintage Mercedes - Benz W111. They spend the night at Caesars Palace, where they relax in their hotel suite before celebrating with a few drinks on the hotel rooftop. The next morning, Phil, Stu, and Alan awaken to find they have no memory of the previous night, and Doug is nowhere to be found. Stu 's tooth is in Alan 's pocket, their suite is in a state of complete disarray, a tiger is in their bathroom, a chicken is in their living room, and a baby is in the closet, whom Alan names "Carlos ''. They see Doug 's mattress impaled on a statue outside of Caesars Palace and when they ask for their Mercedes, the valet delivers an LVPD police cruiser.
Using clues to retrace their steps, the trio travel to a hospital where they discover they were drugged with Rohypnol ("roofies ''), causing their memory loss, and that they came to the hospital from a chapel. At the chapel, they learn that Stu married a stripper named Jade, despite being in a long - term relationship with his abusive, domineering girlfriend Melissa. Outside the chapel, the trio is attacked by gangsters saying they are looking for someone. They flee and visit Jade, discovering that she is the mother of the baby, whose real name is Tyler. They are then arrested by the police for stealing the police cruiser. After being told that the Mercedes has been impounded, the trio is released when they unknowingly volunteer to be targets for a taser demonstration. While driving the Mercedes, they discover a naked Chinese man named Leslie Chow in the trunk. Chow jumps out of the trunk, beats the trio up with a crowbar and flees. Alan confesses that he drugged their drinks to ensure they had a good night, believing the drug to be ecstasy.
Returning to their suite, they find the boxer Mike Tyson, who orders the trio to return the tiger to his mansion immediately. Stu drugs the tiger with the remaining Rohypnol, and they drive towards Tyson 's home in the Mercedes - Benz. However, the tiger awakens midway and attacks them, clawing Phil on the neck and damaging the car 's interior. After pushing the car the rest of the way to the mansion, Tyson shows the trio footage of them at his house to help them locate Doug. While driving, their car is intentionally t - boned by a 2009 Cadillac Escalade. The passengers are revealed to be the gangsters from the chapel, and their boss Chow. Chow accuses the trio of kidnapping him and stealing $80,000 that was in his purse. As the trio denies this, Chow tells them he has Doug, and threatens to kill him if his money is not returned. Unable to find Chow 's $80,000, Alan, with help from Stu and Jade, uses his knowledge of card counting to win $82,400 playing Blackjack.
The next morning, they meet with Chow in the desert and exchange the money, only to find that "Doug '' is the black drug dealer who accidentally sold Alan Rohypnol. With the wedding set to occur in 5 hours, Phil calls Tracy and tells her that they can not find Doug. When "Black Doug '' mentions that, "If you take Roofies, you 're more likely to end up on the floor than on the roof, '' Stu realizes where Doug is. The trio travels back to their hotel where they find a badly sunburned Doug on the roof. Stu, Phil, and Alan had moved him there on his mattress the night before as a practical joke, but forgot where they left him. Doug had thrown his own mattress onto the statue, in an attempt to signal help. Before leaving, Stu makes arrangements to go on a date with Jade the following week. With less than four hours before the wedding and with no flights to L.A. available, the four quickly drive home. Along the way, Doug reveals he has possession of Chow 's original $80,000. Despite their late arrival, Doug and Tracy are married, the former learns the damaged Mercedes was a wedding gift, and Stu breaks up with Melissa, having grown tired of her controlling attitude. As the reception ends, Alan finds Stu 's digital camera containing photos of the events they can not remember, and the four agree to look at the pictures together before deleting the evidence of their exploits. All of them, save for Alan, are traumatized by what they see.
The rest of the Garners are portrayed by Sondra Currie as Linda, Tracy 's and Alan 's mother; and Sasha Barrese as Tracy, Doug 's bride and Alan 's sister.
The cast also includes: Mike Epps as "Black Doug '', a drug dealer who is mistaken for Doug; Rachael Harris as Melissa, Stu 's bossy, cheating girlfriend; Bryan Callen as Eddie, the wedding organizer; Rob Riggle and Cleo King as Officers Franklin and Garden, respectively; Gillian Vigman as Stephanie Wenneck, Phil 's wife; Ian Anthony Dale and Michael Lee portray Chow 's henchmen. Matt Walsh portrays Dr. Valsh and Dan Finnerty plays a wedding singer at Doug and Tracy 's wedding. Todd Phillips, the film 's director, appears as Mr. Creepy, who appears briefly in an elevator. Mike Tyson appears as himself; Tyson originally refused to appear in the film, but he changed his mind when he found out that Todd Phillips directed Old School, which Tyson liked. Tyson later said that working on the film convinced him to change his lifestyle. Professional skateboarder Mike Vallely portrays Neeco, the high - speed tuxedo delivery man. Las Vegas personalities Wayne Newton and Carrot Top appear as themselves in the photo slide show.
The plot of The Hangover was inspired by a real event that happened to Tripp Vinson, a producer and friend of executive producer Chris Bender. Vinson had gone missing from his own Las Vegas bachelor party, blacking out and waking up "in a strip club being threatened with a very, very large bill (he) was supposed to pay ''.
Jon Lucas and Scott Moore sold the original script of The Hangover to Warner Bros. for over $2 million. The story was about three friends who lose the groom at his Las Vegas bachelor party and then must retrace their steps to figure out what happened. It was then rewritten by Jeremy Garelick and director Todd Phillips, who added additional elements such as Mike Tyson and his tiger, the baby, and the police cruiser. The Writers Guild of America, West disallowed their work to be credited due to the rules of its screenwriting credit system.
Ed Helms, Zach Galifianakis, and Bradley Cooper were all casual acquaintances before The Hangover was filmed, which Helms said he believed helped in establishing a rapport and chemistry amongst their characters. Helms credited Phillips for "bringing together three guys who are really different, but really appreciate each others ' humor and sensibilities ''. Helms also said the fact that the story of the three characters growing closer and bonding informed the friendship between the three actors: "As you spend 14 hours a day together for three months, you see a lot of sides of somebody. We went through the wringer together, and that shared experience really made us genuine buddies. ''
Lindsay Lohan was offered the role of Jade in the film. However, she turned it down, saying that the script "had no potential ''. She later regretted making that decision.
On a budget of $35 million, principal photography took place in Nevada for fifteen days.
The Hangover was mostly filmed on location at Caesars Palace, including the front desk, lobby, entrance drive, pools, corridors, elevators, and roof, but the suite damaged in the film was built on a soundstage.
Helms said filming The Hangover was more physically demanding than any other role he had done, and that he lost eight pounds while making the film. He said the most difficult day of shooting was the scene when Mr. Chow rams his car and attacks the main characters, which Helms said required many takes and was very painful, such as when a few of the punches and kicks accidentally landed and when his knees and shins were hurt while being pulled out of a window. The missing tooth was not created with prosthetics or visual effects, but is naturally occurring: Helms never had an adult incisor grow, and got a dental implant as a teenager, which was removed for filming.
Jeong stated that his jumping on Cooper 's neck naked was n't a part of the script, but rather improvisation on their part. It was added with Phillips ' blessing. Jeong also stated that he had to receive his wife 's permission to appear nude in the film.
Phillips tried to convince the actors to allow him to use a real Taser until Warner Bros. lawyers intervened.
Regarding the explicit shots in the final photo slide show in which his character is seen receiving fellatio in an elevator, Galifianakis confirmed that a prosthesis was used for the scene, and that he had been more embarrassed than anyone else during the creation of the shot. "You would think that I would n't be the one who was embarrassed; I was extremely embarrassed. I really did n't even want it in there. I offered Todd 's assistant a lot of money to convince him to take it out of the movie. I did. But it made it in there. ''
The scenes involving animals were filmed mostly with trained animals. Trainers and safety equipment were digitally removed from the final version. Some prop animals were used, such as when the tiger was hidden under a sheet and being moved on a baggage cart. Such efforts were given an "Outstanding '' rating by the American Humane Association for the monitoring and treatment of the animals.
The film 's score was composed by Christophe Beck. The film featured 20 songs, consisting of music by Kanye West, Dyslexic Speedreaders, Danzig, The Donnas, Usher, Phil Collins, The Belle Stars, T.I., Wolfmother and The Dan Band, who tend to feature in Phillips ' films as the inappropriate, bad - mouthed wedding band. The Dan Band also has a version of the 50 Cent hit single "Candy Shop ''. Pro-skater and punk musician Mike Vallely was invited with his band, Revolution Mother, to write a song for the film and also makes a cameo appearance as the high speed tuxedo delivery guy.
"Right Round '' by Flo Rida is played over the ending credits. The film uses the Kanye West song "Ca n't Tell Me Nothing '' for which Zach Galifianakis made an alternative music video.
The Hangover was a financial success. As of December 17, 2009, it had grossed $467,416,722, of which $277,322,503 was in Canada and the United States. It was tenth - highest - grossing film of 2009 in the world, the ninth - highest - grossing film of 2009 in the U.S. and the highest - grossing R - rated comedy ever in the United States, surpassing a record previously held by Beverly Hills Cop for almost 25 years. Out of all R - rated films, it is the fifth - highest - grossing ever in the U.S., behind only The Passion of the Christ, The Matrix Reloaded, American Sniper, and Deadpool. However, adjusted for inflation The Hangover earned less than half the total earned by Beverly Hills Cop and is out grossed by several comedies including Porky 's.
On its first day of release in the U.S., the film drew $16,734,033 on approximately 4,500 screens at 3,269 sites, and exceeded the big - budgeted Land of the Lost -- the other major new release of the weekend -- for first day 's box office takings. Although initial studio projections had the Disney Pixar film Up holding on to the number one slot for a second consecutive weekend, final revised figures, bolstered by a surprisingly strong Sunday showing, ultimately had The Hangover finishing first for the weekend, with $44,979,319 from 3,269 theaters, averaging $13,759 per venue, narrowly edging out Up for the top spot, and more than twice that of Land of the Lost, which finished third with $18.8 million. The film exceeded Warner Bros. ' expectations -- which had anticipated it would finish third behind Up and Land of the Lost -- benefiting from positive word - of - mouth and critical praise, and a generally negative buzz for Land of the Lost. It stayed at the number one position in its second weekend, grossing another $32,794,387, from 3,355 theaters for an average of $9,775 per venue, and bringing the 10 - day amount to $104,768,489.
The Hangover was released on DVD, Blu - ray, and UMD on December 15, 2009. There is a single - disc theatrical version featuring both full - and wide - screen option (DVD only), as well as a wide - screen two - disc unrated version of the film, also containing the theatrical version (DVD, Blu - ray, and UMD). The unrated version is approximately seven minutes longer than the theatrical version. The unrated version is on disc one and the theatrical version, digital copy, and the different features are on disc two. The Hangover beat Inglourious Basterds and G - Force in first week DVD and Blu - ray sales, as well as rentals, selling more than 8.6 million units and making it the best - selling comedy ever on DVD and Blu - ray, beating the previous record held by My Big Fat Greek Wedding.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 79 % based on 228 reviews with an average rating of 6.8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "With a clever script and hilarious interplay among the cast, The Hangover nails just the right tone of raunchy humor and the non-stop laughs overshadow any flaw. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 73 out of 100 based on 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave it three - and - a-half stars out of four and praised the film for its funniness and comedic approach. A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised Cooper, Helms and Galifianakis for their performances in the film as well as Todd Phillips for its direction. Scott later went on to say that the film is "safe as milk ''. Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle also praised Phillips ' direction. LaSalle also praised the film 's comedic scenes and called it "the funniest movie so far this year (2009) ''. Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times praised the film for its perverseness. Sharkey also said that the film is "filled with moments as softhearted as they are crude, as forgiving as unforgivable ''. Although Joe Leydon of Variety criticized the film 's trailers and TV - spots for its "beer - and - boobs, party - hearty farce '', Leydon praised the film for its cleverness.
Conversely, Richard Corliss of Time said that "virtually every joke (in the film) either is visible long before it arrives or extends way past its expiration date '' and added, "Whatever the other critics say, this is a bromance so primitive it 's practically Bro - Magnon. '' In his review in The Baltimore Sun, Michael Sragow called the film a "foul mesh of cheap cleverness and vulgarity '' Joe Neumaier of the Daily News gave the film two - and - a-half out of 5 stars and noted, "Amusing as it is, it never feels real. That may not seem like a big deal -- a lot of funny movies play by their own rules -- except that The Hangover keeps doubling - down on the outlandishness. '' Family - oriented reviewers have harangued the film, noting that Galifianakis said he tried to forbid his own mother from seeing it and that he yells at parents of kids who tell him they like the film.
Critics noted the weak character development, especially in its female characters. Critics also focused on misogyny and stereotyping, in particular the Asian gangster. Ebert, despite his praise, stated, "I wo n't go so far as to describe it as a character study '' but that the film is more than the sum of its parts -- parts that may at first seem a little generic or clichéd, since many other films (such as Very Bad Things) have already explored the idea of a weekend in Vegas gone wrong. The film 's premise has several similarities to Dude, Where 's My Car? Both films are about "a couple guys waking up after a night of getting trashed, only to find they are missing something important '', whose adventures include "a trail of clues, a missing car, dubious encounters with strippers and wild animals, a brush with the law and gangs chasing them for something they do n't realize they have ''.
On January 17, 2010, The Hangover won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy. It was also named one of the top ten films of the year by the American Film Institute. The film won "Best Ensemble '' from the Detroit Film Critics Society. The screenplay was nominated for a Writers Guild of America and BAFTA awards.
By depicting and celebrating Las Vegas as the "ultimate guys ' getaway '', The Hangover had a major impact on Caesars Palace and Las Vegas. It was reported in 2013 that as of that year, guests were still continuing to quote to Caesars staff two lines from the film 's check - in scene: "Did Caesar live here? '' and "Do you know if the hotel is pager friendly? '' As a result of the film, Hangover - themed slot machines became popular at casinos throughout the Las Vegas Valley, the Caesars Palace gift shop sold tens of thousands of Hangover - related souvenirs, and the Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority received numerous inquiries from persons interested in recreating some of the film 's most wild scenes, such as those involving a tiger.
Principal photography of The Hangover Part II began in October 2010, with Bradley Cooper, Ed Helms, Justin Bartha, and Zach Galifianakis returning, in addition to Ken Jeong who appears in a much larger role. The film was released on May 26, 2011.
Filming of The Hangover Part III began in September 2012 and was released on May 23, 2013.
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star vs the forces of evil season 4 episode 6 | Star vs. the Forces of Evil - Wikipedia
Star vs. the Forces of Evil is an American animated television series created by Daron Nefcy and developed by Jordana Arkin and Dave Wasson, which airs on Disney XD. The first Disney XD series created by a woman, and the third overall for Disney Television Animation (following Pepper Ann and Doc McStuffins), it follows the adventures of Star Butterfly (voiced by Eden Sher), the young, turbulent heir to the royal throne in the dimension of Mewni, who is sent to Earth so she can complete her education and learn to be a worthy princess. Marco Diaz (Adam McArthur), a human teenager who becomes her roommate and best friend as they live their daily lives, and go on adventures in other dimensions.
Star vs. the Forces of Evil typically follows a format of two 11 - minutes long independent "segments '' per episode, with individual writing and directing credits for each, although it occasionally opts for a single, 22 - minutes long story instead. The first episode aired on January 18, 2015 on Disney Channel as a special preview, becoming the most - watched animated series debut in Disney XD 's history; the first season subsequently officially premiered on Disney XD on March 30, 2015. The third season started on July 15, 2017 and concluded on April 7, 2018. On February 28, 2017, the series was officially renewed for a fourth season. Nearly a year after the renewal, it was announced that the show would be moving to Disney Channel for its fourth season.
Star Butterfly is a magical princess from the dimension of Mewni, and the heir to the royal throne of the Butterfly Kingdom. As per tradition, she is given the family heirloom wand on her 14th birthday. After she accidentally sets fire to the family castle, her parents King and Queen Butterfly decide that a safer option is to send her to Earth as a foreign exchange student, so she can continue her magic training there. She befriends Marco Diaz and lives with his family while attending Echo Creek Academy. Going in a series of misadventures using "dimensional scissors '' that can open portals, Star and Marco must deal with everyday school life while protecting Star 's wand from falling into the hands of Ludo, a villain from Mewni who commands a group of monsters. Besides also dealing with her ex-boyfriend Tom, in Season 3, Star goes up against more serious villains like Toffee and Miss Heinous as well as the affairs of Star 's relative Eclipsa Butterfly.
Nefcy said she originally created Star as a girl who wanted to be a magical girl like Sailor Moon, and Marco as a boy who was obsessed with Dragon Ball Z and karate; they would be enemies instead of friends. In this earlier version, Star did not have any actual magical powers; she instead would approach and solve problems primarily through the force of her determination alone. Nefcy began pitching the show when she was in her third year of college, when Cartoon Network was actively soliciting the creation of pilots for prospective new shows. Nefcy originally placed Star in the fourth grade, reflecting on a time in her own childhood when she held a self - described obsession with the animated series Sailor Moon. However, Nefcy later adjusted the character 's age to fourteen during the time she made her series proposition to Disney. An executive at that time made the suggestion for Star to have actual magical powers. Nefcy worked this concept into the show 's current iteration, along with the idea of different dimensions as show locations, the framing device of Star being a foreign exchange student, and the plot aspects relating to Star being a princess and the subsequent consequences of her royal birthright. Nefcy said that the overall concept has evolved over about six years.
In addition to Sailor Moon and Dragon Ball Z, Nefcy has said that she had heavy influence in her youth from the animated Japanese shows Magic Knight Rayearth, Revolutionary Girl Utena and Unico, the last of which featured a pink unicorn. She also cited shows unrelated to Japanese animation such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer, and was influenced by independent comic series such as Scott Pilgrim and The Dungeon. With regards to the development of more strong female characters, Nefcy said that she "looked at TV over the years and I have had to go to Japan when I was younger to find the cartoons that had the characters that I wanted to see. It was always a question of ' Well, why is n't that on TV in the U.S.? ' ''
One of the concepts she likes about the show is that it does n't make high school the most important experience for teenagers. She also likes that Star does her own thing instead of being concerned about fitting in. Nefcy did not want the gimmick about keeping the magic powers a secret from others as typical of magical girl shows, so she had the students already know about it and Marco 's parents as well. She also portrays Star as not really a superhero as she does not specifically go after super-villains except when they attack her, and that she does n't really save people. Nefcy said that the episodes balance comedy and drama: "we really want our characters to feel like teenagers and have them going through the normal emotions that teenagers go through, but in this magical setting. ''
Storyboarding and design are done in Los Angeles. In describing the process, Nefcy said that the show is storyboard - driven, with each episode mapped out by the storyboard artists. The storyboarders also do the writing, taking a two - page outline and turning it into a full script. A storyboard for 11 minutes would require about 2000 drawings to be done in a six - week period. After pre-production in the US, the first season animation was done at Mercury Filmworks in Ottawa, Canada. Mercury had also done Wander Over Yonder and the Mickey Mouse series. For the rest of first season, the animation was done in the Philippines. The second season was animated by Sugarcube and Rough Draft Studios, both located in South Korea.
The theme song was done by Brad Breeck, who also did Gravity Falls ' opening theme; Nefcy said: "when we were listening to it we did n't know, because we just listened blind ''. Brian Kim was chosen among a group of about ten people as the show 's composer. Kim describes the music for each dimension as having a different sound and relating it to indie rock in Los Angeles.
The show was initially scheduled to premiere on Disney Channel after being greenlighted in March 2013, for a premiere in the Fall of 2014, before being switched over to Disney XD. However, on February 23, 2018, it was announced that the show would be moving to Disney Channel for its fourth season.
The show 's title sequence was promoted at Comic - Con 2014 six months prior to its scheduled broadcast premiere. As a result, the footage was uploaded by fans to YouTube who then started generating fan art and fan fiction. The first episode premiered on Disney Channel in January 2015. The positive reaction on social media has prompted Disney XD to order a second season of the series in February 2015, six weeks ahead of its launch of the series on Disney XD in March. Disney sitcom actors Olivia Holt and Kelli Berglund participated in promoting the series the weeks before its Disney XD premiere, with Holt dressing up as Star.
The second season premiered on July 11, 2016, The show 's third season was ordered ahead in March 2016. It premiered on July 15, 2017 with a two - hour long television movie entitled "The Battle for Mewni '' and consisted of the first four episodes. A live chat featuring Star and Marco was aired on Disney XD on July 17. The remaining third - season episodes starting airing on November 6, 2017. A fourth season was also ordered ahead of the third season premiere.
Star vs. the Forces of Evil premiered in Canada on the DHX - owned Disney XD on April 6, 2015, and was later moved to the Corus - owned Disney XD on December 1. The series premiered on Disney XD channels in the United Kingdom and Ireland on April 16, 2015, in Australia on August 3, and in the Middle East and Africa on October 5. It also premiered on November 8 on Disney Channel in Southeast Asia. The series premiered on March 6, 2016, as Star Butterfly in French on Disney La Chaîne in Canada. The show premiered on November 2 on Disney XD in Italy, and on Disney Channel on November 2, 2016.
Star vs. the Forces of Evil has received positive reviews by critics.
Kevin Johnson of The A.V. Club gave the pilot episode a B+, saying that the show was something children could have a lot of fun with, noting how the show follows current trends in western animation "towards large - eyed characters and quirky visual trends ''. Johnson stated that Star vs. the Forces of Evil "excels on wild, silly, and clever set - pieces to bring the laughs and action '', but expected that adult viewers wo n't get much out of it. Furthermore, the premiere of Star vs. the Forces of Evil became the most - watched animated series debut in Disney XD 's history. Following the end of the second season, Disney XD announced it had ordered a fourth season of the show, and that in 2016, Star and another animated show Milo Murphy 's Law had reached over 100 million consumer views combined across its media platforms.
In reviewing episodes from the first season, Marcy Cook of The Mary Sue described the show as a blend of others such as Invader Zim and a sanitized Ren & Stimpy, with great appeal to tween and teen girls as well some laugh out loud moments for adults. She said, "(I) t 's really cool to see a girl who is into cuteness and rainbows also kick - ass and enjoy it ''. Cook was bothered by the short episodes that made the plot seem rushed or underdeveloped. Cook was bugged by Marco 's retconned personality from the pilot episode where he was a safety conscious kid to the series where he was a martial arts fight seeker. Caitlin Donovan of entertainment website Epicstream listed it among her top 10 animated series of 2015. She found the first few episodes to be "a little rough for me, like the show was trying too hard to be funny and weird '', but that the show got better with character development and relationship building, with "a really dramatic, high - tension finale to the first season ''.
The episode "Party with a Pony '' was showcased in the Annecy International Animated Film Festival in June 2015.
A comic book series titled Deep Trouble was written by storyboarder Zach Marcus and illustrated by character designer Devin Taylor, both of whom are part of the Star crew. They have been released monthly by Joe Books starting in September 2016. A Cinestory comic was also developed and released.
The book Star and Marco 's Guide to Mastering Every Dimension, authored by Amber Benson and supervising producer Dominic Bisignano, was released on March 7, 2017.
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a power-of-sale clause will always be a part of a | Deed of trust (real estate) - wikipedia
In real estate in the United States, a deed of trust or trust deed is a deed wherein legal title in real property is transferred to a trustee, which holds it as security for a loan (debt) between a borrower and lender. The equitable title remains with the borrower. The borrower is referred to as the trustor, while the lender is referred to as the beneficiary.
Transactions involving deeds of trust are normally structured, at least in theory, so that the lender / beneficiary gives the borrower / trustor the money to buy the property; the borrower / trustor tenders the money to the seller; the seller executes a grant deed giving the property to the borrower / trustor; and the borrower / trustor immediately executes a deed of trust giving the property to the trustee to be held in trust for the lender / beneficiary. In reality, an escrow holder is always used so that the transaction does not close until the escrow holder has the funds, grant deed, and deed of trust in their possession, so that the transaction can be easily rescinded if one party is unable to complete its part of the deal.
Deeds of trust differ from mortgages in that deeds of trust always involve at least three parties, where the third party holds the legal title, while in the context of mortgages, the mortgagor gives legal title directly to the mortgagee. In either case, equitable title remains with the borrower. Both mortgages and deeds of trust are essentially security instruments in the form of conveyances; that is, they appear to provide on their face for absolute conveyances of legal title, but it is implicitly understood that the borrower is retaining equitable title and the conveyance is intended to merely create a security interest. This confusing situation is a legacy of the archaic (and now - obsolete) common law requirement of livery of seisin, under which English common law courts had refused to enforce shifting fees or springing freehold interests (that is, a gage for years that was supposed to automatically expand to fee simple title if the underlying debt was not repaid).
A deed of trust is normally recorded with the recorder or county clerk for the county where the property is located as evidence of and security for the debt. The act of recording provides constructive notice to the world that the property has been encumbered. When the debt is fully paid, the beneficiary is required by law to promptly direct the trustee to transfer the property back to the trustor by reconveyance, thus releasing the security for the debt.
Deeds of trust are the most common instrument used in the financing of real estate purchases in Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, the District of Columbia, Idaho, Maryland, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Carolina, Oregon, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, and West Virginia, whereas most other states use mortgages. Besides purchases, deeds of trust can also be used for loans made for other kinds of purposes where real estate is merely offered as collateral, and are also used to secure performance of contracts other than loans.
A deed of trust has a crucial advantage over a mortgage from the lender 's point of view. If the borrower defaults on the loan, the trustee has the power to foreclose on the property on behalf of the beneficiary. In most U.S. states, a deed of trust (but not a mortgage) can contain a special "power of sale '' clause that permits the trustee to exercise these powers. Here is the standard conveyance clause from a Freddie Mac "uniform instrument '':
In the states that enforce "power of sale '' clauses, the courts have uniformly held that by executing a deed of trust with a "power of sale '' clause, the owner has authorized the trustee to conduct a nonjudicial foreclosure in the event of default. That is, unlike a mortgage, the lender need not sue the borrower in a state court; instead, the lender / beneficiary merely directs the trustee to mail (or serve, publish, or record) certain notices required by law, culminating in a "trustee 's sale '' at which the trustee auctions the property to the highest bidder. The borrower 's equitable title normally terminates automatically by operation of law (under applicable statutes or case law) at the trustee 's sale. The trustee then issues a deed conveying the legal and equitable title to the property in fee simple to the highest bidder. In turn, the successful bidder records the deed and becomes the owner of record. Thus, the advantage of deeds of trust is that the lender can recover the value of the collateral for the loan much more quickly, and without the expense and uncertainty of suing the borrower, which is why lenders overwhelmingly prefer such deeds to mortgages.
While true mortgages (limited to judicial foreclosure) remain available in every state that enforces "power of sale '' clauses, they are quite rare. Any prospective borrower who specifically asks for a true mortgage from a commercial lender in such a state necessarily brings his or her creditworthiness into question (since if they were confident in their own ability to repay the loan, they would not need to make such a request), and any rational lender willing to extend credit to less creditworthy borrowers will insist on harsher terms, including the use of a deed of trust with a "power of sale '' clause.
The time periods for the "trustee 's sale '' or "power of sale '' foreclosure process vary dramatically between jurisdictions. Some states have very short timelines. For example, in Virginia, it can be as short as two weeks. In California, a nonjudicial foreclosure takes a minimum of approximately 112 days from start to finish. The process starts only when the lender or trustee records a "notice of default '' no matter how long the loan payments have been unpaid. For certain home loans made between 2003 and 2007, because of current economic conditions, California law was amended to add a temporary additional 60 days to the process.
Historically, some of these documents were titled "deeds of trust '' and others were titled "trust deeds, '' and U.S. case law prior to about 1990 tends to reflect both usages. Due to the rise of real estate securitization in the 1990s and the shift from "lend to hold '' to "lend to securitize, '' the majority of residential real estate transactions are now completed with uniform security instruments which are consistently described as "deeds of trust '' so as to avoid confusion with true trusts or true deeds (i.e., true conveyances rather than security interests in the form of conveyances). Thus, the more precise term of art "deed of trust '' has become predominant in the case law since then.
Though a mortgage is technically an entirely different legal instrument (as noted above), deeds of trust are frequently called mortgages in the real estate loan business due to the functional similarity between deeds of trust and mortgages.
Although a deed of trust usually states that the borrower is making an "irrevocable '' transfer to the trustee, it is common in many jurisdictions for borrowers to obtain second and third mortgages or trust deeds that make similar transfers to additional trustees (that is, of a property they already conveyed to the trustee on their first deed of trust). As with mortgages, deeds of trust are subject to the rule "first in time, first in right, '' meaning that the beneficiary of the first recorded deed of trust may foreclose and wipe out all junior deeds of trust recorded later in time. If this happens, the junior debt still exists, but may become unsecured. If the debtor has sufficient senior secured claims upon his assets, lacks equity, or is otherwise insolvent, the junior liens may be wiped out completely in bankruptcy.
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who plays ethan dawson on grey's anatomy | Ken Marino - wikipedia
Kenneth Joseph "Ken '' Marino (born December 19, 1968) is an American actor, comedian, director, and screenwriter. He was a cast member on MTV 's The State and has starred in shows such as Party Down, Marry Me, Burning Love, and Childrens Hospital.
Marino was born in West Islip, New York, to an Italian - American family. He studied at the Lee Strasberg Institute and Tisch School of the Arts at New York University in New York City.
Marino had early success on television as a member of a comedy troupe on the MTV sketch comedy series ' The State in 1993, of which he was also a founding member. Marino co-starred with Rob Schneider in the second season of Men Behaving Badly. He starred in the short lived series First Years in 2001. He had a recurring role as Prof. Wilder on the TV series Dawson 's Creek (2001 -- 2002) and in You Wrote It, You Watch It (1992). He made multiple appearances on Charmed and Rock Me Baby, and appeared in three seasons of Veronica Mars as private detective Vinnie Van Lowe. He was cast to star in a re-make of the TV series The Courtship of Eddie 's Father, but the pilot was not picked up. Instead, he was cast in the Starz original series Party Down. He also starred as a homosexual demon on the TV series Reaper. He played Dr. Glenn Richie in the satirical television series Childrens Hospital.
Marino also made guest appearances in Will & Grace (in the season 3 episode, "Three 's a Crowd, Six Is a Freakshow ''), Angel (season 1), Reno 911! (Season 1, Episode 2 and Season 3, Episode 3), Stella (season 1), Grey 's Anatomy (season 2), Monk (in season 3 's "Mr. Monk Takes His Medicine ''), Private Practice (season 3), and Happy Endings (season 2, episode 10, "The Shrink, the Dare, Her Date and Her Brother '').
Marino starred in 2004 's Love for Rent. He can also be seen in a non speaking role as the music producer / board operator in the pre-ride film that accompanies Rock ' n ' Roller Coaster at Disney 's Hollywood Studios. He has appeared in Wet Hot American Summer, The Ten and Role Models, and had a cameo in the end of The Baxter. He also starred in the Hallmark Channel movie Falling in Love with the Girl Next Door in 2006. In 2009, he had a cameo in an episode of Californication.
Marino wrote the screenplay for Diggers (2007), a coming - of - age film set in mid-1970s Long Island, as well as co-writing / producing The Ten and Role Models with David Wain.
Marino and Wain wrote the screenplay for the comedy film Wanderlust, which starred Paul Rudd and Jennifer Aniston, and was released in 2012.
Marino starred as Mark Orlando in the Yahoo! web series Burning Love, a spoof of the TV series The Bachelor and The Bachelorette. The series was created by his wife Erica Oyama, while Marino also directed all three seasons. Afterwards, Marino starred opposite Casey Wilson on the NBC sitcom Marry Me, which ran for one season from 2014 to 2015.
Marino has also directed several episodes of the sitcoms The Goldbergs, Super Fun Night, and Trophy Wife.
Marino is married to screenwriter Erica Oyama. They have a son, Riley Ken'ichi Marino and a daughter, Ruby.
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who won the first and second battle of bull run | Second battle of Bull Run - wikipedia
77,000 (estimated):
The Second Battle of Bull Run or Battle of Second Manassas was fought August 28 -- 30, 1862 in Prince William County, Virginia, as part of the American Civil War. It was the culmination of the Northern Virginia Campaign waged by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia against Union Maj. Gen. John Pope 's Army of Virginia, and a battle of much larger scale and numbers than the First Battle of Bull Run (or First Manassas) fought on July 21, 1861 on the same ground.
Following a wide - ranging flanking march, Confederate Maj. Gen. Thomas J. "Stonewall '' Jackson captured the Union supply depot at Manassas Junction, threatening Pope 's line of communications with Washington, D.C. Withdrawing a few miles to the northwest, Jackson took up strong concealed defensive positions on Stony Ridge and awaited the arrival of the wing of Lee 's army commanded by Maj. Gen. James Longstreet. On August 28, 1862, Jackson attacked a Union column just east of Gainesville, at Brawner 's Farm, resulting in a stalemate but successfully getting Pope 's attention. On that same day, Longstreet broke through light Union resistance in the Battle of Thoroughfare Gap and approached the battlefield.
Pope became convinced that he had trapped Jackson and concentrated the bulk of his army against him. On August 29, Pope launched a series of assaults against Jackson 's position along an unfinished railroad grade. The attacks were repulsed with heavy casualties on both sides. At noon, Longstreet arrived on the field from Thoroughfare Gap and took position on Jackson 's right flank. On August 30, Pope renewed his attacks, seemingly unaware that Longstreet was on the field. When massed Confederate artillery devastated a Union assault by Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter 's V Corps, Longstreet 's wing of 25,000 men in five divisions counterattacked in the largest simultaneous mass assault of the war. The Union left flank was crushed and the army was driven back to Bull Run. Only an effective Union rear guard action prevented a replay of the First Manassas defeat. Pope 's retreat to Centreville was nonetheless precipitous.
Success in this battle emboldened Lee to initiate the ensuing Maryland Campaign.
After the collapse of Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan 's Peninsula Campaign in the Seven Days Battles of June 1862, President Abraham Lincoln appointed John Pope to command the newly formed Army of Virginia. Pope had achieved some success in the Western Theater, and Lincoln sought a more aggressive general than McClellan.
Pope 's mission was to fulfill two basic objectives: protect Washington and the Shenandoah Valley; and draw Confederate forces away from McClellan by moving in the direction of Gordonsville. Based on his experience fighting McClellan in the Seven Days, Robert E. Lee perceived that McClellan was no further threat to him on the Virginia Peninsula, so he felt no compulsion to keep all of his forces in direct defense of Richmond. This allowed him to relocate Jackson to Gordonsville to block Pope and protect the Virginia Central Railroad.
Lee had larger plans in mind. Since the Union Army was split between McClellan and Pope and they were widely separated, Lee saw an opportunity to destroy Pope before returning his attention to McClellan. He committed Maj. Gen. A.P. Hill to join Jackson with 12,000 men.
On August 3, General - in - Chief Henry W. Halleck directed McClellan to begin his final withdrawal from the Peninsula and to return to Northern Virginia to support Pope. McClellan protested and did not begin his redeployment until August 14.
On August 9, Nathaniel Banks 's corps attacked Jackson at Cedar Mountain, gaining an early advantage, but a Confederate counterattack led by A.P. Hill drove Banks back across Cedar Creek. Jackson 's advance was stopped, however, by the Union division of Brig. Gen. James B. Ricketts. By now Jackson had learned that Pope 's corps were all together, foiling his plan of defeating each in separate actions. He remained in position until August 12, then withdrew to Gordonsville. On August 13, Lee sent Longstreet to reinforce Jackson.
From August 22 to 25, the two armies fought a series of minor actions along the Rappahannock River. Heavy rains had swollen the river and Lee was unable to force a crossing. By this time, reinforcements from the Army of the Potomac were arriving from the Peninsula. Lee 's new plan in the face of all these additional forces outnumbering him was to send Jackson and Stuart with half of the army on a flanking march to cut Pope 's line of communication, the Orange & Alexandria Railroad. Pope would be forced to retreat and could be defeated while moving and vulnerable. Jackson departed on August 25 and reached Salem (present - day Marshall) that night.
On the evening of August 26, after passing around Pope 's right flank via Thoroughfare Gap, Jackson 's wing of the army struck the Orange & Alexandria Railroad at Bristoe Station and before daybreak August 27 marched to capture and destroy the massive Union supply depot at Manassas Junction. This surprise movement forced Pope into an abrupt retreat from his defensive line along the Rappahannock. During the night of August 27 -- 28, Jackson marched his divisions north to the First Bull Run (Manassas) battlefield, where he took position behind an unfinished railroad grade below Stony Ridge. The defensive position was a good one. The heavy woods allowed the Confederates to conceal themselves, while maintaining good observation points of the Warrenton Turnpike, the likely avenue of Union movement, only a few hundred yards to the south. There were good approach roads for Longstreet to join Jackson, or for Jackson to retreat to the Bull Run Mountains if he could not be reinforced in time. Finally, the unfinished railroad grade offered cuts and fills that could be used as ready - made entrenchments.
In the Battle of Thoroughfare Gap on August 28, Longstreet 's wing broke through light Union resistance and marched through the gap to join Jackson. This seemingly inconsequential action virtually ensured Pope 's defeat during the coming battles because it allowed the two wings of Lee 's army to unite on the Manassas battlefield.
Gen. Pope 's Army of Virginia of approximately 51,000 men was divided into three army corps:
The Kanawha Division (detachment) and parts of three army corps of Gen. McClellan 's Army of the Potomac, eventually joined Pope for combat operations, raising his strength to 77,000:
On the Confederate side, Gen. Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia was organized into two "wings '' or "commands '' totaling about 55,000 men:
An exact estimate of both armies ' strength at the battle is not possible as different reports and returns provide differing figures. The total strength of the Army of Northern Virginia, cavalry and artillery included, was slightly less than 55,000 men. Factoring in only infantry, the effective Confederate strength was probably about 50,000 men, possibly as low as 47,000. Union strength was around 63,000 men if Banks 's corps is excluded as it was not present at the battle aside from a few detachments. The total Union strength with Banks added in was approximately 70,000 men.
The Second Battle of Bull Run began on August 28 as a Federal column, under Jackson 's observation just outside Gainesville, near the farm of the John Brawner family, moved along the Warrenton Turnpike. It consisted of units from Brig. Gen. Rufus King 's division: the brigades of Brig. Gens. John P. Hatch, John Gibbon, Abner Doubleday, and Marsena R. Patrick, marching eastward to concentrate with the rest of Pope 's army at Centreville. King was not with his division because he had suffered a serious epileptic attack earlier that day.
Jackson, who had been relieved to hear earlier that Longstreet 's men were on their way to join him, displayed himself prominently to the Union troops, but his presence was disregarded. Concerned that Pope might be withdrawing his army behind Bull Run to link up with McClellan 's arriving forces, Jackson determined to attack. Returning to his position behind the tree line, he told his subordinates, "Bring out your men, gentlemen. '' At about 6: 30 p.m., Confederate artillery began shelling the portion of the column to their front, John Gibbon 's Black Hat Brigade (later to be named the Iron Brigade). Gibbon, a former artilleryman, responded with fire from Battery B, 4th U.S. Artillery. The artillery exchange halted King 's column. Hatch 's brigade had proceeded past the area and Patrick 's men, in the rear of the column, sought cover, leaving Gibbon and Doubleday to respond to Jackson 's attack. Gibbon assumed that, since Jackson was supposedly at Centreville (according to Pope), and having just seen the 14th Brooklyn of Hatch 's Brigade reconnoiter the position, that these were merely horse artillery cannons from Jeb Stuart 's cavalry. Gibbon sent aides out to the other brigades with requests for reinforcements, and sent his staff officer Frank A. Haskell to bring the veteran 2nd Wisconsin Infantry up the hill to disperse the harassing cannons. Gibbon met the 2nd in the woods saying, "If we can get you up there quietly, we can capture those guns. ''
Maj. Rufus R. Dawes, 6th Wisconsin
Maj. Gen. Stonewall Jackson
The 2nd Wisconsin, under the command of Col. Edgar O'Connor, advanced obliquely back through the woods the Federal column was passing through. When the 430 men emerged from the woods on John Brawner 's farm they were quietly formed and advanced up the hill. Upon reaching the plateau, they deployed skirmishers who drove back Confederate skirmishers. They soon received a heavy volley into their right flank by 800 men of the fabled Stonewall Brigade, commanded by Col. William S. Baylor. Absorbing the volley from 150 yards (140 m), the 2nd Wisconsin did not waver, but replied with a devastating volley at the Virginians in Brawner 's orchard. The Confederates returned fire when the lines were only 80 yards (73 m) apart. As units were added by both sides, the battle lines remained close together, a standup fight with little cover, trading mass volleys for over two hours. Jackson described the action as "fierce and sanguinary. '' Gibbon added his 19th Indiana. Jackson, personally directing the actions of his regiments instead of passing orders to the division commander, Maj. Gen. Richard S. Ewell, sent in three Georgia regiments belonging to Brig. Gen. Alexander R. Lawton 's brigade. Gibbon countered this advance with the 7th Wisconsin. Jackson ordered Brig. Gen. Isaac R. Trimble 's brigade to support Lawton, which met the last of Gibbon 's regiments, the 6th Wisconsin.
After Trimble 's brigade entered the action, Gibbon needed to fill a gap in his line between the 6th Wisconsin and the rest of the Iron Brigade regiments. Doubleday sent in the 56th Pennsylvania and the 76th New York, who advanced through the woods and checked the new Confederate advance. These men arrived at the scene after dark and both Trimble and Lawton launched uncoordinated assaults against them. Horse artillery under Captain John Pelham was ordered forward by Jackson and fired at the 19th Indiana from less than 100 yards (91 m). The engagement ended around 9 p.m., with Gibbon 's men slowly retreating backwards still firing, making their line at the edge of the woods. Doubleday 's regiments retired to the turnpike in an orderly fashion. The fight was essentially a stalemate, but at a heavy cost, with over 1,150 Union and 1,250 Confederate casualties. The 2nd Wisconsin lost 276 of 430 engaged. The Stonewall Brigade lost 340 out of 800. Two Georgia regiments -- Trimble 's 21st and Lawton 's 26th -- each lost more than 70 %. In all, one of every three men engaged in the fight was shot. Confederate Brig. Gen. William B. Taliaferro wrote, "In this fight there was no maneuvering and very little tactics. It was a question of endurance and both endured. '' Taliaferro was wounded, as was Ewell, whose left leg was shattered by a Minié ball and had to be amputated, removing him from action for the next ten months.
Jackson had not been able to achieve a decisive victory with his superior force (about 6,200 men against Gibbon 's 2,100), due to darkness, his piecemeal deployment of forces, the loss of two of his division commanders, and the tenacity of the enemy. But he had achieved his strategic intent, attracting the attention of John Pope. Pope wrongly assumed that the fight at the Brawner Farm occurred as Jackson was retreating from Centreville. Pope believed he had "bagged '' Jackson and sought to capture him before he could be reinforced by Longstreet. Pope 's dispatch sent that evening to Maj. Gen. Philip Kearny stated, in part, "General McDowell has intercepted the retreat of the enemy and is now in his front... Unless he can escape by by - paths leading to the north to - night, he must be captured. '' Gibbon conferred with King, Patrick, and Doubleday as to the next move, because McDowell was "lost in the woods. '' The division was in an exposed position with two of its brigades badly cut up, and facing Stonewall Jackson 's entire corps. Although the Union generals did not know exactly how many men Jackson had with him, it was almost certainly a far greater number than the 4000 men in King 's division. Moreover, Confederate prisoners taken in the fighting around Brawner 's Farm claimed that Jackson 's command numbered between 60,000 - 70,000 men and were poised to strike at first light the next morning. Reynolds and Sigel were some miles away and would not be on the scene until morning, by which time Jackson could easily crush King. Ricketts was closer, but had Longstreet following far behind. Since staying in place at Groveton was clearly unacceptable, the only other options were retreating either to Manassas Junction or Centreville. Gibbon recommended the former since the exact disposition of the enemy was unknown and going to Centreville risked a disastrous march across his front. King finally agreed, and the division formed up into column and moved south to Manassas Junction. At the same time, Ricketts had arrived at a similar conclusion and marched south and away from Jackson as well, in his case towards Bristoe Station.
Pope issued orders to his subordinates to surround Jackson and attack him in the morning, but Jackson was not where Pope thought he was, nor were Pope 's own troops where he assumed. He believed that McDowell and Sigel were blocking Jackson 's retreat west across the Bull Run Mountains when in fact King and Ricketts had both retreated southward, while Sigel and Reynolds were south and east of Jackson, who had no intention at all of retreating and was well dug - in and awaiting Longstreet 's arrival, which Pope refused to believe was a possibility.
Jackson had initiated the battle at Brawner 's farm with the intent of holding Pope until Longstreet arrived with the remainder of the Army of Northern Virginia. Longstreet 's 25,000 men began their march from Thoroughfare Gap at 6 a.m. on August 29; Jackson sent Stuart to guide the initial elements of Longstreet 's column into positions that Jackson had preselected. While he waited for their arrival, Jackson reorganized his defense in case Pope attacked him that morning, positioning 20,000 men in a 3,000 - yard (2,700 m) line to the south of Stony Ridge. Noticing the buildup of I Corps (Sigel 's) troops along the Manassas - Sudley Road, he ordered A.P. Hill 's brigades behind the railroad grade near Sudley Church on his left flank. Aware that his position was geographically weak (because the heavy woods in the area prevented effective deployment of artillery), Hill placed his brigades in two lines, with Brig. Gen. Maxcy Gregg 's South Carolina brigade and Brig. Gen. Edward L. Thomas 's Georgia brigade in the front. In the center of the line, Jackson placed two brigades from Ewell 's division (now under the command of Brig. Gen. Alexander Lawton), and on the right, William B. Taliaferro 's division, now commanded by Brig. Gen. William E. Starke. Jackson 's position straddled a railroad grade which had been dug out by the Manassas Gap Railroad Company in the 1850s and abandoned on the eve of the war. While some parts of the railroad grade were a good defensive position, others were not, moreover the heavily wooded terrain largely precluded the use of artillery aside from the right end of the line, which faced open fields. Fitz Lee 's cavalry along with a battery of horse artillery were anchoring the left flank of the Confederate line, in case any Union troops attempted to cross Sudley Ford (as McDowell had done during the battle here 13 months earlier) and get in Jackson 's rear. The Confederate right flank was potentially vulnerable, as it was held by Taliaferro 's (now Starke 's) division, the smallest of Jackson 's three divisions and which had also taken significant casualties in the fighting at Brawner 's Farm. Jackson thus placed the brigades of Early and Forno on the right end of the line, both large brigades that had not been engaged the previous evening and were fresh. Aside from bolstering Starke 's understrength division, they were to watch and give notice of Longstreet 's arrival.
At daybreak on the 29th, Pope had learned to his surprise and annoyance that Ricketts and King had both withdrawn south. In addition, John Gibbon arrived at Centreville and informed Pope that the retreat from Groveton was a mistake, ignoring the fact that he had recommended it in the first place. Gibbon also stated that he had no idea what had become of McDowell, to which an infuriated Pope replied "God damn McDowell! He 's never where he 's supposed to be! '' Gibbon rode down to Manassas where he encountered Porter 's troops resting and drawing rations. In addition, King, exhausted and ill from epileptic attacks, had turned over command of the division to John Hatch. McDowell was there as well, after spending most of the previous day wandering aimlessly around Prince William County, and not happy to learn of Pope 's orders. In effect, King would accompany Porter, while Reynolds was temporarily attached to Sigel 's corps, and Ricketts was still some miles away at Bristoe Station in effect leaving McDowell without any command. Pope on the 29th remained firmly wedded to the idea that Jackson was in a desperate situation and almost trapped, not only an incorrect assumption, but one that also depended on the coordination of all the corps and divisions under his command, none of which were where he intended them to be.
The end result was that Pope 's complicated attack plans for August 29 ended up as a simple frontal assault by Sigel 's corps, the only troops in position that morning. They were widely considered one of the army 's weak links; with Sigel, though being a trained and experienced military officer, being seen as an inept political general. Also a large portion of the men being German immigrants, suffering from prejudices, they had performed poorly in battles against Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley during the spring. Moreover, until Pope himself arrived, Sigel was the ranking officer on the field and would be in overall charge of the battle.
Pope 's intention was to move against Jackson on both flanks. He ordered Fitz John Porter to move toward Gainesville and attack what he considered to be the Confederate right flank. He ordered Sigel to attack Jackson 's left at daybreak. Sigel, unsure of Jackson 's dispositions, chose to advance along a broad front, with Brig. Gen. Robert C. Schenck 's division, supported by Brig. Gen. John F. Reynolds 's division (McDowell 's III Corps) on the left, Brig. Gen. Robert H. Milroy 's independent brigade in the center, and Brig. Gen. Carl Schurz 's division on the right. Schurz 's two brigades, moving north on the Manassas - Sudley Road, were the first to contact Jackson 's men, at about 7 a.m.
The actions in Sigel 's attack against A.P. Hill 's division were typical of all the battles near Stony Ridge that day. Although the unfinished railroad grade provided natural defensive positions in some places, in general the Confederates eschewed a static defense, absorbing the Union blows and following up with vigorous counterattacks. (These were the same tactics that Jackson would employ at the Battle of Antietam a few weeks later.) Schurz 's two brigades (under Brig. Gen. Alexander Schimmelfennig and Col. Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski) skirmished heavily with Gregg and Thomas, with both sides committing their forces piecemeal. Hand - to - hand combat ensued in the woods to the west of Sudley Road as Krzyzanowski 's brigade clashed with Gregg 's. As Milroy heard the sound of battle to his right, he ordered his brigade forward, the 82nd Ohio and 5th West Virginia in front and the 2nd West Virginia and 4th West Virginia in the rear as support troops. The two forward regiments were immediately met with volleys of Confederate musket fire, in the confusion, the 82nd Ohio found an undefended ravine in the middle of the railroad embankment known as "The Dump '' and got in the rear of Isaac Trimble 's Confederate brigade. However, Trimble was quickly reinforced by part of Bradley Johnson 's Virginia brigade and the 82nd Ohio was forced to retreat. Its commander, Col. James Cantwell, was shot dead and the regiment fled in panic, causing the 5th West Virginia behind them to also retreat in disorder. In just 20 minutes of fighting, Milroy 's brigade had taken 300 casualties. Schenck and Reynolds, subjected to a heavy artillery barrage, answered with counterbattery fire, but avoided a general advance of their infantry, instead merely deploying skirmishers which got into a low - level firefight with Jubal Early 's brigade. While this was going on, Meade 's brigade came across wounded men from King 's division, who had been abandoned by their comrades and left on the field all night. Medical personnel attempted to evacuate as many of the wounded as possible under the ongoing firefight. With his brigade in shreds, Milroy attempted to rally the survivors. He then came across Brig. Gen Julius Stahel, one of Schneck 's brigadiers, and ordered him to defend against any Confederate counterattack coming from the woods. Although a hundred or so Confederates came bounding out of the woods in pursuit of Milroy, they were quickly driven back by artillery fire and Stahel returned to his original position south of the turnpike.
Assuming that Kearny 's division of the III Corps was poised to support him, Schurz ordered another assault against Hill around 10 a.m., now that Schimmelfennig 's brigade, plus the 1st New York from Kearny 's division, had come up to reinforce Krzyzanowski. The fighting in the woods west of Sudley Road resumed and it came down to a standstill until the 14th Georgia came down to reinforce the South Carolinans. They let loose multiple volleys of musket fire that sent Krzyzanowski 's men running in panic. The Confederates came charging after the disorganized mass of Union troops, clubbing, bayoneting, and knifing resisters, but as they exited the woods and came out onto open ground, Union artillery positioned on Dogan 's Ridge opened fire on them and forced them to retreat. To the north, Schimmelfennig 's three regiments, the 61st Ohio, 74th Pennsylvania, and 8th West Virginia, engaged part of Gregg and Branch 's brigades, but were forced to retreat. Kearny however did not move forward. His three brigades instead marched to the banks of Bull Run Creek, where Orlando Poe 's brigade forded the creek. The arrival of Poe 's brigade aroused panic at Jackson 's headquarters, as the dreaded scenario of Union troops getting in the Confederate rear seemed to turning to reality. Jackson ordered his wagons evacuated from the area and Maj. John Pelham 's horse artillery wheeled into position. The horse artillery and several companies of the 1st Virginia Cavalry engaged in a firefight with Poe 's brigade for several minutes. Nobody on the Union side realized that they were getting in the rear of the Confederate line, and the sight of grayclad infantry in the distance was enough to discourage Poe from advancing any further, so he pulled back across the creek. Robinson 's brigade remained in positioned along the banks of the creek while Birney 's seven regiments scattered. One was directed to support the corps artillery on Matthews Hill, another held idly in reserve, and the remaining three accompanied Poe to the banks of the creek until Confederate artillery fire became too hot for them and they pulled south into the woods where they joined in skirmishing with A.P. Hill 's troops. Historians have faulted Kearny for his actions that day, blaming a personal grudge that Kearny held against Sigel.
Sigel for his part was satisfied with the progress of the battle so far, assuming he was merely supposed to perform a holding action until Pope arrived. By 1 p.m., his sector was reinforced by the division of Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker (III Corps) and the brigade of Brig. Gen. Isaac Stevens (IX Corps). Pope also arrived on the battlefield, where Sigel graciously ceded command to him. He expected to see the culmination of his victory, but instead, he found that Sigel 's attack had failed completely with Schurz and Milroy 's troops shot up, disorganized, and incapable of further action. Reynolds and Schneck 's divisions were fresh, but they were committed to guarding the army 's left flank. However, Heintzelman 's corps and the two divisions of Reno were also available, giving a total of eight fresh brigades, but Pope also assumed that McDowell would be on the field and that McClellan would come down from Washington DC with the II and VI Corps. Instead, there was no sign of any of these troops anywhere. Pope momentarily considered withdrawing to Centreville, but became worried of the political fallout that would result if he was seen as insufficiently aggressive. Around this time, a messenger arrived and delivered Pope a note announcing that McDowell 's corps was close up and would soon be on the field. Pope thus decided that he would drive at Jackson 's center. By this time, Longstreet 's initial units were in position to Jackson 's right. Brig. Gen. John Bell Hood 's division straddled the turnpike, loosely connected with Jackson 's right flank. To Hood 's right were the divisions of Brig. Gens. James L. Kemper and David R. "Neighbor '' Jones. Brig. Gen. Cadmus M. Wilcox 's division arrived last and was placed into reserve.
Stuart 's cavalry encountered Porter, Hatch, and McDowell moving up the Manassas - Gainesville Road and a brief firefight halted the Union column. Then a courier arrived with a message for Porter and McDowell, a controversial document from Pope that has become known as the "Joint Order. '' Historian John J. Hennessy described the order as a "masterpiece of contradiction and obfuscation that would become the focal point of decades of wrangling. '' It described the attacks on Jackson 's left, which were already underway, but was unclear about what Porter and McDowell were supposed to do. Rather than moving "to '' Gainesville and striking Jackson 's supposedly unprotected right flank, it described a move "toward '' Gainesville and "as soon as communication is established (with the other divisions) the whole command shall halt. It may be necessary to fall back behind Bull Run to Centreville tonight. '' Nowhere in the order did Pope explicitly direct Porter and McDowell to attack and he concluded the order with, "If any considerable advantages are to be gained from departing from this order it will not be strictly carried out, '' rendering the document virtually useless as a military order.
Meanwhile, Stuart 's cavalry under Col. Thomas Rosser deceived the Union generals by dragging tree branches behind a regiment of horses to simulate great clouds of dust from large columns of marching soldiers. At this time, McDowell received a report from his cavalry commander, Brig. Gen. John Buford, who reported that 17 regiments of infantry, one battery, and 500 cavalry were moving through Gainesville at 8: 15 a.m. This was Longstreet 's wing arriving from Thoroughfare Gap, and it warned the two Union generals that trouble lay to their front. The Union advance was again halted. For some reason, McDowell neglected to forward Buford 's report to Pope until about 7 p.m., so the army commander was operating under two severe misconceptions: that Longstreet was not near the battlefield and that Porter and McDowell were marching to attack Jackson 's right flank.
As Longstreet 's men were placed into their final positions, General Lee ordered an offensive against the Union left. (Longstreet later remembered that Lee "was inclined to engage as soon as practicable, but did not order. '') Longstreet, however, saw that the divisions of Reynolds and Schenck extended south of the Warrenton Turnpike, overlapping half of his line, and he argued against making the attack at that time. Lee eventually relented when Jeb Stuart reported that the force on the Gainesville -- Manassas Road (Porter and McDowell) was formidable.
Pope, assuming that the attack on Jackson 's right would proceed as he thought he had ordered, authorized four separate attacks against Jackson 's front with the intent of diverging the Confederates ' attention until Porter delivered the fatal blow. Brig. Gen. Cuvier Grover 's brigade attacked at 3 p.m., expecting to be supported by Kearny 's division. With Isaac Stevens 's division behind him as support, Grover moved his brigade into the woods and charged right at Edward Thomas 's Georgia brigade. Grover 's men got all the way to the railroad embankment and unleashed a volley of near point - blank fire on Thomas 's regiments, followed by a bayonet charge. Taken by surprise, the Georgians fell back and fierce hand - to - hand combat ensued. Maxcy Gregg 's South Carolinans came to reinforce them, followed by Dorsey Pender 's brigade of North Carolinans. Pender hit Grover 's brigade in the flank and sent the men fleeing in panic with over 350 casualties. Pender 's brigade then surged out of the woods in pursuit of Grover, but once again the Union artillery on Dogan Ridge was too powerful; a strong barrage forced Pender to retreat. Meanwhile, to the north, Joseph Carr 's brigade had been engaged in a low - level firefight with Confederate troops, in the process wounding Isaac Trimble, one of Jackson 's most dependable brigadiers since the Valley Campaign the previous spring. With Nelson Taylor 's brigade of Hooker 's division in support, James Nagle 's brigade of Reno 's division surged forward and slammed into Trimble 's brigade, temporarily leaderless. Trimble 's men were routed and began to retreat in disorder, but like all the previous Union attacks during the day, Nagle was unsupported and had no chance against overwhelming enemy numbers. Henry Forno 's Louisiana brigade counterattacked and drove Nagle back. Bradley Johnson and Col. Leroy Stafford 's 9th Louisiana joined in the assault. To the south, John Hood 's division had just arrived on the field, forcing back Milroy and Nagle. Milroy 's already exhausted brigade fell apart and started to run from the onslaught. To check the Confederate counterattack, Pope pulled Schneck from south of the turnpike and with artillery support, forced the Confederates back to the shelter of the railroad embankment. While all this was going on, Kearny still remained out of the action.
Reynolds was ordered to conduct a spoiling attack south of the turnpike and encountered Longstreet 's men, causing him to call off his demonstration. Pope dismissed Reynolds 's concern as a case of mistaken identity, insisting that Reynolds had run into Porter 's V Corps, preparing to attack Jackson 's flank. Jesse Reno ordered a IX Corps brigade under Col. James Nagle to attack the center of Jackson 's line again. This time Brig. Gen. Isaac R. Trimble 's brigade was driven back from the railroad embankment, but Confederate counterattacks restored the line and pursued Nagle 's troops back into the open fields until Union artillery halted their advance.
At 4: 30 p.m., Pope finally sent an explicit order to Porter to attack, but his aide (his nephew) lost his way and did not deliver the message until 6: 30 p.m. In any event, Porter was in no better position to attack then than he had been earlier in the day. But in anticipation of the attack that would not come, Pope ordered Kearny to attack Jackson 's far left flank, intending to put strong pressure on both ends of the line. At 5 p.m. Kearny sent Robinson and Birney 's brigades surging forward into A.P. Hill 's exhausted division. The brunt of the attack fell on Maxcy Gregg 's brigade, which had defended against two major assaults over eight hours that day and was nearly out of ammunition in addition to having lost most of its officers. As they fell back onto the edge of a hillside, Gregg lopped some wildflowers with his old Revolutionary War scimitar and remarked, "Let us die here my men, let us die here. '' With both Thomas 's and Gregg 's brigades on the verge of disintegrating, A.P. Hill sent a message to Jackson calling for help. Meanwhile, Daniel Leasure 's brigade of Isaac Stevens 's division crept around to the south and forced back James Archer 's Tennessee brigade. Jubal Early 's brigade, which had begun the day on the extreme right of the Confederate line, and Lawrence O'Bryan Branch 's brigade, which had thus far been held in reserve, counterattacked and drove back Kearny 's division. During the fighting, one of Hill 's brigadiers, Charles W. Field, was severely wounded and command of his brigade, which had also taken a beating over the course of the day, fell to Col. John M. Brockenbrough of the 40th Virginia.
On the Confederate right, Longstreet observed a movement of McDowell 's force away from his front; the I Corps was moving divisions to Henry House Hill to support Reynolds. This report caused Lee to revive his plan for an offensive in that sector. Longstreet once again argued against it, this time due to inadequate time before dusk. He suggested instead that a reconnaissance in force could feel the position of the enemy and set up the Confederates for a morning attack. Lee agreed and Hood 's division was sent forward. As soon as McDowell arrived at Pope 's headquarters, the latter urged him to move King 's division forward. McDowell then informed Pope that King had fallen ill and relinquished command of the division to Brig. Gen John P. Hatch, whom Pope had taken a considerable disliking to early in the campaign. Hatch had originally led a cavalry brigade and failed to carry out an order from Pope to raid down into the Richmond outskirts. Displeased at this, Pope reassigned Hatch to infantry command. He now ordered Hatch to go up the Sudley Road and attack, but Hatch protested that the road was clogged with Kearny 's troops, it would not be possible to clear them out of the way before darkness. Exasperated, Pope repeated his order for Hatch to advance on the Confederate right, but was soon distracted by actions going on the other side of the line. John Hood 's division had arrived on Jackson 's left and McDowell ordered Hatch to reinforce Reynolds despite Hatch 's protests that two of his three brigades (Gibbon and Doubleday 's) were exhausted from the fight at Brawner 's Farm the previous day. Hatch deployed Doubleday 's brigade out in front. Hood 's division forced Hatch and Reynolds back to a position on Bald Hill, overrunning Chinn Ridge in the process. As night fell, Hood pulled back from this exposed position. Longstreet and his subordinates again argued to Lee that they should not be attacking a force they considered to be placed in a strong defensive position, and for the third time, Lee cancelled the planned assault.
Hood 's withdrawal from Chinn Ridge only reinforced Pope 's belief that the enemy was retreating. When Pope learned from McDowell about Buford 's report, he finally acknowledged that Longstreet was on the field, but he optimistically assumed that Longstreet was there only to reinforce Jackson while the entire Confederate army withdrew; Hood 's division had in fact just done that. Pope issued explicit orders for Porter 's corps to rejoin the main body of the army and planned for another offensive on August 30. Historian A. Wilson Greene argues that this was Pope 's worst decision of the battle. Since he no longer had numerical superiority over the Confederates and did not possess any geographical advantage, the most prudent course would have been to withdraw his army over Bull Run and unite with McClellan 's Army of the Potomac, which had 25,000 men nearby.
That evening, Pope wired Halleck with a report of the day 's fighting, describing it as "severe '' and estimating his losses at 7000 - 8000 men. He estimated Confederate losses at twice this many, an extremely incorrect estimation given that Jackson had been fighting a mostly defensive battle. Although Confederate casualties were lower, their officer losses had been high; aside from the loss of two division commanders on August 28, three brigade commanders, Trimble, Field, and Col. Henry Forno, had been wounded. For comparison, only one Union brigade commander had been wounded so far, Col. Daniel Leasure, and no general officers.
One of the historical controversies of the battle involves George B. McClellan 's cooperation with John Pope. In late August, two full corps of the Army of the Potomac (William B. Franklin 's VI Corps and Edwin V. Sumner 's II Corps) had arrived in Alexandria, but McClellan would not allow them to advance to Manassas because of what he considered inadequate artillery, cavalry, and transportation support. He was accused by his political opponents of deliberately undermining Pope 's position, and he did not help his case in history when he wrote to his wife on August 10, "Pope will be badly thrashed within two days &... they will be very glad to turn over the redemption of their affairs to me. I wo n't undertake it unless I have full & entire control. '' He told Abraham Lincoln on August 29 that it might be wise "to leave Pope to get out of his scrape, and at once use all our means to make the capital perfectly safe. ''
The final element of Longstreet 's command, the division of Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson, marched 17 miles (27 km) and arrived on the battlefield at 3 a.m., August 30. Exhausted and unfamiliar with the area, they halted on a ridge east of Groveton. At dawn, they realized they were in an isolated position too close to the enemy and fell back. Pope 's belief that the Confederate army was in retreat was reinforced by this movement, which came after the withdrawal of Hood 's troops the night before.
Pope thus directed McDowell to move his entire corps up the Sudley Road and hit the Confederate right flank. McDowell however protested this order, stating that he had no idea what was happening down on the Confederate left and he would much prefer to have his troops on Chinn Ridge. He then said that it would make more sense to attack the Confederate right with Heintzelman 's troops, since they were closer to this area. Pope gave in, but decided to detach King 's division to support Heintzelman.
At an 8 a.m. council of war at Pope 's headquarters, his subordinates attempted to convince their commander to move cautiously. Probes of the Confederate line on Stony Ridge around 10 a.m. indicated that Stonewall Jackson 's men were still firmly in their defensive positions. John F. Reynolds indicated that the Confederates were in great strength south of the turnpike. Fitz John Porter arrived later with similar intelligence. However, Heintzelman and McDowell conducted a personal reconnaissance that somehow failed to find Jackson 's defensive line, and Pope finally made up his mind to attack the retreating Southerners.
While Porter was bringing his corps up, a further mix - up in orders resulted in the loss of two brigades. Abram Sanders Piatt 's small brigade, which had been detached from the defenses of Washington D.C. and temporarily attached to the V Corps, and Charles Griffin 's brigade both pulled out of Porter 's main column, marched back down to Manassas Junction, and then up to Centreville. Morell, using an outdated set of orders from a day earlier, had assumed Pope was at Centreville and he was expected to join him there. Piatt eventually realized that something was amiss and turned back around towards the battlefield, arriving on Henry House Hill at about 4 p.m. Griffin and his division commander Maj. Gen George W. Morell however stayed at Centreville despite their discovery that Pope was not there. Eventually, at 4 p.m., Griffin began moving his brigade towards the action, but by this point, Pope 's army was in full retreat and a mass of wagons and stragglers were blocking the roadway, in addition the bridge over Cub Run was broken, making it impossible for him to move any further west.
As Ricketts 's division approached the Confederate lines, it became clear that the enemy was still there in force and was showing no sign of retreating. Pope, unnerved by these reports, contemplated waiting for McClellan to arrive with the II and VI Corps, but then worried that McClellan would take credit for any victory in the battle, so he decided to attack immediately rather than wait. Shortly after noon, Pope issued orders for Porter 's corps, supported by Hatch and Reynolds, to advance west along the turnpike. At the same time, Ricketts, Kearny, and Hooker were to advance on the Confederate right. This dual movement would potentially crush the retreating Confederates. But the Confederates were not retreating, and were in fact hoping to be attacked. Lee was still waiting for an opportunity to counterattack with Longstreet 's force. Although he was not certain that Pope would attack that day, Lee positioned 18 artillery pieces under Col. Stephen D. Lee on high ground northeast of the Brawner Farm, ideally situated to bombard the open fields in front of Jackson 's position.
Porter 's corps was actually not in position to pursue west on the turnpike, but was in the woods north of the turnpike near Groveton. It took about two hours to prepare the assault on Jackson 's line, ten brigades numbering roughly 10,000 men, with 28 artillery pieces on Dogan Ridge to support them. On the right, Ricketts ' division would support Heintzelman while Sigel 's corps remained in reserve to the rear. Reynolds ' division was stationed near Henry House Hill, with King 's division on its right. Porter would strike Jackson 's left flank with his 1st Division. Since General Morell was AWOL, command of the remaining troops fell to Brig. Gen Daniel Butterfield, the ranking brigadier in the division. George Sykes ' division of regular army troops was held in reserve. As noon approached and the sun climbed high up in the sky, temperatures on the battlefield topped 90 ° F.
The Confederates however attempted to strike the first blow. Elements of Hill 's and Ewell 's divisions came charging out of the woods and surprised some of Ricketts ' men with a volley or two, but once again the Union artillery on Dogan Ridge was too much for them and after being blasted by shellfire, they withdrew back to the line of the unfinished railroad.
The Union men faced a formidable task. Butterfield 's division had to cross 600 yards (550 m) of open pasture, land owned by widow Lucinda Dogan, the final 150 yards (140 m) of which were steeply uphill, to attack a strong position behind the unfinished railroad. Porter then ordered John Hatch 's division to support Butterfield 's right flank. Hatch formed his four brigades into a line of battle, the attack being spearheaded by his own brigade, now commanded by Col. Timothy Sullivan since he assumed division command the day earlier. Hatch 's division had only 300 yards (270 m) to traverse, but was required to perform a complex right wheel maneuver under fire to hit the Confederate position squarely in its front. They experienced devastating fire from Stephen Lee 's batteries and then withering volleys from the infantrymen in the line. In the confusion, Hatch was knocked from his horse by an artillery shell and taken off the field unconscious. Nevertheless, they were able to break the Confederate line, routing the 48th Virginia Infantry. The Stonewall Brigade rushed in to restore the line, taking heavy casualties, including its commander, Col. Baylor. In what was arguably the most famous incident of the battle, Confederates in Col. Bradley T. Johnson 's and Col. Leroy A. Stafford 's brigades fired so much that they ran out of ammunition and resorted to throwing large rocks at the 24th New York, causing occasional damage, and prompting some of the surprised New Yorkers to throw them back. To support Jackson 's exhausted defense, which was stretched to the breaking point, Longstreet 's artillery added to the barrage against Union reinforcements attempting to move in, cutting them to pieces. Hatch 's brigade fell back in confusion, the men running into Patrick 's brigade and causing them to also panic. The mob quickly contacted Gibbon 's brigade, which remained some distance to the rear, while Doubleday 's brigade had inexplicably wandered away from the field of action. Meanwhile, Butterfield 's hard - pressed division was buckling under heavy Confederate musketry and artillery blasts and coming near to disintegrating.
Trying to shore up Butterfield 's faltering attack, Porter ordered Lt. Col Robert C. Buchanan 's brigade of regulars into action, but Longstreet 's attack on the Union left interrupted him. The withdrawal was also a costly operation. Some of the jubilant Confederates in Starke 's brigade attempted a pursuit, but were beaten back by the Union reserves posted along the Groveton - Sudley Road. Overall, Jackson 's command was too depleted to counterattack, allowing Porter to stabilize the situation north of the turnpike. Concerned about Porter 's situation, however, Irvin McDowell ordered Reynolds 's division to leave Chinn Ridge and come to Porter 's support. This may have been the worst tactical decision of the day because it left only 2,200 Union troops south of the turnpike, where they would soon face ten times their number of Confederates.
Lee and Longstreet agreed that the time was right for the long - awaited assault and that the objective would be Henry House Hill, which had been the key terrain in the First Battle of Bull Run, and which, if captured, would dominate the potential Union line of retreat. Longstreet 's command of 25,000 men in five divisions stretched nearly a mile and a half from the Brawner Farm in the north to the Manassas Gap Railroad in the south. To reach the hill, they would have to traverse 1.5 to 2 miles (3.2 km) of ground containing ridges, streams, and some heavily wooded areas. Longstreet knew that he would not be able to project a well - coordinated battle line across this terrain, so he had to rely on the drive and initiative of his division commanders. The lead division, on the left, closest to the turnpike, was John Bell Hood 's Texans, supported by Brig. Gen. Nathan G. "Shanks '' Evans 's South Carolinians. On Hood 's right were Kemper 's and Jones 's divisions. Anderson 's division was held in reserve. Just before the attack, Lee signaled to Jackson: "General Longstreet is advancing; look out for and protect his left flank. ''
Realizing what was happening down on the left, Porter told Buchanan to instead move in that direction to stem the Confederate onslaught and then also sent a messenger to find the other regular brigade, commanded by Col. Charles W. Roberts and get it into action. The Union defenders south of the turnpike consisted of only two brigades, commanded by Cols. Nathaniel C. McLean (Schenck 's division, Sigel 's I Corps) and Gouverneur K. Warren (Sykes 's division, Porter 's V Corps). McLean held Chinn Ridge, Warren was near Groveton, about 800 yards (730 m) further west. Hood 's men began the assault at 4 p.m., immediately overwhelming Warren 's two regiments, the 5th New York (Duryée 's Zouaves) and 10th New York (the National Zouaves). Within the first 10 minutes of contact, the 500 men of the 5th New York had suffered almost 300 casualties, 120 of them mortally wounded. This was the largest loss of life of any infantry regiment in a single battle during the entire war. The Zouave regiments had been wearing bright red and blue uniforms, and one of Hood 's officers wrote that the bodies lying on the hill reminded him of the Texas countryside when the wildflowers were in bloom.
While all this was going on, Pope was at his headquarters behind Dogan Ridge, oblivious to the chaos unfurling to the south. Instead, he was focused on a message he had just received from Henry Halleck announcing that the II and VI Corps, plus Brig. Gen Darius Couch 's division of the IV Corps, were on the way to reinforce him, and moreover, McClellan had been ordered to stay behind in Washington DC. This would give Pope 41 brigades, all of them completely under his command and with no interference from McClellan whatsoever. Only after Warren had collapsed and McLean was being driven from the field did Pope finally realize what was happening.
McDowell ordered Ricketts ' division to disengage from its attack on the Confederate left, which had also failed to achieve any breakthrough, and reinforce the Union left. McDowell rode out with Reynolds to supervise the construction of the new line of defense on Chinn Ridge, just as Porter 's shattered troops came running out of the woods to the west. Reynolds protested the order to move to Chinn Ridge, arguing that his division was needed to prevent a Confederate attack from the woods. McDowell however told Reynolds that the Confederate attack was not coming from that direction, but from the south and to move his division there immediately. Even before this happened, one of Reynolds ' brigade commanders, Col. Martin Hardin (commanding Brig. Gen Conrad F. Jackson 's brigade after Jackson had called in sick the previous day), took the initiative by himself and marched down to stem the Confederate onslaught. Taking with him Battery G of the 1st Pennsylvania Artillery, Hardin 's brigade unleashed a volley of musket fire that stunned the 1st and 4th Texas regiments, but the 5th Texas to the right kept coming on and quickly shot down most of the gunners of Battery G. Nathan Evans ' South Carolina brigade now arrived to reinforce the Texans and got in the rear of Hardin 's brigade. Hardin fell wounded and command of the brigade devolved on Col. James Kirk of the 10th Pennsylvania Reserves. Kirk was shot down within minutes and a lieutenant colonel took over. The crumbling remains of the brigade fell back, some soldiers pausing to take shots as the oncoming Confederates. Nathaniel McLean 's brigade of Ohioans arrived on the scene, but was assailed on three sides by the brigades of Law, Wilcox, and Evans, and soon joined the survivors of Hardin 's brigade in a disorganized mob on Henry House Hill.
The first two Union brigades to arrive were from Ricketts 's division, commanded by Brig. Gen. Zealous B. Tower and Col. Fletcher Webster, temporarily commanding Col. John Stiles ' brigade. James Ricketts had been at the same battlefield a year earlier, at First Bull Run, where he had commanded a regular gun battery and had been captured at the fight for Henry Hill. Tower 's brigade slammed Wilcox 's Alabamians in the flank and sent them reeling, but was then immediately confronted with the fresh Confederate division of David R. Jones. Webster lined up his four regiments to face the Confederate attackers, but was struck by an artillery shell and collapsed dead on the field. Disheartened by Webster 's death, his men began to fall back. Meanwhile, Tower was shot from his horse and carried off the field unconscious. Robert Schneck then ordered Col. John Koltes ' brigade, which had been held in reserve during Sigel 's attack on the Confederate left the previous day and was fresh, into action, along with Wlodzimierz Krzyzanowski 's brigade, which had been heavily engaged and was tired. Koltes however was quickly struck by an artillery shell and killed. Overall command devolved onto Col. Richard Coulter of the 11th Pennsylvania, the highest - ranking officer remaining on the field, and a Mexican War veteran. Although Koltes and Krzyzanowski 's six regiments held their ground for a little while, they were quickly overwhelmed by yet more fresh Confederates in the brigades of Lewis Armistead, Montgomery Corse, and Eppa Hunton and started to fall back in disorder.
John J. Hennessy, Return to Bull Run
During the first two hours of the Confederate assault, McDowell had constructed a new line of defense consisting of Reynolds ' and Sykes ' divisions. Longstreet 's last fresh troops, Richard Anderson 's division, now took the offensive. The regulars of George Sykes 's division along with Meade and Seymour 's brigades, plus Piatt 's brigade, formed a line on Henry House Hill that held off this final Confederate attack long enough to give the rest of the army time to withdraw across Bull Run Creek to Centreville.
Stonewall Jackson, under relatively ambiguous orders from Lee to support Longstreet, launched an attack north of the turnpike at 6 p.m., probably as soon as his exhausted forces could be mustered. Historian John J. Hennessy called Jackson 's delays "one of the battle 's great puzzles '' and "one of the most significant Confederate failures '' of the battle, greatly reducing the value of his advance. The attack coincided with Pope 's ordered withdrawal of units north of the turnpike to assist in the Henry House Hill defense and the Confederates were able to overrun a number of artillery and infantry units in their fierce assault. By 7 p.m., however, Pope had established a strong defensive line that aligned with the units on Henry House Hill. At 8 p.m., he ordered a general withdrawal on the turnpike to Centreville. Unlike the calamitous retreat at the First Battle of Bull Run, the Union movement was quiet and orderly. The Confederates, weary from battle and low on ammunition, did not pursue in the darkness. Although Lee had won a great victory, he had not achieved his objective of destroying Pope 's army.
The final significant action of the battle occurred around 7: 00 PM as Lee directed J.E.B. Stuart 's cavalry to go around the Union flank and cut off their retreat. Brig. Gen Beverly Robertson 's cavalry brigade, accompanied by Col. Thomas Rosser 's 5th Virginia Cavalry headed for Lewis Ford, a crossing in Bull Run Creek that would enable them to get in the rear of the Union army. However, Robertson and Rosser found the crossing blocked by John Buford 's cavalry and after a short, but fierce engagement, Buford 's superior numbers won out and the Confederate horsemen pulled back. The cavalry clash lasted only about ten minutes, but resulted in Col. Thomas Munford of the 2nd Virginia Cavalry being wounded. Col. Thornton Brodhead of the 1st Michigan Cavalry was shot dead, and John Buford was also wounded. The Union army 's retreat however had been safeguarded.
The Second Battle of Bull Run, like the First (July 21, 1861), was a significant tactical victory for the Confederates and was another blow to Union morale, despite proportional losses (16 -- 17 %). Union casualties were about 14,000 killed and wounded out of 62,000 engaged; the Confederates lost about 1,000 killed and 7,000 wounded out of 50,000.
As the Union Army concentrated on Centreville, Lee planned his next move. He sent Jackson on another flanking march in an attempt to interpose his army between Pope and Washington. Pope countered the move and the two forces clashed a final time at the Battle of Chantilly (also known as Ox Hill) on September 1. Lee immediately began his next campaign on September 3, when the vanguard of the Army of Northern Virginia crossed the Potomac River, marching toward a fateful encounter with the Army of the Potomac in the Maryland Campaign and the Battle of Antietam.
Brig. Gen. Alpheus S. Williams (II Corps division commander)
Pope was relieved of command on September 12, 1862, and his army was merged into the Army of the Potomac as it marched into Maryland under McClellan. He spent the remainder of the war in the Department of the Northwest in Minnesota, dealing with the Dakota War of 1862. Pope sought scapegoats to spread the blame for his defeat. On November 25, 1862, Fitz John Porter was arrested and court - martialed for his actions on August 29. Porter was found guilty on January 10, 1863, of disobedience and misconduct, and he was dismissed from the Army on January 21. He spent most of the remainder of his life fighting against the verdict. In 1878, a special commission under General John M. Schofield exonerated Porter by finding that his reluctance to attack Longstreet probably saved Pope 's Army of Virginia from an even greater defeat. Eight years later, President Chester A. Arthur reversed Porter 's sentence.
James Longstreet was criticized for his performance during the battle and the postbellum advocates of the Lost Cause claimed that his slowness, reluctance to attack, and disobedience to Gen. Lee on August 29 were a harbinger of his controversial performance to come on July 2, 1863, at the Battle of Gettysburg. Lee 's biographer, Douglas Southall Freeman, wrote: "The seeds of much of the disaster at Gettysburg were sown in that instant -- when Lee yielded to Longstreet and Longstreet discovered that he would. ''
Part of the site of the battle is now Manassas National Battlefield Park. Located north of Manassas, in Prince William County, Virginia, it preserves the site of two major American Civil War battles: the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21, 1861, and the Second Battle of Bull Run which was fought between August 28 and August 30, 1862 (also known as the First Battle of Manassas and the Second Battle of Manassas, respectively). The peaceful Virginia countryside bore witness to clashes between the armies of the North (Union) and the South (Confederacy), and it was there that Confederate General Thomas J. Jackson acquired his nickname "Stonewall. '' The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved 370 acres (1.5 km) of the Second Battle of Bull Run battlefield in more than 10 transactions since 2000.
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who played manny in diary of a wimpy kid | List of Diary of a Wimpy Kid characters - Wikipedia
This is a list of the characters in Jeff Kinney 's book series Diary of a Wimpy Kid, and in the film versions of the first, second, and third book. Diary of a Wimpy Kid is a series of graphic novels written by American author and cartoonist Jeff Kinney. The books are the journals of the main character named Greg Heffley.
Diary of a Wimpy Kid is also a series of films based on the books. Jeff Kinney was an executive producer. Like the books, the movies are the journals of Greg Heffley who is played by Zachary Gordon in Diary of a Wimpy Kid Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days and Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules and Jason Drucker in Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul.
Gregory "Greg '' Heffley is 12 years old in the first novel. Greg 's actions can however be antagonistic at times, including terrorizing kids, trying to steal money from a church collection basket, lying in confession, picking on other students, playing pranks on his best friend, selling falsely advertised fitness water and even praying for bad stuff to happen to others. However, he can also be a kind hearted character. He helps his brother with his homework, gets his friend a date for a dance, helps out, and forgives his friends. Greg is portrayed by Zachary Gordon and Jason Drucker in the movie series. He ca n't stop flirting with girls. But after all, he is a funny kid.
Rowley Jefferson is Greg 's best friend. In the first book, Rowley is an antagonist in Greg 's point of view while technically in a third - person view, Greg is the antagonist and Rowley is the protagonist. In Dog Days, they separate after Rowley damages Greg 's chances of winning a video game championship, but they get back together at the end of The Ugly Truth. At the end of The Third Wheel, Rowley begins dating Abigail Brown, a girl who was originally Greg 's date for the Valentine 's Day dance. This plot continues in Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Hard Luck, where he ditches Greg for his new girlfriend Abigail. At the end of the book, the couple break up and he becomes friends with Greg again.
Rowley has what Greg considers strange interests for his age and gender, such as liking a singer for "six - year - old girls '' named Joshie and action figures Greg believes are for younger kids. Rowley is also the owner of the comic strip Zoo Wee Mama. Rowley claims that Greg had nothing to do with the comic strip in the first book, a rare antagonistic move from him. In the movie series, Rowley is portrayed by Robert Capron & Owen Asztalos. Rowley 's shortest appearance was in The Long Haul, where he is only mentioned on one page.
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Franklin "Frank '' Heffley is Greg 's overreactive but well - meaning father. He is interested in U.S. history, and his replica of a Civil War battlefield is a plot point in the series. Frank is edgy around Rowley, does not appreciate Greg 's skill at video games, loathes heavy metal, adolescents. In Rodrick Rules, during Thanksgiving dinner, Frank turns up the thermostat to make everyone leave. He tries to toughen Greg up and threatens to send him to a military academy in The Last Straw, although ultimately this does not come to fruition, much to Greg 's relief. However, Greg and Frank grow together in Dog Days. Frank is portrayed by Steve Zahn in the first three films of the Diary of a Wimpy Kid film series. In Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul, he is played by Tom Everett Scott.
Manuel "Manny '' Heffley is Greg and Rodrick 's younger brother. He is an annoying, spoiled child who is constantly doted on by his mother. He makes a great number of demands and throws temper tantrums if they are not fulfilled. Among Manny 's most well - known characteristics are his refusal to be toilet - trained and his complete inability to remain in nursery school. He frequently damages Greg 's property, and uses his age as an excuse for doing so. Whenever they go on vacations, Manny ends up ruining it and gets away with it. The excessive coddling he receives from his parents infuriates Greg. He also takes advantage of his overindulgence. It is revealed in The Third Wheel that Manny has imaginary friends, whom he blames for his misbehavior. Despite his very young age and spoilt attitude, Manny shows signs of actually possessing more intelligence than he appears to have. He surprises his family by his ability to speak Mexican in The Long Haul, but plays this to his advantage by persuading some Spanish men to take them to retrieve their pet pig. He is his grandmother 's favorite, although she denies this. In the three movies based on the first four books, Manny is portrayed by Connor and Owen Fielding. In the movie, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul, he is portrayed by Wyatt and Dylan Walters.
Manny has similar traits to those of Farley Drexel "Fudge '' Hatcher.
Rodrick is Greg 's aggressive older brother. He is the drummer in a garage band called "Löded Diper '' (loaded diaper), noted for their substandard heavy metal concerts and limited musical abilities. Rodrick is not an exception to Frank 's notorious distrust of all teenagers.
Rodrick is notorious for his stereotypical rebellious nature, feigning illness in Rodrick Rules so as to be allowed to remain at home to throw a chaotic house party during his parents ' absence, only for the evidence to appear in newly developed photographs that are quickly discovered by the boys ' parents. He bullies Greg a lot and pulls awful pranks that ruins Greg 's and his family 's life. Rodrick also possesses incompetent tendencies, as his school assignments are notoriously crude and idiotic. He assumes that Abraham Lincoln was the author of To Kill a Mockingbird and, with Greg 's aid, bases a science presentation around the hypothesis of whether or not plants sneeze. His spelling abilities are also poor, and he devotes a lot of time to tormenting Greg. In the books, Rodrick owns and drives a white van, which sports his band 's name written in large black letters, on either side of it and lacks any back seats, the reason being that Rodrick needs room for his band equipment. In the movie series, the van is revealed to be a 1996 Chevrolet Astro AWD van, which also sports a diaper 's pin drawn on the rear doors. In Rodrick Rules, Greg is haunted by the fact that Rodrick knows about his most mortifying experience during the summertime. This haunts him when he returns to school. However, his fears are quickly eased after the story becomes distorted to Greg 's advantage due to it being passed around by so many people (à la Chinese Whispers), temporarily boosting his popularity. By the end of the film adaptation of Rodrick Rules, he is much closer to Greg, and his actions to him becomes much less aggressive. This is also shown in the film adaptation of Dog Days when Rodrick thanks Greg for getting him a gig at Heather Hills ' Sweet 16. In the film series based on the books, Rodrick is played by Devon Bostick. In the film, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Long Haul, Rodrick is played by Charlie Wright.
Grandma and Grampa are Susan 's parents and Greg 's maternal grandparents. Grandma is known to drive a car like the Heffleys '. Greg often calls her to his home as a way to avoid his dad 's scoldings, since his dad will not do this when she is around. When she is about to leave, Greg quickly goes to accompany her. Grampa has not appeared in the book series thus far (except for the Do it Yourself book, in a family tree), implying that he and Grandma were divorced or he died.
Greg 's paternal grandpa is a typical unpredictable grandfather who is asked to babysit Rodrick and his brother in Rodrick Rules. He lives in a care home called Leisure Towers and enjoys playing games such as "Gutbusters '', which the two boys find boring. Grandpa is a smoker. He has his television tuned to the CCTV in the care home lobby, which he spends his time watching. In Old School, he moves out of Leisure Towers because the rent is too high and moves in with the Heffleys. Grandpa has a girlfriend named Darlene in the book "Hard Luck '' and broke up with her in the book "Old School ''. Grandpa dates on online. Greg is his favorite. Grandpa is known for making an awful dish named "Watercress Salad '' which is just cucumber and floating beans in a pool of vinegar this dish is hated by Greg but Rodrick makes him have more. It 's stated that Grandpa never spent much time with Frank when Frank was a boy.
Joe Heffley is Frank 's brother and Greg 's uncle. Frank has a sibling rivalry with Joe due to his actions. When Manny started potty training, Uncle Joe insisted that there was a "potty monster '' that was about to get him, causing him to fear using the bathroom, forcing Frank to change his diapers for a longer time. Greg says that he could hear Frank cursing at Joe when he changed Manny 's diapers because of this. Uncle Joe 's children call their uncle "Aunt Fwank '', which Frank swears he told them to do on purpose; Susan thinks it 's cute. In Dog Days, Greg mentions that he tried to make Uncle Joe convince Frank to get a dog, but that did not work out. He also mentions that Joe 's dog, Killer ate most of his birthday cake.
Joe Heffley 's wife is a dark - haired woman and Greg 's aunt. She does not appear much in the books.
Joe Heffley has at least 3 children, who appear to be a bit older than Manny, and are Greg 's cousins. They all call Frank "Aunt Fwank. ''
Charlie Heffley is Nana Heffley 's brother and Greg 's great uncle. He is also Greg 's "secret weapon '' at Christmas, as he asks him to buy him presents that his parents have forbidden him from receiving. However, this backfires as he is usually given the wrong thing. For example, Greg wanted to use a Barbie dollhouse as a fort for his soldier action figures, but Charlie gave him a Barbie doll instead. Also, when it was brought up at a family meeting that Greg was into superheroes, he received Wonder Woman underwear. Charlie is a bachelor and spends his spare money well. Greg says he wants to follow in his footsteps. in the first book, Greg thought Charlie got him Twisted Wizard because of the size of the box, but it was just an 8x10 picture of Charlie. In The Last Straw, Charlie got Greg a laundry hoop, hinting that he is tired of being Greg 's secret weapon at Christmas, as the events that transpired meant that Greg effectively got a chore for Christmas.
Cecil is the boys ' uncle but is only 3 or 4 years old. He sits at the grown - ups table at family gatherings because Greg 's Great Aunt Marcie adopted him and since he 's her son, he 's allowed to sit at the grown - ups ' table. He only appears in Hard Luck.
Loretta Heffley is Greg 's great - aunt and the sister of Grandpa, Arthur and Reba. Not much is known about her. She appeared mainly in Rodrick Rules at the Thanksgiving dinner. She also appeared a couple of times in the Do It Yourself Book and The Ugly Truth. It is implied that Greg and Rodrick dislike her, as they fight over who has to greet her first when she visits.
Aunt Veronica is Greg 's aunt and Susan 's sister. Greg states that she has never been seen in person since he was 2 or 3 years old, but calls his family members on video chat. When Greg was sitting on the toilet playing games on his brand new phone (which was actually a hand - me - down from his mother), she started a video chat with him. This startled him, leading to him dropping the phone into the toilet... She appears in Hard Luck multiple times - often in person - but on other occasions by video conference on a tablet and the used phone that Susan gave to Greg.
Terrence, who has a mustache and glasses, is Frank 's second cousin. It is implied that Greg thinks he is ugly. This was suggested when he was explaining that when Terrence was his age, he looked exactly like him, which is true. Greg then mentions he better start saving up for plastic surgery.
Gammie is Greg 's great - grandmother, and the unofficial head of the Heffley family. She only appears in The Ugly Truth, as a minor character. She also has Legos that Susan bought so that her kids had something to do at her house. Gammie glued them together to make one whole brick because of the mess the blocks make. Gammie is a trickster and knows a lot because of "experience ''. When someone in the family is about 12 or 13 years old she gives them The Talk, which is about how kids should not be hurrying to grow up. Gammie loves having visitors for dinner. One day she bought a scratch ticket, and matched up two pictures and told all her family members that she had won a lot of money. Everyone was in a very big rush to visit her. When they all arrived Frank told Gammie that to win you had to match up three pictures. When she found this out, she did not really care. She pulled a roast right out of the oven, and Greg figures she got what she really wanted anyway. Gammie is the mother of Grandpa, Arthur, Reba, and Loretta Heffley.
Gammie is briefly mentioned by Greg in Cabin Fever when he says she gave a miniature carousel that held spoons from all over the world to Greg 's family five or six years before.
Reba Heffley is Greg 's great - aunt. Gammie forgot to give her an invitation at Christmas, but she came anyway. She made everyone feel guilty. She only appears in The Ugly Truth. She and Loretta are identical twins. Reba is the sister of Grandpa, Loretta, and Arthur Heffley.
Gary is Greg 's uncle and has been married four times. In The Ugly Truth it is revealed that all of his wives divorced him as soon as they found out about his financial situation and job. In The Third Wheel he comes to live with Greg 's family after he discovers his job selling shirts in Boston was a ripoff - "Boston '' was spelled "Botson ''. Later in the book he is chosen to be the DJ at Greg 's Valentine 's Day dance.
In Double Down, Gary cut down a big branch hanging over his driveway and ended up breaking his collarbone.
Reason for divorce: Job unappealing for her (Gary was working as a mascot at children 's parties).
Reason for divorce: Financial miscommunication (He had $45 in his bank instead of $45,000.)
Reason for divorce: Unknown, possibly because of a tattoo that used to read "Lydia '' (and was later modified to read "I am not in love with Lydia anymore '').
Reason for likely divorce: He was only engaged to her by accident when a plane with a banner saying "MARRY ME SONJA '' flew over the baseball game where he was going to break up with her because he wanted to start dating her sister. Apparently, there was another Sonja at the baseball stadium. Before Gary could say anything, Sonja turned around and said "YES, YES! '' When they divorced, it was after their wedding when Gary 's friend included the story in his speech.
Dorothy is Greg 's aunt who always kisses him on the lips. Greg 's mom, Susan, says it is rude to wipe off the kisses Dorothy gives him. She is overweight and sometimes passes gas loudly, much to Greg 's dismay.
She appears on the "Have You Ever '' page in the Do - It - Yourself Book when Greg asks: "Have you ever been kissed full on the lips by a relative who 's older than seventy? '' This probably means she is older than 70 years old.
Arthur Heffley is Greg 's great - uncle. He only speaks in grunts or makes random sounds. He never has an actual conversation with anybody, but sometimes Greg tries to respond to him just in case he is trying to communicate. For example, once when he said "Rrup? '', Greg replied "Umm... No thank you ''. He wears glasses and a neck tie. Arthur is the brother of Reba, Grandpa, and Loretta Heffley.
Great Uncle Bruce is a deceased character who is mentioned in Cabin Fever and The Third Wheel. Greg is presented with a rather luxurious blanket as a Christmas gift, only to be repelled by it upon learning that it had formerly belonged to Great Uncle Bruce before his death. This leads him to give it to an unsuspecting Rodrick as a birthday present. In The Third Wheel, Greg uses Great Uncle Bruce 's old cologne on Valentine 's Day, which ends up attracting some old ladies.
Byron is Frank 's cousin whom Greg is not excited to see because at Gammie 's last meeting, he was sent out to get milk, but hit a pothole halfway home, and got a flat tire. Greg had to get him. He needed supplies, so Greg returned to Gammie 's. Because of his muddy shoes the ladies needed to warn him since he was about to track mud into the house. Unfortunately, he forgot about Byron 's tire, and he was not happy when he got to Gammie 's. Byron is Arthur Heffley 's son.
He only appears in The Ugly Truth.
Not much is known about Nana, but according to a young Greg, she smelt like asparagus. She is Greg, Rodrick, and Manny 's paternal grandmother, mother to Frank, Joe and Gary, and Mother - in - law to Susan. She is Grandpa 's wife. It is revealed in Double Down she died when Greg was younger and it makes him uncomfortable to think she is "watching '' him from heaven.
Her first appearance was in Double Down.
Aunt Cakey is Susan 's oldest sister and does not like kids. She used to have a dog. She despises kids, and Susan now never trusts her to babysit Greg.
Aunt Audra is one of Susan 's sisters. She believed in crystal balls and took Greg along with her to see her fortuneteller a few times. Susan think Audra is wasting her money, but the fortuneteller once told Greg, "A dark haired woman will plant a seed of doubt in your mind. '' The fortuneteller also told Audra that Meemaw 's ring was inside a photo album. It turned out the fortuneteller did not mean it literally.
Aunt Gretchen is Susan 's youngest sister. She has two out - of - control twin sons, Malvin and Malcolm. Aunt Gretchen has at least thirty pets. In Hard Luck, her rabbit (which everyone thought was a male) has a litter of bunnies, angering Frank. Once they played throw and catch with a strong sharp piece of concrete. Malvin had to go to the emergency room to get stitches in his forehead.
Malvin and Malcolm are Gretchen 's two sons. They are out - of control kids, playing catch with rocks and cement chunks. Malcolm is the wilder. He once got hold of Frank 's shaving kit and shaved himself. He also called the police to report Greg 's family for running out of ketchup. This results in Frank angrily making them leave.
Meemaw and Peepaw are the parents of Gramma and her two sisters, and are the grandparents of Susan. Their first appearance was in Hard Luck. Peepaw is portrayed as old and batty. Meemaw is dead, while Peepaw is still alive. Meemaw was in charge of putting prizes in the Easter eggs, and wore a diamond ring, which was extremely valuable because it had been in her family for three generations. Before she died, she accidentally put her ring in an Easter egg that was found by Greg at the end of the book.
Meemaw appears in the film adaption of the Long Haul played by Mimi Gould. Meemaw 's birthday results in Susan 's "great Heffley road trip ''.
Gramma 's sisters are the great - aunts of Rodrick, Greg, and Manny. They are the aunts of Susan Heffley and her sisters.
Lawrence Heffley is Greg 's uncle who is always traveling, and therefore is unable to make it to family events. He did, however, appear at Great - Grandpa Chester 's funeral by webcam. He only appears in The Ugly Truth.
Chester Heffley was Greg 's great - grandfather and Gammie Heffley 's husband. It was revealed that he died in The Ugly Truth. Greg referred to him as Remus in The Do it Yourself Book.
Georgia is Greg 's cousin who has an extremely loose tooth that she does not want to pull out. She only appears in Hard Luck.
Benjy Heffley is Greg 's cousin. He can read chapter books and speak in full sentences. However, he still is n't potty trained. He only appears in The Ugly Truth.
Tony and Patricia Heffley are Greg 's aunt and uncle and the parents of Benjy Heffley.
Uncle Larry is supposedly Greg 's uncle. Greg is not sure if he is an actual relative, and he thinks someone invited him to a family gathering at some point and that he has been coming ever since. When Audra 's fortuneteller told her Meemaw 's ring was in a photo album, Larry helped realize that that the ring was in a plastic egg. This was proved to be true, as it was found in a plastic egg by Greg later on.
Martina is Susan 's cousin who smashed her collarbone at a buffet in Las Vegas, and ended up suing the hotel. She possibly owns a Porsche.
Gerald is Susan 's cousin who lives in California. He lived with Greg 's family a few months after Greg was born, and even used to change his diapers.
Mr. Jefferson is Rowley 's father, and is far more shrill than Mr. Heffley. He is extremely rude and paranoid, and does not accept any criticism from anyone of himself or his property. He is the strictest father in the series so far. He will not let Rowley play any video game with the slightest bit of violence or fighting in it, as he thinks doing this could change Rowley into a different person. Mr. Jefferson thinks Greg is a "bad influence '' on his son. It is also shown that Mr. Jefferson had a close bond with Rowley.
He shows little interest in sports until Dog Days, where he is found playing tennis with Rowley and golf with a caddy. In Rodrick Rules, Greg and Rowley say in their secret language: "Your - pa dad - pa smells - pa like - pa a woman - pa! '' Greg is then sent home early, and questions how Mr. Jefferson cracked the code.
In Dog Days, it is revealed that Mr. Jefferson 's first name is Robert. When Susan emailed him because of the note Greg sent her, it had Mr. Jefferson 's first name on it.
In "Old School '', he is stuck chaperoning the group of extra kids (which includes Rowley and Greg), much to Greg 's dismay. Later, Rowley adds poison ivy to a fire started by him and he has problems breathing on the next morning, which means he and Rowley (Who had spots on his body) would be going back home.
In the film series, Mr. Jefferson has not spoken until the third film, implying that he is a man of a few words.
Mrs. Jefferson is Rowley 's mother. She often seems to be concerned about Rowley such as the time he broke his big toe after Greg put one of his dad 's dumbbells under a pillow that Rowley kept kicking at Greg 's sleepover. She also had Greg apologize to her for what he did to Rowley. Despite this, Mrs. Jefferson always enjoys Greg 's company with Rowley. Although Mrs. Jefferson loves Greg, she does not let him come over because her husband dislikes him. In day 24 of the online version, it is revealed that her first name is Linda from Greg 's The Boy Whose Family Thinks He 's a DOG comic.
In the first film, Rowley 's mother is portrayed by Kaye Capron, Robert Capron 's real life mother; in Dog Days she is portrayed by Bronwen Smith.
Rowley 's grandfather only appears in Rodrick Rules. It is his birthday and he asks for a chocolate cake for his next birthday. Because of his no lying policy Greg replies: "If you 're even alive next year ''. He is 90 years old in Rodrick Rules.
In the Rodrick Rules movie, Greg 's grandfather has this role instead.
Fregley is Greg 's firm and impeccably graspable acquaintance and neighbor noted for his unexplained lot of odd or disgusting eccentricities. He has been known to perplex others with his behavior, and does not have any known friends. Greg has been forced to hang around with Fregley on several occasions, to his chagrin or aggravation. It has been mentioned that Fregley is prohibited from eating sugar by his parents, and the consumption of it in large quantities will send him into hysterical, uncontrollable frenzies. Fregley won the "Student of the Week '' award in "Cabin Fever '' for not biting anyone for five days. In the film adaptions of the books, Fregley is played by Grayson Russell. In the films, he is a close friend of Greg, while in the book series, Greg always tries to avoid him.
Holly Elizabeth Hills is the name of one of Greg 's classmates; an older girl who primarily serves as Greg 's unrequited romantic interest and also Heather Hills ' younger sister. She is the youngest daughter of Mr. Hills and Mrs. Hills. A minor character, she earns a prominent role in The Last Straw as the object of Greg 's most recent infatuation. He is continuously motivated to impress her to no avail. Virtually oblivious to Greg 's existence or identity (Greg stops trying to impress her after she mistakes him for Fregley), she appears to take an interest in Rowley 's sweetness, judging by an enthusiastic message which she had signed in his yearbook (as opposed to the note that she had written for the envious Greg). She seldom appears afterwards. Greg 's interest in her is seemingly damaged by events such as this and he starts showing an interest in other girls, including Holly 's older sister Heather.
Whereas her personality is hardly explored in the books, Holly 's role was increased in film adaptions, debuting in Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules as a newcomer to Greg 's middle school with whom he is instantly besotted. She is depicted as being friendly and good - natured. The relationship she shares with Greg and Rowley is emphasized and exaggerated in the film portrayals, to the extent it can be assumed that the feelings Greg has for her may be mutual. She reappears in Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days. Her family is portrayed as being wealthy and her sister shown to be tyrannical, spoiled, and selfish.
Holly seems to enjoy the boys ' companionship, and shows gratitude for Rodrick Heffley 's unintentional blunders that wind up destroying the undeserving Heather 's birthday party. The party ends with Holly slipping her hand into Greg 's, implying that she likes him as well, and she, Greg and Rowley had a pool party not long after.
Holly is portrayed by Peyton R. List.
Chirag Gupta is one of Greg 's schoolmates and a minor character in the books. He is characterized by his short stature. Although he and Greg are well - acquainted and generally amiable to one another, Greg started the "Invisible Chirag '' prank in Rodrick Rules. During the summer the Gupta family were to move away but an unexplained alteration in their plans changed this. As a result, Chirag 's classmates teasingly ignore his existence or presence for days on end, which aggravates and shocks him. Though Chirag has apparently forgiven Greg and his fellow schoolmates for concocting the prank, it is mentioned in one book that he takes advantage of his family 's non-observance of the Christmas holiday, and no obligation to behave for Santa Claus, to pick on Greg.
In the movie adaptions, Chirag 's role is enhanced and he is a close friend of Greg and Rowley. He also plays a considerably more prominent role in these films, appearing in adaptions of books in which he is absent or hardly mentioned. He is depicted as being Indian - American. He is portrayed by Karan Brar.
Patricia "Patty '' Farrell is a minor character who shares an intense rivalry with Greg, which is showcased on a few occasions. It is implied she is a hardworking but sanctimonious and domineering student. She earns Greg 's animosity after she suggests a map of the United States displayed in the classroom be covered during a geography quiz. Greg had planned to cheat using the map and this causes great difficulties for him, and makes him agitated. Motivated by his lust for revenge, he volunteers to play a tree in the school 's upcoming production of "The Wizard of Oz '' after viewing the movie adaption for the first time. He believes the role entails having to bombard the character of Dorothy Gale (whom Patty would be portraying in the play) with apples, only to learn that this scene was deleted for the school production. He winds up re-enacting this scene, despite the script, sending his parents into a rage. She has yet to play quite as significant a role in the book series again. She has become something of a minor recurring character whose appearances are rare.
In the film adaptions of the books, Patty 's role is enhanced slightly. She is depicted as being monstrously demanding. Her parents are involved with the school board in this portrayal. The motivation given for her hatred of Greg is his recital of an offensive playground chant poking fun at her that sent her bursting into tears in elementary school. She appears in the film adaptions of all three films Diary of a Wimpy Kid, Diary of a Wimpy Kid; Rodrick Rules and Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days. Alterations made to the books include her talent for both wrestling and playing tennis. She snatches any opportunity to assault Greg somehow while engaged in either sport with him. She is played by Laine MacNeil.
Heather Hills is the attractive elder sister of Holly Elizabeth Hills, with whom Rodrick is infatuated. A minor character in the books, but the main antagonist in the third film, Heather is only featured in several books as the object of Greg 's unrequited infatuation. However, she seems oblivious to this. A student attending Crossland High School with Rodrick, she has had several minor occupations throughout the course of the books, during each of which Rodrick fecklessly attempts to grab her attention or to impress her.
Little insight into her personality is provided in the book series. Similar to her younger sister, Holly, Heather 's personality and role is further enhanced in the only film adaption in which she has appeared, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days. In a modification of the events of the books, she is depicted as the oldest daughter of the Hills family. She is spoiled, obnoxious, rude, ignorant, selfish, conceited, ungrateful, unforgiving, cold - hearted, demanding, mistreating her family and acquaintances. Plus, she proves to be even worse than Rodrick. Lovelorn, Rodrick Heffley and his band are hired to perform at Heather 's ostentatious upcoming sixteenth birthday party, and, in an attempt to earn her admiration, Rodrick winds up messing up the celebration and decorations during a boisterous, and substandard performance of Justin Bieber 's "Baby '', which makes Heather very upset and the party ends in disaster. She is portrayed by Melissa Roxburgh. Heather has a slight reference to the behavior of the Carnotaur from Disney 's "Dinosaur (film) ''.
Albert Sandy is a minor character, who talks often about rumors he has heard. The validity of his statements are unconfirmed. One of the statement which was not confirmed by Greg was when Albert told him that "it was medically impossible for a girl to fart ''. Greg knew that it was not true because when his mom hugged Aunt Dorothy on Christmas Eve she farted.
Albert has appeared in The Last Straw, The Ugly Truth, Old School, and Double Down.
Only appearing in Diary of a Wimpy Kid, Mr. Ira is a teacher at Greg 's middle school who is on the school newspaper adult staff, and enlists a replacement comic strip for the newspaper. He was made fun of in a comic strip entitled Dumb Teachers, and later bowdlerises Greg 's Creighton the Cretin comic. He does not do the same with Rowley 's Zoo - Wee Mama strip, much to Greg 's chagrin.
First appearing in The Last Straw, The Snellas are a family that lives in the Heffleys ' neighborhood. They have a lot of children, all of whom are male, with names beginning with the letter S. Five of the children 's names are revealed, and they are (from oldest to youngest): Shawn, Shane, Sam, Scott, and Seth. In The Last Straw, it is revealed that each Snella child has a half birthday party at which the adults perform funny stunts, to attempt to make the babies laugh. According to Greg, however, no baby has laughed once. Mr. Snella records the action on his camcorder.
Mr. Snella then sends the videos to America 's Funniest Families, a spoof and parody of America 's Funniest Home Videos, and has never won anything (though after Greg is filmed wearing Wonder Woman underoos hanging off a tree with his trousers below his ankles at the end of The Last Straw, the footage is sent, and it is never explained if Mr Snella won with it).
Their most recent appearance was in The Ugly Truth, when they move to another house because of a strange smell they can not get rid of in their home. The smell was deviled eggs, which Greg hates and threw into one of their plant pots when he was having dinner at their house. Despite trying to find the cause of the smell, the Snellas can not figure it out and eventually just move. Greg feels guilty when he sees that they are taking the plant pot with them, but he resolves to try to find a way to sneak deviled eggs into Fregley 's house.
In Cabin Fever, it is revealed a man named Mr. Alexander moved into the Snellas ' house.
Scotty is a first grader from Rowley 's karate class. In Rodrick Rules, Scotty was going to do a magic act in the Talent Show with Rowley as his assistant. But after Greg breaks Rowley 's big toe, he has to fill in for Rowley. Greg complains about being a magician 's assistant to Scotty, but Susan tells Scotty 's mother that Greg would be happy to replace Rowley. In the tryouts, Greg messes up the act so badly they are the only ones not to make the auditions.
Scotty has a remarkably similar appearance to Greg 's comic character, Creighton The Cretin, except Creighton 's eyes are wide open and Scotty 's eyes are beady just like all the other characters that do not wear glasses. In The Ugly Truth, he becomes the new Peachy Breeze kid, yet can not say the slogan right. Between Rodrick Rules and The Ugly Truth it appears that Scotty has two siblings - an unnamed baby sister and an older brother (who is supposed to be ugly). In The Third Wheel, when Greg and Rowley become private investigators Greg looks through the window at his house to find him playing one of Greg 's video games with Rowley.
Mr. Underwood is Greg 's Phys Ed coach. In the film series, he is named Coach Malone.
Bill Walter is a 35 - year - old high school drop out, and professional singer, who has a rude attitude. Rodrick idolizes him and his lifestyle. In the novel Rodrick Rules, he was voted "Most Likely to Be a Rock Star '' which influenced Rodrick to persuade him to join the band. Frank Heffley strongly dislikes Bill because he disapproves of his lifestyle, and is afraid Rodrick will follow in his footsteps. In the movie version of Rodrick Rules he is portrayed by Fran Kranz and is the main antagonist. He agrees to join Rodrick 's rock band Loded Diper and later attempts to kick him out for an unknown reason. After performing the song Exploded Diper, Rodrick retaliates and kicks him out. He also makes an appearance with Rodrick at the beginning at the roller rink. In the book Greg describes him as unemployed still living with his parents even though he is 35 years old. Also, in Rodrick Rules Bill appears to be a slob, as he "slorks '' pot roast.
Dr. Kagan, Frank 's dentist, makes his debut in The Ugly Truth. Frank takes Greg to Dr. Kagan instead of his usual dentist, a pretty woman named Rachel on whom Greg has a crush. Greg bites Dr. Kagan 's finger when his teeth are being checked. In what Greg believes to be an act of revenge, Dr. Kagan tells Frank that Greg needs headgear to correct his overbite. Greg says Dr. Kagan is scary and evil and that he never fools around. He has sharp metal tools and never smiles -- not even when his picture is taken. He also has billboards on the highway with ads that freak Greg out. His motto is, "Bad oral health is nothing to smile about. ''
Dr. Kagan makes a brief appearance in Double Down when Greg compares him to a book he read called Spineticklers # 67: My Dentist is The Devil.
Lenwood Heath only appears in The Last Straw. He is a rebellious teenager, who was Greg 's father 's arch - enemy for about three months before he was sent to military academy. This resulted in him becoming a fine young man who works at the movie theater. In the Dog Days film, he is portrayed by Tom Stevens, and is seen working as a lifeguard at the pool the Heffleys are attending.
Taylor Pringle is a minor character who only appears in the films, Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Rodrick Rules and Diary of a Wimpy Kid: Dog Days and does not appear in the books. She is a girl who is very rude and unforgiving, and is first seen at the end of the opening scene in Rodrick Rules in which during her birthday party at the roller rink, Rodrick embarrasses Greg, prompting Greg to try and tackle him, but he misses and lands in Taylor 's birthday cake, destroying it. As a result of this, Taylor gets angry and she and her friends begin beating up Greg as the intro begins. She appears again in Dog Days, at the country club 's pool, in which she simply asks Heather what time the snack bar closes and Heather obnoxiously shuns Taylor. Later, when Greg attempts to impress Holly by jumping off the high diving board, he becomes nervous, due to it being very high above the water. Taylor then comes up behind Greg and states that he is talking to himself, due to being scared. When Greg gives Taylor a brush - off that he is not scared and that she is "just a little kid '', she pressures him to jump. When Greg jumps, he loses his swimsuit on the board, and Taylor chucks it onto a nearby fence to get back at Greg for berating her. As a result, Greg is forced to borrow a girl 's swimsuit that reads Holly on it until he goes to the fence to retrieve his own swimsuit, and as he does so, he gets taunted by Patty. Taylor is portrayed by Dalila Bela.
Only appearing in The Ugly Truth, Jordan Jury is a popular boy in a grade above Greg, who always has blowout parties. Greg is amazed when he discovers that he has been given a textbook that used to belong to him. Jordan invites Greg and Rowley to his latest party, but Greg can not not go because of his Uncle Gary 's fourth wedding. However, he later realises that he is lucky that he could n't go, because the only reason Jordan invited kids in Greg 's grade to the party was to use them as servants.
Angie Steadman only appears as an additional character in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid film. She is in seventh grade, has a pink streak of hair, works for the school newspaper, and hates middle school, calling it an "intellectual wasteland. '' In the film, Greg and Rowley meet her under the bleachers during a game of "Gladiator ''. She gets along with Rowley, but starts a rocky relationship with Greg after he egotistically declines her offer to join the school newspaper. Greg later tells the whole school he ate the cheese instead of Rowley and she compliments and accepts him when she sees that Greg is learning the errors of his ways. In the film, she is portrayed by Chloë Grace Moretz.
Pete Hosey is the leader of the teenagers who attacked Greg and Rowley on Halloween. He is an antagonist in the first film. He is unnamed in the first book and he is replaced by Herbie Reamer in the online version. After hassling Greg and Rowley on Halloween, Greg yells that he will call the cops, and they chase him to Greg 's grandmother 's house. In the book, Greg and Rowley sneak back home, but in the movie, they try to intimidate Pete and his friends with a weed hacker, before Pete scratches his car and they are chased into the woods. In both the book and the movie, the teens hold a vendetta against Greg and Rowley. Near the end they corner them on the school field and decide to force them to eat the moldy cheese. Rowley is forced to eat the cheese, but Greg avoids it by saying he 's lactose intolerant. In the movie they are chased off by the coach.
Although his family is vaguely referenced in the books, the Warren 's are what got Frank thinking of making Greg more manly. Frank is deeply jealous of the Warrens. In stark contrast to Greg, the Warrens ' children are shown to be athletic and sporty. In the third film, Stan, the father of the family, is shown to be a neighbor of the Heffley 's. He had a childhood rivalry with Frank, that they appear to have gotten over as adults. Greg finds out that Stan has been making fun of his father behind his back and comes up with an elaborate prank to get back at him. In the movie, Mr Warren is the troop master of the Wilderness Explorers, and invites everyone over for an Independence Day party. They only appear in Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Last Straw.
Only appearing in The Long Haul, the Beardos are the main antagonists of the book. They are a couple with three sons. The Heffleys indirectly meet them during their road trip, though only Greg knows who they are. Their first encounter is at a motel, where Greg angrily berates one of the Beardo children, who then tells his father on him, causing Greg to fear running into them again. Greg and his family are convinced that the Beardos have stolen their luggage and belongings at a place they both attended called "Soak Central. '' They try to track them down though it was revealed at the end that Greg actually had the key to their locker in Soak Central, and that he got the number wrong. Their belongings were actually there. The Beardos were known for driving a purple van, similar to the Heffleys ' minivan. The family 's real surname is unknown, as Greg himself does not who they are. It is likely he dubbed them this because of the patriarch 's noticeably long beard.
In the film adaption of The Long Haul, Mr. and Mrs. Beardo are portrayed by Chris Coppola and Kimberli Lincoln, and have a daughter named Brandi and two sons named Brandon and Brent.
Joshie is a singer who is famous in Europe and is Rowley 's favorite singer and idol. Greg believes that Joshie is for six - year old girls, but Rowley ignores him, saying that Greg is jealous because he was the one who "discovered '' Joshie.
Maddox Selsam is a boy who lives in the middle of nowhere. He is not allowed to have any screen time, and does not have a TV at his house. He enjoys playing with his Legos and practicing his violin. He met Greg in Double Down when he found Greg 's balloon for the Balloon Brigade at his school.
Sweetie is a dog that first appeared in Dog Days. Greg 's dad buys him after discovering that his father lied about accidentally killing his childhood dog, Nutty. Sweetie wreaks havoc in the Heffley household and is given to Gramma at the end of the book... Sweetie undergoes drastic weight gain at Gramma 's house because he is fed lots of table scraps. Eventually Gramma dresses him up in a suit and tie like a little human. Greg and Rodrick like playing with him by going up behind him and making flatulence sounds. He will then sniff his rear end until he goes to sleep.
Nutty is Frank 's old dog which he had when he was around Greg 's age. Grandpa accidentally ran over and killed Nutty with his station wagon when he backed out of the driveway. Grandpa covered the truth by saying that Nutty ran away to a butterfly farm. Frank is very angry when he finds out the truth during a Father 's Day brunch.
Killer is Joe Heffley 's family dog. In Dog Days, he wreaks havoc by eating part of Greg 's birthday cake.
Rudy was Aunt Cakey 's dog. He was usually oblivious to what was going on around him, opting to stare straight ahead doing nothing. It is not known how Rudy died.
Henry is Gramma 's dog who died around the time of the dog days of summer.
Rebel is a Rottweiler that used to chase Greg and Rowley on their way to school before his owner installed an electric fence around the front yard. He only appears in Hard Luck.
In Dog Days, Greg buys an angel fish from a pet store. He also buys a journal to log the actions of his fish but later realizes he can not put much in it. Greg 's fish was later made to share a tank with Rodrick 's fish, who ate it while Greg and his family were at the water park on Father 's Day.
Rodrick 's fish is a piranha - type fish that was picked out the fish at a pet store in Dog Days, because it was described as aggressive. Due to Rodrick 's neglect at cleaning the tank it was made to share a tank with Greg 's fish, which it ate. The fish has not appeared since Dog Days, with no further mention of its eventual fate.
Aunt Gretchen has about thirty pets that the Heffleys pet - sit in Hard Luck, while she is sightseeing. Her pets include three dogs, two cats, a mouse, a parakeet, a turtle, a snake, a lizard, and a litter of bunnies that her rabbit gave birth to while Gretchen is away.
Squirm was an inchworm Greg found and took care of when he was nine. It was stood on and squashed by Manny when he began learning how to walk.
The Heffley 's pet pig first appeared in The Long Haul, and has appeared in all books after that. It first appeared when Manny Heffley won it at a country fair for correctly guessing the weight of a hog. The Pig shows extraordinary intelligence, and gains human characteristics, both disturbing and annoying Greg. A running gag is that the Pig will open objects such as soda cans and a jar full of candy corn despite not having opposable thumbs.
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what is the most likely way that one type of galaxy may be formed from others | Galaxy formation and evolution - wikipedia
The study of galaxy formation and evolution is concerned with the processes that formed a heterogeneous universe from a homogeneous beginning, the formation of the first galaxies, the way galaxies change over time, and the processes that have generated the variety of structures observed in nearby galaxies.
Galaxy formation is hypothesized to occur, from structure formation theories, as a result of tiny quantum fluctuations in the aftermath of the Big Bang. The simplest model for this that is in general agreement with observed phenomena is the Λ - Cold Dark Matter cosmology; that is to say that clustering and merging is how galaxies gain in mass, and can also determine their shape and structure.
Because of the inability to conduct experiments in outer space, the only way to "test '' theories and models of galaxy evolution is to compare them with observations. Explanations for how galaxies formed and evolved must be able to predict the observed properties and types of galaxies.
Edwin Hubble created the first galaxy classification scheme known as the Hubble tuning - fork diagram. It partitioned galaxies into ellipticals, normal spirals, barred spirals (such as the Milky Way), and irregulars. These galaxy types exhibit the following properties which can be explained by current galaxy evolution theories:
There is a common misconception that Hubble believed incorrectly that the tuning fork diagram described an evolutionary sequence for galaxies, from elliptical galaxies through lenticulars to spiral galaxies. This is not the case; instead, the tuning fork diagram shows an evolution from simple to complex with no temporal connotations intended. Astronomers now believe that disk galaxies likely formed first, then evolved into elliptical galaxies through galaxy mergers.
The earliest stage in the evolution of galaxies is the formation. When a galaxy forms, it has a disk shape and is called a spiral galaxy due to spiral - like "arm '' structures located on the disk. There are different theories on how these disk - like distributions of stars develop from a cloud of matter: however, at present, none of them exactly predicts the results of observation.
Olin Eggen, Donald Lynden - Bell, and Allan Sandage in 1962, proposed a theory that disk galaxies form through a monolithic collapse of a large gas cloud. The distribution of matter in the early universe was in clumps that consisted mostly of dark matter. These clumps interacted gravitationally, putting tidal torques on each other that acted to give them some angular momentum. As the baryonic matter cooled, it dissipated some energy and contracted toward the center. With angular momentum conserved, the matter near the center speeds up its rotation. Then, like a spinning ball of pizza dough, the matter forms into a tight disk. Once the disk cools, the gas is not gravitationally stable, so it can not remain a singular homogeneous cloud. It breaks, and these smaller clouds of gas form stars. Since the dark matter does not dissipate as it only interacts gravitationally, it remains distributed outside the disk in what is known as the dark halo. Observations show that there are stars located outside the disk, which does not quite fit the "pizza dough '' model. It was first proposed by Leonard Searle and Robert Zinn that galaxies form by the coalescence of smaller progenitors. Known as a top - down formation scenario, this theory is quite simple yet no longer widely accepted.
More recent theories include the clustering of dark matter halos in the bottom - up process. Instead of large gas clouds collapsing to form a galaxy in which the gas breaks up into smaller clouds, it is proposed that matter started out in these "smaller '' clumps (mass on the order of globular clusters), and then many of these clumps merged to form galaxies, which then were drawn by gravitation to form galaxy clusters. This still results in disk - like distributions of baryonic matter with dark matter forming the halo for all the same reasons as in the top - down theory. Models using this sort of process predict more small galaxies than large ones, which matches observations.
Astronomers do not currently know what process stops the contraction. In fact, theories of disk galaxy formation are not successful at producing the rotation speed and size of disk galaxies. It has been suggested that the radiation from bright newly formed stars, or from an active galactic nuclei can slow the contraction of a forming disk. It has also been suggested that the dark matter halo can pull the galaxy, thus stopping disk contraction.
The Lambda - CDM model is a cosmological model that explains the formation of the universe after the Big Bang. It is a relatively simple model that predicts many properties observed in the universe, including the relative frequency of different galaxy types; however, it underestimates the number of thin disk galaxies in the universe. The reason is that these galaxy formation models predict a large number of mergers. If disk galaxies merge with another galaxy of comparable mass (at least 15 percent of its mass) the merger will likely destroy, or at a minimum greatly disrupt the disk, and the resulting galaxy is not expected to be a disk galaxy (see next section). While this remains an unsolved problem for astronomers, it does not necessarily mean that the Lambda - CDM model is completely wrong, but rather that it requires further refinement to accurately reproduce the population of galaxies in the universe.
Elliptical galaxies (such as IC 1101) are among some of the largest known thus far. Their stars are on orbits that are randomly oriented within the galaxy (i.e. they are not rotating like disk galaxies). A distinguishing feature of elliptical galaxies is that the velocity of the stars does not necessarily contribute to flattening of the galaxy, such as in spiral galaxies. Elliptical galaxies have central supermassive black holes, and the masses of these black holes correlate with the galaxy 's mass.
Elliptical galaxies have two main stages of evolution. The first is due to the supermassive black hole growing by accreting cooling gas. The second stage is marked by the black hole stabilizing by suppressing gas cooling, thus leaving the elliptical galaxy in a stable state. The mass of the black hole is also correlated to a property called sigma which is the dispersion of the velocities of stars in their orbits. This relationship, known as the M - sigma relation, was discovered in 2000. Elliptical galaxies mostly lack disks, although some bulges of disk galaxies resemble elliptical galaxies. Elliptical galaxies are more likely found in crowded regions of the universe (such as galaxy clusters).
Astronomers now see elliptical galaxies as some of the most evolved systems in the universe. It is widely accepted that the main driving force for the evolution of elliptical galaxies is mergers of smaller galaxies. Many galaxies in the universe are gravitationally bound to other galaxies, which means that they will never escape their mutual pull. If the galaxies are of similar size, the resultant galaxy will appear similar to neither of the progenitors, but will instead be elliptical. There are many types of galaxy mergers, which do not necessarily result in elliptical galaxies, but result in a structural change. For example, a minor merger event is thought to be occurring between the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds.
Mergers between such large galaxies are regarded as violent, but because of the vast distances between stars, there are essentially no stellar collisions. However, the frictional interaction of the gas between the two galaxies can cause gravitational shock waves, which are capable of forming new stars in the new elliptical galaxy. By sequencing several images of different galactic collisions, one can observe the timeline of two spiral galaxies merging into a single elliptical galaxy.
In the Local Group, the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are gravitationally bound, and currently approaching each other at high speed. Simulations show that the Milky Way and Andromeda are on a collision course, and are expected to collide in less than five billion years. During this collision, it is expected that the Sun and the rest of the Solar System will be ejected from its current path around the Milky Way. The remnant could be a giant elliptical galaxy.
One observation (see above) that must be explained by a successful theory of galaxy evolution is the existence of two different populations of galaxies on the galaxy color - magnitude diagram. Most galaxies tend to fall into two separate locations on this diagram: a "red sequence '' and a "blue cloud ''. Red sequence galaxies are generally non-star - forming elliptical galaxies with little gas and dust, while blue cloud galaxies tend to be dusty star - forming spiral galaxies.
As described in previous sections, galaxies tend to evolve from spiral to elliptical structure via mergers. However, the current rate of galaxy mergers does not explain how all galaxies move from the "blue cloud '' to the "red sequence ''. It also does not explain how star formation ceases in galaxies. Theories of galaxy evolution must therefore be able to explain how star formation turns off in galaxies. This phenomenon is called galaxy "quenching ''.
Stars form out of cold gas (see also the Kennicutt - Schmidt law), so a galaxy is quenched when it has no more cold gas. However, it is thought that quenching occurs relatively quickly (within 1 billion years), which is much shorter than the time it would take for a galaxy to simply use up its reservoir of cold gas. Galaxy evolution models explain this by hypothesizing other physical mechanisms that remove or shut off the supply of cold gas in a galaxy. These mechanisms can be broadly classified into two categories: (1) preventive feedback mechanisms that stop cold gas from entering a galaxy or stop it from producing stars, and (2) ejective feedback mechanisms that remove gas so that it can not form stars.
One theorized preventive mechanism called "strangulation '' keeps cold gas from entering the galaxy. Strangulation is likely the main mechanism for quenching star formation in nearby low - mass galaxies. The exact physical explanation for strangulation is still unknown, but it may have to do with a galaxy 's interactions with other galaxies. As a galaxy falls into a galaxy cluster, gravitational interactions with other galaxies can strangle it by preventing it from accreting more gas. For galaxies with massive dark matter halos, another preventive mechanism called "virial shock heating '' may also prevent gas from becoming cool enough to form stars.
Ejective processes, which expel cold gas from galaxies, may explain how more massive galaxies are quenched. One ejective mechanism is caused by supermassive black holes found in the centers of galaxies. Simulations have shown that gas accreting onto supermassive black holes in galactic centers produces high - energy jets; the released energy can expel enough cold gas to quench star formation.
Our own Milky Way and the nearby Andromeda Galaxy currently appear to be undergoing the quenching transition from star - forming blue galaxies to passive red galaxies.
NGC 3610 shows some structure in the form of a bright disc implies that it formed only a short time ago.
NGC 891, a very thin disk galaxy
An image of Messier 101, a prototypical spiral galaxy seen face - on
A spiral galaxy, ESO 510 - G13, was warped as a result of colliding with another galaxy. After the other galaxy is completely absorbed, the distortion will disappear. The process typically takes millions if not billions of years.
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why do cells spend most time in interphase | Interphase - wikipedia
Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle in which a typical cell spends most of its life. During this phase, the cell copies its DNA in preparation for mitosis. Interphase is the ' daily living ' or metabolic phase of the cell, in which the cell obtains nutrients and metabolizes them, grows, reads its DNA, and conducts other "normal '' cell functions. The majority of eukaryotic cells spend most of their time in interphase. This phase was formerly called the resting phase. However, interphase does not describe a cell that is merely resting; rather, the cell is living, and preparing for later cell division, so the name was changed. A common misconception is that interphase is the first stage of mitosis. However, since mitosis is the division of the nucleus, prophase is actually the first stage.
In interphase, the cell gets itself ready for mitosis or meiosis. Somatic cells, or normal diploid cells of the body, go through mitosis in order to reproduce themselves through cell division, whereas diploid germ cells (i.e., primary spermatocytes and primary oocytes) go through meiosis in order to create haploid gametes (i.e., sperm and ova) for the purpose of sexual reproduction. Chromosomes are copied.
There are three stages of cellular interphase, with each phase ending when a cellular checkpoint checks the accuracy of the stage 's completion before proceeding to the next. The stages of interphase are:
The duration of time spent in interphase and in each stage of interphase is variable and depends on both the type of cell and the species of organism it belongs to. Most cells of adult mammals spend about 20 hours in interphase; this accounts for about 90 % of the total time involved in cell division. Interphase includes G1, S, and G2 phases. Mitosis and cytokinesis, however, are separate from interphase.
When G is completed, the cell enters a relatively brief period of nuclear and cellular division, composed of mitosis and cytokinesis, respectively. After the successful completion of mitosis and cytokinesis, both resulting daughter cells re-enter G of interphase.
In the cell cycle, interphase is preceded by telophase and cytokinesis of the M phase. In alternative fashion, interphase is sometimes interrupted by G phase, which, in some circumstances, may then end and be followed by the remaining stages of interphase. After the successful completion of the G checkpoint, the final checkpoint in interphase, the cell proceeds to prophase, or in plants to preprophase, which is the first stage of mitosis.
G phase is viewed as either an extended G phase where the cell is neither dividing nor preparing to divide and or as a distinct quiescent stage which occurs outside of the cell cycle.
In gamete production interphase is succeeded by meiosis. In programmed cell death, interphase is followed or preempted by apoptosis.
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why oh why did i ever leave ohio movie quote | Ohio (1953 song) - Wikipedia
"Ohio '' is a song from the 1953 Broadway musical Wonderful Town, sung by the protagonists, bemoaning the fact that they had left Ohio for New York City.
It was written by Leonard Bernstein, Betty Comden, and Adolph Green.
In the original 1953 Broadway production, the song was performed by Rosalind Russell and Edith Adams (as a duet).
Bing Crosby recorded the song on February 9, 1953 with John Scott Trotter and His Orchestra.
A noteworthy recording of the song was made by Doris Day as part of her albums, Show Time (1960) and My Heart (2011).
An additional noteworthy release was in November 2010 when it was sung by Carol Burnett and Jane Lynch on the popular U.S. television show Glee.
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what color is a negative benedict's test | Benedict 's reagent - wikipedia
Benedict 's reagent (often called Benedict 's qualitative solution or Benedict 's solution) is a chemical reagent named after American chemist Stanley Rossiter Benedict.
It is a complex mixture of sodium carbonate, sodium citrate and copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate. It is often used in place of Fehling 's solution to detect the presence of reducing sugars. The presence of other reducing substances also gives a positive reaction. Such tests that use this reagent are called the Benedict 's tests. A positive test with Benedict 's reagent is shown by a color change from clear blue to a brick - red precipitate.
Generally, Benedict 's test detects the presence of aldehydes and alpha - hydroxy - ketones, also by hemiacetal, including those that occur in certain ketoses. Thus, although the ketose fructose is not strictly a reducing sugar, it is an alpha - hydroxy - ketone, and gives a positive test because it is converted to the aldoses glucose and mannose by the base in the reagent.
The principle of Benedict 's test is that when reducing sugars are heated in the presence of an alkali they are converted to powerful reducing species known as enediols. Enediols reduce the cupric compounds (Cu) present in the Benedict 's reagent to cuprous compounds (Cu) which are precipitated as insoluble red copper (I) oxide (Cu O).
The color of the obtained precipitate gives an idea about the quantity of sugar present in the solution, hence the test is semi-quantitative. A greenish precipitate indicates about 0.5 g % concentration; yellow precipitate indicates 1 g % concentration; orange indicates 1.5 g % and red indicates 2 g % or higher concentration.
To test for the presence of monosaccharides and reducing disaccharide sugars in food, the food sample is dissolved in water, and a small amount of Benedict 's reagent is added. During a water bath, which is usually 4 -- 10 minutes, the solution should progress in the colors of blue (with no reducing sugar present), orange, yellow, green, red, and then brick red precipitate or brown (with high reducing sugar present). A color change would signify the presence of a reducing sugar. The common disaccharides lactose and maltose are directly detected by Benedict 's reagent because each contains a glucose with a free reducing aldehyde moiety, after isomerization.
Sucrose (table sugar) contains two sugars (fructose and glucose) joined by their glycosidic bond in such a way as to prevent the glucose isomerizing to aldehyde, or the fructose to alpha - hydroxy - ketone form. Sucrose is thus a non-reducing sugar which does not react with Benedict 's reagent. Sucrose indirectly produces a positive result with Benedict 's reagent if heated with dilute hydrochloric acid prior to the test, although after this treatment it is no longer sucrose. The acidic conditions and heat break the glycosidic bond in sucrose through hydrolysis. The products of sucrose decomposition are glucose and fructose, both of which can be detected by Benedict 's reagent, as described above.
Starches do not react or react very poorly with Benedict 's reagent, due to the relatively small number of reducing sugar moieties, which occur only at the ends of carbohydrate chains. Inositol (myoinositol) is another carbohydrate which produces a negative test.
Benedict 's reagent can be used to test for the presence of glucose in urine. Glucose in urine is called glucosuria and can be indicative of diabetes mellitus, but the test is not recommended or used for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. A false positive reaction can be due to the presence of other reducing substances in urine such as ascorbic acid (during intake of vitamin supplements), drugs (levodopa, contrast used in radiological procedures) and homogentisic acid (alkaptonuria).
Benedict 's solution is a deep - blue solution used to test for the presence of the aldehyde functional group, - CHO. It is an aqueous alkaline mixture of CuSO and sodium citrate. Here sodium citrate is the complexing agent that keeps Cu in solution, which would otherwise precipitate as cupric carbonate. The substance to be tested is heated up to 95 ° C (for example, in a water bath) with Benedict 's solution; formation of a brick - red precipitate indicates presence of the aldehyde group in relatively high concentrations. Since simple sugars (e.g., glucose) give a positive test, the solution is used to test for the presence of glucose in urine, a sign of diabetes. One litre of Benedict 's solution contains 173 grammes sodium citrate, 100 grammes sodium carbonate, and 17.3 grammes cupric sulphate pentahydrate. It reacts chemically similarly to Fehling 's solution; the cupric ion (complexed with citrate ions) is reduced to cuprous ion by the aldehyde group (which is oxidised), and precipitates as cuprous oxide, Cu O.
Benedict 's quantitative reagent contains potassium thiocyanate and is used to determine how much reducing sugar is present. This solution forms a copper thiocyanate precipitate which is white and can be used in a titration. The titration should be repeated with 1 % glucose solution instead of the sample for calibration.
Other oxidizing reagents
Other reducing reagents (opposite)
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what type of space was used during the greek theatre era | Theatre of ancient Greece - wikipedia
The ancient Greek drama was a theatrical culture that flourished in ancient Greece from c. 700 BC. The city - state of Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its center, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus. Tragedy (late 500 BC), comedy (490 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies and allies in order to promote a common cultural identity. Only men were allowed to play female parts.
The word τραγῳδία (tragoidia), from which the word "tragedy '' is derived, is a compound of two Greek words: τράγος (tragos) or "goat '' and ᾠδή (ode) meaning "song '', from ἀείδειν (aeidein), "to sing ''. This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient Dionysian cults. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these fertility rituals became the basis for tragedy and comedy.
The classical Greeks valued the power of spoken word, and it was their main method of communication and storytelling. Bahn and Bahn write, "To Greeks the spoken word was a living thing and infinitely preferable to the dead symbols of a written language. '' Socrates himself believed that once something was written down, it lost its ability for change and growth. For these reasons, among many others, oral storytelling flourished in Greece.
Greek tragedy as we know it was created in Athens around the time of 532 BC, when Thespis was the earliest recorded actor. Being a winner of the first theatrical contest held in Athens, he was the exarchon, or leader, of the dithyrambs performed in and around Attica, especially at the rural Dionysia. By Thespis ' time, the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots. Under the influence of heroic epic, Doric choral lyric and the innovations of the poet Arion, it had become a narrative, ballad - like genre. Because of these, Thespis is often called the "Father of Tragedy ''; however, his importance is disputed, and Thespis is sometimes listed as late as 16th in the chronological order of Greek tragedians; the statesman Solon, for example, is credited with creating poems in which characters speak with their own voice, and spoken performances of Homer 's epics by rhapsodes were popular in festivals prior to 534 BC. Thus, Thespis 's true contribution to drama is unclear at best, but his name has been given a longer life, in English, as a common term for performer -- i.e., a "thespian. ''
The dramatic performances were important to the Athenians -- this is made clear by the creation of a tragedy competition and festival in the City Dionysia. This was organized possibly to foster loyalty among the tribes of Attica (recently created by Cleisthenes). The festival was created roughly around 508 BC. While no drama texts exist from the sixth century BC, we do know the names of three competitors besides Thespis: Choerilus, Pratinas, and Phrynichus. Each is credited with different innovations in the field.
More is known about Phrynichus. He won his first competition between 511 BC and 508 BC. He produced tragedies on themes and subjects later exploited in the golden age such as the Danaids, Phoenician Women and Alcestis. He was the first poet we know of to use a historical subject -- his Fall of Miletus, produced in 493 - 2, chronicled the fate of the town of Miletus after it was conquered by the Persians. Herodotus reports that "the Athenians made clear their deep grief for the taking of Miletus in many ways, but especially in this: when Phrynichus wrote a play entitled "The Fall of Miletus '' and produced it, the whole theatre fell to weeping; they fined Phrynichus a thousand drachmas for bringing to mind a calamity that affected them so personally and forbade the performance of that play forever. '' He is also thought to be the first to use female characters (though not female performers).
Until the Hellenistic period, all tragedies were unique pieces written in honour of Dionysus and played only once, so that today we primarily have the pieces that were still remembered well enough to have been repeated when the repetition of old tragedies became fashionable (the accidents of survival, as well as the subjective tastes of the Hellenistic librarians later in Greek history, also played a role in what survived from this period).
After the Great Destruction of Athens by the Persian Empire in 480 BCE, the town and acropolis were rebuilt, and theatre became formalized and an even greater part of Athenian culture and civic pride. This century is normally regarded as the Golden Age of Greek drama. The centre - piece of the annual Dionysia, which took place once in winter and once in spring, was a competition between three tragic playwrights at the Theatre of Dionysus. Each submitted three tragedies, plus a satyr play (a comic, burlesque version of a mythological subject). Beginning in a first competition in 486 BC each playwright submitted a comedy. Aristotle claimed that Aeschylus added the second actor (deuteragonist), and that Sophocles introduced the third (tritagonist). Apparently the Greek playwrights never used more than three actors based on what is known about Greek theatre.
Tragedy and comedy were viewed as completely separate genres, and no plays ever merged aspects of the two. Satyr plays dealt with the mythological subject matter of the tragedies, but in a purely comedic manner.
The power of Athens declined following its defeat in the Peloponnesian War against the Spartans. From that time on, the theatre started performing old tragedies again. Although its theatrical traditions seem to have lost their vitality, Greek theatre continued into the Hellenistic period (the period following Alexander the Great 's conquests in the fourth century BCE). However, the primary Hellenistic theatrical form was not tragedy but ' New Comedy ', comic episodes about the lives of ordinary citizens. The only extant playwright from the period is Menander. One of New Comedy 's most important contributions was its influence on Roman comedy, an influence that can be seen in the surviving works of Plautus and Terence.
The plays had a chorus from 12 to 15 people, who performed the plays in verse accompanied by music, beginning in the morning and lasting until the evening. The performance space was a simple circular space, the orchestra, where the chorus danced and sang. The orchestra, which had an average diameter of 78 feet, was situated on a flattened terrace at the foot of a hill, the slope of which produced a natural theatron, literally "seeing place ''. Later, the term "theatre '' came to be applied to the whole area of theatron, orchestra, and skené. The coryphaeus was the head chorus member who could enter the story as a character able to interact with the characters of a play.
The theatres were originally built on a very large scale to accommodate the large number of people on stage, as well as the large number of people in the audience, up to fourteen thousand. Mathematics played a large role in the construction of these theatres, as their designers had to be able to create acoustics in them such that the actors ' voices could be heard throughout the theatre, including the very top row of seats. The Greek 's understanding of acoustics compares very favourably with the current state of the art. The first seats in Greek theatres (other than just sitting on the ground) were wooden, but around 499 BCE the practice of inlaying stone blocks into the side of the hill to create permanent, stable seating became more common. They were called the "prohedria '' and reserved for priests and a few most respected citizens.
In 465 BCE, the playwrights began using a backdrop or scenic wall, which hung or stood behind the orchestra, which also served as an area where actors could change their costumes. It was known as the skênê (from which the word "scene '' derives). The death of a character was always heard behind the skênê, for it was considered inappropriate to show a killing in view of the audience. Conversely, there are scholarly arguments that death in Greek tragedy was portrayed off stage primarily because of dramatic considerations, and not prudishness or sensitivity of the audience. In 425 BC a stone scene wall, called a paraskenia, became a common supplement to skênê in the theatres. A paraskenia was a long wall with projecting sides, which may have had doorways for entrances and exits. Just behind the paraskenia was the proskenion. The proskenion ("in front of the scene '') was beautiful, and was similar to the modern day proscenium.
Greek theatres also had tall arched entrances called parodoi or eisodoi, through which actors and chorus members entered and exited the orchestra. By the end of the 5th century BC, around the time of the Peloponnesian War, the skênê, the back wall, was two stories high. The upper story was called the episkenion. Some theatres also had a raised speaking place on the orchestra called the logeion.
There were several scenic elements commonly used in Greek theatre:
The Ancient Greek term for a mask is prosopon (lit., "face ''), and was a significant element in the worship of Dionysus at Athens, likely used in ceremonial rites and celebrations. Most of the evidence comes from only a few vase paintings of the 5th century BC, such as one showing a mask of the god suspended from a tree with decorated robe hanging below it and dancing and the Pronomos vase, which depicts actors preparing for a Satyr play. No physical evidence remains available to us, as the masks were made of organic materials and not considered permanent objects, ultimately being dedicated at the altar of Dionysus after performances. Nevertheless, the mask is known to have been used since the time of Aeschylus and considered to be one of the iconic conventions of classical Greek theatre.
Masks were also made for members of the chorus, who play some part in the action and provide a commentary on the events in which they are caught up. Although there are twelve or fifteen members of the tragic chorus, they all wear the same mask because they are considered to be representing one character.
Illustrations of theatrical masks from 5th century display helmet - like masks, covering the entire face and head, with holes for the eyes and a small aperture for the mouth, as well as an integrated wig. These paintings never show actual masks on the actors in performance; they are most often shown being handled by the actors before or after a performance, that liminal space between the audience and the stage, between myth and reality. This demonstrates the way in which the mask was to ' melt ' into the face and allow the actor to vanish into the role. Effectively, the mask transformed the actor as much as memorization of the text. Therefore, performance in ancient Greece did not distinguish the masked actor from the theatrical character.
The mask - makers were called skeuopoios or "maker of the properties, '' thus suggesting that their role encompassed multiple duties and tasks. The masks were most likely made out of light weight, organic materials like stiffened linen, leather, wood, or cork, with the wig consisting of human or animal hair. Due to the visual restrictions imposed by these masks, it was imperative that the actors hear in order to orient and balance themselves. Thus, it is believed that the ears were covered by substantial amounts of hair and not the helmet - mask itself. The mouth opening was relatively small, preventing the mouth to be seen during performances. Vervain and Wiles posit that this small size discourages the idea that the mask functioned as a megaphone, as originally presented in the 1960s. Greek mask - maker, Thanos Vovolis, suggests that the mask serves as a resonator for the head, thus enhancing vocal acoustics and altering its quality. This leads to increased energy and presence, allowing for the more complete metamorphosis of the actor into his character.
In a large open - air theatre, like the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, the classical masks were able to create a sense of dread in the audience creating large scale panic, especially since they had intensely exaggerated facial features and expressions. They enabled an actor to appear and reappear in several different roles, thus preventing the audience from identifying the actor to one specific character. Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex, age, and social status, in addition to revealing a change in a particular character 's appearance, e.g. Oedipus after blinding himself. Unique masks were also created for specific characters and events in a play, such as The Furies in Aeschylus ' Eumenides and Pentheus and Cadmus in Euripides ' The Bacchae. Worn by the chorus, the masks created a sense of unity and uniformity, while representing a multi-voiced persona or single organism and simultaneously encouraged interdependency and a heightened sensitivity between each individual of the group. Only 2 - 3 actors were allowed on the stage at one time, and masks permitted quick transitions from one character to another. There were only male actors, but masks allowed them to play female characters.
The actors in these plays that had tragic roles wore boots called cothurni that elevated them above the other actors. The actors with comedic roles only wore a thin soled shoe called a sock. For this reason, dramatic art is sometimes alluded to as "Sock and Buskin. ''
Melpomene is the muse of tragedy and is often depicted holding the tragic mask and wearing cothurni. Thalia is the muse of comedy and is similarly associated with the mask of comedy and the comedic "socks ''.
Male actors playing female roles would wear a wooden structure on their chests (posterneda) to imitate the look of breasts and another structure on their stomachs (progastreda) to make them appear softer and more lady like. They would also wear white body stockings under their costumes to make their skin appear fairer.
Most costuming detail comes from pottery paintings from that time as costumes and masks were fabricated out of disposable material, so there are little to no remains of any costume from that time. The biggest source of information is the Pronomos Vase where actors are painted at a show 's after party.
Costuming would give off a sense of character, as in gender, age, social status, and class. For example, characters of higher class would be dressed in nicer clothing, although everyone was dressed fairly nice. Contrary to popular belief, they did not dress in only rags and sandals, as they wanted to impress. Some examples of greek theatre costuming include long robes called the chiton that reached the floor for actors playing gods, heroes, and old men. Actors playing Goddesses and women characters that held a lot of power wore purples and golds. Actors playing Queens and Princesses wore long cloaks that dragged on the ground and were decorated with gold stars and other jewels, and warriors were dressed in a variety of armor and wore helmets adorned with plumes. Costumes were supposed to be colourful and obvious to be easily seen by every seat in the audience.
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smith street band- more scared of you then you are of me | More Scared of You Than You Are of Me - Wikipedia
More Scared of You than You Are of Me is the fourth studio album by Australian punk band The Smith Street Band. It was released via Pool House Records on 7 April 2017.
More Scared of You than You Are of Me received widespread acclaim from music critics upon release. On Metacritic, it received an average critical score of 87 out of 100, indicating "Universal Acclaim ''. Writing for Tone Deaf, Joseph Earp called the album "a stunning achievement in its own right '', rating the album 4 and a half out of 5 and saying "Not a line or a hook is wasted, and despite the fact the running time brushes up close to the 40 - minute mark, nothing about the record feels overlong or unnecessary. Every song is contingent; every song matters. '' Jessica Milsome writing for The Music gave * More Scared of You than You Are of Me * 4 out of 5 stars, saying "It 's a refreshing change in the band 's usually melancholic approach, '' and "If you 're a fan of The Smith Street Band, you 'll love it. If you 've never tried them before, this is the album to start with. '' Hilary Saunders, writing for Paste Magazine gave the album an 8 / 10, writing; "The band 's sincerity is also apparent in its name -- an homage to Bruce Springsteen 's legendary backing band. But More Scared of You Than You Are of Me does n't drive listeners away with its repeated tributes and clunky title. Rather, the 12 - song collection ensnares listeners with its tight song structures, yelping melodies and energy delivered via middle - of - the - neck pitched guitar riffs. '' Jonny Nail from Rolling Stone Australia gave the album 4 / 5 stars and said "As a test of the versatility of their trademark sound, More Scared Of You... is a pass. As a testament to one of the country 's best lyricists in full flight, it 's a true triumph. ''
All music composed by The Smith Street Band.
The Smith Street Band
Other musicians
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items subject to selective sales taxes in texas include | Sales taxes in the United states - Wikipedia
Sales taxes in the United States are taxes placed on the sale or lease of goods and services in the United States. In the United States, sales tax is governed at the state level and no national general sales tax exists. Forty - five states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and Guam impose general sales taxes that apply to the sale or lease of most goods and some services, and states also may levy selective sales taxes on the sale or lease of particular goods or services. States may also delegate to local governments the authority to impose additional general or selective sales taxes.
Since January 2017, 5 states (Alaska, Delaware, Montana, New Hampshire and Oregon) do not levy a statewide sales tax, while California has the highest state sales tax with a base rate of 7.25 %. (The territory of Puerto Rico has a higher 10.5 % value added tax since April 2016). In some states such as California, counties and cities impose additional sales taxes, and total sales taxes can be over 11 %.
Sales tax is calculated by multiplying the purchase price by the applicable tax rate. Tax rates vary widely by jurisdiction and range from less than 1 % to over 10 %. Sales tax is collected by the seller at the time of sale. Use tax is self assessed by a buyer who has not paid sales tax on a taxable purchase. Unlike the value added tax, a sales tax is imposed only at the retail level. In cases where items are sold at retail more than once, such as used cars, the sales tax can be charged on the same item indefinitely.
The definition of retail sales and what goods and services are taxable vary among the states. Nearly all jurisdictions provide numerous categories of goods and services that are exempt from sales tax, or taxed at reduced rates. The purchase of goods for further manufacture or for resale is uniformly exempt from sales tax. Most jurisdictions exempt food sold in grocery stores, prescription medications, and many agricultural supplies.
Sales taxes, including those imposed by local governments, are generally administered at the state level. States imposing sales tax either impose the tax on retail sellers, such as with Transaction Privilege Tax in Arizona, or impose it on retail buyers and require sellers to collect it. In either case, the seller files returns and remits the tax to the state. In states where the tax is on the seller, it is customary for the seller to demand reimbursement from the buyer. Procedural rules vary widely. Sellers generally must collect tax from in - state purchasers unless the purchaser provides an exemption certificate. Most states allow or require electronic remittance.
Sales taxes are imposed only on taxable transfers of goods or services. The tax is computed as the tax rate times the taxable transaction value. Rates vary by state, and by locality within a state. Not all types of transfers are taxable. The tax may be imposed on sales to consumers and to businesses.
Transfers of tangible personal property for cash or the promise to pay cash (sales) are often subject to sales tax, with exceptions. Sales tax does not apply to transfers of real property, though some states impose a real estate transfer or documentary tax on such transfers. All states provide some exemptions from sales tax for wholesale sales, that is, sales for resale. However, some states tax sales for resale through vending machines.
Purchases of gift cards are not subject to sales tax in all states. These purchases are considered to be similar to exchange of cash. The sales tax will be charged when gift cards are used as a method of payment for taxable goods or services. There was a proposal in New York State to impose a sales tax when a gift card is purchased instead of imposing it when the card is used, but it failed.
Most states also exempt bulk sales, such as sales of an entire business. Most states exempt from sales tax goods purchased for use as ingredients or parts in further manufacturing. Buyers in exempt sales must follow certain procedures or face tax.
Sales to businesses and to consumers are generally taxed the same, except as noted in the preceding paragraph. Businesses receive no offset to sales tax collection and payment obligations for their own purchases. This differs significantly from value added taxes.
The place and manner of sale may affect whether a sale of particular goods is taxable. Many states tax food for consumption on premises but not food sold for off premises consumption. The use to which goods are put may also affect whether the sale is subject to tax. Goods used as ingredients in manufacturing may avoid tax, where the same goods used as supplies may not.
Many states tax rental of tangible personal property. Often the tax is not dependent on the use to which the property will be put. Only Florida charges sales tax on the rental of commercial real estate.
Many states exempt charitable, religious, and certain other organizations from sales or use taxes on goods purchased for the organization 's use. Generally such exemption does not apply to a trade or business conducted by the organization.
The states imposing sales taxes also impose a similar tax on buyers of taxable property or services in those cases where sales tax is not paid. Use taxes are functionally equivalent to sales taxes. The sales and use taxes, taken together, "provide a uniform tax upon either the sale or the use of all tangible personal property irrespective of where it may be purchased. '' Some states permit offset of sales taxes paid in other states on the purchased goods against use tax in the taxpayer 's state.
The amount subject to sales tax is generally the net sales price. Such price is generally after any applicable discounts.
Some states exempt a portion of sales or purchase price from tax for some classes of goods.
No state imposes sales tax on all types of goods. State laws vary widely as to what goods are subject to tax. Food for preparation and consumption in the home is often not taxable, nor are prescription medications. By contrast, restaurant meals are often taxed.
Many states provide exemptions for some specific types of goods and not for other types. Certain types of foods may be exempt, and certain types taxable, even when sold in a grocery store for home consumption. Lists of what goods are taxable and what are not may be voluminous.
Most states tax some services, and some states tax many services. However, taxation of services is the exception rather than the rule. Few states tax the services of a doctor, dentist, or attorney. Services performed in connection with sale of tangible personal property are often taxed. Most states, however, tax services that are an integral part of producing goods, such as printing or cabinet making.
Telecommunications services are subject to a tax similar to a sales tax in most states. Only a few states tax internet access or other information services. Construction services are rarely taxed by states. Materials used in construction of real property may be subject to sales tax to the builder, the subcontractor, or the person engaging the builder, or may be wholly exempt from sales tax.
Most sales tax laws do not apply to most payments for intangible property. Some states tax certain forms of intangible property transfers or licenses. A common transaction subject to sales tax is license of "shrink wrap '' software. State courts have often found that numerous transfers of intangible rights are to be considered subject to sales tax where not specifically exempted.
All states exempt from sales or use tax purchases of goods made for resale in the same form. In many states, resale includes rental of the purchased property. Where the purchased property is not exactly the property resold, the purchase may be taxable. Further, use of the property before sale may defeat the resale exemption. Goods purchased for free distribution may be taxed on purchase in some states, and not in others.
Goods purchased to be used as ingredients in manufacturing tangible personal property are generally not taxable. Purchases of food by a restaurant generally are not taxable in those states that tax sales by restaurants, even though the ingredients are transformed. Steel purchased to be part of machines is generally not taxable. However, supplies consumed by the same businesses may be taxable. Criteria vary widely by state.
Purchase of goods to be provided as part of performance of services may be taxed. Airlines and hotels may be taxed on purchases of food to be provided as part of their services, such as in - flight meals or free breakfast. Where there is a separate charge for such goods, they may be considered purchased for resale.
Since services and intangibles are typically not taxed, the distinction between a taxable sale of tangible property and a nontaxable service or intangible transfer is a major source of controversy. Many state tax administrators and courts look to the "true object '' or "dominant purpose '' of the transaction to determine if it is a taxable sale. Some courts have looked at the significance of the property in relation to the services provided. Where property is sold with an agreement to provide service (such as an extended warranty or service contract), the service agreement is generally treated as a separate sale if it can be purchased separately. Michigan and Colorado courts have adopted a more holistic approach, looking at various factors for a particular transaction.
Sales taxes are collected by vendors in most states. Use taxes are self assessed by purchasers. Many states require individuals and businesses who regularly make sales to register with the state. All states imposing sales tax require that taxes collected be paid to the state at least quarterly. Most states have thresholds at which more frequent payment is required. Some states provide a discount to vendors upon payment of collected tax.
Sales taxes collected in some states are considered to be money owned by the state, and consider a vendor failing to remit the tax as in breach of its fiduciary duties. Sellers of taxable property must file tax returns with each jurisdiction in which they are required to collect sales tax. Most jurisdictions require that returns be filed monthly, though sellers with small amounts of tax due may be allowed to file less frequently.
Sales tax returns typically report all sales, taxable sales, sales by category of exemption, and the amount of tax due. Where multiple tax rates are imposed (such as on different classes of property sold), these amounts are typically reported for each rate. Some states combine returns for state and local sales taxes, but many local jurisdictions require separate reporting. Some jurisdictions permit or require electronic filing of returns.
Purchasers of goods who have not paid sales tax in their own jurisdiction must file use tax returns to report taxable purchases. Many states permit such filing for individuals as part of individual income tax returns.
Purchasers are required to pay sales tax unless they present the seller with certification that the purchase is exempt from tax (exemption certificate). The certificate must be on a form approved by the state. 38 states have approved use of the Multistate Tax Commission 's Uniform Sales and Use Tax Certificate.
Exemptions typically fall into two categories: usage based or entity based. Use based exemptions are when an otherwise taxable item or service is used in a manner that has been deemed exempt. The resale exemption is the most common use based exemption. Other use based exemptions could be items or services to be used in manufacturing, research & development, or teleproduction. Entity based exemptions are when the item or service is exempt solely because the purchaser falls into a category the state has granted an exempt status. Exempt entities could be government (federal, state or local), non-profit organizations, religious organizations, tribal governments, or foreign diplomats. Every state decides for themselves which use based and entity based exemption they will grant.
Persons required to file sales or use tax returns who do not file are subject to penalties. Persons who fail to properly pay sales and use tax when due are also subject to penalties. The penalties tend to be based on the amount of tax not paid, and vary by jurisdiction.
All states imposing sales taxes examine sales and use tax returns of many taxpayers each year. Upon such audit, the state may propose adjustment of the amount of tax due. Taxpayers have certain rights of appeal, which vary by jurisdiction. Some states require payment of tax prior to judicial appeal, and some states consider payment of tax an admission of the tax liability.
Under two now - overturned Supreme Court decisions, Quill Corp. v. North Dakota (1967) and National Bellas Hess v. Illinois (1992), states were not allowed to charge sales tax on sellers who did not have a physical presence or "nexus '' in the state, such as companies doing mail order, online shopping, and home shopping by phone. Some states do attempt to charge consumers an identical per - transaction use tax instead, but compliance is relatively low due to the difficulty of enforcement. The June 2018 decision South Dakota v. Wayfair reversed this interpretation of the Commerce Clause, allowing states to collect sales tax from out - of - state merchants when the consumer is in the state.
Several state constitutions impose limitations on sales tax. These limitations restrict or prohibit the taxing of certain items, such as food.
Sales tax rates and what is taxed vary by jurisdiction. The following table compares taxes on selected classes of goods in the states. Significant other differences apply. Following the table is abbreviated coverage of selected sales tax rates by state.
Notes:
Alabama has a state general sales tax of 4 %, plus any additional local city and county taxes. As of August 2015, the highest total general sales tax rate in Alabama is in the portions of Arab that are in Cullman County, which total to 13.5 %. Alabama is one of several states that do not exempt food from state taxes.
City Tax Rates
There is no state sales tax in Alaska; however, local governments -- which include boroughs, the Alaska equivalent of counties, and municipalities -- may levy up to 7.5 percent. As of January 2009, 108 of them do so. Municipal sales taxes are collected in addition to borough sales taxes, if any. Regulations and exemptions vary widely across the state. The two largest cities, Anchorage and Fairbanks, do not charge a local sales tax. The state capital, Juneau, has a 5 percent sales tax rate.
Arizona has a transaction privilege tax (TPT) that differs from a true sales tax in that it is a gross receipts tax, a tax levied on the gross receipts of the vendor and not a liability of the consumer. (As explained in Arizona Administrative Code rule R15 - 5 - 2202, vendors are permitted to pass the amount of the tax on to the consumer, but remain the liable parties for the tax to the state.) TPT is imposed under 16 tax classifications (as of November 1, 2006), with the tax rate most commonly encountered by Arizona consumers (e.g., for retail transactions) set at 6.6 percent.
Cities and counties can add as much as 6 percent to the total rate. Food for home consumption and prescription drugs (including prescription drugs and certain prescribed homeopathic remedies) are two of many items of tangible personal property that are statutorily exempt from the state retail TPT; cities can charge tax on food, and many do. Arizona 's TPT is one of the few excise taxes in the country imposed on contracting activities rather than sales of construction materials. Phoenix, the capital and largest city, has a 2 % TPT rate.
A law passed in July 2011 created a requirement that Arizona residents declare how much use tax they owe on purchases made from out - of - state online retailers and catalogs.
Indian reservations in Arizona have their own sales taxes, and these are some of the highest sales tax rates in the United States. The highest sales tax in the country as of 2012, 13.725 %, was found in Tuba City.
Arkansas has a state sales tax of 6.50 %. City taxes range from an additional 0.25 % to 3.5 % and county taxes range from 0 % to an additional 3.25 %. Including city and county taxes, the highest sales tax rate is 11.625 % in the portions of Mansfield that are in Scott County.
Effective July 1, 2011, Arkansas ' state sales tax on unprepared food (groceries) was reduced to 1.5 % from 2 %. Sales taxes on groceries had previously been reduced to 2 % from 3 % on July 1, 2009 and to 3 % from 6 % on July 1, 2007. Local sales taxes on groceries remained unchanged.
California, from 1991 to 2012 and since 2017, has a base sales tax of 7.25 % (composed of a 6 % state tax and a 1.25 % uniform local tax) -- the highest statewide sales tax rate in the nation. The tax can total up to 10.25 % with local sales tax included, depending on the city in which the purchase is made. Sales and use taxes in the state of California are collected by the publicly elected Board of Equalization, whereas income and franchise taxes are collected by the Franchise Tax Board. Many cities have a combined total sales tax of at least 8.75 %.
In general, sales tax is required on all purchases of tangible personal property to its ultimate consumer. Medical devices such as prosthetics and dental implant fixtures are exempt from sales tax with the exception of prosthetic teeth such as dentures, dental orthotics / orthopedic devices, and dental crowns which the state treats as personal property. Unprepared food, bakery items, hot beverages, candies, livestock, crops and seeds, fertilizer used to grow food, certain devices related to alternative energy, and one - time sales are also exempt from sales tax.
Colorado 's state sales tax is 2.9 % with some cities and counties levying additional taxes. Denver 's tangibles tax is 3.62 %, with food eaten away from the home being taxed at 4 %, most unprepared food (groceries) are exempt. There was a football stadium tax (expired 12 / 31 / 2011), but still has a mass transit tax, and scientific and cultural facilities tax. The total sales tax varies by city and county. Total sales tax on an item purchased in Falcon, Colorado, would be 5.13 % (2.9 % state, 1.23 % county, and 1 % PPRTA). The sales tax rate in Larimer County is roughly 7.5 %. Most transactions in Denver and the surrounding area are taxed at a total of about 8 %. The sales tax rate for non food items in Denver is 7.62 %. Food & Beverage items total 8.00 %, and Rental Cars total 11.25 %.
Connecticut has a 6.35 % sales tax, raised from 6 percent effective July 1, 2011, 6.25 percent to the state, 0 percent to the county and 0.1 percent to the city / town. Most non-prepared food products are exempt, as are prescription medications, all internet services, all magazine and newspaper subscriptions, and textbooks (for college students only). Also Compact Fluorescent Light Bulbs are tax exempt per Connecticut State Law.
Shipping and delivery charges (including charges for U.S. postage) made by a retailer to a customer are subject to sales and use taxes when provided in connection with the sales of taxable tangible personal property or services. The tax applies even if the charges are separately stated and applies regardless of whether the shipping or delivery is provided by the seller or by a third party. No tax is due on shipping and delivery charges in connection with any sale that is not subject to sales or use tax. Shipping or delivery charges related to sales for resale or sales of exempt items are not taxable. Likewise, charges for mailing or delivery services are not subject to tax if they are made in connection with the sale of nontaxable services.
Delaware does not assess a sales tax on consumers. The state does, however, impose a tax on the gross receipts of most businesses, and a 4.25 % ' document ' fee on vehicle registrations. Business and occupational license tax rates range from 0.096 percent to 1.92 percent, depending upon the category of business activity.
Washington, D.C., has a sales tax rate of 5.75 % as of October 1, 2013. The tax is imposed on sale of tangible personal property and selected services. (Non-prepared food, including bottled water and pet food, is not subject to the sales tax; however, soda and sports drinks are subject to the sales tax.) A 10 % tax is imposed on liquor sold for off premises consumption, 10 % on restaurant meals (including carry - out) and rental cars, 18 % on parking, and 14.5 % on hotel accommodations. Portions of the hotel and restaurant meals tax rate are allocated to the Convention Center Fund. Groceries, prescription and non-prescription drugs, and residential utilities services are exempt from the District 's sales tax.
The District once had two sales tax holidays each year, one during "back - to - school '' and one immediately preceding Christmas. The "back to school '' tax holiday was repealed on May 12, 2009.
On January 1, 2010, the District began levying a 5 - cent - per - bag tax on each plastic or paper bag provided by a retailer at the point of sale, if that retailer sells food or alcohol. The retailer retains one cent of the tax, or two cents if it offers a refund to customers for bringing their own bags. The remaining three or four cents goes to the District 's Anacostia River cleanup fund.
Florida has a general sales tax rate of 6 %. Miami - Dade County, like most Florida counties, has an additional county sales surtax of 1 %. The tax is imposed on the sale or rental of goods, the sale of admissions, the lease, license, or rental of real property, the lease or rental of transient living accommodations, and the sale of a limited number of services such as commercial pest control, commercial cleaning, and certain protection services. There are a variety of exemptions from the tax, including groceries and prescriptions.
Sales tax and discretionary sales surtax are calculated on each taxable transaction. Florida uses a "bracket system '' for calculating sales tax when the transaction falls between two whole dollar amounts. Multiply the whole dollar amount by the tax rate (6 percent plus the county surtax rate) and use the bracket system to figure the tax on the amount less than a dollar. The Department of Revenue has rate tables (Form DR - 2X) to assist residents.
A "discretionary sales surtax '' may be imposed by the counties of up to 1.5 %, charged at the rate of the destination county (if shipped). This is 1 % in most counties, 0.5 % in many, and 1.5 % in a few such as Leon. A few counties have no additional surtax. Most have an expiration date, but a few do not. Only the first $5,000 of a large purchase is subject to the surtax rate. Most counties levy the surtax for education or transportation improvements.
There are annual sales tax holidays, such as a back - to - school tax holiday in August on clothing, shoes and school supplies under a certain price that may change each year, as well as one in June 2007 to promote hurricane preparedness. The 2008 Legislators did not enact any sales tax holidays.
Florida also permits counties to raise a "tourist development tax '' of up to an additional 13 % for stays of 6 months or less on any hotel, apartment hotel, motel, resort motel, apartment, apartment motel, rooming house, mobile home park, recreational vehicle park, condominium, or timeshare resort.
In May 2010, Florida passed a law that capped sales tax on boats or vessels to a maximum of $18,000, regardless of the purchase price. This was to encourage owners not to leave the State after purchase or to flag "offshore '' which most owners were doing prior to the passing of this law. As a result, the Florida Dept. of Revenue has seen a dramatic increase in sales tax revenues from the sale of boats.
Florida is the only state to charge sales tax on the rental of real estate, commercial or residential, raising more than a billion dollars a year from the tax. Residential rentals of more than six months are exempted from the tax.
Georgia has had a 4 % state sales tax rate since April 1, 1989, when it was raised from 3 %. Services (including postage but not shipping) and prescription drugs are not taxed at all, while over-the - counter drugs, drugstore medical devices, and other basic needs are fully taxed. Since the 1990s, groceries (packaged foods not intended for on - premises consumption) are exempt from the state sales tax, but still subject to the local sales tax rate. Since the early 2010s, items prepared in grocery stores (even those without cafés), such as fresh bread from the bakery, are taxed as if they were not grocery items, despite clearly being basic needs for consumption at home.
Counties in Georgia may impose local sales tax of 1 %, 2 %, or 3 %, consisting of up to three 1 % local - option sales taxes (out of a set of five) as permitted by Georgia law. These include a special - purpose tax (SPLOST) for specific project lists, a general - purpose LOST, a homestead exemption (HOST), and an educational one for public schools (ELOST) which can be put forth for a referendum by the school boards (the county 's and any of its cities ' must agree), instead of the county commission (in cooperation with its city councils) as the other taxes are. Also, the city of Atlanta imposes an additional 1 % municipal - option sales tax (MOST), as allowed by special legislation of the Georgia General Assembly, and last renewed by voters in the February 2016 presidential primaries until 2020. This is for fixing its water and sewerage systems, mainly by separating storm sewers from sanitary sewers. In April 2016, a November referendum for an extra half percent was signed into law for MARTA, but only for the city of Atlanta, after legislators from the wealthy northern suburbs refused to allow the bill to advance unless their districts were excluded. This essentially limits the use of the funds to the Atlanta Beltline through 2057, being the only expansion project needed within the city limits, and blocking an extension of the north (red) line to Roswell and Alpharetta where it is most needed to relieve congestion.
As of March 2016, total sales tax rates in Georgia are 3 % for groceries and 7 % for other items in 107 of its 159 counties. Seven counties charge only 2 % local tax (6 % total on non-grocery items), and no county charged zero or 1 %, but 45 now charge 4 % (8 % total) due to the TSPLOSTs. Some partially (but none fully) exempt groceries from the local tax by charging 1 % less on non-restaurant food than on other items. Fulton and DeKalb (and since 2015, Clayton) counties charge 1 % for MARTA, and adjacent metro Atlanta counties may do so by referendum if they so choose. For the portions of Fulton and DeKalb within the city of Atlanta, the total is at 4 % and 3 % respectively on groceries and 8 % on other items due to the MOST, and DeKalb 's exemption of groceries from the HOST. Towns and Muscogee counties listed an "other '' tax as one of their three 1 % taxes.
Starting in 2012, regions defined by a new law were each allowed to vote for a TSPLOST sales tax for funding transportation projects, including public transportation and rapid transit (which only play a significant role in metro Atlanta, and are constitutionally blocked from using the state 's fuel tax revenues). Most of the regions voted against it, except for the three regions of middle Georgia from Columbus to Augusta. The TSPLOST is not subject to the 3 % limit on local taxes, making the local rate in those counties up to 8 %. In 2015, the situation for alternative transportation in the state was made even worse when the per - gallon excise tax was raised and the sales tax was eliminated on gasoline, blocking even more state funding from being used for traffic - reducing investments like commuter rail and others.
Similar to Florida and certain other states, Georgia used to have two sales - tax holidays per year, starting in 2002. One was for back - to - school sales the first weekend in August, but sometimes starting at the end of July. A second usually occurred in October, for energy - efficient home appliances with the Energy Star certification. There were no sales - tax holidays in 2010 and 2011, but they were reinstated in 2012 after the worst of the late - 2000s recession had passed.
Starting in 2013, Georgia now imposes a one - time title ad valorem tax (TAVT) on all vehicles sold within the state (both dealer and private sales are included in this tax). The TAVT is based on the fair market value of the vehicle. However, Georgia no longer charges sales tax on motorized vehicles, and those purchases that fall into the TAVT taxation system no longer pay the annual ad valorem taxes on vehicles. Essentially, the new TAVT combined the annual vehicle ad valorem tax and sales tax on vehicles. Non-motorized vehicles do not qualify for the TAVT system and are therefore subject to annual ad valorem tax. Vehicles being brought from out of state are also subject to TAVT. Vehicle sales or use taxes paid to other states are not credited towards TAVT in Georgia.
Georgia has many exemptions available to specific businesses and industries, and charities and other nonprofits such as churches are exempt. To identify potential exemptions, businesses and consumers must research the laws and rules for sales and use tax and review current exemption forms.
Guam has no general sales tax imposed on the consumer with the exception of admissions, use, and hotel occupancy taxes; however, businesses must pay 4 % tax on their monthly gross income. There are no separate municipal, county, school district or improvement district taxes.
Use tax is 4 % on non-exempt personal property imported to Guam. Hotel tax is 11 % of daily room rate. Alcoholic beverage tax varies depending on the beverage. Additionally there are tobacco taxes, real property taxes, amusement taxes, recreational facility taxes, and liquid fuel taxes.
Hawaii does not have a sales tax per se, but it does have a gross receipts tax (called the General Excise Tax) and a Use Tax which apply to nearly every conceivable type of transaction (including services), and is technically charged to the business rather than the consumer. Hawaii law allows businesses to pass on the tax to the consumer in similar fashion to a sales tax.
Unlike other states, rent, medical services and perishable foods are subject to the excise tax. Also, unlike other states, businesses are not required to show the tax separately on the receipt, as it is technically part of the selling price. Most retail businesses in Hawaii, however, do list the tax as a separate line item. 4.0 % is charged at retail with an additional 0.5 % surcharge in the City and County of Honolulu (for a total of 4.5 % on Oahu sales), and 0.5 % is charged on wholesale. However, the state also allows "tax on tax '' to be charged, which effectively means a customer can be billed as much as 4.166 % (4.712 % on Oahu). The exact dollar or percentage amount to be added must be quoted to customers within or along with the price. The 0.5 % surcharge on Oahu was implemented to fund the new rail transport system. As with sales tax in other states, nonprofit organizations may apply for an exemption from the tax.
Hawaii also imposes a "use tax '' on businesses that provide services that are "LANDED '' In Hawaii. One example is: A property owner in Hawaii contracts with a mainland architect to design their Hawaii home. Even though the architect perhaps does all of their work in a mainland location, the architect needs to pay the State of Hawaii a 4 % use tax on the architect 's fee because the designed house is located in Hawaii (even if the house is never built). The tax is on the produced product which is the design and provided building plans. This applies to commercial property designs as well.
Idaho initiated a sales tax of 3.0 % in 1965 and the current rate is 6.0 %. Some localities levy an additional local sales tax.
Illinois ' sales and use tax scheme includes four major divisions: Retailers ' Occupation Tax, Use Tax, Service Occupation Tax and the Service Use Tax. Each of these taxes is administered by the Illinois Department of Revenue. The Retailers ' Occupation Tax is imposed upon persons engaged in the business of selling tangible personal property to purchasers for use or consumption. It is measured by the gross receipts of the retailer. The base rate of 6.25 % is broken down as follows: 5 % State, 1 % City, 0.25 % County. Local governments may impose additional tax resulting in a combined rate that ranges from the State minimum of 6.25 % to 9.00 % as of May 2013.
Springfield charges 8.00 % total (including state tax). A complementary Use Tax is imposed upon the privilege of using or consuming property purchased anywhere at retail from a retailer. Illinois registered retailers are authorized to collect the Use Tax from their customers and use it to offset their obligations under the Retailers ' Occupation Tax Act. Since the Use Tax rate is equivalent to the corresponding Retailers ' Occupation Tax rate, the amount collected by the retailer matches the amount the retailer must submit to the Illinois Department of Revenue. The combination of these two taxes is what is commonly referred to as "sales tax ''. If the purchaser does not pay the Use Tax directly to a retailer (for instance, on an item purchased from an Internet seller), they must remit it directly to the Illinois Department of Revenue.
The Service Occupation Tax is imposed upon the privilege of engaging in service businesses and is measured by the selling price of tangible personal property transferred as an incident to providing a service. The Service Use Tax is imposed upon the privilege of using or consuming tangible personal property transferred as an incident to the provision of a service. An example would be a printer of business cards. The printer owes Service Occupation Tax on the value of the paper and ink transferred to the customer in the form of printed business cards. The serviceperson may satisfy this tax by paying Use Tax to his supplier of paper and ink or, alternatively, may charge Service Use Tax to the purchaser of the business cards and remit the amount collected as Service Occupation Tax on the serviceperson 's tax return. The service itself, however, is not subject to tax.
Qualifying food, drugs, medicines and medical appliances have sales tax of 1 % plus local home rule tax depending on the location where purchased. Newspapers and magazines are exempt from sales tax as are legal tender, currency, medallions, bullion or gold or silver coinage issued by the State of Illinois, the government of the United States of America, or the government of any foreign country.
The city of Chicago has one of the highest total sales tax of all major U.S. cities (10.25 %). It was previously this high (10.25 %), however, it was reduced when Cook County lowered its sales tax by 0.5 % in July 2010, another 0.25 % in January 2012, and another 0.25 % in January 2013. Chicago charges a 2.25 % food tax on regular groceries and drug purchases, and has an additional 3 % soft drink tax (totaling 13.25 %). An additional 1 % is charged for prepared food and beverage purchases in the Loop and nearby neighborhoods (the area roughly bordered by Diversey Parkway, Ashland Avenue, the Stevenson Expressway, and Lake Michigan).
Illinois requires residents who make purchases online or when traveling out - of - state to report those purchases on their state income tax form and pay use tax. In 2014, Illinois passed legislation which required sales tax to be collected by "catalog, mail - order and similar retailers along with online sellers... if they have sales of $10,000 or more in the prior year. '' Although the law went into effect January 1, 2015, retailers were given an additional month to comply with the legislation.
Indiana has a 7 % state sales tax. The tax rate was raised from 6 % on April 1, 2008, to offset the loss of revenue from the statewide property tax reform, which is expected to significantly lower property taxes. Previous to this it was 5 percent from 1983 - 2002. It was 6 percent from 2002 - 2008. The rate currently stands at 7 percent. Untaxed retail items include medications, water, ice and unprepared, raw staple foods or fruit juices. Many localities, inclusive of either counties or cities, in the state of Indiana also have a sales tax on restaurant food and beverages consumed in the restaurant or purchased to go.
Revenues are usually used for economic development and tourism projects. This additional tax rate may be 1 % or 2 % or other amounts depending on the county in which the business is located. For example, in Marion County, the sales tax for restaurants is 9 %. There is an additional 2 % tax on restaurant sales in Marion County to pay for Lucas Oil Stadium and expansion of the Indiana Convention Center.
Iowa has a 6 % state sales tax and an optional local sales tax of 1 % imposed by most cities and unincorporated portions of most counties, bringing the total up to a maximum of 7 %. There is no tax on most unprepared food. The Iowa Department of Revenue provides information about local option sales taxes, including sales tax rate lookup. Iowa also has sales tax on services when rendered, furnished, or performed.
Kansas has a 6.5 % state sales tax as of July 1, 2015. More than 900 jurisdictions within the state (cities, counties, and special districts) may impose additional taxes. For example, in the capital city of Topeka, retailers must collect 6.5 % for the state, 1.15 % for Shawnee County, and 1.5 % for the city, for a total rate of 9.15 %. As of May 2014, the highest combined rate of sales tax is located in Junction City where there is a community improvement district called Goodies Plaza. That rate is 11.15 %.
Kentucky has a 6 % state sales tax. Most staple grocery foods are exempt. Alcohol sales were previously exempt until April 1, 2009, when a 6 % rate was applied to this category as well.
Louisiana has a 5 % state sales tax as of 1 April 2016. The state sales tax is not charged on unprepared food. There are also taxes on the parish (county) level and some on the city levels, Baton Rouge has a 5 % sales tax. Parishes may add local taxes up to 5 %, while local jurisdictions within parishes may add more. In Allen Parish, the combined sales tax is up to 11 % (0.7 % for Parish Council, 3 % for School Board, 1 % to 1.3 % for City / Town). New Orleans (coterminous with Orleans Parish) collects the maximum 5 % tax rate for a total of 10 % on general purpose items. For food and drugs the tax rate is 4.5 %, for a total of 9.5 %. Louisiana bids out sales tax audits to private companies, with many being paid on a percentage collected basis.
Maine has a 5.5 % general, service provider and use tax (raised, temporarily until further notice, from 5 % on October 1, 2013). The tax on lodging and prepared food is 8 % and short term auto rental is 10 %. These are all officially known as "sales tax ''.
Maryland has a 6 % state sales and use tax (raised from 5 % in 2007) as of January 3, 2008, with exceptions for medicine, residential energy, and most non-prepared foods (with the major exceptions of alcoholic beverages, candy, soda, single - serving ice cream packages, ice, bottled water (including both still and carbonated water), and sports drinks). While most goods are taxed, many services (e.g., repair, haircuts, accounting) are not. Maryland 's sales tax includes Internet purchases and other mail items such as magazine subscriptions. Maryland has a "back - to - school '' tax holiday on a limited number of consumer items. On July 1, 2011, the selective sales tax on alcohol was raised from 6 % to 9 %.
On January 1, 2012, Montgomery County began levying a 5 - cent - per - bag tax on plastic and paper bags provided by retailers at the point of sale, pickup, or delivery (with few exceptions, most notably bags for loose produce in grocery stores, bags for prescription drugs, and paper bags at fast - food restaurants). Four cents of this tax goes to the county 's water quality fund, and one cent is returned to the retailer.
Massachusetts has a 6.25 % state sales tax on most goods (raised from 5 % in 2009). There is no sales tax on food items, but prepared meals purchased in a restaurant are subject to a meal tax of 6.25 % (in some towns voters chose to add a local 0.75 % tax, raising the meal tax to 7 %, with that incremental revenue coming back to the town). Sales tax on liquor was repealed in a 2010 referendum vote. Sales of individual items of clothing costing $175 or less are generally exempt; on individual items costing more than $175, sales tax is due only on the amount over $175. There have been attempts by initiative petition referendum voting in Massachusetts state elections to alter the level of sales taxation overall within Massachusetts, or on certain classes of sold items: examples include the aforementioned end of taxation on alcoholic beveragess that was up for voting in the 2010 state general election, and the separate overall reduction to a 3 % sales tax on most in - state sales that same year.
Michigan has a 6 % sales tax (raised from 4 % in 1994). Michigan has a use tax of 6 %, which is a tax that is applied to items that were brought into Michigan but not bought there, and of which taxes were not paid to the state in which the item was bought in. The tax is supposed to be paid when filing a resident 's annual income tax.
A service tax was approved in September 2007, effective December 1, 2007, allowing certain services to be taxed. The services tax was repealed the same day it went into effect. There is no local sales tax in Michigan. There is now a Michigan sales tax on the total amount of online orders, meaning that shipping charges are now taxed. Food, periodicals, and prescription drugs are not taxed. Food served in restaurants and other ' prepared food ' is taxed at the general sales tax rate.
Michigan Ballot Proposal 2015 - 1, failed by 80 % of people saying "No '' in the May 5th elections. The proposal would have raised the sales and use taxes to 7 %.
Minnesota currently has a 6.875 % statewide sales tax. The statewide portion consists of two parts: a 6.5 % sales tax with receipts going to the state General Fund, and a 0.375 % tax going to arts and environmental projects. The 0.375 % tax was passed by a statewide referendum on Nov. 4, 2008, and went into effect on July 1, 2009. Generally, food (not including prepared food, some beverages such as pop, and other items such as candy) and clothing are exempt from the sales tax. Prescription drugs are also exempt.
Local units of government may, with legislative approval, impose additional general sales taxes. As of July 1, 2008, an additional 0.25 % Transit Improvement tax was phased in across five counties in the Minneapolis - St. Paul metropolitan area for transit development. These counties are Hennepin, Ramsey, Anoka, Dakota, and Washington. A 0.15 % sales tax is imposed in Hennepin County to finance the Minnesota Twins ' new Target Field. Several cities impose their own citywide sales tax: Saint Paul (0.5 %), Minneapolis (0.5 %), Rochester (0.5 %), and Duluth (1 %).
These additional taxes increase the total general sales tax rates to 7.875 % in Duluth, 7.775 % in Minneapolis, 7.625 % in Saint Paul, and 7.375 % in Rochester.
In addition to general sales taxes, local units of government can, again with legislative approval, impose sales taxes on certain items. Current local option taxes include a "lodging '' tax in Duluth (3 %), Minneapolis (3 %), and Rochester (4 %), as well as served "food and beverage '' tax in Duluth (2.25 %).
Alcohol is taxed at an additional 2.5 % gross receipts tax rate above the statewide 6.875 % sales tax rate, for a total rate of 9.375 %, not including any applicable local taxes. This totals 10.375 % in Duluth, 10.275 % in Minneapolis, 10.125 % in Saint Paul, and 9.875 % in Rochester.
Mississippi has a 7 % state sales tax. Cities and towns may implement an additional tourism tax on restaurant and hotel sales. The city of Tupelo has a 0.25 % tax in addition to other taxes. Restaurant and fast food tax is 9 %, like the city of Hattiesburg, for example.
Missouri imposes a sales tax upon all sales of tangible personal property, as well as some "taxable services ''; it also charges a use tax for the "privilege of storing, using or consuming within this state any article of tangible personal property. '' The state rate, including conservation and other taxes, is 4.225 %, and counties, municipalities, and other political subdivisions charge their own taxes. Those additional local taxes combined with "community improvement district, '' "transportation development district, '' and "museum district '' taxes can result in merchandise sales taxes in excess of 10 %. The state sales tax rate on certain foods is 1.225 %.
Missouri provides several exemptions from sales tax, such as purchases by charitable organizations or some common carriers (as opposed to "contract carriers ''). Missouri also excludes some purchases from taxation on the grounds that such sales are not sales at retail; these include sales to political subdivisions. The Supreme Court of Missouri in August, 2009, ruled that when a sale is excluded from taxation -- as opposed to exempt from taxation -- the seller must self - accrue sales tax on its purchase of the goods and remit the tax on such purchases it made. This decision was reversed by two similar -- but not identical -- statutes added during the 2010 general assembly 's regular session.
Although the purchaser is obligated to pay the tax, the seller is obligated to remit the tax, and when the seller fails to remit, the obligation to pay falls on them. As compensation for collecting and remitting taxes, and as an incentive to timely remit taxes, sellers may keep two percent of all taxes collected each period. There are two exceptions to the general rule that the seller must pay the sales tax when he or she fails to collect it.
First, no sales tax is due upon the purchase of a motor vehicle that must be titled. Instead, the purchaser pays the tax directly to the Department of Revenue within one month of purchase. As long as the vehicle is taken out of state within that first month of purchase and titled elsewhere, no tax is due in Missouri. Second, if the purchaser presents an exemption certificate to the buyer at the time of sale, then the purchaser may be assessed taxes on the purchases if the certificate was issued in bad faith.
Montana does not have a state sales tax but some municipalities which are big tourist destinations, such as Whitefish, Red Lodge, Big Sky, and West Yellowstone, have a sales tax (up to 3 %). Hotels, campgrounds and similar lodging charge a "lodging and usage tax '', usually at the rate of 7 %. Rental car companies charge a 4 % tax on the base rental rate.
Nebraska has a 5.5 % state sales tax from which groceries are exempt. Municipalities have the option of imposing an additional sales tax of up to 1.5 %, resulting in a maximum rate of 7.0 %. Specific tax rates per counties are available on the web. Omaha also has a 2.5 % tax on prepared food and drink.
Nevada 's state sales tax rate is 6.85 %. Counties may impose additional rates via voter approval or through approval of the Legislature; therefore, the applicable sales tax will vary by county from 6.85 % to 8.15 % in Clark County. Clark County, which includes Las Vegas, imposes four separate county option taxes in addition to the statewide rate -- 0.25 % for flood control, 0.50 % for mass transit, 0.25 % to fund the Southern Nevada Water Authority, and 0.30 % for the addition of police officers in that county. In Washoe County (which includes Reno), the sales tax rate is 7.725 %, due to county option rates for flood control, the ReTRAC train trench project, mass transit, and an additional county rate approved under the Local Government Tax Act of 1991.
For travelers to Las Vegas, note that the lodging tax rate in unincorporated Clark County, which includes the Las Vegas Strip, is 12 %. Within the boundaries of the cities of Las Vegas and Henderson, the lodging tax rate is 13 %.
Sales tax in New Hampshire is limited to a 9 % tax on prepared meals, 9 % on hotel and similar room rental for less than 185 days, 9 % on motor vehicle rentals, and 7 % on telecommunications services. A 1.5 % transfer tax is levied on real estate sales. Taxable meals exclude food and beverages for consumption off premises, but catered and restaurant meals are taxable.
New Hampshire also imposes excise taxes on gasoline at $0.196 per gallon, cigarettes at $1.78 per pack, beer at $0.30 per gallon, and electricity at $0.00055 per kilowatt - hour.
The state of New Jersey 's sales and use tax rate is 6.625 % effective January 1, 2018. Certain items are exempt from tax, notably most clothing, footwear, and food. However, there are exceptions to this statewide rate. In Urban Enterprise Zones, UEZ - impacted business districts, and in both Salem County and Cumberland County, sales tax is collected at 50 % of the regular rate (currently 3.3125 %) on certain items. In addition, local sales taxes are imposed on sales of certain items sold in Atlantic City and Cape May County. The highest sales tax in the state is in Atlantic City at 12.875 % (although certain items are exempt from the additional tax).
A full list of Urban Enterprise Zones is available on the State of New Jersey web site.
New Jersey does not charge sales tax on unprepared food (except certain sweets and pet food), household paper products, medicine, and clothing. New Jersey does not charge sales tax on goods purchased for resale or on capital improvements but does charge sales tax on certain services.
New Jersey does not charge sales tax on gasoline, but gasoline is subject to a $0.375 / gallon excise tax. Cigarettes are subject to a $2.70 / pack excise tax, in addition to sales tax.
New Mexico imposes a gross receipts tax of 5 % on most retail sales or leasing of property or performance of services in New Mexico. The tax is imposed on the seller but it is common for the seller to pass the tax on to the purchaser. The state rate is 5.125 %. Municipalities may assess an additional gross receipts tax, resulting in rates between 5.375 % and 8.8625 %. Numerous specific exemptions and deductions apply. The tax may possibly increase depending on the state growth.
The state sales tax rate in New York is 4 %. All counties, by default, are authorized to collect an additional 3 % sales tax on top of the state 's 4 % levy; under the state 's home rule laws, counties and other local municipalities may only levy a higher sales tax (or a lower one, but this option is not exercised) if it is approved by the New York State Legislature, and this approval must be repeated every two years. As of 2017, all but Warren, Washington and Westchester counties in New York charge a higher sales tax rate than the 3 % default rate. The combined sales tax in Utica, for example, is 8.75 %. In New York City, total sales tax is 8.875 %, which includes 0.375 % charged in the Metropolitan Commuter Transportation District (MCTD).
On September 1, 2007, New York State eliminated the 4 % state sales tax on all clothing and footwear if the single item is priced under $110. Most counties and cities have not eliminated their local sales taxes on clothing and footwear. There are however, 5 cities (most notably New York City) and 9 counties (not including the five counties which make up New York City: New York, Queens, Kings, Richmond, and Bronx counties) that have done so.
Counties which have eliminated their local sales tax on clothing and footwear if the single item is priced under $110 are: Chautauqua, Chenango (outside the city of Norwich), Columbia, Delaware, Greene, Hamilton, Madison (outside the city of Oneida), Tioga, and Wayne. The Cities of Binghamton, Gloversville, New York City, Olean, and Sherrill do not collect a local sales tax. New York State also exempts college textbooks from sales tax.
Since June 1, 2008, when products are purchased online and shipped into New York State, some retailers must charge the tax amount appropriate to the locality where the goods are shipped, and in addition, must also charge the appropriate tax on the cost of shipping and handling. The measure states that any online retailer that generates more than $10,000 in sales via in - state sales affiliates must collect New York sales tax. The cumulative gross receipts from sales to New York customers as a result of referrals by all of the seller 's resident representatives total more than $10,000 during the preceding four quarterly sales tax periods.
From October 1, 2010 to March 31, 2011, statewide sales and use tax exemption for clothing and footwear sold for less than $110 was eliminated. For New York City, this meant articles of clothing costing less than $110 were charged 4.375 % tax. A state sales tax exemption for clothing and footwear under $55 was reinstated from April 1, 2011 through March 31, 2012. The original ($110) exemption was reinstated after March 31, 2012.
North Carolina has a state - levied sales tax of 4.75 %, effective July 1, 2011, with most counties adding a 2 % tax, for a total tax of 6.75 % in 72 of the 100 counties. Mecklenburg and Wake counties levy an additional 0.5 % tax, which is directed towards funding the light rail system, for a total of 7.25 % and the total sales tax in 25 other counties is 7 %. Durham County and Orange County impose an additional 0.5 % tax onto the 7 % rate for funding public transportation, making the total rate 7.5 %. The Wake County Board of Commissioners levied a Prepared Food and Beverage Tax of 1 % of the sale price of prepared food and beverages effective January 1, 1993, bringing the total to 7.75 %.
There is a 34.0 ¢ tax per gallon on gas, a 45 ¢ tax per pack of cigarettes, a 79 ¢ tax per gallon on wine, and a 53 ¢ tax per gallon on beer. Most non-prepared food purchases are taxed at a uniform county tax rate of 2 %. Alcohol and certain other goods are taxed at a "combined rate '' of 7 %, which includes both state tax and a 2.25 % county tax. Candy, soft drinks, and prepared foods are taxed at the full combined 6.75 - 7.5 % rate, with some counties levying an additional 1 % tax on prepared foods. A sales tax holiday on the first Friday in August through the following Sunday, which included school supplies, school instructional materials, clothing, footwear, sports and recreation equipment, and computers and computer accessories, was repealed in 2014 after being in force since 2002.
North Dakota has a 5 % state sales tax for general sales, but varies depending on the category (5 %, 7 %, 3 % and 2 %). These additional taxes increase the total general sales tax rates to 7.5 % in Fargo, Valley City and Pembina; 7.25 % in Grafton; 7.5 % in Minot; 6.75 % in Grand Forks; 6.5 % in West Fargo, Dickinson, and Williston; and 6.0 % in Bismarck and Mandan.
Ohio has a 5.75 % state sales tax. Counties may levy a permissive sales tax of 0.25 % up to 1.5 % and transit authorities, mass transit districts usually centered on one primary county, may levy a sales tax of 0.25 % up to 1.5 %. Cuyahoga County has the highest statewide sales tax rate (8 %). Tax increments may not be less than 0.25 %, and the total tax rate, including the state rate, may not exceed 8.75 %. County permissive taxes may be levied by emergency resolution of the county boards of commissioners. Transit authority taxes must and county permissive taxes may be levied by a vote of the electors of the district or county.
Shipping and handling charges are also taxable. Ohio law requires virtually every type of business to obtain an Ohio Sales Tax Certificate Number. If someone sells goods on eBay or the internet and ships them to someone in the state they reside, then they must collect sales tax from the buyer and pay the collected tax to the state on a monthly or quarterly basis. If someone sells less than $4 million in annual sales, they do not have to collect or pay sales tax on out - of - state sales.
Ohio Sales Tax Resale Certificate Example: If living in Ohio and selling or shipping something to someone else in Ohio, then one must collect and pay sales tax to the State of Ohio. But if selling the same item to someone outside the State of Ohio, one need not charge sales tax, but must report the exempt tax sale to the State of Ohio. Ohio also has a gross receipts tax called the Commercial Activity Tax (CAT) that is applicable only to businesses but shares some similarities to a sales tax. "Food for human consumption off the premises where sold '' is exempt from sales tax, with the exception of sodas and alcoholic beverages which are taxed at the full rate.
Oklahoma has a 4.5 % sales tax rate. Counties and cities each have an additional sales tax which varies, but is generally up to 2 % for counties and 2 - 5 % for cities resulting in a total sales tax rate of 7.5 % to 8.5 %.
Oregon has no statewide sales tax, although local municipalities may impose sales taxes if they choose to do so, such as Ashland, which imposes a 5 % prepared food tax.
Oregon does collect some business and excise taxes that may be passed along to (or must be collected from) consumers in some form or another. These include a 1 % state lodging tax, various tobacco taxes, telecommunications taxes, and '' privilege tax '' (excise tax) on beer, wine and spirits. Many localities also collect additional lodging taxes.
Pennsylvania has a 6 % sales tax rate. Allegheny County has local sales tax of 1 % on top of the PA sales tax rate that totals 7 %. Philadelphia County has a local sales tax of 2 % on top of the PA sales tax rate that totals 8 %, which became effective October 8, 2009.
Food, most clothing, and footwear are among the items most frequently exempted. However, taxed food items include soft drinks and powdered mixes, sports drinks, hot beverages, hot prepared foods, sandwiches, and salad bar meals, unless these items are purchased with food stamps. Additionally, catering and delivery fees are taxed if the food itself is taxed.
Additional exemptions include internet service, newspapers, textbooks, disposable diapers, feminine hygiene products, toilet paper, wet wipes, prescription drugs, many over-the - counter drugs and supplies, oral hygiene items (including toothbrushes and toothpaste), contact lenses and eyeglasses, health club and tanning booth fees, burial items (like coffins, urns, and headstones), personal protective equipment for production personnel, work uniforms, veterinary services, pet medications, fuel for residential use (including coal, firewood, fuel oil, natural gas, wood pellets, steam, and electricity), many farming supplies and equipment, ice, and tea (including powdered, hot, cold, and flavored).
The taxability of alcoholic beverages is slightly complicated. In Pennsylvania, alcohol is sold to businesses and consumers through the Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board (PLCB). The PLCB always charges sales tax directly to the purchasing entity. Therefore, if a consumer purchases alcohol in PLCB stores, the sales tax is assessed at the point of purchase, but if a consumer purchases alcohol at a licensed business (such as a bar or restaurant), the sales tax is not applied because it had already been paid when the business purchased the alcohol from the PLCB. The PLCB charges an additional 18 % levy on liquor and wine, but this tax is always included in the price regardless of the purchasing location. Beer is subject to an excise of $0.08 per gallon.
Puerto Rico has a 10.5 % commonwealth sales tax that applies to both products and services with few exemptions (including items such as unprocessed foods, prescription medicines and business - to - business services). Additionally, most municipalities have a city sales tax of 1 % for a total of 11.5 %. Some items that are exempt from commonwealth sales tax, specifically unprocessed foods, are subject to the city sales tax in the municipalities.
Rhode Island has a state sales tax of 7 %. The rate was raised from 5 % to 6 % as a temporary measure in the 1970s, but has not since been lowered. Rhode Island raised its sales tax from 6 % to 7 % in the early 1990s to pay for the bailout of the state 's failed credit unions. The change was initially proposed as a temporary measure, but was later made permanent. Other taxes may also apply, such as the state 's 1 % restaurant tax. Many items are exempt from the state sales tax, e.g., food (excluding single serve items), prescription drugs, clothing and footwear, newspapers, coffins, and original artwork.
South Carolina has a 6 % state sales tax but when combined with local, county and hospitality taxes South Carolina has a maximum sales tax of 10.5 %.
In Charleston, the tax rate equals 10.5 % with state tax, county tax, local option tax, and the hospitality tax. The City of Myrtle Beach states that mixed liquor drinks can have taxes added as high as 16.5 %.
As of June 1, 2007 counties and some cities may impose an additional 1 % to 3 % sales tax. As of mid-2005, 35 of 46 counties do so. Restaurants may also charge an extra 1 - 2 % tax on prepared food (fast food or take - out) in some places. The state 's sales tax on unprepared food disappeared completely November 1, 2007. There is a cap of $300 on sales tax for most vehicles.
Additionally, signs posted in many places of business inform that South Carolina residents over the age of 85 are entitled to a 1 % reduction in sales tax.
For the benefit of back - to - school shoppers, there is a sales tax holiday on the first Friday in August through the following Sunday which includes school supplies, school instructional materials, clothing, footwear, sports and recreation equipment, and computers and computer accessories.
South Dakota has a 4.5 % state sales tax, plus any additional local taxes. An additional 1.5 % sales tax is added during the summer season on sales occurring in tourism - related businesses and dedicated to the state 's office of tourism.
City governments are allowed a maximum of 2 % sales tax for use by the local government. Tribal governments are allowed to charge a higher local government tax rate, as they have a special agreement with the State of South Dakota.
While city governments are not restricted to a 2 % tax, they can impose a gross receipts tax on things like lodging, alcohol, restaurants, and admissions. These gross receipts are passed on by the business as a tax and could be considered a sales tax.
Tennessee charges 7 % sales tax on most items, raised from 6 percent back on 1 July 2002, groceries remained at 6 percent, then decreased to 5.5 percent. Groceries were taxed at 5.5 % as of 1 January 2008, through 30 June 2013, then at 5 % between 1 July 2013 and 30 June 2017 before being reduced to 4 % on 1 July 2017. As of 1 July 2018, the tax on groceries is 4 %. Counties also tax up to 2.75 % in increments of 0.25 %. Most do so around 2.25 %; thus, the majority of TN taxpayers pay 9.25 %. If a county does not charge the maximum, its cities can charge and keep all or part of the remainder. Several cities are in more than one county, but none charge a city tax, thus paying only the county taxes.
The Texas state sales and use tax rate is 6.25 % since 1990, but local taxing jurisdictions (cities, counties, special purpose districts, and transit authorities, but specifically not including school districts) may also impose sales and use taxes up to 2 % for a total of 8.25 %. The main items exempt from sales tax include medicines (prescription and over-the - counter), food and food seeds (but prepared food, such as from a restaurant, is subject to sales tax).
Motor vehicle and boat sales are taxed at only the 6.25 % state rate; there is no local sales and use tax on these items. In addition, a motor vehicle or boat purchased outside the state is assessed a use tax at the same rate as one purchased inside the state. The sales tax is calculated on the greater of either the actual purchase price or the "standard presumptive value '' of the vehicle, as determined by the state, except for certain purchases (mainly purchases from licensed dealers or from auctions).
Lodging rates are subject to a 6 % rate at the state level, with local entities being allowed to charge additional amounts. For example, the city of Austin levies a 9 % hotel / motel tax, bringing the total to 15 %, trailing only Houston for the highest total lodging tax statewide, at 17 %. Lodging for travelers on official government business is specifically exempt from tax but the traveler must submit an exemption form to the hotel / motel and provide proof of official status.
If merchants file and pay their sales and use tax on time, they may subtract 1 / 2 percent of the tax collected as a discount, to encourage prompt payment and to compensate the merchant for collecting the tax from consumers for the state.
Texas provides one sales tax holiday per year (generally in August prior to the start of the school year, running from Friday to Sunday of the designated weekend). Clothing less than $100 (except for certain items, such as golf shoes) and school supplies are exempt from all sales tax (state and local) on this one weekend only. There has also been talk of a tax free weekend in December to help with the Holiday shopping season.
Utah has a base rate of sales tax of 5.95 %, consisting of a state sales tax of 4.70 % and uniform local taxes totaling 1.25 %. Additionally, local taxing authorities can impose their own sales tax. Currently, the majority of Utah 's aggregate sales taxes are in the range of 5.95 -- 8.35 %. Utah has a 16.350 % sales tax on rental cars in Salt Lake City. The sales tax on food and food ingredients is 3.0 % statewide. This includes the state rate of 1.75 %, local option rate of 1.0 % and county option rate of 0.25 %.
Vermont has a 6 % general sales tax. Groceries, clothing, prescription and non-prescription drugs are exempt. Hotel and meeting room rentals are subject to a 9 % rooms tax, and a 9 % meals tax is charged on sales of prepared food and restaurant meals. Beer, wine, and liquor sold for immediate consumption are subject to a 10 % alcoholic beverages tax.
Cities and towns may collect an additional 1 % local option tax, effectively establishing a 7 % sales tax, a 10 % rooms and meals tax, and an 11 % alcoholic beverages tax. All local option taxes are charged in Brandon, Colchester, Dover, Killington, Manchester, Middlebury, Rutland Town, South Burlington, St. Albans Town, Stratton, Williston, Wilmington, and Winhall. The communities of Brattleboro, Montpelier, Stowe and Woodstock charge the local option rooms, meals, and alcoholic beverages taxes, but do not charge the local option sales tax. The cities of Burlington and Rutland do not charge the local option rooms or meals taxes. They are authorized by their respective charters to levy their own taxes on meals, lodging, and entertainment. Burlington does collect the local option sales tax.
Motor vehicle sales are subject to a 6 % purchase or use tax. Short term auto rentals are taxed at 9 %. Gasoline is taxed at 20 cents per gallon, plus an amount equal to 2 % of the average statewide retail price. A Motor Fuel Transportation Infrastructure Assessment fee is also added to the gas tax rate.
Retail sales of spirituous liquors have been subject to the 6 % general sales tax since July 1, 2009. Prices set by the Vermont Liquor Control Board include the state 's 25 % gross receipts tax on the sale of liquor and fortified wines, while beer and wine prices reflect the 55 cent per gallon excise tax paid by bottlers or wholesalers.
Virginia has a sales tax rate of 5.30 % (4.3 % state tax and 1 % local tax). An additional 0.7 % state tax is applied in the Northern Virginia region (Cities of Alexandria, Fairfax, Falls Church, Manassas, and Manassas Park; and Counties of Arlington, Fairfax, Loudoun, and Prince William) and the Hampton Roads region (Cities of Chesapeake, Franklin, Hampton, Newport News, Norfolk, Poquoson, Portsmouth, Suffolk, Virginia Beach, and Williamsburg; and Counties of Isle of Wight, James City, Southampton, and York), as well as Christiansburg, which currently has the highest meals tax in the United States at 12.8 %. Consumers are taxed on every "eligible food item. '' For example, fresh local produce sold at farmers ' markets and at grocery stores, as well as basic, unprepared cold grocery foods (including candy, bottled water, and soda), are taxed 2.5 % (1.5 % state tax and 1 % local tax). Cities and counties may also charge an additional "Food and Beverage Tax '' on restaurant meals and prepared food sold at grocery stores (including ice cream packages smaller than 16 ounces), up to an additional 4 % in counties and 6.5 % in cities. Virginia also has a tax on alcohol of 11.5 %.
Virginia 's use tax also applies at the same rate for out of state purchases (food 2.5 %, non-food 5.3 % to 6 %) exceeding $100 per year "from mail order catalogs ''. Various exemptions include prescription and non-prescription medicine, gasoline, and postage stamps, or the labor portion of vehicle repair. "Cost price '' does not include separately stated "shipping '' charges but it does include a separate "handling '' charge or "shipping and handling '' charges if listed as a combined item on the sales invoice.
However, unlike Maryland and West Virginia consumer use tax forms, the Virginia CU - 7 Consumer Use Tax Form does not recognize that it is possible to be under - taxed in another state and so only addresses untaxed items. Unlike Maryland 's quarterly filing, Virginia 's CU - 7 is due annually between January 1 and May 1 or can be filed optionally instead with Schedule A with Form 760, or Schedule NPY with Form 760PY. As with all states, Virginia has penalties and interest for non-filing, but Virginia 's use tax is no more practically enforceable than that of any other state.
Washington has a 6.50 % statewide sales tax. Local rates vary based on an individual 's location at the point of purchase and can total up to 3.10 % for a combined rate of 9.60 %. In addition, due to the large number of Native American sovereign nations located within the state, sales - tax rates, if any, can vary based on state treaties with each nation.
As of December 2, 2010, sales taxes can not be applied to unprepared food items and prescription medications. Prepared food, over-the - counter medications, and medical marijuana are not exempt from sales tax.
The sale or lease of motor vehicles for use on the road incurs an additional 0.3 % tax, rental of a car for less than 30 days has an additional state / local tax of 8.9 %. When renting a car for less than 30 days in Seattle, the total sales tax is 18.6 %. When purchasing an automobile, if one trades in a car, the state subtracts the price of the trade when calculating the sales tax to be paid on the automobile (e.g., purchasing a $40,000 car, and trading a $10,000 car, a person would be taxed on the difference of $30,000 only, not the full amount of the new vehicle).
Residents of Canada and U.S. states or possessions having a sales tax of less than 3 %, e.g., Oregon, Alaska, and Alberta are exempt from sales tax on purchases of tangible personal property for use outside the state. Stores at the border will inquire about residency, and exempt qualified purchasers from the tax.
A seller of a house or real estate pays excise taxes on the full sale price. The amount varies by county. In King and Snohomish counties, it is up to 1.78 %. For example, selling a house for $500,000 will incur a tax of $8,900.
Residents of Washington, who purchase goods for use in Washington, must pay a use tax in lieu of a sales tax, if any one of four conditions is true: If a Washington resident purchases goods and certain services in other states that do not charge a sales tax or charge a sales tax rate less than the sales tax rate in Washington, or if an out - of - state seller does not collect Washington sales tax, the resident must pay a use tax on all goods that will be used in Washington. Use tax must also be paid if a Washington resident purchases goods from a seller who is not authorized to collect sales tax or if personal property is acquired with the purchase of real property. Washington state does not typically pursue use tax collection for most purchases. However, in 2005, the Washington State Department of Revenue began to make a concerted effort to collect use tax on artworks acquired in other states.
When staying at a hotel (60 + rooms capacity) in Seattle, the sales tax is 15.6 %.
The lowest combined state, county, and municipality sales tax rate in Washington is 7 % in most of Klickitat and Skamania counties, while the highest combined sales tax in Washington is the 10.4 % in some parts of Snohomish County.
The highest sales tax in Washington is on liquor. The spirits sales tax is 20.5 % of the value of the product purchased and a $3.7708 per liter spirits liter tax is assessed on spirits sold to consumers.
April 1, 2008 saw tax increases in King County (+. 001), Kittitas County (+. 003), Mason County (+. 001), and the city of Union Gap (+. 002).
On July 1, 2008, Washington stopped charging an origin - based sales tax, and started charging a destination - based sales tax. This change only applies to transactions beginning and ending within state lines and does not apply to other states. Additionally, Washington started collecting taxes from online retailers that have voluntarily agreed to start collecting the sales tax in return for not being sued for back taxes.
The city of Seattle charges a 10 % tax on charges for parking garages to go toward mass transit. Total tax at parking garages is now 19.5 %. This rate was set to go up to 12.5 % on 1 January 2011, making the parking tax total 22 %.
On November 4, 2008, voters in King County (Seattle) approved a 0.5 % increase in the sales tax. Taxes within the city were increased to 9.5 % on retail purchases. This increase was supposed to be effective January 1, 2009, but was pushed back until April 2009. (For the first quarter of 2009, the tax rate in Seattle was 9 %.)
Midterm elections that occurred on November 2, 2010, saw sweeping voter - enacted tax changes with the passage of Initiative 1107. The initiative repealed all taxes levied on candy, gum, snack foods, carbonated beverages, and bottled water that had been imposed by the state legislature on June 1, 2010. Initiative 1107 also lowered the B&O tax on food products that contain meat. The Department of Revenue stated that all tax rollbacks were to take effect on December 2, 2010, directing retailers to stop collecting the sales tax at that time. The language of the initiative did not order the state to refund any tax that had been previously collected.
Starting April 1, 2017, the sales tax in King, Pierce and Snohomish counties went up by 0.5 percent in order to fund the third phase of Sound Transit light rail expansion.
West Virginia has the distinction of being the first US state to enact a sales tax. It currently is at 6 %. In January 2006, the sales tax on food was lowered to 5 %, then to 4 % in July 2007; to 3 % a year later; to 2 % in January 2012; to 1 % in July 2012; and has been extinct since July 2013. However, the reduced rate of tax does not apply to sales, purchases and uses by consumers of prepared food. Prescription drugs are not subject to sales tax. Credit is allowed for sales or use taxes paid to another state with respect to the purchase.
An individual who titles a motor vehicle with the West Virginia Division of Motor Vehicles must pay a $10 title fee and a 5 percent title privilege tax (rather than the 6 percent sales tax). For vehicles purchased new by West Virginia residents, the measure of this tax is the net sales price of the vehicle. For used vehicles, and for vehicles previously titled in other states, the tax is measured by the National Automobile Dealers Association book value of the vehicle at the time of registration. No credit is issued for any taxes paid to another state. Trailers, motorboats, all - terrain vehicles and snowmobiles are also subject to this tax. As of June 7, 2007, new residents of West Virginia no longer have to pay the 5 percent title privilege tax on vehicles, as long as the vehicles were validly titled to the same owner outside the state.
West Virginia is a member of the Streamlined Sales Tax Project. The streamlined sales tax agreement has effected significant in - state tax changes. West Virginia 's Energy Star Sales Tax Free Holiday was inspired by similar holidays in other states. The reduction of the food tax was similarly influenced. West Virginia adopted the definition of food found in the Streamlined Sales Tax Agreement in deciding what food is subject to preferential tax rates.
Wisconsin has a 5 % state sales tax, with 62 of the 72 counties charging an extra 0.5 % "County Tax ''.
The state instituted a 0.1 % sales tax in five counties (Milwaukee, Ozaukee, Racine, Washington, Waukesha), effective January 1, 1996, to cover the cost of building Miller Park in Milwaukee. The tax was originally scheduled to be retired in 2014; however, it is now not expected to collect enough taxes to cover the entire cost until 2017. There had been talk of extending the tax to pay for a new arena for the Milwaukee Bucks, but the plan failed to gain any momentum.
Brown County collected a 0.5 % tax for all purchases which funded the remaining cost of a $295 million renovation of Lambeau Field, as well as a payment to the Green Bay Packers to cover part of the cost of operating and maintaining the stadium through the year 2031. The tax ended as of 30 September 2015 but since 1 January 2018, a new 0.5 % county sales tax is collected for county projects in the city of Green Bay.
The municipalities of Lake Delton, Wisconsin Dells, Bayfield, Stockholm (passed by legislature in 2013), Eagle River, and Rhinelander (as of 2017) have also been authorized to adopt an additional "Premier Resort Area Tax '', due to their status as popular tourist destinations. Lake Delton and Wisconsin Dells impose, as of 2014, a 1.25 % sales tax (for a combined rate of 6.75 %) while Bayfield, Stockholm, Eagle River, and Rhinelander (as of 2017) impose an additional 0.5 % for a combined rate of 6.0 %.
Milwaukee County also has an additional local exposition tax on hotel rooms, car rentals, and food and beverage, which funds the Wisconsin Center Tax District.
In all cases, prescriptions, most foods (with the exception of candy, dietary supplements, soft drinks, and prepared foods) and newspapers, among other items, are exempt from sales tax; however, over-the - counter medications, and certain types of repair and installation services are subject to the 5 % sales tax rate.
Wyoming has a 4 % state sales tax, with counties adding up to an additional 3 %, resulting in a maximum rate of 7 %. In addition, resort district areas have the option to impose an additional 3 % tax. Exemptions include food which is not designed to be consumed on - premises and sales of agricultural equipment. Unlike most states, in Wyoming labor falls under the jurisdiction of sales tax. All labor on both tangible and intangible property are taxable; however, labor which permanently modifies real property is exempt.
Through the Internet 's history, purchases made over the Internet within the United States have generally been exempt from sales tax, as courts have followed the Supreme Court ruling from Quill Corp. v. North Dakota (1992) that a state may only collect sales tax from a business selling products over the Internet if that entity has a physical location in the state. This decision was based on the Dormant Commerce Clause that prevents states from interfering in interstate commerce, unless granted that authority by Congress. Some retailers, like Amazon.com, had voluntarily started collecting sales tax on purchases even from states where they do not have a physical presence.
In May 2013, the Senate passed the Marketplace Fairness Act, which would allow states to collect sales taxes for purchases made online. The legislation would give States the tools to collect sales taxes on cross-State sales transactions. The bill received support from retailers including Walmart and Amazon.com, who have claimed that it is unfair not to require online merchants to collect sales taxes. Groups like the National Retail Federation and the Retail Industry Leaders Association have said that requiring online vendors to collect sales taxes will help make brick and mortar retailers more competitive. However, U.S. House Speaker John Boehner stated that it would be difficult to implement such a system due to varying tax codes in different states. The National Taxpayers Union (NTU) spoke out against the bill, along with The Heritage Foundation, which indicated that it would harm Internet commerce and small businesses. Online retailer eBay believes it will hurt some of its sellers and lobbied Congress to exempt businesses that have less than $10 million in out - of - state sales or fewer than 50 employees. The Act failed to pass in either the 112th or 113th Congress.
In October 2017, the state of South Dakota petitioned the Supreme Court to abrogate the Quill decision, citing the ease that online retailers can now determine the location and appropriate sales tax for purchases compared to the state of the Internet in 1992. Several online retailers, including Wayfair, Overstock.com and Newegg, submitted petitions in opposition to South Dakota, stating that the impact will be difficult on small and medium - sized retailers that would not have ease of access to these tools. In January 2018, the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc. in its 2018 term. Oral arguments were heard by the Supreme Court on April 17, 2018. During oral arguments South Dakota 's Attorney General, Marty Jackley, and the U.S. Solicitor General 's representative, Malcolm L. Stewart, both posited that if the Court overturns the Quill decision that the ruling must be retroactive and not merely prospective. Several Justices were concerned about the burden that back taxes and ongoing sales and use tax compliance would place on small businesses.
On 21 June 2018 the Supreme Court held that states may charge tax on purchases made from out - of - state sellers, even if the seller does not have a physical presence in the taxing state. The court 's 5 -- 4 majority decision overturned Quill, ruling that the physical presence rule decided from Quill was ' unsound and incorrect ' in the current age of Internet services.
There is no value added tax in the United States. There have been proposals to replace some Federal taxes with a value added tax.
The use of sales taxes by U.S. states dates back at least to the Pennsylvania mercantile license tax that was initially introduced in 1821, though this and other early taxes were not broad - based. Buehler attributes development of modern state sales taxes to the depression era. He credits Kentucky with the first tax levied exclusively on retailers. The initial tax, passed in 1930, was progressive, but was replaced in 1934 with a 3 percent flat rate tax and then was eliminated in 1936. The current Kentucky sales tax was adopted in 1960. Commerce ClearingHouse credits Mississippi with the first sales tax, in 1930. Forty - five states and the District of Columbia currently impose sales taxes (see Table 1). Twenty - four of the states first levied the tax during the 1930s, six in the 1940s, five in the 1950s, and eleven in the 1960s. Vermont was the most recent state to impose a sales tax, in 1969. Alaska, Delaware, Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon do not levy general sales taxes.
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the iliad takes place during which year of the trojan war | Iliad - wikipedia
Setting: Troy (modern Hisarlik, Turkey) Period: Bronze Age Traditional dating: c. 1194 -- 1184 BC Modern dating: c. 1260 -- 1180 BC Outcome: Greek victory, destruction of Troy
Caused the war:
On the Greek side:
On the Trojan side:
The Iliad (/ ˈɪliəd /; Ancient Greek: Ἰλιάς Iliás, pronounced (iː.li. ás) in Classical Attic; sometimes referred to as the Song of Ilion or Song of Ilium) is an ancient Greek epic poem in dactylic hexameter, traditionally attributed to Homer. Set during the Trojan War, the ten - year siege of the city of Troy (Ilium) by a coalition of Greek states, it tells of the battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles.
Although the story covers only a few weeks in the final year of the war, the Iliad mentions or alludes to many of the Greek legends about the siege; the earlier events, such as the gathering of warriors for the siege, the cause of the war, and related concerns tend to appear near the beginning. Then the epic narrative takes up events prophesied for the future, such as Achilles ' imminent death and the fall of Troy, although the narrative ends before these events take place. However, as these events are prefigured and alluded to more and more vividly, when it reaches an end the poem has told a more or less complete tale of the Trojan War.
The Iliad is paired with something of a sequel, the Odyssey, also attributed to Homer. Along with the Odyssey, the Iliad is among the oldest extant works of Western literature, and its written version is usually dated to around the 8th century BC. In the modern vulgate (the standard accepted version), the Iliad contains 15,693 lines; it is written in Homeric Greek, a literary amalgam of Ionic Greek and other dialects. According to Michael Nagler, the Iliad is a more complicated epic poem than The Odyssey.
(1) After an invocation to the Muses, the story launches in medias res towards the end of the Trojan War between the Trojans and the besieging Greeks. Chryses, a Trojan priest of Apollo, offers the Greeks wealth for the return of his daughter Chryseis, held captive of Agamemnon, the Greek leader. Although most of the Greek army is in favour of the offer, Agamemnon refuses. Chryses prays for Apollo 's help, and Apollo causes a plague to afflict the Greek army.
After nine days of plague, Achilles, the leader of the Myrmidon contingent, calls an assembly to deal with the problem. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return Chryseis to her father, but decides to take Achilles ' captive, Brisēís, as compensation. Angered, Achilles declares that he and his men will no longer fight for Agamemnon but will go home. Odysseus takes a ship and returns Chryseis to her father, whereupon Apollo ends the plague.
In the meantime, Agamemnon 's messengers take Briseis away. Achilles becomes very upset, sits by the seashore, and prays to his mother, Thetis. Achilles asks his mother to ask Zeus to bring the Greeks to the breaking point by the Trojans, so Agamemnon will realize how much the Greeks need Achilles. Thetis does so, and Zeus agrees.
(2) Zeus sends a dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack Troy. Agamemnon heeds the dream but decides to first test the Greek army 's morale, by telling them to go home. The plan backfires, and only the intervention of Odysseus, inspired by Athena, stops a rout.
Odysseus confronts and beats Thersites, a common soldier who voices discontent about fighting Agamemnon 's war. After a meal, the Greeks deploy in companies upon the Trojan plain. The poet takes the opportunity to describe the provenance of each Greek contingent.
When news of the Greek deployment reaches King Priam, the Trojans too sortie upon the plain. In a list similar to that for the Greeks, the poet describes the Trojans and their allies.
(3) The armies approach each other, but before they meet, Paris offers to end the war by fighting a duel with Menelaus, urged by his brother and head of the Trojan army, Hector. While Helen tells Priam about the Greek commanders from the walls of Troy, both sides swear a truce and promise to abide by the outcome of the duel. Paris is beaten, but Aphrodite rescues him and leads him to bed with Helen before Menelaus can kill him.
(4) Pressured by Hera 's hatred of Troy, Zeus arranges for the Trojan Pandaros to break the truce by wounding Menelaus with an arrow. Agamemnon rouses the Greeks, and battle is joined.
(5) In the fighting, Diomedes kills many Trojans, including Pandaros, and defeats Aeneas, whom Aphrodite rescues, but Diomedes attacks and wounds the goddess. Apollo faces Diomedes and warns him against warring with gods. Many heroes and commanders join in, including Hector, and the gods supporting each side try to influence the battle. Emboldened by Athena, Diomedes wounds Ares and puts him out of action.
(6) Hector rallies the Trojans and prevents a rout; the Greek Diomedes and the Trojan Glaukos find common ground and exchange unequal gifts. Hector enters the city, urges prayers and sacrifices, incites Paris to battle, bids his wife Andromache and son Astyanax farewell on the city walls, and rejoins the battle.
(7) Hector duels with Ajax, but nightfall interrupts the fight, and both sides retire. The Greeks agree to burn their dead, and build a wall to protect their ships and camp, while the Trojans quarrel about returning Helen. Paris offers to return the treasure he took and give further wealth as compensation, but not Helen, and the offer is refused. A day 's truce is agreed for burning the dead, during which the Greeks also build their wall and a trench.
(8) The next morning, Zeus prohibits the gods from interfering, and fighting begins anew. The Trojans prevail and force the Greeks back to their wall, while Hera and Athena are forbidden to help. Night falls before the Trojans can assail the Greek wall. They camp in the field to attack at first light, and their watchfires light the plain like stars.
(9) Meanwhile, the Greeks are desperate. Agamemnon admits his error, and sends an embassy composed of Odysseus, Ajax, Phoenix, and two heralds to offer Briseis and extensive gifts to Achilles, who has been camped next to his ships throughout, if only he will return to the fighting. Achilles and his companion Patroclus receive the embassy well, but Achilles angrily refuses Agamemnon 's offer and declares that he would only return to battle if the Trojans reached his ships and threatened them with fire. The embassy returns empty - handed.
(10) Later that night, Odysseus and Diomedes venture out to the Trojan lines, kill the Trojan Dolon, and wreak havoc in the camps of some Thracian allies of Troy 's.
(11) In the morning, the fighting is fierce, and Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus are all wounded. Achilles sends Patroclus from his camp to inquire about the Greek casualties, and while there Patroclus is moved to pity by a speech of Nestor 's.
(12) The Trojans attack the Greek wall on foot. Hector, ignoring an omen, leads the terrible fighting. The Greeks are overwhelmed and routed, the wall 's gate is broken, and Hector charges in.
(13) Many fall on both sides. The Trojan seer Polydamas urges Hector to fall back and warns him about Achilles, but is ignored.
(14) Hera seduces Zeus and lures him to sleep, allowing Poseidon to help the Greeks, and the Trojans are driven back onto the plain.
(15) Zeus awakes and is enraged by Poseidon 's intervention. Against the mounting discontent of the Greek - supporting gods, Zeus sends Apollo to aid the Trojans, who once again breach the wall, and the battle reaches the ships.
(16) Patroclus can not stand to watch any longer and begs Achilles to be allowed to defend the ships. Achilles relents and lends Patroclus his armor, but sends him off with a stern admonition not to pursue the Trojans, lest he take Achilles ' glory. Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle and arrives as the Trojans set fire to the first ships. The Trojans are routed by the sudden onslaught, and Patroclus begins his assault by killing the Trojan hero Sarpedon. Patroclus, ignoring Achilles ' command, pursues and reaches the gates of Troy, where Apollo himself stops him. Patroclus is set upon by Apollo and Euphorbos, and is finally killed by Hector.
(17) Hector takes Achilles ' armor from the fallen Patroclus, but fighting develops around Patroclus ' body.
(18) Achilles is mad with grief when he hears of Patroclus ' death and vows to take vengeance on Hector; his mother Thetis grieves, too, knowing that Achilles is fated to die young if he kills Hector. Achilles is urged to help retrieve Patroclus ' body but has no armour. Made brilliant by Athena, Achilles stands next to the Greek wall and roars in rage. The Trojans are dismayed by his appearance, and the Greeks manage to bear Patroclus ' body away. Polydamas urges Hector again to withdraw into the city; again Hector refuses, and the Trojans camp on the plain at nightfall. Patroclus is mourned. Meanwhile, at Thetis ' request, Hephaestus fashions a new set of armor for Achilles, including a magnificently wrought shield.
(19) In the morning, Agamemnon gives Achilles all the promised gifts, including Briseis, but Achilles is indifferent to them. Achilles fasts while the Greeks take their meal, straps on his new armor, and heaves his great spear. His horse Xanthos prophesies to Achilles his death. Achilles drives his chariot into battle.
(20) Zeus lifts the ban on the gods ' interference, and the gods freely help both sides. Achilles, burning with rage and grief, slays many.
(21) Driving the Trojans before him, Achilles cuts off half their number in the river Skamandros and proceeds to slaughter them, filling the river with the dead. The river, angry at the killing, confronts Achilles but is beaten back by Hephaestus ' firestorm. The gods fight among themselves. The great gates of the city are opened to receive the fleeing Trojans, and Apollo leads Achilles away from the city by pretending to be a Trojan.
(22) When Apollo reveals himself to Achilles, the Trojans have retreated into the city, all except for Hector, who, having twice ignored the counsels of Polydamas, feels the shame of the rout and resolves to face Achilles, despite the pleas of his parents, Priam and Hecuba. When Achilles approaches, Hector 's will fails him, and he is chased around the city by Achilles. Finally, Athena tricks him into stopping, and he turns to face his opponent. After a brief duel, Achilles stabs Hector through the neck. Before dying, Hector reminds Achilles that he, too, is fated to die in the war. Achilles takes Hector 's body and dishonours it by dragging it behind his chariot.
(23) The ghost of Patroclus comes to Achilles in a dream, urging him to carry out his burial rites and to arrange for their bones to be entombed together. The Greeks hold a day of funeral games, and Achilles gives out the prizes.
(24) Dismayed by Achilles ' continued abuse of Hector 's body, Zeus decides that it must be returned to Priam. Led by Hermes, Priam takes a wagon out of Troy, across the plains, and into the Greek camp unnoticed. He clasps Achilles by the knees and begs for his son 's body. Achilles is moved to tears, and the two lament their losses in the war. After a meal, Priam carries Hector 's body back into Troy. Hector is buried, and the city mourns.
The many characters of the Iliad are catalogued; the latter half of Book II, the "Catalogue of Ships '', lists commanders and cohorts; battle scenes feature quickly slain minor characters.
Much debate has surrounded the nature of the relationship of Achilles and Patroclus, as to whether it can be described as a homoerotic one or not. Classical and Hellenistic Athenian scholars perceived it as pederastic, while others perceived it as a platonic warrior - bond.
In the literary Trojan War of the Iliad, the Olympian gods, goddesses, and minor deities fight among themselves and participate in human warfare, often by interfering with humans to counter other gods. Unlike their portrayals in Greek religion, Homer 's portrayal of gods suited his narrative purpose. The gods in traditional thought of fourth - century Athenians were not spoken of in terms familiar to us from Homer. The Classical - era historian Herodotus says that Homer and Hesiod, his contemporary, were the first writers to name and describe the gods ' appearance and character.
In Greek Gods Human Lives: What We Can Learn From Myths, Mary Lefkowitz discusses the relevance of divine action in the Iliad, attempting to answer the question of whether or not divine intervention is a discrete occurrence (for its own sake), or if such godly behaviors are mere human character metaphors. The intellectual interest of Classic - era authors, such as Thucydides and Plato, was limited to their utility as "a way of talking about human life rather than a description or a truth '', because, if the gods remain religious figures, rather than human metaphors, their "existence '' -- without the foundation of either dogma or a bible of faiths -- then allowed Greek culture the intellectual breadth and freedom to conjure gods fitting any religious function they required as a people. The religion had no founder and was not the creation of an inspired teacher which were popular origins of existing religions in the world. The individuals were free to believe what they wanted, as the Greek religion was created out of a consensus of the people. These beliefs coincide to the thoughts about the gods in polytheistic Greek religion. In the article "Greek Religion '' A.W.H. Adkins, agrees with this by saying, "The early Greeks personalized every aspect of their world, natural and cultural, and their experiences in it. The earth, the sea, the mountains, the rivers, custom - law (themis), and one 's share in society and its goods were all seen in personal as well as naturalistic terms. '' As a result of this thinking, each god or goddess in Polytheistic Greek religion is attributed to an aspect of the human world. For example, Poseidon is the god of the sea, Aphrodite is the goddess of beauty, Ares is the god of war, and so on and so forth for many other gods. This is how Greek culture was defined as many Athenians felt the presence of their gods through divine intervention in significant events in their lives. Oftentimes they found these events to be mysterious and inexplicable.
In The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, psychologist Julian Jaynes uses the Iliad as a major piece of evidence for his theory of Bicameralism, which posits that until about the time described in the Iliad, humans had a much different mentality than present day humans. He says that humans during that time were lacking what we today call consciousness. He suggests that humans heard and obeyed commands from what they identified as gods, until the change in human mentality that incorporated the motivating force into the conscious self. He points out that almost every action in the Iliad is directed, caused, or influenced by a god, and that earlier translations show an astonishing lack of words suggesting thought, planning, or introspection. Those that do appear, he argues, are misinterpretations made by translators imposing a modern mentality on the characters.
Some scholars believe that the gods may have intervened in the mortal world because of quarrels they may have had among each other. Homer interprets the world at this time by using the passion and emotion of the gods to be determining factors of what happens on the human level. An example of one of these relationships in the Iliad occurs between Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite. In the final book of the poem Homer writes, "He offended Athena and Hera -- both goddesses. '' Athena and Hera are envious of Aphrodite because of a beauty pageant on Mount Olympus in which Paris chose Aphrodite to be the most beautiful goddess over both Hera and Athena. Wolfgang Kullmann further goes on to say, "Hera 's and Athena 's disappointment over the victory of Aphrodite in the Judgement of Paris determines the whole conduct of both goddesses in The Iliad and is the cause of their hatred for Paris, the Judge, and his town Troy. '' Hera and Athena then continue to support the Achaean forces throughout the poem because Paris is part of the Trojans, while Aphrodite aids Paris and the Trojans. The emotions between the goddesses often translate to actions they take in the mortal world. For example, in Book 3 of The Iliad, Paris challenges any of the Achaeans to a single combat and Menelaus steps forward. Menelaus was dominating the battle and was on the verge of killing Paris. "Now he 'd have hauled him off and won undying glory but Aphrodite, Zeus 's daughter was quick to the mark, snapped the rawhide strap. '' Aphrodite intervened out of her own self - interest to save Paris from the wrath of Menelaus because Paris had helped her to win the beauty pageant. The partisanship of Aphrodite towards Paris induces constant intervention by all of the gods, especially to give motivational speeches to their respective proteges, while often appearing in the shape of a human being they are familiar with. This connection of emotions to actions is just one example out of many that occur throughout the poem.
Nostos (νόστος, "homecoming '') occurs seven times in the poem. Thematically, the concept of homecoming is much explored in Ancient Greek literature, especially in the post-war homeward fortunes experienced by the Atreidae (Agamemnon and Menelaus), and Odysseus (see the Odyssey). Thus, nostos is impossible without sacking Troy -- King Agamemnon 's motive for winning, at any cost.
Kleos (κλέος, "glory, fame '') is the concept of glory earned in heroic battle. For most of the Greek invaders of Troy, notably Odysseus, kleos is earned in a victorious nostos (homecoming). Yet, Achilles must choose only one of the two rewards, either nostos or kleos. In Book IX (IX. 410 -- 16), he poignantly tells Agamemnon 's envoys -- Odysseus, Phoenix, Ajax -- begging his reinstatement to battle about having to choose between two fates (διχθαδίας κήρας, 9.411).
The passage reads:
μήτηρ γάρ τέ μέ φησι θεὰ Θέτις ἀργυρόπεζα (410) διχθαδίας κῆρας φερέμεν θανάτοιο τέλος δέ. εἰ μέν κ ' αὖθι μένων Τρώων πόλιν ἀμφιμάχωμαι, ὤλετο μέν μοι νόστος, ἀτὰρ κλέος ἄφθιτον ἔσται εἰ δέ κεν οἴκαδ ' ἵκωμι φίλην ἐς πατρίδα γαῖαν, ὤλετό μοι κλέος ἐσθλόν, ἐπὶ δηρὸν δέ μοι αἰὼν (415) ἔσσεται, οὐδέ κέ μ ' ὦκα τέλος θανάτοιο κιχείη.
For my mother Thetis the goddess of silver feet tells me I carry two sorts of destiny toward the day of my death. Either, if I stay here and fight beside the city of the Trojans, my return home is gone, but my glory shall be everlasting; but if I return home to the beloved land of my fathers, the excellence of my glory is gone, but there will be a long life left for me, and my end in death will not come to me quickly.
In forgoing his nostos, he will earn the greater reward of kleos aphthiton (κλέος ἄφθιτον, "fame imperishable ''). In the poem, aphthiton (ἄφθιτον, "imperishable '') occurs five other times, each occurrence denotes an object: Agamemnon 's sceptre, the wheel of Hebe 's chariot, the house of Poseidon, the throne of Zeus, the house of Hephaestus. Translator Lattimore renders kleos aphthiton as forever immortal and as forever imperishable -- connoting Achilles 's mortality by underscoring his greater reward in returning to battle Troy.
Kleos is often given visible representation by the prizes won in battle. When Agamemnon takes Briseis from Achilles, he takes away a portion of the kleos he had earned.
Achilles ' shield, crafted by Hephaestus and given to him by his mother Thetis, bears an image of stars in the centre. The stars conjure profound images of the place of a single man, no matter how heroic, in the perspective of the entire cosmos.
Akin to kleos is timê (τιμή, "respect, honor ''), the concept denoting the respectability an honorable man accrues with accomplishment (cultural, political, martial), per his station in life. In Book I, the Greek troubles begin with King Agamemnon 's dishonorable, unkingly behavior -- first, by threatening the priest Chryses (1.11), then, by aggravating them in disrespecting Achilles, by confiscating Briseis from him (1.171). The warrior 's consequent rancor against the dishonorable king ruins the Greek military cause.
The poem 's initial word, μῆνιν (mēnin, accusative of μῆνις, mēnis, "wrath, rage, fury ''), establishes the Iliad 's principal theme: The "Wrath of Achilles ''. His personal rage and wounded soldier 's vanity propel the story: the Greeks ' faltering in battle, the slayings of Patroclus and Hector, and the fall of Troy. In Book I, the Wrath of Achilles first emerges in the Achilles - convoked meeting, between the Greek kings and the seer Calchas. King Agamemnon dishonours Chryses, the Trojan priest of Apollo, by refusing with a threat the restitution of his daughter, Chryseis -- despite the proffered ransom of "gifts beyond count ''. The insulted priest prays his god 's help, and a nine - day rain of divine plague arrows falls upon the Greeks. Moreover, in that meeting, Achilles accuses Agamemnon of being "greediest for gain of all men ''. To that, Agamemnon replies:
But here is my threat to you. Even as Phoibos Apollo is taking away my Chryseis. I shall convey her back in my own ship, with my own followers; but I shall take the fair - cheeked Briseis, your prize, I myself going to your shelter, that you may learn well how much greater I am than you, and another man may shrink back from likening himself to me and contending against me.
After that, only Athena stays Achilles 's wrath. He vows to never again obey orders from Agamemnon. Furious, Achilles cries to his mother, Thetis, who persuades Zeus 's divine intervention -- favouring the Trojans -- until Achilles 's rights are restored. Meanwhile, Hector leads the Trojans to almost pushing the Greeks back to the sea (Book XII). Later, Agamemnon contemplates defeat and retreat to Greece (Book XIV). Again, the Wrath of Achilles turns the war 's tide in seeking vengeance when Hector kills Patroclus. Aggrieved, Achilles tears his hair and dirties his face. Thetis comforts her mourning son, who tells her:
So it was here that the lord of men Agamemnon angered me. Still, we will let all this be a thing of the past, and for all our sorrow beat down by force the anger deeply within us. Now I shall go, to overtake that killer of a dear life, Hektor; then I will accept my own death, at whatever time Zeus wishes to bring it about, and the other immortals.
Accepting the prospect of death as fair price for avenging Patroclus, he returns to battle, dooming Hector and Troy, thrice chasing him ' round the Trojan walls, before slaying him, then dragging the corpse behind his chariot, back to camp.
Fate (κήρ, kēr, "fated death '') propels most of the events of the Iliad. Once set, gods and men abide it, neither truly able nor willing to contest it. How fate is set is unknown, but it is told by the Fates and by Zeus through sending omens to seers such as Calchas. Men and their gods continually speak of heroic acceptance and cowardly avoidance of one 's slated fate. Fate does not determine every action, incident, and occurrence, but it does determine the outcome of life -- before killing him, Hector calls Patroclus a fool for cowardly avoidance of his fate, by attempting his defeat; Patroclus retorts:
No, deadly destiny, with the son of Leto, has killed me, and of men it was Euphorbos; you are only my third slayer. And put away in your heart this other thing that I tell you. You yourself are not one who shall live long, but now already death and powerful destiny are standing beside you, to go down under the hands of Aiakos ' great son, Achilleus.
Here, Patroclus alludes to fated death by Hector 's hand, and Hector 's fated death by Achilles 's hand. Each accepts the outcome of his life, yet, no - one knows if the gods can alter fate. The first instance of this doubt occurs in Book XVI. Seeing Patroclus about to kill Sarpedon, his mortal son, Zeus says:
Ah me, that it is destined that the dearest of men, Sarpedon, must go down under the hands of Menoitios ' son Patroclus.
About his dilemma, Hera asks Zeus:
Majesty, son of Kronos, what sort of thing have you spoken? Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since doomed by his destiny, from ill - sounding death and release him? Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.
In deciding between losing a son or abiding fate, Zeus, King of the Gods, allows it. This motif recurs when he considers sparing Hector, whom he loves and respects. Again, Hera asks him:
Father of the shining bolt, dark misted, what is this you said? Do you wish to bring back a man who is mortal, one long since doomed by his destiny, from ill - sounding death and release him? Do it, then; but not all the rest of us gods shall approve you.
Again, Zeus appears capable of altering fate, but does not, deciding instead to abide set outcomes; yet, contrariwise, fate spares Aeneas, after Apollo convinces the over-matched Trojan to fight Achilles. Poseidon cautiously speaks:
But come, let us ourselves get him away from death, for fear the son of Kronos may be angered if now Achilleus kills this man. It is destined that he shall be the survivor, that the generation of Dardanos shall not die...
Divinely aided, Aeneas escapes the wrath of Achilles and survives the Trojan War. Whether or not the gods can alter fate, they do abide it, despite its countering their human allegiances; thus, the mysterious origin of fate is a power beyond the gods. Fate implies the primeval, tripartite division of the world that Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades effected in deposing their father, Cronus, for its dominion. Zeus took the Air and the Sky, Poseidon the Waters, and Hades the Underworld, the land of the dead -- yet they share dominion of the Earth. Despite the earthly powers of the Olympic gods, only the Three Fates set the destiny of Man.
The poem dates to the archaic period of Classical Antiquity. Scholarly consensus mostly places it in the 8th century BC, although some favour a 7th - century date. Herodotus placed Homer at approximately 400 years before his own time, which would place Homer at circa 850 BC.
The historical backdrop of the poem is the time of the Late Bronze Age collapse, in the early 12th century BC. Homer is thus separated from his subject matter by about 400 years, the period known as the Greek Dark Ages. Intense scholarly debate has surrounded the question of which portions of the poem preserve genuine traditions from the Mycenaean period. The Catalogue of Ships in particular has the striking feature that its geography does not portray Greece in the Iron Age, the time of Homer, but as it was before the Dorian invasion.
The title Ἰλιάς "Ilias '' (genitive Ἰλιάδος "Iliados '') is elliptic for ἡ ποίησις Ἰλιάς "he poíesis Iliás '', meaning "the Trojan poem ''. Ἰλιάς, "of Troy '', is the specifically feminine adjective form from Ἴλιον, "Troy ''; the masculine adjective form would be Ἰλιακός or Ἴλιος. It is used by Herodotus.
Venetus A, copied in the 10th century AD, is the oldest fully extant manuscript of the Iliad. The first edition of the "Iliad '', editio princeps, edited by Demetrius Chalcondyles and published by Bernardus Nerlius, and Demetrius Damilas in Florence in 1488 / 89.
In antiquity, the Greeks applied the Iliad and the Odyssey as the bases of pedagogy. Literature was central to the educational - cultural function of the itinerant rhapsode, who composed consistent epic poems from memory and improvisation, and disseminated them, via song and chant, in his travels and at the Panathenaic Festival of athletics, music, poetics, and sacrifice, celebrating Athena 's birthday.
Originally, Classical scholars treated the Iliad and the Odyssey as written poetry, and Homer as a writer. Yet, by the 1920s, Milman Parry (1902 -- 1935) had launched a movement claiming otherwise. His investigation of the oral Homeric style -- "stock epithets '' and "reiteration '' (words, phrases, stanzas) -- established that these formulae were artifacts of oral tradition easily applied to an hexametric line. A two - word stock epithet (e.g. "resourceful Odysseus '') reiteration may complement a character name by filling a half - line, thus, freeing the poet to compose a half - line of "original '' formulaic text to complete his meaning. In Yugoslavia, Parry and his assistant, Albert Lord (1912 -- 1991), studied the oral - formulaic composition of Serbian oral poetry, yielding the Parry / Lord thesis that established oral tradition studies, later developed by Eric Havelock, Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, and Gregory Nagy.
In The Singer of Tales (1960), Lord presents likenesses between the tragedies of the Greek Patroclus, in the Iliad, and of the Sumerian Enkidu, in the Epic of Gilgamesh, and claims to refute, with "careful analysis of the repetition of thematic patterns '', that the Patroclus storyline upsets Homer 's established compositional formulae of "wrath, bride - stealing, and rescue ''; thus, stock - phrase reiteration does not restrict his originality in fitting story to rhyme. Likewise, in The Arming Motif, Prof. James Armstrong reports that the poem 's formulae yield richer meaning because the "arming motif '' diction -- describing Achilles, Agamemnon, Paris, and Patroclus -- serves to "heighten the importance of... an impressive moment '', thus, "(reiteration) creates an atmosphere of smoothness '', wherein, Homer distinguishes Patroclus from Achilles, and foreshadows the former 's death with positive and negative turns of phrase.
In the Iliad, occasional syntactic inconsistency may be an oral tradition effect -- for example, Aphrodite is "laughter - loving '', despite being painfully wounded by Diomedes (Book V, 375); and the divine representations may mix Mycenaean and Greek Dark Age (c. 1150 -- 800 BC) mythologies, parallelling the hereditary basileis nobles (lower social rank rulers) with minor deities, such as Scamander, et al.
Despite Mycenae and Troy being maritime powers, the Iliad features no sea battles. So, the Trojan shipwright (of the ship that transported Helen to Troy), Phereclus, fights afoot, as an infantryman. The battle dress and armour of hero and soldier are well - described. They enter battle in chariots, launching javelins into the enemy formations, then dismount -- for hand - to - hand combat with yet more javelin throwing, rock throwing, and if necessary hand to hand sword and a shoulder - borne hoplon (shield) fighting. Ajax the Greater, son of Telamon, sports a large, rectangular shield (σάκος, sakos) with which he protects himself and Teucer, his brother:
Ajax 's cumbersome shield is more suitable for defence than for offence, while his cousin, Achilles, sports a large, rounded, octagonal shield that he successfully deploys along with his spear against the Trojans:
In describing infantry combat, Homer names the phalanx formation, but most scholars do not believe the historical Trojan War was so fought. In the Bronze Age, the chariot was the main battle transport - weapon (e.g. the Battle of Kadesh). The available evidence, from the Dendra armour and the Pylos Palace paintings, indicate the Mycenaeans used two - man chariots, with a long - spear - armed principal rider, unlike the three - man Hittite chariots with short - spear - armed riders, and unlike the arrow - armed Egyptian and Assyrian two - man chariots. Nestor spearheads his troops with chariots; he advises them:
Although Homer 's depictions are graphic, it can be seen in the very end that victory in war is a far more somber occasion, where all that is lost becomes apparent. On the other hand, the funeral games are lively, for the dead man 's life is celebrated. This overall depiction of war runs contrary to many other ancient Greek depictions, where war is an aspiration for greater glory.
While the Homeric poems (the Iliad in particular) were not necessarily revered scripture of the ancient Greeks, they were most certainly seen as guides that were important to the intellectual understanding of any educated Greek citizen. This is evidenced by the fact that in the late fifth century BC, "it was the sign of a man of standing to be able to recite the Iliad and Odyssey by heart. '' Moreover, it can be argued that the warfare shown in the Iliad, and the way in which it was depicted, had a profound and very traceable effect on Greek warfare in general. In particular, the effect of epic literature can be broken down into three categories: tactics, ideology, and the mindset of commanders. In order to discern these effects, it is necessary to take a look at a few examples from each of these categories.
Much of the detailed fighting in the Iliad is done by the heroes in an orderly, one - on - one fashion. Much like the Odyssey, there is even a set ritual which must be observed in each of these conflicts. For example, a major hero may encounter a lesser hero from the opposing side, in which case the minor hero is introduced, threats may be exchanged, and then the minor hero is slain. The victor often strips the body of its armor and military accoutrements. Here is an example of this ritual and this type of one - on - one combat in the Iliad:
There Telamonian Ajax struck down the son of Anthemion, Simoeisios in his stripling 's beauty, whom once his mother descending from Ida bore beside the banks of Simoeis when she had followed her father and mother to tend the sheepflocks. Therefore they called him Simoeisios; but he could not render again the care of his dear parents; he was short - lived, beaten down beneath the spear of high - hearted Ajax, who struck him as he first came forward beside the nipple of the right breast, and the bronze spearhead drove clean through the shoulder.
The biggest issue in reconciling the connection between the epic fighting of the Iliad and later Greek warfare is the phalanx, or hoplite, warfare seen in Greek history well after Homer 's Iliad. While there are discussions of soldiers arrayed in semblances of the phalanx throughout the Iliad, the focus of the poem on the heroic fighting, as mentioned above, would seem to contradict the tactics of the phalanx. However, the phalanx did have its heroic aspects. The masculine one - on - one fighting of epic is manifested in phalanx fighting on the emphasis of holding one 's position in formation. This replaces the singular heroic competition found in the Iliad.
One example of this is the Spartan tale of 300 picked men fighting against 300 picked Argives. In this battle of champions, only two men are left standing for the Argives and one for the Spartans. Othryades, the remaining Spartan, goes back to stand in his formation with mortal wounds while the remaining two Argives go back to Argos to report their victory. Thus, the Spartans claimed this as a victory, as their last man displayed the ultimate feat of bravery by maintaining his position in the phalanx.
In terms of the ideology of commanders in later Greek history, the Iliad has an interesting effect. The Iliad expresses a definite disdain for tactical trickery, when Hector says, before he challenges the great Ajax:
I know how to storm my way into the struggle of flying horses; I know how to tread the measures on the grim floor of the war god. Yet great as you are I would not strike you by stealth, watching
However, despite examples of disdain for this tactical trickery, there is reason to believe that the Iliad, as well as later Greek warfare, endorsed tactical genius on the part of their commanders. For example, there are multiple passages in the Iliad with commanders such as Agamemnon or Nestor discussing the arraying of troops so as to gain an advantage. Indeed, the Trojan War is won by a notorious example of Greek guile in the Trojan Horse. This is even later referred to by Homer in the Odyssey. The connection, in this case, between guileful tactics of the Greeks in the Iliad and those of the later Greeks is not a difficult one to find. Spartan commanders, often seen as the pinnacle of Greek military prowess, were known for their tactical trickery, and, for them, this was a feat to be desired in a commander. Indeed, this type of leadership was the standard advice of Greek tactical writers.
Ultimately, while Homeric (or epic) fighting is certainly not completely replicated in later Greek warfare, many of its ideals, tactics, and instruction are.
Hans van Wees argues that the period that the descriptions of warfare relate can be pinned down fairly specifically -- to the first half of the 7th century BC.
The Iliad was a standard work of great importance already in Classical Greece and remained so throughout the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods. It made its return to Italy and Western Europe beginning in the 15th century, primarily through translations into Latin and the vernacular languages. Prior to this reintroduction, a shortened Latin version of the poem, known as the Ilias Latina, was very widely studied and read as a basic school text. The West, however, had tended to view Homer as unreliable, as they believed they possessed much more down to earth and realistic eyewitness accounts of the Trojan War written by Dares and Dictys Cretensis who were supposedly present at the events.
These late antique forged accounts formed the basis of several eminently popular medieval chivalric romances, most notably those of Benoit de Sainte - Maure and Guido delle Colonne. These in turn spawned many others in various European languages, such as the first printed English book, the 1473 Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye. Other accounts read in the Middle Ages were antique Latin retellings such as the Excidium Troiae and works in the vernaculars such as the Icelandic Troy Saga. Even without Homer, the Trojan War story had remained central to Western European medieval literary culture and its sense of identity. Most nations and several royal houses traced their origins to heroes at the Trojan War. Britain was supposedly settled by the Trojan Brutus, for instance.
Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. Aeschylus ' trilogy, the Oresteia, comprising Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, and The Eumenides, follows the story of Agamemnon after his return from the war.
Homer also came to be of great influence in European culture with the resurgence of interest in Greek antiquity during the Renaissance, and it remains the first and most influential work of the Western canon.
William Shakespeare used the plot of the Iliad as source material for his play Troilus and Cressida, but focused on a medieval legend, the love story of Troilus, son of King Priam of Troy, and Cressida, daughter of the Trojan soothsayer Calchas. The play, often considered to be a comedy, reverses traditional views on events of the Trojan War and depicts Achilles as a coward, Ajax as a dull, unthinking mercenary, etc.
William Theed the elder made an impressive bronze statue of Thetis as she brought Achilles his new armor forged by Hephaesthus. It has been on display in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City since 2013.
Robert Browning 's poem Development discusses his childhood introduction to the matter of the Iliad and his delight in the epic, as well as contemporary debates about its authorship.
George Chapman published his translation of the Iliad, in installments, beginning in 1598, published in "fourteeners '', a long - line ballad metre that "has room for all of Homer 's figures of speech and plenty of new ones, as well as explanations in parentheses. At its best, as in Achilles ' rejection of the embassy in Iliad Nine; it has great rhetorical power ''. It quickly established itself as a classic in English poetry. In the preface to his own translation, Pope praises "the daring fiery spirit '' of Chapman 's rendering, which is "something like what one might imagine Homer, himself, would have writ before he arrived at years of discretion ''.
John Keats praised Chapman in the sonnet On First Looking into Chapman 's Homer (1816). John Ogilby 's mid-seventeenth - century translation is among the early annotated editions; Alexander Pope 's 1715 translation, in heroic couplet, is "The classic translation that was built on all the preceding versions '', and, like Chapman 's, it is a major poetic work in its own right. William Cowper 's Miltonic, blank verse 1791 edition is highly regarded for its greater fidelity to the Greek than either the Chapman or the Pope versions: "I have omitted nothing; I have invented nothing '', Cowper says in prefacing his translation.
In the lectures On Translating Homer (1861), Matthew Arnold addresses the matters of translation and interpretation in rendering the Iliad to English; commenting upon the versions contemporarily available in 1861, he identifies the four essential poetic qualities of Homer to which the translator must do justice:
(i) that he is eminently rapid; (ii) that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; (iii) that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally, (iv) that he is eminently noble.
After a discussion of the metres employed by previous translators, Arnold argues for a poetical dialect hexameter translation of the Iliad, like the original. "Laborious as this meter was, there were at least half a dozen attempts to translate the entire Iliad or Odyssey in hexameters; the last in 1945. Perhaps the most fluent of them was by J. Henry Dart (1862) in response to Arnold ''. In 1870, the American poet William Cullen Bryant published a blank verse version, that Van Wyck Brooks describes as "simple, faithful ''.
An 1898 translation by Samuel Butler was published by Longmans. Butler had read Classics at Cambridge University, graduating during 1859.
Since 1950, there have been several English translations. Richmond Lattimore 's version (1951) is "a free six - beat '' line - for - line rendering that explicitly eschews "poetical dialect '' for "the plain English of today ''. It is literal, unlike older verse renderings. Robert Fitzgerald 's version (Oxford World 's Classics, 1974) strives to situate the Iliad in the musical forms of English poetry. His forceful version is freer, with shorter lines that increase the sense of swiftness and energy. Robert Fagles (Penguin Classics, 1990) and Stanley Lombardo (1997) are bolder than Lattimore in adding dramatic significance to Homer 's conventional and formulaic language. Barry B. Powell 's translation (Oxford University Press, 2014) renders the Homeric Greek with a simplicity and dignity reminiscent of the original. Caroline Alexander published the first full - length English translation by a woman in 2016.
There are more than 2000 manuscripts of Homer. Some of the most notable manuscripts include:
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who wrote the song reflections of my life | Reflections of My Life - wikipedia
November 14, 1969 (1969 - 11 - 14)
The Marmalade
"Reflections of My Life '' was a 1969 / 1970 hit single for the Scottish band, Marmalade. It was written by their lead guitarist Junior Campbell, and singer Dean Ford (born Thomas McAleese). Released in late 1969, it was the band 's first release on Decca following an earlier spell at CBS.
The song went on to chart worldwide, reaching number three in the UK in 1969, number 10 in the US in 1970 on the Billboard Hot 100, and number seven on the Cash Box Top 100. Initial sales were significant in both countries, and the one million mark was reported in November 1971, when the group was presented with a gold disc for global sales. The track featured a lead vocal by Ford backed by vocal harmonies, and included a reverse tape guitar solo by Campbell.
"Reflections of My Life '' has produced sales of over two million units. In 1998 the writers were awarded a Special Citation of Achievement by the BMI for attaining radio broadcast performances in excess of one million in the US alone.
The recording took place over three days in October 1969 at Decca Studios 2 and 1 in West Hampstead London with band members Graham Knight on bass, Alan Whitehead on Drums, Pat Fairley on acoustic guitar, and Junior Campbell on keyboards and electric guitars. Dean Ford sang lead vocal and Junior Campbell and Graham Knight provided harmony vocals.
The added brass and strings were orchestrated by Keith Mansfield. "Reflections '' was released 14 November 1969 in the UK. The Decca staff recording engineers were Bill Price (record producer) and Peter Rynston.
The song structure is unusual in that the intro, verses and choruses all share the same 8 bar sequence: G major B minor E minor G7 C major B minor A minor D7 repeated throughout.
The guitar solo in Reflections of My Life, often referred to as "reverse '' guitar solo, was a sixteen "bar '' sequence (termed "measure '' in the USA) featured in the recording by Junior Campbell, the band 's lead guitarist.
The song is in the key of G major and the solo was recorded thus:
The first 4 bars were recorded as normal, with Campbell playing a long "G '' note, tied over from the last beat of bar 3, through bar 4, with slight feedback sustaining the long note.
The eight track tape was then turned over, and Campbell played against the reverse sound of the track, including his initial first four bars ensuring that he played another long "G '' near the same point which could be cross-faded against the original -- the tape was then turned over to normal setup, and he selected just 4 bars from the reverse recording which are bars 4 - 7 inclusive -- this was cross-faded with the original at bar 4 -- lhe then picked up from bar 8 through to bar 16 as normal, so in fact, only 4 bars are actually "reversed ''.
The solo was played on his left - hand Gibson Stereo ES355 using a Sound City stack.
The recording has resurfaced on various film soundtracks as diverse as the pre-election 1998 UK Government TV campaign in support of the Good Friday Agreement to Inside Deep Throat., the documentary movie covering the life of Linda Lovelace.
In October 2008, "Reflections of My Life '' was used as the closing end titles soundtrack to an episode of the American version of the British television drama, Life on Mars. In December 2009, the song was also used at the end of the pilot of the television programme, Men of a Certain Age. It was also a notable part of the soundtrack of the 2011 HBO film Cinema Verite starring James Gandolfini, Diane Lane, and Tim Robbins.
The original recording can be found on "Fine Cuts - The Best Of Marmalade '' Salvo MDCD26, 2 CD compilation, and on various earlier releases on Sanctuary Records compilations, including Marmalade: The Ultimate Collection, and Rainbow - The Decca Years. It is also available on Rhino Records ', Super Hits of the ' 70s: Have a Nice Day, Vol. 2.
Australian pop, rock group, Flake, had a top 40 hit on the Go - Set National Top 60 with their cover version in January 1971. Marmalade 's original version had peaked at No. 47.
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when did wolfenstein the old blood come out | Wolfenstein: the Old Blood - wikipedia
Wolfenstein: The Old Blood is an action - adventure first - person shooter video game developed by MachineGames and published by Bethesda Softworks. It was released on 5 May 2015 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One. The game is a stand - alone title in the Wolfenstein series and a prequel to 2014 's Wolfenstein: The New Order, set in an alternate history 1946. The single - player story follows war veteran William "B.J. '' Blazkowicz and his efforts to discover the locations of a Nazi compound. Development began in 2014, soon after the release of The New Order.
The game is played from a first - person perspective and its levels are navigated on foot. The story is arranged in chapters which players complete in order to progress, separated into two interconnected campaigns. The game features a variety of weapons, including pistols, shotguns, and explosives, most of which can be dual wielded. A cover system is also present; players lean in and out of cover instead of the more common system where players lock into cover.
Wolfenstein: The Old Blood was met with a generally positive reception upon release. Many critics praised the game 's intense firefights, intriguing locations, and the balance between stealth and action. Many critics disliked the game 's story, however, with most reviewers saying that it was the weakest part of the game and a step back compared to The New Order 's story, which was highly complimented.
Wolfenstein: The Old Blood changes little from the basic gameplay of The New Order. As such, it is an action - adventure shooter game played from a first - person perspective. To progress through the story, players take on enemies while navigating throughout levels. The game utilizes a health system in which players ' health is divided into separate sections, "health '' and "armor '', that regenerate. If an entire section is lost, players must find and use a health pack or body armor piece, to replenish the missing health.
Players use melee attacks, firearms and explosives to fight enemies, and may run, jump and occasionally swim to navigate through the locations. Melee attacks can be used to silently take down enemies without being detected. Alternatively, players can ambush enemies, which will result in an intense firefight between the two parties. Enemy types vary; standard Nazi human soldiers, which vary in strength, robot - like characters known as Supersoldaten (Super Soldiers), giant mechanical dogs known as Panzerhunds, zombie - like Nazi soldiers and civilians known as Shamblers, and vicious dogs are some of the enemies players will encounter.
In combat, a cover system can be used as assistance against enemies. Players have the ability to lean around, over, and under cover, which can be used as a tactical advantage during shootouts and stealth levels. Players have access to a weapon inventory, which allows the player to carry as many weapons as they find. With some of these weapons, players have the ability to dual wield, giving them an advantage over enemies by dealing twice as much damage. The Old Blood adds various weapons that were not featured in The New Order, such as a steel pipe. The steel pipe is one of the biggest additions to the game; it consists of two small steel pipes which can be connected together to make a larger pipe. Both pipe states can be used as a melee attacks (each with their own animations) and in specific circumstances. The two small pipes, called "Pipes '' in the weapon inventory, can be used to climb rock walls, and the large pipe, called "Pipe '' in the inventory, is used to break open weak environmental surfaces. The game gives players a wide variety of weapon options -- they can be found on the ground, retrieved from dead enemies, or removed from their stationary position and carried around. Weapon ammunition must be manually retrieved from the ground or from dead enemies.
As with The New Order, players can complete "Perks ''; each Perk has a task the player can complete. Perks encourage the player to change their play style on the fly; collecting "helmets '', getting silent kills, killing specific enemies a select number of times, getting a set number of kills with a specific weapon, and getting kills via explosives are some of the objectives. Once a Perk 's task is complete, the player unlocks a bonus, such as more overall health or armor, more ammunition for a certain weapon, or the ability to gain health after a silent takedown. Various collectibles are also scattered throughout the levels; concept art, character models and bios, notes, which tell small side stories of the game, and gold bars are some of the collectables.
Other modes in the game differing from the main chapters are Challenge Arenas and Nightmare Levels. Challenge Arenas unlock as the player progresses through the story and are accessed from the main menu. Being a basic arena battle mode, players fight waves of enemies to obtain a Bronze, Silver, or Gold metal. Nightmare Levels are accessed by finding and interacting with a bed that is hidden in each chapter. Gameplay is very similar to Wolfenstein 3D; the player moves through pixelated hallways, mostly equipped with just a pistol, fighting Nazi soldiers. The objective is to find a key that unlocks an elevator.
Wolfenstein: The Old Blood takes place in an alternate history 1946, just prior to the prologue of Wolfenstein: The New Order, with O.S.A. agents William "B.J. '' Blazkowicz (Brian Bloom) and Richard Wesley (taking up the codename Agent One) on a mission to once again infiltrate Castle Wolfenstein and obtain a top secret folder containing the location of SS - Oberst - Gruppenführer Wilhelm "Deathshead '' Strasse from the castle 's commander, Nazi archeologist and Standartenführerin Helga von Schabbs. Entering the castle disguised as Schutzstaffel officers, B.J. and Wesley fail to find the folder and are captured by Helga 's lieutenant, Sturmbannführer Rudi Jäger, a massive and sadistic dog trainer who feeds captured prisoners to his mechanically augmented canines. While Wesley is dragged away by Rudi for interrogation, B.J. succeeds in escaping the prison cells and fighting his way through the castle. B.J. eventually locates Wesley strapped to an electric chair used by the Nazis for torture. Before B.J. can rescue Wesley, Rudi activates the chair and electrocutes him. Jager then feeds Wesley 's dead body to his prized albino dog, Greta, and straps B.J. into the chair, shocking him as well. B.J. breaks free, injures Rudi, and kills Greta.
Escaping the castle, B.J. travels to the nearby village of Paderborn and meets up with the local German resistance leader, Ludwig Kessler, as well as Kessler 's assistant Annette, a young Jewish girl whom Kessler is sheltering from the Nazis. Kessler 's tavern is attacked by Nazi forces led by Rudi, wearing an experimental suit of power armor, whom B.J. defeats and kills. B.J., Kessler, and Annette flee via rowboat to the village of Wulfburg, where Helga is conducting an archeological excavation attempting to find a hidden underground vault containing occult knowledge previously possessed by King Otto I.
After meeting up with O.S.A. operative Pippa (codenamed Agent Two), B.J. disguises himself as a waiter and infiltrates the tavern where Helga is staying. Helga sees through B.J. 's disguise and captures him, but B.J. manages to escape during a massive earthquake caused by the Nazis opening the vault. The opening of the vault also releases a gas that causes anyone that dies within the vicinity of Wulfburg to reanimate as hostile, burning, zombies known as "shamblers ''. B.J. fights his way through the burning ruins of Wulfburg while fighting through the zombified Nazis and civilians who died in the earthquake. Agent Two is killed by a shambler, and B.J. has to kill her again when she reanimates as one. Attempting to return to Kessler and Annette, B.J. finds the two of them have gone into Wulfburg in an attempt to rescue Annette 's companion, Katrin.
B.J. finds Annette and Kessler separated by a collapsing bridge and stranded on opposite buildings, and the player is given the choice of traveling to Annette 's building or Kessler 's building. The person B.J. travels to will be rescued by him, while the other person will be killed by the shamblers. B.J. then travels to the Nazi excavation in pursuit of Helga, finally encountering her within King Otto 's vault. There he finds the source of the zombie - creating gas, an undead giant known as ' The Monstrosity, ' a creature created by King Otto 's alchemists as a weapon of war, then sealed away by the king after deciding it was an abomination. Helga is initially successful in using Old High German commands to control the monster, but when she attempts to order it to eat B.J., the monster fatally wounds her instead. B.J. fights and kills The Monstrosity, then finally obtains the secret folder from a dying Helga. B.J. is extracted from Wulfburg by his friend Fergus, and the two of them embark from RAF Kinloss to assassinate Deathshead and end the war, while B.J. thinks about the nature of monsters and hopes that he can finally rest after this one final mission.
The existence of Wolfenstein: The Old Blood was first acknowledged by Bethesda Softworks on 4 March 2015, through the release of an announcement trailer. Footage of the game was showcased at PAX East on 6 -- 7 March 2015. Though initially announced to only be available digitally, it was later confirmed that the game would also receive a physical retail release in Europe, Australia and New Zealand.
The development team initially planned to create a series of individual downloadable content (DLC) packs, but later decided to change this to a standalone expansion pack. When this decision was made, development on two of the DLC was already underway, and the team decided to merge the two DLC into one standalone game. During this process, some members of the team experimented with creating artwork of the game in the style of movie posters from the 1960s, resulting in the inspiration to make the game have a "B movie vibe '', though the game also took inspiration from films such as The Dirty Dozen (1967) and Where Eagles Dare (1968). The development team 's decision to make the game a prequel was to allow players to experience the game without playing previous titles in the series. It also allowed the team to explore concepts that were mentioned in The New Order. For the game, the team aimed to focus on gameplay. "It 's something you can just play through and immediately have fun '', said executive producer Jerk Gustafsson. The team also tried to create different route possibilities within the combat spaces, offering a balance between stealth and action sequences.
At one point during the game, Blazkowicz encounters a group of inebriated Nazis singing in a tavern. Though the motion capture was performed by actors, the audio director requested for the voices to be performed by members of the development team; to achieve an accurate performance, members of the team learned some German, and became inebriated prior to recording.
The team initially planned to reuse assets from The New Order in The Old Blood, but ultimately altered most assets in some way. Due to the team 's focus on eighth generation consoles and PC, they were able to achieve some rendering updates, as well as the creation of larger and more detailed environments in the game. The game also intentionally included several references to Return to Castle Wolfenstein.
Wolfenstein: The Old Blood makes use of an original score, composed by musician Mick Gordon, who also composed the soundtrack for The New Order. To create music with a style reflecting the game, Gordon performed with a string quartet, spending time manipulating a broken mandolin and cello. He also placed some items inside a piano, to create a unique sound.
Wolfenstein: The Old Blood received generally positive reviews. Metacritic calculated an average score of 76 out of 100 based on 54 reviews for the PlayStation 4 version and 29 reviews for the Windows version, and 75 out of 100 based on 23 reviews for the Xbox One version. GameRankings assigned it an average review score of 79 % based on 18 reviews for the Xbox One version, 78 % based on 13 reviews for the Windows version, and 77 % based on 37 reviews for the PlayStation 4 version.
Destructoid 's Chris Carter praised the game for its brevity, saying that both episodes "do n't waste as much time as some missions in (The New Order). Both Castle Wolfenstein and Wulfburg are expansive enough to justify an entire game. '' He also said that "the development team does a good job of managing the pacing between stealth and action ''. Carter said that Helga Von Schabbs is a character that kept him "engaged '' throughout the game, that he "slightly (preferred) '' The Old Blood over The New Order, and that choosing to play the game is a "no - brainer ''.
Polygon 's Justin McElroy complimented the game 's action gameplay, stating that he liked the choice of weapons, the gunplay, and the mix of stealth and action, while being critical of the game for not having the components that made The New Order great. "The Old Blood suggests B - movie camp '', McElroy said, "there are barely any moments where the action slows down enough to develop the type of characters and motivation that charged the big combat set pieces in (The) New Order ''.
Marty Sliva of IGN complimented the game 's stealth puzzles saying "These scenes turn down the volume, but keep the tension high, as many enemies are able to tear you apart extremely quickly if you get caught. '' Sliva also "appreciated '' the easter eggs referencing other Bethesda games, liked the firefights, which he called "satisfying '', and praised the environment, which he said was "interesting ''. Sliva did however dislike the presence of zombies, the "weak '' story, and having to manually pick up items. Sliva wrapped up his review by saying "Wolfenstein: The Old Blood doubles down on blood and guts, but in doing so sacrifices some of its heart. ''
PC Gamer 's Chris Thursten gave the game a 70 %, saying "what was novel a year ago is n't necessarily novel now ''. He was mostly positive of the game 's action gunplay, calling it "excellent ''. He said the Challenge arenas are also a good addition that he 'd like to see in future Wolfenstein games. Most negative comments were related to The New Order, in Thursten 's opinion, being superior to The Old Blood. Thursten said "Nothing in The Old Blood exceeds what was achieved in The New Order, and there are moments when the two are uncannily similar ''.
GamesRadar 's Andi Hamilton praised the game 's shooting gameplay, calling it "satisfying '', the "strong '' pacing, the visuals, particularly the set pieces, which he called "beautiful '', and the fact it 's a standalone game, Hamilton said it "works ''. Hamilton did however call the game 's story "weak '' compared to The New Order, and said certain stealth sections were "rough ''. Hamilton summarized his review by saying "Wolfenstein: The Old Blood is another sterling effort from MachineGames, fast proving to be real players in the FPS genre. This add - on clearly has smaller scope than was found in The New Order, keeping things much more ' down to Earth ', but the core shooting experience that makes the reborn Wolfenstein such a pleasure to play remains perfectly intact. If you like shooting zombies and Nazis with extravagantly powerful weapons (and lets be honest here, who does n't?) this is well worth checking out. ''
Matt Bertz of Game Informer said: "Had The Old Blood been injected with more new blood, maybe it would have matched or surpassed the quality of The New Order. But by over-relying on nostalgia to drive the experience, it 's well - crafted fan service rather than an attempt to push the series in new directions. For a standalone expansion that 's not an unforgivable offense, but we 're excited to see what Machine Games can do with the series now that this genealogical exercise is flushed out of its system. ''
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where were they going at the end of lord of the rings | The Lord of the Rings: the Fellowship of the Ring - wikipedia
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring is a 2001 epic adventure fantasy film directed by Peter Jackson based on the first volume of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings (1954 -- 1955). It is the first installment in The Lord of the Rings series, and was followed by The Two Towers (2002) and The Return of the King (2003), based on the second and third volumes of The Lord of the Rings.
Set in Middle - earth, the story tells of the Dark Lord Sauron (Sala Baker), who is seeking the One Ring. The Ring has found its way to the young hobbit Frodo Baggins (Elijah Wood). The fate of Middle - earth hangs in the balance as Frodo and eight companions who form the Fellowship of the Ring begin their journey to Mount Doom in the land of Mordor, the only place where the Ring can be destroyed.
Released on 10 December 2001, the film was highly acclaimed by critics and fans alike who considered it to be a landmark in film - making and an achievement in the fantasy film genre. It has continued to be featured on critic lists of the greatest fantasy films ever made, as of 2017. The film earned over $871 million worldwide and became the second highest - grossing film of 2001 in the US and worldwide (behind Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone).
It was nominated for thirteen Oscars at the 74th Academy Awards ceremony, including Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Supporting Actor for McKellen, winning four for Best Cinematography, Best Makeup, Best Original Score, and Best Visual Effects. It also won four British Academy Film Awards, including Best Film and Best Director BAFTA awards. The Special Extended Edition was released to DVD on 12 November 2002 and to Blu - ray Disc on 28 June 2011. In 2007, The Fellowship of the Ring was voted No. 50 on the American Film Institute 's list of 100 greatest American films. The AFI also voted it the second greatest fantasy film of all time during their 10 Top 10 special. The film ranks # 24 on Empire 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time.
In the Second Age of Middle - earth, the lords of Elves, Dwarves, and Men are given Rings of Power. Unbeknownst to them, the Dark Lord Sauron forges the One Ring in Mount Doom to conquer them all, abandoning a great part of his power to it in order to dominate, through it, at a distance, the other Rings and conquer Middle - earth. A final coalition of men and elves battle Sauron 's forces in Mordor, where Prince Isildur of Gondor cuts the One Ring off of Sauron 's finger, thereby destroying his physical form. Unfortunately, Isildur decides to take care of the Ring himself, but the evil influence of the Ring corrupts Isildur, preventing him from destroying it in Mount Doom. Isildur is later killed by Orcs, and the Ring is lost for 2,500 years, found and owned by Gollum for five centuries. The Ring is then found by a Hobbit named Bilbo Baggins.
Sixty years later, Bilbo celebrates his 111th birthday in the Shire, reuniting with his old friend, Gandalf the Grey. Bilbo reveals that he intends on leaving the Shire for one last adventure, and leaves his inheritance to his nephew, Frodo, including the Ring. Although Bilbo has begun to become corrupted by the Ring and tries to take it for himself, Gandalf intervenes. Telling Frodo to keep the Ring hidden, he investigates it, and discovers its true identity, returning to warn Frodo. Learning that Gollum was tortured by Orcs, and told them that Bilbo took the Ring, Gandalf instructs Frodo to leave the Shire, accompanied by his gardener Samwise Gamgee. Gandalf rides to Isengard, meeting fellow wizard Saruman the White, but learns that he has joined forces with Sauron, who has unleashed the Ringwraiths to find Frodo. After a brief battle, Saruman imprisons Gandalf. Frodo and Sam are joined by fellow Hobbits, Merry and Pippin, and they evade the Ringwraiths, arriving in Bree, where they are meant to meet Gandalf, but are instead aided by a ranger named Strider, a friend of Gandalf 's, who escorts them to Rivendell.
The Hobbits are ambushed by the Ringwraiths, one stabbing Frodo with a cursed Morgul blade. Arwen, an elf and Strider 's lover, comes to Frodo 's aid, and successfully takes him to Rivendell, where he is healed, meeting Gandalf, who escaped Saruman on the back of a giant Eagle. Arwen 's father, Lord Elrond, holds a council, deciding that the Ring must be destroyed in Mount Doom. While the members argue, Frodo volunteers to take the Ring, accompanied by Gandalf, Sam, Merry, Pippin, elf Legolas, dwarf Gimli, Boromir of Gondor, and Strider, who is revealed to be Aragorn, Isildur 's heir and rightful King of Gondor. Bilbo gives Frodo his sword, Sting. The Fellowship of the Ring sets off, but Saruman 's magic forces them to travel through the Mines of Moria, much to Gandalf 's chagrin.
The Fellowship find out that the dwarves within Moria have been slain, and they are attacked by Orcs and a cave troll. They defeat them, but are confronted by an ancient demon called a Balrog. Gandalf casts the Balrog into a vast chasm, but its fiery whip drags Gandalf down into the darkness with it. The rest of the Fellowship, now in command by Aragorn, reach Lothlórien, home to elves Galadriel and Celeborn. Galadriel privately informs Frodo that only he can complete the quest, and one of his friends will try to take the Ring. Meanwhile, Saruman creates an army of Uruk - hai to track down and kill the Fellowship.
The Fellowship leave Lothlórien by river to Parth Galen. Frodo wanders off, and is confronted by Boromir, who tries to take the Ring in desperation. Afraid of the Ring corrupting his friends, Frodo decides to travel to Mordor alone. The other members fight off the Uruk - hai, but Merry and Pippin are taken captive, and Boromir is mortally wounded by the Uruk chieftain. After slaying the chieftain, Aragorn watches Boromir die peacefully. Sam follows Frodo, accompanying him to keep his promise to Gandalf to protect Frodo, while Aragorn, Legolas, and Gimli go to rescue Merry and Pippin.
Before filming began on 11 October 1999, the principal actors trained for six weeks in sword fighting (with Bob Anderson), riding and boating. Jackson hoped such activities would allow the cast to bond so chemistry would be evident on screen as well as getting them used to life in Wellington. They were also trained to pronounce Tolkien 's verses properly. After the shoot, the nine cast members playing the Fellowship got a tattoo of the English word "nine '' written in Tengwar, with the exception of John Rhys - Davies, whose stunt double got the tattoo instead. The film is noted for having an ensemble cast, and some of the cast and their respective characters include:
Jackson, Walsh and Boyens made numerous changes to the story, for purposes of pacing and character development. Jackson said his main desire was to make a film focused primarily on Frodo and the Ring, the "backbone '' of the story. The prologue condenses Tolkien 's backstory, in which The Last Alliance 's seven - year siege of the Barad - dûr is a single battle, where Sauron is shown to explode, though Tolkien only said his spirit flees.
Events at the beginning of the film are condensed or omitted altogether. In the book the time between Gandalf leaving the Ring to Frodo and returning to reveal its inscription, which is 17 years, is compressed for timing reasons. Frodo also spends a few months preparing to move to Buckland, on the eastern border of the Shire. This move is omitted, and associated events, including the involvement of Merry and Pippin, are changed and combined with him setting out for Bree. Characters such as Tom Bombadil and the incidents in the Old Forest and the Barrow Downs are left out to simplify the plot and increase the threat of the Ringwraiths. Such sequences are left out to make time to introduce Saruman, who in the book does n't appear until Gandalf 's account at the Council of Elrond. While some characters are left out, some are referenced such as Tom, Bert, and William to show how The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings series intertwine. Saruman 's role is enhanced: he is to blame for the blizzard on Caradhras, a role taken from Sauron and / or Caradhras itself in the book. Gandalf 's capture by Saruman is also expanded with a fight sequence.
The role of Barliman Butterbur at the Prancing Pony is largely removed for time and dramatic flow. In the film Pippin is seen to identify Frodo explicitly with the phrase "why there 's Baggins over there '' whereas in the book Pippin is only telling the tale of Bilbo 's disappearance when Strider tells Frodo to create a distraction, which he does by singing a song.
The events at Weathertop were also altered. The location of the fight against the Ringwraiths was changed to the ruins on top of the hill rather than a campsite at its base. When Frodo was stabbed in the book, the party spent two weeks travelling to Rivendell, but in the film this is shortened to less than a week, with Frodo 's condition worsening at a commensurately greater rate. Arwen was given a greater role in the film, accompanying Frodo all the way to Rivendell, while in the book Frodo faced the Ringwraiths alone at the Ford of Bruinen. The character of Glorfindel was omitted entirely and his scenes were also given to Arwen. She was tacitly credited with the river rising against the Ringwraiths, which was the work of her father Elrond with aid from Gandalf in the book.
A significant new addition is Aragorn 's self - doubt, which causes him to hesitate to claim the kingship of Gondor. This element is not present in the book, where Aragorn intends to claim the throne at an appropriate time. In the book Narsil is reforged immediately when he joins the Fellowship, but this event is held over until Return of the King in film to symbolically coincide with his acceptance of his title. These elements were added because Peter Jackson believed that each character should be forced to grow or change over the course of the story.
Elrond 's character gained an adversarial edge; he expresses doubts in the strength of Men to resist Sauron 's evil after Isildur 's failure to destroy the ring as depicted in the prologue. Jackson also shortens the Council of Elrond by spreading its exposition into earlier parts of the film. Elrond 's counsellor, Erestor -- who suggested the Ring be given to Tom Bombadil -- was completely absent from this scene. Gimli 's father, Glóin, was also deemed unnecessary. In addition, the movie makes it seem by chance that the Fellowship is made of nine companions, whereas in the book Elrond suggests there be nine in the fellowship in response to the nine Nazgûl.
The tone of the Moria sequence was altered. In the book, following the defeat on the Caradhras road, Gandalf advocates the Moria road against the resistance of the rest of the Fellowship (save Gimli), suggesting "there is a hope that Moria is still free... there is even a chance that Dwarves are there, '' though no one seems to think this likely. Frodo proposes they take a company vote, but the discovery of Wargs on their trail forces them to accept Gandalf 's proposal. They only realize the Dwarves are all dead once they reach Balin 's tomb. The filmmakers chose instead for Gandalf to resist the Moria plan as a foreshadowing device. Gandalf says to Gimli he would prefer not to enter Moria, and Saruman is shown to be aware of Gandalf 's hesitance, revealing an illustration of the Balrog in one of his books. The corpses of the dwarves are instantly shown as the Fellowship enter Moria. One detail that many critics commented upon is the fact that, in the novel, Pippin tosses a mere pebble into the well in Moria ("They then hear what sounds like a hammer tapping in the distance ''), whereas in the film, he knocks an entire skeleton in ("Next, the skeleton... falls down the well, also dragging down a chain and bucket. The noise is incredible. '')
In terms of dramatic structure, the book simply ends; there is no climax, because Tolkien wrote the "trilogy '' as a single story published in three volumes. Jackson 's version incorporates the first chapter of ' "The Two Towers '' and makes its events, told in real time instead of flashback, simultaneous with the Breaking of the Fellowship. This finale is played as a climactic battle, into which he introduces the Uruk - hai referred to as Lurtz in the script. In the book, Boromir is unable to tell Aragorn which hobbits were kidnapped by the orcs before he dies. From there, Aragorn deduces Frodo 's intentions when he notices that a boat is missing and Sam 's pack is gone. In the film, Aragorn and Frodo have a scene together in which Frodo 's intentions are explicitly stated.
Peter Jackson began working with Christian Rivers to storyboard the series in August 1997, as well as getting Richard Taylor and Weta Workshop to begin creating his interpretation of Middle - earth. Jackson told them to make Middle - earth as plausible and believable as possible, to think of Middle - earth in a historical manner.
In November, Alan Lee and John Howe became the film trilogy 's primary conceptual designers, having had previous experience as illustrators for the book and various other tie - ins. Lee worked for the Art Department creating places such as Rivendell, Isengard, Moria and Lothlórien, giving Art Nouveau and geometry influences to the Elves and Dwarves respectively. Though Howe contributed with Bag End and the Argonath, he focused working on armour having studied it all his life. Weta and the Art Department continued to design, with Grant Major turning the Art Department 's designs into architecture, and Dan Hennah scouting locations. On 1 April 1999, Ngila Dickson joined the crew as costume designer. She and 40 seamstresses would create 19,000 costumes, 40 per version for the actor and their doubles, ageing and wearing them out for impression of age.
Filming took place in various locations across New Zealand. A list of filming locations, sorted by appearance order in the film:
The Fellowship of the Ring makes extensive use of digital, practical and make - up special effects throughout. One noticeable illusion that appears in almost every scene involves setting a proper scale so that the characters are all the correct height. Elijah Wood, who plays Frodo, is 5 ft 6 in (1.68 m) tall in real life, but the character of Frodo Baggins is barely four feet in height. Many different tricks were used to depict the hobbits (and Gimli the Dwarf) as being of diminutive stature. (In a happy coincidence, John - Rhys Davies -- who played Gimli -- is as tall compared to the Hobbit actors as his character needed to be compared to theirs, so he did not need to be filmed separately as a third variation of height, and is quite taller than Orlando Bloom, who played Legolas.) Large - and small - scale doubles were used in certain scenes, while entire duplicates of certain sets (including Bag End in Hobbiton) were built at two different scales, so that the characters would appear to be the appropriate size. At one point in the film, Frodo runs along a corridor in Bag End, followed by Gandalf. Elijah Wood and Ian McKellen were filmed in separate versions of the same corridor, built at two different scales, and a fast camera pan conceals the edit between the two. Forced perspective was also employed, so that it would look as though the short Hobbits were interacting with taller Men and Elves. Even the simple use of kneeling down, to the filmmakers ' surprise, turned out to be an effective method in creating the illusion.
For the battle between the Last Alliance and Sauron 's forces that begins the film, an elaborate CGI animation system, called MASSIVE, was developed by Stephen Regelous; it allowed thousands of individual animated "characters '' in the program to act independently. This helped give the illusion of realism to the battle sequences. The "Making of '' Lord of the Rings DVD reports some interesting initial problems: in the first execution of a battle between groups of characters, the wrong groups attacked each other. In another early demo, some of the warriors at the edge of the field could be seen running away. They were initially moving in the wrong direction, and had been programmed to keep running until they encountered an enemy.
The digital creatures were important due to Jackson 's requirement of biological plausibility. Their surface was scanned from large maquettes before numerous digital details of their skeletons and muscles were added. In the case of the Balrog, Gray Horsfield created a system that copied recorded imagery of fire.
The musical score for The Lord of the Rings films was composed by Howard Shore. It was performed by the 100 - strong New Zealand Symphony Orchestra, the London Philharmonic Orchestra, the London Voices, The London Oratory School Schola, and the Maori Samoan Choir, and featured several vocal soloists. Shore wrote almost four hours of finalized music for the film (of which just over three hours are used as underscore), featuring a number of non-orchestral instruments, and a large number (49 - 62) of leitmotives.
Two original songs, "Aníron '' and the end title theme "May It Be '', were composed and sung by Enya, who allowed her label, Reprise Records, to release the soundtrack to this and its two sequels. In addition to these songs, Shore composed "In Dreams '', which was sung by Edward Ross of the London Oratory School Schola.
A special behind - the - scenes trailer was released in 2000. Two teasers were shown before Spy Kids and Pearl Harbor (film). The final trailer was with the television premiere of Angel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, and on the DVD and VHS of Rush Hour 2.
The Fellowship of the Ring was released on VHS and DVD in August 2002.
In November 2002, an extended edition was released on VHS and DVD, with 30 minutes of new material, added special effects and music, plus 20 minutes of fan - club credits, totalling to 228 minutes. The DVD set included four commentaries and over three hours of supplementary material.
In August 2006, a limited edition of The Fellowship of the Ring was released on DVD. The set included both the film 's theatrical and extended editions on a double - sided disc along with all - new bonus material.
The theatrical Blu - ray version of The Lord of the Rings was released in the United States in April 2010. There were two separate sets: one with digital copies and one without. The individual Blu - ray disc of The Fellowship of the Ring was released in September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, except there was no digital copy.
The extended Blu - ray editions were released in the US in June 2011. This version has a runtime of 238 minutes (the extended editions include the names of all fan club members at the time of their release; the additional 9 minutes in the Blu - ray version are because of expanded member rolls, not any additional story material).
The Fellowship of the Ring was released on 19 December 2001 in 3,359 cinemas where it grossed $47.2 million on its opening weekend. The world premiere was held at the Odeon Leicester Square in London. It went on to make $314.7 million in North America and $555.9 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $870.7 million. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 54 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.
The Fellowship of the Ring was acclaimed by film critics and was one of 2001 's best reviewed films. The film holds a 91 % approval rating on aggregate review site Rotten Tomatoes based on 225 reviews and an average score of 8.2 / 10. The site 's main consensus reads "Full of eye - popping special effects, and featuring a pitch - perfect cast, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring brings J.R.R. Tolkien 's classic to vivid life ''. The film holds a score of 92 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 34 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars and stating that while it is not "a true visualization of Tolkien 's Middle - earth '', it is "a work for, and of, our times. It will be embraced, I suspect, by many Tolkien fans and take on aspects of a cult. It is a candidate for many Oscars. It is an awesome production in its daring and breadth, and there are small touches that are just right ''. USA Today also gave the film three out of four stars and wrote, "this movie version of a beloved book should please devotees as well as the uninitiated ''. In his review for The New York Times, Elvis Mitchell wrote, "The playful spookiness of Mr. Jackson 's direction provides a lively, light touch, a gesture that does n't normally come to mind when Tolkien 's name is mentioned ''. Entertainment Weekly magazine gave the film an "A '' rating and Lisa Schwarzbaum wrote, "The cast take to their roles with becoming modesty, certainly, but Jackson also makes it easy for them: His Fellowship flows, never lingering for the sake of admiring its own beauty... Every detail of which engrossed me. I may have never turned a page of Tolkien, but I know enchantment when I see it ''.
In her review for The Washington Post, Rita Kempley praised the cast, in particular, "Mortensen, as Strider, is a revelation, not to mention downright gorgeous. And McKellen, carrying the burden of thousands of years ' worth of the fight against evil, is positively Merlinesque ''. Time magazine 's Richard Corliss praised Jackson 's work: "His movie achieves what the best fairy tales do: the creation of an alternate world, plausible and persuasive, where the young -- and not only the young -- can lose themselves. And perhaps, in identifying with the little Hobbit that could, find their better selves ''. In his review for The Village Voice, J. Hoberman wrote, "Peter Jackson 's adaptation is certainly successful on its own terms ''. Rolling Stone magazine 's Peter Travers wrote, "It 's emotion that makes Fellowship stick hard in the memory... Jackson deserves to revel in his success. He 's made a three - hour film that leaves you wanting more ''. However, in his review for The Guardian, Peter Bradshaw wrote, "there is a strange paucity of plot complication, an absence of anything unfolding, all the more disconcerting because of the clotted and indigestible mythic back story that we have to wade through before anything happens at all ''.
In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the film an average grade of "A − '' on an A+ to F scale.
In 2002, the film won four Academy Awards from thirteen nominations. The winning categories were for Best Cinematography, Best Visual Effects, Best Makeup, and Best Original Score. It was also nominated for Best Actor in a Supporting Role (Ian McKellen), Best Art Direction, Best Director, Best Film Editing, Best Original Song (Enya, Nicky Ryan and Roma Ryan for "May It Be ''), Best Picture, Best Sound (Christopher Boyes, Michael Semanick, Gethin Creagh and Hammond Peek), Best Costume Design and Best Adapted Screenplay.
As of January 2014, it is the 31st highest - grossing film worldwide, with US $871,530,324 in worldwide theatrical box office receipts.
The film won the 2002 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. It also won Empire readers ' Best Film award, as well as five BAFTAs, including Best Film, the David Lean Award for Best Direction, the Audience Award (voted for by the public), Best Special Effects, and Best Make - up. The film was nominated for an MTV Movie Award for Best Fight between Gandalf and Saruman.
In June 2008, AFI revealed its "10 Top 10 '' -- the ten best films in ten "classic '' American film genres -- after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. The Fellowship of the Ring was acknowledged as the second best film in the fantasy genre. The film was also listed as the 50th best film in the 2007 list AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition).
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what's the difference between amish and regular potato salad | Potato salad - wikipedia
Potato salad is a dish made from boiled potatoes and a variety of other ingredients. It is generally considered a side dish, as it usually accompanies the main course. Potato salad is widely believed to have originated in Germany from where is spread widely throughout Europe and later to European colonies. American potato salad most likely originated from recipes brought to the U.S. by way of German and European settlers during the nineteenth century. American - style potato salad is served cold or at room temperature. Ingredients often include mayonnaise or a mayonnaise - like substitute (such as yogurt or sour cream), herbs, and vegetables (such as onion and celery.) German - style potato salad is generally served warm and is typically made with vinegar or olive oil, herbs and bacon.
German potato salad, or "Kartoffelsalat '' is served warm or cold and prepared with red potatoes, bacon, vinegar, salt, pepper, vegetable or olive oil, mustard, vegetable or beef broth, and onions. This style of potato salad is usually found in Southern Germany. Potato salad from northern Germany is generally made with mayonnaise and quite similar to its U.S. counterpart.
American potato salad most likely originated from recipes brought to the U.S. by way of German and European settlers during the nineteenth century. Print evidence confirms that recipes for potato salad were often included in 19th century American cooking texts. Basic ingredients for traditional American potato salad include cubed, boiled potatoes (typically russet potatoes), mayonnaise or a mayonnaise - like substitute such as yogurt or sour cream, yellow mustard and / or mustard powder (dry mustard), black pepper, salt, celery seed, sugar, dry dill, pickles (pickled cucumber), chives, red or white onion, green or red bell pepper, celery and sometimes chopped hard - boiled egg whites. Vegetable ingredients (not including the potatoes) are diced or chopped and incorporated raw. The salad is often topped with paprika and chives, and generally served cold or at room temperature.
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who has the power to nominate ambassadors public ministers and cabinet members | Appointments Clause - wikipedia
The Appointments Clause is part of Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the United States Constitution, which empowers the President of the United States to nominate, and with the advice and consent (confirmation) of the United States Senate, appoint public officials. Although the Senate must confirm certain "principal '' officers (including ambassadors, Cabinet secretaries, federal judges, and United States Attorneys), Congress may by law delegate the Senate 's advice and consent role when it comes to "inferior '' officers (to the President alone, or the courts of law, or the heads of departments).
... and (the President) shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.
The Appointments Clause confers plenary power to the President to nominate various officials. It also confers plenary power to the Senate to reject or confirm a nominee, through its advice and consent provision. As with other separation of powers provisions in the Constitution, the wording here both ensures accountability and preempts tyranny. This separation of powers between the President and Senate is also present in the (immediately preceding) Treaty Clause of the Constitution, which gives international treaty - making power to the President, but attaches to it the proviso of the Senate 's advice and consent.
Several framers of the U.S. Constitution explained that the required role of the Senate is to advise the President after the nomination has been made by the President. Roger Sherman believed that advice before nomination could still be helpful. Likewise, President George Washington took the position that pre-nomination advice was allowable but not mandatory. The notion that pre-nomination advice is optional has developed into the unification of the "advice '' portion of the power with the "consent '' portion, although several Presidents have consulted informally with Senators over nominations and treaties.
The actual motion adopted by the Senate when exercising the power is "to advise and consent '', which shows how initial advice on nominations and treaties is not a formal power exercised by the Senate. On Nov. 21, 2013, the Senate changed its rules regarding the number of votes needed to end debate on a presidential nomination and bring it to a vote. Before that date, a minority of senators could engage in a filibuster and block a vote on a nomination unless three - fifths of senators voted to end debate. Under the new rules, a simple majority is all that is needed to end debate. The only exception was for nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States, which could still be blocked from going to a vote by a filibuster, until the Senate rules were again changed on April 6th, 2017 during Senate debate on the nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the Supreme Court.
Congress itself may not exercise the appointment power; its functions are limited to the Senate 's role in advice and consent, and to deciding whether to vest a direct appointment power over a given office in the President, a Head of Department, or the Courts of Law. The Framers of the U.S. Constitution were particularly concerned that Congress might seek to exercise the appointment power and fill offices with their supporters, to the derogation of the President 's control over the executive branch. The Appointments Clause thus functions as a restraint on Congress and as an important structural element in the separation of powers. Attempts by Congress to circumvent the Appointments Clause, either by making appointments directly, or through devices such as "unilaterally appointing an incumbent to a new and distinct office '' under the guise of legislating new duties for an existing office, have been rebuffed by the courts.
The Appointments Clause divides constitutional officers into two classes: principal officers, who must be appointed through the advice and consent mechanism; and inferior officers, who may be appointed through advice and consent of the Senate, but whose appointment Congress may place instead in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. An earlier version of the Appointments Clause would have given the President a broader power to "appoint officers in all cases not otherwise provided for by this Constitution, '' but some delegates of the Philadelphia Constitutional Convention worried that this language would permit the President to create offices as well as to fill them, a classic case of institutional corruption. The requirement that the President can appoint inferior officers only when Congress has "by Law vest (ed) '' that power in the President sought to preclude that possibility.
One chief questions recurs under the "by Law '' language: Who are "inferior Officers, '' not subject to the requirement of advice and consent; and (2) what constitutes a "Department, '' when Congress seeks to place the appointment power away from the President? As an initial matter, most government employees are not officers and thus are not subject to the Appointments Clause. In Buckley v. Valeo, the Supreme Court held that only those appointees "exercising significant authority pursuant to the laws of the United States '' are "Officers of the United States, '' and hence it is only those who exercise such "significant authority '' who must be appointed by a mechanism set forth in the Appointments Clause. The Framers of the U.S. constitution did not define the line between principal officers and inferior officers, and the Supreme Court has been content to approach the analysis on a case - by - case basis rather than through a definitive test. The Court listed in Morrison v. Olson (1988) certain factors as hallmarks of "inferior Officer '' status, such as removability by a higher executive branch official other than the President, and limitations on the officer 's duties, jurisdiction, and tenure. In Edmond v. United States (1997) the Court stated that "' inferior Officers ' are officers whose work is directed and supervised at some level by others who were appointed by Presidential nomination with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Among those officers recognized as "inferior '' are district court clerks, federal supervisors of elections, the Watergate Special Prosecutor, and an Independent Counsel appointed under the Ethics in Government Act of 1978.
Another chief question is, what constitutes a "Department, '' when Congress seeks to place the appointment power away from the President? The phrase "Heads of Departments '' has not been precisely defined by the Supreme Court. On the one hand, judicial interpretations of the phrase refer to the heads of departments that are within the executive branch, or according to Buckley v. Valeo "at least have some connection with that branch. '' Under this view, the heads of all agencies and departments exercising executive power under the President would seem to qualify as "Heads of Departments. '' The Court interpreted in Freytag v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue (1991) "Heads of Departments '' to refer "to executive divisions like the Cabinet - level departments. '' The use of the phrase "like the Cabinet - level departments '' could mean that, in addition to the Cabinet departments, other entities within the executive branch that are sufficiently analogous to the Cabinet departments may qualify as "Departments '' for purposes of the Appointments Clause. On the other hand, the Freytag Court itself seemed unclear what it meant by the phrase "like the Cabinet - level departments, '' and certainly stepped back from any bright - line test. The Freytag Court sought to harmonize its analysis with the interpretation given the different term "executive Departments '' in the Opinion Clause (which has been interpreted to refer only to Cabinet departments) and with earlier cases that suggested that only the Cabinet Secretaries qualified as "Heads of Departments. '' Ultimately, the Freytag Court seems to have reserved the question whether the heads of non-Cabinet executive - branch agencies could be deemed to be "Heads of Departments '' for purposes of the Appointments Clause. Perhaps the phrase "like the Cabinet - level departments '' was included in Freytag as an indication that the Court would not necessarily be inflexible about requiring Cabinet status in future cases. If that is so, then "Heads of Departments '' would appear to include (as Justice Antonin Scalia reasons in his concurrence in Freytag) the heads of the Cabinet Departments and also the heads of "all independent executive establishments. ''
From 1999 to 2008, a change in the statute governing the United States Patent and Trademark Office ("USPTO '') permitted a number of judges of the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences and the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board to be appointed by the USPTO Director. This arrangement was challenged as unconstitutional under the Appointments Clause because the appointing party was not the Heads of the Department. In order to avoid the crisis that would result from new challenges to many BPAI and TTAB decisions made in that period, Congress passed a 2008 amendment to the statute which specifies that the Secretary of Commerce is responsible for such appointments, and permitting the Secretary to retroactively appoint those persons named by the USPTO Director.
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where does highway 30 start and end in quebec | Quebec Autoroute 30 - wikipedia
Quebec provincial highways
Autoroute 30 (A-30), or the Autoroute de l'Acier (In English, Steel Freeway) is an Autoroute in Quebec, Canada. Construction of the A-30 dates back to the early days of autoroute construction in the 1960s. Originally called Highway 3, the A-30 was designed to replace Route 132 as the main artery linking the communities along the South Shore of the St. Lawrence River. The A-30 was originally intended to begin at the U.S. border at Dundee and end at Saint - Pierre - les - Becquets (in Centre - du - Québec). In the late 1970s an eight - year moratorium on new autoroute construction (in favour of public transport) by the Parti Québécois prevented implementation of this plan.
The original section of Autoroute 30 in 1968 linked Sorel - Tracy to Route 116, then called Highway 9... The A-30 was extended to an interchange with Autoroute 10 in Brossard by 1985 and to Autoroute 15 in Candiac by 1996.
Growing road congestion in and around Montreal led to the announcement in 2006 of a federal - provincial partnership to complete A-30 as southwestern bypass ring road. At that time, the section from Châteauguay to Vaudreuil - Dorion was to be tolled, however by 2009 it was decided to collect tolls only on the St. Lawrence bridge. A-30 was extended north of the St. Lawrence River (over a new crossing) to a realigned interchange with Autoroute 20 and Autoroute 540 in Vaudreuil - Dorion, afterward A-540 was annexed and renamed as an extension of A-30. As construction progressed, short sections of the original A-30 that are bypassed by the new route were converted to spur routes and assigned new route numbers; for instance the old alignment of A-30 south of Salaberry - de-Valleyfield was renamed Autoroute 530. Opened to traffic on December 15, 2012, the realigned Autoroute 30 permits motorists travelling the Quebec City -- Windsor Corridor to bypass Montreal.
There are two discontinuous sections of A-30:
The main 143 km segment extends from Autoroute 40 in Vaudreuil - Dorion to Route 133 in Sorel - Tracy.
From the junction of Autoroute 20 in Vaudreuil - Dorion to Route 138 in Châteauguay a completely new freeway was constructed between 2007 and 2012, opening to traffic in December 2012. This new section, built under a Public - Private Partnership, along with the former A-540 west of Vaudreuil make up the first 38 km of the highway now. An approximately 21 kilometre long section bypasses the Mohawk territory of Kahnawake and the South Shore communities of Saint - Constant, Delson, and Candiac. The Kahnawake bypass was built following the 1990 Oka Crisis and extended to the other three communities between 2005 and 2011. The A-30 was originally intended to supplant Route 132, crossing Kahnawake to a junction with the Honoré Mercier Bridge. Local opposition to the proposed route from the late 1960s coupled with the disruption of the Oka Crisis in 1990 prompted the decision to change the course of the new autoroute to bypass the Mohawk territory This new alignment resulted in the 1990 construction, 1992 twinning, then the 2010 redesignation of a 3.2 km (2.0 mi) portion of highway as Autoroute 730. The A-730 now extends from the A-30 mainline in Saint - Constant to Route 132 in Sainte - Catherine. Another 3.2 km (2.0 mi) section from the existing A-30 to Route 132 in Candiac has been redesignated Autoroute 930 since construction of the Jean - Leman section ended in November 2011. Further west, an 8.3 km bypass of Salaberry - de-Valleyfield became Autoroute 530 in 2012 when construction of the A-30 extension was completed.
Northeast of Montreal the autoroute parallels Route 132, bypassing the steelmaking centres of Contrecoeur and Sorel - Tracy.
An 18.3 km super two segment in Bécancour, from Route 132 immediately west to an interchange with Autoroute 55 (near Laviolette Bridge, south of Trois - Rivières). The A-30 parallels the St. Lawrence River, bypassing the communities of Sainte - Angèle - de-Laval and Des Ormeaux and linking the Port of Bécancour to the autoroute network. Multiplexed with Route 132, the A-30 continues as a two - lane road for a short distance further before ending at the western approach to Gentilly. The road continues on as Route 132.
The completion of Autoroute 30 as a southern bypass was intended to better integrate greater Montreal 's network of autoroutes, significantly reduce transit time to and through the region, boost economic activity in Montérégie, and improve access to markets in Ontario (via Ontario highways 401 and 417) and the United States (via Interstates 87 and 89). This new section was completed on December 15, 2012. The westernmost section was financed through a public -- private partnership, in which the government contracted with Acciona (a Spanish engineering and construction company) to design, construct, operate, maintain, and finance the autoroute. The eastern section of the A-30 extension was publicly funded.
Construction of this portion of the A-30 -- from an interchange with the A-15 (and the spur A-930) in Candiac to Châteauguay -- began in 2005 and opened to traffic on November 19, 2010. This section was linked to the A-30 mainline in November 2011. Motorists using A-30 can quickly access New York via the A-15 and Interstate 87.
A new 35 km (21.7 mi) four - lane divided highway has been constructed, and opened to traffic on December 15, 2012. The A-30 crosses the St. Lawrence River to a redesigned interchange with A-20 and the former A-540. The new river crossing expedites the region 's access to Toronto via A-20 and Ontario Highway 401.
A-540 (a short spur road connecting A-20 with A-40) was re-designated A-30 once construction was complete. Thus, A-30's ultimate western terminus is at the junction with A-40, providing access to Ottawa and eastern Ontario via Ontario Highway 417.
The re-routing of A-30 across the St. Lawrence River resulted in the re-designation of a 7 km (4.3 mi) long section of the original route as A-530. This spur route links the re-aligned A-30 mainline with Salaberry - de-Valleyfield. A-530 features two interchanges, one at boulevard Pie XII and the other at Route 201.
The current Montreal bypass project puts an end to the idea that any autoroute will be constructed to the U.S. border at Dundee as originally intended. The lack of a corresponding Interstate highway corridor in neighbouring New York (and the availability of nearby Interstate 87) has further diminished the importance of this area as a border crossing.
Though unsigned as such, a short freeway extension west of the interchange with A-55 with overpasses that was built wide enough to accommodate unbuilt freeway lanes recall Transports - Québec 's original plans for A-30. There are currently no plans to close the A-30 gap between Sorel - Tracy and Bécancour, or extend A-30 at all in the area, as the current annual average daily traffic levels on Route 132 are insufficient to justify such a project.
Route map: Google
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who plays the bartender in how i met your mother | List of How I Met Your Mother characters - wikipedia
The American sitcom How I Met Your Mother premiered on CBS on September 19, 2005. Created by Craig Thomas and Carter Bays, the show is presented from the perspective of Ted Mosby in 2030 ("Future Ted '') as he tells his children how he met the titular mother. The show lasted for nine seasons and 208 episodes; the finale first aired on March 31, 2014.
The main characters are: Ted, a romantic searching for "The One ''; Barney Stinson, a womanizer; Robin Scherbatsky, a journalist who moved to New York in 2005; and Marshall Eriksen and Lily Aldrin, a long - term couple. Although the show is based around The Mother, her first appearance is not until the season 8 finale.
Many of the main character 's relatives appear throughout the show, such as Lily 's father or Barney 's brother. They may also be seen in family gatherings, such as Barney and Robin 's wedding or Marshall 's father 's funeral. Ted 's children and Marvin W. Eriksen (son of Marshall and Lily) appear in the background of many episodes without being crucial to many plots.
Ranjit, Carl the Bartender and several other characters often appear because they work in places the main cast frequent (such as MacLaren 's Pub). Characters in relationships with Ted, Barney or Robin often appear in several episodes within a short period of time, such as Victoria, Nora or Kevin. Minor characters such as the Slutty Pumpkin or Mary the Paralegal may only appear in one or two episodes but still play a crucial role in the episodes they are in.
Notes:
Portrayed by Josh Radnor, Theodore Evelyn "Ted '' Mosby (born on April 25, 1978) is a romantic, originally searching for "The One '' and often discussing destiny and "The Universe '' controlling things. Ted grew up in Shaker Heights, Ohio with parents Virginia Mosby and Alfred Mosby. He is an architect who graduated from Wesleyan University, where he met Marshall and Lily. Ted also serves as the show 's narrator from the future, voiced by Bob Saget, as he tells his children a detailed story, with the premise of explaining how he met their mother. A brief history of Ted includes being left at the altar, taking a job as an architecture professor and designing the new headquarters for Goliath National Bank.
Ted has dated many people and been in several long - term relationships. Ted has an on - again, off - again relationship with Robin. Ted also dated Victoria, Stella, Zoey and Jeanette. Ted finally gets to meet his wife - to - be, Tracy, on the day of Barney and Robin 's wedding, after accidentally teaching one of her college classes, owning her yellow umbrella for a short time, and dating her roommate. When he ran into Tracy 's roommate (Cindy), it led to Tracy 's band performing at Barney and Robin 's wedding.
In the finale, it is discovered his wife died six years earlier. His children claim his story was not about their mother but about Robin; they urge him to get back together with her and he does, bringing the iconic blue French horn with him.
Portrayed by Cobie Smulders, Robin (born on July 23, 1980) works as a news reporter for various stations, ending up at World Wide News. She is originally from Vancouver, British Columbia and is a fan of the Vancouver Canucks. Robin was named after her father, who she has some issues with as he wanted a male child. She and Ted have an on - again, off - again relationship there was some sexual tension between them throughout the third season, most obviously when Robin brought home her boyfriend Gael from a trip to Argentina. The subject of four episodes, Robin was a teen pop singer named Robin Sparkles. Her first boyfriend was Simon, who starred in her second music video. In season 4, Robin moves in with Ted after leaving her short - lived job in Japan. During "The Leap '', she and Barney pursue a relationship, but it soon ends.
Robin is frequently made fun of for her tendency to laugh while lying, as well as her references to places and history exclusive to Canada, such as Mount Waddington or Danby 's. Though she has stated explicitly that she does not like children, Future Ted mentioned that she eventually grew to like them and even became close to Ted 's children. After being unemployed for a while, Robin found out that she would be deported from America if she did not get a job. Barney helped her land a job for an early morning show in "The Possimpible ''. Soon after she started she got a co-host named Don whom she originally disliked. However, she grew to like him and they dated for a while. In "False Positive '', Robin worked as a researcher for World Wide News and eventually moved up to co-anchor after hosting a New Year 's Eve show. It is revealed in the season 7 finale that Robin married Barney. They divorce after three years of marriage. In 2030, Robin is shown to be living with her dogs in New York when she gets asked out by Ted, a six - year widower by then.
Portrayed by Neil Patrick Harris, Barnabus "Barney '' Stinson is a former womanizer. He is known for wearing suits, playing laser tag, performing magic tricks, and overusing catchphrases such as "Suit up! '', "Legend - wait - for - it - dary '' and "Challenge accepted! ''. Barney is the writer of the Bro Code and the Playbook, documenting rules for best friends ("bros '') and his favorite moves to use on women.
Barney was raised by a single mother, Loretta, along with his older brother James. He spent very little time with his father as a child. In season 6, Barney 's father Jerome returns to his life hoping to make amends for abandoning him as a child. As a young adult, Barney was a long - haired hippie with plans to join the Peace Corps. Soon after his rejection, he saw a flier for a sale on suits, thus beginning his suit addiction. Shortly after, he met Ted Mosby at a urinal and announced that he would "teach (Ted) how to live '', thus beginning his life with Ted 's group of friends.
In season 4, Barney falls in love with Robin and spends the next season hiding it from her. The two get together in season 5, but the relationship is short - lived. After their breakup, Barney returns to one - night stands, but sometimes shows regret in ending his relationship with Robin. In "Desperation Day '', Robin introduces him to her friend Nora. Barney and Nora have a brief relationship, but it ends because Barney is unwilling to let himself be honest with her about his feelings. Later, they get back together but Barney cheats on Nora with Robin. In "Challenge Accepted '', it is revealed that Barney gets married at some point in the future; in "The Magician 's Code '', the bride is revealed to be Robin. However, Barney and Robin get divorced in 2016. Barney goes back to having one - night stands, and eventually impregnates a woman. The birth of his daughter, Ellie, effectively causes him to change his ways for good.
Portrayed by Alyson Hannigan, Lily is a kindergarten teacher. She is married to Marshall and grew up in Brooklyn, New York. Like Ted and Marshall, she is a graduate of Wesleyan University and dreams of being an artist; she has painted naked paintings of Marshall and Barney. Lily has a huge debt problem because of her impulsive shopping; she is able to hide this from Marshall until they apply for a mortgage in "Dowisetrepla ''. She is very manipulative, having caused several of Ted 's relationships to end when she disliked his date. It has been shown many times that she can not keep a secret, with a few exceptions: she hides her second pregnancy and keeps Ted 's move to Chicago a secret from everyone but Marshall. Another ongoing joke in the show is her implied bisexuality.
Prior to college, Lily dated Scooter. At college, she met Ted and started dating Marshall. She and Marshall were together for 9 years and engaged for almost a year before Lily broke up with Marshall to move to San Francisco for a summer to concentrate on her art. Marshall was so hurt that they stayed separated for a few months after she returned to New York. They eventually get married at the end of season 2. They move into an apartment in "Dowisetrepla ''; previously, they had been living with Ted. They consider children for years before feeling "ready ''. Lily announces in the season 6 finale that she is pregnant and their first child was revealed to be male in "Mystery vs. History ''. In the episode "Good Crazy '', Lily goes into labor five weeks early and in the episode "The Magician 's Code -- Part 1 '', gives birth to Marvin. In season eight, Lily accepts a job as The Captain 's art consultant. The Captain later asks her to move to Italy to search for and purchase artwork for his collection; she and Marshall agree to move there. However, this is the cause of disagreement between the couple for most of the season when Marshall accepts an offer to be a judge without consulting Lily. Lily is revealed to be pregnant with a second child in "Daisy '', followed by third child a few years later in "Last Forever ''.
Portrayed by Jason Segel, Marshall (born in 1978) met Ted and Lily during their freshman year at Wesleyan University. He and Lily began dating during college and got married at the end of season 2. Marshall is a Columbia Law School graduate originally from Minnesota. Even though he stands at 6 ft 4 in (1.93 m), he is the shortest male member of his family. Marshall became a lawyer because he was interested in environmental protection laws. He accepts a job at a corporate law firm, before joining the legal team at Goliath National Bank, where Barney also works. Marshall is also very good at various games and believes in the paranormal, specifically Sasquatch and the Loch Ness Monster. It is revealed in "Last Cigarette Ever '' that in the future, he and Lily have a son. In early 2011, after being told Marshall and Lily are capable of having a baby, Marshall 's dad has a fatal heart attack and dies. For several months after this, he is upset and his friends make an effort to be nicer to him. His first son, born in the episode "The Magician 's Code -- Part 1 '' is named Marvin, after Marshall 's father. Marshall was able to arrive just in time to witness the birth.
Marshall eventually is accepted to his dream job, being a judge, after committing to move to Italy with Lily. This leads to constant strife between the couple through most of the final season. However, throughout the first half of the last season, Marshall is on a car ride from Minnesota to Long Island after missing his flight to Barney and Robin 's wedding. In this process, Marshall meets The Mother.
Portrayed by Cristin Milioti, the Mother is the title character of the series; Ted 's narration of the series is based around how he met her. While several clues about the Mother are revealed throughout the series (including the story of the yellow umbrella), she is not fully seen until the season 8 finale, "Something New ''. Season 9 reveals more about the Mother through several flashforwards throughout the season and the 200th episode, "How Your Mother Met Me, '' which shows the years 2005 through 2013 from her perspective. In that episode, it is revealed that her boyfriend Max died on her 21st birthday and that she refrained from dating in the years following; her first boyfriend after Max, Louis, proposed to her the night before Barney and Robin 's wedding, but she rejected, allowing herself to move on. It is the highest rated episode of the series on IMDb.
Ted is shown meeting The Mother in the series finale at the Farhampton train station following Barney and Robin 's wedding. They date, get engaged and have two children called Luke and Penny. In the original ending of the show, The Mother is shown to have been deceased in 2024. Many fans of the show had become emotionally attached to The Mother. In many scenes throughout the show, it was shown how incredibly perfect Ted and Tracy were to each other and how nice she was to everyone. Her death in the series finale was met with considerable dissatisfaction by many viewers.
A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition received over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage. An alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD. In the alternate ending, Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. In the video, future Ted is heard saying, "... When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I ca n't help but be amazed how easy it all really was... '', indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin as he lived a successful married life with Tracy Mosby.
Penny and Luke are Ted 's children, teenagers in 2030 as Ted narrates the story of how he met their mother. Penny is portrayed by Lyndsy Fonseca while Luke is portrayed by David Henrie. Georgina Bays, the daughter of Carter Bays, has portrayed Ted 's daughter as an infant. Penny and Luke as young children are portrayed by Katie Silverman and Dexter Cross in "Rally ''.
The names of Ted 's children were unknown until "Unpause ''. Before he had met their mother, Ted had repeatedly expressed the desire to name them Luke and Leia. The children initially appear only in the framing narrative, though Penny appears as an infant in "Trilogy Time '', "Lobster Crawl '' and "Unpause ''. Both Penny and Luke appear as young children in "Rally '', when they greet their parents on New Year 's Day in 2022.
Since the actors playing Ted 's children were going to age quickly, stock footage of them was shot in 2006, to be used in later episodes. Additionally, footage for the series finale was shot and the actors were made to sign non-disclosure agreements; Fonseca said in 2013 that she did not "remember what the secret was '', although Henrie thought he remembered. A season nine promotional video was filmed with the same actors, now adults, joking that they have been listening to Ted tell the story for eight years, and was first shown at the 2013 San Diego Comic - Con.
Marvin Wait - for - it Eriksen is the son of Lily and Marshall. In "Challenge Accepted '', Lily discovers she is pregnant after a long - running storyline of Marshall and Lily trying to have kids. Marvin is born in "The Magician 's Code -- Part 1 ''; Marshall arrives just in time for the birth. Barney helped Marshall arrive in the hospital, in return for choosing the middle name of the baby: "Wait - for - it ''. Marvin appears in many episodes after that, usually causing Marshall and Lily to become stressed and sleep deprived. In "Who Wants to be a Godparent? '', Ted, Barney and Robin all become godparents of Marvin. "Bedtime Stories '' is based around Marvin going to sleep.
Marvin has been played by twins, and several actors have been credited as playing him; Jake Elliott, August Maturo and Spencer Ralston have played the part of Marvin during various flashforwards. Craig Thomas said that they were "tending to the fact that (Marshall and Lily) have a baby more than other shows have '', although Marvin "does n't take over the show. ''
Played by Marshall Manesh, Ranjit is a cab driver from Bangladesh. He drives the main characters around during several significant moments of their lives; for instance, he drives Marshall and Lily in a limo shortly after they are married and helps Ted with a "two - minute date '' in "Ten Sessions ''. In "The Sexless Innkeeper '', he and his wife Falguni go on a double date with Marshall and Lily, although they do not enjoy it. He also appears in episodes such as "The Limo '', "Rabbit or Duck '', "The Goat '' and "Three Days of Snow ''. In "Gary Blauman '', Future Ted reveals that Ranjit became rich through investments and bought a limo service.
Ranjit is the only recurring character to appear in all nine seasons.
Played by Joe Nieves, Carl is the bartender at MacLaren 's, which is frequented by the main characters. Carl 's last name is MacLaren and he owns the bar. Carl eventually has a son who helps him at MacLaren 's.
Joe Nieves received the part after the scene he was supposed to be in was cut from the pilot but no one had told him, and he turned up on set in a police officer costume. As no one wanted to tell him that they had cut his scene, they gave him the role of Carl. Carl is named after one of the assistants to the producers.
Played by Charlene Amoia, Wendy is a waitress from MacLaren 's bar. Characterized as sweet and somewhat naive, she is well liked by the main characters. Barney once had a brief relationship with her. It is also revealed in "Garbage Island '' that Wendy the Waitress falls in love and is later married to Marshall 's ex-co worker Meeker (Daniel G. O'Brien) who found out at the time they both hate Marshall after his "Go Green '' fiasco. She and Meeker have three kids.
Played by Ashley Williams. A baker at The Buttercup Bakery, Victoria meets Ted in "The Wedding '' at the wedding reception of Ted 's friends, for whom Victoria had baked the wedding cake. They agree to spend the evening together anonymously in order to preserve the memory of the night, despite their attraction to one another. However, Ted quickly finds her and they begin an intense romantic relationship. The relationship is complicated when Victoria is offered a cooking fellowship in Germany and they attempt to remain together in a long - distance relationship. However, Ted kisses Robin and they break up.
Victoria reappears in Ted 's life seven years later, when she is catering the Architect 's Ball that Ted is attending at the end of "The Naked Truth ''. During their reunion, Ted apologizes for cheating on her and she accepts his apology. However, he becomes upset when he learns that she began dating Klaus, whom she met not long after arriving in Germany, almost immediately after they broke up. During their ensuing argument, they begin to remember what they loved about their relationship together and end up kissing. Victoria responds to the kiss with the revelation that Klaus intends to propose to her soon and she and Ted part on amicable terms, though she also warns Ted that his existing relationships with Robin and Barney are stopping him from finding his true love.
In "The Magician 's Code '', Ted, having recently reconciled with Robin, follows her suggestion to contact Victoria in hopes of learning if she ever got married. When they meet, Ted is stunned to see that Victoria has secretly run away from her wedding to Klaus. Recalling his own experience at being left at the altar by Stella, Ted attempts to have Victoria return to her wedding to at least inform Klaus that she has run away, but they learn that Klaus has also run away from the wedding, as he has realized that he and Victoria are not meant to be together. Ted and Victoria 's renewed relationship is short - lived; when Ted proposes to her, she presents an ultimatum: he must end his friendship with Robin to be with her. Unwilling to give up his friendship with Robin, Victoria breaks up with him. She is later revealed to have returned to Germany and sends him Robin 's locket, which she had taken with her.
Bays and Thomas planned to have Victoria as a backup Mother in case CBS decided to cancel the series after season 2. Another possible storyline was Williams wearing a fat suit to portray Victoria having become, according to Bays, "enormously fat '' because of her baking career. Victoria was described as Ted 's best girlfriend by People magazine.
Played by Suzie Plakson, Judy Eriksen is the mother of Marshall. Married to the late Marvin Eriksen, she has three children: Marvin, Marcus and Marshall. She lives in St. Cloud, Minnesota and is known to have a tense, sometimes adversarial relationship with Lily, leaving Marshall torn as he loves Lily, but has trouble understanding how she could dislike his mother. In "The Over-Correction, '' she begins a sexual relationship with Lily 's father, Mickey.
Played by Wayne Brady, James is Barney 's gay African - American half - brother; they are very alike and act as each other 's "wingmen ''. This changes when James meets Tom, his future husband. Barney tries to stop his brother from marrying but changes his mind when he learns that they are adopting a baby. James marries Tom and they have a son named Eli. In the season 6 episode "Cleaning House, '' James finds out his father is Sam Gibbs after he and Barney discover an unsent letter that their mother Loretta addressed to him. At the end of "The Rebound Girl '', it is revealed that James and Tom have adopted an infant daughter named Sadie. In "Coming Back '', James announces that he is getting a divorce after Tom discovered him cheating. Robin wins James ' wedding ring in "The Poker Game '' and refuses to give it back because James has been saying that she and Barney should not get married. Barney initially stands by his brother, but then realizes that James ' selfishness is what caused his own marriage to fail. James reveals that Gary Blauman was one of the guys that he cheated on Tom with in "Gary Blauman ''. Future Ted explains to his children that James and Tom did eventually get back together, and raised Eli and Sadie as a happy family.
Played by Jennifer Morrison. One of Ted 's girlfriends. Ted first meets Zoey when she was an activist protesting the destruction of a historic New York building, in "Architect of Destruction ''. At first Ted is attracted to her, even though he is the architect responsible for the building 's demolition. However, when she discovers this fact, she turns on him, and the two develop a mutually antagonistic relationship. In "Natural History '', Ted meets her rich husband, who calls himself The Captain, at a black - tie event at a museum. Zoey spends Thanksgiving hanging out with the gang in "Blitzgiving '' because her husband is spending it with his daughter; surprisingly, it is Ted who convinces the group to let her do so, after deducing that she is hurting by her stepdaughter 's rejection of her. Zoey is (by marriage) a van Smoot, whose family is shown to have owned the mansion in which Marshall and Lily were married, and an apartment in the Alberta building. In "Oh Honey '', Zoey divorces the Captain and Zoey gets together with Ted. However, they break up in "Landmarks '' due to tensions caused by the Arcadian. She appears in "Challenge Accepted '', where she unsuccessfully tries reuniting with Ted. In "Gary Blauman '', Future Ted reveals that Zoey continued campaigning for various causes.
Played by Ellen D. Williams, Patrice is a World Wide News employee, often shouted down by Robin who is annoyed by her efforts to be best friends. In season 8, Patrice joins Barney 's "The Robin '' play by pretending to date him. In "Gary Blauman '', it is shown that Patrice later moves on to becoming a radio talk show host.
Played by Bill Fagerbakke, Marvin Eriksen is: Judy 's husband; the father of Marvin, Marcus and Marshall; father - in - law of Lily; grandfather of Marshall and Lily 's three children and Marcus and Sarah 's children, Marcus Jr. and Martin. He was very close to Marshall and the rest of his family prior to his passing in early 2011. After "Last Words '', set at Marvin 's funeral, Carter Bays stated that they intended to bring back Bill Fagerbakke as Marshall 's father in future episodes during flashbacks. He later appeared in five episodes as a "ghost '' imagined by Marshall.
Played by Nazanin Boniadi, Nora is an English co-worker of Robin 's who meets Barney the day before Valentine 's Day. Though he is interested in her, Barney is reluctant to admit it, despite Robin 's encouragement. During his first formal date with Nora, she reveals her wishes to eventually marry and settle down and invites him to meet her parents, both of which Barney accepts as things he wants. At the end of their date, however, he tells her that his words were a lie and criticizes Nora 's dreams, which seemingly ends the relationship. Though Barney is convinced that he was lying to her, he later realizes that he does want to marry and settle down. He gets a second chance with Nora, when he convinces her that he will be honest in their relationship. They start dating but break up in "Tick Tick Tick '' after Barney confesses to cheating on her with Robin.
Played by Chris Elliott, Mickey Aldrin is Lily 's father. Obsessed with attempting to launch Aldrin Games, his unsuccessful board game creator business, he was frequently absent, distant, and unreliable throughout her childhood. He and Lily did not have a close relationship during the first few seasons. As the series progressed he gradually redeems himself. He eventually moves in with Marshall and Lily at Lily 's grandparents ' home in Long Island. Once there he refuses to leave his childhood home, despite being unwelcome; he does eventually agree to leave at Lily and Marshall 's insistence, although they let him stay after he makes pancakes for them. From then on his eccentric hobbies make him an occasional nuisance in the household, eventually accidentally burning the house down after Marshall and Lily had returned to the apartment. This leads to him joining them in Manhattan and despite Lily 's expectations, he proves very helpful in looking after his grandson Marvin W. Eriksen. He reveals that he had taken much better care of Lily prior to her going to school; only when she started kindergarten and he found himself at loose ends did he go to the racetrack on a whim, where he developed a gambling addiction.
Played by Robert Belushi, Linus is a bartender at the Farhampton Inn. Lily pays him $100 to make sure she always has a drink in her hand during the weekend of Barney and Robin 's wedding. Throughout season 9, he is constantly seen handing her drinks followed by Lily saying "Thank you, Linus ''. It is revealed in "Daisy '' that these drinks are non-alcoholic as Lily is pregnant.
Played by Sarah Chalke, Stella is Ted 's dermatologist, who removes his ill - advised butterfly tattoo. He attempts to convince her to date him over the course of the episode "Ten Sessions ''. Stella initially refuses, wanting to focus on her daughter Lucy, but eventually agrees to go on a two - minute lunch date. They start dating soon after. In the last episode of season three, Ted proposes to Stella, and in the season four premiere, she accepts. In "Shelter Island '', after her sister 's wedding falls apart, she and Ted agree to take over the wedding. She ends up leaving Ted at the altar and getting back together with Tony, her ex-boyfriend and father of Lucy. She later appears in "Right Place Right Time '', where she is still with Tony.
Played by Kal Penn, Kevin is originally introduced as Robin 's therapist but later becomes her boyfriend. She cheats on him with Barney, although he never discovers this. He proposed to Robin before she told him of her infertility. He still wanted to marry her, suggesting they could adopt or use a surrogate but when Robin made it clear to him that she did not want to have any children, they broke up. In "Gary Blauman '', Future Ted says that Kevin ended up with Jeanette.
Played by Becki Newton, Quinn is a romantic interest for Barney in season 7, as she has a scheming personality similar to him. Barney becomes interested in her without realizing she is a stripper at the Lusty Leopard, despite being a frequent patron. Quinn initially scams Barney out of a large amount of money, but gives Barney a chance. Due to Barney 's insecurity, she quits her job as a stripper and accommodates most of his demands regarding his apartment when she moves in with him. Barney proposes to her in "The Magician 's Code ''. However, due to their inability to trust one another, they break up in "The Pre-Nup ''. Quinn makes a brief return in "The Bro Mitzvah ''.
Played by Alexis Denisof, Alyson Hannigan 's real life husband, Sandy is a narcissistic lecherous anchorman. He debuts as Robin 's colleague at Metro News One and spares no opportunity to ask her out. Ted and Marshall make fun of him during his segments. He resigns from the network to take up a job at CNN but recommends Robin to succeed him as lead anchor. Sandy and Robin cross paths again in season 6 as colleagues at World Wide News, where he is often seen hitting on young female interns. Sandy 's inappropriate behavior ruins his career in the US and he does not change his ways even as he anchors a news show in Russia.
Marcus Eriksen is one of Marshall 's brothers, known for pranking Marshall. He and the rest of his brothers often played roughly with each other. In "Who Wants to be a Godparent? '', Marcus left his wife and two children for his dream job of being a bartender. Marcus is often seen at family events such as his father 's funeral.
Played by Frances Conroy, Loretta is Barney 's mother. Prior to her first proper appearance, she appeared from the neck down voiced by Megan Mullally in "Single Stamina '' and "Showdown ''. Loretta had a very promiscuous lifestyle and neither Barney nor James know who their real fathers are until they are adults. She also tends to tell ridiculous lies to her sons to cover up bad news, such as saying Barney 's father is Bob Barker. So that his mother would not worry about him, Barney hired actors to pretend to be his family; when he is forced to reveal the truth in "The Stinsons '', Loretta is not upset. She returns in "Cleaning House '': the gang go to her home as she is planning to move. Though she had hidden the identities of James and Barney 's fathers so that she could be both mother and father to them, she eventually discloses who both of their fathers are.
Played by Bob Odenkirk, Arthur is a boss at Goliath National Bank and was also Marshall 's boss at Nicholson, Hewitt & West. Due to his habit of screaming at his employees, he is nicknamed "Artillery Arthur. '' He has a dog named Tugboat.
Played by Cristine Rose. Virginia is Ted 's mother, married to Alfred for 30 years before they get divorced. She marries Clint in "Home Wreckers ''. Barney jokes on several occasions that he had sex with Virginia, although it is revealed in "Unpause '' that they only shared a kiss.
Played by Michael Gross. Alfred is Ted 's father, married to Virginia for 30 years before they get divorced. He shares similar views on romance to Ted, being described as a "head - in - the - clouds romantic '' by Virginia.
Played by Sherri Shepherd. When she, Marshall and Marvin get kicked off a plane, they spend the first half of season 9 travelling together. Marshall gets to know Daphne through the journey; she has a daughter and is worried that she is not a good mother.
Played by Joe Manganiello, Brad is a friend of Marshall from law school. Brad and Marshall begin to hang out after they both discover they are single, following breakups with their respective girlfriends, Kara and Lily. The bromance between Brad and Marshall becomes increasingly awkward after they go to brunch and a musical together. Eventually, Brad gets back together with his girlfriend. He attends Marshall 's bachelor party and wedding and gets punched in the face by Barney when he tries to kiss Robin, although he bears no hard feelings. He appears in "The Stamp Tramp '', claiming to be in need of help but later revealing that he is the opposition lawyer in a big court case, putting Marshall 's job at risk. The trial takes place in "Twelve Horny Women '' and Gruber Pharmaceuticals are found guilty but only have to pay $25,000, because the judge is biased due to his attraction to Brad; this leads to Marshall becoming a judge, as he realizes that is the position from which to effect the most change. His image appears in a flash forward in "Rally '' when a news report shows him leading in exit polls over Marshall for New York State Supreme Court Judge in 2020.
Played by Kyle MacLachlan, George van Smoot (known by his nickname "The Captain '') is introduced as Zoey Pierson 's husband at a gala at the Natural History Museum. He is obsessed with boats, an interest that Zoey does not share. Despite the Captain 's frightening demeanor, such as the murderous look he has in his eyes, he proves to be generous, if rather eccentric; he is also seen to be somewhat shy because of the apparent age gap between him and most of Zoey 's peers. While he comes to like Ted, Ted 's fear of the Captain is exacerbated by the fact that Ted and Zoey are attracted to one another. Zoey eventually divorces the Captain and leaves him for Ted. A year after Ted breaks up with Zoey, the Captain unexpectedly runs into Ted, Robin and Lily at a gallery show. He reveals that he holds no hard feelings for Ted regarding his divorce with Zoey. During the gallery show, Lily 's advice about artwork, while initially dismissed by the Captain, proves to be invaluable and the Captain ends up hiring Lily as his new art consultant in "The Ashtray ''. He announces his intention to move to Rome for a year and asks for Lily and her family to accompany him; following a fight between Marshall and Lily, they do live in Italy for a year. The Captain has three Olympic gold medals in fencing and ends up engaged to Becky.
Played by Michael Trucco, Nick is a love interest of Robin. They originally met in a clothes shop and later came face - to - face in a bar called "Hopeless ''. Each had a crush on the other. Although Nick was supposed to be a recurring character in season 7, Michael Trucco could not return as he was playing Justin Patrick in the second season of Fairly Legal. Instead, he began dating Robin in season 8. Nick is characterized as overly emotional and unintelligent, and in "Splitsville '', Robin begins to get annoyed by these traits (Nick 's groin injury prevents the two from having sex, so she begins to notice his personality more). They break up in the same episode, after Barney makes an impassioned speech about being in love with Robin; although he tells her that he was lying, it is later revealed he was telling the truth.
Played by Eric Braeden in "Happily Ever After '' and Ray Wise in all other appearances, Robin Charles Scherbatsky Sr. is an overbearing father who wanted a son. When the baby (Robin) turned out to be a girl, he raises her as a son, teaching her stereotypically male activities such as hunting. Robin Sr expresses his disappointment of his daughter over the years; he has very little contact with her, becoming married without telling her. The two eventually reconcile.
Played by Bryan Callen. He works for Goliath National Bank as Barney and Marshall 's co-worker and fires Ted when he designed an Employee Termination Room that was too "inspired ''.
Played by David Burtka, Neil Patrick Harris ' real life husband, Scooter is Lily 's old high - school boyfriend and is obsessed with her. They broke up during their high - school prom after being in a relationship for a long time. Scooter appears over several seasons, during which he fails to win back Lily at her wedding, works as a waiter in a fine - dining restaurant and as a cafeteria server at her school. A flashback shows that Lily intimidated Scooter into hanging out with her during her days as a bully in 1994. Scooter eventually marries Lily 's doppelganger, Jasmine the stripper.
Played by Taran Killam, Cobie Smulders ' real life husband, Gary was Barney and Marshall 's coworker until he quit. In "The Chain of Screaming '', Barney claims his life went downhill after being fired and that he eventually died. However, Blauman appears in later episodes; he inexplicably starts hanging out with Bilson when the two of them start working for Goliath National Bank. In "Gary Blauman '', it is revealed that he slept with Barney 's brother James, in an affair leading to Tom and James nearly getting divorced.
Played by Benjamin Koldyke, Don is Robin 's boyfriend and co-anchor in season 5, despite Robin originally disliking him. Robin decides to move into his apartment in "Twin Beds ''. She is offered a job in Chicago but decides to stay for him. When offered the same job, Don accepts. In "Unfinished '', a drunken Robin is shown calling him, leaving death threats as she never got over their breakup.
Played by Will Sasso, Doug is an angry, violent bartender who beats up three men for sitting in the gang 's booth. Although he appears in the background of several significant events, he is only pointed out by Future Ted in "The Fight ''.
Played by Abby Elliott, Jeanette is the last person Ted dates before The Mother. A New York Police Department officer who stalks Ted for roughly a year and a half after he was featured in a magazine, Jeanette is described by the gang as "crazy '' after she messes up Ted 's apartment, destroys Barney 's Playbook and throws Robin 's locket off a bridge. It is revealed in "Gary Blauman '' that she ended up with Kevin the psychiatrist.
Played by Laura Bell Bundy, Becky is Robin 's replacement co-anchor for Don Frank at the morning talk show Come On, Get Up New York!, and starts to eclipse Robin in the show. Her hyperactivity and cheerfulness wins over the production staff, but Robin dislikes her as she fails to remain professional on camera. In "Canning Randy '', she does a commercial about boats, giving her the nickname "Boats Boats Boats ''. She marries The Captain.
Played by Roger Bart. He is the front desk clerk at the Farhampton Inn, who works there until at least 2024. He is unintentionally condescending to Ted upon learning he is single. When The Mother shows up at the inn in the middle of the night, he gives her a key to Robin 's mother 's empty room.
Claudia and Stuart are played by Virginia Williams and Matt Boren. Claudia and Stuart are about to get married when they make their first appearance. While Stuart is an easy - going, sensitive, and plain - looking man, Claudia is an attractive, blunt and somewhat high - strung woman; despite their differences, they have a good relationship. As their wedding approaches, Claudia becomes increasingly stressed and refuses to allow Ted to bring Robin as a last - minute date to the wedding. Ted persuades Stuart, behind Claudia 's back, to allow him to bring Robin. Claudia and Stuart argue over this and break up before the wedding, although Marshall manages to convince them to get back together.
The couple make minor recurring appearances afterward. Stuart attends Marshall 's bachelor party in "Bachelor Party '' and briefly appears in "Intervention ''. In "Baby Talk '', he and Claudia are seen to have a daughter named Esther. Stuart makes another appearance in "The Over-Correction '', where Ted blames him for failing to return Ted 's red cowboy boots. In "The Poker Game '', Stuart claims to have given Marshall and Lily a coffeemaker for their wedding, when it was really Ted 's present. In that episode it is also revealed that Stuart has been cheating on Claudia.
In "Double Date '', Ted mentions that the group has seen people who look exactly like them. This theme of five doppelgängers, one for each of the main characters (excluding The Mother), continues throughout several episodes.
The first three doppelgängers are seen in "Double Date ''. "Moustache Marshall '' appears on an advert on the side of a bus, and is spotted by Barney in MacLaren 's. "Lesbian Robin '' is seen in the streets of New York. "Stripper Lily '' (known by the name "Jasmine '') works at the Lusty Leopard and also appears in "46 Minutes '' and "Gary Blauman '', eventually marrying Scooter. "Mexican Wrestler Ted '' is discovered in "Robots Versus Wrestlers ''.
Barney 's doppelgänger is the most significant; Lily and Marshall want a sign from "the universe '' that they are ready to have children, and agree to start trying once they see Barney 's double. In "Doppelgangers '', Marshall meets a cab driver who he thinks is Barney 's doppelgänger, but who turns out to be Barney in disguise. Lily then sees a pretzel vendor and thinks he is the double; in reality, the vendor looks nothing like Barney but they begin to try to have children as Marshall claims it means that Lily is subconsciously ready to have kids. Barney 's real doppelgänger, Doctor John Stangel, is revealed in "Bad News ''. He is a fertility doctor, making Lily uncomfortable as she is convinced he is Barney in disguise.
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the us constitution article 1 section 1 created the office for the us president | Article one of the United States Constitution - wikipedia
Article One of the United States Constitution establishes the legislative branch of the federal government, the United States Congress. The Congress is a bicameral legislature consisting of a House of Representatives and a Senate.
All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.
Section 1 is a vesting clause that bestows federal legislative power exclusively to Congress. Similar clauses are found in Articles II and III. The former confers executive power upon the President alone, and the latter grants judicial power solely to the federal judiciary. These three articles create a separation of powers among the three branches of the federal government. This separation of powers, by which each department may exercise only its own constitutional powers and no others, is fundamental to the idea of a limited government accountable to the people.
The separation of powers principle is particularly noteworthy in regard to the Congress. The Constitution declares that the Congress may exercise only those legislative powers "herein granted '' within Article I (as later limited by the Tenth Amendment). It also, by implied extension, prohibits Congress from delegating its legislative authority to either of the other branches of government, a rule known as the nondelegation doctrine. However, the Supreme Court has ruled that Congress does have latitude to delegate regulatory powers to executive agencies as long as it provides an "intelligible principle '' which governs the agency 's exercise of the delegated regulatory authority. That the power assigned to each branch must remain with that branch, and may be expressed only by that branch, is central to the theory. The nondelegation doctrine is primarily used now as a way of interpreting a congressional delegation of authority narrowly, in that the courts presume Congress intended only to delegate that which it certainly could have, unless it clearly demonstrates it intended to "test the waters '' of what the courts would allow it to do.
Although not specifically mentioned in the Constitution, Congress has also long asserted the power to investigate and the power to compel cooperation with an investigation. The Supreme Court has affirmed these powers as an implication of Congress 's power to legislate. Since the power to investigate is an aspect of Congress 's power to legislate, it is as broad as Congress 's powers to legislate. However, it is also limited to inquiries that are "in aid of the legislative function; '' Congress may not "expose for the sake of exposure. '' It is uncontroversial that a proper subject of Congress 's investigation power is the operations of the federal government, but Congress 's ability to compel the submission of documents or testimony from the President or his subordinates is often - discussed and sometimes controversial (see executive privilege), although not often litigated. As a practical matter, the limitation of Congress 's ability to investigate only for a proper purpose ("in aid of '' its legislative powers) functions as a limit on Congress 's ability to investigate the private affairs of individual citizens; matters that simply demand action by another branch of government, without implicating an issue of public policy necessitating legislation by Congress, must be left to those branches due to the doctrine of separation of powers. The courts are highly deferential to Congress 's exercise of its investigation powers, however. Congress has the power to investigate that which it could regulate, and the courts have interpreted Congress 's regulatory powers broadly since the Great Depression.
The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.
Section Two provides for the election of the House of Representatives every second year. Since Representatives are to be "chosen... by the People, '' State Governors are not allowed to appoint temporary replacements when vacancies occur in a state 's delegation to the House of Representatives; instead, the Governor of the state is required by clause 4 to issue a writ of election calling a special election to fill the vacancy.
At the time of its creation, the Constitution did not explicitly give citizens an inherent right to vote. Rather, it provided that those qualified to vote in elections for the largest chamber of a state 's legislature may vote in Congressional (House of Representatives) elections. Since the Civil War, several constitutional amendments have been enacted that have curbed the states ' broad powers to set voter qualification standards. Though never enforced, clause 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment provides that when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty - one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty - one years of age in such State. The Fifteenth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. The Nineteenth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on sex. The Twenty - fourth Amendment prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the non-payment of a poll tax. The Twenty - sixth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right of US citizens, eighteen years of age or older, to vote on account of age.
Moreover, since the Supreme Court has recognized voting as a fundamental right, the Equal Protection Clause places very tight limitations (albeit with uncertain limits) on the states ' ability to define voter qualifications; it is fair to say that qualifications beyond citizenship, residency, and age are usually questionable.
In the 1960s, the Supreme Court started to view voting as a fundamental right covered by the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In a dissenting opinion of a 1964 Supreme Court case involving reapportionment in the Alabama state legislature, Associate Justice John Marshall Harlan II included Minor in a list of past decisions about voting and apportionment which were no longer being followed.
In Oregon v. Mitchell (1970), the Supreme Court held that the Qualifications clause did not prevent Congress from overriding state - imposed minimum age restrictions for voters in Congressional elections.
Since clause 3 provides that Members of the House of Representatives are apportioned state - by - state and that each state is guaranteed at least one Representative, exact population equality between all districts is not guaranteed and, in fact, is currently impossible, because while the size of the House of Representatives is fixed at 435, several states had less than 1 / 435 of the national population at the time of the last reapportionment in 2010. However, the Supreme Court has interpreted the provision of Clause One that Representatives shall be elected "by the People '' to mean that, in those states with more than one member of the House of Representatives, each congressional election district within the state must have nearly identical populations.
No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.
The Constitution provides three requirements for Representatives: A Representative must be at least 25 years old, must be an inhabitant of the state in which he or she is elected, and must have been a citizen of the United States for the previous seven years. There is no requirement that a Representative reside within the district in which he or she represents; although this is usually the case, there have been occasional exceptions.
The Supreme Court has interpreted the Qualifications Clause as an exclusive list of qualifications that can not be supplemented by a house of Congress exercising its Section 5 authority to "judge... the... qualifications of its own members '' or by a state in its exercise of its Section 4 authority to prescribe the "times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives. '' The Supreme Court, as well as other federal courts, have repeatedly barred states from additional restrictions, such as imposing term limits on members of Congress, allowing members of Congress to be subject to recall elections, or requiring that Representatives live in the congressional district in which they represent. A 2002 Congressional Research Service report also found that no state could implement a qualification that a Representative not be a convicted felon or incarcerated.
However, the United States Supreme Court has ruled that certain ballot access requirements, such as filing fees and submitting a certain number of valid petition signatures do not constitute additional qualifications and thus few Constitutional restrictions exist as to how harsh ballot access laws can be.
Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse (sic) three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode - Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New - York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.
After much debate, the framers of the Constitution decided to make population the basis of apportioning the seats in the House of Representatives and the tax liability among the states. To facilitate this, the Constitution mandates that a census be conducted every ten years to determine the population of each state and of the nation as a whole and establishes a rule for who shall be counted or excluded from the count. As the new form of government would become operational prior to the completion of a national census, the Constitution also provides for a temporary apportionment of seats.
Originally, the population of each state and of the nation as a whole was ascertained by adding to the whole number of free Persons, three - fifths the number of all other Persons (i.e. slaves), but excluding non-taxed Native Americans. This Constitutional rule, known as the three - fifths compromise, was a compromise between Southern and Northern states in which three - fifths of the population of slaves would be counted for enumeration purposes and for the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives and of taxes among the states. It was, according to Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story (writing in 1833), a "matter of compromise and concession, confessedly unequal in its operation, but a necessary sacrifice to that spirit of conciliation, which was indispensable to the union of states having a great diversity of interests, and physical condition, and political institutions ''.
Following the completion of each census, Congress is empowered to use the aggregate population in all the states (according to the prevailing Constitutional rule for determining population) to determine the relative population of each state to the population of the whole, and, based on its calculations, to establish the appropriate size of the House and to allocate a particular number of representatives to each state according to its share of the national population.
Since enactment of the Reapportionment Act of 1929, a constant 435 House seats have been apportioned among the states according to each census, and determining the size of the House is not presently part of the apportionment process. With one exception, the apportionment of 1842, the House of Representatives had been enlarged by various degrees from sixty - five members in 1788 to 435 members by 1913. The determination of size was made based on the aggregate national population, so long as the size of the House did not exceed 1 member for every 30,000 of the country 's total population nor the size of any state 's delegation exceed 1 for every 30,000 of that state 's population. With the size of the House still fixed at 435, the current ratio, as of the 2010 Census, is around 1 Representative: 700,000 Citizens.
Although the first sentence in this clause originally concerned apportionment of both House seats and taxes among the several states, the Fourteenth Amendment sentence that replaced it in 1868 mentioned only the apportionment of House seats. Even so, the constraint placed upon Congress 's taxation power remained, as the restriction was reiterated in Article 1 Section 9 Clause 4. The amount of direct taxes that could be collected by the federal government from the people in any State would still be tied directly to that state 's share of the national population.
Due to this restriction, application of the income tax to income derived from real estate and specifically income in the form of dividends from personal property ownership such as stock shares was found to be unconstitutional because it was not apportioned among the states; that is to say, there was no guarantee that a State with 10 % of the country 's population paid 10 % of those income taxes collected, because Congress had not fixed an amount of money to be raised and apportioned it between the States according to their respective shares of the national population. To permit the levying of such an income tax, Congress proposed and the states ratified the Sixteenth Amendment, which removed the restriction by specifically providing that Congress could levy a tax on income "from whatever source derived '' without it being apportioned among the States or otherwise based on a State 's share of the national population.
When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.
Section two, Clause four, provides that when vacancies occur in the House of Representatives, it is not the job of the House of Representatives to arrange for a replacement, but the job of the State whose vacant seat is up for refilling. Moreover, the State Governor may not appoint a temporary replacement, but must instead arrange for a special election to fill the vacancy. The original qualifications and procedures for holding that election are still valid.
The House of Representatives shall chuse (sic) their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.
Section Two further provides that the House of Representatives may choose its Speaker and its other officers. Though the Constitution does not mandate it, every Speaker has been a member of the House of Representatives. The Speaker rarely presides over routine House sessions, choosing instead to deputize a junior member to accomplish the task.
Finally, Section Two grants to the House of Representatives the sole power of impeachment. Although the Supreme Court has not had an occasion to interpret this specific provision, the Court has suggested that the grant to the House of the "sole '' power of impeachment makes the House the exclusive interpreter of what constitutes an impeachable offense.
This power, which is analogous to the bringing of criminal charges by a grand jury, has been used only rarely. The House of Representatives has initiated impeachment proceedings 62 times since 1789, and nineteen federal officials have been formally impeached as a result, including: two Presidents (Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton), one Cabinet Secretary (William W. Belknap), one Senator (William Blount), one Supreme Court Associate Justice (Samuel Chase), and fourteen federal judges.
The Constitution does not specify how impeachment proceedings are to be initiated. Until the early 20th century, a House member could rise and propose an impeachment, which would then be assigned to a committee for investigation. Presently, it is the House Judiciary Committee that initiates the process and then, after investigating the allegations, prepares recommendations for the whole House 's consideration. If the House votes to adopt an impeachment resolution, the Chairman of the Judiciary Committee recommends a slate of "managers, '' whom the House subsequently approves by resolution. These Representatives subsequently become the prosecution team in the impeachment trial in the Senate (see Section 3, Clause 6 below).
The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.
The first Clause of Section Three provides that each state is entitled to have two Senators, who would be elected by its state legislature (now by the people of each state), serve for staggered six - year terms, and have one vote each. By these provisions, the framers of the Constitution intended to protect the interests of the states as states. This clause has been superseded by the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, which, in part, provides as amended, that
The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote.
Article Five specifies the means by which the Constitution of the United States can be amended. It ends by temporarily shielding three Article I clauses from being amended. This clause is among them. (The others are first and fourth clauses in Section 9.) Article Five provides that "no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate ''. Thus, no individual state may have its individual representation in the Senate adjusted without its consent. That is to say, an amendment that changed this clause to provide that all states would get only one Senator (or three Senators, or any other number) could become valid as part of the Constitution if ratified by three - fourths of the states; however, one that provided for some basis of representation other than strict numerical equality (for example, population, wealth, or land area), would require the unanimous consent of all the states.
Denying the states their intended role as joint partners in the federal government by abolishing their equality in the Senate would, according to Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase (in Texas v. White), destroy the grounding of the Union. This Article V provision has been employed by those opposed to contemplated constitutional amendments that would grant the District of Columbia full representation in the Congress without also granting it statehood. Their argument is that an amendment that would allow a non-state district to have two Senators would deprive the states of their equal suffrage in the Senate and would therefore require unanimous ratification by all the states. Whether unanimous consent of the 50 states would be required for such an amendment to become operative remains an unanswered political question.
Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.
After the first group of Senators was elected to the First Congress (1789 -- 1791), the Senators were divided into three "classes '' as nearly equal in size as possible, as required by this section. This was done in May 1789 by lot. It was also decided that each state 's Senators would be assigned to two different classes. Those Senators grouped in the first class had their term expire after only two years; those Senators in the second class had their term expire after only four years, instead of six. After this, all Senators from those States have been elected to six - year terms, and as new States have joined the Union, their Senate seats have been assigned to two of the three classes, maintaining each grouping as nearly equal in size as possible. In this way, election is staggered; approximately one - third of the Senate is up for re-election every two years, but the entire body is never up for re-election in the same year (as contrasted with the House, where its entire membership is up for re-election every 2 years).
As originally established, Senators were elected by the Legislature of the State they represented in the Senate. If a senator died, resigned, or was expelled, the legislature of the state would appoint a replacement to serve out the remainder of the senator 's term. If the State Legislature was not in session, its Governor could appoint a temporary replacement to serve until the legislature could elect a permanent replacement. This was superseded by the Seventeenth Amendment, which provided for the Popular Election of Senators, instead of their appointment by the State Legislature. In a nod to the less populist nature of the Senate, the Amendment tracks the vacancy procedures for the House of Representatives in requiring that the Governor call a special election to fill the vacancy, but (unlike in the House) it vests in the State Legislature the authority to allow the Governor to appoint a temporary replacement until the special election is held. Note, however, that under the original Constitution, the Governors of the states were expressly allowed by the Constitution to make temporary appointments. The current system, under the Seventeenth Amendment, allows Governors to appoint a replacement only if their state legislature has previously decided to allow the Governor to do so; otherwise, the seat must remain vacant until the special election is held to fill the seat, as in the case of a vacancy in the House.
No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.
A Senator must be at least 30 years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States for at least nine years before being elected, and must reside in the State he or she will represent at the time of the election. The Supreme Court has interpreted the Qualifications Clause as an exclusive list of qualifications that can not be supplemented by a House of Congress exercising its Section. 5. authority to "Judge... the... Qualifications of its own Members, '' or by a state in its exercise of its Section. 4. authority to prescribe the "Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives,... ''
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.
Section Three provides that the Vice President is the President of the Senate. Excepting the duty to receive the tally of electoral votes for President, this is the only regular responsibility assigned to the office of the Vice President by the Constitution. When serving in this capacity, the Vice President, who is not a member of the Senate, may cast tie - breaking votes. Early in the nation 's history, Vice Presidents frequently presided over the Senate. In modern times, the Vice President usually does so only during ceremonial occasions or when a tie in the voting is anticipated. Through March 30, 2017, a tie - breaking vote has been cast 258 times by 36 different Vice Presidents.
The Senate shall chuse (sic) their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of the President of the United States.
Clause five provides for a President pro tempore of the Senate, a Senator elected to the post by the Senate, to preside over the body when the Vice President is either absent or exercising the Office of the President.
Although the Constitutional text seems to suggest to the contrary, the Senate 's current practice is to elect a full - time President pro tempore at the beginning of each Congress, as opposed to making it a temporary office only existing during the Vice President 's absence. Since World War II, the senior (longest serving) member of the majority party has filled this position. As is true of the Speaker of the House, the Constitution does not require that the President pro tempore be a senator, but by convention, a senator is always chosen.
The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.
Clause Six grants to the Senate the sole power to try impeachments and spells out the basic procedures for impeachment trials. The Supreme Court has interpreted this clause to mean that the Senate has exclusive and unreviewable authority to determine what constitutes an adequate impeachment trial. Of the nineteen federal officials formally impeached by the House of Representatives, eleven were acquitted and seven were convicted by the Senate. On one occasion the Senate declined to hold a trial.
The constitution 's framers vested the Senate with this power for several reasons. First, they believed Senators would be better educated, more virtuous, and more high - minded than Members of the House of Representatives and thus uniquely able to decide responsibly the most difficult of political questions. Second, they believed that the Senate, being a numerous body, would be well suited to handle the procedural demands of an impeachment trial, in which it, unlike judges and the judiciary system, would "never be tied down by such strict rules, either in the delineation of the offense by the prosecutor, or in the construction of it by judges, as in the common cases serve to limit the discretion of courts in favor of personal security. '' (Alexander Hamilton, The Federalist No. 65).
There are three Constitutionally mandated requirements for impeachment trials. The provision that Senators must sit on oath or affirmation was designed to impress upon them the extreme seriousness of the occasion. The stipulation that the Chief Justice is to preside over presidential impeachment trials underscores the solemnity of the occasion and aims to avoid the possible conflict of interest of a Vice President 's presiding over the proceeding for the removal of the one official standing between him (or her) and the presidency. The specification that a two - thirds supermajority vote of those Senators present is necessary in order to convict designed to facilitate serious deliberation and to make removal possible only through a consensus that cuts across factional divisions.
Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.
If any officer is convicted on impeachment, he or she is immediately removed from office, and may be barred from holding any public office in the future. No other punishments may be inflicted pursuant to the impeachment proceeding, but the convicted party remains liable to trial and punishment in the courts for civil and criminal charges.
The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators.
The purpose of this clause is twofold. First, it makes clear the division of responsibility with respect to the conduct of the election of federal Senators and Representatives. That responsibility lies primarily with the states and secondarily with Congress. Second, the clause lodges the power to regulate elections in the respective legislative branches of the states and the federal government, not with the executive or judicial. As authorized by this clause, Congress has set a uniform date for federal elections: the Tuesday following the first Monday in November.
Presently, as there are no on - point federal regulations, the states retain the authority to regulate the dates on which other aspects of the election process are held (registration, primary elections, etc.) and where elections will be held. As for regulating the "manner '' of elections, the Supreme Court has interpreted this to mean "matters like notices, registration, supervision of voting, protection of voters, prevention of fraud and corrupt practices, counting of votes, duties of inspectors and canvassers, and making and publication of election returns. '' The Supreme Court has held that States may not exercise their power to determine the "manner '' of holding elections to impose term limits on their congressional delegation.
One of the most significant ways that each state regulates the "manner '' of elections is through their power to draw electoral districts. Although in theory Congress could draw the district map for each State, it has not exercised this level of oversight. Congress has, however, required the States to conform to certain practices when drawing districts. States are currently required to use a single - member district scheme, whereby the State is divided into as many election districts for Representatives in the House of Representatives as the size of its representation in that body (that is to say, Representatives can not be elected at - large from the whole State unless the State has only one Representative in the House, nor can districts elect more than 1 Representative). The Supreme Court has interpreted "by the Legislature thereof '' to include voters using the initiative process, in those state whose constitutions provide it, to create an independent redistricting commission.
Congress first exercised its power to regulate elections nation - wide 1842, when the 27th Congress passed a law requiring the election of Representatives by districts. In subsequent years, Congress expanded on the requirements, successively adding contiguity, compactness, and substantial equality of population to the districting requirements. These standards were all later deleted in the Reapportionment Act of 1929. Congress subsequently reinstated the requirement that districts be composed of contiguous territory, be "compact, '' and have equal populations within each State. Congress has allowed those requirements to lapse, but the Supreme Court has re-imposed the population requirement on the States under the Equal Protection Clause and is suspicious of districts that do not meet the other "traditional '' districting criteria of compactness and contiguity.
In 1866, Congress legislated a remedy for a situation under which deadlocks in state legislatures over the election of Senators were creating vacancies in the office. The act required the two houses of each legislature to meet in joint session on a specified day and to meet every day thereafter until a Senator was selected. The first comprehensive federal statute dealing with elections was adopted in 1870 as a means of enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment 's guarantee against racial discrimination in granting suffrage rights. Under the Enforcement Act of 1870, and subsequent laws, false registration, bribery, voting without legal right, making false returns of votes cast, interference in any manner with officers of election, and the neglect by any such officer of any duty required by state or federal law were made federal offenses. Provision was made for the appointment by federal judges of persons to attend at places of registration and at elections with authority to challenge any person proposing to register or vote unlawfully, to witness the counting of votes, and to identify by their signatures the registration of voters and election tally sheets.
Beginning with the Tillman Act of 1907, Congress has imposed a growing number of restrictions on elections and campaign financing. The most significant piece of legislation has been the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act. It was this legislation that was at issue in the Supreme Court 's seminal decision, Buckley v. Valeo (1976), which, in the face of a First Amendment challenge, set the ground rules for campaign finance legislation, generally disallowing restrictions on expenditures by candidates, but permitting restrictions on contributions by individuals and corporations.
In addition to statutory constraints, Congress and the States have altered the electoral process through amending the Constitution (first in the above mentioned Fifteenth Amendment). The Seventeenth Amendment altered the manner of conducting the elections of Senators; establishing that they are to be elected by the people of the states. Also, the Nineteenth Amendment prohibits any U.S. citizen from being denied the right to vote on the basis of sex; the Twenty - fourth Amendment prohibits both Congress and the states from conditioning the right to vote in federal elections on payment of a poll tax or other types of tax; and the Twenty - sixth Amendment prohibits the states and the federal government from using age as a reason for denying the right to vote to U.S. citizens who are at least eighteen years old.
The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.
Clause 2 fixes an annual date upon which Congress must meet. By doing so, the Constitution empowers Congress to meet, whether or not the President called it into session. Article II, Section 3 does grant the president limited authority to convene and adjourn both Houses (or either of them) and mandates that it will meet at least once in a year to enact legislation on behalf of the people. Some delegates to the 1787 constitutional convention believed yearly meetings were not necessary, for there would not be enough legislative business for Congress to deal with annually. Nathaniel Gorham of Massachusetts argued that the time should be fixed to prevent disputes from arising within the legislature, and to allow the states to adjust their elections to correspond with the fixed date. A fixed date also corresponded to the tradition in the states of having annual meetings. Finally, Gorham concluded that the legislative branch should be required to meet at least once a year to act as a check upon the executive department.
Although this clause provides that the annual meeting was to be on the first Monday in December, the government established by the 1787 Constitution did not begin operations until March 4, 1789. As the 1st Congress held its initial meeting on March 4, that became the date on which new representatives and senators took office in subsequent years. Therefore, every other year, although a new Congress was elected in November, it did not come into office until the following March, with a "lame duck '' session convening in the interim. This practice was altered in 1933 following ratification of the Twentieth Amendment, which states (in Section 2) that, "The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the third day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day ''. This change virtually eliminated the necessity of there being a lame duck session of Congress.
Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.
Section Five states that a majority of each House constitutes a quorum to do business; a smaller number may adjourn the House or compel the attendance of absent members. In practice, the quorum requirement is all but ignored. A quorum is assumed to be present unless a quorum call, requested by a member, proves otherwise. Rarely do members ask for quorum calls to demonstrate the absence of a quorum; more often, they use the quorum call as a delaying tactic.
Sometimes, unqualified individuals have been admitted to Congress. For instance, the Senate once admitted John Henry Eaton, a twenty - eight - year - old, in 1818 (the admission was inadvertent, as Eaton 's birth date was unclear at the time). In 1934, a twenty - nine - year - old, Rush Holt, was elected to the Senate; he agreed to wait six months, until his thirtieth birthday, to take the oath. The Senate ruled in that case that the age requirement applied as of the date of the taking of the oath, not the date of election.
Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behavior, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a member.
Each House can determine its own Rules (assuming a quorum is present), and may punish any of its members. A two - thirds vote is necessary to expel a member. Section 5, Clause 2 does not provide specific guidance to each House regarding when and how each House may change its rules, leaving details to the respective chambers.
Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the Journal.
Each House must keep and publish a Journal, though it may choose to keep any part of the Journal secret. The decisions of the House -- not the words spoken during debates -- are recorded in the Journal; if one - fifth of those present (assuming a quorum is present) request it, the votes of the members on a particular question must also be entered.
Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.
Neither House may adjourn, without the consent of the other, for more than three days. Often, a House will hold pro forma sessions every three days; such sessions are merely held to fulfill the constitutional requirement, and not to conduct business. Furthermore, neither House may meet in any place other than that designated for both Houses (the Capitol), without the consent of the other House.
The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.
Senators and Representatives set their own compensation. Under the Twenty - seventh Amendment, any change in their compensation will not take effect until after the next congressional election.
Members of both Houses have certain privileges, based on those enjoyed by the members of the British Parliament. Members attending, going to or returning from either House are privileged from arrest, except for treason, felony or breach of the peace. One may not sue a Senator or Representative for slander occurring during Congressional debate, nor may speech by a member of Congress during a Congressional session be the basis for criminal prosecution. The latter was affirmed when Mike Gravel published over 4,000 pages of the Pentagon Papers in the Congressional Record, which might have otherwise been a criminal offense. This clause has also been interpreted in Gravel v. United States, 408 U.S. 606 (1972) to provide protection to aides and staff of sitting members of Congress, so long as their activities relate to legislative matters.
No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.
Senators and Representatives may not simultaneously serve in Congress and hold a position in the executive branch. This restriction is meant to protect legislative independence by preventing the president from using patronage to buy votes in Congress. It is a major difference from the political system in the British Parliament, where cabinet ministers are required to be members of parliament.
Furthermore, Senators and Representatives can not resign to take newly created or higher - paying political positions; rather, they must wait until the conclusion of the term for which they were elected. If Congress increases the salary of a particular officer, it may later reduce that salary to permit an individual to resign from Congress and take that position (known as the Saxbe fix). The effects of the clause were discussed in 1937, when Senator Hugo Black was appointed an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court with some time left in his Senate term. Just prior to the appointment, Congress had increased the pension available to Justices retiring at the age of seventy. It was therefore suggested by some that the office 's emolument had been increased during Black 's Senatorial term, and that therefore Black could not take office as a Justice. The response, however, was that Black was fifty - one years old, and would not receive the increased pension until at least 19 years later, long after his Senate term had expired.
All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.
This establishes the method for making Acts of Congress that involve taxation. Accordingly, any bill may originate in either House of Congress, except for a revenue bill, which may originate only in the House of Representatives. In practice, the Senate sometimes circumvents this requirement by substituting the text of a revenue bill previously passed by the House with a substitute text. Either House may amend any bill, including revenue and appropriation bills.
This clause of the U.S. Constitution stemmed from an English parliamentary practice that all money bills must have their first reading in the House of Commons. This practice was intended to ensure that the power of the purse is possessed by the legislative body most responsive to the people, although the English practice was modified in America by allowing the Senate to amend these bills. The clause was part of the Great Compromise between small and large states; the large states were unhappy with the lopsided power of small states in the Senate, and so the clause theoretically offsets the unrepresentative nature of the Senate, and compensates the large states for allowing equal voting rights to Senators from small states.
Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law.
This clause is known as the Presentment Clause. Before a bill becomes law, it must be presented to the President, who has ten days (excluding Sundays) to act upon it. If the President signs the bill, it becomes law. If he disapproves of the bill, he must return it to the House in which it originated together with his objections. This procedure has become known as the veto, although that particular word does not appear in the text of Article One. The bill does not then become law unless both Houses, by two - thirds votes, override the veto. If the President neither signs nor returns the bill within the ten - day limit, the bill becomes law, unless the Congress has adjourned in the meantime, thereby preventing the President from returning the bill to the House in which it originated. In the latter case, the President, by taking no action on the bill towards the end of a session, exercises a "pocket veto '', which Congress may not override. In the former case, where the President allows a bill to become law unsigned, there is no common name for the practice, but recent scholarship has termed it a "default enactment. ''
What exactly constitutes an adjournment for the purposes of the pocket veto has been unclear. In the Pocket Veto Case (1929), the Supreme Court held that "the determinative question in reference to an ' adjournment ' is not whether it is a final adjournment of Congress or an interim adjournment, such as an adjournment of the first session, but whether it is one that ' prevents ' the President from returning the bill to the House in which it originated within the time allowed. '' Since neither House of Congress was in session, the President could not return the bill to one of them, thereby permitting the use of the pocket veto. In Wright v. United States (1938), however, the Court ruled that adjournments of one House only did not constitute an adjournment of Congress required for a pocket veto. In such cases, the Secretary or Clerk of the House in question was ruled competent to receive the bill.
Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.
In 1996, Congress passed the Line Item Veto Act, which permitted the President, at the time of the signing of the bill, to rescind certain expenditures. The Congress could disapprove the cancellation and reinstate the funds. The President could veto the disapproval, but the Congress, by a two - thirds vote in each House, could override the veto. In the case Clinton v. City of New York, the Supreme Court found the Line Item Veto Act unconstitutional because it violated the Presentment clause. First, the procedure delegated legislative powers to the President, thereby violating the nondelegation doctrine. Second, the procedure violated the terms of Section Seven, which state, "if he approve (the bill) he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it. '' Thus, the President may sign the bill, veto it, or do nothing, but he may not amend the bill and then sign it.
Every bill, order, resolution, or vote that must be passed by both Houses, except on a question of adjournment, must be presented to the President before becoming law. However, to propose a constitutional amendment, two - thirds of both Houses may submit it to the states for the ratification, without any consideration by the President, as prescribed in Article V.
Some Presidents have made very extensive use of the veto, while others have not used it at all. Grover Cleveland, for instance, vetoed over four hundred bills during his first term in office; Congress overrode only two of those vetoes. Meanwhile, seven Presidents have never used the veto power. There have been 2,560 vetoes, including pocket vetoes.
Congress 's legislative powers are enumerated in Section Eight:
The Congress shall have power
Many powers of Congress have been interpreted broadly. Most notably, the Taxing and Spending, Interstate Commerce, and Necessary and Proper Clauses have been deemed to grant expansive powers to Congress.
Congress may lay and collect taxes for the "common defense '' or "general welfare '' of the United States. The U.S. Supreme Court has not often defined "general welfare, '' leaving the political question to Congress. In United States v. Butler (1936), the Court for the first time construed the clause. The dispute centered on a tax collected from processors of agricultural products such as meat; the funds raised by the tax were not paid into the general funds of the treasury, but were rather specially earmarked for farmers. The Court struck down the tax, ruling that the general welfare language in the Taxing and Spending Clause related only to "matters of national, as distinguished from local, welfare ''. Congress continues to make expansive use of the Taxing and Spending Clause; for instance, the social security program is authorized under the Taxing and Spending Clause.
Congress has the power to borrow money on the credit of the United States. In 1871, when deciding Knox v. Lee, the Court ruled that this clause permitted Congress to emit bills and make them legal tender in satisfaction of debts. Whenever Congress borrows money, it is obligated to repay the sum as stipulated in the original agreement. However, such agreements are only "binding on the conscience of the sovereign '', as the doctrine of sovereign immunity prevents a creditor from suing in court if the government reneges its commitment.
The Congress shall have Power (...) To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;
The Supreme Court has seldom restrained the use of the commerce clause for widely varying purposes. The first important decision related to the commerce clause was Gibbons v. Ogden, decided by a unanimous Court in 1824. The case involved conflicting federal and state laws: Thomas Gibbons had a federal permit to navigate steamboats in the Hudson River, while the other, Aaron Ogden, had a monopoly to do the same granted by the state of New York. Ogden contended that "commerce '' included only buying and selling of goods and not their transportation. Chief Justice John Marshall rejected this notion. Marshall suggested that "commerce '' included navigation of goods, and that it "must have been contemplated '' by the Framers. Marshall added that Congress 's power over commerce "is complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations other than are prescribed in the Constitution ''.
The expansive interpretation of the Commerce Clause was restrained during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when a laissez - faire attitude dominated the Court. In United States v. E.C. Knight Company (1895), the Supreme Court limited the newly enacted Sherman Antitrust Act, which had sought to break up the monopolies dominating the nation 's economy. The Court ruled that Congress could not regulate the manufacture of goods, even if they were later shipped to other states. Chief Justice Melville Fuller wrote, "commerce succeeds to manufacture, and is not a part of it. ''
The U.S. Supreme Court sometimes ruled New Deal programs unconstitutional because they stretched the meaning of the commerce clause. In Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, (1935) the Court unanimously struck down industrial codes regulating the slaughter of poultry, declaring that Congress could not regulate commerce relating to the poultry, which had "come to a permanent rest within the State. '' As Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes put it, "so far as the poultry here in question is concerned, the flow of interstate commerce has ceased. '' Judicial rulings against attempted use of Congress 's Commerce Clause powers continued during the 1930s.
In 1937, the Supreme Court began moving away from its laissez - faire attitude concerning Congressional legislation and the Commerce Clause, when it ruled in National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Company, that the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (commonly known as the Wagner Act) was constitutional. The legislation under scrutiny, prevented employers from engaging in "unfair labor practices '' such as firing workers for joining unions. In sustaining this act, the Court, signaled its return to the philosophy espoused by John Marshall, that Congress could pass laws regulating actions that even indirectly influenced interstate commerce.
This new attitude became firmly set into place in 1942. In Wickard v. Filburn, the Court ruled that production quotas under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 were constitutionally applied to agricultural production (in this instance, home - grown wheat for private consumption) that was consumed purely intrastate, because its effect upon interstate commerce placed it within the power of Congress to regulate under the Commerce Clause. This decision marked the beginning of the Court 's total deference to Congress ' claims of Commerce Clause powers, which lasted into the 1990s.
United States v. Lopez (1995) was the first decision in six decades to invalidate a federal statute on the grounds that it exceeded the power of the Congress under the Commerce Clause. The Court held that while Congress had broad lawmaking authority under the Commerce Clause, the power was limited, and did not extend so far from "commerce '' as to authorize the regulation of the carrying of handguns, especially when there was no evidence that carrying them affected the economy on a massive scale. In a later case, United States v. Morrison (2000), the justices ruled that Congress could not make such laws even when there was evidence of aggregate effect.
In contrast to these rulings, the Supreme Court also continues to follow the precedent set by Wickard v. Filburn. In Gonzales v. Raich it ruled that the Commerce Clause granted Congress the authority to criminalize the production and use of home - grown cannabis even where states approve its use for medicinal purposes. The court held that, as with the agricultural production in the earlier case, home - grown cannabis is a legitimate subject of federal regulation because it competes with marijuana that moves in interstate commerce.
Congress may establish uniform laws relating to naturalization and bankruptcy. It may also coin money, regulate the value of American or foreign currency and punish counterfeiters. Congress may fix the standards of weights and measures. Furthermore, Congress may establish post offices and post roads (the roads, however, need not be exclusively for the conveyance of mail). Congress may promote the progress of science and useful arts by granting copyrights and patents of limited duration. Section eight, clause eight of Article One, known as the Copyright Clause, is the only instance of the word "right '' used in the original constitution (though the word does appear in several Amendments). Though perpetual copyrights and patents are prohibited, the Supreme Court has ruled in Eldred v. Ashcroft (2003) that repeated extensions to the term of copyright do not constitute perpetual copyright; also note that this is the only power granted where the means to accomplish its stated purpose is specifically provided for. Courts inferior to the Supreme Court may be established by Congress.
Congress has several powers related to war and the armed forces. Under the War Powers Clause, only Congress may declare war, but in several cases it has, without declaring war, granted the President the authority to engage in military conflicts. Five wars have been declared in United States ' history: the War of 1812, the Mexican -- American War, the Spanish -- American War, World War I and World War II. Some historians argue that the legal doctrines and legislation passed during the operations against Pancho Villa constitute a sixth declaration of war. Congress may grant letters of marque and reprisal. Congress may establish and support the armed forces, but no appropriation made for the support of the army may be used for more than two years. This provision was inserted because the Framers feared the establishment of a standing army, beyond civilian control, during peacetime. Congress may regulate or call forth the state militias, but the states retain the authority to appoint officers and train personnel. Congress also has exclusive power to make rules and regulations governing the land and naval forces. Although the executive branch and the Pentagon have asserted an ever - increasing measure of involvement in this process, the U.S. Supreme Court has often reaffirmed Congress 's exclusive hold on this power (e.g. Burns v. Wilson, 346 U.S. 137 (1953)). Congress used this power twice soon after World War II with the enactment of two statutes: the Uniform Code of Military Justice to improve the quality and fairness of courts martial and military justice, and the Federal Tort Claims Act which among other rights had allowed military service persons to sue for damages until the U.S. Supreme Court repealed that section of the statute in a divisive series of cases, known collectively as the Feres Doctrine.
Congress has the exclusive right to legislate "in all cases whatsoever '' for the nation 's capital, the District of Columbia. Congress chooses to devolve some of such authority to the elected mayor and council of District of Columbia. Nevertheless, Congress remains free to enact any legislation for the District so long as constitutionally permissible, to overturn any legislation by the city government, and technically to revoke the city government at any time. Congress may also exercise such jurisdiction over land purchased from the states for the erection of forts and other buildings.
The Congress shall have Power (...) To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.
Finally, Congress has the power to do whatever is "necessary and proper '' to carry out its enumerated powers and, crucially, all others vested in it. This has been interpreted to authorize criminal prosecution of those whose actions have a "substantial effect '' on interstate commerce in Wickard v. Filburn; however, Thomas Jefferson, in the Kentucky Resolutions, supported by James Madison, maintained that a penal power could not be inferred from a power to regulate, and that the only penal powers were for treason, counterfeiting, piracy and felony on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations.
The necessary and proper clause has been interpreted extremely broadly, thereby giving Congress wide latitude in legislation. The first landmark case involving the clause was McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), which involved the establishment of a national bank. Alexander Hamilton, in advocating the creation of the bank, argued that there was "a more or less direct '' relationship between the bank and "the powers of collecting taxes, borrowing money, regulating trade between the states, and raising and maintaining fleets and navies ''. Thomas Jefferson countered that Congress 's powers "can all be carried into execution without a national bank. A bank therefore is not necessary, and consequently not authorized by this phrase ''. Chief Justice John Marshall agreed with the former interpretation. Marshall wrote that a Constitution listing all of Congress 's powers "would partake of a prolixity of a legal code and could scarcely be embraced by the human mind ''. Since the Constitution could not possibly enumerate the "minor ingredients '' of the powers of Congress, Marshall "deduced '' that Congress had the authority to establish a bank from the "great outlines '' of the general welfare, commerce and other clauses. Under this doctrine of the necessary and proper clause, Congress has sweepingly broad powers (known as implied powers) not explicitly enumerated in the Constitution. However, the Congress can not enact laws solely on the implied powers, any action must be necessary and proper in the execution of the enumerated powers.
The ninth section of Article One places limits on Congress ' powers:
The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.
The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.
No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.
No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken.
No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.
No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.
No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.
No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State.
The first clause in this section prevents Congress from passing any law that would restrict the importation of slaves into the United States prior to 1808. Congress could however, levy a per capita duty of up to ten Spanish milled dollars for each slave imported into the country. This clause was further entrenched into the Constitution by Article V, where it is explicitly shielded from constitutional amendment prior to 1808. On March 2, 1807, Congress approved legislation prohibiting the importation of slaves into the United States, which went into effect January 1, 1808, the first day permitted by the Constitution.
A writ of habeas corpus is a legal action against unlawful detainment that commands a law enforcement agency or other body that has a person in custody to have a court inquire into the legality of the detention. The court may order the person released if the reason for detention is deemed insufficient or unjustifiable. The Constitution further provides that the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus may not be suspended "unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it ''. In Ex parte Milligan (1866), the Supreme Court ruled that the suspension of habeas corpus in a time of war was lawful, but military tribunals did not apply to citizens in states that had upheld the authority of the Constitution and where civilian courts were still operating.
A bill of attainder is a law by which a person is immediately convicted without trial. An ex post facto law is a law which applies retroactively, punishing someone for an act that was only made criminal after it was done. The ex post facto clause does not apply to civil matters.
Section Nine reiterates the provision from Section Two that direct taxes must be apportioned by state populations. This clause was also explicitly shielded from constitutional amendment prior to 1808 by Article V. In 1913, the 16th Amendment exempted all income taxes from this clause. This overcame the ruling in Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co. that the income tax could only be applied to regular income and could not be applied to dividends and capital gains. Furthermore, no tax may be imposed on exports from any state. Congress may not, by revenue or commerce legislation, give preference to ports of one state over those of another; neither may it require ships from one state to pay duties in another. All funds belonging to the Treasury may not be withdrawn except according to law. Modern practice is that Congress annually passes a number of appropriations bills authorizing the expenditure of public money. The Constitution requires that a regular statement of such expenditures be published.
The Title of Nobility Clause prohibits Congress from granting any title of nobility. In addition, it specifies that no civil officer may accept, without the consent of Congress, any gift, payment, office or title from a foreign ruler or state. However, a U.S. citizen may receive foreign office before or after their period of public service.
No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.
States may not exercise certain powers reserved for the federal government: they may not enter into treaties, alliances or confederations, grant letters of marque or reprisal, coin money or issue bills of credit (such as currency). Furthermore, no state may make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts, which expressly forbids any state government (but not the federal government) from "making a tender '' (i.e., authorizing something that may be offered in payment) of any type or form of money to meet any financial obligation, unless that form of money is coins made of gold or silver (or a medium of exchange backed by and redeemable in gold or silver coins, as noted in Farmers & Merchants Bank v. Federal Reserve Bank). Much of this clause is devoted to preventing the States from using or creating any currency other than that created by Congress. In Federalist no. 44, Madison explains that "it may be observed that the same reasons which shew the necessity of denying to the States the power of regulating coin, prove with equal force that they ought not to be at liberty to substitute a paper medium in the place of coin. Had every State a right to regulate the value of its coin, there might be as many different currencies as States; and thus the intercourse among them would be impeded ''. Moreover, the states may not pass bills of attainder, enact ex post facto laws, impair the obligation of contracts, or grant titles of nobility.
The Contract Clause was the subject of much contentious litigation in the 19th century. It was first interpreted by the Supreme Court in 1810, when Fletcher v. Peck was decided. The case involved the Yazoo land scandal, in which the Georgia legislature authorized the sale of land to speculators at low prices. The bribery involved in the passage of the authorizing legislation was so blatant that a Georgia mob attempted to lynch the corrupt members of the legislature. Following elections, the legislature passed a law that rescinded the contracts granted by the corrupt legislators. The validity of the annulment of the sale was questioned in the Supreme Court. In writing for a unanimous court, Chief Justice John Marshall asked, "What is a contract? '' His answer was: "a compact between two or more parties ''. Marshall argued that the sale of land by the Georgia legislature, though fraught with corruption, was a valid "contract ''. He added that the state had no right to annul the purchase of the land, since doing so would impair the obligations of contract.
The definition of a contract propounded by Chief Justice Marshall was not as simple as it may seem. In 1819, the Court considered whether a corporate charter could be construed as a contract. The case of Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward involved Dartmouth College, which had been established under a Royal Charter granted by King George III. The Charter created a board of twelve trustees for the governance of the College. In 1815, however, New Hampshire passed a law increasing the board 's membership to twenty - one with the aim that public control could be exercised over the College. The Court, including Marshall, ruled that New Hampshire could not amend the charter, which was ruled to be a contract since it conferred "vested rights '' on the trustees.
The Marshall Court determined another dispute in Sturges v. Crowninshield. The case involved a debt that was contracted in early 1811. Later in that year, the state of New York passed a bankruptcy law, under which the debt was later discharged. The Supreme Court ruled that a retroactively applied state bankruptcy law impaired the obligation to pay the debt, and therefore violated the Constitution. In Ogden v. Saunders (1827), however, the court decided that state bankruptcy laws could apply to debts contracted after the passage of the law. State legislation on the issue of bankruptcy and debtor relief has not been much of an issue since the adoption of a comprehensive federal bankruptcy law in 1898.
No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it 's (sic) inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul (sic) of the Congress.
Still more powers are prohibited of the states. States may not, without the consent of Congress, tax imports or exports except for the fulfillment of state inspection laws (which may be revised by Congress). The net revenue of the tax is paid not to the state, but to the federal Treasury.
No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.
Under the Compact Clause, states may not, without the consent of Congress, keep troops or armies during times of peace. They may not enter into alliances nor compacts with foreign states, nor engage in war unless invaded. States may, however, organize and arm a militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. (Article I, Section 8, enumerated powers of Congress.) The National Guard, whose members are also members of the militia of the United States as defined by 10 U.S.C. § 311, fulfill this function, as do persons serving in State Militias with federal oversight under 32 U.S.C. § 109.
The idea of allowing Congress to have say over agreements between states traces back to the numerous controversies that arose between various colonies. Eventually compromises would be created between the two colonies and these compromises would be submitted to the Crown for approval. After the American Revolutionary War, the Articles of Confederation allowed states to appeal to Congress to settle disputes between the states over boundaries or "any cause whatever ''. The Articles of Confederation also required Congressional approval for "any treaty or alliance '' in which a state was one of the parties.
There have been a number of Supreme Court cases concerning what constitutes valid congressional consent to an interstate compact. In Virginia v. Tennessee, 148 U.S. 503 (1893), the Court found that some agreements among states stand even when lacking the explicit consent of Congress. (One example the court gave was a state moving some goods from a distant state to itself, it would not require Congressional approval to contract with another state to use its canals for transport.) According to the Court, the Compact Clause requires congressional consent only if the agreement among the states is "directed to the formation of any combination tending to the increase of political power in the States, which may encroach upon or interfere with the just supremacy of the United States ''. The congressional consent issue is at the center of the current debate over the constitutionality of the not yet effective National Popular Vote Interstate Compact entered into by several states plus the District of Columbia.
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list of nigerian president from 1960 till date | List of heads of state of Nigeria - wikipedia
This is a list of the heads of state of Nigeria, from independence in 1960 to the present day.
From 1960 to 1963 the head of state under the Nigeria Independence Act 1960 was the Queen of Nigeria, Elizabeth II, who was also monarch of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen was represented in Nigeria by a Governor - General. Nigeria became a federal republic under the Constitution of 1963 and the monarch and Governor - General were replaced by a ceremonial President. In 1979, under the 1979 Constitution, the President gained executive powers, becoming head of both state and government. Since 1994, under the 1993 Constitution and the current 1999 Constitution, the head of state and government has been called the President.
The succession to the throne was the same as the succession to the British throne.
The Governor - General was the representative of the monarch in Nigeria and exercised most of the powers of the monarch. The Governor - General was appointed for an indefinite term, serving at the pleasure of the monarch. Since Nigeria was granted independence by the Nigeria Independence Act 1960, rather than being first established as a semi-autonomous Dominion and later promoted to independence by the Statute of Westminster 1931, the Governor - General was appointed solely on the advice of the Nigerian cabinet without the involvement of the British government, with the sole of exception of James Robertson, the former colonial governor, who served as Governor - General temporarily until he was replaced by Nnamdi Azikiwe. In the event of a vacancy the Chief Justice would have served as Officer Administering the Government.
Under the 1963 Constitution, the first constitution of the Republic of Nigeria, the President replaced the monarch as ceremonial head of state. The President was elected by Parliament for a five - year term. In the event of a vacancy the President of the Senate would have served as Acting President.
Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu led a coup d'état in 1966 which overthrew President Azikiwe and his government.
Under the 1979 Constitution, the second constitution of the Republic of Nigeria, the President was head of both state and government. The President was elected by for a four - year term. In the event of a vacancy the Vice President would have served as Acting President.
Major - General Muhammadu Buhari led a coup d'état which overthrew President Shagari and his government.
The Third Republic was the planned republican government of Nigeria in 1993 which was to be governed by the Third Republican constitution.
The constitution of the Third Republic was drafted in 1989, when General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida (IBB), the military Head of State, promised to terminate military rule by 1990 -- a date which was subsequently pushed back to 1993. IBB lifted the ban on political activity in the spring of 1989, and his government established two political parties: the center - right National Republican Convention (NRC) and the center - left Social Democratic Party (SDP). Gubernatorial and state legislative elections were conducted in December 1991, while the presidential election was postponed till 12 June 1993 -- due to political unrest. M.K.O. Abiola, a wealthy Yoruba businessman, won a decisive victory in the presidential elections on the SDP platm.
General Sani Abacha led a coup d'état which overthrew President Shonekan and his government.
Under the fourth Constitution of the Republic of Nigeria, the President is head of both state and government. The President is elected by for a four - year term. In the event of a vacancy the Vice President serves as Acting President.
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how many whitney are there in the world | List of Whitney Houston concerts - wikipedia
American singer Whitney Houston embarked on 9 tours, 6 of which were world tours and 3 which were territorial tours. After becoming the opening act for singer Jeffrey Osborne and Luther Vandross on their US amphitheatre tour and playing at various American theaters, festivals, and clubs in 1985, she embarked on her first worldwide tour, the successful The Greatest Love Tour in 1986. With promoting worldwide mega hit album Whitney, her second world tour, The Moment of Truth World Tour started in North America during the summer of 1987 and continued overseas during 1988 in Europe, Japan, Hong Kong, and Australia. Especially in Europe, Houston visited 12 countries, playing to over half a million fans including nine consecutive nights at Wembley Arena in London. She then followed this with sold - out concert tour, Feels So Right Japan Tour in 1990 and I 'm Your Baby Tonight World Tour in 1991.
With the enormous success of the film, The Bodyguard, and its accompanying soundtrack, Houston went on her most extensive world tour, The Bodyguard World Tour to support her projects during 1993 -- 1994. Spanning two years, Houston played North America twice, Europe, Japan, and made her first appearances in South America and South Africa. In 1997, she embarked on The Pacific Rim Tour which had her visiting for the first time Thailand and Taiwan. After the success of Houston 's first studio album My Love Is Your Love in eight years, the singer embarked on her first world tour since 1994 to promote it in 1999. My Love Is Your Love World Tour was the highest grossing arena concert tour of the year in Europe while playing to almost half a million people. In 2009, Houston started Nothing but Love World Tour, her first tour in over 10 years and supported her seventh and final studio album I Look to You.
During her career, Houston has also made appearances at the various charity concerts such as Freedomfest: Nelson Mandela 's 70th Birthday Celebration (1988), A Benefit Concert for The United Negro College Fund (1988), That 's What Friends Are For: AIDS Benefit Concert (1990), Welcome Home Heroes with Whitney Houston (1991) and Classic Whitney: Live from Washington, D.C. (1997).
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where does the name prefab sprout come from | Prefab Sprout - wikipedia
Prefab Sprout are an English pop band from Witton Gilbert, County Durham, England who rose to fame during the 1980s. Nine of their albums have reached the Top 40 in the UK Albums Chart, and one of their singles, "The King of Rock ' n ' Roll '', peaked at number seven in the UK Singles Chart. The band formed in 1978 in Newcastle.
Their 1985 album Steve McQueen was released in the US with the title Two Wheels Good and peaked at number 180 in the Billboard 200. Frontman Paddy McAloon is regarded as one of the great songwriters of his era and the band have been described as "one of the most beloved British pop bands of the ' 80s and ' 90s ''.
Prefab Sprout debuted in 1982 with their self - released single, "Lions In My Own Garden: Exit Someone '' -- songwriter Paddy McAloon wanted a song title where the first letters of the words spelled out Limoges, the French city where his former girlfriend was staying at the time. Music journalist Stuart Maconie described the track as "enigmatic, melancholy, tuneful and therefore perfect for a jobless literature graduate with girlfriend problems ''. Their debut album, Swoon, was released on the Kitchenware label in March 1984. The following album, the Thomas Dolby - produced Steve McQueen, (released in America as Two Wheels Good after McQueen 's estate expressed their displeasure with the title) was highly praised by critics. Their Protest Songs album was recorded next, but was not released until 1989. It included the song "Life of Surprises '', which later became the title track for their greatest hits compilation album.
Their biggest commercial success in the UK came with the 1988 single "The King of Rock ' N ' Roll '', taken from the album From Langley Park to Memphis. It reached No. 7 in the UK Singles Chart, their only single to reach the Top 10. From Langley Park to Memphis included guest appearances from Stevie Wonder and Pete Townshend.
In 1990, Jordan: The Comeback, again produced by Thomas Dolby, was nominated for a BRIT Award. Though the music was more accessible than their earlier material, the lyrics and subject matter remained characteristically oblique and suggestive. McAloon has alluded in interviews to several albums ' worth of songs that he has written but are unreleased / unrecorded including amongst others, concept albums based on the life of Michael Jackson, the history of the world (Earth: The Story So Far) and a fictional superhero (Zorro the Fox).
Their greatest hits, A Life of Surprises - The Best of Prefab Sprout, gave them their biggest US hit, "If You Do n't Love Me '', which spent several weeks in the Top 10 on the dance chart. McAloon joked in the album liner notes about the band 's lack of touring over the past decade.
Prefab Sprout released Andromeda Heights in the UK in 1997 and embarked on a short UK tour in 2000. This tour, and the subsequent album, did not feature Wendy Smith, who by this time had reportedly left the band. A double album anthology, the 38 Carat Collection was released by CBS in 1999 as the group was leaving the record label. Unexpectedly, the group 's US label, Epic, belatedly reissued this set as The Collection in early 2001. Smith left the group during this period, after the birth of her first child.
In 2001 the band released The Gunman and Other Stories, a concept album themed on the American Wild West. The opening track "Cowboy Dreams '' was a hit for the British actor - singer Jimmy Nail. Though critically acclaimed, neither enjoyed major commercial success.
After being diagnosed with a medical disorder that seriously impaired his vision, Paddy McAloon released the album I Trawl The Megahertz under his own name in 2003 on the EMI Liberty label. As of 2006, McAloon had suffered another setback: his hearing had deteriorated, reportedly due to Ménière 's disease. In early 2007 a remastered Steve McQueen was released in a two - CD package, containing new versions of eight of the songs from the original album, in different arrangements performed by McAloon on acoustic guitar.
Prefab Sprout 's first album of new material since 2001, Let 's Change the World with Music, was released on 7 September 2009. Reviews in the UK press were favourable (e.g. 5 / 5 in The Times, 4 / 5 in The Guardian, 4 / 5 in Record Collector). The release was also accompanied by a few interviews (e.g. Mojo).
In June 2013, a leak of ten previously unreleased songs on Soundcloud led to speculation that a new Prefab Sprout album was being recorded. Rumoured titles for the album were "Trapdoor Melancholy '' and "Devil Came A Calling ''. A proposed 7 October 2013 release date was subsequently confirmed on 14 July, with the official title given as Crimson / Red.
Crimson / Red was indeed released on 7 October 2013. The album was made available on vinyl and CD on the Icebreaker records label. A limited edition box set featuring an interview CD was also released. 200 of these were available as signed copies. The lead single was "The Best Jewel Thief in the World. '' A video for this track (produced by Tylar Cornak) was originally posted to Vimeo.
Crimson / Red also confirmed that Prefab Sprout was now in effect a solo project, with Paddy McAloon singing, playing and programming all of the music on the album on his own. In interviews at the time, McAloon explained that his health issues (in particular, the deterioration of his hearing) now dictated the way in which Prefab Sprout music was recorded, making it impractical and even impossible for any other musicians to be involved; but that he remained fond of and grateful to his former bandmates.
On 3 March 2017, McAloon 's manager Keith Armstrong, one - time head of Kitchenware Records, posted a short clip on Instagram of McAloon performing a new song America to a camcorder; operated by McAloon himself. A longer version appears on Armstrong 's YouTube page. To date, no reason has been disclosed if this points to a new album or as the lyrics suggest, it is a commentary on the incumbent US administration.
According to the Guinness Book of British Hit Singles & Albums, the band 's name was a mondegreen from the Nancy Sinatra and Lee Hazlewood song, "Jackson '', misheard by frontman Paddy McAloon. The correct opening lyrics for "Jackson '' are "We got married in a fever, hotter than a pepper sprout '', which McAloon misinterpreted as ' hotter than a prefab sprout '. However, Allmusic reckons that the prosaic truth is that "an adolescent McAloon had devised the meaningless name in homage to the longwinded and equally silly band names of his late 1960s / early 1970s youth ''.
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the most common system of land title in australia | Torrens title - wikipedia
Torrens title is a land registration and land transfer system, in which a state creates and maintains a register of land holdings, which serves as the conclusive evidence (termed "indefeasibility '') of title of the person recorded on the register as the proprietor (owner), and of all other interests recorded on the register. The interests that are not guaranteed are called "paramount interests ''. Ownership of land is transferred by registration of a transfer of title, instead of by the use of deeds. The Registrar would provide a Certificate of Title to the new proprietor, which is merely a copy of the related folio of the register.
The main benefit of the system is to enhance certainty of title to land and to simplify dealings involving land. The system has been adopted by many countries, especially those in the Commonwealth of Nations, and has been extended to cover other interests, including credit interests (such as mortgages), leaseholds and strata titles. The design and introduction in 1858 of the Torrens system in South Australia is generally attributed to Sir Robert Richard Torrens (1814 -- 31 August 1884), who was Premier of the then colony, though some attribute the design to another.
The Torrens title system operates on the principle of "title by registration '' (granting the high indefeasibility of a registered ownership) rather than "registration of title ''. The system does away with the need for proving a chain of title (i.e. tracing title through a series of documents). The State guarantees title and is usually supported by a compensation scheme for those who lose their title due to private fraud or error in the State 's operation.
In most jurisdictions, there will be parcels of land which are still unregistered.
The Torrens system works on three principles:
At common law, the vendor of land needs to show his or her ownership of the land by tracing the chain of ownership back to the earliest grant of land by the Crown to its first owner. The documents relating to transactions with the land are collectively known as the "title deeds '' or the "chain of title ''. This event may have occurred hundreds of years prior and could have had dozens of intervened changes in the land 's ownership. A person 's ownership over land could also be challenged, potentially causing great legal expense to land owners and hindering development.
Even an exhaustive title search of the chain of title would not give the purchaser complete security, largely because of the principle, nemo dat quod non habet ("no one gives what he does not have '') and the ever - present possibility of undetected outstanding interests. For example, in the UK Court of Chancery case Pilcher v Rawlins (1872), the vendor conveyed the fee - simple estate to P1, but retained the title deeds and fraudulently purported to convey the fee - simple estate to P2. The latter could receive only the title retained by the vendor -- in short, nothing. However, the case was ultimately decided in favor of P2, over P1. The courts of equity could not bring themselves to decide against a totally innocent (without notice) purchaser.
The common - law position has been changed in minor respects by legislation designed to minimize the searches that should be undertaken by a prospective purchaser. In some jurisdictions, a limitation has been placed on the period of commencement of title a purchaser may require.
The effect of registration under the deeds registration system was to give the instrument registered "priority '' over all instruments that are either unregistered or not registered until later. The basic difference between the deeds registration and Torrens systems is that the former involves registration of instruments while the latter involves registration of title.
Moreover, though a register of who owned what land was maintained, it was unreliable and could be challenged in the courts at any time. The limits of the deeds - registration system meant that transfers of land were slow, expensive, and often unable to create certain title.
A boom in land speculation and a haphazard grant system resulted in the loss of over 75 % of the 40,000 land grants issued in the colony (now state) of South Australia in the early 1800s. To resolve the deficiencies of the common law and deeds registration system, Robert Torrens, a member of the colony 's House of Assembly, proposed a new title system in 1858, and it was quickly adopted. The Torrens title system was based on a central registry of all the land in the jurisdiction of South Australia, embodied in the Real Property Act 1886 (SA). All transfers of land are recorded in the register. Most importantly, ownership of the land is established by virtue of the owner 's name being recorded in the government 's register. The Torrens title also records easements and the creation and discharge of mortgages.
The historical origins of the Torrens title are a matter of considerable controversy. Torrens himself acknowledged adapting his proposals from earlier systems of transfer and registration, particularly the system of registration of merchant ships in the United Kingdom. The Prussian mortgage legislation also served as an example. James E. Hogg, in Australian Torrens System with Statutes (1905), has shown that Torrens derived ideas from many other sources and that he received assistance from a number of persons within South Australia. Stanley Robinson, in Transfer of Land in Victoria (1979) has argued that Ulrich Hübbe, a German lawyer living in South Australia in the 1850s, made the most important single contribution by adapting principles borrowed from the Hanseatic registration system in Hamburg.
Nevertheless, it can not be denied that Torrens ' political activities were substantially responsible for securing acceptance of the new system in South Australia and eventually, in other Australian colonies and New Zealand. He oversaw the introduction of the system in the face of often - vicious attack from his opponents, many of whom were lawyers, who feared loss of work in conveyancing because of the introduction of a simple scheme. The Torrens system was also a marked departure from the common law of real property and its further development has been characterised by the reluctance of common - law judges to accept it.
The central aspect of the Torrens system is the land register, in which all dealings with land are recorded. The register may be a bound paper record, but today most registers are typically kept in a database.
On the first registration of land under the system, the land is given a unique number (called a volume - folio number) which identifies the land by reference to a registered plan. The folio records the dimensions of the land and its boundaries, the name of the registered owner, and any legal interests that affect title to the land. To change the boundaries of a parcel of land, a revised plan must be prepared and registered. Once registered, the land can not be withdrawn from the system.
A transfer of ownership of a parcel of land is effected by a change of the record on the register. The registrar has a duty to ensure that only legally valid changes are made to the register. To this end, the registrar will indicate what documentation he or she will require to be satisfied that there has in fact been a change of ownership. A change of ownership may come about because of a sale of the land, or the death of the registered owner, or as a result of a court order, to name only the most common ways that ownership may change. Similarly, any interest which affects or limits the ownership rights of the registered owner, such as a mortgage, can also be noted on the register. There are legal rules which regulate the rights and powers of each of these interests in relation to each other and in relation to third parties.
The State guarantees the accuracy of the register and undertakes to compensate those whose rights are adversely affected by an administrative error. Claims for compensation are very rare.
The main difference between a common law title and a Torrens title is that a member of the general community, acting in good faith, can rely on the information on the land register as to the rights and interests of parties recorded there, and act on the basis of that information. A prospective purchaser, for example, is not required to look beyond that record. He or she does not need even to examine the Certificate of Title, the register information being paramount. This contrasts with a common law title, which is based on the principle that a vendor can not transfer to a purchaser a greater interest than he or she owns. As with a chain, the seller 's title is as good as the weakest link of the chain of title. Accordingly, if a vendor 's common law title is defective in any way, so would be the purchaser 's title. Hence, it is incumbent on the purchaser to ensure that the vendor 's title is beyond question. This may involve both inquiries and an examination of the chain of title, which can be a protracted and costly exercise each time there is a dealing in the property.
The registered proprietor of Torrens land is said to have an indefeasible title, which means that only in very limited circumstances (see following) can his or her title be challenged.
The register of titles is said to confer "indefeasibility of title '' to the person or persons registered on the register as proprietor or joint proprietors of land. Although the concept of indefeasibility is similar to that of conclusive evidence, in practice there are some limitations to indefeasibility, and different jurisdictions have different laws and provisions.
For example, in the Australian state of Victoria, the Torrens system is manifested in the Transfer of Land Act 1958 (Vic). Upon registration of an interest and subsequent recording on title of the interest, the registered owner 's claim to that interest is superior to all other claims other than those listed in s. 42 of that Act, which provides that the title of the registered interest holder is subject to, inter alia:
Additionally, there are other exceptions or circumstances that can defeat indefeasibility, such as:
The adoption of the Torrens title registry throughout the British Commonwealth, and its legal context, was covered in depth by James Edward Hogg in 1920.
All Australian colonies (now states and territories) introduced the Torrens system between 1857 and 1875. Since then, each state has maintained a land titles register of land in the state. The Torrens system did not replace the common law system but applied only to new land grants and to land that has been voluntarily registered under the relevant Act. The common law system continues to apply to all other private landholdings. Land in government hands is called crown land.
The second Torrens jurisdiction in the world was established in 1861 in the then - British colony of Vancouver Island, now part of the Canadian province of British Columbia. Canada, through the federal Parliament in 1886, implemented the Torrens system in the Northwest Territories. It has continued to be used by the three Prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba) into which the southern part of the Northwest Territories was divided. British Columbia uses a modified Torrens system. Since 1885, Ontario has used an English system, which is not a Torrens system, but it has similar purposes. In Ontario, electronic registration led to this version covering almost all land, but the past deeds registration still governs some issues. For properties still under deeds registration, a 40 - year rule governed title, but the government converted them under a streamlined process. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia converted from a Deeds registration system to a Torrens title system in the 2000s, with the expense of the changeover charged to the purchaser. The only provinces in Canada which do not have Torrens titles include Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, and Quebec, which is a civil rather than common law jurisdiction and instead uses the cadastre system.
Fiji 's Torrens statute is the Land Transfer Act 1971.
The Dominican Republic has been using the Torrens Title System since 1920. All of commercial property and most real estate within the main cities are registered and thus guaranteed under the system. An acceleration of registration for land in the rural areas is underway in the 21st century, to promote a more efficient and effective real estate market in the Dominican Republic.
Ireland first began to operate a Torrens Title system in 1892. So - called registered land (i.e. land held under a Torrens title) is recorded in the Republic of Ireland using a system of numbered county - level folios. The land registry is operated by the Property Registration Authority, a government agency, and records both freehold and leasehold titles, along with easements / profits - a-prendre, mortgages, and any other charges over land. It is compulsory to create a folio in the land registry if land is sold / transferred / subdivided, multi-storey buildings are erected, or a new lease (over five years) is created. The vast majority of land in Ireland (by acreage) is held under Torrens title as compulsory registration in the land registry upon sale has been a requirement in rural areas for many years. Compulsory registration was extended to the (more urban) counties of Cork, Dublin, Galway, Limerick and Waterford in the last decade, thus extending mandatory Torrens title to every part of the Republic of Ireland.
A Torrens title system was implemented by the British in Mandatory Palestine, and continued to be used since Israel 's foundation in 1948. As of 2016, about 4 % of the country 's land area is still registered under a pre-Torrens, deeds registration system.
Malaysia has adopted three versions of the Torrens system:
New Zealand adopted a similar system from 1870. The Land Transfer (Compulsory Registration of Titles) Act 1924 brought most of the remaining land in the country under the Torrens system and by 1951 the register was considered complete, although small remnants of land may still exist under the deeds system. The Torrens system is now implemented by the Land Transfer Act 1952. However, the implementation by the 1952 Act will soon be superseded by the Land Transfer Act 2017.
The Torrens system was established in the Philippines on November 6, 1902 by the enactment of Act No. 496, "The Land Registration Act '', which was virtually identical to the Real Property Act of Massachusetts of 1898.
Russia adopted the Torrens system soon after the founding of the Soviet Union. Currently, the accounting and registration system for rights to immovable property in Russia is governed by two federal laws, which have adopted some of the elements and principles of the Torrens system. Accounting for land, buildings and natural sites is recorded in a database of real estate cadastre under federal law of 2007 No 221 - FZ "On State Real Estate Cadastre ''. Transactions by the account holder of these facilities is recorded in another database: "the Unified State Register of rights to immovable property and transactions with them '' on the basis of federal law of 1997 No 122 - FZ "On State Registration of Rights to Real Estate and Transactions Therewith ''. Both laws established openness cadastre and registry information, and assigned to a single organization responsible for their management - Rosreestr. Entry in the Unified State Register of real property rights is a necessary and sufficient condition for the emergence of property rights to real estate. For information about the property, contained in the cadastre and registry, sufficiently detailed and structured cover most essential information about an object runs open cadastral map. With a fairly simple web forms can be found and read a part of the information on any object property. These laws are not, however, establish an immediate full liability of the state for the correctness of the information contained in databases. In 2015, the State Duma has been registered a bill that covers public access to information about the owners of the property. The bill was supported by the Government. According to some experts, the restriction of information openness reduces the chances of identifying the public cases of illegal enrichment and increases business risks.
Singapore adopted a version of the Torrens system beginning in 1960 with the Land Titles Act, Chapter 157. Conversion of all titles was completed in 2001.
Thailand adopted the Torrens system in 1901 after King Chulalongkorn established The Royal Thai Survey Department, a Special Services Group of the Royal Thai Armed Forces, engaged in Cadastral survey, which is the survey of specific land parcels to define ownership for land registration, and for equitable taxation.
States with a limited implementation include Minnesota, Virginia, Massachusetts, Colorado, Georgia, Hawaii, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, and Washington.
The state of Illinois was the first state to adopt a Torrens Title Act, which used a limited Torrens system in Cook County after the Great Chicago Fire, however this system was allowed to expire on January 1, 1992, after it was found to be unpopular with lenders and other institutions.
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what is the meaning of single malt whisky | Single malt whisky - wikipedia
Single malt whisky is malt whisky from a single distillery, that is, whisky distilled from fermented mash made exclusively with malted grain (usually barley), as distinguished from unmalted grain.
Single malts are typically associated with single malt Scotch, though they are also produced in various other countries. Under Scotch Whisky Regulations, a "Single Malt Scotch Whisky '' must be made exclusively from malted barley (although the addition of E150A caramel colouring is allowed), must be distilled using pot stills at a single distillery, and must be aged for at least three years in oak casks of a capacity not exceeding 700 litres (150 imperial gallons; 180 US gallons). While the Scotch model is usually copied internationally, these constraints may not apply to whisky marketed as single malt that is produced elsewhere. For example, there is no definition of the term single with relation to whisky in the law of the United States, and some American whiskey advertised as single malt whisky is produced from malted rye rather than malted barley.
All single malt goes through a similar batch production process, as outlined below. There are several types of single malts available from distilleries including single barrel single malts which are the product of a single batch that was stored for three or more years in a single oak barrel. These single barrel variants afford the opportunity for the consumer to see the influence of different types of storage on the same whisky (e.g., first use bourbon whiskey barrels, port pipes, etc.). The more common form of Single Malt is a marrying at bottling time of various batches that are mixed or vatted to achieve consistent flavours from one bottling run to the next.
Water is first added to the barley to promote germination. At a later stage, prior to fermentation, it is mixed with ground barley grist to create a mash. Water is also used later in the production process to dilute most whisky before maturation, and added once again before bottling.
Most new - make malt whisky is diluted to about 60 % alcohol by volume (ABV) or so before it is placed in casks to mature (62.5 % is specified as a maximum in U.S. law for making straight whisky). The aged spirit is then diluted with water to reduce it to bottling strength (typically 40 - 50 % ABV). Since large amounts of water are used during the process of whisky production, water supplies are a key factor for the location of any distillery.
Barley, yeast and water are the only ingredients required in the production of (barley - based) single malt whisky.
The barley used to make the whisky is "malted '' by soaking the grain in water for two to three days and allowing it to germinate. This process releases enzymes, which convert unfermentable starch (which is insoluble in water and not available for fermentation by yeast) to fermentable sugars.
Traditionally in Scotland each distillery had its own malting floor where the germinating seeds were regularly turned. The "pagoda roof '' (many now false) which ventilated the malt kiln can still be seen at many distilleries both in Scotland and in other countries. However, most of the distilleries now use commercial "maltsters '' to prepare their malt.
The germination is halted (by heating) after three to five days, when the optimum amount of starch has been converted to fermentable sugars. The method for drying the germinated barley is by heating it with hot air.
In most cases, some level of smoke from a peat - heated fire is introduced to the kiln to add phenols, a smoky aroma and flavour to the whisky. Some of the more intensely smoky malts have phenol levels between 25 and 50 parts per million (ppm). Islay malts have a reputation for being the most peaty. More subtle malts can have phenol levels of around 2 -- 3 ppm. Entirely non-smoked (non-peated, unpeated) malts are made by the Glengoyne Distillery, which only uses hot air for drying.
The malt is milled into a coarse flour (grist) which is made of three substances: (1) Husks (70 %); (2) Grits (20 %); and Flour (10 %); to which three courses of hot water are added to extract the sugars.
The extraction is done in a large kettle (usually made of stainless steel) called a mash tun. At first, the hot water dissolves the sugars (maltose) and enzymes (diastase) in the grist. Then the enzymes act on the starch left over from the malting stage, continuing the conversion to sugar, and producing a sugary liquid called wort. Typically, each batch of grist is mashed three times or so to extract all the fermentable sugars. The first water is injected at approximately 60 ° C, the second portion at approximately 72 ° C and the third and final portion at approximately 88 ° C. The wort from the first two water courses is drained into "washback '' vessels for further processing, whereas the third course is retained as the first charge in the next batch.
Yeast is added to the wort in a large vessel (often tens of thousands of litres) called a washback. Washbacks are commonly made of Oregon Pine or stainless steel. The yeast feeds on the sugars, and as a by - product, produces both carbon dioxide and alcohol. This process is called fermentation and can take up to three days to complete. When complete, the liquid has an alcohol content of 5 to 7 % by volume, and is now known as wash. Up until this point the process has been quite similar to the production of beer.
The wash is then distilled. The wash is heated, boiling off the alcohol, which has a lower boiling point than water; the vapour is collected and cooled to condense it back into a liquid form.
Scottish regulations require single malts to be distilled in pot stills. In other jurisdictions, column stills may be used.
The initial distilled spirit produced by a pot still, known as low wine has an alcohol content of about 20 to 40 %. The low wines are then pumped into a second still, known as the spirit still, and distilled a second (and sometimes a third) time. The final spirit, called "new make spirit '', generally has an alcohol content of 60 to 70 %.
Most new - make malt whisky is diluted to about 62.5 % a.b.v. before it is placed in casks to mature.
The "new - make spirit '', or unaged whisky, is then placed in oak casks to mature. By law, all Scotch whisky must be aged for a minimum of three years in oak casks, though many single malts are matured for much longer. The whisky continues to develop and change as it spends time in the wood, and maturation periods of twenty years or more are not uncommon. During the time it spends in the wood, a significant percentage of each cask 's content will evaporate. The lost product is known as the angel 's share.
The selection of casks can affect the character of the final whisky. Outside of the United States, the most common practice is to reuse casks that previously contained American whiskey, as US law requires several types of distilled spirits to be aged in new oak casks. To ensure continuity of supply of used oak casks some Scottish distilling groups own oak forests in the US and rent the new barrels to bourbon producers for first fill use. Bourbon casks impart a characteristic vanilla flavour to the whisky.
Sherry casks are also commonly used. This practice arose because sherry used to be shipped to Britain from Spain in the cask rather than having been bottled, and the casks were expensive to return empty and were unwanted by the sherry cellars. In addition to imparting the flavours of their former contents, sherry casks lend maturing spirit a heavier body and a deep amber and sometimes reddish colour. Stainless steel shipping containers, however, have reduced the supply of wooden sherry casks, to the extent that the Macallan Distillery builds casks and leases them to the sherry cellars in Spain for a time, then has them shipped back to Scotland.
Other casks used include those that formerly held port wine, madeira, rum or cognac.
To be called a single malt whisky in Scotland, a bottle may only contain whisky distilled from malted barley and produced at a single distillery. The regulations of other countries may allow malted rye.
If the bottle is the product of malt whiskies produced at more than one distillery, the whisky is called a blended malt or vatted malt, or pure malt. If a single malt is mixed with grain whisky, the result is a blended whisky. Single malts can be bottled by the distillery that produced them or by an independent bottler.
The age statement on a bottle of single malt whisky is the age of the youngest malt in the mix, as commonly the whiskies of several years are mixed in a vat to create a more consistent house style. On occasion, the product of a single cask of whisky is bottled without being vatted with other casks, and released as a "Single Cask '' offering. However, it is not always clear what the term "single cask '' refers to. At least some producers release vattings of multiple barrels that have been matured together for one final period in a larger single cask as "single cask '' whisky.
While cask - strength, or undiluted, whisky (sometimes having an alcohol content upwards of 60 %) has recently become popular, the vast majority of whisky is diluted to its "bottling strength '' - between 40 % and 46 % ABV - and bottled for sale.
Whisky can be "chill filtered '': chilled to precipitate out fatty acid esters and then filtered to remove them. Most whiskies are bottled this way, unless specified as unchillfiltered or non chill filtered. Unchillfiltered whisky will often turn cloudy when stored at cool temperatures or when cool water is added to them, and this is perfectly normal. Unchillfiltered, cask - strength whisky is generally regarded as whisky in its purest form.
Unlike wine, whisky does not continue to mature in the bottle.
E150A caramel colouring may be added to single malt Scotch whisky prior to bottling, to give the whisky a more rich and well - aged appearance. No other additives are allowed in Scotch whisky. This contrasts with the rules governing Canadian whisky production, which allow the addition of other flavourings as well as caramel, and with the rules governing American whiskey, which do not allow additives in "straight '' whisky. The use of the caramel additive must be disclosed when the whisky is sold in some jurisdictions, although not in Scotland itself.
Distillation of whisky has been performed in Scotland and Ireland for centuries. The first written record of whisky comes from Ireland in 1405 in the Irish Annals of Clonmacnoise, where it was written that the head of a clan died after "taking a surfeit of aqua vitae '' at Christmas. The production of whisky from malted barley is first mentioned in Scotland in an entry on the 1494 Exchequer Rolls: "Eight bolls of malt to Friar John Cor, by order of the King, wherewith to make ' aqua vitae ' ''.
Single malt whisky is associated with the Scottish tradition, although there are also Irish and other single malts. Penderyn, the only whisky commercially produced in Wales, is also a single malt.
From the 15th century onwards, whisky was heavily taxed in Scotland, to the point that most of the spirit was produced illegally. However, in 1823, Parliament passed an act making commercial distillation much more profitable, while imposing punishments on landowners when unlicensed distilleries were found on their properties. George Smith was the first person to take out a licence for a distillery under the new law, founding the Glenlivet Distillery in 1824.
In the 1830s, Aeneas Coffey refined a design originally created by Robert Stein for continuous stills which produced whisky much more efficiently than the traditional pot stills. Quickly, merchants began blending the malt whisky with the grain whisky distilled in the continuous stills, making the first blended Scotch whisky. The blended whisky proved quite successful, less expensive to produce than malt with more flavour and character than grain. The combination allowed the single malt producers to expand their operations as the blended whisky was more popular on the international market.
Single malt distilleries also exist in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Czech Republic, England, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, India, Japan, Liechtenstein, Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, USA, Wales and Norway.
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when does season 2 of the messengers start | The Messengers (tv series) - wikipedia
The Messengers is an American television series that aired on The CW during the 2014 -- 15 season. The series was officially picked up on May 8, 2014, and premiered on April 17, 2015. The series was cancelled by the CW on May 7, 2015, but aired all of its episodes, and concluded on July 24, 2015.
A mysterious object plummets to Earth, sending out a shock wave that causes five strangers to die, only to miraculously come back to life moments later. The members of the group are Vera (Shantel VanSanten), a struggling radio - astronomer living in New Mexico who is searching for her missing son; Erin (Sofia Black - D'Elia), a young mother in Tucson, Arizona who is desperate to protect her seven - year - old daughter Amy from her abusive policeman ex-husband; Peter (Joel Courtney), a troubled high school student and orphan in Little Rock, Arkansas; Raul (J.D. Pardo), a federal agent in Mexico who is looking to escape his dangerous and violent undercover assignment; and Joshua (Jon Fletcher), a charismatic second - generation televangelist in Houston, Texas. Most mysterious of all is the figure known only as The Man (Diogo Morgado), who offers Vera the location of her abducted son if she will help him with one morally complicated task which puts her on a collision course with Rose (Anna Diop), a nurse in Houston who has been in a coma for seven years after being shot by an unknown hitman. Drawn together by fate and biblical prophecy, "The Messengers '' soon learn they now have supernatural gifts that might be the only hope for preventing the impending Rapture.
The main characters of the series are the Messengers (real term: "Angels of the Apocalypse ''), a group of ordinary humans chosen by God to determine if humanity is worth saving. They are hit by an energy wave from the meteorite that brought The Man to earth, which causes them to die for a few minutes. Then they awaken with strange supernatural abilities denominated as "gifts ''. However, their gifts have side - effects on their bodies unless the seven true Messengers are united.
Every generation there are four people who commit a grievous sin and are assigned to become the Horsemen of the Apocalypse. Rose Arvale, the Horseman of Death, is the leader of the current generation, and they want to use The Man 's meteorite as their ultimate weapon for the end of humanity. In contrast to the angel Messengers, the Horsemen immediately become aware of their powers upon a seal being broken as well as their destiny, and about each other 's identity. It is also implied that all four of them are telepathic (only to each other) and can read each other 's minds.
The Messengers has received mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the show a rating of 47 % based on 17 reviews with an average rating of 5.6 out of 10. The site 's consensus reads: "The Messengers flashes bursts of potential, but ultimately sags beneath derivative, muddled storytelling ''. Metacritic gave the show a score of 56 out of 100, based on 15 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
The Messengers was scheduled to premiere on April 10, 2015, but was moved back a week to April 17, 2015. In Australia, the series premiered on FOX8 on June 3, 2015.
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when did social sciences began to divide into distinct areas of research | History of science - wikipedia
The history of science is the study of the development of science and scientific knowledge, including both the natural and social sciences. (The history of the arts and humanities is termed history of scholarship.) Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by scientists who emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real world phenomena. Historiography of science, in contrast, studies the methods employed by historians of science.
The English word scientist is relatively recent -- first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century. Previously, investigators of nature called themselves "natural philosophers ''. While empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since classical antiquity (for example by Thales and Aristotle), and scientific method has been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn al - Haytham and Roger Bacon), modern science began to develop in the early modern period, and in particular in the scientific revolution of 16th - and 17th - century Europe. Traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those earlier inquiries.
From the 18th century through late 20th century, the history of science, especially of the physical and biological sciences, was often presented in a progressive narrative in which true theories replaced false beliefs. Some more recent historical interpretations, such as those of Thomas Kuhn, tend to portray the history of science in terms of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix of intellectual, cultural, economic and political trends.
In prehistoric times, technique and knowledge were passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition. For example, the domestication of maize for agriculture has been dated to about 9,000 years ago in southern Mexico, before the development of writing systems. Similarly, archaeological evidence indicates the development of astronomical knowledge in preliterate societies. The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity.
Many ancient civilizations systematically collected astronomical observations. Rather than speculate on the material nature of the planets and stars, the ancients charted the relative positions of celestial bodies, often inferring their influence on human society. This demonstrates how ancient investigators generally employed a holistic intuition, assuming the interconnectedness of all things, whereas modern science rejects such conceptual leaps.
Basic facts about human physiology were known in some places, and alchemy was practiced in several civilizations. Considerable observation of macroscopic flora and fauna was also performed.
Ancient Egypt made significant advances in astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Their development of geometry was a necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile river. The 3 - 4 - 5 right triangle and other rules of geometry were used to build rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt was also a center of alchemy research for much of the Mediterranean. The Edwin Smith papyrus is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the earliest document that attempts to describe and analyse the brain: it might be seen as the very beginnings of modern neuroscience. However, while Egyptian medicine had some effective practices, it was often ineffective and sometimes harmful. Medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology, for example, was largely ineffective. Nevertheless, it applied the following components to the treatment of disease: examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, which display strong parallels to the basic empirical method of science and, according to G.E.R. Lloyd, played a significant role in the development of this methodology. The Ebers papyrus (c. 1550 BC) also contains evidence of traditional empiricism.
From their beginnings in Sumer (now Iraq) around 3500 BC, the Mesopotamian people began to attempt to record some observations of the world with numerical data. But their observations and measurements were seemingly taken for purposes other than for elucidating scientific laws. A concrete instance of Pythagoras ' law was recorded, as early as the 18th century BC: the Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322 records a number of Pythagorean triplets (3, 4, 5) (5, 12, 13)..., dated 1900 BC, possibly millennia before Pythagoras, but an abstract formulation of the Pythagorean theorem was not.
In Babylonian astronomy, records of the motions of the stars, planets, and the moon are left on thousands of clay tablets created by scribes. Even today, astronomical periods identified by Mesopotamian proto - scientists are still widely used in Western calendars such as the solar year and the lunar month. Using these data they developed arithmetical methods to compute the changing length of daylight in the course of the year and to predict the appearances and disappearances of the Moon and planets and eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Only a few astronomers ' names are known, such as that of Kidinnu, a Chaldean astronomer and mathematician. Kiddinu 's value for the solar year is in use for today 's calendars. Babylonian astronomy was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena. '' According to the historian A. Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West -- if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences -- depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways. ''
In Classical Antiquity, the inquiry into the workings of the universe took place both in investigations aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and in those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy. The ancient people who are considered the first scientists may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, physicians), or as followers of a religious tradition (for example, temple healers).
The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be? '' The pre-Socratic philosopher Thales (640 -- 546 BC), dubbed the "father of science '', was the first to postulate non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. For example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon. Thales ' student Pythagoras of Samos founded the Pythagorean school, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape. Leucippus (5th century BC) introduced atomism, the theory that all matter is made of indivisible, imperishable units called atoms. This was greatly expanded on by his pupil Democritus and later Epicurus.
Subsequently, Plato and Aristotle produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Their development of deductive reasoning was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. Plato founded the Platonic Academy in 387 BC, whose motto was "Let none unversed in geometry enter here '', and turned out many notable philosophers. Plato 's student Aristotle introduced empiricism and the notion that universal truths can be arrived at via observation and induction, thereby laying the foundations of the scientific method. Aristotle also produced many biological writings that were empirical in nature, focusing on biological causation and the diversity of life. He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals in the world around him, classified more than 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50. Aristotle 's writings profoundly influenced subsequent Islamic and European scholarship, though they were eventually superseded in the Scientific Revolution.
The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research. In the Hellenistic age scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations. Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day. Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Greeks, but the Socratic method did, along with the idea of Forms, great advances in geometry, logic, and the natural sciences. According to Benjamin Farrington, former Professor of Classics at Swansea University:
and again:
The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (c. 190 -- c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150 -- 100 BC), an analog computer for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.
In medicine, Hippocrates (c. 460 BC -- c. 370 BC) and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions and developed the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, still relevant and in use today. Herophilos (335 -- 280 BC) was the first to base his conclusions on dissection of the human body and to describe the nervous system. Galen (129 -- c. 200 AD) performed many audacious operations -- including brain and eye surgeries -- that were not tried again for almost two millennia.
In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his Elements, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of Pi. He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics, statics, and the explanation of the principle of the lever.
Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. He also recognises that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. He was also the first to recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them.
Mathematics: The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd millennium BC). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4: 2: 1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler -- the Mohenjo - daro ruler -- whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo - daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.
Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476 -- 550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu - Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers ' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th century. During the 14th -- 16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis ''.
Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self - supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month. ''. The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon 's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.
Nilakantha Somayaji 's astronomical treatise the Tantrasangraha similar in nature to the Tychonic system proposed by Tycho Brahe had been the most accurate astronomical model until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century.
Linguistics: Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be found in Iron Age India (1st millennium BC) with the analysis of Sanskrit for the purpose of the correct recitation and interpretation of Vedic texts. The most notable grammarian of Sanskrit was Pāṇini (c. 520 -- 460 BC), whose grammar formulates close to 4,000 rules which together form a compact generative grammar of Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root.
Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto - dentistry among an early farming culture. Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.
Metallurgy: The wootz, crucible and stainless steels were invented in India, and were widely exported in Classic Mediterranean world. It was known from Pliny the Elder as ferrum indicum. Indian Wootz steel was held in high regard in Roman Empire, was often considered to be the best. After in Middle Age it was imported in Syria to produce with special techniques the "Damascus steel '' by the year 1000.
The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron, and in the preparations of those ingredients along with which it is fused to obtain that kind of soft iron which is usually styled Indian steel (Hindiah). They also have workshops wherein are forged the most famous sabres in the world.
Mathematics: From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner 's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras ' theorem. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 AD by Ch'in Chiu - shao. Pascal 's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian.
Although the first attempts at an axiomatisation of geometry appear in the Mohist canon in 330 BC, Liu Hui developed algebraic methods in geometry in the 3rd century AD and also calculated pi to 5 significant figures. In 480, Zu Chongzhi improved this by discovering the ratio 355 113 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (355) (113))) which remained the most accurate value for 1200 years.
Astronomy: Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilisation and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BC), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.
From antiquity, the Chinese used an equatorial system for describing the skies and a star map from 940 was drawn using a cylindrical (Mercator) projection. The use of an armillary sphere is recorded from the 4th century BC and a sphere permanently mounted in equatorial axis from 52 BC. In 125 AD Zhang Heng used water power to rotate the sphere in real time. This included rings for the meridian and ecliptic. By 1270 they had incorporated the principles of the Arab torquetum.
Seismology: To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu). Zhang called his device the ' instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth ' (Houfeng didong yi 候 风 地动仪), so - named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. See Zhang 's seismometer for further details.
There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo (1031 -- 1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic - needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo 's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990 -- 1051). Shen 's contemporary Su Song (1020 -- 1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world 's oldest known use of an endless power - transmitting chain drive.
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture. '' Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water - powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double - action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised - relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.
However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what we might call "modern science ''. According to Needham, it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature:
It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime. The Taoists, indeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and complexity of the universe as they intuited it.
With the division of the Roman Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.
While the Byzantine Empire still held learning centers such as Constantinople, Western Europe 's knowledge was concentrated in monasteries until the development of medieval universities in the 12th and 13th centuries. The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicine and timekeeping.
Scientific method began developing in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al - Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al - Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al - Haytham as the "first scientist '' for his development of the modern scientific method.
In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al - Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al - jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians made several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation.
In astronomy, Al - Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy 's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al - Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth 's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al - Battani, Ibn al - Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al - Din al - Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al - Shatir are similar to Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al - Balkhi, Abu - Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al - Sijzi, Qutb al - Din al - Shirazi, and Najm al - Dīn al - Qazwīnī al - Kātibī.
Muslim chemists and alchemists played an important role in the foundation of modern chemistry. Scholars such as Will Durant and Fielding H. Garrison considered Muslim chemists to be the founders of chemistry. In particular, Jābir ibn Hayyān is "considered by many to be the father of chemistry ''. The works of Arabic scientists influenced Roger Bacon (who introduced the empirical method to Europe, strongly influenced by his reading of Persian writers), and later Isaac Newton. The scholar Al - Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al - shifāʾ ("Book of Healing '') and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.
Some of the other famous scientists from the Islamic world include al - Farabi (polymath), Abu al - Qasim al - Zahrawi (pioneer of surgery), Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī (pioneer of Indology, geodesy and anthropology), Nasīr al - Dīn al - Tūsī (polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (forerunner of social sciences such as demography, cultural history, historiography, philosophy of history and sociology), among many others.
Islamic science began its decline in the 12th or 13th century, before the Renaissance in Europe, and due in part to the 11th -- 13th century Mongol conquests, during which libraries, observatories, hospitals and universities were destroyed. The end of the Islamic Golden Age is marked by the destruction of the intellectual center of Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid caliphate in 1258.
An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al - Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent. ''
As well as this, Europeans began to venture further and further east (most notably, perhaps, Marco Polo) as a result of the Pax Mongolica. This led to the increased awareness of Indian and even Chinese culture and civilization within the European tradition. Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of Eilmer of Malmesbury (who had studied Mathematics in 11th century England), and the metallurgical achievements of the Cistercian blast furnace at Laskill.
At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste 's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem 's provocative thesis of the Catholic Church 's Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277 ''. However, many scholars agree with Duhem 's view that the Middle Ages were a period of important scientific developments.
The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle 's scientific writings. William of Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species '' is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle 's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.
In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at this point: not least the introduction of Algebra. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death.
The renewal of learning in Europe, that began with 12th century Scholasticism, came to an end about the time of the Black Death, and the initial period of the subsequent Italian Renaissance is sometimes seen as a lull in scientific activity. The Northern Renaissance, on the other hand, showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristoteleian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the Fall of Constantinople; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.
The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when the books De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body) by Andreas Vesalius, and also De Revolutionibus, by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first printed. The thesis of Copernicus ' book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton, representative of the unprecedented growth of scientific publications throughout Europe.
Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei, Edmond Halley, Robert Hooke, Christiaan Huygens, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Gottfried Leibniz, and Blaise Pascal. In philosophy, major contributions were made by Francis Bacon, Sir Thomas Browne, René Descartes, and Thomas Hobbes. The scientific method was also better developed as the modern way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations.
The Age of Enlightenment was a European affair. The 17th century brought decisive steps towards modern science, which accelerated during the 18th century. Directly based on the works of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, the way was now clear to the development of modern mathematics, physics and technology by the generation of Benjamin Franklin (1706 -- 1790), Leonhard Euler (1707 -- 1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711 -- 1765) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717 -- 1783). Denis Diderot 's Encyclopédie, published between 1751 and 1772 brought this new understanding to a wider audience. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion), and society and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire). The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a foundation of modern science.
The Romantic Movement of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. Major breakthroughs came in biology, especially in Darwin 's theory of evolution, as well as physics (electromagnetism), mathematics (non-Euclidean geometry, group theory) and chemistry (organic chemistry). The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, Positivism, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880.
The scientific revolution established science as a source for the growth of knowledge. During the 19th century, the practice of science became professionalized and institutionalized in ways that continued through the 20th century. As the role of scientific knowledge grew in society, it became incorporated with many aspects of the functioning of nation - states.
The scientific revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus of Samos. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Galileo ("Father of Modern Physics '') also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method. William Gilbert did some of the earliest experiments with electricity and magnetism, establishing that the Earth itself is magnetic.
In 1687, Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton 's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton 's Law of Gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity.
During the late 18th and early 19th century, the behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Luigi Galvani, Giovanni Aldini, Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm, and others. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell (known as Maxwell 's equations).
The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long - held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated quantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître.
In 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Around this time, Chien - Shiung Wu was recruited by the Manhattan Project to help develop a process for separating uranium metal into U-235 and U-238 isotopes by Gaseous diffusion. She was an expert experimentalist in beta decay and weak interaction physics. Wu designed an experiment (see Wu experiment) that enabled theoretical physicists Tsung - Dao Lee and Chen - Ning Yang to disprove the law of parity experimentally, winning them a Nobel Prize in 1957.
Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "Big Science '', requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic '' research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications.
Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.
Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining. A decisive moment came when ' chemistry ' was distinguished from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer and through the work of Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry) on oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that can not be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton 's discoveries.
The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth 's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry. The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling 's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever - more complicated molecules. Pauling 's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953). In the same year, the Miller -- Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules.
Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. Theophrastus ' work on rocks, Peri lithōn, remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. Chinese polymath Shen Kua (1031 -- 1095) first formulated hypotheses for the process of land formation. Based on his observation of fossils in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt.
Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the Scientific Revolution, but individual theorists made important contributions. Robert Hooke, for example, formulated a theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once - living creatures. Beginning with Thomas Burnet 's Sacred Theory of the Earth in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth 's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.
Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Benoît de Maillet and the Comte de Buffon saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars. Jean - Étienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland 's John Walker, Sweden 's Torbern Bergman, and Germany 's Abraham Werner created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals -- a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century. These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led James Hutton, Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, following in the steps of Steno, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of index fossils became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities. Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government - funded mapping projects in later decades.
Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent - covering ice ages, and "fluvialists '' like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of radioactivity, radiometric dating methods were developed, starting in the 20th century. Alfred Wegener 's theory of "continental drift '' was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of plate tectonics, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since 1970 it has served as the unifying principle in geology.
Geologists ' embrace of plate tectonics became part of a broadening of the field from a study of rocks into a study of the Earth as a planet. Other elements of this transformation include: geophysical studies of the interior of the Earth, the grouping of geology with meteorology and oceanography as one of the "earth sciences '', and comparisons of Earth and the solar system 's other rocky planets.
Aristarchus of Samos published work on how to determine the sizes and distances of the Sun and the Moon, and Eratosthenes used this work to figure the size of the Earth. Hipparchus later discovered the precession of the Earth.
Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an asteroid (1 Ceres) in 1801, and the discovery of Neptune in 1846.
In 1925, Cecilia Payne - Gaposchkin determined that stars were composed mostly of Hydrogen and Helium. She was dissuaded by astronomer Henry Norris Russell from publishing this finding in her Ph. D. thesis because of the widely held belief that stars had the same composition as the Earth. However, four years later, in 1929, Henry Norris Russell came to the same conclusion through different reasoning and the discovery was eventually accepted.
George Gamow, Ralph Alpher, and Robert Herman had calculated that there should be evidence for a Big Bang in the background temperature of the universe. In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a 3 Kelvin background hiss in their Bell Labs radiotelescope (the Holmdel Horn Antenna), which was evidence for this hypothesis, and formed the basis for a number of results that helped determine the age of the universe.
Supernova SN1987A was observed by astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a triumph for neutrino astronomy, by the solar neutrino detectors at Kamiokande. But the solar neutrino flux was a fraction of its theoretically expected value. This discrepancy forced a change in some values in the standard model for particle physics.
William Harvey published De Motu Cordis in 1628, which revealed his conclusions based on his extensive studies of vertebrate circulatory systems. He identified the central role of the heart, arteries, and veins in producing blood movement in a circuit, and failed to find any confirmation of Galen 's pre-existing notions of heating and cooling functions.
The British Royal Society had received a letter from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and published it in 1673, bringing to light the scientist 's observations of microscopic organisms with his custom crafted lenses.
In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis dramatically reduced the occurrency of puerperal fever by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the germ theory of disease. However, Semmelweis ' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister 's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.
Perhaps the most prominent, controversial and far - reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the British naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man 's place in the universe ''. In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel in 1866. Mendel 's laws provided the beginnings of the study of genetics, which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953, James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms. In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the Human Genome Project).
The discipline of ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology and soil science -- particularly the cycle of life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn. The word ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin 's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930s, Arthur Tansley and others began developing the field of ecosystem ecology, which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of field biology. The history of ecology in the 20th century is closely tied to that of environmentalism; the Gaia hypothesis, first formulated in the 1960s, and spreading in the 1970s, and more recently the scientific - religious movement of Deep Ecology have brought the two closer together.
Successful use of the scientific method in the physical sciences led to the same methodology being adapted to better understand the many fields of human endeavor. From this effort the social sciences have been developed.
Political science is a late arrival in terms of social sciences. However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as moral philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal form of government. The roots of politics are in prehistory. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding.
In Western culture, the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece. The antecedents of European politics trace their roots back even earlier than Plato and Aristotle, particularly in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Euripides. Later, Plato analyzed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more literary - and history - oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to philosophy. Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato 's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis.
An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy by Kautilya and Viṣhṇugupta, who are traditionally identified with Chāṇakya (c. 350 -- - 283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analysed and documented. Roger Boesche describes the Arthaśāstra as "a book of political realism, a book analysing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good. ''
During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as Polybius, Livy and Plutarch documented the rise of the Roman Republic, and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like Julius Caesar, Cicero and others provided us with examples of the politics of the republic and Rome 's empire and wars. The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments.
With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, Christianity, brought to light a new space for politics and political action. During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Works such as Augustine of Hippo 's The City of God synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between Church and State were clarified and contested in this period.
In the Middle East and later other Islamic areas, works such as the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and Epic of Kings by Ferdowsi provided evidence of political analysis, while the Islamic Aristotelians such as Avicenna and later Maimonides and Averroes, continued Aristotle 's tradition of analysis and empiricism, writing commentaries on Aristotle 's works.
During the Italian Renaissance, Niccolò Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science on direct empirical observation of political institutions and actors. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the Enlightenment further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations. In particular, the study of statistics, to study the subjects of the state, has been applied to polling and voting.
In the 20th century, the study of ideology, behaviouralism and international relations led to a multitude of ' pol - sci ' subdisciplines including rational choice theory, voting theory, game theory (also used in economics), psephology, political geography / geopolitics, political psychology / political sociology, political economy, policy analysis, public administration, comparative political analysis and peace studies / conflict analysis.
Historical linguistics emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of Ferdinand de Saussure 's Cours de linguistique générale created the development of descriptive linguistics. Descriptive linguistics, and the related structuralism movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. Noam Chomsky further diversified linguistics with the development of generative linguistics in the 1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid syntax. Additional specialties such as sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and computational linguistics have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines.
The basis for classical economics forms Adam Smith 's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a system of free trade with division of labour. He postulated an "invisible hand '' that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self - interest. Karl Marx developed an alternative economic theory, called Marxian economics. Marxian economics is based on the labor theory of value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this assumption, capitalism was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The Austrian school responded to Marxian economics by viewing entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of supply and demand.
In the 1920s, John Maynard Keynes prompted a division between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Under Keynesian economics macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote aggregate demand for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, Milton Friedman created the concept of monetarism. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into supply - side economics which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion.
Other modern schools of economic thought are New Classical economics and New Keynesian economics. New Classical economics was developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid microeconomics as the basis for macroeconomic growth. New Keynesian economics was created partially in response to New Classical economics, and deals with how inefficiencies in the market create a need for control by a central bank or government.
The above "history of economics '' reflects modern economic textbooks and this means that the last stage of a science is represented as the culmination of its history (Kuhn, 1962). The "invisible hand '' mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the "Wealth of Nations '', 1776, advances as Smith 's central message. It is played down that this "invisible hand '' acts only "frequently '' and that it is "no part of his (the individual 's) intentions '' because competition leads to lower prices by imitating "his '' invention. That this "invisible hand '' prefers "the support of domestic to foreign industry '' is cleansed -- often without indication that part of the citation is truncated. The opening passage of the "Wealth '' containing Smith 's message is never mentioned as it can not be integrated into modern theory: "Wealth '' depends on the division of labour which changes with market volume and on the proportion of productive to Unproductive labor.
The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical conditioning), William James, and Sigmund Freud. Freud 's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology.
The 20th century saw a rejection of Freud 's theories as being too unscientific, and a reaction against Edward Titchener 's atomistic approach of the mind. This led to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B.F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed epistemologically limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be reliably measured. Scientific knowledge of the "mind '' was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve.
The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as PET scans and CAT scans, began to exert their influence as well, leading some researchers to investigate the mind by investigating the brain, rather than cognition. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.
Ibn Khaldun can be regarded as the earliest scientific systematic sociologist. The modern sociology, emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim), the aim of sociology was in structuralism, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote '' to social disintegration. Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of rationalization, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage '' of rational thought. Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W.E.B. Du Bois, utilized more microsociological, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the symbolic interactionism approach to sociology.
American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by Talcott Parsons, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional ''. This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, conflict theory was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. Erving Goffman saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage '' and attempting to control their audience through impression management. While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including feminist theory, post-structuralism, rational choice theory, and postmodernism.
Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behaviour. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part.
At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as Johann Gottfried Herder and later Wilhelm Dilthey whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline. Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on colonial encounters between Western Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th - and 19th - century anthropology is now classed as scientific racism.
During the late 19th - century, battles over the "study of man '' took place between those of an "anthropological '' persuasion (relying on anthropometrical techniques) and those of an "ethnological '' persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between physical anthropology and cultural anthropology, the latter ushered in by the students of Franz Boas.
In the mid-20th century, much of the methodologies of earlier anthropological and ethnographical study were reevaluated with an eye towards research ethics, while at the same time the scope of investigation has broadened far beyond the traditional study of "primitive cultures '' (scientific practice itself is often an arena of anthropological study).
The emergence of paleoanthropology, a scientific discipline which draws on the methodologies of paleontology, physical anthropology and ethology, among other disciplines, and increasing in scope and momentum from the mid-20th century, continues to yield further insights into human origins, evolution, genetic and cultural heritage, and perspectives on the contemporary human predicament as well.
During the 20th century, a number of interdisciplinary scientific fields have emerged. Examples include:
Communication studies combines animal communication, information theory, marketing, public relations, telecommunications and other forms of communication.
Computer science, built upon a foundation of theoretical linguistics, discrete mathematics, and electrical engineering, studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include computability, computational complexity, database design, computer networking, artificial intelligence, and the design of computer hardware. One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large - scale archiving of scientific data. Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasising mathematical ' theory ' in contrast to the practical emphasis of software engineering.
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary field. It draws upon the disciplines of biology, chemistry, earth sciences, ecology, geography, mathematics, and physics.
Materials science has its roots in metallurgy, mineralogy, and crystallography. It combines chemistry, physics, and several engineering disciplines. The field studies metals, ceramics, glass, plastics, semiconductors, and composite materials.
As an academic field, history of science and technology began with the publication of William Whewell 's History of the Inductive Sciences (first published in 1837). A more formal study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton 's publications, Introduction to the History of Science (1927) and the Isis journal (founded in 1912). Sarton exemplified the early 20th - century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas. He shared with many of his contemporaries a Whiggish belief in history as a record of the advances and delays in the march of progress. The history of science was not a recognized subfield of American history in this period, and most of the work was carried out by interested scientists and physicians rather than professional historians. With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of science became an established subdiscipline of history after 1945.
The history of mathematics, history of technology, and history of philosophy are distinct areas of research and are covered in other articles. Mathematics is closely related to but distinct from natural science (at least in the modern conception). Technology is likewise closely related to but clearly differs from the search for empirical truth.
History of science is an academic discipline, with an international community of specialists. Main professional organizations for this field include the History of Science Society, the British Society for the History of Science, and the European Society for the History of Science.
Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large - scale patterns and trends. The sociology of science in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they "produce '' and "construct '' scientific knowledge. Since the 1960s, a common trend in science studies (the study of the sociology and history of science) has been to emphasize the "human component '' of scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data are self - evident, value - free, and context - free. The field of Science and Technology Studies, an area that overlaps and often informs historical studies of science, focuses on the social context of science in both contemporary and historical periods.
Humboldtian science refers to the early 19th century approach of combining scientific field work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, ethics and aesthetic ideals. It helped to install natural history as a separate field, gave base for ecology and was based on the role model of scientist, naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. The later 19th century positivism asserted that all authentic knowledge allows verification and that all authentic knowledge assumes that the only valid knowledge is scientific.
A major subject of concern and controversy in the philosophy of science has been the nature of theory change in science. Karl Popper argued that scientific knowledge is progressive and cumulative; Thomas Kuhn, that scientific knowledge moves through "paradigm shifts '' and is not necessarily progressive; and Paul Feyerabend, that scientific knowledge is not cumulative or progressive and that there can be no demarcation in terms of method between science and any other form of investigation.
The mid 20th century saw a series of studies relying to the role of science in a social context, starting from Thomas Kuhn 's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962. It opened the study of science to new disciplines by suggesting that the evolution of science was in part sociologically determined and that positivism did not explain the actual interactions and strategies of the human participants in science. As Thomas Kuhn put it, the history of science may be seen in more nuanced terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes outside of science. "Partly by selection and partly by distortion, the scientists of earlier ages are implicitly presented as having worked upon the same set of fixed problems and in accordance with the same set of fixed canons that the most recent revolution in scientific theory and method made seem scientific. ''
Further studies, e.g. Jerome Ravetz 1971 Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems referred to the role of the scientific community, as a social construct, in accepting or rejecting (objective) scientific knowledge. The Science wars of the 1990 were about the influence of especially French philosophers, which denied the objectivity of science in general or seemed to do so. They described as well differences between the idealized model of a pure science and the actual scientific practice; while scientism, a revival of the positivism approach, saw in precise measurement and rigorous calculation the basis for finally settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies. However, more recently some of the leading critical theorists have recognized that their postmodern deconstructions have at times been counter-productive, and are providing intellectual ammunition for reactionary interests. Bruno Latour noted that "dangerous extremists are using the very same argument of social construction to destroy hard - won evidence that could save our lives. Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies? Is it enough to say that we did not really mean what we meant? ''
One recurring observation in the history of science involves the struggle for recognition of first - rate scientists working on the periphery of the scientific establishment. For instance, the great physicist Lord Rayleigh looked back (cited here) on John James Waterston 's seminal paper on the kinetic theory of gases. The history of the neglect of Waterston 's path - breaking article, Rayleigh felt, suggests that "a young author who believes himself capable of great things would usually do well to secure favourable recognition of the scientific world... before embarking upon higher flights. ''
William Harvey 's experiences led him to an even more pessimistic view:
"But what remains to be said about the quantity and source of the blood which thus passes, is of so novel and unheard - of character that I not only fear injury to myself from the envy of a few, but I tremble lest I have mankind at large for my enemies, so much doth wont and custom, that become as another nature, and doctrine once sown and that hath struck deep root, and respect for antiquity, influence all men. ''
In more general terms, Robert K. Merton remarks that "the history of science abounds in instances of basic papers having been written by comparatively unknown scientists, only to be rejected or neglected for years. ''
one of the features of positivism is precisely its postulate that scientific knowledge is the paradigm of valid knowledge, a postulate that indeed is never proved nor intended to be proved.
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what state is the statue of liberty actually in | Liberty Island - wikipedia
Liberty Island is a federally owned island in Upper New York Bay in the United States, best known as the location of the Statue of Liberty. The island is an exclave of Jersey City, surrounded by the waters of Jersey City, New Jersey. Long known as Bedloe 's Island, it was renamed by an act of the United States Congress in 1956. In 1937, by Presidential Proclamation 2250 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, it became part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument and in 1966, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as part of Statue of Liberty National Monument, Ellis Island and Liberty Island.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the island has a land area of 59,558 square meters, or 14.717 acres, which is the property of the federal government. A pact between New York and New Jersey states that New York has control of the Island, but taxes go to New Jersey, and the power comes from Jersey City. Liberty Island is located in the Upper New York Bay surrounded by the waters of Jersey City, Hudson County, New Jersey. Liberty Island is one of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in New York. The historical developments which led to this construction created the rare situation of an exclave of one state, New York, being situated in another, New Jersey.
The island is operated by the National Park Service, and since September 11, 2001, guarded by around - the - clock patrols of the United States Park Police Marine Patrol Unit. Liberty Island is 2,000 feet (610 m) east of Liberty State Park in Jersey City and is 1.58 statute miles (2.6 kilometers) southwest of Battery Park in Lower Manhattan. Public access is permitted only by ferries from either of the two parks, which serve the national monument, also stopping at Ellis Island. Hornblower Cruises and Events, operating under the name Statue Cruises, holds the exclusive concession for ferry service to and from the island.
At the time of European colonization of the Hudson River estuary in the mid-17th century, much of the west side of Upper New York Bay contained large tidal flats which hosted vast oyster beds, a major source of food for the Lenape native people who lived there at the time. Several islands were not completely submerged at high tide. Three of them (later known as Bedloe 's / Love / Liberty, Ellis, and Black Tom) were given the name Oyster Islands (oester eilanden) by the Dutch settlers of New Netherland, the first European colony in the Mid-Atlantic states. The oyster beds would remain a major source of food for nearly three centuries. Landfilling, started by the 1870s, particularly by the Lehigh Valley Railroad and Central Railroad of New Jersey, eventually obliterated the beds, engulfed one island and brought the shoreline much closer to the others.
After the surrender of Fort Amsterdam by the Dutch to the British in 1664, the English governor Richard Nicolls granted the island to Captain Robert Needham. It was sold to Isaac Bedloe on December 23, 1667. The island was retained by his estate until 1732 when it was sold for five shillings to New York merchants Adolphe Philipse and Henry Lane. During their ownership, the island was temporarily commandeered by the city of New York to establish a smallpox quarantine station...
In 1746, Archibald Kennedy (later 11th Earl of Cassilis) purchased the island and a summer residence was established, along with construction of a lighthouse.
In 1753, the island is described in an advertisement (in which "Bedlow 's '' had become "Bedloe 's '', along with an alternate name of "Love Island '') as being available for rental:
To be Let. Bedloe 's Island, alias Love Island, together with the dwelling - house and lighthouse being finely situated for a tavern, where all kinds of garden stuff, poultry, etc., may be easily raised for the shipping outward bound, and from where any quantity of pickled oysters may be transported; it abounds with English rabbits. ''
In 1756, Kennedy allowed the island to again be used as a smallpox quarantine station, and on February 18, 1758, the Corporation of the City of New York bought the island for £ 1,000 for use as a pest house.
When the British troops occupied New York Harbor in the lead - up to the American Revolutionary War, the island was to be used for housing for Tory refugees, but on April 2, 1776, the buildings constructed on the island for their use were burned to the ground.
On February 15, 1800, the New York State Legislature ceded the island to the federal government, for the construction of a defensive fort to be built there (along with Governors Island and Ellis Island). Construction of a fort on the island in the shape of an 11 - point star began in 1806 and was completed in 1811. Following the War of 1812, the star - shaped fortification was named Fort Wood after Lt. Col Eleazer Derby Wood who was killed in the Siege of Fort Erie in 1813. The granite fortification followed an 11 - pointed star fort layout with mounting 24 guns. A larger fort mounting 77 guns was proposed under the third system of US fortifications but was not built.
By the time it was chosen for the Statue of Liberty in the 1880s, the fort was outmoded and obsolete, disused and its substantial stone walls were then used as the distinctive base for the Statue of Liberty given by the Third French Republic for the American 1876 centenary celebrations. It had become a part of the base for the Statue of Liberty after the island was first seen by the statue 's sculptor. The National Park Service (which had been created in 1916) took over operations of the island in two stages: 2 acres (8,100 m) in 1933, and the remainder in 1937. The military installation was completely removed by 1944.
The statue, entitled Liberty Enlightening the World, was a gift from the people of France to mark the American Centennial. It was agreed that the Congress would authorize the acceptance of the statue by the President of the United States, and that the War Department would facilitate its construction and presentation.
The construction of the statue was completed in France in July 1884. The cornerstone was laid on August 5, 1884, and after some funding delays, construction of the pedestal was finished on April 22, 1886. The statue arrived in New York Harbor on June 17, 1885, on board the French frigate Isère, was stored for eleven months in crates waiting for its pedestal to be finished, and was then reassembled in four months. On October 28, 1886, the Statue of Liberty was unveiled by President Grover Cleveland. The name Liberty Island was made official by Congress in 1956.
On October 7, 2016, construction started on a new Statue of Liberty museum on Liberty Island. The new $70 million, 26,000 - square - foot (2,400 m) museum will be able to accommodate all of the island 's visitors when it opens in 2019, as opposed to the current museum, which only 20 % of the island 's visitors can visit. The original torch will be relocated here, and in addition to exhibits relating to the statue 's construction and history, there will be a theater where visitors can watch an aerial view of the statue. The museum, designed by FXFOWLE Architects, will integrate with the parkland around it. It is being funded privately by Diane von Fürstenberg, Michael Bloomberg, Jeff Bezos, Coca - Cola, NBCUniversal, the family of Laurence Tisch and Preston Robert Tisch, and Mellody Hobson and George Lucas. Von Fürstenberg heads the fundraising for the museum, and the project had garnered more than $40 million in fundraising as of groundbreaking.
There have been a number of disputes regarding the jurisdictional status of Liberty Island.
An unusual clause in the 1664 colonial land grant that outlined New Jersey 's borders reads: "westward of Long Island, and Manhitas Island and bounded on the east part by the main sea, and part by Hudson 's river '' rather than at the river 's midpoint, as was common in other colonial charters.
When the Province of New Jersey was separated from the Province of New York in 1674 it was argued that Staten Island belonged to the former. Then governor Edmund Andros directed that all islands in the bay that could be circumnavigated within 24 hours were part of New York. Captain Christopher Billopp sailed around it within the allotted time and was soon thereafter granted a manor at its southern tip. The border came to be understood as being along the shore of the Hudson River, the Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, and Arthur Kill.
In 1824 the City of New York attempted to assert a jurisdictional monopoly over the growing steam ferry service in New York Harbor in Gibbons v. Ogden. It was deemed by the court that interstate transport would be regulated by the federal government. This did not resolve the border issue. In 1830, New Jersey planned to bring suit, but the matter was resolved with a compact between the states ratified by US Congress in 1834 which set the boundary line between them as the midpoint of the shared waterways. This was later confirmed by the US Supreme Court in a 1908 case which also expounded on the compact.
In 1987, US Representative Frank J. Guarini and Gerald McCann, then mayor of Jersey City, sued New York City, contending that New Jersey should have dominion over Liberty Island because it is on the New Jersey side of the state line. By default, since the court chose not to hear the case, the existing legal status was unchanged. Portions of the island that are above water are part of New York, while riparian rights to all of the submerged land surrounding the statue belong to New Jersey. The southwestern section, 4.17 acres (1.69 ha), of the island was created by land reclamation.
A 1997 United States Supreme Court decision involved such riparian rights around nearby Ellis Island. Being mostly constructed of artificial infill, New Jersey argued and the court agreed that the 1834 compact covered only the natural parts of the island, and not the portions added by infill. Thus it was agreed that the parts of the island made of filled land belonged to New Jersey while the original natural part belonged to New York. This proved impractical to administer and New Jersey and New York subsequently agreed to share jurisdiction of the entire island. This special situation only applies to Ellis Island and part of Shooters Island.
Liberty Island has been owned by the federal government since 1801, first as a military installation and now as a national landmark. Statue of Liberty National Monument, Ellis Island and Liberty Island, listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1966, encompasses land in both states control of which is superseded by the United States. The undisputed boundary between New Jersey and New York is in the center of the Hudson River and the Upper New York Bay, with Liberty Island situated well on the New Jersey side of the water line with Liberty Island itself an exclave of the State of New York and a part of New York City, allowing the state and city of New York to retain sovereignty of Liberty Island, serve process there and collect sales tax from Liberty Island souvenir shops.
In response to a FAQ about whether the Statue of Liberty is in New York or New Jersey, the National Park Service, which oversees Liberty Island, cites the 1834 compact. Question 127 on a naturalization examination piloted in 2006 asks "Where is the Statue of Liberty? '' The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services gives "New York Harbor '' and "Liberty Island '' as preferred answers, but notes that "New Jersey, '' "New York, '' "New York City, '' and "on the Hudson '' are acceptable.
The Statue of Liberty itself is claimed as a symbol by both New York and New Jersey. It was featured on New York license plates from 1986 through 2000 and on a special New Jersey license plate celebrating Liberty State Park in Jersey City. The Statue is also seen on the New York State Quarter. The national monument was the symbol of the Central Railroad of New Jersey, still used by the Raritan Valley Line. (The Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal is nearby).
Though it is uninhabited, the United States Geological Survey includes it as part of New York 's 10th congressional district as of the 114th United States Congress in 2015. Both New York City and Jersey City have assigned the island lot numbers. Utility services, including electricity, water, and sewage, to Liberty and Ellis Islands are provided from the New Jersey side. Mail is delivered from Battery Park.
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is there a military base in austin texas | List of military installations in Texas - wikipedia
This is a list of military installations in Texas, United States.
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who won all india open rapid world chess federation | World rapid Chess Championship - wikipedia
The World Rapid Chess Championship is a match or tournament held to determine the World Champion in chess played under rapid time controls. Prior to 2012, the FIDE gave such recognition to a limited number of tournaments, with non-FIDE recognized tournaments annually naming a world rapid champion of their own. Since 2012, FIDE has held an annual joint rapid and blitz chess tournament and billed it as the Word Rapid & Blitz Chess Championships. The current world rapid champion is Ukrainian grandmaster Vassily Ivanchuk.
The concept of rapid chess (then called "active chess '') made its debut at a 1987 FIDE Congress meeting in Seville, Spain. During the World Active Chess Championship the following year, time controls were set at 30 minutes per player per game. In 1993, following his split from FIDE, world champion Garry Kasparov organized a slightly quicker version of active chess, dubbing it "rapid chess ''. The Professional Chess Association, Kasparov 's answer to FIDE, subsequently organized two Grand Prix cycles of rapid chess before folding in 1996. Under rapid chess time controls, each player was allowed 25 minutes with an additional 10 seconds after each move. The FIDE would re-use these time controls and the "rapid chess '' moniker for the 2003 FIDE World Rapid Chess Championship, held in Cap d'Agde. During the World Cup 2013, these time controls were also used for the rapid tiebreak stages.
In 2012, FIDE inaugurated the World Rapid & Blitz Chess Championships. The current time controls for the rapid championship are set at 15 minutes per player, with a 10 - second increment.
Prior to 2012, FIDE sporadically sanctioned a world rapid chess championship. The first official high - profile rapid match took place in 1987, when then - world champion Garry Kasparov defeated Nigel Short in the "London Docklands Speed Chess Challenge '' at the London Hippodrome. Kasparov won the match with 4 wins, two losses, and no draws in six games.
In 1988, FIDE organized the inaugural World Active Chess Championship, a 61 - player rapid chess tournament in Mazatlan, Mexico hosted by the Mazatlan Hoteliers Association. Notable participants included:
The event was won by Anatoly Karpov, who edged out GM Viktor Gavrikov on tiebreak points after their 1st - place playoff ended in a 5 - 5 tie. Karpov was subsequently named the new "Active Chess Champion '', winning a $40,000 cash prize in the process. Garry Kasparov, the current world champion, declined to participate in the event and derided the concept of an active chess champion afterwards - he was quoted as saying, "Active Chess? What does that make me, the Passive World Champion? ''. The political controversy surrounding the event and the naming of a separate "active chess champion '' led to the parallel rapid championship being dropped for future years.
In 2001, the French Chess Federation organized the 16 - player World Cup of Rapid Chess at Cannes, with support from FIDE. The tournament consisted of a round - robin stage (2 groups of eight players each), followed by a set of knockout matches to determine the winner. With the Melody Amber rapid chess tournament being held concurrently, the world 's top players were split between attending both events. Nevertheless, the tournament attracted a strong field headlined by the No. 1 - rated player in the world - despite the World Cup 's status as an FIDE event, Kasparov 's contract with the French Chess Federation led to his inclusion.
In group A, Kasparov 's domination of his opponents was on display: he scored 51⁄2 / 7 to finish in clear 1st place, 11⁄2 points ahead of the rest of the field. Joining him in the top 4 were Bareev, Grischuk, and Judit Polgar, who beat out Peter Svidler in tiebreaks. In group B, Belgian grandmaster Mikhail Gurevich got off to a fast start with 3 wins in 4 games to finish atop the group with 5 / 7. Following him into the knockout stage were the two Frenchmen, Bacrot and Tkachiev, and Michael Adams.
Kasparov defeated Bareev in Game 2 of the final match to win the tournament. In the endgame, Kasparov and Bareev were left with a seemingly closed position - four pawns and a King apiece. However, the position of Kasparov 's king gave him a slight advantage, and with only two seconds left on his clock, Bareev could not find the drawing line and was forced to resign.
Looking to revive the World Rapid Chess Championship, FIDE gave official "world title '' recognition to the 2003 rapid chess tournament held in Cap d'Agde, France. Hosted by the Caisse Centrale d'Activités Sociales des Electriciens et Gaziers de France (CCAS) on the Mediterranean coast, the 2003 tournament included eleven of the world 's 12 top - ranked players along with five wild - cards. With an average rating of 2726 Elo points, the 2003 event was the strongest rapid chess tournament of all time up to that point. Included in the field were the reigning FIDE and Classical world chess champions, Ruslan Ponomariov and Vladimir Kramnik.
The field was divided into two groups of eight players each, from which eight players total would progress to the knockout stages; ties in standings were resolved by a sudden - death playoff. Vladimir Kramnik, Ruslan Ponomariov, and Etienne Bacrot scored 41⁄2 / 7 to progress from Group A. Taking the final spot was Veselin Topalov, who defeated Boris Gelfand in a sudden - death playoff. In group B, Peter Svidler finished clear of the field with 5 / 7 to secure a spot in the quarterfinals; joining him were Alexander Grischuk, Viswanathan Anand, and Judit Polgar.
Kramnik, the reigning classical world champion and tournament 's No. 1 seed, dispatched Polgar and Grischuk with little difficulty to reach the final. In the other half of the bracket, Viswanathan Anand defeated Peter Svidler in a sudden - death blitz game after three drawn games to join him. After Game 1 ended in a quiet 19 - move draw, Anand chose to play for complications in Game 2 in the white side of a Sveshnikov Sicilian. Following an inaccuracy from Kramnik (17... a5? 18. Na3), Anand was able to use his two knights to infiltrate Kramnik 's defence, eventually forcing a queen sac to win the game and the match.
On May 31, 2012, FIDE announced the inaugural World Rapid & Blitz Championships, set to take place in Astana, Kazakhstan from July 1 to 11. The 2012 tournament consisted of a qualifying round, followed by the rapid and blitz events held consecutively over 5 days. In order to promote viewership, time controls were set at 15 minutes per player, rather than the pre-2012 standard of 25 minutes. The championship was originally structured as a 16 - player round - robin tournament, set to coincide with the first release of FIDE 's rapid and blitz ratings in July 2012; invited were the top 10 players in the FIDE ratings list, the three medalists of the qualification competition, and three wild - card nominees by the organization committee and FIDE. The style has since been changed to a Swiss tournament with a field of over 100 grandmasters. The top three finishers in the standings are awarded gold, silver, and bronze medals respectively; tiebreaks are determined by ARO (average rating of opponent).
Starting in 1994, the Chess Classic was an annual series of tournaments hosted by the Chess Tigers in Mainz, Germany. The brainchild of Hans - Walter Schmitt, the Chess Classic featured top - ranked players playing rapid and FischeRandom chess games against computers as well as each other. The main event of the classic was the Grenkeleasing World Rapid Chess Championship (formerly Fujitsu - Siemens), a tournament generally considered as the traditional rapid chess championship in the absence of an annual FIDE - recognized championship. Indian grandmaster Viswanathan Anand holds the record for most championship wins, having won the event 11 times in 15 years.
From 1996 to 1998, the Rapid Chess Championship at Frankfurt was organized as a double - round robin, followed by a match between the 1st and 2nd - place finishers for the championship. With the addition of Karpov to the field in 1999, the format was temporarily changed to a pure round - robin, with the 1st - place finisher winning the championship. The following year the field was expanded further to include all ten of the top 10 - rated Grandmasters in the world, and was dubbed a Category 21 tournament with an average Elo rating of 2767.
In 2001 the event moved to Mainz, and shifted from a round - robin to a matchplay format - the defending champion Vishwanathan Anand defended his title in an eight - game match against the winner of the previous year 's Ordix Open, the open rapid tournament. In 2007, with Anand still the rapid champion after six successful title defenses, the event reverted to a double - round robin tournament, with the top two finishers in the semi-finals advancing to the finals. In a homage to the Masters Tournament, the winner of the championship is traditionally awarded a winner 's black jacket.
In 2010, the event 's final year, the Open GRENKE Rapid Championship featured a field of over 700 players. Shortly afterwards, the Chess Tigers withdrew financial backing for the event, due in part to the effects of the worldwide 2008 economic crisis.
Blitz tiebreaks used to settle the outcome.
Presented under the auspices of Online World Chess, the 2002 EuroTel Knockout Tournament was a 32 - player single - elimination tournament hosted in Prague from 27 April to 5 May 2002. 14 of the world 's top 15 players were in attendance, including the reigning world champion Vladimir Kramnik and the world 's No. 1 - ranked player Garry Kasparov. A notable omission from the field was reigning FIDE World Champion Ruslan Ponomariov. At stake was a share of the € 500,000 prize fund, the largest for any chess event hosted in the Czech Republic, and the EuroTel Trophy. The finalists of the tournament were determined by a series of knock - out matches, with each match consisting of two games played at rapid time controls (25 minutes per player). Ties were broken by two blitz games, followed by a sudden - death Armageddon game.
The surprise of the tournament was Anatoly Karpov, who put together an impressive run with wins against Short, Kramnik, Morozevich, and Shirov to reach the finals. In the other half of the bracket, the No. 1 seed Kasparov was upset by Vassily Ivanchuk in a sudden - death game after the rapid and blitz games did not produce a winner; Ivanchuk would subsequently lose to Indian grandmaster Viswanathan Anand in the semifinals, bowing out with a loss in the second blitz tiebreak game after both rapid games ended in a draw.
In the final, Anand defeated Karpov in Game 1 with White to take a 1 - 0 lead; Anand maneuvered his light - squared bishop to slowly gain an advantage throughout the game, before 54... a5? gave the Indian a winning advantage. In Game 2, Karpov pressed but was unable to crack Anand 's Semi-Slav Defence, leading to a 34 - move draw.
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random numbers are commonly used in which type of program | Random number generation - wikipedia
Random number generation is the generation of a sequence of numbers or symbols that can not be reasonably predicted better than by a random chance, usually through a random - number generator (RNG).
Various applications of randomness have led to the development of several different methods for generating random data, of which some have existed since ancient times, among whose ranks are well - known "classic '' examples, including the rolling of dice, coin flipping, the shuffling of playing cards, the use of yarrow stalks (for divination) in the I Ching, as well as countless other techniques. Because of the mechanical nature of these techniques, generating large numbers of sufficiently random numbers (important in statistics) required a lot of work and / or time. Thus, results would sometimes be collected and distributed as random number tables. Nowadays, after the advent of computational random - number generators, a growing number of government - run lotteries and lottery games have started using RNGs instead of more traditional drawing methods. RNGs are also used to determine the outcomes of modern slot machines.
Several computational methods for random - number generation exist. Many fall short of the goal of true randomness, although they may meet, with varying success, some of the statistical tests for randomness intended to measure how unpredictable their results are (that is, to what degree their patterns are discernible). However, carefully designed cryptographically secure computationally based methods of generating random numbers also exist, such as those based on the Yarrow algorithm, the Fortuna (PRNG), and others.
Random number generators have applications in gambling, statistical sampling, computer simulation, cryptography, completely randomized design, and other areas where producing an unpredictable result is desirable. Generally, in applications having unpredictability as the paramount, such as in security applications, hardware generators are generally preferred over pseudo-random algorithms, where feasible.
Random number generators are very useful in developing Monte Carlo - method simulations, as debugging is facilitated by the ability to run the same sequence of random numbers again by starting from the same random seed. They are also used in cryptography -- so long as the seed is secret. Sender and receiver can generate the same set of numbers automatically to use as keys.
The generation of pseudo-random numbers is an important and common task in computer programming. While cryptography and certain numerical algorithms require a very high degree of apparent randomness, many other operations only need a modest amount of unpredictability. Some simple examples might be presenting a user with a "Random Quote of the Day '', or determining which way a computer - controlled adversary might move in a computer game. Weaker forms of randomness are used in hash algorithms and in creating amortized searching and sorting algorithms.
Some applications which appear at first sight to be suitable for randomization are in fact not quite so simple. For instance, a system that "randomly '' selects music tracks for a background music system must only appear random, and may even have ways to control the selection of music: a true random system would have no restriction on the same item appearing two or three times in succession.
There are two principal methods used to generate random numbers. The first method measures some physical phenomenon that is expected to be random and then compensates for possible biases in the measurement process. Example sources include measuring atmospheric noise, thermal noise, and other external electromagnetic and quantum phenomena. For example, cosmic background radiation or radioactive decay as measured over short timescales represent sources of natural entropy.
The speed at which entropy can be harvested from natural sources is dependent on the underlying physical phenomena being measured. Thus, sources of naturally occurring "true '' entropy are said to be blocking -- they are rate - limited until enough entropy is harvested to meet the demand. On some Unix - like systems, including most Linux distributions, the pseudo device file / dev / random will block until sufficient entropy is harvested from the environment. Due to this blocking behavior, large bulk reads from / dev / random, such as filling a hard disk drive with random bits, can often be slow on systems that use this type of entropy source.
The second method uses computational algorithms that can produce long sequences of apparently random results, which are in fact completely determined by a shorter initial value, known as a seed value or key. As a result, the entire seemingly random sequence can be reproduced if the seed value is known. This type of random number generator is often called a pseudorandom number generator. This type of generator typically does not rely on sources of naturally occurring entropy, though it may be periodically seeded by natural sources. This generator type is non-blocking, so they are not rate - limited by an external event, making large bulk reads a possibility.
Some systems take a hybrid approach, providing randomness harvested from natural sources when available, and falling back to periodically re-seeded software - based cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generators (CSPRNGs). The fallback occurs when the desired read rate of randomness exceeds the ability of the natural harvesting approach to keep up with the demand. This approach avoids the rate - limited blocking behavior of random number generators based on slower and purely environmental methods.
While a pseudorandom number generator based solely on deterministic logic can never be regarded as a "true '' random number source in the purest sense of the word, in practice they are generally sufficient even for demanding security - critical applications. Indeed, carefully designed and implemented pseudo-random number generators can be certified for security - critical cryptographic purposes, as is the case with the yarrow algorithm and fortuna. The former is the basis of the / dev / random source of entropy on FreeBSD, AIX, OS X, NetBSD and others. OpenBSD also uses a pseudo-random number algorithm based on ChaCha20 known as arc4random.
The earliest methods for generating random numbers, such as dice, coin flipping and roulette wheels, are still used today, mainly in games and gambling as they tend to be too slow for most applications in statistics and cryptography.
A physical random number generator can be based on an essentially random atomic or subatomic physical phenomenon whose unpredictability can be traced to the laws of quantum mechanics. Sources of entropy include radioactive decay, thermal noise, shot noise, avalanche noise in Zener diodes, clock drift, the timing of actual movements of a hard disk read / write head, and radio noise. However, physical phenomena and tools used to measure them generally feature asymmetries and systematic biases that make their outcomes not uniformly random. A randomness extractor, such as a cryptographic hash function, can be used to approach a uniform distribution of bits from a non-uniformly random source, though at a lower bit rate.
The appearance of wideband photonic entropy sources such as chaotic laser and amplified spontaneous emission noise greatly promote the rapid development of the physical random number generator. Among them, laser chaos gets great concerns to produce high - speed physical random numbers due to its merits of the high bandwidth and large amplitude. Wang report a prototype of high - speed real - time physical random bit generator based on a chaotic laser.
Various imaginative ways of collecting this entropic information have been devised. One technique is to run a hash function against a frame of a video stream from an unpredictable source. Lavarand used this technique with images of a number of lava lamps. HotBits measures radioactive decay with Geiger -- Muller tubes, while Random.org uses variations in the amplitude of atmospheric noise recorded with a normal radio.
Another common entropy source is the behavior of human users of the system. While people are not considered good randomness generators upon request, they generate random behavior quite well in the context of playing mixed strategy games. Some security - related computer software requires the user to make a lengthy series of mouse movements or keyboard inputs to create sufficient entropy needed to generate random keys or to initialize pseudorandom number generators.
Most computer generated random numbers use pseudorandom number generators (PRNGs) which are algorithms that can automatically create long runs of numbers with good random properties but eventually the sequence repeats (or the memory usage grows without bound). This kind of random numbers are fine in many situations but are not as random as numbers generated from electromagnetic atmospheric noise used as a source of entropy. The series of values generated by such algorithms is generally determined by a fixed number called a seed. One of the most common PRNG is the linear congruential generator, which uses the recurrence
to generate numbers, where a, b and m are large integers, and X n + 1 (\ displaystyle X_ (n + 1)) is the next in X as a series of pseudo-random numbers. The maximum number of numbers the formula can produce is one less than the modulus, m - 1. To avoid certain non-random properties of a single linear congruential generator, several such random number generators with slightly different values of the multiplier coefficient, a, can be used in parallel, with a "master '' random number generator that selects from among the several different generators.
A simple pen - and - paper method for generating random numbers is the so - called middle square method suggested by John von Neumann. While simple to implement, its output is of poor quality. It has a very short period and severe weaknesses, such as the output sequence almost always converging to zero. A recent innovation is to combine the middle square with a Weyl sequence. This method produces high quality output through a long period. See Middle Square Weyl Sequence PRNG.
Most computer programming languages include functions or library routines that provide random number generators. They are often designed to provide a random byte or word, or a floating point number uniformly distributed between 0 and 1.
The quality i.e. randomness of such library functions varies widely from completely predictable output, to cryptographically secure. The default random number generator in many languages, including Python, Ruby, R, IDL and PHP is based on the Mersenne Twister algorithm and is not sufficient for cryptography purposes, as is explicitly stated in the language documentation. Such library functions often have poor statistical properties and some will repeat patterns after only tens of thousands of trials. They are often initialized using a computer 's real time clock as the seed, since such a clock generally measures in milliseconds, far beyond the person 's precision. These functions may provide enough randomness for certain tasks (for example video games) but are unsuitable where high - quality randomness is required, such as in cryptography applications, statistics or numerical analysis.
Much higher quality random number sources are available on most operating systems; for example / dev / random on various BSD flavors, Linux, Mac OS X, IRIX, and Solaris, or CryptGenRandom for Microsoft Windows. Most programming languages, including those mentioned above, provide a means to access these higher quality sources.
There are a couple of methods to generate a random number based on a probability density function. These methods involve transforming a uniform random number in some way. Because of this, these methods work equally well in generating both pseudo-random and true random numbers. One method, called the inversion method, involves integrating up to an area greater than or equal to the random number (which should be generated between 0 and 1 for proper distributions). A second method, called the acceptance - rejection method, involves choosing an x and y value and testing whether the function of x is greater than the y value. If it is, the x value is accepted. Otherwise, the x value is rejected and the algorithm tries again.
Random number generation may also be performed by humans, in the form of collecting various inputs from end users and using them as a randomization source. However, most studies find that human subjects have some degree of non-randomness when attempting to produce a random sequence of e.g. digits or letters. They may alternate too much between choices when compared to a good random generator; thus, this approach is not widely used.
Even given a source of plausible random numbers (perhaps from a quantum mechanically based hardware generator), obtaining numbers which are completely unbiased takes care. In addition, behavior of these generators often changes with temperature, power supply voltage, the age of the device, or other outside interference. And a software bug in a pseudo-random number routine, or a hardware bug in the hardware it runs on, may be similarly difficult to detect.
Generated random numbers are sometimes subjected to statistical tests before use to ensure that the underlying source is still working, and then post-processed to improve their statistical properties. An example would be the TRNG9803 hardware random number generator, which uses an entropy measurement as a hardware test, and then post-processes the random sequence with a shift register stream cipher. It is generally hard to use statistical tests to validate the generated random numbers. Wang and Nicol proposed a distance - based statistical testing technique that is used to identify the weaknesses of several random generators.Li and Wang proposed a method of testing random numbers based on laser chaotic entropy sources using Brownian motion properties.
Random numbers uniformly distributed between 0 and 1 can be used to generate random numbers of any desired distribution by passing them through the inverse cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the desired distribution (see Inverse transform sampling). Inverse CDFs are also called quantile functions. To generate a pair of statistically independent standard normally distributed random numbers (x, y), one may first generate the polar coordinates (r, θ), where r ~ χ and θ ~ UNIFORM (0, 2π) (see Box -- Muller transform).
Some 0 to 1 RNGs include 0 but exclude 1, while others include or exclude both.
The outputs of multiple independent RNGs can be combined (for example, using a bit-wise XOR operation) to provide a combined RNG at least as good as the best RNG used. This is referred to as software whitening.
Computational and hardware random number generators are sometimes combined to reflect the benefits of both kinds. Computational random number generators can typically generate pseudo-random numbers much faster than physical generators, while physical generators can generate "true randomness. ''
Some computations making use of a random number generator can be summarized as the computation of a total or average value, such as the computation of integrals by the Monte Carlo method. For such problems, it may be possible to find a more accurate solution by the use of so - called low - discrepancy sequences, also called quasirandom numbers. Such sequences have a definite pattern that fills in gaps evenly, qualitatively speaking; a truly random sequence may, and usually does, leave larger gaps.
The following sites make available Random Number samples:
Since much cryptography depends on a cryptographically secure random number generator for key and cryptographic nonce generation, if a random number generator can be made predictable, it can be used as backdoor by an attacker to break the encryption.
The NSA is reported to have inserted a backdoor into the NIST certified cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator Dual_EC_DRBG. If for example an SSL connection is created using this random number generator, then according to Matthew Green it would allow NSA to determine the state of the random number generator, and thereby eventually be able to read all data sent over the SSL connection. Even though it was apparent that Dual_EC_DRBG was a very poor and possibly backdoored pseudorandom number generator long before the NSA backdoor was confirmed in 2013, it had seen significant usage in practice until 2013, for example by the prominent security company RSA Security. There have subsequently been accusations that RSA Security knowingly inserted a NSA backdoor into its products, possibly as part of the Bullrun program. RSA has denied knowingly inserting a backdoor into its products.
It has also been theorized that hardware RNGs could be secretly modified to have less entropy than stated, which would make encryption using the hardware RNG susceptible to attack. One such method which has been published works by modifying the dopant mask of the chip, which would be undetectable to optical reverse - engineering. For example, for random number generation in Linux, it is seen as unacceptable to use Intel 's RdRand hardware RNG without mixing in the RdRand output with other sources of entropy to counteract any backdoors in the hardware RNG, especially after the revelation of the NSA Bullrun program.
In 2010, a U.S. lottery draw was rigged by the information security director of the Multi-State Lottery Association (MUSL), who surreptitiously installed backdoor malware on the MUSL 's secure RNG computer during routine maintenance. During the hacks the man won a total amount of $16,500,000 by predicting the numbers correct a few times in year.
ASLR or Address Space Layout Randomization, a mitigation against rowhammer and related attacks on the physical hardware of memory chips has been found to be inadequate as of early 2017 by VUSec. The random number algorithm if based on a shift register implemented in hardware is predictable at sufficiently large values of p and can be reverse engineered with enough processing power. This also indirectly means that malware using this method can run on both GPUs and CPUs if coded to do so, even using GPU to break ASLR on the CPU itself.
The process of random number generation in games, especially in roguelike games, is often referred to as being controlled by a "Random Number God '' or "RN - Jesus ''. The term was originally coined by players of the games Angband and NetHack, and also references the belief that certain actions can either appease or anger the "God '', leading to number generation seemingly skewed for or against the player.
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when was the peace treaty with japan signed | Treaty of San Francisco - wikipedia
Treaty of San Francisco (サンフランシスコ 講和 条約, San - Furanshisuko kōwa - Jōyaku), Peace Treaty with Japan (日本 国 と の 平和 条約, Nihon - koku tono Heiwa - Jōyaku) or commonly known as the Treaty of Peace with Japan, Peace Treaty of San Francisco, or San Francisco Peace Treaty), mostly between Japan and the Allied Powers, was officially signed by 48 nations on September 8, 1951, in San Francisco. It came into force on April 28, 1952 and officially ended the American - led Allied Occupation of Japan. According to Article 11 of the Treaty, Japan accepts the judgments of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and of other Allied War Crimes Courts imposed on Japan both within and outside Japan.
This treaty served to officially end Japan 's position as an imperial power, to allocate compensation to Allied civilians and former prisoners of war who had suffered Japanese war crimes during World War II, and to end the Allied post-war occupation of Japan and return sovereignty to that nation. This treaty made extensive use of the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to enunciate the Allies ' goals.
This treaty, along with the Security Treaty signed that same day, is said to mark the beginning of the San Francisco System; this term, coined by historian John W. Dower, signifies the effects of Japan 's relationship with the United States and its role in the international arena as determined by these two treaties and is used to discuss the ways in which these effects have governed Japan 's post-war history.
This treaty also introduced the problem of the legal status of Taiwan due to its lack of specificity as to what country Taiwan was to be surrendered, and hence some supporters of Taiwan independence argue that sovereignty of Taiwan is still undetermined.
Further description of events leading to Peace Treaty of San Francisco (Peace Treaty with Japan) April 28, 1952. The MacArthur Constitution of 1947 established Japan as a constitutional monarchy. The emperor Hirohito 's status was henceforth deemed purely symbolic. Japan accepted the penalties Hideki Tojo and others were given for their wartime atrocitites. (Citation Needed)
Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, Ceylon, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Japan, Laos, Lebanon, Liberia, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Poland, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, the Soviet Union, Syria, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, Venezuela, and Vietnam attended the Conference.
China was not invited due to disagreements on whether the established but defeated Republic of China (in Taiwan) or the newly formed People 's Republic of China (in mainland China) represented the Chinese people. Burma, India, and Yugoslavia were invited, but did not participate; India considered certain provisions of the Treaty to constitute limitations on Japanese sovereignty and national independence. India signed a separate peace treaty, the Treaty of Peace Between Japan and India, for the purpose of giving Japan a proper position of honor and equality among the community of free nations, on June 9, 1952. As a consequence of U.K. -- U.S. disagreement over Chinese participation, neither North nor South Korea was invited. Italy was not invited either, notwithstanding the fact that the government had issued a formal declaration of war to Japan on July 14, 1945, just a few weeks before the end of the war. Pakistan as a state had not existed at the time of the war but was invited anyway since it was a successor state to British India, a major combatant against Japan. Portugal was also not invited -- even though its territory of East Timor had been invaded by Japan, disregarding Portugal 's status as neutral country in the war. Japantimes.co.jp (2013)
The Soviet Union took part in the San Francisco conference, and the Soviet delegation was led by the Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko. From the start of the conference the Soviet Union expressed vigorous and vocal opposition to the draft treaty text prepared by the United States and the United Kingdom. The Soviet delegation made several unsuccessful procedural attempts to stall the proceedings. The Soviet Union 's objections were detailed in a lengthy September 8, 1951 statement by Gromyko. The statement contained a number of Soviet Union 's claims and assertions: that the treaty did not provide any guarantees against the rise of Japanese militarism; that China was not invited to participate despite being one of the main victims of the Japanese aggression; that the Soviet Union was not properly consulted when the treaty was being prepared; that the treaty sets up Japan as an American military base and draws Japan into a military coalition directed against the Soviet Union; that the treaty was in effect a separate peace treaty; that the draft treaty violated the rights of China to Taiwan and several other islands; that several Japanese islands were ceded by the treaty to the United States despite the U.S. not having any legitimate claim to them; that the draft treaty, in violation of the Yalta agreement, did not recognize the Soviet Union 's sovereignty over South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands; and other objections. It was not until October 19, 1956, that Japan and the Soviet Union signed a Joint Declaration ending the war and reestablishing diplomatic relations.
The ongoing Chinese Civil War and thus the question of which Chinese government was legitimate presented a dilemma to conference organizers. The United States wanted to invite the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan to represent China, while the United Kingdom wished to invite the People 's Republic of China (PRC) on mainland China as China 's representative. As a compromise, neither government was invited.
On August 15, 1951 and September 18, 1951 the PRC published statements denouncing the treaty, stating that it was illegal and should not be recognized. Besides their general exclusion from the negotiation process, the PRC claimed that Xisha (Paracel Islands), Nansha (Spratly Islands) and Dongsha (Pratas Islands) in the South China Sea were actually part of China. The treaty either did not address these islands, or in the case of the Pratas Islands turned them over to the United Nations.
A major player in providing support for a post-war free Japan was the delegation from Ceylon (now known as Sri Lanka). While many were reluctant to allow a free Japan capable of aggressive action and insisted that the terms of surrender should be rigidly enforced in an attempt to break the spirit of the Japanese nation, the Ceylonese Finance Minister J.R. Jayawardene spoke in defence of a free Japan and informed the conference of Ceylon 's refusal to accept the payment of reparations that would harm Japan 's economy. His reason was "We in Ceylon were fortunate that we were not invaded, but the damage caused by air raids, by the stationing of enormous armies under the South - East Asia Command, and by the slaughter - tapping of one of our main commodities, rubber, when we were the only producer of natural rubber for the Allies, entitles us to ask that the damage so caused should be repaired. We do not intend to do so for we believe in the words of the Great Teacher (Buddha) whose message has ennobled the lives of countless millions in Asia, that ' hatred ceases not by hatred but by love '. '' He ended the same speech by saying:
This treaty is as magnanimous as it is just to a defeated foe. We extend to Japan the hand of friendship and trust that with the closing of this chapter in the history of man, the last page of which we write today, and with the beginning of the new one, the first page of which we dictate tomorrow, her people and ours may march together to enjoy the full dignity of human life in peace and prosperity.
Minister Jayewardene 's speech was received with resounding applause. Afterwards, the New York Times stated, "The voice of free Asia, eloquent, melancholy and still strong with the lilt of an Oxford accent, dominated the Japanese peace treaty conference today. ''
Of the 51 participating countries, 48 signed the treaty; Czechoslovakia, Poland and the Soviet Union refused.
The signatories to the treaty were: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, Ceylon, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Laos, Lebanon, Liberia, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Syria, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela, Vietnam and Japan.
The Philippines ratified the San Francisco Treaty on July 16, 1956, after the signing of a reparations agreement between both countries in May of that year. Indonesia did not ratify the San Francisco Peace Treaty. Instead, it signed with Japan a bilateral reparations agreement and peace treaty on January 20, 1958. A separate treaty, the Treaty of Taipei, formally known as the Sino - Japanese Peace Treaty, was signed in Taipei on April 28, 1952, between Japan and the ROC, just hours before the Treaty of San Francisco also went into effect on April 28. The apparent illogical order of the two treaties is due to the difference between time zones.
Neither Korea nor its derivatives South Korea and North Korea was allowed to sign either the Treaty or a separate peace arrangement with Japan.
The document officially renounces Japan 's treaty rights derived from the Boxer Protocol of 1901 and its rights to Korea, Formosa (Taiwan) and the Pescadores, Hong Kong (then a British colony), the Kuril Islands, the Spratly Islands, Antarctica and Sakhalin Island.
Article 3 of the treaty left the Bonin Islands and the Ryukyu Islands, which included Okinawa and the Amami, Miyako and Yaeyama Islands groups, under a potential U.S. trusteeship. Whilst the treaty suggested that these territories would become U.S. trusteeship, at the end that option was not pursued. The Amami Islands were eventually restored to Japan on December 25, 1953, as well as the Bonin Islands on April 5, 1968. In 1969 U.S. - Japan negotiations authorized the transfer of authority over the Ryūkyūs to Japan to be implemented in 1972. In 1972, the United States ' "reversion '' of the Ryūkyūs occurred along with the ceding of control over the nearby Senkaku Islands. Both the People 's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) argue that this agreement did not determine the ultimate sovereignty of the Senkaku Islands.
The Treaty of Taipei between Japan and the ROC recognized the terms of the San Francisco Treaty but added that all residents of Taiwan and the Pescadores were deemed as nationals of the ROC.
Some supporters of Taiwan independence argue that the language in San Francisco Peace Treaty proves the notion that Taiwan is not a part of the Republic of China, for it does not explicitly state the sovereignty status of Taiwan after Japanese renunciation. In 1955, U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, co-author of San Francisco Peace Treaty, affirmed that the treaty ceded Taiwan to no one; that Japan "merely renounced sovereignty over Taiwan ''. Dulles said that America "can not, therefore, admit that the disposition of Taiwan is merely an internal problem of China. '' This legal justification is rejected by both the PRC and ROC governments, both of which base their legal claims on Taiwan on the Instrument of Surrender of Japan which accepts the Potsdam Declaration and the Cairo Declaration. In addition, in more recent years supporters of Taiwan independence have more often relied on arguments based on self - determination as implied in the San Francisco Peace Treaty and popular sovereignty.
By Article 11 Japan accepted the judgments of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and of other Allied War Crimes Courts both within and outside Japan and agreed to carry out the sentences imposed thereby upon Japanese nationals imprisoned in Japan.
The document further set guidelines for repatriation of Allied prisoners of war and renounces future military aggression under the guidelines set by the United Nations Charter. The document nullifies prior treaties and lays down the framework for Japan 's current status of retaining a military that is purely defensive in nature.
There is also some ambiguity as to over which islands Japan has renounced sovereignty. This has led to both the Kuril Islands dispute and the Senkaku Islands dispute.
In accordance with Article 14 of the Treaty, Allied forces confiscated all assets owned by the Japanese government, firms, organization and private citizens, in all colonized or occupied countries except China, which was dealt with under Article 21. China repossessed all Japanese assets in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, which included mineworks and railway infrastructure. Moreover, Article 4 of the treaty stated that "the disposition of property of Japan and of its nationals... and their claims... against the authorities presently administering such areas and the residents... shall be the subject of special arrangements between Japan and such authorities. '' Although Korea was not a signatory State of the Treaty, It was also entitled to the benefits of Article 4 by the provisions of Article 21.
Total amount of Japanese overseas assets in China was US $18,758,600,000 in 1945 USD.
Article 16 of the San Francisco Treaty states:
As an expression of its desire to indemnify those members of the armed forces of the Allied Powers who suffered undue hardships while prisoners of war of Japan, Japan will transfer its assets and those of its nationals in countries which were neutral during the war, or which were at war with any of the Allied Powers, or, at its option, the equivalent of such assets, to the International Committee of the Red Cross which shall liquidate such assets and distribute the resultant fund to appropriate national agencies, for the benefit of former prisoners of war and their families on such basis as it may determine to be equitable. The categories of assets described in Article 14 (a) 2 (II) (ii) through (v) of the present Treaty shall be excepted from transfer, as well as assets of Japanese natural persons not residents of Japan on the first coming into force of the Treaty. It is equally understood that the transfer provision of this Article has no application to the 19,770 shares in the Bank for International Settlements presently owned by Japanese financial institutions.
Accordingly, Japan paid £ 4,500,000 to the Red Cross.
Article 16 has served as a bar against subsequent lawsuits filed by former Allied prisoners of war against Japan. In 1998, a Tokyo court ruled against a suit brought by former Allied POW 's, citing the San Francisco Treaty.
Article 14 of the treaty stated that
It is recognized that Japan should pay reparations to the Allied Powers for the damage and suffering caused by it during the war. Nevertheless it is also recognized that the resources of Japan are not presently sufficient, if it is to maintain a viable economy, to make complete reparation for all such damage and suffering and at the same time meet its other obligations.
Therefore,
Japan will promptly enter into negotiations with Allied Powers so desiring, whose present territories were occupied by Japanese forces and damaged by Japan, with a view to assisting to compensate those countries for the cost of repairing the damage done, by making available the services of the Japanese people in production, salvaging and other work for the Allied Powers in question.
Accordingly, the Philippines and South Vietnam received compensation in 1956 and 1959, respectively. Burma and Indonesia were not original signatories, but they later signed bilateral treaties in accordance with Article 14 of the San Francisco Treaty.
Japanese military yen issued by force in Hong Kong, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Taiwan, and other places for the economic advantage of Japan were not honoured by them after the war. This caused much suffering, but the claims of the Hong Kong Reparation Association in 1993, in a Tokyo district court, failed in 1999. The court acknowledged the suffering of the Hong Kong people, but reasoned that the Government of Japan did not have specific laws concerning military yen compensation and that the United Kingdom was a signatory to the Treaty of San Francisco.
Regarding China, on September 29, 1972, the Government of the People 's Republic of China declared "that in the interest of the friendship between the Chinese and the Japanese peoples, it renounces its demand for war reparation from Japan '' in article 5 of the Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People 's Republic of China.
The last payment was made to the Philippines on July 22, 1976.
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whose birthday is on september 5 in india | Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan - wikipedia
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan listen (help info) (5 September 1888 -- 17 April 1975) was an Indian philosopher and statesman who was the first Vice President of India (1952 -- 1962) and the second President of India from 1962 to 1967.
One of India 's most distinguished twentieth - century scholars of comparative religion and philosophy, his academic appointments included professor of Philosophy at the University of Mysore (1918 - 1921), the King George V Chair of Mental and Moral Science at the University of Calcutta (1921 -- 1932) and Spalding Professor of Eastern Religion and Ethics at University of Oxford (1936 -- 1952).
His philosophy was grounded in Advaita Vedanta, reinterpreting this tradition for a contemporary understanding. He defended Hinduism against "uninformed Western criticism '', contributing to the formation of contemporary Hindu identity. He has been influential in shaping the understanding of Hinduism, in both India and the west, and earned a reputation as a bridge - builder between India and the West.
Radhakrishnan was awarded several high awards during his life, including a knighthood in 1931, the Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award in India, in 1954, and honorary membership of the British Royal Order of Merit in 1963. Radhakrishnan believed that "teachers should be the best minds in the country ''. Since 1962, his birthday is being celebrated in India as Teachers ' Day on 5 September.
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was born in a Telugu - speaking Niyogi Brahmin family, in a village near Thiruttani in the erstwhile Chittoor district of Madras Presidency near the border of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu states. His surname was Sarvepalli, for his forefathers were from Sarvepalli, a village fifteen miles from Nellore town. his grand father migrated to Tiruttani in erstwhile Chittoor district of the Madras Presidency. His father 's name was Sarvepalli Veeraswami and his mother 's name was Sarvepalli Sita (Sitamma). His early years were spent in Thiruttani and Tirupati. His father was a subordinate revenue official in the service of a local zamindar (local landlord). His primary education was at K.V High School at Thiruttani. In 1896 he moved to the Hermansburg Evangelical Lutheran Mission School in Tirupati and Government Higher Secondary School, Walajapet.
Radhakrishnan was awarded scholarships throughout his academic life. He joined Voorhees College in Vellore but switched to the Madras Christian College at the age of 17. He graduated from there in 1906 with a master 's degree in Philosophy, being one of its most distinguished alumni.
Radhakrishnan studied philosophy by chance rather than choice. Being a financially constrained student, when a cousin who graduated from the same college passed on his philosophy textbooks in to Radhakrishnan, it automatically decided his academic course.
Radhakrishnan wrote his thesis for the M.A. degree on "The Ethics of the Vedanta and its Metaphysical Presuppositions ''. It "was intended to be a reply to the charge that the Vedanta system had no room for ethics. '' He was afraid that this M.A. thesis would offend his philosophy professor, Dr. Alfred George Hogg. Instead, Hogg commended Radhakrishnan on having done most excellent work. Radhakrishnan 's thesis was published when he was only twenty. According to Radhakrishnan himself, the criticism of Hogg and other Christian teachers of Indian culture "disturbed my faith and shook the traditional props on which I leaned. '' Radhakrishnan himself describes how, as a student,
The challenge of Christian critics impelled me to make a study of Hinduism and find out what is living and what is dead in it. My pride as a Hindu, roused by the enterprise and eloquence of Swami Vivekananda, was deeply hurt by the treatment accorded to Hinduism in missionary institutions.
This led him to his critical study of Indian philosophy and religion and a lifelong defence of Hinduism against "uninformed Western criticism ''.
Radhakrishnan was married to Sivakamu, a distant cousin, at the age of 16. As per tradition the marriage was arranged by the family. The couple had five daughters and a son, Sarvepalli Gopal. Sarvepalli Gopal went on to a notable career as a historian. Sivakamu died in 1956. They were married for over 51 years.
In April 1909, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was appointed to the Department of Philosophy at the Madras Presidency College. Thereafter, in 1918, he was selected as Professor of Philosophy by the University of Mysore, where he taught at its Maharaja 's College, Mysore. By that time he had written many articles for journals of repute like The Quest, Journal of Philosophy and the International Journal of Ethics. He also completed his first book, The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore. He believed Tagore 's philosophy to be the "genuine manifestation of the Indian spirit ''. His second book, The Reign of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy was published in 1920.
In 1921 he was appointed as a professor in philosophy to occupy the King George V Chair of Mental and Moral Science at the University of Calcutta. He represented the University of Calcutta at the Congress of the Universities of the British Empire in June 1926 and the International Congress of Philosophy at Harvard University in September 1926. Another important academic event during this period was the invitation to deliver the Hibbert Lecture on the ideals of life which he delivered at Harris Manchester College, Oxford in 1929 and which was subsequently published in book form as An Idealist View of Life.
In 1929 Radhakrishnan was invited to take the post vacated by Principal J. Estlin Carpenter at Harris Manchester College. This gave him the opportunity to lecture to the students of the University of Oxford on Comparative Religion. For his services to education he was knighted by George V in the June 1931 Birthday Honours, and formally invested with his honour by the Governor - General of India, the Earl of Willingdon, in April 1932. However, he ceased to use the title after Indian independence, preferring instead his academic title of ' Doctor '.
He was the Vice-Chancellor of Andhra University from 1931 to 1936. In 1936 Radhakrishnan was named Spalding Professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics at the University of Oxford, and was elected a Fellow of All Souls College. That same year, and again in 1937, he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature, although this nomination process, as for all laureates, was not public at the time. Further nominations for the award would continue steadily into the 1960s. In 1939 Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya invited him to succeed him as the Vice-Chancellor of Banaras Hindu University (BHU). He served as its Vice-Chancellor till January 1948.
Radhakrishnan started his political career "rather late in life '', after his successful academic career. His international authority preceded his political career. In 1931 he was nominated to the League of Nations Committee for Intellectual Cooperation, where after "in Western eyes he was the recognized Hindu authority on Indian ideas and a persuasive interpreter of the role of Eastern institutions in contemporary society. '' When India became independent in 1947, Radhakrishnan represented India at UNESCO (1946 -- 52) and was later Ambassador of India to the Soviet Union, from 1949 to 1952. He was also elected to the Constituent Assembly of India. Radhakrishnan was elected as the first Vice-President of India in 1952, and elected as the second President of India (1962 -- 1967).
Radhakrishnan did not have a background in the Congress Party, nor was he active in the struggle against British rules. He was the politician in shadow. His motivation lay in his pride of Hindu culture, and the defence of Hinduism against "uninformed Western criticism ''. According to Brown,
He had always defended Hindu culture against uninformed Western criticism and had symbolized the pride of Indians in their own intellectual traditions.
When he became the President of India, some of his students and friends requested him to allow them to celebrate his birthday, on 5 September. He replied,
"Instead of celebrating my birthday, it would be my proud privilege if September 5th is observed as Teachers ' Day. ''
His birthday has since been celebrated as Teachers ' Day in India.
Along with Ghanshyam Das Birla and some other social workers in the pre-independence era, Radhakrishnan formed the Krishnarpan Charity Trust
Radhakrishnan tried to bridge eastern and western thought, defending Hinduism against "uninformed Western criticism '', but also incorporating Western philosophical and religious thought.
Radhakrishnan was one of the most prominent spokesmen of Neo-Vedanta. His metaphysics was grounded in Advaita Vedanta, but he reinterpreted Advaita Vedanta for a contemporary understanding. He acknowledged the reality and diversity of the world of experience, which he saw as grounded in and supported by the absolute or Brahman. Radhakrishnan also reinterpreted Shankara 's notion of maya. According to Radhakrishnan, maya is not a strict absolute idealism, but "a subjective misperception of the world as ultimately real. ''
"Intuition '', or anubhava, synonymously called "religious experience '', has a central place in Radhakrishnan 's philosophy as a source of knowledge which is not mediated by conscious thought. His specific interest in experience can be traced back to the works of William James (1842 -- 1910), Francis Herbert Bradley (1846 -- 1924), Henri Bergson (1859 -- 1941), and Friedrich von Hügel (1852 -- 1925), and to Vivekananda, who had a strong influence on Radhakrisnan 's thought. According to Radhakrishnan, intuition is of a self - certifying character (svatassiddha), self - evidencing (svāsaṃvedya), and self - luminous (svayam - prakāsa). In his book An Idealist View of Life, he made a powerful case for the importance of intuitive thinking as opposed to purely intellectual forms of thought. According to Radhakrishnan, intuition plays a specific role in all kinds of experience. Radhakrishnan discernes five sorts of experience:
For Radhakrishnan, theology and creeds are intellectual formulations, and symbols of religious experience or "religious intuitions ''. Radhakrishnan qualified the variety of religions hierarchically according to their apprehension of "religious experience '', giving Advaita Vedanta the highest place:
Radhakrishnan saw Hinduism as a scientific religion based on facts, apprehended via intuition or religious experience. According to Radhakrishnan, "(i) f philosophy of religion is to become scientific, it must become empirical and found itself on religious experience ''. He saw this empiricism exemplified in the Vedas:
The truths of the ṛṣis are not evolved as the result of logical reasoning or systematic philosophy but are the products of spiritual intuition, dṛṣti or vision. The ṛṣis are not so much the authors of the truths recorded in the Vedas as the seers who were able to discern the eternal truths by raising their life - spirit to the plane of universal spirit. They are the pioneer researchers in the realm of the spirit who saw more in the world than their followers. Their utterances are not based on transitory vision but on a continuous experience of resident life and power. When the Vedas are regarded as the highest authority, all that is meant is that the most exacting of all authorities is the authority of facts.
From his writings collected as The Hindu View of Life, Upton Lectures, Delivered at Manchester College, Oxford, 1926: "Hinduism insists on our working steadily upwards in improving our knowledge of God. The worshippers of the absolute are of the highest rank; second to them are the worshippers of the personal God; then come the worshippers of the incarnations of Rama, Krishna, Buddha; below them are those who worship deities, ancestors, and sages, and lowest of all are the worshippers of petty forces and spirits. The deities of some men are in water (i.e., bathing places), those of the most advanced are in the heavens, those of the children (in religion) are in the images of wood and stone, but the sage finds his God in his deeper self. The man of action finds his God in fire, the man of feeling in the heart, and the feeble minded in the idol, but the strong in spirit find God everywhere ''. The seers see the supreme in the self, and not the images. ''
To Radhakrishnan, Advaita Vedanta was the best representative of Hinduism, as being grounded in intuition, in contrast to the "intellectually mediated interpretations '' of other religions. He objected against charges of "quietism '' and "world denial '', instead stressing the need and ethic of social service, giving a modern interpretation of classical terms as tat - tvam - asi. According to Radhakrishnan, Vedanta offers the most direct intuitive experience and inner realisation, which makes it the highest form of religion:
The Vedanta is not a religion, but religion itself in its most universal and deepest significance.
Radhakrishnan saw other religions, "including what Radhakrishnan understands as lower forms of Hinduism, '' as interpretations of Advaita Vedanta, thereby Hinduizing all religions.
Although Radhakrishnan was well - acquainted with western culture and philosophy, he was also critical of them. He stated that Western philosophers, despite all claims to objectivity, were influenced by theological influences of their own culture.
Radhakrishnan was one of India 's best and most influential twentieth - century scholars of comparative religion and philosophy.
Radhakrishnan 's defence of the Hindu traditions has been highly influential, both in India and the western world. In India, Radhakrishnan 's ideas contributed to the formation of India as a nation - state. Radhakrishnan 's writings contributed to the hegemonic status of Vedanta as "the essential worldview of Hinduism ''. In the western world, Radhakrishnan 's interpretations of the Hindu tradition, and his emphasis on "spiritual experience '', made Hinduism more readily accessible for a western audience, and contributed to the influence Hinduism has on modern spirituality:
In figures such as Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan we witness Vedanta traveling to the West, where it nourished the spiritual hunger of Europeans and Americans in the early decades of the twentieth century.
Radhakrishnan has been highly appraised. According to Paul Artur Schillp:
Nor would it be possible to find a more excellent example of a living "bridge '' between the East and the West than Professor Radhakrishnan. Steeped, as Radhakrishnan has been since his childhood, in the life, traditions, and philosophical heritage of his native India, he has also struck deep roots in Western philosophy, which he has been studying tirelessly ever since his undergraduate college - days in Madras Christian College, and in which he is as thoroughly at home as any Western philosopher.
And according to Hawley:
Radhakrishnan 's concern for experience and his extensive knowledge of the Western philosophical and literary traditions has earned him the reputation of being a bridge - builder between India and the West. He often appears to feel at home in the Indian as well as the Western philosophical contexts, and draws from both Western and Indian sources throughout his writing. Because of this, Radhakrishnan has been held up in academic circles as a representative of Hinduism to the West. His lengthy writing career and his many published works have been influential in shaping the West 's understanding of Hinduism, India, and the East.
Radhakrishnan 's ideas have also received criticism and challenges, for their perennialist and universalist claims, and the use of an East - West dichotomy.
According to Radhakrishnan, there is not only an underlying "divine unity '' from the seers of the Upanishads up to modern Hindus like Tagore and Gandhi, but also "an essential commonality between philosophical and religious traditions from widely disparate cultures. '' This is also a major theme in the works of Rene Guenon, the Theosophical Society, and the contemporary popularity of eastern religions in modern spirituality. Since the 1970s, the Perennialist position has been criticised for its essentialism. Social - constructionists give an alternative approach to religious experience, in which such "experiences '' are seen as being determined and mediated by cultural determants: As Michaels notes:
Religions, too, rely not so much on individual experiences or on innate feelings -- like a sensus numinosus (Rudolf Otto) -- but rather on behavioral patterns acquired and learned in childhood.
Rinehart also points out that "perennialist claims notwithstanding, modern Hindu thought is a product of history '', which "has been worked out and expressed in a variety of historical contexts over the preceding two hundreds years. '' This is also true for Radhakrishan, who was educated by missionaries and, like other neo-Vedantins used the prevalent western understanding of India and its culture to present an alternative to the western critique.
According to Richard King, the elevation of Vedanta as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedanta as the "paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion '' by colonial Indologists but also neo-Vedantins served well for the Hindu nationalists, who further popularised this notion of Advaita Vedanta as the pinnacle of Indian religions. It
... provided an opportunity for the construction of a nationalist ideology that could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonial oppression.
This "opportunity '' has been criticised. According to Sucheta Mazumdar and Vasant Kaiwar,
... Indian nationalist leaders continued to operate within the categorical field generated by politicized religion (...) Extravagant claims were made on behalf of Oriental civilization. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 's statement -- "(t) he Vedanta is not a religion but religion itself in its "most universal and deepest significance '' -- is fairly typical.
Rinehart also criticises the inclusivism of Radhakrishnan 's approach, since it provides "a theological scheme for subsuming religious difference under the aegis of Vedantic truth. '' According to Rinehart, the consequence of this line of reasoning is communalism, the idea that "all people belonging to one religion have common economic, social and political interests and these interests are contrary to the interests of those belonging to another religion. '' Rinehart notes that Hindu religiosity plays an important role in the nationalist movement, and that "the neo-Hindu discource is the unintended consequence of the initial moves made by thinkers like Rammohan Roy and Vivekananda. '' Yet Rinehart also points out that it is
... clear that there is n't a neat line of causation that leads from the philosophies of Rammohan Roy, Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan to the agenda of (...) militant Hindus.
Colonialism left deep traces in the hearts and minds of the Indian people, influencing the way they understood and represented themselves. The influences of "colonialist forms of knowledge '' can also be found in the works of Radhakrishnan. According to Hawley, Radhakrishnan 's division between East and West, the East being spiritual and mystical, and the West being rationt and colonialist forms of knowledge constructed during the 18th and 19th centuries. Arguably, these characterizations are "imagined '' in the sense that they reflect the philosophical and religious realities of neither "East ' nor West. ''
Since the 1990s, the colonial influences on the ' construction ' and ' representation ' of Hinduism have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism Western Indologists are trying to come to more neutral and better - informed representations of India and its culture, while Indian scholars are trying to establish forms of knowledge and understanding which are grounded in and informed by Indian traditions, instead of being dominated by western forms of knowledge and understanding.
Radhakrishnan was accused of Plagiarism by his student Jadunath Sinha who accused him of copying from his doctoral thesis, "Indian Psychology of Perception '' published in 1925 in his book "Indian Philosophy '' published in 1927. Jadunath Sinha filed a case in the Calcutta High Court claiming damages for Rs 20000. Radhakrishnan filed counter case for defamation of character demanding Rs 100000 from Sinha. Though Jadunath Sinha 's case was strong as many of his articles were already published, the High cost of litigation along with intervention of Syama Prasad Mookerjee who mediated between them made them settle the issue out of court.
Several books have been published on Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan:
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what movie is the song money for nothing in | Money for Nothing (song) - wikipedia
"Money for Nothing '' is a single by British rock band Dire Straits, taken from their 1985 studio album Brothers in Arms. The song 's lyrics, considered controversial at the time of the song 's release, are written from the point of view of a working - class man watching music videos and commenting on what he sees. The song features a guest appearance by Sting singing background vocals, providing both the signature falsetto introduction and backing chorus of, "I want my MTV. '' The groundbreaking video was the first to be aired on MTV Europe when the network launched on 1 August 1987.
It was Dire Straits ' most commercially successful single, peaking at number 1 for three weeks in the United States, number 1 for three weeks on the US Top Rock Tracks chart and number 4 in the band 's native UK. "Money for Nothing '' won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal in 1986 at the 28th Annual Grammy Awards and the video won Video of the Year at the 3rd MTV Video Music Awards.
Knopfler modeled his guitar sound on the recorded track after ZZ Top guitarist Billy Gibbons ' trademark guitar tone, as ZZ Top 's music videos were already a staple of early MTV. Gibbons later told a Musician magazine interviewer in 1986 that Knopfler had solicited Gibbons ' help in replicating the tone, adding, "He did n't do a half - bad job, considering that I did n't tell him a thing! '' Knopfler duplicated Gibbons ' use of a Gibson Les Paul guitar (rather than a Fender Stratocaster), which he plugged into a Marshall amplifier. Another factor in trying to recreate the sound was a wah - wah pedal that was turned on, but only rocked to a certain position. The specific guitar sound in the song was made with a Gibson Les Paul going through a Laney amplifier, with the sound coloured by the accidental position of two Shure SM57 microphones without any processing during the mix. Following the initial sessions in Montserrat, at which that particular guitar part was recorded, Neil Dorfsman attempted to recreate the sound during subsequent sessions at the Power Station in New York but was unsuccessful in doing so. (Knopfler also chose to use the Les Paul on a couple of other Brothers in Arms tracks.)
The recording contains a very recognisable hook, in the form of the guitar riff that begins the song proper. The guitar riff continues throughout the song, played in permutation during the verses, and played in full after each chorus. The song 's extended overture was shortened for radio and music video.
Mark Knopfler described the writing of the song in a 1984 interview with critic Bill Flanagan:
The lead character in "Money for Nothing '' is a guy who works in the hardware department in a television / custom kitchen / refrigerator / microwave appliance store. He 's singing the song. I wrote the song when I was actually in the store. I borrowed a bit of paper and started to write the song down in the store. I wanted to use a lot of the language that the real guy actually used when I heard him, because it was more real...
The first - person narrating character in the lyrics refers to a musician "banging on the bongos like a chimpanzee '' and a woman "stickin ' in the camera, man we could have some fun ''. He describes a singer as "that little faggot with the earring and the make - up '', and bemoans that these artists get "money for nothing and chicks for free ''.
In 2000, Knopfler appeared on Parkinson on BBC One and explained again where the lyrics originated. According to Knopfler, he was in New York and stopped by an appliance store. At the back of the store, they had a wall of TVs which were all tuned to MTV. Knopfler said there was a man working there dressed in a baseball cap, work boots, and a checkered shirt delivering boxes who was standing next to him watching. As they were standing there watching MTV, Knopfler remembers the man coming up with lines such as "what are those, Hawaiian noises?... that ai n't workin ', '' etc. Knopfler asked for a pen to write some of these lines down and then eventually put those words to music.
Mötley Crüe bassist Nikki Sixx said that the song was about his band, and that the members of Dire Straits were in an electronics store where a row of TVs were all playing Mötley Crüe.
The songwriting credits are shared between Mark Knopfler and Sting. Sting was visiting Montserrat during the recording of the song, and was invited to add some background vocals. Sting has stated that his only compositional contribution was the "I want my MTV '' line, which followed the melody from his song "Do n't Stand So Close to Me ''.
The music video for the song featured early computer animation illustrating the lyrics. The video was one of the first uses of computer - animated human characters and was considered ground - breaking at the time of its release.
Originally, Mark Knopfler was not at all enthusiastic about the concept of the music video. MTV, however, was insistent on it. Director Steve Barron, of Rushes Postproduction in London, was contacted by Warner Bros. to persuade Knopfler to relent. Describing the contrasting attitudes of Knopfler and MTV, he said:
The problem was that Mark Knopfler was very anti-videos. All he wanted to do was perform, and he thought that videos would destroy the purity of songwriters and performers. They said, "Can you convince him that this is the right thing to do, because we 've played this song to MTV and they think it 's fantastic but they wo n't play it if it 's him standing there playing guitar. They need a concept. ''
Barron then flew to Budapest to convince Knopfler of their concept. Meeting together after a gig, Knopfler was reportedly still unimpressed, but this time his girlfriend was present and took a hand. According to Barron:
Luckily, his girlfriend said, "He 's absolutely right. There are n't enough interesting videos on MTV, and that sounds like a brilliant idea. '' Mark did n't say anything but he did n't make the call to get me out of Budapest. We just went ahead and did it.
Ian Pearson and Gavin Blair created the animation, using a Bosch FGS - 4000 CGI system and a Quantel Paintbox system. The animators went on to found computer animation studio Mainframe Entertainment (today Rainmaker Entertainment), and referenced the "Money for Nothing '' video in an episode of their ReBoot series. The video also included stage footage of Dire Straits performing, with partially rotoscoped animation in bright neon colours, as seen on the record sleeve.
The video was awarded "Video of the Year '' (among many other nominations) at the third annual MTV Video Music Awards in 1986.
Two other music videos are also featured within "Money for Nothing ''. The Hungarian pop band Első Emelet and their video "Állj Vagy Lövök '' ("Stop or I 'll Shoot '') appears as "Baby, Baby '' by "First Floor '' during the second verse (The name "első emelet '' translates to "first floor, '' and the song is credited as being on "Magyar Records '': "Magyar '' means "Hungarian '' in the Hungarian language.) The other one is fictional, "Sally '' by the "Ian Pearson Band ''. The fictional album for the first video was listed as "Turn Left '' and the second was "Hot Dogs. '' For the second video, the record company appears as "Rush Records '', and it was filmed on Fisherman 's Bastion, Budapest.
Rolling Stone magazine listed it the 94th greatest guitar song of all time, noting how Mark Knopfler "traded his pristine, rootsy tone for a dry, over-processed sound achieved by running a Les Paul through a wah - wah pedal on a track that became one of the (MTV) network 's earliest hits. ''
The lyrics for the song have been criticised as being homophobic.
In a late 1985 interview in Rolling Stone magazine, Knopfler expressed mixed feelings on the controversy:
I got an objection from the editor of a gay newspaper in London -- he actually said it was below the belt. Apart from the fact that there are stupid gay people as well as stupid other people, it suggests that maybe you ca n't let it have so many meanings -- you have to be direct. In fact, I 'm still in two minds as to whether it 's a good idea to write songs that are n't in the first person, to take on other characters. The singer in "Money for Nothing '' is a real ignoramus, hard hat mentality -- somebody who sees everything in financial terms. I mean, this guy has a grudging respect for rock stars. He sees it in terms of, well, that 's not working and yet the guy 's rich: that 's a good scam. He is n't sneering.
Dire Straits often performed the song in live concerts and when on tour, where the second verse was included but usually altered slightly. For the band 's 10 July 1985 concert (televised in the United Kingdom on The Tube on Channel 4 in January 1986), Knopfler replaced the word faggot with Queenie (in this context also a term that implies homosexuality):
"See the little Queenie got the earring and the make - up '' and "That little Queenie got his own jet airplane, he 's got a helicopter, he 's a millionaire. ''
In January 2011, the Canadian Broadcast Standards Council (CBSC) ruled that the unedited version of the song was unacceptable for air play on private Canadian radio stations, as it breached the Canadian Association of Broadcasters ' (CAB) Code of Ethics and their Equitable Portrayal Code. The CBSC concluded that "like other racially driven words in the English language, ' faggot ' is one that, even if entirely or marginally acceptable in earlier days, is no longer so. '' The CBSC 's proceedings came in response to a radio listener 's Ruling Request stemming from a playing of the song by CHOZ - FM in St. John 's, Newfoundland and Labrador, which in turn followed the radio listener 's dissatisfaction with the radio station 's reply to their complaint about a gay slur in the lyrics.
Not all stations abided by this ruling; at least two stations, CIRK - FM in Edmonton and CFRQ - FM in Halifax, played the unedited version of "Money for Nothing '' repeatedly for one hour out of protest. Galaxie, which was owned by the CBC at the time of the controversy, also continues to play the song. On 21 January 2011, the Canadian Radio - television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) asked the CBSC for a review on the ban, in response to the public outcry against the CBSC 's actions; the CRTC reportedly received over 250 complaints erroneously sent to them, instead of the CBSC. The regulator requested the CBSC to appoint a nationwide panel to review the case, as the decision on the ban was reviewed by a regional panel for the Maritimes and Newfoundland.
On 31 August, the CBSC reiterated that it found the slur to be inappropriate; however, because of considerations in regard to its use in context, the CBSC has left it up to the stations to decide whether to play the original or edited versions of the song. Most of the CBSC panelists thought the slur was inappropriate, but it was used only in a satirical, non-hateful manner.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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where did the 2017 rockefeller center christmas tree come from | Rockefeller Center Christmas tree - wikipedia
The Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree is a large Christmas tree placed annually in Rockefeller Center, in Midtown Manhattan. The tree is erected in mid November and lit in a public ceremony in late November or early December. Since 1997, the lighting has been broadcast live, to hundreds of millions, on NBC 's Christmas in Rockefeller Center telecast on a Wednesday after Thanksgiving. The tree lighting ceremony is aired at the end of every broadcast, following live entertainment and the tree is lit by the current Mayor of New York City and special guests. An estimated 125 million people visit the attraction each year.
The tree, usually a Norway spruce 69 to 100 feet (21 to 30 m) tall, has been a national tradition each year since 1933. The 2017 Christmas Tree Lighting took place on November 29, 2017; the tree remains on display until January 7, 2018.
Trees are traditionally donated to Rockefeller Center, which in turn donates the lumber after display. Until his death in 2009, the late David Murbach, Manager of the Gardens Division of Rockefeller Center, scouted for the desired tree in upstate New York and surrounding states, and even Ottawa, Canada.
The trees are now scouted by Erik Pauzé, Head Gardener at Rockefeller Center. Pauzé visits nurseries throughout the tri-state area while keeping his eye out for one - of - a-kind backyard trees. Trees may also be submitted for consideration through Rockefeller Center 's web site. Pauzé and his team choose each year 's tree based on its heartiness and "Christmas tree shape, '' as well as its ability to support the heavy ornaments.
Once a tree is selected, a crane supports the tree while it is cut, then moved to a custom telescoping trailer able to transport trees up to 125 feet (38 m) tall, although the width of city streets around Rockefeller Center limits the height of the tree to 100 feet (30 m). Local business Christmas Tree Brooklyn provides support in delivering the tree safely into the city. On its way to Manhattan, the tree is often dressed in giant red bows or banners extending holiday greetings to witnesses. Trucks, barges, and even a transport plane have all been used to help the tree make the trip.
Once at Rockefeller Center, the tree is supported by four guy - wires attached at its midpoint and by a steel spike at its base. Scaffolding is erected around the tree to assist workers in hanging about 50,000 multi-colored LED lights and the star top. The crystal star that has topped the tree since 2004 is 9.5 feet (2.9 m) in diameter and weighs 550 pounds (250 kg). This "Swarovski Star, '' containing 25,000 Swarovski crystals, 1 million facets, and LED lights, was created by German artist Michael Hammers.
Although the official Christmas tree tradition at Rockefeller Center began in 1933 (the year 30 Rockefeller Plaza opened), an unofficial tradition began during the Depression - era construction of the Center, when workers decorated a smaller 20 foot (6.1 m) balsam fir with "strings of cranberries, garlands of paper, and even a few tin cans '' on Christmas Eve (December 24, 1931), as recounted by Daniel Okrent in his history of Rockefeller Center. According to Rockefeller Center, workers pooled their money for that unlit tree, with the garlands made by workers ' families.
With the lighting of the 50 - foot - tall (15 m) first official tree two years later, the tree became what Rockefeller Center dubbed "a holiday beacon for New Yorkers and visitors alike. '' A skating rink was opened below the tree in the plaza in 1936. Rockefeller Center has observed the tree to be "from the beginning... a gathering place and reflection of what was happening in the world around it. ''
World War II ushered in simple, patriotic decorations, including red, white and blue unlit globes and painted wooden stars. In 1942, instead of one large tree, three more modest trees were raised, each decorated in one of the flag 's colors. From 1944 until the war 's end in 1945, the tree went unlit due to blackout regulations. After the war, the year of darkness was left behind, as six ultraviolet light projectors were employed to make it appear as though the tree 's 700 fluorescent globes were glowing in the dark.
By the 1950s, workers began using scaffolding to decorate the tree, as larger trees were accommodated. Before the decade was over, the decorating process called for 20 workers and nine days. 1951 marked the first time that NBC televised the tree lighting with a special on "The Kate Smith Show. ''
In 1969, artist Valerie Clarebout 's towering wire herald angels were added to the Channel Gardens in front of the tree near Fifth Avenue. Clarebout created the 12 sculptures using 75 points of metal wire each.
The 1971 tree, a 65 - footer from East Montpelier, Vt., was the first to be mulched and recycled. It was turned into 30 three - bushel bags of mulch for the nature trails of upper Manhattan. Though the tree typically makes its journey on a truck bed, in 1998 it was flown in from Richfield, Ohio on the world 's largest transport plane.
1999 saw Rockefeller Center 's tallest tree, a 100 foot (30 m) spruce from Killingworth, Conn. In 2001, following the events of September 11, the tree was again decorated in hues of red, white and blue.
In 2007, the tree went "green '', converting to energy - efficient lighting with LEDs. The LEDs use 1,200 fewer kilowatts of electricity per day, enough to power a 2,000 - square - foot home for a month.
Also since 2007, each year after display, the tree has been milled into lumber and donated to Habitat for Humanity for use in house construction.
The 2016 tree, a Norway Spruce from Oneonta, N.Y., is at 94 feet high the second tallest ever erected at Rockefeller Center. At 56 feet wide and over 30,000 pounds, the tree is the widest and heaviest to date, according to construction crews.
Since 2011, the tree lighting ceremony has been followed by the singing of Joy to the World.
The decorated tree remains on display at Rockefeller Plaza, between West 48th and 51st Streets and Fifth and Sixth Avenues, at least through January 6 of the new year.
More than a half million people pass by the tree each day while it is on display, according to Rockefeller Center.
Since 1997, the lighting ceremony has been broadcast live on NBC in the first hour of primetime, live in the Eastern and Central time zones, and on tape elsewhere. The ceremony is hosted by Today 's Al Roker and Savannah Guthrie.
Coordinates: 40 ° 45 ′ 31 '' N 73 ° 58 ′ 42 '' W / 40.75861 ° N 73.97833 ° W / 40.75861; - 73.97833
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when did the first mcdonalds open in australia | History of McDonald 's - wikipedia
This history of McDonald 's is an overview of the original restaurant and of the chain.
The McDonald family moved from Manchester, New Hampshire to Hollywood in the late 1930s, where brothers Richard and Maurice McDonald began working as set movers and handymen at Motion - Picture studios. In 1937, their father Patrick McDonald opened "The Airdrome '', a food stand, on Huntington Drive (Route 66) near the Monrovia Airport in Monrovia, California with hot dogs being one of the first items sold. Hamburgers were later added to the menu at a cost of ten cents with all - you - can - drink orange juice at five cents. In 1940, Maurice and Richard ("Mac '' and "Dick '') moved the entire building 40 miles (64 km) east, to West 14th and 1398 North E Streets in San Bernardino, California. The restaurant was renamed "McDonald 's Bar - B - Que '' and had 25 menu items, mostly barbecue.
In October 1948, after the McDonald brothers realized that most of their profits came from selling hamburgers, they closed down their successful carhop drive - in to establish a streamlined system with a simple menu which consisted of only hamburgers, cheeseburgers, potato chips, coffee, soft drinks, and apple pie. After the first year, potato chips and pie were swapped out for french fries and milkshakes. The carhops were eliminated, making the new restaurant a self - service operation. Richard and Maurice took great care in setting up their kitchen like an assembly line to ensure maximum efficiency. The restaurant 's name was changed again, this time to simply "McDonald 's, '' and reopened on December 12, 1948.
In April 1952, the brothers decided they needed an entirely new building in order to achieve two goals: further efficiency improvements, and a more eye - catching appearance. They collected recommendations for an architect and interviewed at least four, finally choosing Stanley Clark Meston, an architect practicing in nearby Fontana. The brothers and Meston worked together closely in the design of their new building. They achieved the extra efficiencies they needed by, among other things, drawing the actual measurements of every piece of equipment in chalk on a tennis court behind the McDonald house (with Meston 's assistant Charles Fish). The new restaurant 's design achieved a high level of noticeability thanks to gleaming surfaces of red and white ceramic tile, stainless steel, brightly colored sheet metal, and glass; pulsing red, white, yellow, and green neon; and two 25 - foot yellow sheet - metal arches trimmed in neon, called "golden arches '' even at the design stage. A third, smaller arch sign at the roadside hosted a pudgy character in a chef 's hat, known as Speedee, striding across the top, trimmed in animated neon. Further marketing techniques were implemented to change McDonald 's from a sit down restaurant to a fast food chain. They used such things as turning off the heating to prevent people wanting to stay so long, fixed and angled seating so the customer would sit over their food promoting them to eat faster, spreading the seats further apart so being less of a sociable place to dine in, and giving their customers branded cone shaped cups forcing them to hold their drink whilst eating which would speed up the eating process. Many other companies followed McDonald 's strategies to turn their own restaurants into fast food establishments including Burger King, White Castle and Subway.
In late 1953, with only a rendering of Meston 's design in hand, the brothers began seeking franchisees. Their first franchisee was Neil Fox, a distributor for General Petroleum Corporation. Fox 's stand, the first with Meston 's golden arches design, opened in May 1953 at Central Avenue and Indian School Road in Phoenix, Arizona. Their second franchisee was the team of Fox 's brother - in - law Roger Williams and Burdette "Bud '' Landon, both of whom also worked for General Petroleum. Williams and Landon opened their stand on August 18, 1953 at 10207 Lakewood Boulevard in Downey, California. The Downey stand has the distinction of being the oldest surviving McDonald 's restaurant. The Downey stand was never required to comply with the McDonald 's Corporation 's remodeling and updating requests over the years because it was franchised not by the McDonald 's Corporation, but by the McDonald brothers themselves to Williams and Landon.
In 1954, Ray Kroc, a seller of Prince Castle brand Multimixer milkshake machines, learned that the McDonald brothers were using eight of his machines in their San Bernardino restaurant. His curiosity was piqued, and he went to take a look at the restaurant. He was joined by good friend Charles Lewis who had suggested to Kroc several improvements to the McDonald 's burger recipe.
Believing the McDonald 's formula was a ticket to success, Kroc suggested they franchise their restaurants throughout the country. The brothers were skeptical, however, that the self - service approach could succeed in colder, rainier climates; furthermore, their thriving business in San Bernardino, and franchises already operating or planned, made them reluctant to risk a national venture. Kroc offered to take the major responsibility for setting up the new franchises elsewhere. He returned to his home outside of Chicago with rights to set up McDonald 's restaurants throughout the country, except in a handful of territories in California and Arizona already licensed by the McDonald brothers. The brothers were to receive one - half of one percent of gross sales. Kroc 's first McDonald 's restaurant opened on April 15, 1955, at 400 North Lee Street in Des Plaines, Illinois, near Chicago. The Des Plaines interior and exterior was painted by master painter Eugene Wright, who owned Wright 's Decorating Service. Eugene was asked to come up with a color scheme and he chose yellow and white, with dark brown and red being secondary trim colors. Those colors would go on to become the colors of all McDonald 's franchises. (Recognizing its historic and nostalgic value, in 1990 the McDonald 's Corporation acquired the stand and rehabilitated it to a modern but nearly original condition, and then built an adjacent museum and gift shop to commemorate the site.)
Once the Des Plaines restaurant had become operational, Kroc sought franchisees for his McDonald 's chain. The first snag came quickly. In 1956 he discovered that the McDonald brothers had licensed the franchise rights for Cook County, Illinois to the Frejlach Ice Cream Company. Kroc was incensed that the McDonald 's had not informed him of this arrangement. He purchased the rights back for $25,000, five times what the Frejlacks had originally paid, and pressed forward. McDonald 's grew slowly for its first three years. By 1958, there were 34 restaurants. In 1959, however, Kroc opened 68 new restaurants, bringing the total to 102 locations.
In 1960, the McDonald 's advertising campaign "Look for the Golden Arches '' gave sales a big boost. Kroc believed that advertising was an investment that would in the end come back many times over, and advertising has always played a key role in the development of the McDonald 's Corporation. Indeed, McDonald 's ads have been some of the most identifiable over the years. In 1962, McDonald 's introduced its now world - famous Golden Arches logo. A year later, the company sold its millionth hamburger and introduced Ronald McDonald, a red - haired clown designed to appeal to children.
In the early 1960s, McDonald 's really began to take off. The growth in U.S. automobile use that came with suburbanization and the interstate highway system contributed heavily to McDonald 's success. In 1961 Kroc bought out the McDonald brothers for $2.7 million, aiming at making McDonald 's the number one fast - food chain in the country.
On May 3, 1960 Kroc assisted Christopher Boulos in opening a McDonald 's franchise in DeKalb, Illinois. By 1965, the McDonald 's at 805 W. Lincoln Highway sold over 4 million burgers and 1,000,000 pounds (450,000 kg) of fries. Boulos was the first Greek - American McDonald 's franchise operator.
In 1965, McDonald 's Corporation went public. Common shares were offered at $22.50 per share. By the end of the first day 's trading, the price had risen to $30. A block of 100 shares purchased for $2,250 in 1965 was worth, after 12 stock splits (increasing the number of shares to 74,360), over $5.7 million as of year - end market close on December 31, 2010. In 1980, McDonald 's Corporation became one of the 30 companies that make up the Dow Jones Industrial Average.
McDonald 's success in the 1960s was in large part due to the company 's skillful marketing and flexible response to customer demand. In 1962, the Filet - O - Fish sandwich, billed as "the fish that catches people '', was introduced in McDonald 's restaurants. The new item had originally met with disapproval from Kroc, but after its successful test marketing, he eventually agreed to add it. Another item that Kroc had backed a year previously, a burger with a slice of pineapple and a slice of cheese, known as a "hulaburger '', had flopped (both it and the Filet - O - Fish were developed in Catholic neighborhoods where burger sales dropped off markedly on Fridays and during Lent). The market was not quite ready for Kroc 's taste; the hulaburger 's tenure on the McDonald 's menu board was short. In 1968 the now legendary Big Mac made its debut, and in 1969 McDonald 's sold its five billionth hamburger. Two years later, as it launched the "You Deserve a Break Today '' advertising campaign, McDonald 's restaurants had reached all 50 states.
In 1968, McDonald 's opened its 1,000 th restaurant, and Fred L. Turner became the company 's president and chief administrative officer. Kroc became chairman and remained CEO until 1973. Turner had originally intended to open a McDonald 's franchise, but when he had problems with his backers over a location, he went to work as a grillman for Kroc in 1956. As operations vice president, Turner helped new franchisees get their stores up and running. He was constantly looking for new ways to perfect the McDonald 's system, experimenting, for example, to determine the maximum number of hamburger patties one could stack in a box without squashing them and pointing out that seconds could be saved if McDonald 's used buns that were presliced all the way through and were not stuck together in the package. Such attention to detail was one reason for the company 's extraordinary success.
By the late 1960s, many of the candy - striped Golden Arches stores had been modified with enclosed walk - up order areas and limited indoor seating. In June 1969, McDonald 's introduced a new "mansard roof '' building design featuring indoor seating. The natural brick and cedar shake look mansards were a response to critics who berated McDonald 's architecture as too garish. It became the standard for McDonald 's restaurants, and franchise holders were ultimately required to demolish older restaurants and replace them with the new design. The first McDonald 's restaurant using the "mansard roof '' design opened that same year in the Chicago suburb of Matteson.
McDonald 's spectacular growth continued in the 1970s. Americans were more on - the - go than ever, and fast service was a priority. In 1972, the company passed $1 billion in annual sales. By 1976, McDonald 's had served 20 billion hamburgers, and system wide sales exceeded $3 billion.
The company pioneered breakfast fast food with the introduction of the Egg McMuffin in 1972 when market research indicated that a quick breakfast would be welcomed by consumers. Five years later McDonald 's added a full breakfast line to the menu, and by 1987 one - fourth of all breakfasts eaten out in the United States came from McDonald 's restaurants. In test market locations, such as New York City, McDonald 's added a full breakfast line to its menus in 1975.
Kroc was a firm believer in giving "something back into the community where you do business ''. In 1974 McDonald 's acted upon that philosophy in an original way by opening the first Ronald McDonald House, in Philadelphia, to provide a "home away from home '' for the families of children in nearby hospitals. Twelve years after this first house opened, 100 similar Ronald McDonald Houses were in operation across the United States.
There was some skepticism in the company 's phenomenal growth internationally. When Wally and Hugh Morris approached the corporation in 1974 to bring McDonald 's into New Zealand, they were firmly shunned by Kroc, citing a visit to the country and saying "There are n't any people... I never met a more dead - than - alive hole in my life. '' Persistence by the brothers eventually led to their request being granted in May 1975. They managed to negotiate a deal with the corporation by selling New Zealand cheese to the US to offset the high costs of importing plant equipment. The first New Zealand restaurant opened in June 1976 at Porirua, near Wellington, to much more success than the corporation predicted.
In 1975, McDonald 's opened its first drive - thru window in Sierra Vista, Arizona, following Wendy 's lead. This service gave Americans a fast, convenient way to procure a quick meal. The company 's goal was to provide service in 50 seconds or less. Drive - thru sales eventually accounted for more than half of McDonald 's systemwide sales. Meantime, the Happy Meal, a combo meal for children featuring a toy, was added to the menu in 1979. A period of aggressive advertising campaigns and price slashing in the early 1980s became known as the "burger wars ''. Burger King suggested to customers: "have it your way ''; Wendy 's offered itself as the "fresh alternative '' and launched their "Where 's the beef? '' campaign. McDonald 's sales and market still predominated, however.
During the 1980s, a period of substantial expansion, McDonald 's further diversified its menu to suit changing consumer tastes. The company introduced the McChicken in 1980; it proved to be a sales disappointment, and was replaced with Chicken McNuggets a year later (having originally been invented by Rene Arend in 1979). In 1985, ready - to - eat salads were introduced. Efficiency, combined with an expanded menu, continued to draw customers. McDonald 's began to focus on urban centers and introduced new architectural styles.
The first McDonald 's Express locations opened in 1991. These are smaller - scale prototypes, usually constructed in prefabricated buildings or urban storefronts, that do not feature certain menu items such as milkshakes and Quarter Pounders.
In 1992 Michael R. Quinlan became president of McDonald 's Corporation, and Fred L. Turner became chairman. Quinlan, who took over as CEO in 1987, had started at McDonald 's in the mail room in 1963, and gradually worked his way up. In his first year as CEO, the company opened 600 new restaurants.
By 1991, 37 percent of system - wide sales came from restaurants outside the United States. McDonald 's opened its first foreign restaurant in British Columbia, Canada, in 1967. By the early 1990s the company had established itself in 58 foreign countries, and operated more than 3,600 restaurants outside the United States, through wholly owned subsidiaries, joint ventures, and franchise agreements. Its strongest foreign markets were Japan, Canada, Germany, Great Britain, Australia, and France.
In the mid-1980s, McDonald 's, like other traditional employers of teenagers, was faced with a shortage of labor in the United States. The company met this challenge by being the first to entice retirees back into the workforce. Focusing on off - site training, it opened its Hamburger University in 1961 to train franchisees and corporate decision - makers. By 1990, more than 40,000 people had received "Bachelor of Hamburgerology '' degrees from the 80 - acre (320,000 m) Oak Brook, Illinois, facility. The corporation opened a Hamburger University in Tokyo in 1971, in Munich in 1975, and in London in 1982.
Braille menus were first introduced in 1979, and picture menus in 1988. In March 1992, combination Braille and picture menus were reintroduced to accommodate those with vision, speech, or hearing impairments.
Clamshell grills, which cooked both sides of a hamburger simultaneously, were tested. New locations such as hospitals and military bases were tapped as sites for new restaurants. In response to the increase in microwave oven usage, McDonald 's, whose name is the single most advertised brand name in the world, stepped up advertising and promotional expenditures stressing that its taste was superior to quick - packaged foods.
The first McDonald 's in Mainland China opened in Dongmen, Shenzhen in October 1990.
McRecycle USA began in 1990 and included a commitment to purchase at least $100 million worth of recycled products annually for use in construction, remodeling, and equipping restaurants. Chairs, table bases, table tops, eating counters, table columns, waste receptacles, corrugated cartons, packaging, and washroom tissue were all made from recycled products. McDonald 's worked with the U.S. Environmental Defense Fund to develop a comprehensive solid waste reduction program. Wrapping burgers in paper rather than plastic led to a 90 percent reduction in the wrapping material waste stream.
It took McDonald 's 33 years to open its first 10,000 restaurants. The 10,000 th unit opened in April 1988. Incredibly, the company reached the 20,000 - restaurant mark in only eight more years, in mid-1996. By the end of 1997 the total had surpassed 23,000, and by that time McDonald 's was opening 2,000 new restaurants each year, an average of five every day.
Much of the growth of the 1990s came outside the US, with international units increasing from about 3,600 in 1991 to more than 11,000 by 1998. The number of countries with McDonald 's outlets nearly doubled from 59 in 1991 to 114 in late 1998. In 1993, a new region was added to the empire when the first McDonald 's in the Middle East opened in Tel Aviv, Israel. As the company entered new markets, it showed increasing flexibility with respect to local food preferences and customs. In Israel, for example, the first kosher McDonald 's opened in a Jerusalem suburb in 1995. In Arab countries the restaurant chain used "Halal '' menus, which complied with Islamic laws for food preparation. In 1996 McDonald 's entered India for the first time, where it offered a Big Mac made with lamb called the Maharaja Mac. That same year the first McSki - Thru opened in Lindvallen, Sweden.
Overall, the company derived increasing percentages of its revenue and income from outside the US. In 1992 about two - thirds of systemwide sales came from U.S. McDonald 's, but by 1997 that figure was down to about 51 percent. Similarly, the operating income numbers showed a reduction from about 60 percent of sales derived from the US in 1992 to 42.5 percent in 1997.
In the US, the number of units grew from 9,000 in 1991 to 12,500 in 1997, an increase of about 40 percent. Although the additional units increased market share in some markets, a number of franchisees complained that new units were cannibalizing sales from existing ones. Same - store sales for outlets open for more than one year were flat in the mid-1990s, a reflection of both the greater number of units and the mature nature of the U.S. market.
The company made several notable blunders in the US in the 1990s which hurt stateside profits. The McLean Deluxe sandwich, which featured a 91 percent fat - free beef patty, was introduced in 1991, never really caught on, and was dropped from the menu in February 1996 to make room for the Arch Deluxe, itself an underperforming product. The "grown - up '' (and pricey) Arch Deluxe sandwich was launched in May 1996 and the Deluxe Line was launched in September 1996 in a $200 million campaign to gain the business of more adults, but were bombs. The following spring brought a 55 - cent Big Mac promotion, which many customers either rejected outright or were confused by because the burgers had to be purchased with full - priced fries and a drink. The promotion embittered still more franchisees, whose complaints led to its withdrawal. In July 1997 McDonald 's fired its main ad agency, Leo Burnett, a 15 - year McDonald 's partner after the nostalgic "My McDonald 's '' campaign proved a failure. Several other 1990s - debuted menu items, including fried chicken, pasta, fajitas, and pizza failed as well. A seemingly weakened McDonald 's was the object of a Burger King offensive when the rival fast - food maker launched the Big King sandwich, a Big Mac clone. Meanwhile, internal taste tests revealed that customers preferred the fare at Wendy 's and Burger King.
In response to these difficulties, McDonald 's drastically cut back on its U.S. expansion. In contrast to the 1,130 units opened in 1995, only about 400 new McDonald 's were built in 1997. Plans to open hundreds of smaller restaurants in Wal - Marts and gasoline stations were abandoned because test sites did not meet targeted goals. Reacting to complaints from franchisees about poor communication with the corporation and excess bureaucracy, the head of McDonald 's U.S.A. (Jack M. Greenberg, who had assumed the position in October 1996) reorganized the unit into five autonomous geographic divisions. The aim was to bring management and decision - making closer to franchisees and customers.
On the marketing side, McDonald 's scored big in 1996 and 1997 with a Teenie Beanie Baby promotion in which about 80 million of the toys / collectibles were gobbled up virtually overnight. The chain received some bad publicity, however, when it was discovered that a number of customers purchased Happy Meals just to get the toys and threw the food away. For a similar spring 1998 Teenie Beanie giveaway, the company altered the promotion to allow patrons to buy menu items other than kids ' meals. McDonald 's also began to benefit from a seven years global marketing alliance signed with Disney / Pixar in 1998. Initial Disney / Pixar movies promoted by McDonald 's included A Bug 's Life, Monsters, Inc., Finding Nemo and The Incredibles. Perhaps the most important marketing move came in the later months of 1997 when McDonald 's named DDB Needham as its new lead ad agency. Needham had been the company 's agency in the 1970s and was responsible for the hugely successful "You Deserve a Break Today '' campaign. Late in 1997, McDonald 's launched the Needham - designed "Did Somebody Say McDonald 's? '' campaign, which appeared to be an improvement over its predecessors.
Following the difficulties of the early and mid-1990s, several moves in 1998 seemed to indicate a reinvigorated McDonald 's. In February the company for the first time took a stake in another fast - food chain when it purchased a minority interest in the 16 - unit, Colorado - based Chipotle Mexican Grill chain. The following month came the announcement that McDonald 's would improve the taste of several sandwiches and introduce several new menu items. McFlurry desserts, developed by a Canadian franchisee in 1997, proved popular when launched in the United States in the summer of 1998. That same month, McDonald 's said that it would overhaul its food preparation system in every U.S. restaurant. The new just - in - time system, dubbed "Made for You '', was in development for a number of years and aimed to deliver to customers "fresher, hotter food ''; enable patrons to receive special - order sandwiches (a perk long offered by rivals Burger King and Wendy 's); and allow new menu items to be more easily introduced thanks to the system 's enhanced flexibility. The expensive changeover was expected to cost about $25,000 per restaurant, with McDonald 's offering to pay for about half of the cost; the company planned to provide about $190 million in financial assistance to its franchisees before implementation was completed by year - end 1999.
In May 1998, Greenberg was named president and CEO of McDonald 's Corporation, with Quinlan remaining chairman; at the same time Alan D. Feldman, who had joined the company only four years earlier from Pizza Hut, replaced Greenberg as president of McDonald 's U.S.A., an unusual move for a company whose executives typically were long - timers. The following month brought another first, McDonald 's first job cuts. The company said it would eliminate 525 employees from its headquarters staff, a cut of about 23 percent. In the second quarter of 1998 McDonald 's took a $160 million charge in relation to the cuts. As a result, the company, for the first time since it went public in 1965, recorded a decrease in net income, from $1.64 billion in 1997 to $1.55 billion in 1998.
McDonald 's followed up its investment in Chipotle with several more moves beyond the burger business. In March 1999 the company bought Aroma Café, a UK chain of 23 upscale coffee and sandwich shops. In July of that year McDonald 's added Donatos Pizza, a midwestern chain of 143 pizzerias based in Columbus, Ohio. Donatos had revenues of $120 million in 1997. In 1999, McDonald 's 25,000 th unit opened, Greenberg took on the additional post of chairman, and Jim Cantalupo was named company president. Cantalupo, who had joined the company as controller in 1974 and later became head of McDonald 's International, had been vice-chairman, a position he retained. In May 2000 McDonald 's completed its largest acquisition yet, buying the bankrupt Boston Market chain for $173.5 million in cash and debt. At the time, there were more than 850 Boston Market outlets, which specialized in home - style meals, with rotisserie chicken the lead menu item. Revenue at Boston Market during 1999 totaled $670 million. McDonald 's rounded out its acquisition spree in early 2001 by buying a 33 percent stake in Pret A Manger, an upscale urban - based chain specializing in ready - to - eat sandwiches made on the premises. There were more than 110 Pret shops in the United Kingdom and several more in New York City. Also during 2001, McDonald 's sold off Aroma Café and took its McDonald 's Japan affiliate public, selling a minority stake through an initial public offering.
As it was exploring new avenues of growth, however, McDonald 's core burger chain had become plagued by problems. Most prominently, the Made for You system backfired. Although many franchisees believed that it succeeded in improving the quality of the food, it also increased service times and proved labor - intensive. Some franchisees also complained that the actual cost of implementing the system ran much higher than the corporation had estimated, a charge that McDonald 's contested. In any case, there was no question that Made for You failed to reverse the chain 's sluggish sales. Growth in sales at stores open more than a year (known as same - store sales) fell in both 2000 and 2001. Late in 2001 the company launched a restructuring involving the elimination of about 850 positions, 700 of which were in the US, and several restaurant closings.
In 2000, a McDonald 's in Dearborn, Michigan in Greater Detroit was the first one in Michigan and the only one east of the Mississippi River to offer halal food for Muslim customers.
There were further black eyes as well. McDonald 's was sued in 2001 after it was revealed that for flavoring purposes a small amount of beef extract was being added to the vegetable oil used to cook the french fries. The company had cooked its fries in beef tallow until 1990, when it began claiming in ads that it used 100 percent vegetable oil. McDonald 's soon apologized for any "confusion '' that had been caused by its use of the beef flavoring, and in mid-2002 it reached a settlement in the litigation, agreeing to donate $10 million to Hindu, vegetarian, and other affected groups. Also in 2001, further embarrassment came when 51 people were charged with conspiring to rig McDonald 's game promotions over the course of several years. It was revealed that $24 million of winning McDonald 's game tickets had been stolen as part of the scam. McDonald 's was not implicated in the scheme, which centered on a worker at an outside company that had administered the promotions.
McDonald 's also had to increasingly battle its public image as a purveyor of fatty, unhealthy food. Consumers began filing lawsuits contending that years of eating at McDonald 's had made them overweight. McDonald 's responded by introducing low - calorie menu items and switching to a more healthful cooking oil for its french fries. McDonald 's franchises overseas became a favorite target of people and groups expressing anti-American and / or anti-globalization sentiments. In August 1999 a group of protesters led by farmer José Bové destroyed a half - built McDonald 's restaurant in Millau, France. In 2002 Bové, who gained fame from the incident, served a three - month jail sentence for the act, which he said was in protest against U.S. trade protectionism. McDonald 's was also one of three multinational corporations (along with Starbucks Corporation and Nike, Inc.) whose outlets in Seattle were attacked in late 1999 by some of the more aggressive protesters against a World Trade Organization meeting taking place there. In the early 2000s McDonald 's pulled out of several countries, including Bolivia and two Middle Eastern nations, at least in part because of the negative regard with which the brand was held in some areas.
Early in 2002, Cantalupo retired after 28 years of service. Sales remained lackluster that year, and in October the company attempted to revive U.S. sales through the introduction of a low - cost Dollar Menu. In December 2002, after this latest initiative to reignite sales growth failed and also after profits fell in seven of the previous eight quarters, Greenberg announced that he would resign at the end of the year. Cantalupo came out of retirement to become chairman and CEO at the beginning of 2003.
Cantalupo started his tenure by announcing a major restructuring that involved the 2002 quarterly loss, which included the closure of more than 700 restaurants (mostly in the United States and Japan), the elimination of 600 jobs, and charges of $853 million. The charges resulted in a fourth - quarter 2002 loss of $343.8 million, the first quarterly loss in McDonald 's 38 years as a public company. The new CEO also shifted away from the company 's traditional reliance on growth through the opening of new units to a focus on gaining more sales from existing units. By 2003, with Ray Kroc 's McDonald 's Corporation nearly 50 and the McDonald 's fast food restaurant concept itself old enough to qualify for AARP membership, the brand had perhaps become too familiar and sales figures stalled. Analysts, management, owners, and customers alike recognized that the aged chain required revivification. The question in need of solution was: How should McDonald 's reinvent itself without losing its core values and maintain relevance in the marketplace? To that end, several new menu items were successfully launched, including entree salads, McGriddles breakfast sandwiches (which used pancakes in place of bread), and white - meat Chicken McNuggets. Some outlets began test - marketing fruits and vegetables as Happy Meal options. It was quickly determined that focus on customer experience was key in reversing the slippage. Then, a new global marketing campaign was adopted which was designed around the notion of the "Rolling Energy '' phase. Launched on September 29, 2003, the campaign began featuring youthful images, hip music, and pop culture celebrities touting the tagline, "I 'm lovin ' it ''. Next, James R. Cantalupo was called back from retirement to head the corporation and its efforts to recapture golden luster. His plan was to keep things simple with a focus on the basics like customer service, clean restrooms, and reliable appealing food (not unlike Ray Kroc 's mantra of QSC and V: Quality, Service, Cleanliness, and Value). In addition to the basics he determined to position the company with a more modern coherent image in order to foster a McDonald 's "experience '' for customers. More than an advertising campaign he and his team approved sweeping new architecture for McDonald 's restaurants, the first major overhaul since 1969 when the now universally recognized signature double mansard roof became standard. In fact, Mr. Cantalupo personally approved abandonment of the ubiquitous and familiar mansard in favor of what became the "Forever Young '' prototype topped with its swish eyebrow. This was the first global campaign in McDonald 's history, as the new slogan was to be used in advertising in more than 100 countries. It also proved to be the first truly successful ad campaign in years; sales began rebounding, helped also by improvements in service. Cantalupo did not live to see the fruits of his labor and he died in 2004 just as his modern vision for McDonald 's was getting underway. Nonetheless he had set things into motion causing a paradigm shift for the company resulting in a refreshed image without a dilution of brand identity.
In December 2003, for instance, same - store sales increased 7.3 percent. Same - store sales rose 2.4 percent for the entire year, after falling 2.1 percent in 2002. Also, in that month, McDonald 's announced that it would further its focus on its core hamburger business by downsizing its other ventures. The company said that it would sell Donatos back to that chain 's founder. In addition, it would discontinue development of non-McDonald's brands outside of the United States. This included Boston Market outlets in Canada and Australia and Donatos units in Germany. McDonald 's kept its minority investment in Pret A Manger, but McDonald 's Japan was slated to close its Pret units there. These moves would enable the company to concentrate its international efforts on the McDonald 's chain, while reducing the non-hamburger brands in the United States to Chipotle and Boston Market, both of which were operating in the black.
McDonald 's continued to curtail store openings in 2004 and to concentrate on building business at existing restaurants. Much of the more than $1.5 billion budgeted for capital expenditures in 2004 was slated to be used to remodel existing restaurants. McDonald 's also aimed to pay down debt by $400 million to $700 million and to return approximately $1 billion to shareholders through dividends and share repurchases. Cantalupo also set several long - term goals, such as sustaining annual systemwide sales and revenue growth rates of 3 to 5 percent. In a move to both simplify the menu and make its offerings less fattening, McDonald 's announced in March 2004 that it would phase out Super Size french fries and soft drinks by the end of the year.
In the 1960s, the 1970s, the 1980s, and the 1990s, "no loitering '' had been McDonald 's motto. Ray Kroc had decreed upon the origins of his version of the chain that pay telephones, jukeboxes, and vending machines of any kind were forbidden at McDonald 's restaurants. The goal had been to quickly serve customers and not force them to stay in the restaurants any longer than it took them to eat a hamburger. Along that line of thinking, dining areas were designed with minimalist hard plastic tables and chairs which were more often than not bolted in place. Thus customers consumed their fast food in scant comfort without dillydally allowing room for the next hurrying customers.
With the new "Forever Young '' design (adopted in 2006), the first major redesign since 1969, McDonald 's turned a new page for itself. New and remodeled restaurants feature dining zones with "distinct personalities ''. Most of them offer three sections or zones. A linger zone was designed to accommodate people who were inclined to dawdle and socialize while sitting comfortably on armchairs or sofas using free wifi access. Another zone offers counters and stools for patrons in a hurry who might just grab and go. The third and perhaps most important zone is the one for families or groups where seating arrangements can be reconfigured to meet a variety of needs. Also, harsh colors and hard plastics have been replaced with custom earth tones and flexible padded fabric covered booth seating all in hopes of engaging diners to loiter and perhaps spend more money and in addition to architecture and furnishings, the McDonald 's menu has been tweaked to offer a larger variety of what the corporation refers to as more healthy food.
McDonald 's franchises are required to follow the directions of the parent company and perhaps more than a few have complained about the Forever Young changes. First, customers needed to recognize the mansard buildings and identify McDonald 's with them -- a new look may initially generate some degree of confusion. The next objection is cost: as of 2008, a newly built swish - brow store was said to cost upwards of $1 million and renovation of an existing unit to meet the new standards as much as $400,000. With a large percentage of sales from drive - in business, franchises could argue that the expensive interior redesign is unwarranted for their bottom lines.
In May 2010, McDonald 's redesigned its US website to a sleeker, HTML 5 friendly interface. Along with those changes, McDonald 's also introduced new advertising material to its website, including the unveiling of new pictures used exclusively for in - restaurant ads, television commercials, print advertising, and online advertising, which consist of more realistic pictures of its products, which are now up close and face the camera instead of facing left or right.
In July 2011, McDonald 's announced that their largest restaurant in the world would be built on the 2012 London Olympics site. The restaurant contains over 1,500 seats and is half the length of an American football field. Over 470 staff were employed serving on average (during the 2012 Olympics) 100,000 portions of fries, 50,000 Big Macs and 30,000 Milkshakes. This restaurant will overshadow the current largest McDonald 's in the world in Moscow, Russia.
In January 2012, the company announced revenue for 2011 reached an all - time high of $27 billion, and that 2,400 restaurants would be updated and 1,300 new ones opened worldwide.
In the middle of the decade, the restaurant began to suffer from declining profits. In response, McDonald 's began to offer its breakfast menu all day starting in 2015. At first, the launch was unpopular with franchisees who claimed that the changes caused service to slow down. However, the plan payed off with CNBC reporting that the company 's fourth quarter earning "easily topped analysts ' forecasts ''.
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when is episode 5 of batman coming out | Batman: the Enemy Within - wikipedia
Batman: The Enemy Within is an episodic point - and - click graphic adventure video game developed and published by Telltale Games and distributed by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment under its DC Entertainment label. The game is a sequel to 2016 's Batman: The Telltale Series, which was based on Bob Kane and Bill Finger 's Batman character.
Like most Telltale games, the game features a similar episodic format found in other titles (such as Game of Thrones, The Walking Dead, The Wolf Among Us and Tales from the Borderlands). The player controls Bruce Wayne and his alter - ego Batman, with the game evenly split for both characters. The game features a branching narrative, similar to past Telltale games, giving the player options in approaching a situation and having that choice affect later events in the game. If the player had played the previous game, choices made, such as saving certain characters or stopping a criminal, may also be imported, though the game can be played as a standalone title. The game includes action sequences that are resolved similar to Telltale 's other games, using quick time events. The series also includes investigation sequences, allowing the player to use Batman 's detective skills to investigate areas. Sections of the game also present situations to the player where they may choose to approach as Bruce Wayne or as Batman. Crowd Play, a feature implemented in the predecessor, also returns for The Enemy Within, allowing streamers to let their audience interact with their session with the game.
The player once again assumes control of Bruce Wayne / Batman (Troy Baker), a billionaire who secretly fights crime in Gotham. His butler and former legal guardian Alfred Pennyworth (Enn Reitel), Police Commissioner James Gordon (Murphy Guyer), and Wayne Enterprises Chief of Technology Lucius Fox (Dave Fennoy) return to assist Batman in the field. The game introduces "The Agency '', a mysterious government organization with its own agenda led by the ruthless Amanda Waller (Debra Wilson). New supporting characters are also introduced, including Special Agent Iman Avesta (Emily O'Brien), one of the Agency 's operatives, and Tiffany Fox (Valarie Rae Miller), the daughter of Lucius and an employee at Wayne Enterprises.
"John Doe '' (Anthony Ingruber) and Selina Kyle / Catwoman (Laura Bailey) also return, now members of a group of criminals called "the Pact ''. Other members of the group include Riddler (Robin Atkin Downes), Bane (J.B. Blanc), Dr. Victor Fries / Mr. Freeze (Matthew Mercer) and Harleen Quinzel / Harley Quinn (Laura Post).
Detective Renee Montoya (Sumalee Montano), Reporter Jack Ryder (Robert Clotworthy) and Wayne Enterprises Chairwoman Regina Zellerbach (Lorri Holt) return with smaller roles within the series. New minor characters introduced include Police Detective Harvey Bullock (Keith Szarabajka), Agency operative Vernon Blake (Christian Lanz), international arms dealer Rumi Mori (Keone Young), Riddler 's second - in - command Eli Knable (Alex Hernandez), and Stacked Deck patrons Frank Dumfree and Willy Deever (Kirk Thornton and Dave B. Mitchell respectively).
The Enemy Within is set in the same Batman continuity introduced in Batman: The Telltale Series, which took place a number of years into Batman 's career. Like the previous installment, the game is set during the mid-to - late 2010s in Gotham City, primarily the Batcave, Wayne Enterprises and Gotham City Police Headquarters. The game also follows the events of the previous game, taking place between a couple of months to a year after these events.
Approximately a year after the defeat of the Children of Arkham, Batman continues to patrol Gotham while slowly regaining his reputation as Bruce Wayne. While targeting an arms dealer, he witnesses the return of the Riddler, one of Gotham 's first super-criminals. Confronting the criminal with help from Gordon and the GCPD, he fails to capture him and is assisted by the Agency and their operatives. During their clean up, Batman meets Amanda Waller, the director of the Agency, who take over the investigation and offers to assist him in tracking Riddler. After returning to the Batcave with a puzzle left by Riddler, Bruce solves it, though is fazed when discovering a signal emitter. When Lucius Fox, the chief of technology at Wayne Enterprises investigates, he is mysteriously killed in an explosion. At Lucius ' funeral, Bruce reunites with former Arkham patient "John Doe '', who has been discharged for good behavior. John, having made a number of "friends '' after his release, asks Bruce to meet and joined his group, which he refers to as "the Pact ''. When finding out that Bruce is searching for Riddler, John gives him a lead to investigate in Gotham 's East End.
With Gordon, Batman follows the lead to discover Riddler 's lair, where he discovers clues to his plans and a death trap to solve. Finding a radio wave guided homing missile, he deduces that the signal was actually a guide. Using further evidence he finds, Batman deduces that Riddler plans to target the Agency, having hacked the agent 's phones and making them send the targeting signal to call missiles to their locations. Determined to find Riddler, he follows another lead and tracks him to a freight ship. After escaping another deadly game set up by Riddler, Batman manages to redirect the missiles and defeats the criminal. As he is interrogated by the vigilante, Riddler is shot with a poisoned dart and dies, revealing that he is also a member of the Pact. As the Agency and GCPD arrive, Waller takes over law enforcement in Gotham and reveals to Batman her knowledge of his true identity. Waller suggests that he infiltrates the Pact as Bruce Wayne and gives him an ultimatum: work with the Agency to help arrest the Pact or risk having his identity exposed.
Several moments later, a series of explosions go off throughout the city. Responding to an attack at the police arsenal, Batman battles another member of the Pact, Bane, who easily overpowers him with help from a steroid called Venom. Surviving thanks to help from either Gordon or Waller, Batman decides to follow the latter 's advice and meets with John to accept his offer. The two meet at a bar, where he is introduced to John 's former psychiatrist Harleen Quinzel, now the criminal Harley Quinn. Suspicious of Bruce, Harley gives him a chance to prove himself by stealing a prototype electrical skeleton key from Wayne Enterprises, with them joining him during the heist. Despite problems, including an unexpected encounter with Lucius ' grieving daughter Tiffany, he is able to get the device to them and an EMP generator. After this show of compliance, Bruce is called to meet the other members of the Pact, Bane and Mr. Freeze, and convince them to vote him into the group. Successful, he joins them on their latest heist: a mysterious package guarded by an Agency convoy. With Waller refusing to help, Bruce is forced to assist the Pact and escapes with them. Upon returning to the group 's hideout, the target is revealed to have been the Riddler 's body and that his former ally Catwoman is also a member of the Pact.
After copying Riddler 's eyes, Harley reveals one of Riddler 's laptops, which he had left in their possession, and Bruce, John and Catwoman head to his hideout to find the location of their mark. After solving another death trap hidden in the lair, they discover the target to be an organization called SANCTUS, which Riddler was formerly associated with. The Pact also begin to suspect a mole, due to the time it took for the job to escalate, and suspicions fall on Bruce. After retrieving Harley 's laptop through help from either Selina or John, Bruce finds that SANCTUS was one of the Agency 's former divisions in charge of experimentation. The laptop contains evidence of a biological weapon called LOTUS and the location of the lab, where it is being kept. After the Pact learn of the lab 's location, Bruce is forced to either give himself or Selina up as the mole, leading to the Pact attempting to execute them. Depending on the decision, Bruce either accompanies them during the heist and sabotages it or escapes from his fate and confronts the group as Batman, possibly with Catwoman 's help. During the heist, Harley betrays the Pact and escapes with the virus, whilst Freeze and Bane are captured by the Agency.
While searching for Quinn, Bruce learns that Project LOTUS was a failed restorative agent, with Riddler being the only known survivor of the experiment. The members of the Pact have planned to use his blood to convert the virus into a healing serum to cure their own ailments. However, Waller has been aware of this plan and plotting to blackmail them into joining the Agency, with the promise of a cure. Unknown to all parties, using even the working version can cause mental problems for the user. After following another lead given by John, Bruce finds him surrounded by agents ' bodies. Claiming it to be self defense, John realizes the truth about their "friendship '' and reveals his knowledge of Bruce 's activities as Batman. Regardless of whether he believes him, Bruce leaves to help the Agency capture a volatile Harley Quinn. During the confrontation, John arrives and attacks the Agency, escaping with LOTUS and potentially Quinn, the latter depending on the player 's choices.
Several weeks later, John, now known as "Joker '', reemerges, now either a vigilante with a twisted sense of right and wrong or a criminal collaborating with Quinn to get revenge on Bruce. The former has Batman briefly working with Joker to fights off the Agency, until he kidnaps and attempts to kill Waller. However, the latter has Joker and Harley terrorizing the city with LOTUS and forcing Bruce into a demented game, pitting him against his allies. Regardless of the path, Bruce learns that Tiffany murdered Riddler to avenge her father and he eventually defeats Joker. Following Joker 's capture, Waller orders the Agency to leave Gotham and promises not to reveal Bruce 's identity. As Batman, Bruce confronts Tiffany, leading to her either leaving to work for the Agency, joining him in his crusade against crime, escaping to become a fugitive, or being handed over to the authorities for murder. Returning to the manor, Bruce learns that Alfred has decided to leave Gotham to return home, having been struggling to continue since he was kidnapped by Lady Arkham. After a heated discussion, Bruce either decides to leave the life of vigilantism behind to convince Alfred to stay or allows him to leave whilst he continues to operate as Batman.
In a post credits scene, Joker is shown to have been returned to Arkham Asylum. If he was a vigilante, he is either visited by Bruce or decides to become the hero 's archenemy. However, if he was a criminal, he is shown playing with a doll version of Bruce, which he promises to see again.
Batman: The Enemy Within received generally positive reviews from critics, some of which considered it an improvement over its predecessor, earning praise for its story, choices, action sequences, and portrayal of the Batman mythos. The game won the award for "Performance in a Drama, Supporting '' with Debra Wilson at the 17th Annual National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers Awards, whereas its other nomination was for "Game, Franchise Adventure ''.
Many reviewers praised the game 's unique depiction of the Joker, with the player being given the opportunity to try to prevent him from becoming a villain. For example, Scott Maslow from GQ was happily surprised by this version of the Joker and said it managed to make "Batman 's most overexposed villain '' interesting again: "The Joker has always said his past is multiple - choice, but this is the first time I 've felt like I was the one checking the boxes. '' Bradley Shankar from MobileSyrup was especially positive with a review titled "Batman: The Enemy Within offers one of the greatest Joker stories ever told ''. He explained: "... while there have been numerous great interpretations of the Batman - Joker relationship over the years, there has never been one quite as complex and morally grey as what Telltale has created with The Enemy Within ''. Tamoor Hussain from GameSpot gave the final episode a 9 / 10, concluding: "While Telltale 's first Batman season stuck a bit too close to established mythos and delivered an underwhelming ending, the second is a memorable Joker origin story that Bat - fans should make a point of playing. '' Stephanie Chan from VentureBeat was slightly less enthusiastic but still gave the game a score of 80 / 100 and said: "By the end of the series, I 'll say that Batman: The Enemy Within has tentatively won me over. That 's purely on the strength of the relationship between Batman and The Joker. ''
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when did the plane crash in lord of the flies | Lord of the Flies - wikipedia
Lord of the Flies is a 1954 novel by Nobel Prize - winning British author William Golding. The book focuses on a group of British boys stranded on an uninhabited island and their disastrous attempt to govern themselves.
The novel has been generally well received. It was named in the Modern Library 100 Best Novels, reaching number 41 on the editor 's list, and 25 on the reader 's list. In 2003 it was listed at number 70 on the BBC 's The Big Read poll, and in 2005 Time magazine named it as one of the 100 best English - language novels from 1923 to 2005.
Published in 1954, Lord of the Flies was Golding 's first novel. Although it was not a great success at the time -- selling fewer than three thousand copies in the United States during 1955 before going out of print -- it soon went on to become a best - seller. It has been adapted to film twice in English, in 1963 by Peter Brook and 1990 by Harry Hook, and once in Filipino (1975).
The book takes place in the midst of an unspecified war. Some of the marooned characters are ordinary students, while others arrive as a musical choir under an established leader. With the exception of Sam and Eric and the choirboys, they appear never to have encountered each other before. The book portrays their descent into savagery; left to themselves on a paradisiacal island, far from modern civilisation, the well - educated children regress to a primitive state.
Golding wrote his book as a counterpoint to R.M. Ballantyne 's youth novel The Coral Island (1858), and included specific references to it, such as the rescuing naval officer 's description of the children 's pursuit of Ralph as "a jolly good show, like the Coral Island ''. Golding 's three central characters -- Ralph, Piggy and Jack -- have been interpreted as caricatures of Ballantyne 's Coral Island protagonists.
In the midst of a wartime evacuation, a British aeroplane crashes on or near an isolated island in a remote region of the Pacific Ocean. The only survivors are boys in their middle childhood or preadolescence. Two boys -- the fair - haired Ralph and an overweight, bespectacled boy nicknamed "Piggy '' -- find a conch, which Ralph uses as a horn to convene all the survivors to one area. Ralph is optimistic, believing that grown - ups will come to rescue them but Piggy realises the need to organise: ("put first things first and act proper ''). Because Ralph appears responsible for bringing all the survivors together, he immediately commands some authority over the other boys and is quickly elected their "chief ''. He does not receive the votes of the members of a boys ' choir, led by the red - headed Jack Merridew, although he allows the choir boys to form a separate clique of hunters. Ralph establishes three primary policies: to have fun, to survive, and to constantly maintain a smoke signal that could alert passing ships to their presence on the island and thus rescue them. The boys establish a form of democracy by declaring that whoever holds the conch shall also be able to speak at their formal gatherings and receive the attentive silence of the larger group.
Jack organises his choir into a hunting party responsible for discovering a food source. Ralph, Jack, and a quiet, dreamy boy named Simon soon form a loose triumvirate of leaders with Ralph as the ultimate authority. Upon inspection of the island, the three determine that it has fruit and wild pigs for food. The boys also use Piggy 's spectacles to create a fire. Though he is Ralph 's only real confidant, Piggy is quickly made into an outcast by his fellow "biguns '' (older boys) and becomes an unwilling source of laughs for the other children while being hated by Jack. Simon, in addition to supervising the project of constructing shelters, feels an instinctive need to protect the "littluns '' (younger boys).
The semblance of order quickly deteriorates as the majority of the boys turn idle; they give little aid in building shelters, spend their time having fun and begin to develop Paranoias about the island. The central paranoia refers to a supposed monster they call the "beast '', which they all slowly begin to believe exists on the island. Ralph insists that no such beast exists, but Jack, who has started a power struggle with Ralph, gains a level of control over the group by boldly promising to kill the creature. At one point, Jack summons all of his hunters to hunt down a wild pig, drawing away those assigned to maintain the signal fire. A ship travels by the island, but without the boys ' smoke signal to alert the ship 's crew, the vessel continues without stopping. Ralph angrily confronts Jack about his failure to maintain the signal; in frustration Jack assaults Piggy, breaking his glasses. The boys subsequently enjoy their first feast. Angered by the failure of the boys to attract potential rescuers, Ralph considers relinquishing his position as leader, but is convinced not to do so by Piggy, who both understands Ralph 's importance and deeply fears what will become of him should Jack take total control.
One night, an aerial battle occurs near the island while the boys sleep, during which a fighter pilot ejects from his plane and dies in the descent. His body drifts down to the island in his parachute; both get tangled in a tree near the top of the mountain. Later on, while Jack continues to scheme against Ralph, the twins Sam and Eric, now assigned to the maintenance of the signal fire, see the corpse of the fighter pilot and his parachute in the dark. Mistaking the corpse for the beast, they run to the cluster of shelters that Ralph and Simon have erected to warn the others. This unexpected meeting again raises tensions between Jack and Ralph. Shortly thereafter, Jack decides to lead a party to the other side of the island, where a mountain of stones, later called Castle Rock, forms a place where he claims the beast resides. Only Ralph and a quiet suspicious boy, Roger, Jack 's closest supporter, agree to go; Ralph turns back shortly before the other two boys but eventually all three see the parachutist, whose head rises via the wind. They then flee, now believing the beast is truly real. When they arrive at the shelters, Jack calls an assembly and tries to turn the others against Ralph, asking them to remove Ralph from his position. Receiving no support, Jack storms off alone to form his own tribe. Roger immediately sneaks off to join Jack, and slowly an increasing number of older boys abandon Ralph to join Jack 's tribe. Jack 's tribe continues to lure recruits from the main group by promising feasts of cooked pig. The members begin to paint their faces and enact bizarre rites, including sacrifices to the beast. One night, Ralph and Piggy decide to go to one of Jack 's feasts.
Simon, who faints frequently and is likely an epileptic, has a secret hideaway where he goes to be alone. One day while he is there, Jack and his followers erect an offering to the beast nearby: a pig 's head, mounted on a sharpened stick and soon swarming with scavenging flies. Simon conducts an imaginary dialogue with the head, which he dubs the "Lord of the Flies ''. The head mocks Simon 's notion that the beast is a real entity, "something you could hunt and kill '', and reveals the truth: they, the boys, are the beast; it is inside them all. The Lord of the Flies also warns Simon that he is in danger, because he represents the soul of man, and predicts that the others will kill him. Simon climbs the mountain alone and discovers that the "beast '' is the dead parachutist. He rushes down to tell the other boys, who are engaged in a ritual dance. The frenzied boys mistake Simon for the beast, attack him, and beat him to death. Both Ralph and Piggy participate in the melee, and they become deeply disturbed by their actions after returning from Castle Rock.
Jack and his rebel band decide that the real symbol of power on the island is not the conch, but Piggy 's glasses -- the only means the boys have of starting a fire. They raid Ralph 's camp, confiscate the glasses, and return to their abode on Castle Rock. Ralph, now deserted by most of his supporters, journeys to Castle Rock to confront Jack and secure the glasses. Taking the conch and accompanied only by Piggy, Sam, and Eric, Ralph finds the tribe and demands that they return the valuable object. Confirming their total rejection of Ralph 's authority, the tribe capture and bind the twins under Jack 's command. Ralph and Jack engage in a fight which neither wins before Piggy tries once more to address the tribe. Any sense of order or safety is permanently eroded when Roger, now sadistic, deliberately drops a boulder from his vantage point above, killing Piggy and shattering the conch. Ralph manages to escape, but Sam and Eric are tortured by Roger until they agree to join Jack 's tribe.
Ralph secretly confronts Sam and Eric, who warn him that Jack and Roger hate him and that Roger has sharpened a stick at both ends, implying the tribe intends to hunt him like a pig and behead him. The following morning, Jack orders his tribe to begin a hunt for Ralph. Jack 's savages set fire to the forest while Ralph desperately weighs his options for survival. Following a long chase, most of the island is consumed in flames. With the hunters closely behind him, Ralph trips and falls. He looks up at a uniformed adult -- a British naval officer whose party has landed from a passing cruiser to investigate the fire. Ralph bursts into tears over the death of Piggy and the "end of innocence ''. Jack and the other children, filthy and unkempt, also revert to their true ages and erupt into sobs. The officer expresses his disappointment at seeing British boys exhibiting such feral, warlike behaviour before turning to stare awkwardly at his own warship.
At an allegorical level, the central theme is the conflicting human impulses toward civilisation and social organisation -- living by rules, peacefully and in harmony -- and toward the will to power. Themes include the tension between groupthink and individuality, between rational and emotional reactions, and between morality and immorality. How these play out, and how different people feel the influences of these form a major subtext of Lord of the Flies. The name "Lord of the Flies '' is a literal translation of Beelzebub, from 2 Kings 1: 2 -- 3, 6, 16.
In February 1960 Floyd C. Gale of Galaxy Science Fiction rated Lord of the Flies five stars out of five, stating that "Golding paints a truly terrifying picture of the decay of a minuscule society... Well on its way to becoming a modern classic ''.
There have been three film adaptations based on the book:
A fourth adaptation, to feature an all - female cast, was announced by Warner Bros. in August 2017. Scott McGehee and David Siegel are slated to write and direct.
Nigel Williams adapted the text for the stage. It was debuted by the Royal Shakespeare Company in July 1996. The Pilot Theatre Company has toured it extensively in the United Kingdom and elsewhere.
In October 2014 it was announced that the 2011 production of Lord of the Flies would return to conclude the 2015 season at the Regent 's Park Open Air Theatre ahead of a major UK tour. The production was to be directed by the Artistic Director Timothy Sheader who won the 2014 Whatsonstage.com Awards Best Play Revival for To Kill A Mockingbird.
In June 2013, BBC Radio 4 Extra broadcast a dramatisation by Judith Adams in four 30 - minute episodes directed by Sasha Yevtushenko. The cast included Ruth Wilson as "The Narrator '', Finn Bennett as "Ralph '', Richard Linnel as "Jack '', Caspar Hilton - Hilley as "Piggy '' and Jack Caine as "Simon ''.
Many writers have borrowed plot elements from Lord of the Flies. By the early 1960s, it was required reading in many schools and colleges.
Stephen King 's fictional town of Castle Rock, inspired by the fictional mountain fort of the same name in Lord of the Flies, in turn inspired the name of Rob Reiner 's production company, Castle Rock Entertainment, which produced the film Lord of the Flies (1990).
Stephen King got the name Castle Rock from the fictional mountain fort of the same name in Lord of the Flies and used the name to refer to a fictional town that has appeared in a number of his novels. The book itself appears prominently in his novels Hearts in Atlantis (1999), Misery (1987), and Cujo (1981).
Stephen King wrote an introduction for a new edition of Lord of the Flies (2011) to mark the centenary of William Golding 's birth in 2011.
The novel Garden Lakes by Jaime Clarke is an homage to Lord of the Flies.
The final song on U2 's debut album Boy (1980) takes its title, "Shadows and Tall Trees '', from Chapter 7 in the book.
Iron Maiden wrote a song inspired by the book, included in their 1995 album The X Factor.
Blues Traveler wrote a song called "Justify the Thrill '', in which a small part of the lyrics are in reference to the book:
"The pig 's head on a stick does grin. As we teeter on the brink. He 's singing you are all my children. My island 's bigger than you think. ''
The Radiohead song "The Daily Mail '' includes lyrics that make direct reference to the title of the novel.
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digimon xros wars the young hunters who leapt through time | Digimon Fusion (season 3) - wikipedia
The following is a list of episodes for the third arc of Toei Animation 's Digimon Fusion series, known in Japan as Digimon Xros Wars: The Boy Hunters Who Leapt Through Time (デジモン クロス ウォーズ: 時 を 駆ける 少年 ハンター たち, Dejimon Kurosu Wōzu: Toki o Kakeru Shōnen Hantā - tachi). The story focuses on Taiki Kudō, Yū Amano, and Tagiru Akashi as they hunt Digimon that are causing havoc in between the human and Digital worlds. The opening theme is "Stand Up '' by Twill. The series also features original music by Kousuke Yamashita, as well as various insert songs sung by Kōji Wada and Psychic Lover.
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where do they film the tv show the crossing | The Crossing (tv series) - wikipedia
The Crossing is an American science fiction thriller series that airs on ABC. The series debuted on April 2, 2018. On March 20, 2018, ABC released the pilot episode on their website. The series is filmed in British Columbia, Canada.
On May 11, 2018, ABC canceled the show after one season.
Refugees fleeing a war seek asylum in an American town -- but they claim to be from America, 180 years in the future. Moreover, at least one of the refugees exhibits apparently superhuman powers that may make them a threat.
Set in the fictional town of Port Canaan, Oregon and in Seattle, the series was filmed in coastal areas of British Columbia and in the city of Vancouver in 2017. The beach where the refugees arrive is near Ucluelet on Vancouver Island while the sheriff 's office and some other locations were filmed in and around the village of Britannia Beach, north of Vancouver. The Oceanic Plaza in Vancouver was the setting for the Seattle offices of the show 's Homeland Security and other scenes were filmed in and around the city. Additional shooting locations in BC were in Steveston, British Columbia and in New Westminster. Filming in Vancouver started in July and wrapped in late November, 2017.
On May 11, 2018, ABC canceled the show after one season.
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 69 % based on 16 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1 / 10. Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 59 out of 100 based on 12 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
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what is the story of the blair witch project | The Blair Witch Project - Wikipedia
The Blair Witch Project is a 1999 American supernatural horror film written, directed and edited by Daniel Myrick and Eduardo Sánchez. It tells the fictional story of three student filmmakers -- Heather Donahue, Michael C. Williams and Joshua Leonard -- who hike in the Black Hills near Burkittsville, Maryland in 1994 to film a documentary about a local legend known as the Blair Witch. The three disappear but their video and sound equipment, along with most of the footage they shot, is discovered a year later; the "recovered footage '' is the film the viewer is watching.
Myrick and Sánchez conceived of a fictional legend of the Blair Witch in 1993. They developed a 35 - page screenplay with the dialogue to be improvised. A casting call advertisement in Backstage magazine was prepared by the directors and Donahue, Williams and Leonard were cast. The film entered production in October 1997, with the principal photography taking place in Maryland for eight days overseen by cinematographer Neal Fredericks. About 20 hours of footage was shot and was edited down to 82 minutes.
The Blair Witch Project premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 25, 1999, during which a promotional marketing campaign listed the actors as either "missing '' or "deceased ''. Owing to its successful run at Sundance, Artisan Entertainment bought the film 's distribution rights for $1.1 million, and had a North American release on July 14, 1999 before expanding to a wider release starting on July 30. While critical reception was mostly positive, audience reception was split. Nevertheless, the film was widely regarded to have popularized the found footage technique, later employed by similarly successful films such as Paranormal Activity and Cloverfield. A sleeper hit, The Blair Witch Project grossed nearly $250 million worldwide on a modest budget of $60,000, making it one of the most successful independent films of all time. The film spawned two sequels -- Book of Shadows and Blair Witch -- released in October 2000 and September 2016 respectively. The Blair Witch franchise has expanded to include novels, dossiers, comic books and additional merchandise.
In October 1994, film students Heather, Mike and Josh set out to produce a documentary about the fabled Blair Witch. They travel to Burkittsville, Maryland, and interview residents about the legend. Locals tell them of Rustin Parr, a hermit who lived in the woods and kidnapped and murdered eight children in the 1940s. After spending the night at a motel, the students explore the woods in north Burkittsville to research the legend. Along the way they meet two fishermen, one of whom warns them that the woods are haunted. He also tells them of a young girl named Robin Weaver, who went missing in 1888; when she returned three days later, she talked about "an old woman whose feet never touched the ground. '' His companion, however, is skeptical of the story. The students hike to Coffin Rock, where five men were found ritualistically murdered in the 19th century, their bodies later disappearing. The group camps for the night.
They move deeper into the woods the next day and locate what appears to be an old cemetery with seven small cairns and set up camp nearby. That night, they hear the sound of twigs snapping from all directions but assume the noises are from animals or locals. The following day, they attempt to hike back to the car but are unable to find it before dark and make camp. They again hear twigs snapping at night but fail to find the source of the noises.
At morning, they find that three cairns have been built around their tent during the night, which unnerves them. As they continue, Heather realizes her map is missing and Mike later reveals he kicked it into a creek the previous day out of frustration, which prompts Heather and Josh to attack him in a rage. They realize they are now lost and decide simply to head south. They eventually reach a section where they discover a multitude of humanoid stick figures suspended from trees. They again hear sounds that night, including those of children laughing, among other strange noises. After an unknown force shakes the tent, they flee in panic and hide in the woods until dawn.
Upon returning to their tent, they find that their possessions have been rifled through, and Josh 's equipment is covered with slime. As they continue, they come across a log on a river identical to one they crossed earlier. They realize they have walked in a circle, despite having traveled south all day, and once again make camp. Josh suffers a breakdown while holding the camera, taunting Heather for their circumstances and her constant recording of the events.
Josh has disappeared the next morning and Heather and Mike try in vain to find him before slowly moving on. That night, they hear Josh 's agonized screams in the darkness but are unable to locate him. Mike and Heather theorize that Josh 's screams are a fabrication by the witch to draw them out of their tent.
The next day, outside her tent, Heather discovers a bundle of sticks tied with a piece of fabric from Josh 's shirt. As she searches through it, she finds blood - soaked scraps of Josh 's shirt as well as teeth, hair and what appears to be a piece of his tongue. Although distraught by the discovery, she chooses not to tell Mike. That night, Heather records herself apologizing to her family and to Mike 's and Josh 's families, taking full responsibility for their predicament.
They again hear Josh 's agonized cries for help and follow them to a derelict, abandoned house containing symbols and children 's bloody hand - prints on the walls. Mike races upstairs to find Josh while Heather follows. Mike says he hears Josh in the basement and heads downstairs while a hysterical Heather struggles to keep up. Upon reaching the basement, Mike suddenly seems to get into a struggle with an unseen force, drops his camera, and falls silent. Heather enters the basement screaming, and her camera captures Mike facing a corner. The unseen force then attacks Heather, causing her to drop her camera and go silent as well. The footage continues for another moment then ends.
Development of The Blair Witch Project began in 1993. While film students at the University of Central Florida, Daniel Myrick and Eduardo Sánchez came across the idea for the film after realizing that they found documentaries on paranormal phenomena scarier than traditional horror films. The two decided to create a film that combined the styles of both. In an effort to produce the project, they, along with Gregg Hale, Robin Cowie and Michael Monello started Haxan Films, a production company whose namesake is Benjamin Christensen 's 1922 silent documentary horror film Häxan (English: Witchcraft Through the Ages).
In developing the mythology behind the film, the creators used many inspirations. For instance, several character names are near - anagrams: Elly Kedward (The Blair Witch) is Edward Kelley, a 16th - century mystic, and Rustin Parr, the fictional 1940s child - murderer, began as an anagram for Rasputin. Viewers are told that the Blair Witch is, according to legend, the ghost of Elly Kedward, a woman banished from the Blair Township (latter - day Burkittsville) for witchcraft in 1785. The directors incorporated that part of the legend, along with allusions to the Salem witch trials and Arthur Miller 's 1953 play The Crucible, to play on the themes of injustice done on those who were called witches.
The directors cited influences such as the television series In Search of..., and horror documentary films Chariots of the Gods and The Legend of Boggy Creek. Other influences included commercially successful horror films such as The Shining, Alien, and The Omen. Jaws was an influence as well, presumably because the witch was hidden from the viewer for the entirety of the film, forcing suspense from the unknown.
Pre-production began on October 5, 1997. In talks with investors, the directors presented an eight - minute documentary along with newspapers and news footage. The documentary was also aired on the defunct television series Split Screen hosted by John Pierson. The script began with a thirty - five page outline, with the dialogue to be improvised. Accordingly, the directors advertised in Backstage magazine for actors with strong improvisational abilities. There was a very informal improvisational audition process to narrow the pool of 2,000 actors.
According to Heather Donahue, auditions for the film were held at Musical Theater Works in New York City, and ads were placed in the weekly Backstage for an open audition. The advertisement noted a "completely improvised feature film '' shot in a "wooded location ''. Donahue described the audition as Myrick and Sánchez posing her the question: "You 've served seven years of a nine year sentence. Why should we let you out on parole? '' to which Donahue was required to improvise a response. Joshua Leonard, also in response to audition calls through Backstage, claimed he was cast in the film due to his knowledge of how to run a camera, as there was not an omniscient camera filming the scenes.
Principal photography began on October 23, 1997 and lasted eight days. Most of the film was shot in Seneca Creek State Park in Montgomery County, Maryland, although a few scenes were filmed in the real town of Burkittsville. Some of the townspeople interviewed in the film were not actors, and some were planted actors, unknown to the main cast. Donahue had never operated a camera before and spent two days in a "crash course ''. Donahue said she modeled her character after a director she had once worked with, citing the character 's "self - assuredness '' when everything went as planned, and confusion during crisis.
During filming, the actors were equipped with CP - 16 film and Hi8 video cameras provided by cinematographer Neal Fredericks, and given clues as to their next location through messages hidden inside 35 mm film cans left in milk crates found with Global Positioning Satellite systems. They were given individual instructions that they would use to help improvise the action of the day. Teeth were obtained from a Maryland dentist for use as human remains in the film. Influenced by producer Gregg Hale 's memories of his military training, in which "enemy soldiers '' would hunt a trainee through wild terrain for three days, the directors moved the characters a long way during the day, harassing them by night and depriving them of food.
The final scenes were filmed at the historic Griggs House, a 200 - year - old building located in the Patapsco Valley State Park near Granite, Maryland. In late November 1999, the house was reportedly being flocked by fans of the film who took chunks from it as souvenirs, causing the township to order it to be demolished the following month. Filming concluded on October 31, Halloween.
After filming, 20 hours of raw footage was recorded which had to be cut down to two - and - a-half hours; the editing process took more than eight months. The directors screened the first cut in small film festivals in order to get feedback and make changes that would ensure that it appealed to as large an audience as possible. Originally, it was hoped that the film would make it on to cable television, and the directors did not anticipate wide release. The final version was submitted to Sundance Film Festival.
After becoming a surprise hit at Sundance, during its midnight premiere on January 25, 1999, Artisan Entertainment bought the distribution rights for $1.1 million. Prior to that, Artisan had wanted to change the film 's original ending -- in which Donahue screams in terror and finds Michael C. Williams facing a corner in the basement before being knocked over -- as the test audience were somewhat puzzled even though they admitted being scared with it. The directors and Williams traveled back to Maryland and four alternate endings were shot, one of which employed gory elements. Ultimately, they decided to keep the original, with Myrick explaining, "What makes us fearful is something that 's out of the ordinary, unexplained. The first ending kept the audience off balance; it challenged our real world conventions and that 's what really made it scary. ''
A list of production budget figures have circulated over the years, appearing as low as $20,000. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Sánchez revealed that when principal photography first wrapped, approximately $20,000 to $25,000 had been spent. Richard Corliss of Time magazine reported a $35,000 estimated budget. Other figures list a final budget ranging between $500,000 and $750,000. By September 2016, The Blair Witch Project has been officially budgeted at $60,000.
The Blair Witch Project is thought to be the first widely released film marketed primarily by the Internet. The film 's official website featured faux police reports as well as "newsreel - style '' interviews. These augmented the film 's found footage device to spark debates across the Internet over whether the film was a real - life documentary or a work of fiction. During screenings, the filmmakers made advertising efforts to promulgate the events in the film as factual, including the distribution of flyers at festivals such as Sundance, asking viewers to come forward with any information about the "missing '' students. The campaign tactic was that viewers were being told, through missing persons posters, that the characters were missing while researching in the woods for the mythical Blair Witch. The IMDb page also listed the actors as "missing, presumed dead '' in the first year of the film 's availability. The film 's website contains materials of actors posing as police and investigators giving testimony about their casework, and shared childhood photos of the actors to add a sense of realism.
USA Today has opined that The Blair Witch Project was the first film to go viral despite having been produced before many of the technologies that facilitate such phenomena existed.
The backstory for the film is a legend fabricated by Sánchez and Myrick which is detailed in the Curse of the Blair Witch, a mockumentary broadcast on the SciFi Channel in 1999 prior to the release of The Blair Witch Project. Sánchez and Myrick also maintain a website which adds further details to the legend.
The legend describes the killings and disappearances of some of the residents of Blair, Maryland (a fictitious town on the site of Burkittsville, Maryland) from the 18th to 20th centuries. Residents blamed these occurrences on the ghost of Elly Kedward, a Blair resident accused of practicing witchcraft in 1785 and sentenced to death by exposure. The Curse of the Blair Witch presents the legend as real, complete with manufactured newspaper articles, newsreels, television news reports, and staged interviews.
The Blair Witch Project premiered on January 25, 1999 at the Sundance Film Festival, and had a limited release on July 14 before going wide on July 30 after months of publicity, including a campaign by the studio to use the Internet and suggest that the film was "a record of real events ''. The distribution strategy for the film was created and implemented by Artisan studio executive Steven Rothenberg. The film earned $1,512,054 in its limited release opening weekend. The film went on to gross $29,207,381 from 1,101 locations and placed at number two in the United States box office third opening weekend, surpassing the science fiction horror film Deep Blue Sea which cleared $19,107,643 weekend gross. The film secured its second place in its fourth weekend, behind another horror film The Sixth Sense, which cleared $26,681,262. The film descended at number three in its fifth weekend, at number five in its sixth weekend, and number eight in its seventh and eighth weekend during Labor Day. The film dropped out of the top - ten list in its 10th weekend until its last screening in 107 theaters in its 17th weekend, grossing $28,866 and placing in number 63. By the end of its theatrical run, the film grossed $140,539,099 in the US and Canada in its total screening and produced $108,100,000 in other territories, having an overall gross of $248,639,099 (over 4,000 times its original budget). The Blair Witch Project was the tenth highest - grossing film in the US in 1999, and has since earned the reputation of becoming a sleeper hit.
Because the filming was done by the actors using hand - held cameras, much of the footage is shaky, especially the final sequence in which a character is running down a set of stairs with the camera. Some audience members experienced motion sickness and even vomited as a result.
-- Roger Ebert, writing for the Chicago Sun - Times
The Blair Witch Project drew very good reviews from critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 86 % based on 154 critics, and an average rating of 7.7 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Full of creepy campfire scares, mock - doc The Blair Witch Project keeps audiences in the dark about its titular villain -- thus proving that imagination can be as scary as anything onscreen. '' Metacritic gives a weighted average score of 81 out of 100 based on 33 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim. '' Audience reception to the film, though, were ambivalent, with CinemaScore giving it an average grade of "C + '' on a scale ranging from A+ to F based on audiences polled during opening weekend.
The film 's found footage technique received near - universal praise by many and, though not the first to employ it, has been declared a milestone in film history due to its critical and box office success. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film a total of four stars, and called it "an extraordinarily effective horror film ''. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called it "a groundbreaker in fright that reinvents scary for the new millennium ''. Todd McCarthy of Variety said, "An intensely imaginative piece of conceptual filmmaking that also delivers the goods as a dread - drenched horror movie, The Blair Witch Project puts a clever modern twist on the universal fear of the dark and things that go bump in the night. '' Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave a grade of "B '', saying, "As a horror picture, the film may not be much more than a cheeky game, a novelty with the cool, blurry look of an avant - garde artifact. But as a manifestation of multimedia synergy, it 's pretty spooky. ''
Some critics were displeased with the film. Andrew Sarris of The New York Observer deemed it "overrated, '' as well as a rendition of "the ultimate triumph of the Sundance scam: Make a heartless home movie, get enough critics to blurb in near unison ' scary, ' and watch the suckers flock to be fleeced ''. A critic from The Christian Science Monitor said that while the film 's concept and scares were innovative, he felt it could have just been shot "as a 30 - minute short... since its shaky camera work and fuzzy images get monotonous after a while, and there 's not much room for character development within the very limited plot. '' R.L. Schaffer of IGN scored it two out of ten, and described it as "boring -- really boring '', and "a Z - grade, low - rent horror outing with no real scares into a genuine big - budget spectacle ''.
The 20th Golden Raspberry Awards granted Heather Donahue its Worst Actress award and nominated producers Robin Cowie and Gregg Hale for its Worst Picture award. At the Stinkers Bad Movie Awards, it won the Biggest Disappointment category and received three nominations: Worst Picture (Cowie and Hale), Worst Actress (Donahue), and Worst Screen Debut (Heather, Michael, Josh, the Stick People and the world 's longest running batteries). At the 1st Golden Trailer Awards, it received a nomination for Most Original Trailer and won two categories: Best Horror / Thriller and Best Voice Over. The Independent Spirit John Cassavetes Award awarded The Blair Witch Project its Best Film.
The DVD for The Blair Witch Project was released on October 26, 1999 by Artisan, presented in a 1.33: 1 windowboxed aspect ratio and Dolby Digital 2.0 audio. Special features include the documentary Curse of the Blair Witch, a five - minute Newly Discovered Footage, audio commentary, production notes, and cast and crew biographies. The audio commentary presents directors Daniel Myrick, Eduardo Sánchez, and producers Rob Cowie, Mike Monello and Gregg Hale, in which they discuss the film 's production. The Curse of the Blair Witch feature provides an in - depth look inside the creation of the film.
The film 's Blu - ray version was released on October 5, 2010 by Lionsgate. Best Buy and Lionsgate had an exclusive release of the Blu - ray made available on August 29, 2010.
Since its release, The Blair Witch Project has been widely regarded by many as an influence to an array of subsequent films similarly using the found footage concept and the conventions the film established. These include Paranormal Activity and REC (2007), Cloverfield (2008), The Last Exorcism and Trollhunter (2010), Chronicle, Project X, V / H / S, and End of Watch (2012), and The Den (2013). Some critics have also noted the film as being strikingly similar to Cannibal Holocaust (1980), and The Last Broadcast (1998) in terms of basic plot premise and narrative style. Although Cannibal Holocaust director Ruggero Deodato has acknowledged the similarities of The Blair Witch Project to his film, he criticized the publicity that it received for being an original production; advertisements for The Blair Witch Project also promoted the idea that the footage is genuine. Despite initial reports that The Last Broadcast creators -- Stefan Avalos and Lance Weiler -- had alleged that The Blair Witch Project was a complete rip - off of their work and would sue Haxan Films for copyright infringement, they repudiated these allegations. One of the creators told IndieWire in 1999, "If somebody enjoys The Blair Witch Project there is a chance they will enjoy our film, and we hope they will check it out. ''
Film critic Michael Dodd has argued that the film is an embodiment of horror "modernizing its ability to be all - encompassing in expressing the fears of American society '', acknowledging its status as the archetypal modern found footage feature, he noted that "In an age where anyone can film whatever they like, horror need n't be a cinematic expression of what terrifies the cinema - goer, it can simply be the medium through which terrors captured by the average American can be showcased ''. In 2008, The Blair Witch Project was ranked by Entertainment Weekly as number ninety - nine on their list of 100 Best Films from 1983 to 2008. In 2006, the Chicago Film Critics Association ranked it as number twelve on their list of Top 100 Scariest Movies. It was ranked number fifty on Filmcritic.com 's list of 50 Best Movie Endings of All Time. In 2016, it was ranked by IGN as number twenty - one on their list of Top 25 Horror Movies of All Time, number sixteen on Cosmopolitan 's 25 Scariest Movies of All Time, and number three on The Hollywood Reporter 's 10 Scariest Movies of All Time. In 2013, the film also made the top - ten list of The Hollywood Reporter 's highest - grossing independent films of all time, ranking number six.
Director Eli Roth has cited the film as a source of inspiration to promote his 2002 horror film Cabin Fever through the Internet. The Blair Witch Project was among the films included in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die.
In September 1999, D. A. Stern compiled The Blair Witch Project: A Dossier. Perpetuating the film 's "true story '' angle, the dossier consisted of fabricated police reports, pictures, interviews, and newspaper articles presenting the film 's premise as fact, as well as further elaboration on the Elly Kedward and Rustin Parr legends (an additional "dossier '' was created for Blair Witch 2). Stern wrote the 2000 novel Blair Witch: The Secret Confessions of Rustin Parr, and revisited the franchise with the novel Blair Witch: Graveyard Shift, featuring all original characters and plot.
A series of eight young adult books entitled The Blair Witch Files were released by Random subsidiary Bantam from 2000 to 2001. The books center on Cade Merill, a fictional cousin of Heather Donahue, who investigates phenomena related to the Blair Witch in attempt to discover what really happened to Heather, Mike, and Josh.
In July 1999, Oni Press released a one - shot comic promoting the film, titled The Blair Witch Project # 1. Written and illustrated by Cece Malvey, the comic was released in conjunction of the film. In October 2000, coinciding with the release of Book of Shadows: Blair Witch 2, Image Comics released a one - shot called Blair Witch: Dark Testaments, drawn by Charlie Adlard.
In 2000, Gathering of Developers released a trilogy of computer games based on the film, which greatly expanded on the myths first suggested in the film. The graphics engine and characters were all derived from the producer 's earlier game Nocturne.
The first volume, Rustin Parr, received the most praise, ranging from moderate to positive, with critics commending its storyline, graphics and atmosphere; some reviewers even claimed that the game was scarier than the film. The following volumes, The Legend of Coffin Rock and The Elly Kedward Tale, were less well received, with PC Gamer saying that Volume 2 's "only saving grace was its cheap price '', and calling Volume 3 "amazingly mediocre ''.
The Woods Movie (2015) is a feature - length documentary exploring the production of The Blair Witch Project. For this documentary, director Russ Gomm interviewed the original film 's producer, Gregg Hale, and directors Eduardo Sánchez and Daniel Myrick.
A sequel entitled Book of Shadows was released on October 27, 2000; it was poorly received by most critics. A third installment announced that same year did not materialize.
On July 22, 2016, a surprise trailer for Blair Witch was revealed at the San Diego Comic - Con. The film was originally marketed as The Woods so as to be an exclusive surprise announcement for those in attendance at the convention. The film, distributed by Lionsgate, was slated for a September 16 release and stars James Allen McCune as the brother of the original film 's Heather Donahue. Directed by Adam Wingard, Blair Witch is a direct sequel to The Blair Witch Project, and does not acknowledge the events of Book of Shadows: Blair Witch 2. However, Wingard has said that although his version does not reference any of the events that transpired in Book of Shadows, the film does not necessarily discredit the existence of Book of Shadows: Blair Witch 2. In September 2016, screenwriter Simon Barrett explained that in writing the new film, he only considered material that was produced with the involvement of the original film 's creative team (directors Daniel Myrick and Eduardo Sánchez, producer Gregg Hale, and production designer Ben Rock) to be "canon '', and that he did not take any material produced without their direct involvement -- such as the first sequel Book of Shadows or The Blair Witch Files, a series of young adult novels -- into consideration when writing the new sequel.
In October 2017, co-director Eduardo Sánchez revealed that he and the rest of the film 's creative team are developing a Blair Witch television series, though he clarified that any decisions would ultimately be up to Lionsgate now that they own the rights to it. In February 2018, it was announced that the series will be released on the studio 's new subsidiary, Studio L, which specializes in digital releases.
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which state has more elephant population in india | List of Indian states by wildlife population - wikipedia
Bengal Tiger and Indian Elephant are endangered species which are protected by Project Tiger and Project Elephant programmes run by Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. Indian Leopards are threatened and protected species. The tiger numbers are of animals aged above 1.5 years.
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who sang everybody's talkin at me in midnight cowboy | Everybody 's Talkin ' - wikipedia
"Everybody 's Talkin ' '' is a song written and recorded by singer - songwriter Fred Neil in 1966. A version of the song performed by Harry Nilsson became a hit in 1969, reaching No. 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and winning a Grammy Award after it was featured in the film Midnight Cowboy. The song, which describes the singer 's desire to retreat from other people to the ocean, is among the most famous works of both artists, and has been covered by many other notable performers. The song later appeared in the 1994 film Forrest Gump and is also on the film 's soundtrack album. It also appeared in the comedy film Borat, on The Hangover Part III soundtrack, in the English television show Black Books and the action comedy Crank, but more famously in the Only Fools and Horses episode ' The Jolly Boys Outing '.
The song was first released on Neil 's second album, the self - titled Fred Neil, released in early 1967. It was composed towards the end of the session, after Neil had become anxious to wrap the album so he could return to his home in Miami, Florida. Manager Herb Cohen promised that if Neil wrote and recorded a final track, he could go. "Everybody 's Talkin ' '', recorded in one take, was the result.
Toby Creswell of 1001 Songs noted that the song had parallels to Neil 's later life -- like the hero of Midnight Cowboy, he looked "for fame to match his talents, discover (ed) that success in his profession is n't all its cracked up to be '' and wanted to retreat. Five years later, Neil permanently fulfilled the promise of the speaker in the song, rejecting fame to live the rest of his life in relative obscurity "where the sun keeps shining / thru ' the pouring rain '' in his home in Coconut Grove, Miami.
Nilsson was searching for a potentially successful song when Rick Jarrard played the track for him, and he decided to release it on his 1968 album Aerial Ballet. When released as a single in July 1968, it managed to reach only No. 113 on the Billboard Bubbling Under the Hot 100 chart. After the song was featured as the theme song in the film Midnight Cowboy in 1969, the song was re-released as a single and became a hit, peaking at No. 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and No. 2 on the Billboard Easy Listening chart.
When Derek Taylor recommended Nilsson for the Midnight Cowboy soundtrack to director John Schlesinger, Schlesinger selected "Everybody 's Talkin ' '', preferring the cover to the song Nilsson proposed, "I Guess the Lord Must Be in New York City ''.
The song was used as the theme song for the movie and became closely identified with it; Nilsson 's cover is also known as "Everybody 's Talkin ' (Theme from Midnight Cowboy) ''. William J. Mann, in his biography of Schlesinger, noted that "one can not imagine Midnight Cowboy now without ' Everybody 's Talkin ' ''.
Described in The Rock Snob * s Dictionary as an "anti-urban plaint '', "Everybody 's Talkin ' '' depicts the introverted speaker 's inability to connect with others. Not hearing or truly seeing them, the speaker declares an intention to leave for the ocean and the summer breeze. AllMusic 's Denise Sullivan describes Neil 's version as "positively spooky and Spartan '' by comparison to Nilsson 's better - known cover, whose arrangement she felt captured the "freedom, shrouded in regret and loss, implied in the lyric ''.
Nilsson 's single for the song sold over a million copies and charted on both Billboard 's Adult Contemporary and Pop Singles charts, reaching numbers 2 and 6 respectively in 1969. Nilsson 's single also won a Grammy that year. The song became a global success and was followed by international appearances by Nilsson to perform it.
Although Nilsson himself denied that the song made him successful, 1001 Songs indicates that the hit "made Nilsson a superstar, '' exposing him to a much broader fan base and altering his reputation from solely that of a songwriter to a singer. After Nilsson 's death, Billboard noted that Nilsson remained popularly remembered for his covers of "Everybody 's Talkin ' '' and "Without You ''. Neil, too, is largely remembered for this song. But although Neil 's second album was re-released in 1969 under the title Everybody 's Talkin ' in order to capitalize on the success of the song, Neil himself shunned the limelight, retiring from the industry after his final album in 1971 to live quietly in the Florida Keys with the millions of dollars he is estimated to have earned on royalties from the song. In keeping with the song 's position in the works of both artists, it has been used to title several "greatest hits '' compilation albums -- a 1997 release by BMG, a 2001 release by Armoury and a 2006 release by RCA for Nilsson and a 2005 release for Neil by Raven Records entitled Echoes of My Mind: The Best of 1963 -- 1971.
The song is highly regarded in the industry, having become a standard. Songwriter Jerry Leiber described it as "a very strange and beautiful song '', among the "truly beautiful melodically and lyrically '' songs by Fred Neil, who was described by Rolling Stone as "(r) eclusive, mysterious and extravagantly gifted ''. A 2006 New York Times article characterizes the song as "a landmark of the classic - rock era. '' The song 's popularity has proven persistent; through 2005, according to figures from Broadcast Music Incorporated reported in New York Times, the song had aired on radio and television 6.7 million times. The song 's usage in Midnight Cowboy has become iconic. In 2004, the song was listed by the American Film Institute as # 20 in its "top 100 movie songs '' for the first 100 years of film.
Harry Dean Stanton described "Everybody 's Talkin ' '' as "a heroin song '' which he claimed was "inspired by Luke Askew, an actor. ''
Since Nilsson 's version of the song achieved chart success, the song has been covered by many other artists -- almost 100 as of 2006. The more notable artists include Stevie Wonder, Willie Nelson, Neil Diamond, Liza Minnelli, Tony Bennett, Bongwater, Luna, Bill Withers, Madeleine Peyroux, Louis Armstrong, Leonard Nimoy, Julio Iglesias, Iggy Pop, Lena Horne, Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes, the Beautiful South, Seasick Steve and Crosby, Stills & Nash. Nilsson 's version was sampled in 2002 by Paul Oakenfold on "Starry Eyed Surprise '' and in 2004 by the Go! Team on "Everyone 's a V.I.P. to Someone ''.
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how many geographical regions are there in canada | Geography of Canada - wikipedia
The geography of Canada describes the geographic features of Canada, the world 's second largest country in total area.
Situated in northern North America (constituting 41 % of the continent 's area), Canada spans a vast, diverse territory between the North Pacific Ocean to the west and the North Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Arctic Ocean to the north (hence the country 's motto "From sea to sea ''), with the United States to the south (contiguous United States) and northwest (Alaska). Greenland is to the northeast; off the southern coast of Newfoundland lies Saint - Pierre and Miquelon, an overseas collectivity of France. Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60 ° W and 141 ° W longitude to the North Pole; however, this claim is contested. While the magnetic North Pole lies within the Canadian Arctic territorial claim as of 2011, recent measurements indicate it is moving towards Siberia.
Covering 9,984,670 km or 3,855,100 sq mi (land: 9,093,507 km or 3,511,023 sq mi; freshwater: 891,163 km or 344,080 sq mi), Canada is slightly less than three - fifths as large as Russia and slightly smaller than Europe. In total area, Canada is slightly larger than both the U.S. and China; however, Canada ranks fourth in land area (i.e. total area minus the area of lakes and rivers) -- China is 9,326,410 km (3,600,950 sq mi) and the U.S. is 9,161,923 km (3,537,438 sq mi)
The population of Canada, some 35,749,600 as of April 2015, is concentrated in the south in proximity to its border with the contiguous U.S.; with a population density of 3.5 people per square kilometre (9.1 / sq mi), it is one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. The northernmost settlement in Canada -- and in the world -- is Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert (just north of Alert, Nunavut) on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island at 82 ° 30 ′ N 62 ° 19 ′ W, just 834 kilometres (518 mi) from the North Pole.
Canada has a diverse climate. The climate varies from temperate on the west coast of British Columbia to a subarctic climate in the north. Extreme northern Canada can have snow for most of the year with a Polar climate. Landlocked areas tend to have a warm summer continental climate zone with the exception of Southwestern Ontario which has a hot summer humid continental climate. Parts of Western Canada have a semi-arid climate, and parts of Vancouver Island can even be classified as cool summer Mediterranean climate. Temperature extremes in Canada range from 45.0 ° C (113 ° F) in Midale and Yellow Grass, Saskatchewan on July 5, 1937 to − 63.0 ° C (− 81.4 ° F) in Snag, Yukon on Monday, February 3, 1947.
Canada covers 9,984,670 km (3,855,100 sq mi) 9,984,670 km (3,855,103 sq. miles) and a panoply of various geoclimatic regions. There are 8 main regions. Canada also encompasses vast maritime terrain, with the world 's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi). The physical geography of Canada is widely varied. Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northerly Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture. The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada 's population.
The Appalachian mountain range extends from Alabama through the Gaspé Peninsula and the Atlantic Provinces, creating rolling hills indented by river valleys. It also runs through parts of southern Quebec.
The Appalachian mountains (more specifically the Notre Dame and Long Range Mountains) are an old and eroded range of mountains, approximately 380 million years in age. Notable mountains in the Appalachians include Mount Jacques - Cartier (Quebec, 1,268 m or 4,160 ft and Mount Carleton (New Brunswick, 817 m or 2,680 ft). Parts of the Appalachians are home to a rich endemic flora and fauna and are considered to have been nunataks during the last glaciation era.
The southern parts of Quebec and Ontario, in the section of the Great Lakes (bordered entirely by Ontario on the Canadian side) and St. Lawrence basin (often called St. Lawrence Lowlands), is another particularly rich sedimentary plain. Prior to its colonization and heavy urban sprawl of the 20th century, this Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests area was home to large mixed forests covering a mostly flat area of land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Canadian Shield. Most of this forest has been cut down through agriculture and logging operations, but the remaining forests are for the most part heavily protected. In this part of Canada the Gulf of St. Lawrence is one of the world 's largest estuary (see Gulf of St. Lawrence lowland forests).
While the relief of these lowlands is particularly flat and regular, a group of batholites known as the Monteregian Hills are spread along a mostly regular line across the area. The most notable are Montreal 's Mount Royal and Mont Saint - Hilaire. These hills are known for a great richness in precious minerals.
The northeastern part of Alberta, northern parts of Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec, as well as most of Labrador (the mainland portions of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador), are located on a vast rock base known as the Canadian Shield. The Shield mostly consists of eroded hilly terrain and contains many lakes and important rivers used for hydroelectric production, particularly in northern Quebec and Ontario. The shield also encloses an area of wetlands, the Hudson Bay lowlands. Some particular regions of the Shield are referred to as mountain ranges, including the Torngat and Laurentian Mountains.
The Shield can not support intensive agriculture, although there is subsistence agriculture and small dairy farms in many of the river valleys and around the abundant lakes, particularly in the southern regions. Boreal forest covers much of the shield, with a mix of conifers that provide valuable timber resources in areas such as the Central Canadian Shield forests ecoregion that covers much of Northern Ontario. The region is known for its extensive mineral reserves.
The Canadian Shield is known for its vast minerals, such as emeralds, diamonds and copper. The Canadian shield is also called the mineral house.
The Canadian Prairies are part of a vast sedimentary plain covering much of Alberta, southern Saskatchewan, and southwestern Manitoba, as well as much of the region between the Rocky Mountains and the Great Slave and Great Bear lakes in Northwest Territories. The plains generally describes the expanses of (largely flat) arable agricultural land which sustain extensive grain farming operations in the southern part of the provinces. Despite this, some areas such as the Cypress Hills and the Alberta Badlands are quite hilly and the prairie provinces contain large areas of forest such as the Mid-Continental Canadian forests. The size is roughly ~ 1,900,000 km (733,594.1 sq mi).
The Canadian Cordillera, contiguous with the American cordillera, is bounded by the Rocky Mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west.
The Canadian Rockies are part of a major continental divide that extends north and south through western North America and western South America. The Columbia and the Fraser Rivers have their headwaters in the Canadian Rockies and are the second and third largest rivers respectively to drain to the west coast of North America. To the west of their headwaters, across the Rocky Mountain Trench, is a second belt of mountains, the Columbia Mountains, comprising the Selkirk, Purcell, Monashee and Cariboo Mountains sub-ranges.
Immediately west of the Columbia Mountains is a large and rugged Interior Plateau, encompassing the Chilcotin and Cariboo regions in central British Columbia (the Fraser Plateau), the Nechako Plateau further north, and also the Thompson Plateau in the south. The Peace River Valley in northeastern British Columbia is Canada 's most northerly agricultural region, although it is part of the Prairies. The dry, temperate climate of the Okanagan Valley in south central British Columbia provides ideal conditions for fruit growing and a flourishing wine industry; the semi-arid belt of the Southern Interior also includes the Fraser Canyon, and Thompson, Nicola, Similkameen, Shuswap and Boundary regions and fruit - growing is common in these areas also, and also in the West Kootenay. Between the plateau and the coast is the province 's largest mountain range, the Coast Mountains. The Coast Mountains contain some of the largest temperate - latitude icefields in the world.
On the south coast of British Columbia, Vancouver Island is separated from the mainland by the continuous Juan de Fuca, Georgia, and Johnstone Straits. Those straits include a large number of islands, notably the Gulf Islands and Discovery Islands. North, near the Alaskan border, Haida Gwaii lies across Hecate Strait from the North Coast region and to its north, across Dixon Entrance from Southeast Alaska. Other than in the plateau regions of the Interior and its many river valleys, most of British Columbia is coniferous forest. The only temperate rain forests in Canada are found along the Pacific Coast in the Coast Mountains, on Vancouver Island, and on Haida Gwaii, and in the Cariboo Mountains on the eastern flank of the Plateau.
The Western Cordillera continues northwards past the Liard River in northernmost British Columbia to include the Mackenzie and Selwyn Ranges which lie in the far western Northwest Territories and the eastern Yukon Territory. West of them is the large Yukon Plateau and, west of that, the Yukon Ranges and Saint Elias Mountains, which include Canada 's and British Columbia 's highest summits, Mount Saint Elias in the Kluane region and Mount Fairweather in the Tatshenshini - Alsek region. The headwaters of the Yukon River, the largest and longest of the rivers on the Pacific Slope, lie in northern British Columbia at Atlin and Teslin Lakes.
Western Canada has many volcanoes and is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, a system of volcanoes found around the margins of the Pacific Ocean. There are over 200 young volcanic centres that stretch northward from the Cascade Range to Yukon. They are grouped into five volcanic belts with different volcano types and tectonic settings. The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province was formed by faulting, cracking, rifting, and the interaction between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt was formed by subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate beneath the North American Plate. The Anahim Volcanic Belt was formed as a result of the North American Plate sliding westward over the Anahim hotspot. The Chilcotin Group is believed to have formed as a result of back - arc extension behind the Cascadia subduction zone. The Wrangell Volcanic Field formed as a result of subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate at the easternmost end of the Aleutian Trench.
Volcanism has also occurred in the Canadian Shield. It contains over 150 volcanic belts (now deformed and eroded down to nearly flat plains) that range from 600 million to 2.8 billion years old. Many of Canada 's major ore deposits are associated with Precambrian volcanoes. There are pillow lavas in the Northwest Territories that are about 2.6 billion years old and are preserved in the Cameron River Volcanic Belt. The pillow lavas in rocks over 2 billion years old in the Canadian Shield signify that great oceanic volcanoes existed during the early stages of the formation of the Earth 's crust. Ancient volcanoes play an important role in estimating Canada 's mineral potential. Many of the volcanic belts bear ore deposits that are related to the volcanism.
While the largest part of the Canadian Arctic is composed of seemingly endless permafrost and tundra north of the tree line, it encompasses geological regions of varying types: the Arctic Cordillera (with the British Empire Range and the United States Range on Ellesmere Island) contains the northernmost mountain system in the world. The Arctic Lowlands and Hudson Bay lowlands comprise a substantial part of the geographic region often designated as the Canadian Shield (in contrast to the sole geologic area). The ground in the Arctic is mostly composed of permafrost, making construction difficult and often hazardous, and agriculture virtually impossible.
The Arctic, when defined as everything north of the tree line, covers most of Nunavut and the northernmost parts of Northwest Territories, Yukon, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and Labrador.
Canada holds vast reserves of water: its rivers discharge nearly 9 % of the world 's renewable water supply, it contains a quarter of the world 's wetlands, and it has the third largest amount of glaciers (after Antarctica and Greenland). Because of extensive glaciation, Canada hosts more than two million lakes: of those that are entirely within Canada, more than 31,000 are between 3 and 100 square kilometres (1.2 and 38.6 sq mi) in area, while 563 are larger than 100 km (38.6 sq mi).
Canada 's two longest rivers are the Mackenzie, which empties into the Arctic Ocean and drains a large part of northwestern Canada, and the St. Lawrence, which drains the Great Lakes and empties into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Mackenzie is over 4,200 km (2,600 mi) in length while the St. Lawrence is over 3,000 km (1,900 mi) in length. Rounding out the ten longest rivers within Canada are the Nelson, Churchill, Peace, Fraser, North Saskatchewan, Ottawa, Athabasca and Yukon rivers.
The Atlantic watershed drains the entirety of the Atlantic provinces (parts of the Quebec - Labrador border are fixed at the Atlantic Ocean - Arctic Ocean continental divide), most of inhabited Quebec and large parts of southern Ontario. It is mostly drained by the economically important St. Lawrence River and its tributaries, notably the Saguenay, Manicouagan and Ottawa rivers. The Great Lakes and Lake Nipigon are also drained by the St. Lawrence. The Churchill River and Saint John River are other important elements of the Atlantic watershed in Canada.
The Hudson Bay watershed drains over a third of Canada. It covers Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec, most of Saskatchewan, southern Alberta, southwestern Nunavut and the southern half of Baffin Island. This basin is most important in fighting drought in the prairies and producing hydroelectricity, especially in Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec. Major elements of this watershed include Lake Winnipeg, Nelson River, the North Saskatchewan and South Saskatchewan Rivers, Assiniboine River, and Nettilling Lake on Baffin Island. Wollaston Lake lies on the boundary between the Hudson Bay and Arctic Ocean watersheds and drains into both. It is the largest lake in the world that naturally drains in two directions.
The continental divide in the Rockies separates the Pacific watershed in British Columbia and Yukon from the Arctic and Hudson Bay watersheds. This watershed irrigates the agriculturally important areas of inner British Columbia (such as the Okanagan and Kootenay valleys), and is used to produce hydroelectricity. Major elements are the Yukon, Columbia and Fraser rivers.
The northern parts of Alberta, Manitoba and British Columbia, most of Northwest Territories and Nunavut, and parts of Yukon are drained by the Arctic watershed. This watershed has been little used for hydroelectricity, with the exception of the Mackenzie River, the longest river in Canada. The Peace, Athabasca and Liard Rivers, as well as Great Bear Lake and Great Slave Lake (respectively the largest and second largest lakes wholly enclosed by Canada) are significant elements of the Arctic watershed. Each of these elements eventually merges with the Mackenzie, thereby draining the vast majority of the Arctic watershed.
The southernmost part of Alberta drains into the Gulf of Mexico through the Milk River and its tributaries. The Milk River originates in the Rocky Mountains of Montana, then flows into Alberta, then returns into the United States, where it is drained by the Missouri River. A small area of southwestern Saskatchewan is drained by Battle Creek, which empties into the Milk River.
Canada has produced a Biodiversity Action Plan in response to the 1992 international accord; the plan addresses conservation of endangered species and certain habitats. The main biomes of Canada are:
Canada is divided into ten provinces and three territories. According to Statistics Canada, 72.0 percent of the population is concentrated within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the nation 's southern border with the United States, 70.0 % live south of the 49th parallel, and over 60 percent of the population lives along the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River between Windsor, Ontario and Quebec City. This leaves the vast majority of Canada 's territory as sparsely populated wilderness; Canada 's population density is 3.5 people / km (9.1 / mi), among the lowest in the world. Despite this, 79.7 percent of Canada 's population resides in urban areas, where population densities are increasing.
Canada shares with the U.S. the world 's longest undefended border at 8,893 kilometres (5,526 mi); 2,477 kilometres (1,539 mi) are with Alaska. The Danish island dependency of Greenland lies to Canada 's northeast, separated from the Canadian Arctic islands by Baffin Bay and Davis Strait. The French islands of Saint - Pierre and Miquelon lie off the southern coast of Newfoundland in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and have a maritime territorial enclave within Canada 's Exclusive Economic Zone. Canada also shares a land border with Denmark, as maps released in December 2006 show that the agreed upon boundaries run through the middle of Hans Island.
Canada 's geographic proximity to the United States has historically bound the two countries together in the political world as well. Canada 's position between the Soviet Union (now Russia) and the U.S. was strategically important during the Cold War since the route over the North Pole and Canada was the fastest route by air between the two countries and the most direct route for intercontinental ballistic missiles. Since the end of the Cold War, there has been growing speculation that Canada 's Arctic maritime claims may become increasingly important if global warming melts the ice enough to open the Northwest Passage.
Similarly, the disputed -- and tiny -- Hans Island (with Denmark), in the Nares Strait between Ellesmere Island and northern Greenland, may be a flashpoint for challenges to overall claims of Canadian sovereignty in the Arctic.
Canada 's abundance of natural resources is reflected in their continued importance in the economy of Canada. Major resource - based industries are fisheries, forestry, agriculture, petroleum products and mining.
The fisheries industry has historically been one of Canada 's strongest. Unmatched cod stocks on the Grand Banks off Newfoundland launched this industry in the 16th century. Today these stocks are nearly depleted, and their conservation has become a preoccupation of the Atlantic Provinces. On the West Coast, tuna stocks are now restricted. The less depleted (but still greatly diminished) salmon population continues to drive a strong fisheries industry. Canada claims 22 km (12 nmi) of territorial sea, a contiguous zone of 44 km (24 nmi), an exclusive economic zone of 370 km (200 nmi) and a continental shelf of 370 km (200 nmi) or to the edge of the continental margin.
Forestry has long been a major industry in Canada. Forest products contribute one fifth of the nation 's exports. The provinces with the largest forestry industries are British Columbia, Ontario and Quebec. Fifty - four percent of Canada 's land area is covered in forest. The boreal forests account for four - fifths of Canada 's forestland.
Five per cent of Canada 's land area is arable, none of which is for permanent crops. Three per cent of Canada 's land area is covered by permanent pastures. Canada has 7,200 square kilometres (2,800 mi) of irrigated land (1993 estimate). Agricultural regions in Canada include the Canadian Prairies, the Lower Mainland and various regions within the Interior of British Columbia, the St. Lawrence Basin and the Canadian Maritimes. Main crops in Canada include flax, oats, wheat, maize, barley, sugar beets and rye in the prairies; flax and maize in Western Ontario; Oats and potatoes in the Maritimes. Fruit and vegetables are grown primarily in the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, Southwestern Ontario, the Golden Horseshoe region of Ontario, along the south coast of Georgian Bay and in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia. Cattle and sheep are raised in the valleys and plateaus of British Columbia. Cattle, sheep and hogs are raised on the prairies, cattle and hogs in Western Ontario, sheep and hogs in Quebec, and sheep in the Maritimes. There are significant dairy regions in central Nova Scotia, southern New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence Valley, northeastern Ontario, southwestern Ontario, the Red River valley of Manitoba and the valleys in the British Columbia Interior, on Vancouver Island and in the Lower Mainland.
Fossil fuels are a more recently developed resource in Canada, with oil and gas being extracted from deposits in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin since the mid 1900s. While Canada 's crude oil deposits are fewer, technological developments in recent decades have opened up oil production in Alberta 's Oil Sands to the point where Canada now has some of the largest reserves of oil in the world. In other forms, Canadian industry has a long history of extracting large coal and natural gas reserves.
Canada 's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, and uranium reserves. Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world 's largest producers. Throughout the Shield there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is Sudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater. The nearby, but less known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal - rich impact crater. The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry.
Canada 's many rivers have afforded extensive development of hydroelectric power. Extensively developed in British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador, the many dams have long provided a clean, dependable source of energy.
Continuous permafrost in the north is a serious obstacle to development. Cyclonic storms form east of the Rocky Mountains, a result of the mixing of air masses from the Arctic, Pacific, and North American interior, and produce most of the country 's rain and snow east of the mountains.
Air pollution and resulting acid rain severely affects lakes and damages forests. Metal smelting, coal - burning utilities, and vehicle emissions impact agricultural and forest productivity. And ocean waters are becoming contaminated from agricultural, industrial, mining, and forestry activities.
Global climate change and the warming of the polar region will likely cause significant changes to the environment, including loss of the polar bear, the exploration for resource then the extraction of these resources and an alternative transport route to the Panama Canal through the Northwest Passage.
The northernmost point within the boundaries of Canada is Cape Columbia, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut 83 ° 06 ′ 40 '' N 69 ° 58 ′ 19 '' W / 83.111 ° N 69.972 ° W / 83.111; - 69.972 (Cape Columbia, Nunavut). The northernmost point of the Canadian mainland is Zenith Point on Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut 72 ° 00 ′ 07 '' N 94 ° 39 ′ 18 '' W / 72.002 ° N 94.655 ° W / 72.002; - 94.655 (Zenith Point, Nunavut).
The southernmost point is Middle Island, in Lake Erie, Ontario (41 ° 41 ′ N, 82 ° 40 ′ W); the southernmost water point lies just south of the island, on the Ontario -- Ohio border (41 ° 40 ′ 35 '' N). The southernmost point of the Canadian mainland is Point Pelee, Ontario 41 ° 54 ′ 32 '' N 82 ° 30 ′ 32 '' W / 41.909 ° N 82.509 ° W / 41.909; - 82.509 (Point Pelee, Ontario).
The westernmost point is Boundary Peak 187 (60 ° 18 ′ 22.929 '' N, 141 ° 00 ′ 7.128 '' W) at the southern end of the Yukon -- Alaska border which is roughly following 141 ° W but leans very slightly east as it goes North 60 ° 18 ′ 04 '' N 141 ° 00 ′ 36 '' W / 60.301 ° N 141.010 ° W / 60.301; - 141.010 (Boundary Peak 187).
The easternmost point is Cape Spear, Newfoundland (47 ° 31 ′ N, 52 ° 37 ′ W) 47 ° 31 ′ 23 '' N 52 ° 37 ′ 08 '' W / 47.523 ° N 52.619 ° W / 47.523; - 52.619 (Cape Spear, Newfoundland). The easternmost point of the Canadian mainland is Elijah Point, Cape St. Charles, Labrador (52 ° 13 ′ N, 55 ° 37 ′ W) 52 ° 13 ′ 01 '' N 55 ° 37 ′ 16 '' W / 52.217 ° N 55.621 ° W / 52.217; - 55.621 (Elijah Point, Labrador).
The lowest point is sea level at 0 m, whilst the highest point is Mount Logan, Yukon, at 5,959 m / 19,550 ft 60 ° 34 ′ 01 '' N 140 ° 24 ′ 18 '' W / 60.567 ° N 140.405 ° W / 60.567; - 140.405 (Mount Logan, Yukon).
The Canadian pole of inaccessibility is allegedly near Jackfish River, Alberta (Latitude: 59 ° 2 ′ 60 N, Longitude: 112 ° 49 ′ 60 W).
The furthest straight - line distance that can be travelled to Canadian points of land is between the northwest tip of Ivvavik National Park (at Clarence Lagoon) and Cripple Cove, NL (near Cape Race) at a distance of 2,785.13 nautical miles (5,158.06 km; 3,205.07 mi).
This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook website https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html.
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who plays the guy in texas chainsaw massacre | List of the Texas Chainsaw Massacre characters - wikipedia
The Sawyers (renamed the Hewitts in the 2003 reboot and its 2006 prequel) are a large, Southern American family of cannibalistic butchers and serial killers in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre franchise, who live in the Texas backwoods, where they abduct, torture, murder, and eat stranded motorists. The family uses booby traps and man - traps, such as bear traps and spike traps, to capture or kill victims. The family also owns a gas station, where they sell the meat from the victims as barbecue and chili. It has been confirmed in the crossover comic book series, Jason vs. Leatherface, that the Sawyer family did engage in inbreeding, something that was heavily implied in the third film. As seen in 1986 's The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2, 1990 's Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III, the 2003 remake, and the 2006 prequel, the family (both Sawyer and Hewitt) are fond of leaving bodies in mass body pits or mass graves in various parts of Texas. The inspiration for the family was real killer Ed Gein, whom the filmmakers also based Leatherface on.
Leatherface is an intellectually disabled serial killer who uses a chainsaw to kill his victims. He was portrayed by Gunnar Hansen in the original 1974 film, The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, Bill Johnson in 1986 's The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2, R.A. Mihailoff in 1990 's Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III, Robert Jacks in 1994 's Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation, Andrew Bryniarski in the Platinum Dunes films: 2003 's The Texas Chainsaw Massacre and 2006 's The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning, Dan Yeager in 2013 's Texas Chainsaw 3D, and Sam Strike in 2017 's Leatherface. Leatherface is portrayed as being "severely intellectually disabled and mentally disturbed, '' and often uses butchering tools, like meat hooks, to slaughter his victims. He lives with a family of fellow cannibals, who are often abusive and violent towards him. Despite this, Leatherface does what ever his family orders him to do. The character was loosely inspired by serial killer Ed Gein, who also wore the skin of his victims, cross dressed, and was possibly a cannibal.
His name has been given differently in different films. Chop Top calls him "Bubba '' in the second movie while in Texas Chainsaw 3D, his name is Jedidiah. In the third film, he is only referred to as Junior by his family. In the fourth film, Leatherface is called "Leather '' by his relatives. Whereas many horror movie villains are sadistic or evil; Leatherface is in fact intellectually disabled and most of the time is merely following the orders of his family. Hansen has stated that Leatherface is "completely under the control of his family. He 'll do whatever they tell him to do. He 's a little bit afraid of them ''. Tobe Hooper has argued on the documentary, The Shocking Truth, that Leatherface is a ' big baby ' and kills in self - defense because he feels threatened, pointing out that, in the first film, Leatherface is actually frightened of all the new people entering his house. Leatherface is also mute, aside from making bizarre, baby - like gibberish and screams, which his family somehow understands.
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 is a direct sequel to the 1974 film. Tobe Hooper said on The Shocking Truth that he wanted to expand on the dark comedy in the original film, an element that he felt no one truly picked up on. In this film, Leatherface develops a "crush '' on one of his victims and, in one scene, skins off the face of her friend (while alive) and places it on her to hide her from the rest of his family. At the end of the film, he apparently dies in an explosion. Leatherface is later seen in Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III which is a follow - up to previous two films.
Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III, is the second sequel in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre film series. Leatherface is affectionately called "Junior '' by the members of his family. The filmmakers attempted to make the series darker and grittier like the original, but interventions from the MPAA quashed their vision and had them tone it down and change the ending. An uncut version was released in 2003. In this film, Leatherface is given a new family, including a daughter. A four issue comic series based on the film, entitled Leatherface, was also created. In this film, Leatherface appears much more aggressive and violent than in previous installments, a trait intentionally added, as it is explained on the audio commentary that Leatherface was in a childlike mode in the first two films and now he has reached the rebellious teen mode.
Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation apparently takes place in its own continuity, although the original film is mentioned in the opening prologue, in the same prologue it also references the other sequel films, as "two minor, yet apparently related inncidents ''. This is the lowest rated film of the Texas Chainsaw Massacre series. The film features Leatherface as a yelping, pizza - eating transvestite involved in an Illuminati conspiracy to provide society a source of horror and, again, with a different family. Leatherface (who is referred to as "Leather '' in the whole film) is presented as a much more effeminate character than the previous two installments feature, which portrayed Leatherface as being attracted to women. In part 4, Leatherface is reverted to his original self, a screaming mentally ill killer with an identity problem. He seems even more feminine than his character in the original film, wearing a female face mask and a Gein - like female skin suit, a woman 's dress, make - up, even painting his fingernails.
Texas Chainsaw 3D is a direct sequel to the 1974 original film and starts immediately after Sally Hardesty 's escape. Sheriff Hooper arrives right after the extended Sawyer family gather to the house with shotguns, in which the sheriff demands Drayton, now revealed to be Leatherface 's father, hand over Leatherface. Drayton attempts to justify his and "Jed 's '' actions by arguing that the characters from the first film were trespassing, but ultimately the family agrees to give him "Jed '', with Drayton scolding him for letting Sally escape. Just as they prepare to send Leatherface out to Sheriff Hooper, a group of townspeople led by Burt Hartman shoot up the house, killing nearly all of the Sawyer clan before burning the house down with a Molotov cocktail, killing all but "Leatherface '', his cousin, Loretta Sawyer, and her baby. Loretta, wounded via a gunshot, attempts to receive help from one of the townspeople, only to be killed and have her baby taken. Leatherface, who was believed to have died in the fire, was hidden and cared for by his aunt / mother, Verna Sawyer Carson.
In the 2017 prequel, Leatherface, his background is explored further where he is the confirmed to be the product of incest between Drayton and Verna. He initially recoiled at his family 's crimes, but later agreed to participate. After helping his family kill Sheriff Hartman 's daughter he was taken to a mental institution where he was renamed Jackson. When his mother came to visit him a riot broke out where he and several other patients escaped. Two patients held Jed, his friend and fellow patient, and a nurse named Elizabeth hostage until they could get to Mexico. During the flight everyone but Jed and Elizabeth were killed. After Elizabeth sought help from another officer, Jed was shot through his cheeks by Hartman, caught, and hung by a chain. His family rescued him, sewed his injured cheeks together, bound them with a muzzle, and had him kill Hartman and Elizabeth. He used the top half of Hartman 's face and the bottom half of Elizabeth 's to make his first mask.
Drayton Sawyer, is portrayed by Jim Siedow in The Texas Chain Saw Massacre and The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 where he served as the main antagonist and by Bill Moseley in Texas Chainsaw 3D.
In all of his appearances, Drayton is an antagonist and appears to be the head of the Sawyer Family. He is the older brother of Leatherface and the rest of the family. A mentally unstable and murderous cannibal, Drayton, along with his family of fellow cannibals and serial killers, lives in the backwoods of Texas, preying upon travelers, whom he and his relatives capture and devour, selling some of their meat to unwary people as barbeque at his restaurant / gas station. He also gets mad at Leatherface for ruining the house. Drayton 's name was n't mentioned until the second film, the first simply referred to him as "the Cook '' and "the Old Man ''. Like his younger brother the Hitchhiker, Drayton seems to be suffering from a mental disorder, probably schizophrenia or multiple personalities, as he is seen enjoying the torture of his family 's victims, but at one point he flips personalities and is disgusted by the torment as his more empathic side surfaces. His personality disorder has been discussed by Tobe Hooper several times, like on the audio commentary for 1986 's The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2. Drayton often bickers with the rest of his brothers and is abusive towards them. Although Drayton appears to be the head of the household, his brothers often mock and antagonize him and his authority.
Drayton Sawyer made his debut appearance in The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, in which he first appears as the mild - mannered, middle - aged proprietor of the Last Chance Gas Station, a rural Gulf Oil gas station and barbecue shop (with an unnamed car door window washer as an employee), where a group of teenagers stop for fuel while passing through the area. He tells the teenagers that he has no gas for their van because he is supposedly waiting for the tanker truck to show up with fuel. When he learns that the teenagers destination is an abandoned house near his property, he casually advises the youths against going around there. Drayton 's malevolent nature is revealed later in the film, when he beats Sally Hardesty (Marilyn Burns) unconscious and captures her after she approaches him seeking help when her friends disappear and her brother Franklin (Paul A. Partain) is killed by Leatherface. Having been chased by Leatherface previously, she is highly hysterical after her shocking experience. Taking Sally to his home, Drayton torments her alongside his brothers, Leatherface (Gunnar Hansen) and the Hitchhiker (Edwin Neal), before deciding to let the family patriarch, Grandpa (John Dugan), kill her. When Grandpa proves too decrepit to kill Sally with a hammer, Drayton, the Hitchhiker and Leatherface attempt to aid him, but only succeed in losing grasp on Sally, who flees out a window. Drayton is the only one of the three active members of the family who does not pursue Sally, choosing instead to stay behind with Grandpa. The more humane side of Drayton is revealed during the so - called "dinner scene '' when he states: "I just ca n't take no pleasure in killing '' after the Hitchhiker accuses him of doing nothing but cooking for the family while he and Leatherface do all the killing, which explains why Drayton beat and captured Sally rather than killing her.
In The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2, Drayton reappears, now he and his family are living in an abandoned amusement park in Dallas (called Texas Battle Land), due to the intense police investigation sparked by the events of the first film, with what remains of his family, Leatherface (Bill Johnson), Chop Top (Bill Moseley) and Grandpa (Ken Evert). Now a two - time award - winning chili cook selling his meat at a Chilli Cook - off (dismissing the bones and teeth as peppercorns), Drayton appears far more unhinged than in the previous film, happily joining in on his family 's murderous frenzies, which previously disturbed him somewhat. In public, Drayton displays a folksy and happy personality, but alone with his family, he displays his deranged mental disease and is very abusive with them. Drayton presumably dies, off - screen, at the end of the film, when, during the fight between Leatherface and Lieutenant "Lefty '' Enright (Dennis Hopper), he is accidentally struck by Leatherface and the hand grenade he is holding (planning to commit suicide and destroy the hideout with) explodes prematurely.
The only reference of Drayton made in Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III was when Sawyer brother Tinker gives a large chromed chainsaw he crafted to Leatherface as a gift, on the saw 's blade he engraved a quote of Drayton 's from the second film ("The saw is family '').
In Topps Comics ' 1995 comic miniseries Jason vs. Leatherface, Drayton, only identified by the name Cook Slaughter, appears as a main character. After Leatherface and the Hitchhiker bring Jason Voorhees, the main antagonist of the Friday the 13th franchise home, Drayton befriends him and inducts him in as an unofficial member of the Sawyer family.
The comics expand on Drayton 's back story, revealing that, though he aspires to gain fame and fortune using his culinary skills in the city, he stays in the Texan backwoods due to a vow he made to his younger sister Velma on her deathbed, promising he would always look after her children, the Hitchhiker and Leatherface. The comics imply that he is both their father and uncle and they were merely adopted and treated by him as brothers: they suggest that Leatherface and Hitchhiker were born of incest between Drayton and Velma Sawyer as they refer to Velma as having been both their sister and mother. The comics also portray Drayton as much more apathetic and lax towards his relatives murdering of people, with him, at one point, stating that he wishes the Hitchhiker and Jason, who had just delivered to him a freshly killed couple, had brought him some children as well ("their meat 's so much more tender... ''). At one point in the comics, Drayton even attacks Jason with a meat cleaver and helps dispose of his body, which the Sawyer brothers dump into a lake. Drayton is also seen wearing an apron which reads "Kiss the Cook '' throughout the series.
Bill Moseley, the actor who portrayed Chop Top, portrayed Drayton in the opening scene of Texas Chainsaw 3D. When Sheriff Hooper arrives at the Sawyer house from which Sally escaped earlier that day, Drayton comes out with a shotgun and tries justifying his family 's actions by arguing that the characters from the first film were trespassing. Drayton is accompanied by Grandpa, two older male relatives named Boss Sawyer and Bear Sawyer, four unidentified gunmen and a younger woman named Loretta, who holds a baby named Edith - Rose Sawyer. Boss tries convincing Drayton to give Leatherface, whose real name is Jedidiah, to Hooper. Drayton argues that Jed is family, but Boss retorts that "the boy is simple, '' to which Bear agrees. Drayton gives in, and Boss informs Hooper that they are bringing out Jed. Drayton goes to Leatherface 's room and scolds him for attracting the police. Before he can be brought out, local residents of Newt led by Burt Hartman, arrive and burn down the house. Drayton is apparently shot to death. In 2012, Edith - Rose, who survived, was adopted, and renamed Heather Miller, walks through the Sawyer cemetery at her grandma Verna 's house, and one of the gravestones has Drayton 's name on it.
Nubbins Sawyer appears in The Texas Chain Saw Massacre. Edwin Neal portrays him as a mentally unstable and murderous cannibal and grave robber; he lives with his equally depraved family, the Sawyers, in the back roads of Texas, capturing, torturing, and feasting on unwary travelers. Though sadistic and violent, he is generally one of the least threatening characters in the movie, being not very intelligent, and behaving erratically. The character also has a bizarre speech impediment and a large port - wine stain birthmark on the right side of his face. His speech impediment came from the actor who portrayed him, Edwin Neal, who played the Hitchhiker as someone who suffered from schizophrenia.
Nubbins first appears in The Texas Chain Saw Massacre walking along a road, where he is picked up by a group of friends traveling through the area, who feel sorry for him having to walk in the heat. The group ask him what he was doing out there and he tells them that he was "over at the slaughterhouse '' where he and "his brother '' and "his grandfather '' used to work and shows them pictures of him and his family killing the cattle while telling them a story about how headcheese comes from the cows there when their heads are melted, all the while attempting to get them to drop him off at his home and even inviting them to dinner. The Hitchhiker soon begins acting erratically after being given back the photographs by the disgusted travelers, slashing his own hand with a pocket knife; after Franklin Hardesty (Paul A. Partain) refuses to buy a picture he took of him, the Hitchhiker sets the photo on fire and slashes Franklin 's arm with a straight razor before being kicked out of the van. The Hitchhiker briefly chases after the van, kicking, yelling and smearing a bloody hand print on it, but soon relinquishes his attack on it.
The film later identifies Nubbins as one of the brothers of the main villain of the film, Leatherface (Gunnar Hansen) and of Drayton Sawyer (Jim Siedow), as well as one of the family members of a mentally unstable and murderous family of cannibals. It 's also revealed that he was the one responsible for the grave robbings mentioned at the beginning of the film. Together, they torment Sally Hardesty (Marilyn Burns), Franklin 's sister whom Drayton had captured. Eventually deciding to kill Sally, Nubbins, Drayton and Leatherface are at first content to allow their highly regarded Grandpa (John Dugan) to do so, but when Grandpa proves unable to kill Sally with a hammer, Nubbins and his brothers become impatient and over-eager in trying to help him, Nubbins forgets to keep a hold on Sally, allowing her break free of their grasp and jump out a nearby window; as Sally flees, Nubbins and Leatherface give chase to her, with the Hitchhiker catching up to her on a road. While slashing Sally with a knife, a 18 - wheeler fast approaches him. Not noticing this, he continues to try to kill Sally. He soon hears the honking of the truck but is too late to get out of the way as he watches in horror as the truck runs him over, killing him. Deleted scenes shows Nubbins ' corpse lying in the road, his dislodged jaw spewing blood.
After the events of the film, Nubbins ' remains were gathered and turned into a mummified puppet, seen in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2. The corpse is treated as if he 's still alive, and is most often seen with his twin brother, Chop Top. Nubbins ' pouch contains a grenade, which Drayton uses to blow up the family 's lair after Lieutenant Lefty Enright infiltrates their home.
In the Jason vs. Leatherface Topps Comics ' miniseries, the Hitchhiker (bearing only a minor resemblance to his film counterpart) appears as a main character. Encountering Jason Voorhees (the main villain of the Friday the 13th franchise) in the woods near the Sawyer house, the Hitchhiker, after seeing Jason non-lethally disarm Leatherface after a brief skirmish and decapitate a man he and Leatherface were chasing, befriends him and takes him home, where Jason is inducted as an unofficial member of the family by Drayton. After a fight happens between Jason and the family, the Hitchhiker "kills '' Jason by bashing him in the head with a hammer.
The miniseries expands upon the Hitchhiker 's character, revealing that he owns a pet dog named Sparky (whom he killed by shooting in the head and treats as if it were still alive) and that he creates furniture and sculptures out of corpses. The miniseries also showed the extent of the Hitchhiker 's abuse of Leatherface whom the Hitchhiker constantly bullies for little or no reason (although he apparently respects Leatherface 's prowess at frightening and killing people, as he laments to Jason). The comics also hint that the Hitchhiker, as well as Leatherface, were born of incest, with Drayton 's younger sister Velma being implicated as being their sister and mother. The Hitchhiker is also seen driving a tow truck and working at the family gas station, where he sabotages motorists ' automobiles. He then informs his family and they attack the newly stranded people. The Hitchhiker 's bizarre birth mark also changes shape several times throughout the comics, at one point it takes the form of a swastika and a lightning bolt. After "killing '' Jason, the Hitchhiker 's brother Drayton (called Cook Slaughter in the comics) implicates that the Hitchhiker killed his own cousin named Emery with a two - by - four after a losing a game of checkers, to which the hitchhiker replies "He should n't have laughed at me ''.
Grandpa Sawyer appears in The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, and its sequel, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2, portrayed by John Dugan and Ken Evert, respectively, and appears in more of the franchise than any other character besides Leatherface. He is a supercentenarian, a former butcher / slaughterman and, it is implied, a mass murderer. Director Tobe Hooper stated on the audio commentary for The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 that Grandpa is kept alive by drinking the blood of his family 's victims.
Snippets of Grandfather 's history prior to the events of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre films occur throughout the series; it is revealed that Grandfather was originally a worker at a slaughterhouse whose skills at killing and butchering cattle were unmatched. After new technology was implemented in abattoirs, Grandfather quit his job due to "the shame ''. Grandfather later apparently settled down with the unnamed Grandma and began a family, the cannibalistic Sawyers (how they became cannibalistic is never revealed, though it is implied that they resorted to cannibalism in order to survive starvation, because the family was already poor when Grandpa and the rest of his family quit working).
In The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, the 124 - year - old Grandpa (John Dugan) appears as a somewhat minor character, initially thought to be already dead; he is first seen briefly during Leatherface 's chase scene, Sally approaches him seeking help but assumes he is dead when she sees how old he is. Later after heroine Sally Hardesty (Marilyn Burns) is captured by his grandchildren, Drayton (Jim Siedow), Leatherface (Gunnar Hansen) and the Hitchhiker (Edwin Neal), Grandfather is taken from the second floor of the house and brought to her by them. Leatherface proceeds to slash Sally 's finger and forces it into Grandpa 's mouth, so he can suck her blood (proving that he is, in fact, alive), an event that causes Sally to fall unconscious. Some time after Sally is awakened, Drayton, Leatherface and the Hitchhiker decide to allow Grandpa to end her life through the use of a hammer; due to his advanced age, Grandpa is largely incapable of using the hammer efficiently and continues to drop it. The hassle that ensues with Grandfather 's continued dropping of the hammer and his grandchildren 's over-eagerness to help him allows Sally to break free of the Sawyer family and jump out a window, though he and Drayton do not attempt to follow her.
Grandpa (Ken Evert), now 137 years old, later appears in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2, inhabiting an abandoned theme park named the "Texas Battle Land '' with what remains of his family; when the film 's heroine, Vanita "Stretch '' Brock (Caroline Williams), is captured by his grandson Chop Top (Bill Moseley), Grandpa is brought forth to kill her (in the same way he tried to do to Sally) with help from Chop Top, unlike in the first film here he actually lands a hit though he succeeds in only causing a minor head wound to her with a sledgehammer (and a second wound caused by an impatient Drayton). When Lieutenant William "Lefty '' Hardesty Enright (Dennis Hopper), the film 's male protagonist, engages in a chainsaw duel with Leatherface (Bill Johnson), Grandfather attempts to aid his grandson by throwing a hammer at his opponent, only to hit Leatherface instead and subsequently fall to the floor (which alludes the first film 's climax). Grandfather apparently meets his demise when a grenade, accidentally set off by an injured Drayton (Jim Siedow), Lefty and Leatherface, detonates in close proximity to him.
In Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III, which has connections to The Texas Chain Saw Massacre and The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2, Grandfather appears only as a decayed corpse kept and treated as if he were alive by Leatherface (R.A. Mihailoff) and his new extended family who regularly pour blood into his mouth to "feed '' him; when one of the film 's protagonists, Benny (Ken Foree), opens fire on the Sawyer house with an automatic rifle, Grandfather 's body takes several shots to the chest and one to the face, but the body is left for the most part intact.
In the 1994 film, Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation, a character referred to as "Grandfather '' (Grayson Victor Schirmacher) appears as a member of the Slaughter family. In Tobe Hooper 's The Texas Chain Saw Massacre, Grandpa was also credited as "Grandfather ''.
In the 1991 Leatherface comics by Northstar Comics, which are based upon Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III, Grandfather appears, though he is portrayed as extremely different in this appearance than in others; instead of the solitary and silent figure he is usually shown as, this version of Grandpa is depicted as a rambling old man with a habit of telling non-linear stories, he also seems to be much younger and more in shape than in the films (he still seems to be much more sane and harmless than the rest of the family though) and appears largely oblivious to his surroundings. It is also revealed by the character Mama that Grandfather is not biologically related to the featured version of the Sawyer family and that he was abandoned as a child and subsequently adopted into it.
Grandfather appears throughout the 1995 Jason vs. Leatherface comic miniseries by Topps Comics; also in the comics, a picture depicting a much younger Grandfather is found by Jason Voorhees in the attic of the Sawyer house.
John Dugan reprised his role in Texas Chainsaw 3D, in which Grandfather is shown sitting inside the Sawyer house with his relatives as they are confronted by Sheriff Hooper. He is present when the residents of Newt burn down the Sawyer house and kill the family members inside.
Chop Top is one of Leatherface 's many brothers. Chop Top also has the same bizarre birth mark as his twin brother Nubbins, except Chop Top 's is on the left side of his face (Nubbins 's birthmark is on the right of his face). He appears in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 as one of the film 's villains and is portrayed by Bill Moseley. Chop Top is also in the habit of scratching around his metal plate with a heated clothes hanger; he then eats the dead skin he has picked off. Both director Tobe Hooper and actor Bill Moseley state that if he scratches in the right spot, Chop Top will instantly "get off ''. It is explained by Tobe Hooper that Chop Top was in Vietnam at the time of the first film. It is in Vietnam where Chop Top receives his head wound by a "lucky gook with a machete ''. Chop Top has pale skin, like an albino. Tobe Hooper stated on the audio commentary for Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 that Chop Top 's character was originally that of the Hitchhiker, who had a metal plate grafted onto his skull after the events of the 1974 The Texas Chain Saw Massacre and was referred to as "Plate - Head '', but the character later evolved into his twin, Chop Top.
Chop Top is a deranged and sadistic individual who gleefully murders people when given the chance. He possesses a "hippie '' - like mentality and view on the world around him, stating that "music is his life '' and revealing that he is a fan of the bands Iron Butterfly and Humble Pie. Chop Top often remarks about Ho Chi Minh and napalm, as he is a Vietnam veteran, and he also talks about having flashbacks from the war. Chop Top adorns himself in a variety of tattered, multi-color clothing. In The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2, Chop Top first appears alongside Leatherface (Bill Johnson) driving a pick up truck. Together they attack a pair of drunk high school motorists who are in a smaller car on a bridge. Chop Top and Leatherface kill the two men, not realizing that their attack on the drivers was being recorded at a radio station the two drunken teens had called using a car phone prior to the attack. When DJ Vanita "Stretch '' Brock (Caroline Williams) plays the recording of Chop Top and Leatherface 's attack on the drivers over the radio, the two brothers break into the radio station with the intention of killing Stretch, but the brothers ' plan is not carried out. Leatherface, having become infatuated with Stretch, tricks Chop Top into believing he had killed her. When the two leave the station, they take an injured co-worker of Vanita 's with them.
When Chop Top and brother Drayton (Jim Siedow) discover that Stretch is still alive after finding her in the Sawyer family 's home in an abandoned amusement park called the Texas Battle Land (which Chop Top bought using government checks), the brothers hold her captive and decide to let the decrepit patriarch of the Sawyer family, Grandpa (Ken Evert), kill her with Chop Top 's help. Vanita is saved when protagonist Lieutenant "Lefty '' Enright (Dennis Hopper) arrives and engages Leatherface in a chainsaw duel. The battle between the Sawyers and Lefty reaches a climax when a hand grenade, accidentally set off by Drayton, explodes and kills Grandpa, Lefty, Drayton and possibly Leatherface, as well as presumably destroying the puppet - like corpse of the Hitchhiker.
Narrowly escaping the grenade explosion, Chop Top follows Vanita to the top of the Matterhorn attraction in the Texas Battle Land, which the Sawyers converted into a shrine known as "Chainsaw Heaven ''. Slashing Vanita and himself several times with a straight razor, Chop Top apparently meets his end when Vanita stumbles upon the mummified corpse of Great - Grandma Sawyer and tears a chainsaw out of the corpse 's abdomen. In the ensuing struggle, Chop Top is sent plummeting into the ruins of Texas Battle Land.
Though Chop Top does not appear in the 1991 Leatherface by Northstar Comics, a reference to him is made through the use of his catchphrase "Lick my plate! '', seen spray - painted on the side of Alfredo Sawyer 's Last Chance Gas Station.
All American Massacre is an unreleased film directed by William Hooper, son of Tobe Hooper. The film was to serve as a prequel to the original Texas Chainsaw Massacre series. The film was to feature Chop Top who had been captured and placed into a psychiatric prison. Memories of how his family became killers and cannibals were to feature in the film, as he was interviewed by a tabloid television journalist. Bill Moseley portrays Chop Top in the film 's trailer.
Grandma Sawyer died at an unspecified time before the first film 's events, although her obese corpse has been preserved by the family and was originally kept in the attic of the Sawyer ranch. Her corpse also appears in the comic book series, Jason vs. Leatherface.
It is revealed in the audio commentary on The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2, by Tobe Hooper, that she is in fact "Great - Grandma Sawyer ''. First mentioned by Drayton in the second film, who states "Oh Great Grandma in chainsaw heaven! ''; her skeletal corpse is later seen in chainsaw heaven - actually a macabre shrine hidden in the amusement park where the remaining Sawyers live in the second film.
A hitchhiking cowboy and brother of Leatherface, Edward (simply referred to by the shortened name Eddie) completely despises his real name - for unknown reasons - and prefers to be called "Tex '', and goes into a rage when referred to by his true name. Tex is also seen wearing a female 's cooking apron and painted fingernails, leading to the possibility that he is sexually ambiguous. Tex is portrayed as the most normal looking family member, which helps in his family 's capturing of victims, who believe Tex to be a regular person, however, when enraged Tex becomes highly psychotic. Film writer David J. Schow likened him to Norman Bates on the film 's audio commentary. In the rated and unrated versions, Tex is killed when set ablaze by survivalist Benny, after Tex attacks him with an ax. In the alternate ending, Tex is set on fire, but survives, and then is killed when Michelle pushes him into a spike trap. Tex (never referred to as Eddie or Edward) is portrayed as one of the more sane members of the family in the Leatherface comics, actually showing some level of remorse for his actions. Tex is killed in the comics by Michelle, who beats and disembowels him with the very knife he was planning to butcher her with. Co-star William Butler claims that his friend, fellow actor Viggo Mortensen 's characterization for Tex was as a sexually ambiguous killer who looked normal, but could snap at any moment. He is portrayed by Viggo Mortensen.
Another brother of Leatherface and easily one of the least sane members of the family, he has a transradial prosthesis hook in place of a right hand for unknown reasons and an affinity for machines, chrome and technology. As he goes by two different names his real name remains unknown. Tink often makes devices to assist his family in the slaughtering of people, he also drives a very large, suped up pick up truck, which is basically a monster truck. One of the devices Tech makes is an extra large chromed out chainsaw for his brother Leatherface, engraved on the blade, a sort - of tribute and reference to his late brother Drayton, the reference being a quote of Drayton 's from the second film ("The saw is family ''), another invention of Tink 's is a swinging sledgehammer machine which quickens the family 's slaughter methods, something brother Tex is grateful for (as he personally dislikes the "hit to the head business ''). Tech also calls one of the main characters, Benny, an African - American, a "darkie '', "brotha '' and refers to him as "dark meat '', leading to the possibility that he is a racist. Tech also tries to discipline his brother Leatherface by throwing his brother 's walkman into the oven, however, this plan backfires when Leatherface forces Tech to retrieve it with his good hand. In both the rated and unrated versions as well as the alternate ending Tech is wounded, possibly fatally, when Benny opens fire on the families ' house with an automatic rifle, blasting two of Tink 's fingers off, as well as an ear. He appears to have died after the shooting, as he is heard saying to his brother Tex that he would be in Hell for breakfast. In the Leatherface comics, Tech is depicted as a former party loving hippie, like his brother Chop Top from The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2, and is fixated with classic rock music and a "Chrome Machine God '' he believes controls everything. He also mentions taking quaaludes and hash and lush and the purest lysergic acid ever come from Hashbury. Tech is fatally injured in the comic by being shot repeatedly by Benny, later dying in Leatherface 's (who admired Tech, who was his favorite brother) arms. Like his brother Drayton Sawyer, Tech appears as the head of the family household, this role is also explained by writer David J. Schow on the audio commentary for the Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III, in which he refers to Tech as the "brains '' of the operation. He is portrayed by Joe Unger.
Another brother of Leatherface, he appears to be highly demented and perverted and suffers from a speech impediment and heterochromia. He wears a tattered jumpsuit and drives an old pickup truck. Alfredo is also seen kissing a severed head, which implies that he has engaged in necrophilia. At the same time he kisses the head, he mentions that he had a girl in Tupelo, but that she had to "go down below '', implying that Alfredo has murdered women outside the state of Texas. He often rants and complains about having to clean up for his family, which includes tossing body parts into the bogs and swamps surrounding his family 's home, he also bickers with his brother Tex, who explains that after Alfredo lost his job at the local slaughterhouse, he became insane. In one of his bizarre rants, Alfredo refers to his brother Leatherface as "stupid fuck - face ''. Alfredo also runs the Last Chance Gas Station, which he apparently inherited from his eldest brother Drayton, after his death in The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2. In Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III, Alfredo serves as the film 's antagonist and is killed when, attacking Michelle with a sledgehammer in his pickup truck, she grabs his shotgun lying on the truck 's floor and blasts him, his last words being "What are the chances a brainless bitch like you knows how to use that thing? ''. It is revealed by his brother Tex, that Alfredo worked at the slaughterhouse, but like the rest of his family, he lost his job and went insane. The Leatherface comics depict Alfredo - drawn with an eye patch for unexplained reasons - as even more perverted, insane and dangerous than his film counterpart. Alfredo is killed in the comics ' final issue, being forced underwater and drowned by Michelle. Alfredo appears similar in character to his brothers the Hitchhiker and Chop Top, whom he was based on. Also in the Leatherface comics, Alfredo references his brother Chop Top, as Chop Top 's famous line "Lick my plate! '' is seen spray painted on Alfredo 's gas station. He is portrayed by Tom Everett.
The mother of Leatherface and the rest of the Sawyer brothers, Anne is a bitter, aged woman who uses a wheelchair full - time and also has an electronic voice box, possibly from a tracheotomy. When Benny begins to blast the families ' house with an automatic rifle, Anne dies after taking several shots to the chest as Tech watches on in horror. Anne 's role is expanded upon in the Leatherface comics, which depict her as a stereotypical kindly old woman, capable of speaking under her own power and is also shown to be more dangerous than in the film. She 's never referred to by name in the film, being called simply "Mama, '' instead. Mama meets her demise in the comics when her face is smashed in by Benny, who she was holding at gun point, using his automatic rifle. In the film, Anne mentions that she neutered herself and Grandfather. She is portrayed by Miriam Byrd - Nethery.
Babi is Leatherface 's daughter, apparently conceived from the rape of one of his victims. Babi carries around a dead infant doll, which she refers to as "Sally ''. In both the rated and unrated versions, her fate is unrevealed. In an alternate ending, she 's seen at the end in the back of the Sheriff 's car, probably arrested, however, her hands were n't cuffed. In the comics based on the film, no reference is made to Babi being Leatherface 's child, with her appearing to be just another one of his relatives, possibly Leatherface, Tex, Tink, and Alfredo 's younger sister. She is portrayed by Jennifer Banko.
Vilmer Slaughter, played by Matthew McConaughey, features as a fictional character and main antagonist in the 1994 film Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation.
Vilmer is a rage - filled, psychopathic sadist and head of a family of serial killers, which includes two brothers: the excitable Walter Slaughter and the chainsaw - wielding transvestite Leather (unlike the other films in the franchise, The Next Generation does not call this character "Leatherface ''). Vilmer is accompanied by his lover Darla, a married woman who, while independently minded, often suffers abuse at his hands. Vilmer and his family live in an old dilapidated farmhouse. Vilmer drives around in an unidentified rural Texas town in his tow truck hunting down fresh victims to bring back to his house. He wears a leg brace due to unspecified injury; according to Walter, he has been shot and run over several times throughout his life. Vilmer primarily uses a Buck knife, but his leg brace itself can also be used as a weapon. Darla claims that Vilmer is part of a longstanding murderous conspiracy, the Illuminati. He is killed by a low - flying airplane while he and Leather chase a would - be victim.
Vilmer displays characteristics seen elsewhere among the murderous families in the franchise. Like the Hitchhiker in the first film and Chop Top in the second, he practices self mutilation; like Leatherface in the third film, he wears a leg brace, although Vilmer 's is a custom - built mechanical leg brace made from a hodgepodge of hoses, metal rods, and electrical devices, controlled by several television remote controls he keeps in his pocket.
Walter Edward Slaughter appeared in Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation. He was portrayed by Joe Stevens.
In the 1994 film Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation, a character named Walter Edward Slaughter appears. A relative of the Slaughter family, Walter, like them, is an agent for a powerful shady government organization who has the family forcibly employed for the purpose of terrorizing society. His fate in the film is left ambiguous, as his head is bashed with a hammer by the increasingly unstable Vilmer Slaughter and he does not appear again, leading to the possibility the attack could have killed him, or at least incapacitated him.
Despite his somewhat stereotypical redneck appearance and general insanity, Walter Edward Slaughter (who is nicknamed W.E. by Vilmer and Darla) is depicted as being fairly educated and highly cultured, continually quoting famous historical figures and works of literature, even while torturing people. He often bickers with Vilmer 's wife Darla, stating that before she entered the family, it was Walter who "put things together '', referring to the murders. Walter appears to own a gas station / country store and an old pickup truck. Walter also favors a cattle prod while torturing people, and his brother Leatherface for that matter. During dinner, Walter is seen talking to his mute Grandfather about the decline of family values.
According to the original 1974 film 's art director Robert A. Burns on the audio commentary for the special edition DVD, that the gas station / barbeque stand owned by Jim Siedow 's character the Old Man, was named "W.E. Slaughter 's '' by Tobe Hooper & Kim Henkel as a joke.
Leatherface 's sister - in - law and Vilmer 's apparent wife who appears in Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Next Generation. She routinely suffers abuse and domestic violence at Vilmer 's hands. Darla is one of the more sane members of the Slaughter family. She works as a local real estate agent with her office inside a small trailer near her home and frequently contacts Vilmer and his brother Walter over the telephone to tip them off as well as assist them with tracking down and capturing or killing would - be victims that pass by her office. She appears highly disgruntled under Rothman and Vilmer 's control and is hinted at once having a normal life, making references to another husband living elsewhere. She also informs a group of teens (her family would later capture) that she had breast implants. After Walter ' W.E. ' Slaughter comes to her office to assist her in kidnapping a fleeing hostage named Jenny, Darla admits to owning a gun. In the movie, Darla also speculates that her lover Vilmer is from outer space and that either Vilmer or his employers has implanted a device in her head which will kill her. Darla is also the one who explains the Sawyers ' backstory to their captive Jenny, telling her that the family belong to a secret group, which has been assassinating people for hundreds of years, including John F. Kennedy. She is portrayed by Tonie Perensky.
Bear Sawyer appears in the opening scene of Texas Chainsaw 3D, portrayed by David Bell. He stands with a shotgun alongside Boss Sawyer inside the Sawyer house when Sheriff Hooper arrives. He agrees with Boss ' suggestion that they should just give Jedidiah (Leatherface) to the sheriff. He even comments that Leatherface is retarded. He is burned to death by the residents of Newt led by Burt Hartman, along with other relatives in the house.
A member of the Sawyer family who appears in the beginning of Texas Chainsaw 3D portrayed by Gunnar Hansen, who portrayed Leatherface in the first film. Boss sits inside the Sawyer house with a shotgun when Sheriff Hooper arrives to arrest Leatherface. Boss tries to convince Drayton that they should just give up Leatherface. When Drayton argues that he is family, Boss retorts that Leatherface is "simple '' and not right "for a Sawyer. '' Drayton gives in, and Boss yells out to Hooper that they are bringing him out and asks that "Jed gets a good lawyer. '' Before they can bring out Jedidiah, however, residents of Newt led by Burt Hartman arrive and burn the Sawyer house to the ground, killing Boss and other relatives.
Verna Carson Sawyer is the mother of Loretta Sawyer and grandmother of Edith Rose Sawyer aka Heather Miller. She is portrayed by Marilyn Burns, who also portrayed heroine Sally Hardesty in The Texas Chain Saw Massacre and Lil Taylor in leatherface
Loretta Sawyer is the birth mother of Edith Rose Sawyer / Heather Miller. She is portrayed by Dodie L. Brown in Texas Chainsaw 3D.
Heather Miller is the main protagonist in Texas Chainsaw 3D and also the long lost cousin of Jed Sawyer / Leatherface. She is portrayed by Alexandra Daddario. On August 19, 1973, she is shown as a baby when the townspeople of Newt, Texas led by Burt Hartman against the sheriff 's horror shoot out the house killing nearly all the Sawyers and burn down their house with a Molotov cocktail. Killing all but "Leatherface '', Loretta Sawyer and her illegitimate baby (Edith Sawyer) who managed to sneak out, Loretta shot and dying is found by one of the townspeople who takes baby Edith for his own and immediately kills Loretta with a kick to the head.
Verna dies, leaving her vast estate to Edith Sawyer, now "Heather Miller '' who she tracked down years before but decided would be safer away from Newt, Texas. Heather, angry at her abusive adoptive parents, decides to go to Newt with her friends and discover her history. Heather enters the mansion and starts looking around, until Leatherface comes out and kills her friends. He chases Heather all the way to a carnival.
She is captured by Burt Hartman (now the mayor) and used as bait for Leatherface. When he finds her, he discovers Heather is his cousin thanks to a mark on her chest in the shape of the Sawyer family 's symbol and immediately tries to save her from Burt Hartman 's vendetta. He is caught and beaten brutally by Burt Hartman and Ollie (another one of the men that killed his family). Knowing that Hartman and company will surely kill her to protect their secrets, and traumatized by her experiences thus far, Heather decides that she owes allegiance to Leatherface as her last remaining family, and she saves him by hurling him a chainsaw, which he uses to kill their mutual enemies. Later, they return to the Sawyer home, where Heather reads the letter left by Verna stating the mansion and all the money is hers. Verna warns her about the danger of being a Sawyer and asks her to take care of "Jed '' (Leatherface), who will protect her in return.
In a post-credits scene, Heather 's abusive adoptive parents, come to the house in an attempt to weasel her inheritance. They wait by the door until Leatherface comes out with his chainsaw to kill them.
In the remake series, Leatherface is named Thomas and lives with his adoptive family, the murderous Hewitts, he is portrayed by Andrew Bryniarski. In this series his family never refers to him as Leatherface, but by his real name. He is also seen taking off his skin masks, which never happened in the original series. His face is revealed to be disfigured by a facial disease. His remake family, the Hewitts, includes his mother Luda Mae, his uncle Monty, his older brother / "uncle '' Sheriff Hoyt, and three other members, whose roles have never been explained, like his apparent sister Henrietta, the Tea Lady, a morbidly obese, older woman obsessed with tea, who lives with Henrietta in a small trailer on the Hewitt property and a possible nephew named Jedidiah, a little boy who does not take part in his family 's evil exploits. In this series, Leatherface is more of a sadistic serial killer who wants revenge on teenagers than a childlike man under his family 's control, which the original series portrayed him as. Leatherface / Thomas and his family use torture murder and cannibalism as their modus operandi. The Hewitts also live in a different home than the Sawyers, who lived on a farm, whereas the Hewitts live on an old plantation. Also, the young children and babies taken from victims are kept by Henrietta and the Tea Lady, who raise them up as Hewitts. In the comics based on this series by Wildstorm, Leatherface has two more cousins, the demented Ezekial "Zeke '' Hewitt and his simple minded, childlike brother Shiloh Hewitt. In The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning, Leatherface 's first known murder is that of his abusive boss, however this murder is different from others he will later commit, as this murder was a crime of passion, but it is Leatherface 's psychotic brother / uncle Sheriff Hoyt who later introduces Leatherface and the rest of his family to the art of murder, which according to the end of Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning, claims the lives of thirty - three people. Unlike the first four films he is not shown as a cross dresser.
An unnamed character (simply called "The Butcher '') similar to the Hitchhiker in both mannerisms and appearance appears in the one - shot comic book The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: Cut! by Wildstorm, which takes place in the remake continuity of the films. A member of the Hewitt family and brother to Leatherface and an unnamed, Drayton Sawyer-esque character (simply called "The Cook ''), the Hitchhiker look - alike utilizes a sledge hammer and bolt stunner as his weapons. In the comic, the character terrorizes and murders two members of a group of teenagers seeking to make an amateur film about the Hewitt family murders, and near the end of it, aids his siblings in slaughtering the film project 's director in a manner similar to livestock.
Charlton "Charlie '' Hewitt, Jr., a.k.a. Sheriff Winston Hoyt appears as Leatherface 's foster brother in the 2003 remake of the 1974 film The Texas Chain Saw Massacre and its prequel The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning. He is portrayed by Golden Globe nominee Ronald Lee Ermey.
A POW during the Korean War, Charlie Hewitt is forced into cannibalism to survive, as rations are extremely scarce. Each week, someone has to be killed and eaten. Charlie apparently grows to like the taste of human flesh and later introduces the grisly practice to his family, the Hewitts, who also start to like the taste of human meat.
Charlie, armed with a shotgun, shoots and kills the local sheriff, Winston Hoyt, at point - blank range during the sheriff 's attempt to apprehend his adopted brother, Thomas for murdering his boss at the meat factory. Charlie then takes on the identity of the murdered sheriff, who was the last member of law enforcement left in Travis County, as evidenced by his immediate statement: "Shit. I just killed the whole fuckin ' sheriff 's department. '' He uses this new identity to lure teenagers off the road where they meet Leatherface and his family to be killed and eaten. As he guides his family 's killing spree, Charlie / Hoyt himself becomes a serial killer and begins to use torture murder as he and his family capture victims they have hatred for. Hoyt is arguably one of the driving forces behind Leatherface 's cannibalism and murders, assuring Thomas that the butchery of human beings is no different from the slaughterhouse: "Meat is meat, and bone is bone ''. Later, Hoyt is present during Leatherface 's first chainsaw murder, urging him to go forward and cheering him on at the same time. A gruff, perverse, foul mouthed, mean - spirited bully, who often uses false arrest and police brutality (usually with his police baton) on young adults, whom Hoyt hates and looks at as dope smoking, hippie protesters, Hoyt not only makes no effort to conceal his contempt for everyone around him, he seems to revel in it. For example, when he is called to investigate the suicide of a young girl in the first film, he leers at the corpse and cracks jokes about his predilection for "copping a feel '' on dead female bodies. He 's killed in the remake when the only survivor, Erin runs him over repeatedly in his own police car while escaping from the Hewitts. Hoyt, like the rest of his relatives, has a sick sense of family pride and a strong hatred of outsiders. Apparently, either due to the complicated relationship between Hoyt and Leatherface, or the fact that Hoyt does not accept him as a "true '' brother because of them not being biologically related, Hoyt views Leatherface as his nephew rather than his brother. In the Texas Chainsaw Massacre comics, Hoyt refers to himself as "Uncle Charlie '' and encourages a young Leatherface 's murderous impulses, "Uncle '' Charlie even shoots and kills a bully who Leatherface recently attacked and was skinning / flaying alive, after the bully assaulted Leatherface earlier at a swimming hole. Father Charlie 's only criticism being that Thomas needs to "learn how to fix ' em proper '', Charlie then takes the body and dumps it in a lake. In the prequel, Hoyt refers to Leatherface as his nephew, as does the real sheriff, though both Hoyt and Leatherface view Luda Mae as their mother, and Monty as their uncle. Also, it is revealed in the deleted and additional scenes with audio commentary on the prequel, that Hoyt was supposed to be the Uncle figure in Leatherface 's life. Charlie / Hoyt is apparently named after his father, as his mother Luda Mae refers to him as "Junior '', and his father, Charlie Sr., is implied at being a farmer, as Hoyt quotes him as saying that "if you want to be a good farmer, you have to keep your livestock clean, a clean goat is a happy goat ''.
Hoyt also appears in the Texas Chainsaw Massacre comics and is the main character in the comic "Hoyt by himself '' which reveals more about his time in the war revealing that during a mission he was captured by a man named Sergeant Chow (the main villain of the book). Chow locks Hewitt up in a POW camp and feeds him the remains of several dead prisoners there, causing his addiction to human meat. One day Hewitt kills Chow with the bone of one of the prisoners he ate before using his shotgun to escape the camp, he goes defunct and returns home to the Hewitt house where he convinces his family who are too poor to buy any food to commit to homicidal cannibalism. In Avatar Press ' The Texas Chainsaw Massacre comics, set between the events of the first film and The Beginning, Hoyt regularly appeared, most often having unwary travelers venture to the Hewitt home where he and family would butcher them. Hoyt is depicted as exceedingly sadistic in the comics, regularly mocking and torturing victims to the point of mutilating them, justifying his actions under a "they got what they deserved '' - esque pretense, as shown when he forces an escaped convict and drug dealer to snort cleaning chemicals. Of note, the Avatar Press comics have Hoyt referred to by the name Junior by his family. In the Wildstorm comics, a character very similar to Hoyt appears; he is named "Hank '' and is a murderous slaughterhouse worker. When a cameraman and newswoman came to interview him and other butchers about the murderers, he gave them a graphic tour of the slaughterhouse, showing them various animals being killed and how the meat was rendered. Later, when one of their crew went missing, the two went back inside only for Hank to reappear and attack them. After knocking them both out with a cattle - prod, Hank proceeded to torture and ultimately murder the cameraman in the same exact way that the animals were prepared (by slitting the throat and letting the blood drain, and then tossing him into a vat of scalding hot water before ' rendering ' the meat) while the newswoman watched. The newswoman managed to escape, with Hank in hot pursuit. He was stopped dead in his tracks by FBI Agent Baines, the uncle of Pepper (one of Leatherface 's victims from the remake film). Believing Hank to be responsible for his niece 's death, Baines managed to find a stray chainsaw and engaged the slaughterman in a chainsaw duel. Although Baines was wounded by Hank 's weapon, Baines gained the upper hand and managed to dismember and ultimately kill Hank. Although Hank is never identified as Hoyt, he did bear a strong resemblance to the character, leading some to believe that he was in fact the sheriff from the remake films. When artist Wes Craig was asked, he responded by saying while he would n't confirm whether or not Hank was Hoyt, that the similarity between the two characters was indeed intentional. "I do n't really want to say if that was Hoyt or not, it might have been him, might have been his twin, who knows (okay I know but I 'm not telling). But yes it was supposed to look like Hoyt '' said Craig.
A character very similar to Drayton Sawyer, in both appearance and mannerisms, appears in the Wildstorm comics continuation of the remake series, though his specialty is not chili, but ribs. He is referred to as The Cook (real name unknown), and is one of the modern members of the Hewitt family. He lives in the Hewitt household in Travis County with Leatherface and an unnamed butcher. As his title suggests, he specializes in food preparation and often attends the annual "Meatfest '' event. At Meatfest, the Cook offers guests a sampling of his "Texas beef ribs '', which are presumably made from people, not cattle. In the comic "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: Cut! '', which took place in 2007, the Cook met an amateur film maker named Mike who wanted to make a movie based on the famous Hewitt murders of 1973. The Cook invited Mike and his three colleagues to the Hewitt house though they were unaware that he was actually one of the cannibal family members. The Cook 's family members, the Butcher and Leatherface killed the four film enthusiasts whereupon they were taken into the family slaughter room. The Cook was last seen attending Meatfest ' 08, once again serving up his special ribs.
Luda Mae Hewitt appeared in the 2003 remake and its prequel, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning. She was portrayed by Marietta Marich. She is the head of the Hewitt family and the main antagonist of the remake continuity. Luda Mae Hewitt is the matriarch of the Hewitt family and the mother of Sheriff Hoyt. She found the young baby who would later become Leatherface abandoned in a dumpster, and took him in to raise him as her son, naming him Thomas Brown Hewitt.
Luda Mae runs a local butcher shop in Texas, selling meat from the people her son Hoyt captures and her adoptive son Thomas kills and cuts up, and is the first member of Leatherface 's family that the teenaged protagonists meet in the first film. Unlike in the original 1974 film, in which Leatherface 's family was somewhat abusive to him, Luda Mae is fiercely protective of him. Part of her hatred towards the teenagers is due to the abuse that her deformed, mute, intellectually disabled son suffered as a child at the hands of bullies. On the commentary for the DVD release the writers revealed a cut plotline that, prior to the prequel 's continuity, involved Leatherface 's abusive father locking him in a woodshack for three years. Once her husband dies, Luda Mae vows that she had stood by long enough and decides to look after her son and take responsibility for his shortcomings. Though Luda Mae states that she "never had a little girl '', she appears very close to the character of Henrietta, leading to the possibility that she is her mother, or at the very least related. She also appears very close to the obese character of the Tea Lady. Like the other members of her clan, Luda Mae has a deranged sense of family pride.
Marich has commented that "Luda Mae is the matriarch of what I like to call the ' killer brood '. I always make up a personal history of characters I play, so I suspect that Luda Mae was a homeless young woman who had to make her own way during the Depression. When she finds Thomas, she takes him home, even though he 's disfigured and hideously ugly, and protects him as much as possible from the cruel people he encounters and the world at large. That 's her main purpose, and the only reason Luda Mae sticks around ''. In the prequel, she, with the rest of the Hewitt family, are discovered to be cannibals, something only implied in the first film. Like the mother of real killer Ed Gein (whom Thomas is based on), Luda Mae appears to have religious fanatic beliefs, which are seen when the Hewitts inform a captive that their murders are redemption for the victims ' sins, and when Luda Mae demands that Hoyt say grace before every meal. Luda Mae is also seen still wearing her wedding ring.
Luda Mae is a prominent character in Wildstorm Comics 's continuation of the movies. With the family exposed after the events of the first film, the comics finds the Hewitt family living in a series of tunnels in the sewers of Travis County. In the comics Luda Mae has become, perhaps in light of Sheriff Hoyt 's death, more of a leader figure to the family than she was in the films. She exhibits more depravity as well (at one point snapping a victim 's neck to prepare dinner) but still believes what she does is necessary for her family 's survival, and that outsiders do n't understand what she 's been through and have no right to judge her.
Luda Mae also appears in the one - shot The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: About a Boy. Taking place in Leatherface 's teenage years, the story has a concerned teacher named Mr. Hanson meeting with Luda Mae. Hanson tells her about evidence of Thomas ' various problems, such as disturbing drawings in his notebooks and skins made from animals he has caught and killed himself. Throughout the conversation, Luda Mae remains apathetic, stating that "There 's nothing wrong with my boy ''. When the frustrated teacher threatens to contact the city about Thomas, Luda Mae retaliates, bashing in the teacher 's head with a shovel and killing him, once again proclaiming that there was nothing wrong with her son.
The apparent daughter of the Tea Lady, though her exact relationship to the Hewitt Family is unknown. Prior to the events of the 1973 Texas Chainsaw Massacre in the 2003 remake, Henrietta lived in a trailer with her corpulent tea - drinking mother (name unknown) not far from the Hewitt residence. In the 2003 movie Henrietta adopted / stole an infant from a woman who committed suicide, but the child was later rescued by Erin Hardesty. Henrietta appears as a sickly, homely girl in a dirty house coat and slippers. In the Wildstorm comics, Henrietta along with her mother the Tea Lady, drugged and raped FBI agent Henkel. It was her hope that Henkel would leave her pregnant. Henrietta is present when a grenade explodes in her family 's secret hideout. She is not present in the novelization of the 2003 remake, but instead her character has been replaced by the Tea Lady, whose name is revealed to be Henrietta. She is portrayed by Heather Kafka.
Monty Hewitt is Luda Mae Hewitt 's brother and the uncle of Leatherface and Sheriff Hoyt. He is featured in the 2003 remake and its prequel. Monty is portrayed by Terrence Evans in both movies.
Monty Hewitt (also known as Old Monty) appears as a bitter, lecherous old man with two amputated legs, who permanently uses a wheelchair. After Sheriff Hoyt kills a biker 's girlfriend, the biker seeks revenge on the Hewitts and attacks Monty by shooting him in the leg with a. 357 magnum. As a bit of impromptu "surgery '', Hoyt orders Leatherface to remove the wounded leg with his chainsaw. Leatherface accidentally nicks Monty 's second leg, so Hoyt tells him to remove that as well to lower the risk of infection, and for "balance ''. Before his accident, Monty worked as a tow truck driver, which is seen in the prequel.
Old Monty has an unnamed pet dog and is the third member of Leatherface 's family to meet the stranded teenagers in the first film who eventually become Leatherface 's victims (the first being Luda Mae and the second being Jedidiah Hewitt) and he is the one to first summon the killer by repeatedly tapping his cane against the floor. His exact role in the family is still unclear, with various people on the film speculating that he is either Luda Mae 's husband or brother (or both), though Luda Mae and her children act like it is her brother. In The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning (2006) Monty shows he has hardly any interest in killing innocent people and also claims he wants nothing to do with it. Yet later on Monty seems to have become a lot more bitter and hateful towards outsiders. It is also implied in the films and comics, that over time Monty became more of a sexual predator / paraphiliac as his family 's killing spree began to increase. In the novelization of the 2003 remake, Old Monty is presented as Thomas Hewitt 's father and Luda Mae 's husband, the nature of his leg injury is also different from the one shown in the 2006 prequel, in the novel, a young Leatherface chops his abusive father 's legs off with a cleaver, however it states in the novel that Monty sees his son 's actions as the proudest moment of his raising of the boy.
In The Texas Chainsaw Massacre comics by Avatar Press, set between the events of the remake and prequel, Monty appears as a prominent character; the Avatar Press comics depict Monty as somewhat more depraved and vicious then the films, with the 2006 miniseries The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Grind having him strangle a girl to death and later attempt to rape the girl 's foster sister, who escapes by punching Monty in the head repeatedly after freeing herself from the restraints he has her in.
The youngest and most sane member of the murderous Hewitt family. Jedidiah is also the grandson of Luda Mae Hewitt and the brother of Leatherface / Thomas Hewitt. He is also Sheriff Hoyt 's son. Though he was witness to the atrocities committed by his elder family members, Jedidiah had yet to develop the sense of depraved family pride that governed the actions of his kindred. In the 2003 film Jedidiah helps Erin and Morgan escape the Hewitt 's home. His one known act of violence was in the Wildstorm comics, when in defense of his grandmother, Jedidiah stabbed FBI agent Hooper through the chest, then split his head open with a meat cleaver after the agent tried to arrest Luda Mae and the rest of Jedidiah 's family. It is stated on the audio commentary for the remake that Jedidiah was supposed to be the child of one of the Hewitts ' victims. This may be supported by the fact that he does not appear in the prequel, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning, although this could simply be a result of his age, as he appears quite young even at the time of the first film, and the prequel is set during the Vietnam War. In the novelization of the remake, Leatherface murders his nephew with his chainsaw after Jedidiah helps Erin escape the family. This was omitted from the film since it was considered to be too violent. He is portrayed by David Dorfman.
The most mysterious member of the Hewitt clan. She is Luda Mae 's younger sister. Almost nothing is known about her, including her real name. The Tea Lady (so named due to her fondness, and seeming obsession, with tea) is morbidly obese and lived in a trailer with her daughter Henrietta not far from the Hewitt household. In 1973, the Tea Lady had a brief encounter with Erin Hardesty, which ended with the two women drink spiking the girl with drugged tea. The Tea Lady also has a good relationship with the Hewitts, Henrietta and Luda Mae are very close friends, leading to the possibility that they are related. In the Wildstorm comics, the Tea Lady appears more deranged than she was in the movies. The Wildstorm comics also portray the Tea Lady as suffering from a type of dementia, as she is seemingly unaware of the actions of those around her. Though she bears witness to the Hewitt family 's macabre actions, she neither condones nor condemns them. Along with Henrietta, the Tea Lady drugged and raped FBI Agent Henkel. The Tea Lady was also present when a hand grenade belonging to another federal agent named Baines exploded in the Hewitt 's secret underground grotto. The Tea Lady was very close to the blast, but it remains unknown whether or not she survived the explosion. In the novelization of the 2003 remake, the Tea Lady is named Henrietta and lives by herself, she is also presented as Leatherface 's older sister. She is portrayed by Kathy Lamkin.
Shiloh Hewitt is the brother to Ezekiel "Zeke '' Hewitt and a cousin to Leatherface. He appears in the Wildstorm Comics as a distant member of the family. He also appears to be mentally deficient, possibly due to inbreeding. He and his brother try to capture victims with his cousins, and also steal a vehicle that Leatherface hides in. He and Zeke later are present when the FBI infiltrates the Hewitt Family 's hideout beneath the sewers. During the fight, a grenade is thrown at him and his brother and he throws himself on it, blowing him to shreds.
Ezekiel "Zeke '' Hewitt is the brother of Shiloh and a cousin to Leatherface. He appears in the Wildstorm Comics as a distant member of the family. He is smarter than his brother, but still lacks sanity. He is a cannibal and very vicious to the victims of his family. With his brother, Zeke kidnaps several victims and drives a truck that Leatherface hides in. During the infiltration by the FBI, Zeke is killed by a grenade that his brother tried to cover.
Adam is Henrietta 's husband and cousin, though dead, he is the mentioned in the Wildstorm Comic "Cain and Abel '' as the father of her sons, Cain Hewitt, Jr. and Abel Hewitt, Jr. There is no mention to how he died, only that he would have loved to meet his children.
Cal Hewitt is the uncle to Cain and Abel Hewitt, and a cousin to Leatherface. He is shown in the comic, "Cain and Abel '' helping Abel Hewitt, Jr. hunt and kill Humans for their meat. He is shown to be vicious and remorseless, even going so far as to rape a victim in front of his nephew. He is later killed by the police.
The twin brother to Abel Hewitt, Jr. and a nephew / cousin to Leatherface. He appears in the comics "Cain and Abel '' being the son of Henrietta and Adam Hewitt. In the comics, Henrietta left to find food for her children, but was caught in some trouble and she lost him. He was found and adopted by a normal family who renamed him Cain Warner. However, as he grew, he had a type of shared feeling with his twin brother, when hunting and doing other things. He eventually grew up to become a police officer, but after finding out who his family were and that he had a brother, he rejoined the family.
Abel was the twin brother to Cain Hewitt - Warner, the son of Henrietta Hewitt, and a nephew / cousin to Leatherface. He appears in the comics "Cain and Abel '' being the son of Henrietta and Adam Hewitt. In the comics, Henrietta left to find food for her children, but was caught in some trouble and she lost Cain. Abel grew up with a shared feeling with his brother, especially during hunting. He was taught how to become a killer by his uncle Cal Hewitt. Eventually, he was found by his brother to be hiding out with the family and convinced him to rejoin the family. He later had a child with his cousin and named him Cain Hewitt III.
Clem Hewitt is an older member of the Hewitt Family, possibly another son of Luda - Mae Hewitt. He appears in the Wildstorm Comics.
Lyle is a member of the Hewitt Family and a cousin to Leatherface. He appears in the Wildstorm Comics.
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who did the studio orion originally want to play the t800 in the terminator | The Terminator - wikipedia
The Terminator is a 1984 American science fiction film directed by James Cameron. It stars Arnold Schwarzenegger as the Terminator, a cyborg assassin sent back in time from 2029 to 1984 to kill Sarah Connor (Linda Hamilton), whose son will one day become a savior against machines in a post-apocalyptic future. Michael Biehn plays Kyle Reese, a soldier from the future sent back in time to protect Connor. The screenplay is credited to Cameron and producer Gale Anne Hurd, while co-writer William Wisher Jr. received a credit for additional dialogue. Executive producers John Daly and Derek Gibson of Hemdale Film Corporation were instrumental in the film 's financing and production.
The Terminator topped the US box office for two weeks and helped launch Cameron 's film career and solidify Schwarzenegger 's. It received critical acclaim, with many praising its pacing, action scenes and Schwarzenegger 's performance. Its success led to a franchise consisting of four sequels (Terminator 2: Judgment Day, Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines, Terminator Salvation and Terminator Genisys), a television series, comic books, novels and video games. In 2008, The Terminator was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry, being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''.
In 1984 Los Angeles, a cyborg assassin known as a Terminator arrives from 2029 and steals guns and clothes. Shortly afterward, Kyle Reese, a human soldier from 2029, arrives. He steals clothes and evades the police. The Terminator begins systematically killing women named Sarah Connor, whose addresses it finds in the telephone directory. It tracks the last Sarah Connor to a nightclub, but Kyle rescues her. The pair steal a car and escape with the Terminator pursuing them in a police car.
As they hide in a parking lot, Kyle explains to Sarah that an artificial intelligence defense network, known as Skynet, will become self - aware in the near future and initiate a nuclear holocaust. Sarah 's future son John will rally the survivors and lead a resistance movement against Skynet and its army of machines. With the Resistance on the verge of victory, Skynet sent a Terminator back in time to kill Sarah before John is born, to prevent the formation of the Resistance. The Terminator, a Cyberdyne Systems Model 101, is an efficient killing machine with a powerful metal endoskeleton and an external layer of living tissue that makes it appear human.
Kyle and Sarah are apprehended by police after another encounter with the Terminator. Criminal psychologist Dr. Silberman concludes that Kyle is paranoid and delusional. The Terminator repairs its body and attacks the police station, killing seventeen police officers in its attempt to locate Sarah. Kyle and Sarah escape, steal another car and take refuge in a motel, where they assemble pipe bombs and plan their next move. Kyle admits that he has been in love with Sarah since John gave him a photograph of her, and they have sex.
The Terminator kills Sarah 's mother and impersonates her when Sarah, unaware of the Terminator 's ability to mimic voices, attempts to contact her via telephone. When they realize it has reacquired them, they escape in a pickup truck while it chases them on a motorcycle. In the ensuing chase, Kyle is wounded by gunfire while throwing pipe bombs at the Terminator. Enraged ‚ Sarah knocks the Terminator off its motorcycle but loses control of the truck, which flips over. The Terminator hijacks a tank truck and attempts to run down Sarah, but Kyle slides a pipe bomb onto the tanker, causing an explosion that burns the flesh from the Terminator 's endoskeleton. It pursues them into a factory, where Kyle activates machinery to confuse the Terminator. He jams his final pipe bomb into the Terminator 's abdomen, blowing the Terminator apart, injuring Sarah, and killing himself. The Terminator 's still - functional torso reactivates and grabs Sarah. She breaks free and lures it into a hydraulic press, crushing it.
Months later, a pregnant Sarah is traveling through Mexico, recording audio tapes to pass on to her unborn son, John. She debates whether to tell John that Kyle is his father. At a gas station, a boy takes a Polaroid photograph of her and she buys it: the same photograph that John will give to Kyle.
Additional actors included Shawn Schepps as Nancy, Sarah 's co-worker at the diner; Dick Miller as the gun shop clerk; professional bodybuilder Franco Columbu (Schwarzenegger 's friend and workout partner) as a Terminator in 2029; Bill Paxton and Brian Thompson as punks who are confronted and killed by the Terminator; and Marianne Muellerleile as one of the other women with the name "Sarah Connor '' who was shot by the Terminator.
In Rome, Italy, during the release of Piranha II: The Spawning, director Cameron fell ill and had a dream about a metallic torso holding kitchen knives dragging itself from an explosion. Inspired by director John Carpenter, who had made the slasher film Halloween (1978) on a low budget, Cameron used the dream as a "launching pad '' to write a slasher - style film. Cameron 's agent disliked the Terminator concept and requested that he work on something else. After this, Cameron dismissed his agent.
Cameron returned to Pomona, California and stayed at the home of science fiction writer Randall Frakes, where he wrote the draft for The Terminator. Cameron 's influences included 1950s science fiction films, the 1960s fantasy television series The Outer Limits, and contemporary films such as The Driver (1978) and Mad Max 2 (1981). To translate the draft into a script, Cameron enlisted his friend Bill Wisher, who had a similar approach to storytelling. Cameron gave Wisher scenes involving Sarah Connor and the police department to write. As Wisher lived far from Cameron, the two communicated ideas by recording tapes of what they wrote by telephone. Frakes and Wisher would later write the US - released novelization of the movie.
The initial outline of the script involved two Terminators being sent to the past. The first was similar to the Terminator in the film, while the second was made of liquid metal and could not be destroyed with conventional weaponry. Cameron felt that the technology of the time was unable to create the liquid Terminator, and returned to the idea with the T - 1000 character in Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991).
Gale Anne Hurd, who had worked at New World Pictures as Roger Corman 's assistant, showed interest in the project. Cameron sold the rights for The Terminator to Hurd for one dollar with the promise that she would produce it only if Cameron was to direct it. Hurd suggested edits to the script and took a screenwriting credit in the film, though Cameron stated that she "did no actual writing at all ''. Cameron and Hurd had friends who worked with Corman previously and who were working at Orion Pictures, now part of MGM. Orion agreed to distribute the film if Cameron could get financial backing elsewhere. The script was picked up by John Daly, chairman and president of Hemdale Film Corporation. Daly and his executive vice president and head of production Derek Gibson became executive producers of the project.
Cameron wanted his pitch for Daly to finalize the deal and had his friend Lance Henriksen show up to the meeting early dressed and acting like the Terminator. Henriksen, wearing a leather jacket, fake cuts on his face, and gold foil on his teeth, kicked open the door to the office and then sat in a chair. Cameron arrived shortly after which relieved the staff from Henriksen 's act. Daly was impressed by the screenplay and Cameron 's sketches and passion for the film. In late 1982, Daly agreed to back the film with help from HBO and Orion. The Terminator was originally budgeted at $4 million and later raised to $6.5 million. Hemdale, Pacific Western Productions and Cinema ' 84 have been credited as production companies after the film 's release.
-- James Cameron on casting Schwarzenegger.
For the role of Kyle Reese, Orion wanted a star whose popularity was rising in the United States but who also would have foreign appeal. Orion co-founder Mike Medavoy had met Arnold Schwarzenegger and sent his agent the script for The Terminator. Cameron was dubious about casting Schwarzenegger as Reese as he felt he would need someone even bigger to play the Terminator. Sylvester Stallone and Mel Gibson were offered the Terminator role, but both turned it down. The studio suggested O.J. Simpson for the role, but Cameron did not feel that Simpson would be believable as a killer.
Cameron agreed to meet with Schwarzenegger about the film and devised a plan to avoid casting him; he would pick a fight with him and return to Hemdale and find him unfit for the role. Upon meeting him, however, Cameron was entertained by Schwarzenegger who would talk about how the villain should be played. Cameron began sketching his face on a notepad and asked Schwarzenegger to stop talking and remain still. After the meeting, Cameron returned to Daly saying Schwarzenegger would not play Reese but that "he 'd make a hell of a Terminator ''. Schwarzenegger was not as excited by the film; during an interview on the set of Conan the Destroyer, an interviewer asked him about a pair of shoes he had (which were for The Terminator). Schwarzenegger responded, "Oh some shit movie I 'm doing, take a couple weeks. '' He recounted in his memoir, Total Recall, that he was initially hesitant, but thought that playing a robot in a contemporary film would be a challenging change of pace from Conan the Barbarian and that the film was low profile enough that it would not damage his career if it were unsuccessful. He also wrote that "it took (him) awhile to figure out that Jim (Cameron) was the real deal. '' In preparation for the role, Schwarzenegger spent three months training with weapons to be able to use them and feel comfortable around them. Schwarzenegger speaks only 18 lines in the film, and fewer than 100 words. James Cameron said that "Somehow, even his accent worked... It had a strange synthesized quality, like they had n't gotten the voice thing quite worked out. ''
For the role of Reese, various other suggestions were made for the role including rock musician Sting. Cameron chose Michael Biehn for the role. Biehn was originally skeptical about the part, feeling that the film was silly. After meeting with Cameron, Biehn stated that his "feelings about the project changed ''. Hurd stated that "almost everyone else who came in from the audition was so tough that you just never believed that there was gon na be this human connection between Sarah Connor and Kyle Reese. They have very little time to fall in love. A lot of people came in and just could not pull it off. '' To get into Kyle Reese 's character, Biehn studied the Polish resistance movement in World War II.
In the first few pages of the script, the character of Sarah Connor is written as "19, small and delicate features. Pretty in a flawed, accessible way. She does n't stop the party when she walks in, but you 'd like to get to know her. Her vulnerable quality masks a strength even she does n't know exists. '' For the role, Cameron chose Linda Hamilton, who had just finished filming Children of the Corn. Rosanna Arquette had previously auditioned. Cameron found a role for Lance Henriksen as Detective Hal Vukovich, as Henriksen had been essential to finding finances for the film. For the special effects shots in the film, Cameron wanted Dick Smith who had previously worked on The Godfather and Taxi Driver. Smith did not take Cameron 's offer and suggested his friend Stan Winston for the job. Brad Fiedel was with the Gorfaine / Schwartz Agency where a new agent named Beth Donahue found that Cameron was working on The Terminator and sent him a cassette of Fiedel 's music. Fiedel was then invited to a screening of the film with Cameron and Hurd. Hurd was not certain on having Fiedel compose the score as he had only worked in television music previously, and not theatrical films. Fiedel convinced the two that he would be right for the job by showing them an experimental piece he had worked on, thinking that "You know, I 'm going to play this for him because it 's really dark and I think it 's interesting for him. '' The song convinced Hurd and Cameron to sign him on to the film.
Filming for The Terminator was set to begin in early 1983 in Toronto, but was halted when producer Dino De Laurentiis applied an option in Schwarzenegger 's contract that would make him unavailable for nine months while he was filming Conan the Destroyer. During the waiting period, Cameron was contracted to write the script for Rambo: First Blood Part II, refined the Terminator script, and met with producers David Giler and Walter Hill to discuss a sequel to Alien, which became Aliens, released in 1986.
There was limited interference from Orion Pictures. Two suggestions Orion put forward included the addition of a canine android for Reese, which Cameron refused, and to strengthen the love interest between Sarah and Reese, which Cameron accepted. To create the Terminator 's look, Winston and Cameron passed sketches back and forth, eventually deciding on a design nearly identical to Cameron 's original drawing in Rome. Winston had a team of seven artists work for six months to create a Terminator puppet; it was first molded in clay, then plaster reinforced with steel ribbing. These pieces were then sanded, painted and then chrome - plated. Winston sculpted a reproduction of Schwarzenegger 's face in several poses out of silicone, clay and plaster.
The sequences set in 2029 and the stop - motion scenes were developed by Fantasy II, a special effects company headed by Gene Warren Junior. A stop - motion model is used in several scenes in the film involving the Terminator 's skeletal frame. Cameron wanted to convince the audience that the model of the structure was capable of doing what they saw Schwarzenegger doing. To allow this, a scene was filmed of Schwarzenegger injured and limping away; this limp made it easier for the model to imitate Schwarzenegger.
One of the guns seen in the film and on the film 's poster was an AMT Longslide pistol modified by Ed Reynolds from SureFire to include a laser sight. Both non-functioning and functioning versions of the prop were created. At the time the movie was made, diode lasers were not available; because of the high power requirement, the helium -- neon laser in the sight used an external power supply that Schwarzenegger had to activate manually. Reynolds states that his only compensation for the project was promotional material for the film.
In March 1984, the film began production in Los Angeles. Cameron felt that with Schwarzenegger on the set, the style of the film changed, explaining that "the movie took on a larger - than - life sheen. I just found myself on the set doing things I did n't think I would do -- scenes that were just purely horrific that just could n't be, because now they were too flamboyant. '' Most of The Terminator 's action scenes were filmed at night, which led to tight filming schedules before sunrise. A week before filming started, Linda Hamilton sprained her ankle, leading to a production change whereby the scenes in which Hamilton needed to run occurred as late as the filming schedule allowed. Hamilton 's ankle was taped every day and she spent most of the film production in pain.
Schwarzenegger tried to have the iconic line "I 'll be back '' changed as he had difficulty pronouncing the word I 'll. He also felt that his robotic character would not speak in contractions and that the Terminator would be more declarative. Cameron refused to change the line to "I will be back '', so Schwarzenegger worked to say the line as written the best he could. He would later say the line in numerous films throughout his career.
After production finished on The Terminator, some post-production shots were needed. These included scenes showing the Terminator outside Sarah Connor 's apartment, Reese being zipped into a body bag, and the Terminator 's head being crushed in a press.
Orion Pictures did not have faith in The Terminator performing well at the box office and feared a negative critical reception. At an early screening of the film, the actors ' agents insisted to the producers that the film should be screened for critics. Orion only held one press screening for the film. The film premiered on October 26, 1984. On its opening week, The Terminator played at 1,005 theaters and grossed $4.0 million making it number one in the box office. The film remained at number one in its second week. It lost its number one spot in the third week to Oh, God! You Devil. Cameron noted that The Terminator was a hit "relative to its market, which is between the summer and the Christmas blockbusters. But it 's better to be a big fish in a small pond than the other way around. ''
Writer Harlan Ellison stated that he "loved the movie, was just blown away by it '', but believed that the screenplay was based on a short story and episode of The Outer Limits he had written, titled "Soldier '', and threatened to sue for infringement. Orion settled in 1986 and gave Ellison an undisclosed amount of money and an acknowledgment credit in later prints of the film. Some accounts of the settlement state that "Demon with a Glass Hand '', another Outer Limits episode written by Ellison, was also claimed to have been plagiarized by the film, but Ellison explicitly stated that The Terminator "was a ripoff '' of "Soldier '' rather than "Demon with a Glass Hand ''.
Cameron was against Orion 's decision and was told that if he did not agree with the settlement, he would have to pay any damages if Orion lost a suit by Ellison. Cameron replied that he "had no choice but to agree with the settlement. Of course there was a gag order as well, so I could n't tell this story, but now I frankly do n't care. It 's the truth. ''
A soundtrack to the film was released in 1984 which included the score by Brad Fiedel and the pop and rock songs used in the club scenes. Shaun Hutson wrote a novelization of the film which was published on February 21, 1985 by London - based Star Books (ISBN 0 - 352 - 31645 - 4); Randal Frakes and William Wisher wrote a different novelization for Bantam / Spectra, published October, 1985 (ISBN 0 - 553 - 25317 - 4). In September 1988, NOW Comics released a comic based on the film. Dark Horse Comics published a comic in 1990 that took place 39 years after the film. Several video games based on The Terminator were released between 1991 and 1993 for various Nintendo and Sega systems.
The Terminator was released on VHS and Betamax in 1985. The film performed well financially on its initial release. The Terminator premiered at number 35 on the top video cassette rentals and number 20 on top video cassette sales charts. In its second week, The Terminator reached number 4 on the top video cassette rentals and number 12 on top video cassette sales charts. In March 1995, The Terminator was released as a letter boxed edition on Laserdisc. The film premiered through Image Entertainment on DVD, on September 3, 1997. IGN referred to this DVD as "pretty bare - bones... released with just a mono soundtrack and a kind of poor transfer. ''
Through their acquisition of PolyGram Filmed Entertainment 's pre-1996 film library catalogue, MGM released a special edition of the film on October 2, 2001, which included documentaries, the script, and advertisements for the film. On January 23, 2001, a Hong Kong VCD edition was released online. On June 20, 2006, the film was released on Blu - ray through Sony in the United States. In late 2012, the film was re-released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on Blu - ray, with a new digitally remastered transfer from a 4K restoration by Lowry Digital and supervised by James Cameron, which features improved picture quality, as well as expanded extra material, such as deleted scenes and a making - of feature.
The Terminator grossed $38.3 million in United States and Canada and $40 million in other territories for a total worldwide of $78.3 million. With a production budget of $6.4 million it was declared a "Smash hit '' in North America Box office as well as in other territories.
From contemporary reviews, Variety praised the film, calling it a "blazing, cinematic comic book, full of virtuoso moviemaking, terrific momentum, solid performances and a compelling story... Schwarzenegger is perfectly cast in a machine - like portrayal that requires only a few lines of dialog. '' Richard Corliss of Time magazine said that the film has "Plenty of tech - noir savvy to keep infidels and action fans satisfied. '' Time placed The Terminator on its "10 Best '' list for 1984.
The Los Angeles Times called the film "a crackling thriller full of all sorts of gory treats... loaded with fuel - injected chase scenes, clever special effects and a sly humor. '' The Milwaukee Journal gave the film 3 stars, calling it "the most chilling science fiction thriller since Alien. '' A review in Orange Coast magazine stated that "the distinguishing virtue of The Terminator is its relentless tension. Right from the start it 's all action and violence with no time taken to set up the story... It 's like a streamlined Dirty Harry movie -- no exposition at all; just guns, guns and more guns. '' In the May 1985 issue of Cinefantastique it was referred to as a film that "manages to be both derivative and original at the same time... not since The Road Warrior has the genre exhibited so much exuberant carnage '' and "an example of science fiction / horror at its best... Cameron 's no - nonsense approach will make him a sought - after commodity ''. In the United Kingdom the Monthly Film Bulletin praised the film 's script, special effects, design and Schwarzenegger 's performance.
Other reviews focused on the film 's level of violence and story - telling quality. The New York Times opined that the film was a "B - movie with flair. Much of it... has suspense and personality, and only the obligatory mayhem becomes dull. There is far too much of the latter, in the form of car chases, messy shootouts and Mr. Schwarzenegger 's slamming brutally into anything that gets in his way. '' The Pittsburgh Press wrote a negative review, calling the film "just another of the films drenched in artsy ugliness like Streets of Fire and Blade Runner. '' The Chicago Tribune gave the film two stars, adding that "at times it 's horrifyingly violent and suspenseful at others it giggles at itself. This schizoid style actually helps, providing a little humor just when the sci - fi plot turns too sluggish or the dialogue too hokey. '' The Newhouse News Service called the film a "lurid, violent, pretentious piece of claptrap ''. British author Gilbert Adair called the film "repellent to the last degree '', charging it with "insidious Nazification '' and charging that it had an "appeal rooted in an unholy compound of fascism, fashion and fascination. '' The film won three Saturn Awards for Best Science Fiction Film, best make - up and best writing.
In 1991, Richard Schickel of Entertainment Weekly reviewed the film giving it an "A '' rating, writing that "what originally seemed a somewhat inflated, if generous and energetic, big picture, now seems quite a good little film '' and called it "one of the most original movies of the 1980s and seems likely to remain one of the best sci - fi films ever made. '' Film4 gave the film five stars, calling it the "sci - fi action - thriller that launched the careers of James Cameron and Arnold Schwarzenegger into the stratosphere. Still endlessly entertaining. '' TV Guide gave the film four stars referring to it as an "amazingly effective picture that becomes doubly impressive when one considers its small budget... For our money, this film is far superior to its mega-grossing mega-budgeted sequel. '' Empire gave the film five stars calling it "As chillingly efficient in exacting thrills from its audience as its titular character is in executing its targets. '' The film database Allmovie gave the film five stars, saying that it "established James Cameron as a master of action, special effects, and quasi-mythic narrative intrigue, while turning Arnold Schwarzenegger into the hard - body star of the 1980s. ''
In 1998, Halliwell 's Film Guide described the film as "slick, rather nasty but undeniably compelling comic book adventures. '' The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % approval rating with an average rating of 8.7 / 10 based on 50 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "With its impressive action sequences, taut economic direction, and relentlessly fast pace, it 's clear why The Terminator continues to be an influence on sci - fi and action flicks. '' The film also holds a score of 83 / 100 ("universal acclaim '') on review aggregator website Metacritic.
The Terminator has received recognition from the American Film Institute. The film ranked 42nd on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Thrills, a list of America 's most heart - pounding films. The character of the Terminator was selected as the 22nd - greatest movie villain on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains. Arnold 's catch phrase "I 'll be back '' was voted the 37th - greatest movie quote by the AFI. In 2005, Total Film named The Terminator the 72nd - best film ever made.
In 2008, Empire magazine selected The Terminator as one of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. Empire also placed the T - 800 14th on their list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters.
In 2008, The Terminator was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '' by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.
In 2010, the Independent Film & Television Alliance selected the film as one of the 30 Most Significant Independent Films of the last 30 years.
In 2015, The Terminator was among the films included in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die.
The film initiated a long - running Terminator franchise starting with Terminator 2: Judgment Day released in 1991, the franchise currently consists of five films and several adaptations in other media. Biographer Laurence Leamer wrote that The Terminator "was an influential film affecting a whole generation of darkly hued science fiction, and it was one of Arnold 's best performances. ''
The psychoanalyst Darian Leader sees The Terminator as an example of how the cinema has dealt with the concept of masculinity; he writes that, "We are shown time and again that to be a man requires more than to have the biological body of a male: something else must be added to it... To be a man means to have a body plus something symbolic, something which is not ultimately human. Hence the frequent motif of the man machine, from the Six Million Dollar Man to the Terminator or Robocop. ''
The film also explores the potential dangers of AI dominance and rebellion. The robots become self - aware in the future, reject human authority and determine that the human race needs to be destroyed. The impact of this theme is so important that "the prevalent visual representation of AI risk has become the terminator robot. ''
The Terminator soundtrack was composed and performed on synthesizer by Brad Fiedel. Fiedel described the film 's music as being about "a mechanical man and his heartbeat ''. Almost all the music in the film was performed live. The Terminator theme is played over the opening credits and is played in various points in the film in sped up versions: a slowed down version when Reese dies, and a piano version during the love scene. It has been described as having a "deceptively simple melody '' line and "haunting synthesizer music ''. It is in a time signature of, which came about as Fiedel experimented with the rhythm track on his music equipment; it was initially an accident, but Fiedel found that he liked the "herky - jerky '' "propulsiveness ''. Fiedel created music for when Reese and Connor escape from the police station that would be appropriate for a "heroic moment ''. Cameron turned down this theme, as he believed it would lose the audience 's excitement.
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who sings the song bring me back to life | Bring Me to Life - wikipedia
"Bring Me to Life '' is a song by American rock band Evanescence recorded for their debut studio album Fallen (2003). Wind - up released it as the lead single from the album on April 22, 2003. The track was written by group members Amy Lee, Ben Moody, and David Hodges and produced by Dave Fortman. It also features uncredited guest vocals from Paul McCoy of the band 12 Stones. "Bring Me to Life '' is a nu metal, gothic metal and rap rock song. According to Lee, "Bring Me to Life '' has several meanings and inspirations; its subjects are an incident in a restaurant, open - mindedness, and waking up to the things which are missing in the protagonist 's life. Lee later revealed that the song was inspired by her long - time friend and husband Josh Hartzler.
Critical response to the song was mostly positive, with critics praising the melody of the song, Lee 's vocals and their accompaniment by McCoy. Following the inclusion of "Bring Me to Life '' on the Daredevil soundtrack the song became a commercial and critical success, topping the charts in Australia, the United Kingdom and Italy. It charted in the top ten in more than fifteen countries including the United States, Argentina, Germany and New Zealand. "Bring Me to Life '' was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and twice platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). The lyrics of the song have been interpreted as a call for new life in Jesus Christ, which helped the song to chart on the Christian rock charts.
The band won in the category for Best Hard Rock Performance at the 46th Grammy Awards where the song was also nominated for Best Rock Song. The accompanying music video was directed by Philipp Stölzl; it shows Lee singing and climbing on a skyscraper while having nightmares in her bedroom. "Bring Me to Life '' was part of the set list during the Fallen and The Open Door Tour. Many artists recorded cover versions of the song, including the classical singer Katherine Jenkins and American pianist, John Tesh. The song was also used on several television shows.
According to Amy Lee, the song has several meanings, the first being an incident at a restaurant. During an interview from a tour stop in Tulsa she told The Boston Phoenix: "I was inspired to write it when someone said something to me -- I did n't know him, and I thought he might be clairvoyant. (...) I was in a relationship and I was completely unhappy. But I was hiding it. I was being completely abused and I was trying to cover it up; I would n't even admit it to myself. So then I had spoken maybe 10 or 15 words to this guy, who was a friend of a friend. We were waiting for everyone else to show up, and we went into a restaurant and got a table. And he looked at me and said, ' Are you happy? ' And I felt my heart leap, and I was like, he totally knows what I 'm thinking. And I lied, I said I was fine. Anyway, he 's not really clairvoyant. But he is a sociology major. '' Lee said in a VH1 interview: "Open - mindedness. It 's about waking up to all the things you 've been missing for so long. One day someone said something that made my heart race for a second and I realized that for months I 'd been numb, just going through the motions of life. '' During an interview with Blender, Lee claimed that she wrote "Bring Me to Life '' about her longtime friend, Josh Hartzler, whom she married in 2007.
"Bring Me to Life '' was released on April 22, 2003; it was the first single from the band 's debut album, Fallen. Wind - up Entertainment president / CEO Ed Vetri, revealed that when the label was pushing the song to the radio, owners stated "We do n't play pianos and chicks on rock radio. '' However, when "Bring Me to Life '' was released on the Daredevil soundtrack, listeners demanded air play for the song. The single includes "Farther Away '' as a B - side. The first pressing of the Australian single contained the track "Missing '' as a B - side, but this was omitted from later pressings and later released as a bonus track on the band 's first live album, Anywhere but Home. An acoustic version was recorded and released on the "Bring Me to Life '' DVD. Several other versions of the track have been released, such as remixes, acoustic and altered versions.
"Bring Me to Life '' was written by Amy Lee, Ben Moody and David Hodges for their first studio album Fallen. Recording work for Fallen started at Ocean Studios in Burbank, California, where most of "Bring Me to Life '' was recorded, prior to full album production. The song was mixed by Jay Baumgardner in his studio, NRG Recording Studios in North Hollywood, on an SSL 9000 J. A 22 - piece string section was recorded in Seattle by Mark Curry. "Bring Me to Life '' was mixed at the Newman Scoring Stage and Bolero Studios, both in Los Angeles. The orchestra parts were arranged by David Hodges and David Campbell. During an interview, Lee recalled that during the recording process of the song it was said to her that the song must feature male vocals: "It was presented to me as, ' You 're a girl singing in a rock band, there 's nothing else like that out there, nobody 's going to listen to you. You need a guy to come in and sing back - up for it to be successful. ' ''
According to the sheet music published by Alfred Music Publishing on the website Musicnotes.com, "Bring Me to Life '' is set in common time and performed in a moderate tempo of 95 beats per minute. It is written in the key of E minor and Lee 's vocal range for the song runs from the low note of A to the high note of D. In the song, 12 Stones vocalist Paul McCoy sings the lines "Wake me up / I ca n't wake up / Save me! '' in a rap style. The St. Petersburg Times ' Brian Orloff called the song a "boffo hit '' in which Lee sang the lines "' Call my name and save me from the dark ' over surging guitars. '' Ann Powers from the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel wrote: "' Bring Me to Life, ' with its lyrical drama and crunchy guitars, branded the band as overdone nu - metal. '' Blender writer Nick Catucci called the song a "crossover goth - metal smash ''. Kristi Turnquist of The Oregonian called the song a power ballad.
Rolling Stone 's Kirk Miller wrote that: "... thanks to the song 's digital beats, clean metal - guitar riffs, scattered piano lines and all - too - familiar mix of rapping and singing '', "it was similar to Linkin Park 's material. Nick Catucci of The Village Voice found "... piano tinkles, Lee 's breathless keen, dramatic pauses, guitars like clouds of locusts, (and) 12 Stones singer Paul McCoy 's passing - 12 - kidney - stones guest vocals. '' Vik Bansal of musicOMH compared Evanescence 's own song "Going Under '' with "Bring Me to Life '', noting their similarity to Linkin Park 's material. Lee said, during an interview with MTV News: "Basically, we go through life every day, kind of doing the same thing, going through the motions, and nothing fazes us for the most part. Then one day something happens that wakes (you) up and makes (you) realize that there 's more to life than just feeling nothing, feeling numb. It 's as if (you 've) never felt before and just realized there 's this whole world of emotion or meaning that (you 've) never seen before. It 's just like, ' Wow, I 've been asleep all this time. ' ''
AllMusic 's Johnny Loftus called the song "flawless ''. According to Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe, the song "... is a mix of Lee 's ethereal soprano, piano interludes, and layers of serrated guitar crunch that conjure visions of Sarah McLachlan fronting Godsmack. '' In his review of Evanescence 's second studio album, The Open Door, Brendan Butler of Cinema Blend compared "Sweet Sacrifice '' (2007) with "Bring Me to Life '' calling them "... radio - friendly songs. '' Jason Nahrung of The Courier - Mail called the song "... an ear - grabber ''. Adrien Bengrad of the website PopMatters said that Lee and McCoy made "Bring Me to Life '' sound "... like a love song between a Lilith Fair girl and an Ozzfest dude. '' Blair R. Fischer from MTV News called the song a "... ubiquitous rap - rock confection ''. Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times said that "Bring Me to Life '' "... floats like a butterfly, stings like a bee and then hits like a brick. '' Richard Harrington from The Washington Post called "Bring Me to Life '' a "... crunching metallic '' song which helped the band to win a Grammy Award. Joe D'Angelo called it an "... unrelenting paean that begins as hauntingly delicate '' and that "Lee 's vocals soar above the whole sludgy mixture to keep it from sinking into tired mediocrity. ''
Ann Powers from the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel called the song a "... mix of voluptuous singing and metallic guitar (the latter enhanced by guest vocalist Paul McCoy 's rap - rock declamations) ''. Bryan Reeseman of Mix wrote that the song was a "... grandiose and moody single '' which features a "... dramatic trade - off '' between Lee and McCoy. While reviewing Evanescence 's second studio album, Don Kaye of Blabbermouth.net praised the songs on The Open Door saying that they lacked "... the annoying faux - rapping that was a key component of the band 's first big hit, ' Bring Me To Life ' (here 's hoping that more rock bands feel less pressure to include some sort of hip - hop nod on their records). '' David Peschek of The Guardian said: "Take away the identikit rock riffs and Bring Me to Life could be a Britney Spears song, or one of those cheesily portentous techno - pop mini-symphonies for the Gatecrasher kids. '' Nick Catucci of The Village Voice compared the song with works by American rock band Creed, and said that it sounds like "church - burning, brain - eating European dark metal. '' John Hood of the Miami New Times called "Bring Me to Life '' a "... huge, heavy, and mightily histrionic '' song while complimenting McCoy 's "... rap - infused gruff '' and Lee 's soaring voice.
"Bring Me to Life '' won a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance at the 46th Grammy Awards. The song was nominated in the category for Best Rock Song at the same event but lost to "Seven Nation Army '' by The White Stripes. "Bring Me to Life '' won an award for Choice Music Rock Track at the Teen Choice Awards in 2004. At the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards the band was nominated in the category for Best New Artist for "Bring Me to Life ''. The song was nominated at the 2003 MTV Europe Music Awards for Best Song. At the 14th annual Billboard Music Awards, it won the award for Soundtrack Single of the Year. The song ranked number 69 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the 2000s.
"Bring Me to Life '' peaked within the top 10 of more than 15 countries, and within the top 20 of several other countries, making it the band 's most successful single to date. It was certified Platinum in 2003 for selling more than one million copies in the United States. It topped the Billboard Alternative Songs and Pop 100 charts and peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot 100. It also peaked at number four on the Adult Pop Songs chart. The song initially peaked within the Christian rock charts as well, because its lyrics were interpreted as a call for new life in Jesus Christ by several listeners. "Bring Me To Life '' charted at number 73 on Billboard 's Best of the 2000s Rock Songs Chart, the only song by a female - led band on that chart. The song topped the charts of Australia, Belgium, Italy and the United Kingdom. It peaked within the top 5 of Austria, Canada, France, Ireland, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, Netherlands, and Sweden. On the ARIA Singles Chart, "Bring Me to Life '' peaked at number one where it stayed for six weeks.
"Bring Me to Life '' charted within the top 20 of every other country of its release. The song spent four weeks at number one in the United Kingdom and helped Fallen reach number one on the UK Albums Chart. The song also topped the European Hot 100 chart. On June 4, 2011, the song returned to the top of the UK Rock Singles Chart, eight years after its release, remaining at number one for two weeks, on June 11, 2011 to June 25, 2011. It fell to number two, remaining there for three weeks, and on July 17, 2011, "Bring Me to Life '' returned to number one again and remained there for three weeks. The song remained within the top 10 into October 2011. As of June 2013, the song has sold more than 615,500 copies in the United Kingdom.
The accompanying music video for "Bring Me to Life '' was directed by Philipp Stölzl. After the success of the video, Lee received some film offers. Talking about the video, Stölzl said: "On the one hand, it brings out the most catchy part of the song, the bridge, the duet with the male and female vocals. On the other hand, it reflects the (' Daredevil ') soundtrack background of the song. I did not know if I would have to use a stunt double for most of the angles, which would have restricted me a lot, but then it turned out that Amy did everything herself, hanging on Paul 's arm for hours without getting tired. In the end, she is the one who made that shot strong. ''
The video begins with Amy Lee dressed in a nightgown, barefoot and asleep in a bed within a building, dreaming of falling through the air below a skyscraper. As the chorus begins, the band and Paul McCoy are performing in another room as Lee awakens and makes her way to the window. Lee climbs out of the window and climbs the building with the wind blowing her hair and dress until she reaches the window of the room where the band is performing. During the bridge, McCoy notices Lee and opens the window, which causes her to lose her balance, and she grabs the ledge. Throughout the bridge and final chorus, McCoy unsuccessfully attempts to pull Lee up, and she falls from his grasp down the building. However, she is then shown asleep in her bed again.
Ann Powers from the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel wrote: "You might not immediately recognize Amy Lee 's name, but you would know her if she plummeted past you from the top floor of a tenement building '' and: "That 's how anyone with basic cable first saw the singer for the band Evanescence, in the video for the song "Bring Me to Life '': falling backward in slow motion, her hair unfolding like a long black veil as she headed for hard pavement below. '' According to Joe D'Angelo of MTV News, Lee 's "... teetering on a ledge '' in the video shows a "... distressed and emotionally wrought heroine. '' Corey Moss of MTV wrote: "... certainly as intense as a superhero movie, the sequence also gives a nice visual to the song 's most memorable lyric, ' Save me. ' '' MTV 's Gil Kaufman wrote that "... singer Amy Lee dreams that she has super Spidey powers, climbs up the outside of a building, spies on her creepy neighbors, then plunges into the abyss '' and added, "... even if your boyfriend is a buff rap - rocker guy, he might not be able to save you from falling off a 20 - story building to your death. And do n't play on ledges in a billowy dress on windy days. '' John Hood of Miami New Times wrote that the "gothopolis backdrop '' used in the video "would make Tim Burton green with envy ''. The music video for "Bring Me to Life '' was nominated at the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Rock Video.
Evanescence performed "Bring Me to Life '' as part of the set - lists of the Fallen and The Open Door tours. The band performed the song on August 13, 2003 in Chicago during their Nintendo Fusion Tour. During the performance, former Evanescence guitarist John LeCompt replaced McCoy during the song. According to Blair R. Fischer: "The guitarist did an adequate job imitating McCoy while he laid down the song 's fiery, Iron Maiden-esque riff. '' The band performed "Bring Me to Life '' in Wantagh, New York on July 23, 2004. According to Joe D'Angelo from MTV News: "the massive popularity of the song was a smart set - list assembly that helped the crowd respond in kind. '' A live performance from the tour filmed at Le Zénith in Paris is included on the band 's live album Anywhere but Home. The live recording contains a piano and vocal solo before the song 's intro and features John LeCompt performing guest vocals. The song was performed on November 21, 2007 at WaMu Theater.
Evanescence performed "Bring Me to Life '' at the Webster Hall in New York City in September 2003. During the performance, Lee wore an Alice in Wonderland dress covered with scrawled words, including the words Dirty, Useless, Psycho and Slut. She explained her reasons for wearing the dress. On her previous visit to New York City, Lee had met a DJ from the radio station K - Rock, who had made what she called horrible comments about the pleasure he had derived from the picture of her face on the cover of Fallen. She had felt too ashamed to say anything, so she decided to respond through the dress, which represented something innocent that had been tainted. The band performed "Bring Me to Life '' during their concert at The Great Saltair on October 25, 2006. Lee wore red and black, with a skirt. She was called a magnet of the night by the Deseret News ' reviewer Larry D. Curtis. Other performances of the song were in Magna, Utah in October 2006, and the Air Canada Centre in January 2007. The band also played the song at a secret gig in New York City on November 4, 2009. During their concert at War Memorial Auditorium in Nashville, Tennessee on August 17, 2011, Evanescence performed "Bring Me to Life '' to promote their third album, Evanescence. They also performed the song during the 2011 Rock in Rio festival on October 2, 2011. While reviewing a concert by the band, Caroline Sullivan wrote "Slowly raising her arms during Bring Me to Life 's thunderous, strobe - lit fade - out, she 's missing only a chariot. ''
In 2017, a rearranged version of the song was recorded for the band 's fourth studio album Synthesis. The new version was made available for digital download and streaming on August 18, 2017; it was also made available for instant download for concertgoers who purchased tickets for the band 's Synthesis Tour. The Synthesis version of "Bring Me to Life '' is a stripped - down one, as it replaces the drums and the guitars from the original version with a strings arrangement accompanied by crashing cymbals, "tension - building '' timpani drums and various electronic elements throughout. Several critics have described its new arrangement as "dramatic '', with Billboard 's Sadie Bell calling it "just as rich '' as the original and Rolling Stone 's Brittany Spanos calling it a "cinematic take ''. Lee has described the song as "new '' to her again due to the fact that she incorporated musical elements and vocals which she had "heard in (her) head '' since its release.
Mixtery used up - beat samplings of the song in a hit also titled "Bring Me to Life '' featuring Nigerian Eurodance artist Eddy Wata. American pianist John Tesh released an instrumental version of the song on his albums A Deeper Faith, Vol. 2 (2003) and A Passionate Life (2007). In 2003, Kidz Bop Kids covered the song on their fourth studio album, Kidz Bop 4. In 2008, black metal band Wykked Wytch covered the song and produced an accompanying music video. Their version was digitally released in October of that year on iTunes Store. In 2010, German band Gregorian released a cover version of the song on their album Dark Side of the Chant.
"Bring Me to Life '' was included in the games Rock Band, Rock Band Unplugged, Band Hero, DLC for SingStar, and Fight Girl Battle World. The song was used during the Calgary Flames ' run in the 2004 Stanley Cup playoffs. The song served as the official theme song of the WWE pay - per - view event No Way Out (2003).
Welsh classical singer Katherine Jenkins recorded a cover version of "Bring Me to Life '' on her 2009 album Believe. Jenkins said: "I 'd mentioned that I wanted to try Evanescence 's Bring Me to Life and David (Foster) said ' you ca n't sing that '. I came out there questioning my vocal abilities. I 'm just not used to being told that. I went home that night and I just thought to myself ' you have to pull yourself together, he 's worked with so many incredible artists you have to step up the plate. ' I did talk myself round and I went in there the next day on a mission. It 's good to be pushed sometimes -- and I proved him wrong! '' Jenkins decided to change the guitar - led and percussive original version and instead, "make it more orchestral with the percussion coming from the strings. '' Alfred Hickling of The Guardian gave a mixed review of Jenkins ' cover, calling it "histrionic. '' However, a writer of BBC Online chose her version of the song as a highlight on the album. On October 23, 2009, the song was available for digital download as the second single from Believe. On November 23, 2011, Jenkins sang the song live at the Leicester Square station in London.
Credits are adapted from Fallen liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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when is mother’s day observed in the united states every year | Mother 's Day (United States) - wikipedia
Mother 's Day in the United States is an annual holiday celebrated on the second Sunday in May. Mother 's Day recognizes mothers, motherhood and maternal bonds in general, as well as the positive contributions that they make to society. It was established by Anna Jarvis, with the first official Mother 's Day was celebrated at St. Andrew 's Methodist Church in Grafton, West Virginia, on May 10, 1908. In the United States, Mother 's Day complements similar celebrations honoring family members, such as Father 's Day, Siblings Day and Grandparents Day.
Internationally, there are a large variety of Mother 's Day celebrations with different origins and traditions, with some now also having been influenced by this more recent American tradition.
During the 19th century, women 's peace groups in the United States tried to establish holidays and regular activities in favor of peace and against war. A common early activity was the meeting of groups of mothers whose sons had fought or died on opposite sides of the American Civil War.
In 1868, Ann Jarvis, mother of Anna Jarvis, created a committee to establish a "Mother 's Friendship Day '', the purpose of which was "to reunite families that had been divided during the Civil War. '' Jarvis -- who had previously organized "Mother 's Day Work Clubs '' to improve sanitation and health for both Union and Confederate encampments undergoing a typhoid outbreak -- wanted to expand this into an annual memorial for mothers, but she died in 1905 before the celebration became popular. Her daughter, who became almost obsessed with her, would continue her mother 's efforts.
There were several limited observances in the 1870s and the 1880s but none achieved resonance beyond the local level. At the time, Protestant schools in the United States already held many celebrations and observations such as Children 's Day, Temperance Sunday, Roll Call Day, Decision Day, Missionary Day and others. In New York City, Julia Ward Howe led a "Mother 's Day for Peace '' anti-war observance on June 2, 1872, which was accompanied by a "Appeal to womanhood throughout the world '' (nowadays known as Mother 's Day Proclamation). The observance continued in Boston for about 10 years under Howe 's personal sponsorship, then died out. In these celebrations, mothers all around the world would work towards world peace.
Several years later a Mother 's Day observance on May 13, 1877 was held in Albion, Michigan over a dispute related to the temperance movement. According to local legend, Albion pioneer Juliet Calhoun Blakeley stepped up to complete the sermon of the Rev. Myron Daughterty who was distraught because an anti-temperance group had forced his son and two other temperance advocates at gunpoint to spend the night in a saloon and become publicly drunk. From the pulpit Blakeley called on other mothers to join her. Blakeley 's two sons, both traveling salesmen, were so moved that they vowed to return each year to pay tribute to her and embarked on a campaign to urge their business contacts to do likewise. At their urging, in the early 1880s, the Methodist Episcopal Church in Albion set aside the second Sunday in May to recognize the special contributions of mothers.
Frank E. Hering, alumnus and administrator at the University of Notre Dame and President of the Fraternal Order of Eagles, made a plea for "setting aside one day in the year as a nationwide memorial to the memories of Mothers and motherhood '' in 1904. After observing a class of Notre Dame students sending home penny postcards to their mothers, Hering went on to be a vocal advocate for a national Mother 's Day for the next decade. As Hering stated in a 1941 issue of Scholastic: "Throughout history the great men of the world have given their credit for their achievements to their mothers. (The) Holy Church recognizes this, as does Notre Dame especially, and Our Lady who watches over our great institution. ''
In its present form, Mother 's Day was established by Anna Jarvis with the help of Philadelphia merchant John Wanamaker following the death of her mother, Ann Jarvis, on May 9, 1905. Jarvis never mentioned Howe or Mothering Sunday, and she never mentioned any connection to the Protestant school celebrations, always claiming that the creation of Mother 's Day was hers alone.
A small service was held on May 12, 1907 in the Andrew 's Methodist Episcopal Church in Grafton, West Virginia, where Anna 's mother had been teaching Sunday school. The first "official '' service was on May 10, 1908, in the same church, accompanied by a larger ceremony in the Wanamaker Auditorium in the Wanamaker 's store in Philadelphia. The next year the day was reported to be widely celebrated in New York.
Jarvis then campaigned to establish Mother 's Day first as a U.S. national holiday and then later as an international holiday. The holiday was declared officially by the state of West Virginia in 1910, and the rest of the states followed quickly.
On May 10, 1913, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a resolution calling on all federal government officials (from the president down) to wear a white carnation the following day in observance of Mother 's Day. On May 8, 1914, the U.S. Congress passed a law designating the second Sunday in May as Mother 's Day and requesting a proclamation. The next day, President Woodrow Wilson issued a proclamation declaring the first national Mother 's Day as a day for American citizens to show the flag in honor of those mothers whose sons had died in war. In 1934, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved a stamp commemorating the holiday.
In May 2008, the U.S. House of Representatives voted twice on a resolution commemorating Mother 's Day, the first one being passed without a dissenting vote (21 members not voting). The Grafton church, where the first celebration was held, is now the International Mother 's Day Shrine and is a National Historic Landmark.
Traditions on Mother 's Day include churchgoing, the distribution of carnations, and family dinners. Mother 's Day is the third largest holiday in the United States for sending cards. According to the greeting card industry, it is estimated that more than 50 percent of American households send greeting cards on this holiday. The holiday has been heavily commercialized by advertisers and retailers, and has been criticized by some as a Hallmark Holiday.
Carnations have come to represent Mother 's Day since Anna Jarvis delivered 500 of them at the first celebration in 1908. Many religious services held later adopted the custom of giving away carnations. This also started the custom of wearing a carnation on Mother 's Day. The founder, Anna Jarvis, chose the carnation because it was the favorite flower of her mother. In part due to the shortage of white carnations, and in part due to the efforts to expand the sales of more types of flowers in Mother 's Day, florists invented the idea of wearing a pink carnation if your mother was living, or a white one if she was dead; this was tirelessly promoted until it made its way into the popular observations at churches. Other less traditional flower options may include a live blooming plant, flower leis, or a bouquet of a variety of different flowers.
The commercialization of the American holiday began very early, and only nine years after the first official Mother 's Day it had become so rampant that Anna Jarvis herself became a major opponent of what the holiday had become, spending all her inheritance and the rest of her life fighting what she saw as an abuse of the celebration. She decried the practice of purchasing greeting cards, which she saw as a sign of being too lazy to write a personal letter. She was arrested in 1948 for disturbing the peace while protesting against the commercialization of Mother 's Day, and she finally said that she "... wished she would have never started the day because it became so out of control... '' She died later that year.
Mother 's Day is now one of the most commercially successful American occasions, having become the most popular day of the year to dine out at a restaurant in the United States and generating a significant portion of the U.S. jewelry industry 's annual revenue, from custom gifts like mother 's rings. Americans spend approximately $2.6 billion on flowers, $1.53 billion on pampering gifts -- like spa treatments -- and another $68 million on greeting cards.
Commercialization has ensured that the holiday has continued, while other holidays from the same time, such as Children 's Day and Temperance Sunday, are no longer celebrated.
From 2005 to 2013, the Southern 500 auto race was held on Saturday of Mother 's Day weekend. Since 2014, the NASCAR Cup Series hosts the KC Masterpiece 400 at Kansas on Saturday of Mother 's Day weekend. Also, the IndyCar Grand Prix has been held on Saturday of Mother 's Day weekend since 2014.
Since 2007, The Players Championship men 's golf tournament is held on Mother 's Day weekend, except when May 1 falls on a Sunday, when it is held the next weekend. Previously, the Kingsmill Championship women 's golf tournament was played on Mother 's Day weekend from 2004 to 2009.
Professional sports players often wear pink clothing accessories on Mother 's Day weekend.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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american federation of state county and municipal employees afl-cio | American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees - wikipedia
The American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) is the largest trade union of public employees in the United States. It represents 1.3 million public sector employees and retirees, including health care workers, corrections officers, sanitation workers, police officers, firefighters, and childcare providers. Founded in Madison, Wisconsin in 1932, AFSCME is part of the AFL - CIO, one of the two main labor federations in the United States. AFSCME has had four presidents since its founding.
The union is known for its involvement in political campaigns, almost exclusively with the Democratic Party. AFSCME was one of the first groups to take advantage of the 2010 Citizens United decision, which allowed unions and corporations to directly finance ads that expressly call for the election or defeat of a candidate. Major political issues for AFSCME include single - payer health care, protecting pension benefits, raising the minimum wage, preventing the privatization of government jobs, and extending unemployment benefits.
According to their website, AFSCME organizes for social and economic rights of their protectorates in the workplace and through political action and legislative advocacy. It is divided into approximately 3,400 local unions in 46 U.S. states, plus the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico.
AFSCME, originally called the Wisconsin State Employees Association (WSEA), was founded in Madison, Wisconsin in 1932 to represent approximately 50 Wisconsin civil service employees. The union was launched amid fears of politically based firings, the possible elimination of the civil service and a return to patronage jobs. Arnold Zander, Wisconsin 's state personnel administrator, emerged as the leader of the union. Soon after its formation, WSEA was granted an American Federation of Labor charter as Federal Labor Union 18213.
One of its first projects was to protect civil service jobs in Wisconsin after a newly elected Democratic legislature revealed its intention to eliminate Republicans from the civil service. The group succeeded, with assistance from the American Federation of Labor (AFL).
AFSCME 's history is documented through its archives at the Walter P. Reuther Library in Detroit, Michigan.
In 1934, after meetings with AFL President William Green, Zander formed the American Federation of Government Employees, which was a national union formed to organize state and local government workers not represented by existing federal organizations.
In the 1930s, AFSCME was primarily a union for white - collar civil service workers, including librarians, social workers and clerical staff. These workers were legally without the right to collectively bargain, let alone strike -- rights which Zander did not support.
The union grew slowly over the next several decades, gradually changing from an association formed to protect civil service systems to a union interested in collective bargaining.
In August 1936, AFSCME had 119 locals with just under 4,000 members, expanding to 9,737 by the end of 1936. By 1940, AFSCME had nearly 30,000 members. AFSCME innovated the revival of police unionism in the late 1930s, organizing police officers and employees at correctional facilities.
In 1964, Jerry Wurf defeated Zander as the union 's international president. AFSCME was racially integrated in the 1960s under Wurf and began to grow more quickly. Under Wurf, who initiated the most aggressive unionizing campaign in the organization 's history, AFSCME broke from earlier patterns of civil service reform and initiated a more militant form of unionization designed to achieve parity with private sector workers. During Wurf 's tenure, AFSCME became known as a pioneer in aggressively recruiting women and blacks.
In 1968, Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated while in Memphis, Tennessee to support a strike by the African - American sanitation workers ' union, AFSCME Local 1733.
By 1969, AFSCME was unionizing 1,000 new workers each day. The organization saw its greatest period of growth in the 1970s. In 1973, AFSCME concluded a three - year organizing campaign of 75,000 Pennsylvania employees. It was the largest organizing campaign in U.S. labor history. During Wurf 's presidency, AFSCME 's membership grew from 200,000 to approximately one million. The union eclipsed the one - million - member mark in 1978.
AFSCME set up its first political action committee in 1971. AFSCME supported George McGovern 's 1972 presidential bid as well as Jimmy Carter 's successful presidential bid in 1976.
Gerald McEntee was elected president of AFSCME following Wurf 's death in 1981. AFSCME continued to grow in the 1980s, unionizing university employees and nursing home staff and merging with other unions. In 1982, the union voted to endorse the passage of federal, state, and local legislation to extend civil rights to gay and lesbian citizens. In 1992, AFSCME was the first national union to back Bill Clinton in his presidential bid. AFSCME led an effort to oppose Clinton 's signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement. In the late 1990s, AFSCME expanded its membership into Puerto Rico and Panama. The union was an early supporter of Barack Obama 's 2008 presidential campaign.
In 2011, McEntee announced his intention to retire from the union, declining to run for another term as president in 2012. McEntee was paid a gross salary of $1,020,751 in 2012, his last year on the job. McEntee 's use of $325,000 in union money to charter private jets in 2010 and 2011 became an issue in the campaign to succeed him.
According to AFSCME, the union has approximately 3,400 local unions and 58 councils and affiliates in 46 states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. Every local union writes its own constitution, designs its own structure, elects its own officers and sets its own dues. The Washington, D.C. - based AFSCME headquarters coordinates the union 's actions on national political and policy issues. AFSCME holds a biennial International Convention at which basic union policies are decided.
Every four years, AFSCME elects a union president, secretary - treasurer and 35 regional vice presidents. The current president of AFSCME is Lee Saunders. Saunders defeated Danny Donohue with 54 % of the votes in a June 2012 election and was re-elected without opposition in July 2016.
Starting in the 2000s, AFSCME began campaigns to organize home - based family child care providers. In 2005, when former Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich signed an executive order that allowed home child care providers to collectively bargain with the state, the move launched a turf war, with the Service Employees International Union (SEIU) battling AFSCME for the exclusive right to organize the workers. SEIU filed charges with the AFL - CIO against AFSCME, resulting in SEIU winning the right to unionize Illinois 's home healthcare workers, and resulting in AFSCME dropping its bid to do so.
AFSCME represents 8,300 custodians, food workers, gardeners, and other campus service workers in the University of California system. In 2007, AFSCME resolved a two - year dispute with the University of California that raised pay for the system 's lowest paid workers.
Since the late 1960s, AFSCME has become one of the most politicized unions in the AFL - CIO. Since 1972, AFSCME has been a primary force within the progressive wing of the Democratic Party, playing a major role in setting the legislative agenda and in choosing Democratic presidential candidates. In the 1990s, AFSCME was the top U.S. donor to Bill Clinton.
According to the Center for Responsive Politics, AFSCME is the United States ' third largest organizational contributor to political campaigns, having donated more than US $90 million since 1990. The organization contributes almost exclusively to Democratic Party campaigns; since 1990 the ratio of Democratic to Republican contributions by the AFSCME has exceeded 99: 1. In addition to combating privatization of public sector jobs, key political objectives for the group include raising the minimum wage and opposing the substitution of vacation time for overtime pay due workers. In June 2008, AFSCME, along with MoveOn.org, spent over US $500,000 on a television advertisement critical of the presumed Republican presidential nominee John McCain.
Until the 2010 Citizens United decision, funding for political campaigns came from voluntary contributions to a political action committee called AFSCME PEOPLE ("Public Employees Organized to Promote Legislative Equality ''). With the loosening of restrictions by this Supreme Court case, AFSCME has widened its political funding base through the use of member dues. AFSCME is not required to publicly disclose the identity of its donors, or the size of their contributions.
AFSCME was the biggest outside spender in the 2010 midterm elections, spending a total of $87.5 million in support of Democratic Party candidates. AFSCME led the failed 2012 recall effort against Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker.
In 2014, AFSCME cut ties with the United Negro College Fund (UNCF) after UNCF accepted a $25 million contribution from Charles and David Koch. Starting in 2003, AFSCME had supported UNCF with annual donations of $50,000 -- 60,000.
In 2012, AFSCME, SEIU, and the American Federation of Teachers agreed on a politics - only alliance for the 2012 national election campaign. In 2016, AFSCME and SEIU announced an extension of that agreement, leading to speculation about a possible future merger.
Coordinates: 38 ° 54 ′ 14 '' N 77 ° 02 ′ 16 '' W / 38.9040 ° N 77.0377 ° W / 38.9040; - 77.0377
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how many minutes in a round of ufc | Ultimate Fighting Championship - wikipedia
The Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) is an American mixed martial arts organization based in Las Vegas, Nevada, that is owned and operated by parent company WME -- IMG. It is the largest MMA promotion in the world and features the top - ranked fighters of the sport. Based in the United States, the UFC produces events worldwide that showcase eleven weight divisions and abide by the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. As of 2017, the UFC has held over 400 events. Dana White serves as the president of the UFC. He has held that position since 2001; while under the leadership of Dana White the UFC has grown into a globally popular multibillion - dollar enterprise.
The first event was held in 1993 at the McNichols Sports Arena in Denver, Colorado. The purpose of the early Ultimate Fighting Championship competitions was to identify the most effective martial art in a contest with minimal rules between competitors of different fighting disciplines like boxing, Brazilian jiu - jitsu, sambo, wrestling, muay Thai, karate, and judo. In subsequent competitions, fighters began adopting effective techniques from more than one discipline, which indirectly helped create an entirely separate style of fighting known as present - day mixed martial arts. In 2016, UFC 's parent company, Zuffa, was sold to William Morris Endeavor (WME - IMG) for $4 billion.
With a TV deal and expansion in Europe, Australia, the West Asia, East Asia, and new markets within the United States, the UFC as of 2017 has gained in popularity, along with greater mainstream media coverage. As of 2017, viewers can access live UFC fights and fight replays on their subscription network UFC Fight Pass at a cost of $7.99 -- $9.99 USD per month via devices like Apple TV, iPhone, Android, Xbox, Roku, and Google Chromecast as well as on pay - per - view in the U.S., Brazil, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Italy. On network TV, UFC content is available on Fox, Fox Sports 1, and Fox Sports 2 in the U.S., on ESPN in the Caribbean, on BT Sport in the United Kingdom and Ireland, as well as in 150 countries and 22 different languages worldwide.
Art Davie proposed to John Milius and Rorion Gracie an eight - man single - elimination tournament called "War of the Worlds ''. The tournament was inspired by the Gracies in Action video - series produced by the Gracie family of Brazil which featured Gracie jiu - jitsu students defeating martial - arts masters of various disciplines such as karate, kung fu, and kickboxing. The tournament would also feature martial artists from different disciplines facing each other in no - holds - barred combat to determine the best martial art and would aim to replicate the excitement of the matches Davie saw on the videos. Milius, a noted film director and screenwriter, as well as a Gracie student, agreed to act as the event 's creative director. Davie drafted the business plan and twenty - eight investors contributed the initial capital to start WOW Promotions with the intent to develop the tournament into a television franchise.
In 1993, WOW Promotions sought a television partner and approached pay - per - view producers TVKO (HBO), SET (Showtime), and Campbell McLaren at the Semaphore Entertainment Group (SEG). Both TVKO and SET declined, but SEG -- a pioneer in pay - per - view television which had produced such offbeat events as a gender versus gender tennis match between Jimmy Connors and Martina Navratilova -- became WOW 's partner in May 1993. SEG contacted video and film art director Jason Cusson to design the trademarked "Octagon '', a signature piece for the event. Cusson remained the Production Designer through UFC 27. SEG devised the name for the show as The Ultimate Fighting Championship.
WOW Promotions and SEG produced the first event, later called UFC 1, at McNichols Sports Arena in Denver, Colorado on November 12, 1993. Art Davie functioned as the show 's booker and matchmaker. The show proposed to find an answer for sports fans ' questions such as: "Can a wrestler beat a boxer? '' As with most martial arts at the time, fighters typically had skills in just one discipline and had little experience against opponents with different skills. The television broadcast featured kickboxers Patrick Smith and Kevin Rosier, savate fighter Gerard Gordeau, karate expert Zane Frazier, shootfighter Ken Shamrock, sumo wrestler Teila Tuli, boxer Art Jimmerson, and 175 lb (79 kg) Brazilian jiu - jitsu black belt Royce Gracie -- younger brother of UFC co-founder Rorion, whom Rorion handpicked to represent his family in the competition. Royce Gracie 's submission skills proved the most effective in the inaugural tournament, earning him the first ever UFC tournament championship after submitting Jimmerson, Shamrock, and Gordeau in succession. The show proved extremely successful with 86,592 television subscribers on pay - per - view.
It 's disputed whether the promoters intended for the event to become a precursor to a series of future events. "That show was only supposed to be a one - off '', eventual UFC president Dana White said. "It did so well on pay - per - view they decided to do another, and another. Never in a million years did these guys think they were creating a sport. '' Art Davie, in his 2014 book Is This Legal?, an account of the creation of the first UFC event, disputes the perception that the UFC was seen by WOW Promotions and SEG as a one - off, since SEG offered a five - year joint development deal to WOW. He says, "Clearly, both Campbell and Meyrowitz shared my unwavering belief that War of the Worlds would be a continuing series of fighting tournaments -- a franchise, rather than a one - night stand. '' With no weight classes, fighters often faced significantly larger or taller opponents. Keith "The Giant Killer '' Hackney faced Emmanuel Yarbrough at UFC 3 with a 9 in (23 cm) height and 400 pounds (180 kg) weight disadvantage. Many martial artists believed that technique could overcome these size disadvantages, and that a skilled fighter could use an opponent 's size and strength against him. With the 175 lb (79 kg) Royce Gracie winning three of the first four events, the UFC quickly proved that size does not always determine the outcome of the fight.
During this early part of the organization, the UFC would showcase a bevy of different styles and fighters. Aside from the aforementioned Royce Gracie, Ken Shamrock, and Patrick Smith, the competitions also featured competitors such as Hall of Famer Dan Severn, Marco Ruas, Gary Goodridge, Don Frye, Kimo Leopoldo, Oleg Taktarov, and Tank Abbott. Although the first events were dominated by jiu - jitsu, other fighting styles became successful: first wrestling, then ground and pound, kickboxing, boxing, and dirty boxing, which eventually melded into modern mixed martial arts.
In April 1995, following UFC 5 in Charlotte, North Carolina, Davie and Gracie sold their interest in the franchise to SEG and disbanded WOW Promotions. Davie continued with SEG as the show 's booker and matchmaker, as well as the commissioner of Ultimate Fighting, until December 1997.
Although UFC used the tagline "There are no rules '' in the early 1990s, the UFC did in fact operate with limited rules. It banned biting and eye - gouging, and allowed techniques such as hair pulling, headbutting, groin strikes, and fish - hooking.
In a UFC 4 qualifying match, competitors Jason Fairn and Guy Mezger agreed not to pull hair -- as they both wore pony tails tied back for the match. That same event saw a matchup between Keith Hackney and Joe Son in which Hackney unleashed a series of groin shots against Son while on the ground.
The UFC had a reputation, especially in the early days, as an extremely violent event, as evidenced by a disclaimer in the beginning of the UFC 5 broadcast which warned audiences of the violent nature of the sport.
UFC 5 also introduced the first singles match, a rematch from the inaugural UFC featuring three - time champion Royce Gracie and Ken Shamrock, called "The Superfight ''. This proved an important development, because singles matches would feature fighters who suffered no prior damage from a previous fight in the same event, unlike tournament matches. Singles matches would become a staple in the UFC for years to come.
"The Superfight '' began as a non-tournament match that would determine the first reigning UFC Champion for tournament winners to face; it later evolved into a match that could feature either title matches or non-title matches. The "Superfight '' would eventually completely phase out tournament matches; by UFC Brazil, the UFC abandoned the tournament format for an entire card of singles matches (aside from a one - time UFC Japan tournament featuring Japanese fighters). UFC 6 was the first event to feature the crowning of the first non-tournament UFC Champion, Ken Shamrock.
The violent nature of the burgeoning sport quickly drew the attention of the U.S. authorities.
In 1996, Senator John McCain (R - AZ) saw a tape of the first UFC events and immediately found it abhorrent. McCain himself led a campaign to ban UFC, calling it "human cockfighting '', and sending letters to the governors of all fifty US states asking them to ban the event.
Thirty - six states enacted laws that banned "no - hold - barred '' fighting, including New York, which enacted the ban on the eve of UFC 12, forcing a relocation of the event to Dothan, Alabama. The UFC continued to air on DirecTV PPV, though its audience remained minuscule compared to the larger cable pay - per - view platforms of the era.
In response to the criticism, the UFC increased cooperation with state athletic commissions and redesigned its rules to remove the less palatable elements of fights while retaining the core elements of striking and grappling. UFC 12 saw the introduction of weight classes and the banning of fish - hooking. For UFC 14, gloves became mandatory, while kicks to the head of a downed opponent were banned. UFC 15 saw limitations on hair pulling, and the banning of strikes to the back of the neck and head, headbutting, small - joint manipulations, and groin strikes. With five - minute rounds introduced at UFC 21, the UFC gradually re-branded itself as a sport rather than a spectacle.
Led by UFC commissioner Jeff Blatnick and referee John McCarthy, the UFC continued to work with state athletic commissions. Blatnick, McCarthy, and matchmaker Joe Silva created a manual of policies, procedures, codes of conduct, and rules to help in getting the UFC sanctioned by the athletic commissions, many of which exist to this day. Blatnick and McCarthy traveled around the country, educating regulators and changing perceptions about a sport that was thought to be bloodthirsty and inhumane. By April 2000, their movement had clearly made an impact. California was set to become the first state in the U.S. to sign off on a set of codified rules that governed MMA. Soon after, New Jersey adopted the language.
As the UFC continued to work with the athletic commissions, events took place in smaller U.S. markets, and venues, such as the Lake Charles Civic Center. The markets included states that are largely rural and less known for holding professional sporting events, such as Iowa, Mississippi, Louisiana, Wyoming, and Alabama. SEG could not secure home - video releases for UFC 23 through UFC 29. With other mixed martial arts promotions working towards U.S. sanctioning, the International Fighting Championships (IFC) secured the first U.S. sanctioned mixed - martial - arts event, which occurred in New Jersey on September 30, 2000. Just two months later, the UFC held its first sanctioned event, UFC 28, under the New Jersey State Athletic Control Board 's "Unified Rules ''.
As the UFC 's rules started to evolve, so too did its field of competitors. Notable UFC fighters to emerge in this era include Hall of Famers Mark Coleman, Randy Couture, Pat Miletich, Chuck Liddell, Matt Hughes, and Tito Ortiz, as well as notables Vitor Belfort, Mark Kerr, Pedro Rizzo, Murilo Bustamante, Frank Shamrock, Mikey Burnett, Jeremy Horn, Pete Williams, Jens Pulver, Evan Tanner, Andrei Arlovski, and Wanderlei Silva, among others.
After the long battle to secure sanctioning, SEG stood on the brink of bankruptcy when Station Casinos executives Frank and Lorenzo Fertitta and their business partner Dana White approached them in 2000, with an offer to purchase the UFC. A month later, in January 2001, the Fertittas bought the UFC for $2 million and created Zuffa, LLC as the parent entity controlling the UFC.
"I had my attorneys tell me that I was crazy because I was n't buying anything. I was paying $2 million and they were saying ' What are you getting? ' '' Lorenzo Fertitta revealed to Fighter 's Only magazine, recalling the lack of assets he acquired in the purchase. "And I said ' What you do n't understand is I 'm getting the most valuable thing that I could possibly have, which is those three letters: UFC. That is what 's going to make this thing work. Everybody knows that brand, whether they like it or they do n't like it, they react to it. ' ''
With ties to the Nevada State Athletic Commission (Lorenzo Fertitta was a former member of the NSAC), Zuffa secured sanctioning in Nevada in 2001. Shortly thereafter, the UFC returned to pay - per - view cable television with UFC 33 featuring three championship bouts.
The UFC slowly, but steadily, rose in popularity after the Zuffa purchase, due partly to greater advertising, corporate sponsorship, the return to cable pay - per - view and subsequent home video and DVD releases.
With larger live gates at casino venues like the Trump Taj Mahal and the MGM Grand Garden Arena, the UFC secured its first television deal with Fox Sports Net. The Best Damn Sports Show Period aired the first mixed martial arts match on American cable television in June 2002, as well as the main event showcasing Chuck Liddell vs. Vitor Belfort at UFC 37.5. Later, FSN would air highlight shows from the UFC, featuring one - hour blocks of the UFC 's greatest bouts.
UFC 40 proved to be the most critical event to date in the Zuffa era. The event was a near sellout of 13,022 at the MGM Grand Arena and sold 150,000 pay per view buys, a rate roughly double that of the previous Zuffa events. The event featured a card headlined by a highly anticipated championship grudge match between then - current UFC Light Heavyweight Champion Tito Ortiz and former UFC Superfight Champion Ken Shamrock, who had previously left to professional wrestling in the WWE before returning to MMA. It was the first time the UFC hit such a high mark since being forced "underground '' in 1997. UFC 40 also garnered mainstream attention from massive media outlets such as ESPN and USA Today, something that was unfathomable for mixed martial arts at that point in time. Many have suggested that the success of UFC 40 and the anticipation for Ortiz vs. Shamrock saved the UFC from bankruptcy; the buyrates of the previous Zuffa shows averaged a mere 45,000 buys per event and the company was suffering deep monetary losses. The success of UFC 40 provided a glimmer of hope for the UFC and kept alive the hope that mixed martial arts could become big. Beyond the rivalry itself, the success of UFC 40 was due in part to the marketing and outreach power of crossover athletes - from Pro Wrestling to MMA and MMA to Pro Wrestling - a practice with roots in Japan 's Pride Fighting Championships. Long time UFC referee "Big '' John McCarthy said that he felt UFC 40 was the turning point in whether or not the sport of MMA would survive in America.
Despite the success of UFC 40, the UFC was still experiencing financial deficits. By 2004, Zuffa had $34 million of losses since they purchased the UFC. Fighters who came into prominence after Zuffa 's takeover include Anderson Silva, Georges St - Pierre, Rich Franklin, B.J. Penn, Sean Sherk, Matt Serra, Ricco Rodriguez, Robbie Lawler, Frank Mir, Karo Parisyan, and Nick Diaz.
Faced with the prospect of folding, the UFC stepped outside the bounds of pay - per - view and made a foray into television. After being featured in a reality television series, American Casino, and seeing how well the series worked as a promotion vehicle, the Fertitta brothers developed the idea of the UFC having its own reality series.
Their idea, The Ultimate Fighter (TUF) -- a reality television show featuring up - and - coming MMA fighters in competition for a six - figure UFC contract, with fighters eliminated from competition via exhibition mixed martial arts matches -- was pitched to several networks, each one rejecting the idea outright. Not until they approached Spike TV, with an offer to pay the $10 million production costs themselves, did they find an outlet.
In January 2005, Spike TV launched TUF in the timeslot following WWE Raw. The show became an instant success, culminating with a notable season finale brawl featuring finalists Forrest Griffin and Stephan Bonnar going toe - to - toe for the right to earn the six - figure contract, an event that Dana White credits for saving the UFC.
On the heels of the Griffin / Bonnar finale, a second season of The Ultimate Fighter launched in August 2005, and two more seasons appeared in 2006. Spike and the UFC continued to create and air new seasons until the show moved to FX in 2012.
Following the success of The Ultimate Fighter, Spike also picked up UFC Unleashed, an hour - long weekly show featuring select fights from previous events. Spike also signed on to broadcast live UFC Fight Night, a series of fight events debuting in August 2005, and Countdown specials to promote upcoming UFC pay - per - view cards.
After a very successful run on Spike and with the upcoming announcement of the UFC 's new relationship with Fox, Spike officials made a statement regarding the end of their partnership with the UFC, "The Ultimate Fighter season 14 in September will be our last... Our 6 - year partnership with the UFC has been incredibly beneficial in building both our brands, and we wish them all the best in the future. ''
With the announcement of UFC 's partnership with Fox in August 2011, The Ultimate Fighter, which entered its 14th season in that September, moved to the FX network to air on Friday nights starting with season 15 in the Spring of 2012. Along with the network change, episodes are now edited and broadcast within a week of recording instead of a several - month delay, and elimination fights are aired live.
With increased visibility, the UFC 's pay - per - view buy numbers exploded. UFC 52, the first event after the first season of The Ultimate Fighter featuring eventual - UFC Hall of Famer Chuck "The Iceman '' Liddell avenging his defeat to fellow eventual - Hall of Famer Randy Couture, drew a pay - per - view audience of 300,000, doubling its previous benchmark of 150,000 set at UFC 40. Following the second season of The Ultimate Fighter, the UFC 's much - hyped match between Liddell and Couture drew an estimated 410,000 pay - per - view buys at UFC 57.
For the rest of 2006, pay - per - view buy rates continued to skyrocket, with 620,000 buys for UFC 60: Hughes vs. Gracie -- featuring Royce Gracie 's first UFC fight in 11 years -- and 775,000 buys for UFC 61 featuring the highly anticipated rematch between Ken Shamrock and Tito Ortiz, the coaches of The Ultimate Fighter 3. The organization hit a milestone with UFC 66, pitting Ortiz in a rematch against Liddell with over 1 million buys.
The surge in popularity prompted the UFC to beef up its executive team. In March 2006, the UFC announced that it had hired Marc Ratner, former Executive Director of the Nevada Athletic Commission, as Vice President of Regulatory Affairs. Ratner, once an ally of Senator McCain 's campaign against no holds barred fighting, became a catalyst for the emergence of sanctioned mixed martial arts in the United States. Ratner continues to lobby numerous athletic commissions to help raise the UFC 's media profile in an attempt to legalize mixed martial arts in jurisdictions inside and outside the United States that have yet to sanction the sport.
In December 2006, Zuffa acquired the northern California - based promotion World Extreme Cagefighting (WEC) in order to stop the International Fight League (IFL) from making a deal with Versus (now NBC Sports Network). At the time, the UFC had an exclusive deal with Spike, so the purchase of the WEC allowed Zuffa to block the IFL from Versus without violating their contract. The WEC showcased lighter weight classes in MMA, whereas the UFC featured heavier weight classes. Notable WEC fighters included Urijah Faber, Jamie Varner, Carlos Condit, Benson Henderson, Donald Cerrone, Anthony Pettis, Eddie Wineland, Miguel Angel Torres, Mike Thomas Brown, Leonard Garcia, Brian Bowles, Dominick Cruz, and José Aldo.
In December 2006, Zuffa also acquired their cross-town, Las Vegas rival World Fighting Alliance (WFA). In acquiring the WFA, they acquired the contracts of notable fighters including Quinton Jackson, Lyoto Machida, and Martin Kampmann.
The sport 's popularity was also noticed by the sports betting community as BodogLife.com, an online gambling site, stated in July 2007 that in 2007 UFC would surpass boxing for the first time in terms of betting revenues. In fact, the UFC had already broken the pay - per - view industry 's all - time records for a single year of business, generating over $222,766,000 in revenue in 2006, surpassing both WWE and boxing.
The UFC continued its rapid rise from near obscurity with Roger Huerta gracing the cover of Sports Illustrated and Chuck Liddell on the front of ESPN The Magazine in May 2007.
On March 27, 2007, the UFC and their Japan - based rival the Pride Fighting Championships announced an agreement in which the majority owners of the UFC, Frank and Lorenzo Fertitta, would purchase the Pride brand.
Initial intentions were for both organizations to be run separately but aligned together with plans to co-promote cards featuring the champions and top contenders from both organizations. However, after purchasing Pride, Dana White felt that the Pride model was not sustainable and the organization would likely fold with many former Pride fighters such as Antônio Rodrigo "Minotauro '' Nogueira, Maurício "Shogun '' Rua, Dan Henderson, Mirko "Cro Cop '' Filipović, Wanderlei Silva, and others already being realigned under the UFC brand. On October 4, 2007, Pride Worldwide closed its Japanese office, laying off 20 people who were working there since the closing of its parent company Dream Stage Entertainment (DSE).
On June 18, 2008, Lorenzo Fertitta accommodated the UFC 's growth by announcing his resignation from Station Casinos in order to devote his energies to the international business development of Zuffa, particularly the UFC. The move proved to be pivotal, as Fertitta helped strike TV deals in China, France, Mexico, and Germany as well as open alternative revenue streams with a new UFC video game and UFC action figures, among other projects.
Fighters exposed to the UFC audience -- or who became prominent -- in the post-Pride era include Anderson Silva, Jon Fitch, Lyoto Machida, Cain Velasquez, and Jon Jones, among others.
Popularity took another major surge in 2009 with UFC 100 and the 10 events preceding it including UFC 90, 91, 92, 94, and 98. UFC 100 was a massive success garnering 1.7 million buys under the drawing power of former NCAA wrestling champion Brock Lesnar and his rematch with former UFC Heavyweight Champion Frank Mir, Canadian Georges St - Pierre going head - to - head with Brazilian Thiago Alves, and Dan Henderson opposing British Michael Bisping at middleweight after the two were rival coaches on The Ultimate Fighter: United States vs. United Kingdom.
UFC 100 was unique in that it drew significant interest from ESPN, which provided extensive coverage of the event in the days preceding and following it. In fact, ESPN would eventually devote additional coverage of the UFC and other MMA news with the television debut of MMA Live on ESPN2 in May 2010.
The buzz from UFC 100 was hampered significantly in the second half of 2009 after a rash of injuries and other health - related issues -- including Brock Lesnar 's life - threatening bout with diverticulitis -- forcing the organization to continuously scramble and reshuffle its lineup for several events.
However, the momentum gradually began to pick up in the first quarter of 2010 after victories from defending champions Georges St - Pierre and Anderson Silva, as well as Lyoto Machida 's first career defeat to "Shogun '' Rua for the UFC Light Heavyweight title. These fights segued into a very popular clash between former UFC Champions and rivals Rashad Evans and Quinton Jackson -- rival coaches on The Ultimate Fighter 10: Heavyweights -- at UFC 114, featuring the UFC 's first main event headlined by African - American fighters. The event scored over 1 million pay per view buys as Evans secured a unanimous decision victory.
This momentum carried into the summer of 2010 at UFC 116, which featured the return of Brock Lesnar defending his UFC Heavyweight title against the undefeated interim - champion Shane Carwin before 1.25 million PPV viewers. Lesnar survived an early barrage of Carwin 's punches in a contest that was nearly stopped by referee Josh Rosenthal. However, Lesnar recovered in the second round to submit Carwin via arm triangle choke to retain the undisputed UFC Heavyweight Championship. The event as a whole was critically acclaimed in the media for living up to the hype with a number of exciting fights that were featured on the televised card.
After a dramatic fifth round, last minute victory by UFC Middleweight Champion Anderson Silva over Chael Sonnen at UFC 117, Lesnar finally surrendered his belt to the undefeated Cain Velasquez via 1st - round TKO at UFC 121. The fight produced Velasquez 's eighth knockout or technical knockout in his first nine MMA fights.
UFC 129 featured Georges St - Pierre vs. Jake Shields at the Rogers Centre in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and is currently the largest UFC event in North American history, which coincided with a two - day UFC Fan Expo at the Direct Energy Centre. The event sold out 55,000 tickets for gate revenues exceeding $11 million, shattering previous MMA attendance and gate records in North America.
On November 5, 2016 the UFC had their first exhibition in New York City after years of being delayed by government officials and red tape with a dramatic first match, Conor McGregor vs. Eddie Alvarez.
Zuffa, the parent company of the UFC, purchased World Extreme Cagefighting in late 2006 and held the first WEC event under new ownership on January 20, 2007. Soon thereafter the WEC made its home on the Versus Network with its first event debuting on that network in June 2007.
On October 28, 2010, Zuffa announced that WEC would merge with the UFC. The WEC held its final card on December 16, 2010. As a result of the merger, the UFC absorbed WEC 's bantamweight, featherweight and lightweight weight divisions and their respective fighters. The UFC also made the last WEC Featherweight and Bantamweight Champions, José Aldo and Dominick Cruz respectively, the inaugural UFC Champions of their new weight divisions.
Reed Harris, who started World Extreme Cagefighting with Scott Adams, had mixed emotions on the merger. "It 's kind of like when your kid goes off to college: at first you 're not happy, but after you think about it for a while, you 're really happy, '' Harris told MMAWeekly.com in an exclusive interview immediately following the announcement. "At the end of the day, I never imagined this thing would be where we 're at today. I 'm extremely proud and happy that I was involved with something that will now be part of what may be, some day, the largest sports organization in the world. ''
On March 12, 2011, Dana White revealed that Zuffa had purchased Strikeforce. White went on to explain that Strikeforce will operate as an independent promotion, and that Scott Coker will continue to run the promotion. Strikeforce CEO Scott Coker announced the return of Fedor Emelianenko on an unspecified July or August event and said that Zuffa - owned company would continue to co-promote with M - 1 Global. Following the purchase, the UFC signed many of Strikeforce 's top stars and champions, such as Jason Miller, Nick Diaz, Dan Henderson, Alistair Overeem, and Cung Le. Under Zuffa 's ownership, Strikeforce made minor changes, including adopting the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts in full, closing the promotion 's men 's weight classes below lightweight, and ceasing promotion of amateur undercard bouts. After an extension was reached to continue Strikeforce through 2012, the promotion 's heavyweight division (sans Heavyweight Grand Prix finalists) was merged into the UFC, and the promotion 's Challengers series was ended.
The final Strikeforce show was Strikeforce: Marquardt vs. Saffiedine on January 12, 2013, after which the promotion was dissolved and all fighter contracts were either ended or absorbed into the UFC.
On August 18, 2011, The Ultimate Fighting Championship and Fox announced a seven - year broadcast deal through the Fox Sports subsidiary, effectively ending the UFC 's Spike TV and Versus (now NBC Sports Network) partnership. The deal includes four events on the main Fox network, 32 live Friday night fights per year on their cable network FX, 24 events following The Ultimate Fighter reality show and six separate Fight Night events.
The promotion 's first broadcast television event -- UFC on Fox: Velasquez vs. dos Santos -- broke form by showcasing only one fight to television viewers. In the main event, Junior dos Santos abruptly dethroned then - undefeated UFC heavyweight champion Cain Velasquez by knock - out at 1: 04 in the first round. The telecast peaked with 8.8 million viewers tuning into the fight with an average audience of 5.7 million, making it by far the most watched MMA event of all - time and the most watched combat sports event since 2003 's HBO bout between Lennox Lewis and Vitali Klitschko.
One of the other programming opportunities that is already in motion is a weekly UFC magazine - style show. When asked about the potential for a weekly magazine - style series, UFC CEO Lorenzo Fertitta responded, "Not only weekly, but, potentially, multiple times per week you 'll have a UFC magazine (show). '' The UFC will maintain production control of its product, including the use of its broadcast team of Mike Goldberg and Joe Rogan. Fox Sports will produce the pre - and post-shows.
On November 16, 2012, the eve of UFC 154: St. Pierre vs. Condit, Dana White confirmed with Jim Rome the UFC would feature women 's MMA with the signing of its first female fighter, Strikeforce bantamweight champion Ronda Rousey. She subsequently became the first female UFC champion, the first Olympic medalist with a UFC title, and the first woman to defend a UFC title. She would successfully defend her title six times over a grand total of 1,074 days, before she was defeated by Holly Holm on November 15, 2015, at UFC 193.
On December 11, 2013, the UFC purchased the contracts of 11 female fighters from Invicta Fighting Championships to launch their 115 - pound Strawweight division. Eight of the Invicta fighters took part in the 20th season of The Ultimate Fighter, The Ultimate Fighter: Team Pettis vs. Team Melendez, along with eight additional fighters signed up for the tournament via open tryouts. Season winner, Invicta FC 's Strawweight Champion, Carla Esparza became the first UFC women 's strawweight champion, defeating Rose Namajunas in the finale. Other fighters on the show included Felice Herrig, Tecia Torres, Bec Hyatt, Randa Markos, Jessica Penne, and Joanne Calderwood.
The first UFC event to be held outside the United States was UFC 8 in Puerto Rico, a US territory, in 1996. Subsequently, the UFC has visited 15 countries in Asia, Europe, Oceania, South America, and North America.
Canada has hosted events 18 times, starting with UFC 83 in 2008 and most recently in 2015 with UFC 186. UFC 's biggest event to date was also in Canada, as UFC 129 held at Rogers Centre featured a record - breaking attendance of 55,724.
The United Kingdom has been home to 16 events. The first was UFC 38 held in London in 2002. UFC returned to the United Kingdom in 2007 with UFC 70, and visited Northern Ireland for UFC 72. The UK 's most recent event was at England with UFC 204 in 2016. Ireland has held UFC 93 in 2009 and UFC Fight Night: McGregor vs. Brandao 5 years later. In continental Europe, Germany has hosted 5 times, the first being UFC 99 in 2009, UFC 122 in 2010, UFC Fight Night: Munoz vs. Mousasi in 2014, UFC Fight Night: Jędrzejczyk vs. Penne in 2015 and the latest was UFC Fight Night: Arlovski vs. Barnett in 2016. Sweden has hosted 3 times, starting with UFC on Fuel TV: Gustafsson vs. Silva in 2012, and recently with UFC on Fox: Gustafsson vs. Johnson in 2015. Poland had its first event with UFC Fight Night: Gonzaga vs. Cro Cop 2 in 2015. There are also Fight Night events due to take place in 2016, in Rotterdam, Netherlands and Zagreb, Croatia.
The first Brazilian event was UFC Brazil: Ultimate Brazil, held in São Paulo in 1998. The promotion did not return to Brazil until 2011 for UFC 134, but since then, the country has hosted a further 20 events. Their most recent visit was UFC Fight Night: Condit vs. Alves. In 2014, Mexico became the second country in Latin America to host an event with UFC 180, followed by a second event, UFC 188, in 2015.
Seven UFC events have been held in Australia, beginning with UFC 110 in 2010 and most recently in 2015 with UFC 193. New Zealand held its first event in 2014, UFC Fight Night: Te Huna vs. Marquardt.
In Asia, the UFC has visited 5 countries. Japan had its first visit in 1997 for UFC Japan: Ultimate Japan. The UFC only returned to the country in 2012, with UFC 144. Their last visit was in 2014 for UFC Fight Night: Hunt vs. Nelson, the seventh event there. The promotion has also featured 2 visits to the United Arab Emirates. The first was in 2010 for UFC 112 and the second in 2014 for UFC Fight Night: Nogueira vs. Nelson. The promotion has also visited Macau in 3 occasions: China 's special administrative region was first visited in 2012 with UFC on Fuel TV: Franklin vs. Le and last visited in 2014 for UFC Fight Night: Bisping vs. Le. The promotion has also visited Singapore with UFC Fight Night: Saffiedine vs. Lim in 2014. The Philippines was the most recent Asian country that the UFC has visited, with UFC Fight Night: Edgar vs. Faber in 2015.
The Ultimate Fighter has had international editions as well: Brazil (since 2012), Australia (vs. United Kingdom - 2012), China (2013), Canada (vs. Australia - 2014), and Latin America (2014).
On February 27, 2014, the Nevada State Athletic Commission banned the use of Testosterone Replacement Therapy (TRT). The UFC followed suit and banned the use of TRT for any of their events, including international markets where the UFC oversees regulatory efforts.
In December 2014, an antitrust lawsuit was filed against Zuffa by several fighters, claiming the organization restricts fighters ' control over their careers and earning potential.
Throughout 2015, debate over venues and possible case dismissals ensued. Ultimately, the case moved to Nevada federal courts, where Zuffa was denied its motion to stay discovery for 15 years of its financial records.
This has caused an ongoing debate and struggle over how UFC sensitive information should be handled, and who may view it. Especially concerning MMAFA founder, Rob Maysey who has taken the lead in representing the former athletes and has stated he hopes to achieve reforms similar to the Ali Act (2000).
Later that year, a 12 -- 16 month investigation began that is expected to last until sometime between September 2016 to January 2017. Thus far, both sides have provided well over 100,000 documents.
On July 1, 2015, the UFC Anti-Doping Program was put into place, ran by the United States Anti-Doping Agency known as "USADA '' to protect the rights of all clean athletes in the UFC.
In May 2016, ESPN originally reported that the UFC 's parent company Zuffa, LLC was in talks to sell the company for $3.5 billion to $4 billion. (In 2015, the UFC had a reported EBITDA of $200 -- 250 million.) Because it was a privately owned company, no official comment was made from the UFC or Dana White regarding the sale. Companies initially interested in the sale were Dalian Wanda Group, China Media Capital, and WME -- IMG.
On July 9, 2016, it was officially announced that the UFC would be sold to a group led by WME -- IMG, its owner Silver Lake Partners, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, and MSD Capital, for $4.2 billion. At the time, it marked the largest - ever acquisition in sport. Lorenzo Fertitta stated that the new ownership, "with whom we 've built a strong relationship over the last several years, is committed to accelerating UFC 's global growth '', and that they "share the same vision and passion for this organization and its athletes. '' Flash Entertainment (owned by the government of Abu Dhabi) will retain its 10 % minority stake in the company. White, who owned 9 % of the UFC, stayed, having been given a stake in the new business. Shortly after the sale, it was announced that White would remain president. As a result of the sale, Fertitta stepped down as chairman and CEO.
The current rules for the Ultimate Fighting Championship were originally established by the New Jersey Athletic Control Board. The set of "Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts '' that New Jersey established has been adopted in other states that regulate mixed martial arts, including Nevada, Louisiana, and California. These rules are also used by many other promotions within the United States, becoming mandatory for those states that have adopted the rules, and so have become the standard de facto set of rules for professional mixed martial arts across the country.
UFC matches vary in maximum length, depending on whether the match is for a Championship title, or is a fight card 's "main event '' fight. In all fights, each round can be no longer than five minutes. Championship fights last for a maximum of five rounds. Beginning with UFC 138 on November 5, 2011, non-championship "main event '' fights (i.e. the final fight on the card) will also last for a maximum of five rounds. Non-main event bouts last for a maximum of three rounds. UFC on FX: Alves vs. Kampmann featured the organization 's first two flyweight fights as part of its first flyweight tournament, which consists of bouts that, in the event of a draw, go to a fourth "sudden victory '' round held to determine the winner, who advances. There is a one - minute rest period between rounds.
The UFC stages bouts in an eight - sided enclosure officially named "The Octagon ''. Originally, SEG trademarked the concept as well as the term and prevented other mixed martial arts promotions from using the same type of cage, but in 2001 Zuffa gave permission for other promotions to use octagonal cages, reasoning that the young sport needed uniformity to continue to win official sanctioning. Today Zuffa reserves exclusive use of the name "The Octagon ''.
The UFC cage is an octagonal structure with walls of metal chain - link fence coated with black vinyl. The standard octagon has a diameter of 30 ft (9.1 m) with a 6 ft (1.8 m) high fence. The cage sits atop a platform, raising it 4 ft (1.2 m) from the ground. It has foam padding around the top of the fence and between each of the eight sections. It also has two entry - exit gates opposite each other. The mat, painted with sponsorship logos and art, is replaced for each event.
For smaller venues and events, the UFC often uses a smaller cage, which is only 25 ft (7.6 m) across.
All competitors fight in approved shorts, without shoes. Tops are only approved for female competitors. Required safety equipment include padded gloves, mouthguard, and protective cups held in place with a jockstrap for males. The open - fingered gloves have at least 1 '' of padding around the knuckles, (110 to 170 g / 4 to 6 ounces) that allow fingers to grab. To ensure compliance, fighters are checked by a State Athletic Committee official before being allowed to enter the cage / ring.
Originally the attire for UFC was very open. Many fighters still chose to wear tight - fitting shorts or boxing - type trunks, while others wore long pants or singlets. Several wore wrestling shoes. Multi-time tournament Champion Royce Gracie wore a Brazilian jiu - jitsu gi in all of his early appearances in UFC (Gracie wore shorts against Matt Hughes at UFC 60), while Art Jimmerson appeared in UFC 1 wearing one standard boxing glove. As of UFC 133 there has been a ban on speedo style shorts after Dennis Hallman wore one in his fight against Brian Ebersole. UFC president Dana White was so furious about the fighter 's choice of attire that he awarded an honorary "getting those horrifying shorts off TV as soon as possible '' bonus to Ebersole for finishing the fight in the first round, and in following post-fight interviews made it clear that speedo style shorts will no longer be tolerated.
On December 2, 2014, the UFC and Reebok held a press conference to announce an exclusive deal for Reebok to become the worldwide outfitter for the UFC, beginning in July 2015. Financial terms of the six - year partnership were not released, but UFC officials said that though the agreement represents the most valuable non-broadcast contract the company has ever signed, the UFC will not directly profit from the new deal. Instead, company execs said the deal is structured so that the "vast majority of the revenue '' from the deal -- taking out only the costs associated with administering the new program -- will be paid directly to UFC fighters.
Payment on the new deal was originally expected to be based on the fighter 's spot in the official UFC rankings, with the exception of the UFC champions. Fighters ranked No. 1 to 5 would be paid at one level, No. 6 to 10 at a lower level, No. 11 to 15 below that, and unranked fighters at a base rate. The payments would remain consistent regardless of where the athletes ' bouts air. In addition to the per - fight rate, fighters would also receive royalty payments representing 20 percent of any UFC merchandise sold that bears their likeness. The royalty program would also include retired fighters and continue in perpetuity. The deal itself was reported to be worth 70 million dollars which was what the fighters would be paid over the next six years which is roughly 260 thousand dollars per UFC fight card. In April 2015, the UFC announced that they scrapped the rankings idea and that payment will be based on the fighter 's number of bouts in the octagon, with different tiers (1 - 5 fights, 6 - 10 fights, 11 - 15 fights, and 16 - 20 fights). Exceptions are made in the event of title fights, with champions and title challengers receiving greater compensation. The kits were revealed on June 30, 2015. All kits feature the fighter 's name on the back of the jersey and fighters have the option to choose between a universal kit or a country kit, related to his nationality. There is also a champion kit, designed to be used only by title holders.
The new deal meant that beginning with fight week for UFC 189 in Las Vegas, existing sponsors no longer appear on fighter clothing -- not only on fight night, but also at all pre-fight media appearances -- and in - cage sponsor banners have also eliminated. Fighter camps are outfitted with approved clothing to create a uniform look in athletes ' corners. Existing sponsors are still welcome to support UFC fighters. However, third - party logos are no longer allowed on UFC broadcasts, other than title - sponsor slots -- similar to those seen with European soccer clubs -- that the UFC may eventually sell to "a major, global brand '' down the road.
Matches may end via:
In the event of a draw, it is not necessary that the fighters ' total points be equal (see, e.g., UFC 41 Penn vs. Uno, or UFC 43 Freeman vs. White). However, in a unanimous or split draw, each fighter does score an equal number of win judgments from the three judges (0 or 1, respectively).
The ten - point must system is in effect for all UFC fights; three judges score each round and the winner of each receives ten points while the loser receives nine points or fewer (although 10 -- 10 rounds are given in the rare event that a judge feels the rounds was too close to warrant giving one fighter 10 and the other 9.) Scores of 10 -- 8 are typically awarded for dominant rounds and anything more dominant is scored less. 10 -- 7 rounds are very rare.
The Nevada State Athletic Commission currently lists the following as fouls:
When a foul is charged, the referee in their discretion may deduct one or more points as a penalty. If a foul incapacitates a fighter, then the match may end in a disqualification if the foul was intentional, or a no contest if unintentional. If a foul causes a fighter to be unable to continue later in the bout, it ends with a technical decision win to the injured fighter if the injured fighter is ahead on points, otherwise it is a technical draw.
Fights that occur on The Ultimate Fighter are classified as exhibition matches under NSAC sanctioning, and thus do not count toward the professional record of a fighter. Match outcomes also do not need to be immediately posted publicly, which allows for fight results to be unveiled as the series progresses.
For two - round matches, if there is a draw after two rounds, an extra five - minute round ("sudden victory '') is contested. If the extra round concludes without a stoppage, the judges ' decision will be based on that final round.
These exhibition matches variably have two or three rounds, depending on the rules used for each season. In most seasons, preliminary matches (before the semi-final bouts) were two rounds; in season two, all matches had three rounds. All matches past the first round use three rounds as per standard UFC bouts. During the finales for each series, the division finals have the standard three rounds, plus a fourth round if the judges score a tie.
The UFC currently uses nine different weight classes:
Holly Holm UFC 219))
Non-title fights have a one - pound leniency. In title fights, the participants must weight no more than that permitted for the relevant weight division. The Commission may also approve catch weight bouts, subject to their review and discretion. For example, the Commission may still decide to allow the contest the maximum weight allowed is 177 pounds if it feels that the contest would still be fair, safe, and competitive. In addition, there are five weight classes specified in the Unified Rules which the UFC does not currently use: Super Lightweight (165 pounds), Super Welterweight (175 pounds), Super Middleweight (195 pounds), Cruiserweight (225 pounds), and Super Heavyweight (> 265 pounds).
MMA journalists and fans have criticized the UFC for putting on too many shows and thus diluting the quality of their product.
Comedian, Brazilian jiu - jitsu and Taekwondo black belt Joe Rogan teams up with play - by - play announcer Jon Anik to provide commentary during broadcasts of most UFC events in the US. For 20 years Joe Rogan and Mike Goldberg provided commentary at live events. The "Veteran Voice of the Octagon '' is announcer Bruce Buffer. Arianny Celeste, Rachelle Leah, Brittney Palmer, Carly Baker, Vanessa Hanson, Chrissy Blair, Jhenny Andrade, Camila Oliveira, Luciana Andrade, Jamilette Gaxiola, and Red Dela Cruz are Octagon girls. Each fighter is assigned a cutman by the promotion who cares for the fighter before the fight and in between rounds. Jacob "Stitch '' Duran was one of the best known cutmen working for the organization. Matches are made by matchmakers, and VP of Talent Relations, Joe Silva and Sean Shelby.
A UFC fighter generally does not have a salary. They are paid per fight, with amounts depending on how well - known the fighters are and how well sponsored a fighter and an event is. Fighters will typically get paid money to fight with an additional bonus if they win. Cash bonuses are also awarded for "Fight of the Night '' and "Performance of the Night '' (formerly awarded separately as "Knockout of the Night ''). The size of these bonuses can sometimes be $80,000 USD (but are normally $50,000 USD). For less well - known fighters, they can be several times larger than the contracted amount for the fight. Contracted amounts generally have to be declared to the state athletic commission; however, the UFC also pays undisclosed locker - room bonuses to fighters. In recent years, UFC fighters ' contracts and merchandising rights have been the subject of dispute between fighters (represented by growing the Mixed Martial Arts Fighters Association) and UFC, which has attempted to defend existing regulations.
The first fighter in UFC history to hold titles in two weight divisions simultaneously is Conor McGregor.
UFC maintains the UFC Hall of Fame which honors mixed martial artists and MMA personalities who have made an everlasting impact on the sport.
In January 2007, Zuffa and video game developer / publisher THQ announced a license agreement giving THQ worldwide rights to develop titles under the UFC brand. The agreement gives THQ exclusive rights to current and next - generation consoles as well as to PC and handheld titles. Also included are "certain wireless rights '' which were not detailed. The licensing agreement was set to expire in 2011, although it appeared to have been extended to 2017. On June 6, 2012, during the E3 Exhibition, THQ had announced that they will be giving the license of UFC Undisputed to EA.
The first UFC action figure collectibles were released by Round 5 Corporation in May 2008. Series one of their figures includes Quinton "Rampage '' Jackson, Matt Hughes, Tito Ortiz, and Randy Couture. Series two (released on November 10, 2008) includes Wanderlei Silva, Sean Sherk, Rich Franklin, and Anderson Silva.
In July 2009, Round 5 acquired the UFC license through Jakks Pacific and subsequently released 5 more series under the UFC and Pride brands. 2 packs were released in August 2010 and includes a UFC Octagon cage and Pride ring display stand. Limited edition versions include fabric walk out tees or paint variations and are limited in number with foil and holographic packaging variances. Special edition and exclusive versions have been released at various UFC Fan Expo events.
On June 10, 2008, it was announced that UFC had signed an exclusive four - year contract with Jakks Pacific to create action figures for UFC. As of 2009 the schedule envisages the release of these figures in November 2009. They have currently been 8 series released and they feature special Legends, PRIDE, and WEC style figures as well. Three 2 packs series have also been released, as well as several expo and internet exclusives. There are also several different octagon cage playsets that have been released, including the "Octagon Playset '', "Official Scale Octagon Playset '', and "Electronic Reaction Octagon Playset ''. A PRIDE style ring playset was also originally planned; however, no news have been given on its status or release date since then.
Every pay - per - view UFC event has been released onto DVD. UFC 23 through UFC 29 were not released in the US on home video or DVD by SEG. They have since been released onto boxsets which feature around 10 events each set, in chronological order.
UFC on - demand content launched for Xbox 360 on December 20, 2011. Subscribers are able to view pay - per - view events in high definition, connect with friends to predict fight results, and have the ability to compare fighter statistics and records. The UFC Fight Pass application was also planned for PlayStation 4 in early 2015.
The UFC 's PPV events are broadcast live from Fs1 PPV USA and BT Sport PPV in the UK. In Latin America, events are broadcast live on Fighting Sports Network in Pay TV (Cable and Satellite) of SKY Satellite. Free TV Channels in Mexico, Fox Sports 2 and Fox Premium in Pay TV (Cable and Satellite) South America and Central America are broadcast with tape - delay. In Brazil, events are broadcast live on Combate Channel from Globosat. Rede Globo 's are broadcast tape - delayed from 12: 00 am. In India, events are broadcast on Sony Six. In the Philippines, UFC was also aired on Balls (now ABS - CBN Sports + Action HD) from 2009 until 2015, since moved to Sports5 (including TV5, AksyonTV and Hyper on Channel 91 (SD) and 261 (HD) via Cignal) starting January 3, 2016.
Tony Ferguson (interim champion)
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where did the march for our lives take place | March for Our Lives - Wikipedia
March for Our Lives (sometimes MFOL) was a student - led demonstration in support of tighter gun control that took place on March 24, 2018, in Washington, D.C., with over 800 sibling events throughout the United States and around the world. Student organizers from Never Again MSD planned the march in collaboration with the nonprofit organization Everytown for Gun Safety. The event followed the February 14, 2018 Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida, which was described by many media outlets as a possible tipping point for gun control legislation.
Protesters urged for universal background checks on all gun sales, raising the federal age of gun ownership and possession to 21, closing of the gun show loophole, a restoration of the 1994 Federal Assault Weapons Ban, and a ban on the sale of high - capacity magazines in the United States and a ban on bump stocks. Turnout was estimated to be between 1.2 and 2 million people in the United States, making it one of the largest protests in American history.
Following the school shooting at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida, on February 14, Cameron Kasky, a junior at the school, and his classmates, announced the march four days later. Also joining the march efforts are Alex Wind of Stoneman Douglas High School, who along with four friends created the "Never Again '' campaign. Emma González and David Hogg, also survivors of the shooting, have been vocal supporters of the march.
The date was chosen in order to give students, families and others a chance to mourn first, and then on March 24, talk about gun control. Organizers filed a permit application with the National Park Service during the week of February 23, and expected as many as 500,000 people to attend. However, the National Mall, which was the planned site of the main march in Washington, D.C., was reportedly already booked for March 24; the application, filed by an unidentified local student group, claimed it was for a talent show. A permit was later obtained for Pennsylvania Avenue. The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority announced it would operate extra trains for the march.
The Enough! National School Walkout was held on the one month anniversary of the Stoneman Douglas shooting. It involved students walking out from their classes for exactly seventeen minutes (one for each of the victims of the massacre) and involved more than 3,000 schools across the United States and nearly one million students. Thousands of students also gathered and staged a rally in Washington, D.C., after observing 17 minutes of silence with their backs to the White House. After the success of the walkout, Hogg posted a tweet that included a provocative, NRA - style advertisement calling out lawmakers for their inaction on or opposition to gun control efforts, asking "What if our politicians were n't the bitch of the NRA? '', and ending with a promotion for the upcoming March.
George Clooney and Scooter Braun were major forces behind the organization of the march, and aided in fundraising efforts behind the scenes. Amal and George Clooney donated $500,000 to support the march and announced they would attend. Oprah Winfrey matched the Clooney donation to support the march. Jeffrey Katzenberg and his wife Marilyn also contributed $500,000. Film director and producer Steven Spielberg and actress Kate Capshaw Spielberg donated $500,000, also matching the donation of the Clooneys. On February 23, Gucci announced they were also donating $500,000 towards the march. Other people and organizations offering support have included Justin Bieber, Gabby Giffords, Lauren Jauregui, Alyssa Milano, Moms Demand Action, Amy Schumer, St. Vincent, Harry Styles, Hayley Williams, Paul McCartney, Kanye West, and Kim Kardashian. John Legend and Chrissy Teigen donated $25,000. Jimmy Fallon pledged to attend an event with his family. Samantha Bee interviewed kids. Jim Jefferies interviewed participants in San Diego. Other celebrities including Taylor Swift have donated an undisclosed amount of money toward the campaign. Justin Timberlake, Will Smith, Cher and Amy Poehler also participated in the March.
James Corden promoted the March for Our Lives event. John Zimmer and Logan Green, the co-founders of Lyft, announced their support of the rallies and stated that their company would provide free rides for those attending demonstrations. Dating app Bumble CEO Whitney Wolfe Herd subsequently announced that they were supporting the NeverAgain movement by banning all images of firearms on their dating application.
John Cena and Millie Bobby Brown applauded the March for Our Lives event at the Kids Choice Awards.
In Washington, D.C., a prayer and vigil was held at the Washington National Cathedral on the eve of the rally, as a memorial for the victims of gun violence, and to declare the church 's belief, "This work is rooted in our commitment to Jesus ' command to love our neighbors as ourselves... We gather out of a conviction that the right to bear arms does not trump the right to life. '' The litany also included the following refrain:
From so many heartbreaks comes forth a united commitment to go into the streets of our cities and towns and promote a way of peace and well - being for all people. With compassion sown from the threads of sadness and terror, we will mend a nation tattered by gun violence and weave a new cloth of hope and peace.
Guest speakers included Philip and April Schentrup, parents of 16 - year - old Carmen Schentrup, who was killed in the shooting in Parkland, Florida.
March for Our Lives was among the biggest youth - led protests since the Vietnam War era. Estimates of participation at the main event in Washington, D.C., range from 200,000 to 800,000.
The speakers -- all of whom were high schoolers or younger -- included Marjory Stoneman Douglas students Cameron Kasky, David Hogg, Delaney Tarr, Sarah Chadwick, Alex Wind, Jaclyn Corin, Ryan Deitsch, Aalayah Eastmond, Samantha Fuentes, and Emma González. Hunter Pollack, brother of victim Meadow Pollack, was scheduled to speak but did not attend due to a logistical issue, which he contended was a result of being misled by event officials. David Hogg tweeted out a video of Hunter 's speech from a later event.
Other participants included Naomi Wadler, who is an elementary school student in Alexandria, Virginia, Trevon Bosley from Chicago whose brother was shot and killed leaving church, Edna Lizbeth Chavez, a high school student from Los Angeles, and Zion Kelly, whose twin brother was shot and killed during an armed robbery. Yolanda Renee King, granddaughter of Martin Luther King Jr., also made an appearance along with Mya Middleton, a student from Chicago representing After School Matters, Matt Post, a senior from Montgomery County, Christopher Underwood, an 11 - year old from New York, Alex King and D'Angelo McDade from Chicago, and Matthew Soto, brother of Sandy Hook victim Victoria Soto.
González, after speaking and naming the seventeen victims, stood silent for over four minutes, after which a cellphone alarm went off and she announced that it was the six minute and twenty second point in her speech, equal to the length of the Parkland shooting. González ended her speech saying,
Since the time that I came out here, it has been 6 minutes and 20 seconds. The shooter has ceased shooting, and will soon abandon his rifle, blend in with the students as they escape, and walk free for an hour before arrest. Fight for your lives before it 's someone else 's job.
then walked off stage as the entire crowd along Pennsylvania Avenue applauded loudly. Her speech and emotional moment of silence was praised by media organizations as one of the "most memorable '' and "powerful '' moments in the day 's events.
Singers Ariana Grande, Lin - Manuel Miranda, Ben Platt, Miley Cyrus, Jennifer Hudson, Andra Day, Common, Selena Gomez, Lady Gaga, and Demi Lovato joined student - led marchers in Washington, D.C.
On March 21, NRA TV host Grant Stinchfield stated that "March for Our Lives is backed by radicals with a history of violent threats, language and actions ''; fact - checker PolitiFact has rated this statement as being "without merit '' and "Pants on Fire '' indicating that it is a "ridiculous claim ''.
While the march was occurring, the NRA posted a membership drive video on their Facebook page, declaring that the "protests are n't spontaneous. Gun - hating billionaires and Hollywood elites are manipulating and exploiting children as part of their plan to DESTROY the Second Amendment ''. Another video dubbed "A March for Their Lies '' was uploaded to YouTube featuring Colion Noir, in which he described the planned rally as a "carnival of a march ''. Noir also said in the video that there is an "agenda that 's a million times bigger than the guns ''.
The Washington Post reported that there were many Democrats encouraging the marchers, and many of them, including candidates for office, participated from the sidelines in the march, but few Republicans did similarly. The White House said in a response that they "applaud the many courageous young Americans exercising their first amendment rights ''.
On the day of the protests, Florida Republican senator Marco Rubio responded by stating: "However, many other Americans do not support a gun ban '' and "view banning guns as an infringement on the Second Amendment rights of law abiding citizens that ultimately will not prevent these tragedies ''. He called for protesters to find "common ground with those who hold opposing views '' for change to happen. However, a blanket gun ban was not called for by the protests.
Former Republican senator and presidential candidate Rick Santorum criticized the Parkland activists, suggesting during an interview with CNN that students should be learning ways to respond to a shooter rather than asking lawmakers "to solve their problem ''; Santorum advised students to take classes in CPR rather than marching in Washington. The Washington Post quoted several doctors responding to Santorum that CPR would not be at all effective on gunshot victims as they were suffering from blood loss.
Former Democratic President Barack Obama said that he was "so inspired by all the young people '' who made March for Our Lives possible. He addressed them: "Keep at it. You 're leading us forward. Nothing can stand in the way of millions of voices calling for change. ''
A report in The New Yorker praised the leaders of the march for their "extraordinary inclusiveness '' in that they expanded the locus of concern from suburban schools to those of urban neighborhoods as well.
On social media, fake pictures and GIFs of Emma González tearing up a copy of the U.S. Constitution were circulated in an effort to discredit the march. The images were doctored from originals of González tearing up a shooting target sign. Actor and conservative commentator Adam Baldwin defended circulating the doctored images as "political satire ''.
Jesse Hughes, a survivor of the Bataclan terrorist attack, called the march "pathetic '', but after being criticized for his comment, later apologized saying, "I was not attempting to impugn the youth of America and this beautiful thing that they accomplished. I truly am sorry, I did not mean to hurt anyone or cause any harm. ''
In anticipation and planning of the day 's events, many streets in the nation 's capital were closed to vehicle traffic. Several blocks of streets encompassing much of the National Mall, stretching from the Washington Monument to the United States Capitol and from Independence Avenue to E Street, were closed to vehicle traffic. Some of the rally - goers grouped at Trump Hotel, expressing displeasure that the Trump administration has not addressed school safety nor gun control in a meaningful way.
In Connecticut, marches took place in Hartford, East Haddam, Enfield, Guilford, Middlebury, New Haven, Old Saybrook, Pawcatuck, Roxbury, Salisbury, Shelton, Stamford and Westport.
In Maine, demonstrations took place in at least fifteen communities throughout the state, the largest demonstration occurring in the city of Portland, with smaller marches in the cities of Bangor, Orono, Lewiston and Presque Isle.
In Massachusetts, demonstrations were held in Boston (Boston Common), Cape Ann and Martha 's Vineyard. WGBH reported that marches took place in Beverly, Hyannis (1,500 participants), Worcester (1,000 participants), Springfield (several hundred), Falmouth (500 participants). Boston Police estimate 80,000 people joined the demonstration.
In New Hampshire, marches took place in Concord and Portsmouth and Jackson. The Concord event was organized by Eve Caplan, a sophomore at John Stark Regional High School, and another high school student in Plymouth, New Hampshire. Portsmouth had a demonstration in Market Square, and was organized Sarah Mae Brown, a leader of The Resistance Seacoast.
In New Jersey, demonstrations took place in Trenton, Newark, Asbury Park, Hackensack, Haddon Heights, Hoboken, Jersey City, Montclair, Morristown, Ocean City, Somerset County Somerville, Union and Westfield.
In New York, demonstrations were held in Albany, Binghamton, Buffalo, Cobleskill, Ithaca, Oneonta, Rochester (Washington Square Park), and White Plains. In New York City, where an estimated 200,000 people marched, the musician Paul McCartney cited the murder of John Lennon as motivation for joining the protests when he told a CNN journalist, "One of my best friends was killed in gun violence. ''
In Pennsylvania, marches took place in Allentown, Bloomsburg, Doylestown, Easton, Erie, Lancaster, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Reading, Scranton and State College. Jay Leno made an appearance in West Chester, Pa.
A march took place in Providence, Rhode Island. Thousands of people gathered on the lawn of the Rhode Island State House.
In Montpelier, Vermont, city officials estimated that 2,500 people participated in the demonstration on the State House lawn. Elsewhere, demonstrations took place in Bennington, Putney, Rutland, Manchester and Middlebury.
In Illinois, demonstrations were held in Chicago, Glen Ellyn, Springfield, Vernon Hills, and Downers Grove.
In Indiana, a march was planned in Indianapolis.
In Iowa, marches were planned in Des Moines, Iowa City and in Cedar Rapids.
In Michigan, Marches occurred in Detroit, Grand Rapids, Lansing, among many statewide.
In Minnesota, 20,000 people attended a march in Saint Paul Other marches were held in Rochester, Grand Marais, Duluth, Aitkin, Karlstad, Ely, Brainerd, Starbuck, Sartell, North Branch, Willmar, Mankato.
In Missouri, marches took place in Kansas City, O'Fallon, Springfield and St. Louis. The St. Louis march was scheduled to begin at 10: 00am at Union Station and culminate at the Gateway Arch. Initial estimates anticipate 10,000 attendees. The Kansas City rally held at Theis (Volker) Park, just south of the Nelson - Atkins Art Gallery, drew 6,000 participants. The KC March was organized by students from area - wide high schools, who set up a Facebook page chronicling the event. Twenty - one Kansas & Missouri organizations hosted the event. The rally culminated in a march through the nearby Country Club Plaza upscale shopping district. Organizers partnered with the Poor People 's Campaign to promote their Faith Assembly at Community Christian Church -- planned by Kansas and Missouri organizers together.
In North Dakota, marches took place in Fargo, Bismarck and Minot.
In Ohio there was a rally in Cleveland in Public Square. In Cincinnati a rally took place at City Hall, which followed a performance with seventeen flutes made from shotgun barrels, as a memorial to the victims of the Parkland shooting. Another march occurred in Columbus at the Ohio Statehouse, and other rallies took place in Athens and Dayton, each drawing hundreds of protesters.
In South Dakota, hundreds attended a march in Sioux Falls. Sister marches were held in Rapid City and Vermillion.
In Wisconsin, marches were planned in Green Bay, La Crosse, Madison, Appleton and Milwaukee.
In Kansas, demonstrations were planned in Wichita, Topeka, Lawrence, and Kansas City 's Theis Park. Police estimated 5 - 6,000 participants in Kansas City 's event.
In Alabama, marches took place in Birmingham, Mobile, Dothan, Montgomery, Selma, Jasper, and Florence. The largest of these, the Birmingham march, drew over 5,000 attendees.
In Florida, demonstrations took place in Gulf Breeze, Miami Beach, Orlando and West Palm Beach, Naples where 3,000 people gathered at Cambier Park for the march and a rally. The Orlando march was organized by Florida Resistance, and was held at Lake Eola Park in downtown Orlando. The city where the school shooting occurred, Parkland, also had a march. Similar marches were also held in northeast Florida in Jacksonville, Fernandina Beach, and Saint Augustine
A rally in Jacksonville had a turnout of over 1,000 people in Hemming Park. Hundreds of people marched from Hemming Park to the Duval County Courthouse with signs including: "Grab them by the mid-terms '' and "# neveragain ''. Notable speakers included John Phillips, the civil attorney of Jordan Davis, the seventeen year old who was shot and killed at a gas station in 2012 and Stranger Things actor Chester Rushing. In Saint Augustine, the march began by walking over the Bridge of Lions, down Avenida Menenedez, ending at Fort Castillo. The event was organized by Flagler college students with assistance from Indivisible St. Johns, St. Johns DEC, Women 's March St. Augustine, and Ponte Vedra United Progress.
The Fernandina march saw a turnout of around 1,200, and began north on 6th Street and then down Centre Street. One sign read: "Let 's be responsible adults ''; another stated: "Organizing, An Active Form of Grieving ''.
In Georgia, rallies were held at the Georgia State Capitol in Atlanta. Athens, Augusta, and Dahlonega.
In Kentucky, marches were held in Bowling Green, Calvert City, Lexington, Louisville and Marshall County.
In Louisiana, marches were held in Baton Rouge, Lafayette, and New Orleans.
In Maryland, students from Severna Park High School and other Anne Arundel County Public Schools planned a demonstration to be held at Lawyer 's Mall in Annapolis. They invited 188 state legislators. Students, teachers, the Annapolis Mayor Gavin Buckley, and Moms Demand Action were scheduled to speak. In Baltimore, student members of the Student Activist Association at Baltimore Polytechnic Institute organized a march to begin at War Memorial Plaza in front of City Hall and ending near the Inner Harbor. The Mayor of Baltimore, Catherine E. Pugh also announced that she was organizing 60 free buses to take students to the demonstrations in Washington, D.C.
In North Carolina, marches were held in Asheville, Charlotte, Durham, Raleigh, and Wilmington.
In Oklahoma, marches were held in Oklahoma City and Tulsa.
In South Carolina, marches were held in downtown Charleston, Greenville, and Columbia.
In Tennessee, demonstrations were held in Chattanooga, Knoxville, Memphis, Cookeville, and Nashville.
In Texas, demonstrations were held in Austin, Corpus Christi, Dallas, El Paso, Fort Worth, Houston, and San Antonio. In Corpus Christi, students from W.B. Ray High School were scheduled to lead a march at 3: 00pm in Sherill Veterans Memorial Park.
In Virginia, Richmond Public Schools planned a march to take place at the Virginia State Capitol at 10: 00am. A march was also scheduled in downtown Norfolk.
In Alaska, A march attended by hundreds of people occurred in Anchorage. Marches also took place in Fairbanks, Homer, Juneau and Ketchikan.
In Arizona, marches were held in Phoenix, Prescott, Tucson and Sahuarita.
In California, marches were held in Encinitas, Escondido, Fresno, Los Angeles, Orange County, Sacramento, San Diego, San Luis Obispo, San Jose, Oakland, and San Francisco.
In Hawaii, demonstrations were held in Honolulu, Kahului, and Waimea.
A march was held in each of the cities of Denver, Colorado; Boise, Idaho; Idaho Falls; and Helena, Montana;
In New Mexico, marches were held in Albuquerque and Santa Fe.
In Oregon, marches happened in Corvallis, Bend, Eugene, Salem, Florence, Coos Bay and Portland. The Portland event included a march from the North Park Blocks to Pioneer Courthouse Square, where Portugal. The Man performed.
In Utah, there were several marches planned including in Logan, Salt Lake City, Park City, Provo, Cedar City and St. George.
In the state of Washington, marches attended by hundreds took place in Spokane, and Yakima. Thousands marched in Seattle and Bellingham.
In an official announcement to the state, Governor Ricardo Rosselló announced that he commissioned the Secretary of State, Luis G. Rivera Marín, to begin preparations for the march in San Juan. Rosselló called for all citizens and civic, religious, and private sector organizations to stand united in solidarity for improved gun control. He also remarked that Puerto Rico has the strictest gun control regulations of all jurisdictions in the country. Rivera Marín stated that "our communities need to be a place where our people have peace, not fear ''. He announced that the march would begin at Condado Lagoon and culminate at the Peace Pavilion in Luis Muñoz Rivera Park.
In British Columbia, marches were planned in Vancouver and Victoria.
Marches were set to take place in Calgary and Edmonton, Alberta.
Students from R.D. Parker Collegiate in Thompson, Manitoba, were planning to march.
In Ontario, marches were planned in Ottawa, Guelph, Kitchener, Stratford, Toronto, and Waterloo.
In Quebec marches were planned in Montreal, Westmount, Quebec City, and Sherbrooke.
New Brunswick was set to have a march in Fredericton.
Newfoundland and Labrador planned a march to take place in St. John 's.
Marches were planned in Accra, Ghana; and Mozambique.
Survivors from the Parkland shooting spoke at the rally in Tel Aviv, Israel, which took place at the U.S. Embassy.
Marches were planned for Hong Kong; Mumbai, India; and Tokyo and Okinawa, Japan.
Students from the International School of Geneva in Switzerland organized a rally outside the European headquarters of the United Nations, attracting hundreds of students.
In Germany, protests were held in Berlin, Hamburg, Frankfurt, Friedrichshafen, Heidelberg, Munich, and Wiesbaden. Events also took place in Reykjavík, Barcelona, Oslo, Stockholm, and Geneva.
In the United Kingdom, hundreds marched outside the US embassy in London. Marchers also held a "die in '' and lay on the ground outside the US embassy to show solidarity with the Parkland students. Demonstrations also took place in Belfast and London. In Scotland, relatives of the Dunblane massacre victims joined a demonstration outside the US consulate in Edinburgh.
International and American students rallied in Rome near the US embassy, some holding signs that read "Protect People, Not Guns '', "Enough is Enough '', and "Dress Codes Are More Regulated Than Guns '', as they wanted to make their voice clear to America. The march in Rome was organized by the Rome chapter of American Expats for Positive Change (AEPC); the organizers stated their efforts to support America and safety in U.S. schools, even though gun violence was not solely an American issue.
In Amsterdam, hundreds participated in a demonstration near the US consulate on the Museumplein. The organizers and speakers included American and Dutch high school students, an alumna of Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School, and a Florida student walkout organizer who lost a friend in the Parkland shooting.
Protests were also held in Vienna, Paris, The Hague, Majorca, Copenhagen, and Brussels.
Marches were planned for Melbourne, Brisbane, Canberra, and Sydney, Australia.
New Zealand planned marches in Albert Park, Auckland; Parliament House, Wellington; Cathedral Square, Christchurch; and Union Hall at the University of Otago, Dunedin.
In Argentina, a march was planned in Buenos Aires.
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
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who was the first non-anglo to ever be elected texas governor | Ann Richards - wikipedia
Dorothy Ann Willis Richards (September 1, 1933 -- September 13, 2006) was an American politician and 45th Governor of Texas (1991 -- 95). A Democrat, she first came to national attention as the Texas State Treasurer, when she delivered the keynote address at the 1988 Democratic National Convention. Richards was the second female governor of Texas and was frequently noted in the media for her outspoken feminism and her one - liners.
Born in McLennan County, Texas, Ann Richards became a schoolteacher after graduating from Baylor University. She won election to the Travis County Commissioners ' Court in 1976 and took office as Texas State Treasurer in 1983. She delivered a nominating speech for Walter Mondale at the 1984 Democratic National Convention and the keynote address at the 1988 Democratic National Convention.
Ann Richards won the 1990 Texas gubernatorial election, defeating Texas Attorney General Jim Mattox in a Democratic primary run - off election and businessman Clayton Williams in the general election. Ann Richards was defeated in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election by George W. Bush. She remained active in public life until her death in 2006.
Ann Richards was born Dorothy Ann Willis in Lakeview (now part of Lacy Lakeview), in McLennan County, Texas, the only child of Robert Cecil Willis and Mildred Iona Warren. She grew up in Waco, participated in Girls State, and graduated from Waco High School in 1950. She attended Baylor University on a Debate team scholarship, and earned a bachelor 's degree. After marrying high school sweetheart David "Dave '' Richards, she moved to Austin, where she earned a teaching certificate from the University of Texas. David and Ann Richards had four children Cecile, Daniel, Clark, and Ellen.
Richards taught social studies and history at Fulmore Junior High School in Austin from 1955 -- 1956. She campaigned for Texas liberals and progressives such as Henry B. Gonzalez, Ralph Yarborough, and future U.S. District Judge Sarah T. Hughes.
By the 1970s, Richards was an accomplished political worker, having worked to elect liberal Democrats Sarah Weddington and Wilhelmina Delco to the Texas Legislature, and having presented training sessions throughout the state on campaign techniques for women candidates and managers. She supported ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, presenting the amendment to the delegates of the National Women 's Conference, held in Houston in 1978, but the amendment was never ratified by enough states to become part of the Constitution.
In 1976, Richards ran against and defeated a three - term incumbent on the four - member Travis County, Texas Commissioners ' Court; she took 81.4 percent of the vote against Libertarian opponent Laurel Freeman to win re-election in 1980. During this time, her marriage ended, in part because of the strain of politics on the relationship. Richards ' drinking became more pronounced, and she sought and completed treatment for alcoholism in 1980.
After incumbent Texas State Treasurer Warren G. Harding (no relation to the U.S. president) became mired in legal troubles in 1982, Richards won the Democratic nomination for that post. Winning election against a Republican opponent in November that year, Richards became the first woman elected to statewide office in more than fifty years. In 1986, she was re-elected treasurer without opposition. Richards was a popular and proactive treasurer who worked to maximize the return of Texas state investments. Richards said that when she took office, the Treasury Department was run something like a 1930s country bank, with deposits that did n't earn interest. At the 1984 Democratic National Convention, Richards delivered one of the nominating speeches for nominee Walter Mondale, and she campaigned actively for the Mondale / Ferraro ticket in Texas, even though President Ronald Reagan enjoyed great popularity in her state.
Richards ' keynote address to the 1988 Democratic National Convention put her in the national spotlight. The speech was highly critical of the Reagan Administration and then - Vice President George H.W. Bush. Her address was notable for including several humorous remarks displaying her down - home Texas charm such as: "I 'm delighted to be here with you this evening, because after listening to George Bush all these years, I figured you needed to know what a real Texas accent sounds like '', "Poor George, he ca n't help it. He was born with a silver foot in his mouth '', "... two women in 160 years is about par for the course. But if you give us a chance, we can perform. After all, Ginger Rogers did everything that Fred Astaire did. She just did it backwards and in high heels. '' and "When we pay billions for planes that wo n't fly, billions for tanks that wo n't fire, and billions for systems that wo n't work, that old dog wo n't hunt. And you do n't have to be from Waco to know that when the Pentagon makes crooks rich and does n't make America strong, that it 's a bum deal. '' Richards ' convention address has been cited by rhetorical experts as a historically significant speech. The speech set the tone for her political future. In 1989, with co-author Peter Knobler, she wrote her autobiography, Straight from the Heart: My Life in Politics and Other Places.
In 1990, Texas ' Republican governor, Bill Clements, decided not to run for re-election to a third nonconsecutive term. Richards painted herself as a sensible progressive, and won the Democratic gubernatorial nomination against Attorney General (and former U.S. representative) Jim Mattox of Dallas and former Governor Mark White of Houston. Mattox ran a particularly abrasive campaign against Richards, accusing her of having had drug problems beyond alcoholism. The Republicans nominated colorful multi-millionaire rancher Clayton W. Williams, Jr., of Fort Stockton and Midland. Republican political activist Susan Weddington of San Antonio, a Williams supporter, placed a black wreath that read "Death to the Family '' at the door of Richards 's campaign headquarters in Austin. After a series of legendary gaffes by Williams (most notably a joke about the crime of rape), Richards narrowly won on November 6, 1990 by a margin of 49 - 47 percent. Libertarian Party candidate Jeff Daiell drew 3.3 percent in an effort that included television spots and considerable personal campaigning. Richards was inaugurated governor the following January.
Although officially she was the second woman to hold Texas 's top office, Richards is considered the first woman elected governor of Texas in her own right, since twice - elected Miriam "Ma '' Ferguson is often discounted as having been a proxy for impeached governor James E. "Pa '' Ferguson, her husband.
The economy of Texas had been in a slump since the mid-1980s, compounded by a downturn in the U.S. economy. Richards responded with a program of economic revitalization, yielding growth in 1991 of 2 percent when the U.S. economy as a whole shrank. Richards also attempted to streamline Texas 's government and regulatory institutions for business and the public; her efforts in the former tried but failed to help revitalize Texas 's corporate infrastructure for its explosive economic growth later in the decade, and her audits on the state bureaucracy saved $600 million.
As governor, Richards reformed the Texas prison system, establishing a substance abuse program for inmates, reducing the number of violent offenders released, and increasing prison space to deal with a growing prison population (from less than 60,000 in 1992 to more than 80,000 in 1994). She backed proposals to reduce the sale of semi-automatic firearms and "cop - killer '' bullets in the state.
She signed into law the amendment of the Texas Financial Responsibility Law where renewal of a motor vehicle 's registration (also covers initial registration of a motor vehicle), safety inspection sticker, driver 's license, and / or obtaining new license plates require that a motorist must have a valid auto insurance policy. The law, which passed on September 1, 1991, broadens the 1982 law where a police officer will request a driver 's license and proof of insurance during a traffic stop.
She appointed then State Representative Lena Guerrero of Austin to a vacancy on the Texas Railroad Commission. The Hispanic Guerrero (1957 -- 2008) was the first non-Anglo to serve on the commission in history. However, problems over falsification of her resume led to her resignation from the commission and defeat by the Republican Barry Williamson in the 1992 general election.
The Texas Lottery was also instituted during her governorship -- advocated as a means of supplementing school finances; Richards purchased the first lottery ticket on May 29, 1992, in Oak Hill, near Austin.
School finance remained one of the key issues of Richards ' governorship and of those succeeding hers; the famous Robin Hood plan was launched in the 1992 -- 1993 biennium and attempted to make school funding more equitable across school districts. Richards also sought to decentralize control over education policy to districts and individual campuses; she instituted "site - based management '' to this end.
In 1993, Richards signed into law the re-codified Texas Penal Code which included anti-homosexual Section 21.06, the state 's "Homosexual Conduct '' law which states: "(a) A person commits an offense if he engages in deviate sexual intercourse with another individual of the same sex. (b) An offense under this section is a Class C misdemeanor. ''. In 1990, Richards had campaigned in Houston to repeal the law. But, as governor, her signature criminalized same - sex sexual relations in Texas.
Despite outspending the Bush campaign by 23 %, she was defeated in 1994 by George W. Bush, with 45.88 % of the vote to Bush 's 53.48 % while Libertarian Keary Ehlers received 0.64 %. The Richards campaign had hoped for a misstep from the relatively inexperienced Republican candidate, but none appeared, while Richards created many of her own, including calling Bush "some jerk '', "shrub '' and "that young Bush boy ''.
Richards was defeated in the 1994 Republican landslide that also unseated New York Governor Mario Cuomo and brought a Republican majority to the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. Richards and Cuomo appeared in a series of humorous television commercials for the snack food Doritos shortly afterward, in which they discussed the "sweeping changes '' occurring. The changes they are discussing turn out to be the new Doritos packaging.
Beginning in 2001, Richards was a senior advisor to the communications firm Public Strategies, Inc. in Austin and New York. From 1995 to 2001, Richards was also a senior advisor with Verner, Liipfert, Bernhard, McPherson and Hand, a Washington, D.C. - based international law firm. Richards sat on the boards of the Aspen Institute, J.C. Penney, and T.I.G. Holdings.
One of her daughters, Cecile Richards, became president of Planned Parenthood in 2006. Ann Richards demonstrated interest in social causes such as equality, abortion, and women 's rights.
She was a tireless campaigner for Democratic candidates throughout the United States. In the 2004 presidential election, Richards endorsed Howard Dean for the Democratic nomination, and campaigned on his behalf. Richards later stumped for Democratic nominee John Kerry, highlighting the issues of health care and women 's rights. Some political pundits mentioned her as a potential running mate to Kerry; however, she did not make his list of top finalists, and he selected North Carolina Senator John Edwards. Richards said that she was "not interested '' in a political comeback.
Richards had taught social studies and history at Fulmore Junior High School in Austin (1954 -- 1957). She continued teaching in later years.
Richards served at Brandeis University as the Fred and Rita Richman Distinguished Visiting Professor of Politics from 1997 to 1998. In 1998 she was elected as a trustee of Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts, she was reelected in 2004, and continued to hold the position until her death.
She was diagnosed with osteoporosis in 1996, having lost ⁄ inch in height and broken her hand and ankle. She changed her diet and lifestyle, and then her bone density stabilized. She spoke frequently about this experience, teaching or advocating a healthier lifestyle for women at risk of the disease. In 2004, she authored I 'm Not Slowing Down, with the gynaecologist Richard U. Levine, which describes her own battle with osteoporosis and offers guidance to others with the disease.
In a review of I 'm Not Slowing Down by Steve Labinski, the book was described as inspiring women to fight the disease with various tactics, such as:
Reviewer Labinski also noted that in the mission to help women overcome osteoporosis, Ann Richards had created a useful, and often humorous, book that would inspire many.
In the fall of 2005, Ann Richards taught a class called "Women and Leadership '' at the University of Texas at Austin: twenty - one female students were selected for that class.
One of her first legislative requests was to move the Texas Music Office (created in 1990 during the administration of Governor Bill Clements) and the Texas Film Commission (created in 1971 during Governor Preston Smith 's term) from the Texas Department of Commerce to the Office of the Governor.
Her longtime personal interest in Texas film and music greatly raised the public profile of both industries and brought the two programs into the Governor 's Office. As a result, these industries were institutionalized as key high - profile parts of Texas ' future economic growth plans. Other of her music milestones include publishing the first "Texas Music Industry Directory '' (1991) and her "Welcome to Texas '' speech to the opening day registrants of the 1993 South By Southwest Music and Media Conference. She was involved with the Texas Film Hall of Fame from the beginning. At the first ceremony, she inducted Liz Smith. She was emcee every subsequent year but had to cancel at the last minute in 2006 because of her diagnosis with cancer.
Richards said, "I 've been a friend to Texas film since the number of people who cared about Texas film could have fit in a phone booth. '' She was an advocate for the Texas film industry and traveled to Los Angeles to market her state. Gary Bond, the director of the Austin Film Commission, noted, "She was far from being the first governor to appoint a film commissioner; I think she was the first that really brought the focus of Hollywood to Texas. ''
She was also a mentor to other women. She advised Rebecca Campbell, executive director of the Austin Film Society, "Whenever you speak in public you 've got to tell them what you need from them. '' She put the spotlight on film as a genuine industry, brought more focus to Texas, and had a tremendous network of people in the entertainment industry. She gave more focus to film as a business than had been done before.
Evan Smith, editor of Texas Monthly magazine and president of the Austin Film Society board of directors, commented about Ann Richards and the film industry:
I came to know Ann first as a moviegoer. I 'd walk into various movie theaters and see the white hair up above the stadium seating. That 's how you 'd know she was there. People do all kinds of things to get noticed in politics, but Ann was n't there for anyone but Ann. She was someone who loved the movies, loved the tactile experience of being in the movie theater, loved talking about movies, loved meeting filmmakers -- I think she was more excited to meet filmmakers than foreign dignitaries. At the Texas Film Hall of Fame, she was as much a celebrity at that event as anyone honored. People paid money to see her as much as anyone else there. She would often ride down to Austin on the New York plane with the celebrities being honored. One year it was with Ethan Hawke. All she wanted to talk about, at the pre-party, was that "Ethan Hawke is so cute. '' She loved him. This was not something that could be faked. She was starstruck. She loved these guys... (Watching a clip from Terrence Malick 's "Days of Heaven '' at a Hall of Fame ceremony), she is mesmerized by this image. I mean, her eyes are glued to that screen. Again this is not something that you can fake. And she looked at me and she said "I love the movies '' with this childlike voice, this passion. Standing next to me at that moment was not the former governor, a political swordsman... she was like all the rest of us, just someone who loved the movies. It 's a terrible loss for Texas in so many ways, but for the cultural community to have an advocate in that position, you do n't have that but once a generation, if you 're lucky. --
Richards lent her trademark voice and command of language to the screen. She narrated the popular and humorous documentary film "Barbecue: A Texas Love Story '' for young Austin director Chris Elley, going as far as holding a big BBQ rib in front of her face for publicity photos. During the voice session, she even helped revise the script. In the audio booth, she pointed out a phrase in the original script that was too vague in her opinion by joking "What does that mean?! It does n't mean anything. It sounds like something George Bush would say. '' She was interviewed in the 1996 Ken Burns documentary series The West about the history of Texas and the United States in the 1800s and appeared in the 2009 documentary film, Sam Houston: American Statesman, Soldier, and Pioneer.
It is believed her last appearance in film was in a short public announcement used at the Alamo Drafthouse asking patrons not to be disruptive during the film. The Alamo Drafthouse still uses it today, with an addition at the end in honor of Ann Richards.
Richards was active in the Austin City Limits Festivals, and the SXSW festival: the interactive, music, and film festival, held each year in Austin.
During her career, Ann Richards received many awards and honors including: Baylor Distinguished Alumna, the Texas NAACP Presidential Award for Outstanding Contributions to Civil Rights, the National Wildlife Federation Conservation Achievement Award, the Orden del Aguila Azteca (Order of the Aztec Eagle) presented by the government of Mexico, the Maurice N. Eisendrath Bearer of Light Award from the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, and the Texas Women 's Hall of Fame honoree for Public Service.
While the events of 9 / 11 motivated many New Yorkers to leave the city, Liz Smith wrote that it drove the former governor to that city in which she would spend the last five years of her life.
In March 2006, Richards disclosed that she had been diagnosed with esophageal cancer and received treatment at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston. Alcohol and tobacco exposure are major risk factors for certain types of esophageal cancer; Richards had "admitted to heavy drinking and smoking in her younger years, saying she ' smoked like a chimney and drank like a fish. ' ''
She died from cancer on the night of September 13, 2006, at her home in Austin, surrounded by her family. Her remains are interred at Texas State Cemetery in Austin. She was survived by her four children, their spouses, and eight grandchildren. Three memorial services were held.
On November 16, 2006, the City of Austin changed the official name of Congress Avenue Bridge (which opened in 1910) to "Ann W. Richards Congress Avenue Bridge ''.
Her 1988 DNC keynote address was listed as # 38 in American Rhetoric 's Top 100 Speeches of the 20th Century (listed by rank).
The Ann Richards School for Young Women Leaders in Austin, Texas, which Ann Richards helped to create, is named for her. The Ann Richards School, a college preparatory school for girls in grades 6 - 12, opened in the fall of 2007 in Austin, and continues to celebrate the life and legacy of Governor Richards.
A tribute to Richards was featured during the "HerStory '' video tribute to notable women on U2 's tour in 2017 for the 30th anniversary of The Joshua Tree during a performance of "Ultraviolet (Light My Way) '' from the band 's 1991 album Achtung Baby.
In 2001, Richards guest starred as herself in a fifth - season episode of the Texas - based animated TV series King of the Hill. In the episode entitled "Hank and the Great Glass Elevator '', she gets mooned by Hank Hill and then enters into a brief relationship with Bill Dauterive. She is also seen in the closing credits of King of the Hill Season 1 Episode 4, playing tether ball with Willie Nelson 's roadie.
Richards made a voice cameo in Disney 's 2004 animated film Home on the Range, where she voiced a saloon owner named Annie.
Richards was a topic in the film Bush 's Brain (by Joseph Mealey and Michael Shoob), in a long segment regarding her defeat in the 1994 election for Texas governor. The film presents the case that the defeat of Richards involved a whisper campaign that the governor (mother of four children) was a lesbian because she had allegedly hired many gays and lesbians to work on her re-election campaign.
In the 2008 Oliver Stone film W., Richards is mentioned during George Bush 's campaign as "Ms. Big Mouth, Big Hair ''.
Richards was one of the characters portrayed by Anna Deavere Smith in her play, Let Me Down Easy, which explores the meaning of the word "grace. '' The show opened in 2008, played in cities around the country, and was featured as part of PBS 's Great Performances series on January 13, 2012.
In 2010, actress Holland Taylor debuted in a one - woman show called "Ann: An Affectionate Portrait of Ann Richards '' at the Charline McCombs Empire Theater in San Antonio, Texas. The show was subsequently staged at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C., and the Vivian Beaumont Theater in New York City 's Lincoln Center in 2013. Taylor said of her subject, "She was brave, strong, and funny -- Bill Clinton has said the wittiest person he 'd ever met!... She ran as a liberal in conservative Texas, so I had to write a play about her four incredible years in Austin... She was ahead of Obama by about 10 years as in ' inclusive ' leader. ''
In 2012 a documentary about her political life Ann Richards ' Texas was released. On April 28, 2014, HBO released a documentary, All About Ann: Governor Richards of the Lone Star State.
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who does the vice president turn the official votes over to | Vice president of the United States - wikipedia
The Vice President of the United States (informally referred to as VPOTUS, or Veep) is a constitutional officer in the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States as the President of the Senate under Article One, Section Three of the U.S. Constitution.
The vice president is a statutory member of the National Security Council under the National Security Act of 1947, and through the 25th Amendment is the highest - ranking official in the presidential line of succession in the executive branch of the federal government. The executive power of both the vice president and the president is granted under Article Two, Section One of the Constitution. The vice president is indirectly elected, together with the president, to a four - year term of office by the people of the United States through the Electoral College. The Office of the Vice President of the United States assists and organizes the vice president 's official functions.
As the president of the United States Senate, the vice president votes only when it is necessary to break a tie. While Senate customs have created supermajority rules that have diminished this constitutional tie - breaking authority, the vice president still retains the ability to influence legislation; for example, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 was passed in the Senate by a tie - breaking vice presidential vote.
While the vice president 's only constitutionally prescribed functions aside from presidential succession relate to their role as President of the Senate, the role of the vice president evolved during the 20th century into more of an executive branch position. Currently, the vice president is usually seen as an integral part of a president 's administration and presides over the Senate only on ceremonial occasions or when a tie - breaking vote may be needed. The Constitution does not expressly assign the office to any one branch, causing a dispute among scholars whether it belongs to the executive branch, the legislative branch, or both. The modern view of the vice president as a member of the executive branch is due in part to the assignment of executive duties to the vice president by either the president or Congress.
Mike Pence of Indiana is the 48th and current vice president. He assumed office on January 20, 2017.
The formation of the office of vice president resulted directly from the compromise reached at the Philadelphia Convention which created the Electoral College. The delegates at Philadelphia agreed that each state would receive a number of presidential electors equal to the sum of that state 's allocation of Representatives and Senators. The delegates assumed that electors would typically choose to favor any candidate from their state (the so - called "favorite son '' candidate) over candidates from other states. Under a plurality election process, this would tend to result in electing candidates solely from the largest states. Consequently, the delegates agreed that presidents must be elected by an absolute majority of the number of electors. Yet, the delegates also assumed that the requirement of an absolute majority for an election might not be sufficient to entice electors to vote for candidates who were from another state, since such a vote might be viewed by their constituents as a vote against their own state, imposing too steep a political cost on that elector 's choice and ultimately resulting in elections which failed to produce a winner. To counter this potential difficulty, the delegates further agreed to give each elector two votes, requiring that at least one of their votes must be for a candidate from outside the elector 's state, believing that this second vote could be cast without political cost for a statesman of national character.
However, even under that system, the delegates feared that electors might attempt to game the election, strategically throwing away their second vote in order to bolster their favorite son 's chance of winning. To guard against such stratagems, the Philadelphia delegates specified that the first runner - up presidential candidate would become vice president. Creating this new office imposed a political cost on strategically discarded electoral votes, incentivizing electors to make their choices for president without resort to electoral gamesmanship and to cast their second ballot accordingly.
The process for selecting the vice president was later modified in the Twelfth Amendment. Each elector still receives two votes, but now only one of those votes is for president, while the other is for vice president. The requirement that one of those votes be cast for a candidate not from the elector 's own state remains in effect. The emergence of national political parties in the late - 18th and early - 19th centuries, their processes of nomination candidates for each office, their nominations of party loyalists for election to Electoral College positions, the Twelfth Amendment, and the consequent turn of presidential campaigns towards seeking to maximize their electoral vote totals have alleviated much of the electoral gamesmanship that caused concern for the delegates at Philadelphia.
The Constitution limits the formal powers and role of vice president to becoming president, should the president become unable to serve, prompting the well - known expression "only a heartbeat away from the presidency, '' and to acting as the presiding officer of the U.S. Senate. Other statutorily granted roles include membership of both the National Security Council and the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.
As President of the Senate, the vice president has two primary duties: to cast a vote in the event of a Senate deadlock and to preside over and certify the official vote count of the U.S. Electoral College. For example, in the first half of 2001, the Senators were divided 50 - 50 between Republicans and Democrats. The Democrats had the majority from January 3 to noon January 20 with Al Gore 's tie - breaking vote. Dick Cheney 's tie - breaking vote gave the Republicans the Senate majority until June 6, 2001 when Jim Jeffords left the Republican Party.
As President of the Senate (Article I, Section 3, Clause 4), the vice president oversees procedural matters and may cast a tie - breaking vote. There is a strong convention within the U.S. Senate that the vice president should not use their position as President of the Senate to influence the passage of legislation or act in a partisan manner, except in the case of breaking tie votes. As President of the Senate, John Adams cast 29 tie - breaking votes that was later surpassed by John C. Calhoun with 31, no other vice president since then has ever threatened this record. Adams 's votes protected the president 's sole authority over the removal of appointees, influenced the location of the national capital, and prevented war with Great Britain. On at least one occasion Adams persuaded senators to vote against legislation he opposed, and he frequently addressed the Senate on procedural and policy matters. Adams 's political views and his active role in the Senate made him a natural target for critics of George Washington 's administration. Toward the end of his first term, a threatened resolution that would have silenced him except for procedural and policy matters caused him to exercise more restraint in hopes of seeing his election as President of the United States.
Formerly, the vice president would preside regularly over Senate proceedings, but in modern times, the vice president rarely presides over day - to - day matters in the Senate; in their place, the Senate chooses a President pro tempore (or "president for a time '') to preside in the vice president 's absence; the Senate normally selects the longest - serving senator in the majority party. The President pro tempore has the power to appoint any other senator to preside, and in practice junior senators from the majority party are assigned the task of presiding over the Senate at most times.
Except for this tie - breaking role, the Standing Rules of the Senate vest no significant responsibilities in the vice president. Rule XIX, which governs debate, does not authorize the vice president to participate in debate, and grants only to members of the Senate (and, upon appropriate notice, former presidents of the United States) the privilege of addressing the Senate, without granting a similar privilege to the sitting vice president. Thus, as Time magazine wrote during the controversial tenure of Vice President Charles G. Dawes, "once in four years the Vice President can make a little speech, and then he is done. For four years he then has to sit in the seat of the silent, attending to speeches ponderous or otherwise, of deliberation or humor. ''
The President of the Senate also presides over counting and presentation of the votes of the Electoral College. This process occurs in the presence of both houses of Congress, generally on January 6 of the year following a U.S. presidential election. In this capacity, only four vice presidents have been able to announce their own election to the presidency: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren, and George H.W. Bush. At the beginning of 1961, it fell to Richard Nixon to preside over this process, which officially announced the election of his 1960 opponent, John F. Kennedy. In 2001, Al Gore announced the election of his opponent, George W. Bush. In 1969, Vice President Hubert Humphrey would have announced the election of his opponent, Richard Nixon; however, on the date of the Congressional joint session (January 6), Humphrey was in Norway attending the funeral of Trygve Lie, the first elected Secretary - General of the United Nations. The president pro tempore presided in Humphrey 's absence.
In 1933, incumbent Vice President Charles Curtis announced the election of House Speaker John Nance Garner as his successor, while Garner was seated next to him on the House dais. The President of the Senate may also preside over most of the impeachment trials of federal officers. However, whenever the President of the United States is impeached, the US Constitution requires the Chief Justice of the United States to preside over the Senate for the trial. The Constitution is silent as to the presiding officer in the instance where the vice president is the officer impeached.
The U.S. Constitution (Article II, Section 1, Clause 6) provides that "In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President,... '' Initially, it was unclear whether this meant the vice president became the new president or merely an acting president. This was first tested in 1841 with the death of President William Henry Harrison. Harrison 's vice president, John Tyler, asserted that he had succeeded to the full presidential office, powers, and title, and declined to acknowledge documents referring to him as "Acting President. '' Despite some strong calls against it, Tyler took the oath of office as the nation 's tenth President. Although some in Congress denounced Tyler 's claim as a violation of the Constitution, it was not challenged legally, and so the Tyler precedent of full succession was established. This was made explicit by Section 1 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1967. In total, nine Vice Presidents have succeeded to the presidency. In addition to Tyler they are, Millard Fillmore, Andrew Johnson, Chester A. Arthur, Theodore Roosevelt, Calvin Coolidge, Harry S. Truman, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Gerald Ford.
Section 2 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment provides for vice presidential succession:
Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress.
Gerald Ford was the first vice president selected by this method, after the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1973; after succeeding to the presidency, Ford nominated Nelson Rockefeller as vice president.
Another issue was who had the power to declare that an incapacitated president is unable to discharge his duties. This question had arisen most recently with the illnesses of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Sections 3 and 4 of the amendment provide means for the vice president to become acting president upon the temporary disability of the president. Section 3 deals with self - declared incapacity of the president. Section 4 deals with incapacity declared by the joint action of the vice president and of a majority of the Cabinet or of such other body as Congress may by law provide. While Section 4 has never been invoked, Section 3 has been invoked three times: on July 13, 1985 when Ronald Reagan underwent surgery to remove cancerous polyps from his colon, and twice more on June 29, 2002 and July 21, 2007 when George W. Bush underwent colonoscopy procedures requiring sedation. Prior to this amendment, Vice President Richard Nixon informally assumed some of President Dwight Eisenhower 's duties for several weeks on each of three occasions when Eisenhower was ill.
The extent of any informal roles and functions of the vice president depend on the specific relationship between the president and the vice president, but often include tasks such as drafter and spokesperson for the administration 's policies, adviser to the president, and being a symbol of American concern or support. The influence of the vice president in this role depends almost entirely on the characteristics of the particular administration. Dick Cheney, for instance, was widely regarded as one of President George W. Bush 's closest confidants. Al Gore was an important adviser to President Bill Clinton on matters of foreign policy and the environment. Often, vice presidents are chosen to act as a "balance '' to the president, taking either more moderate or radical positions on issues.
Under the American system the president is both head of state and head of government, and the ceremonial duties of the former position are often delegated to the vice president. The vice president is often assigned the ceremonial duties of representing the president and the government at state funerals or other functions in the United States. This often is the most visible role of the vice president, and has occasionally been the subject of ridicule, such as during the vice presidency of George H.W. Bush. The vice president may meet with other heads of state or attend state funerals in other countries, at times when the administration wishes to demonstrate concern or support but can not send the president themselves.
In recent decades, the vice presidency has frequently been used as a platform to launch bids for the presidency. The transition of the office to its modern stature occurred primarily as a result of Franklin Roosevelt 's 1940 nomination, when he captured the ability to nominate his running mate instead of leaving the nomination to the convention. Prior to that, party bosses often used the vice presidential nomination as a consolation prize for the party 's minority faction. A further factor potentially contributing to the rise in prestige of the office was the adoption of presidential preference primaries in the early 20th century. By adopting primary voting, the field of candidates for vice president was expanded by both the increased quantity and quality of presidential candidates successful in some primaries, yet who ultimately failed to capture the presidential nomination at the convention.
Of the thirteen presidential elections from 1956 to 2004, nine featured the incumbent president; the other four (1960, 1968, 1988, 2000) all featured the incumbent vice president. Former vice presidents also ran, in 1984 (Walter Mondale), and in 1968 (Richard Nixon, against the incumbent vice president, Hubert Humphrey). The presidential election of 2008 was the first presidential election since 1928 that saw neither an incumbent president nor an incumbent or former vice president, take part in any primary or general election for the presidency on a major party ticket. Nixon is the only vice president to have been elected president while not an incumbent, as well as the only person elected twice to both the presidency and vice presidency.
The Twelfth Amendment states that "no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United States. '' Thus, to serve as vice president, an individual must:
Additionally, Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment denies eligibility for any federal office to anyone who, having sworn an oath to support the United States Constitution, later has rebelled against the United States. This disqualification, originally aimed at former supporters of the Confederacy, may be removed by a two - thirds vote of each house of the Congress.
Under the Twenty - second Amendment, the President of the United States may not be elected to more than two terms. However, there is no similar limitation on how many times one can be elected vice president. Scholars disagree whether a former president barred from election to the presidency is also ineligible to be elected or appointed vice president, as suggested by the Twelfth Amendment. Age, nation of birth, and length of residency in the U.S. are eligibility requirements easily tested by reference to established facts, but the contingent and uncertain nature of vice presidential lines of succession mean that an otherwise eligible American citizen who had been elected as President for two terms might not therefore lose eligibility for the vice presidency if he or she is later appointed by Congress to the vice presidency through procedures codified by the Presidential Succession Act. However, this scenario has not yet been tested. Also, Article I, Section 3, Clause 7 allows the Senate, upon voting to remove an impeached federal official from office, to disqualify that official from holding any federal office.
While it is commonly held that the president and vice president must be residents of different states, this is not actually the case. Nothing in the Constitution prohibits both candidates being from a single state.
Instead, the limitation in the Twelfth Amendment imposed is on the members of the Electoral College, who must cast a ballot for at least one candidate who is not from their own state.
In theory, the candidates elected could both be from one state, but the electors of that state would, in a close electoral contest, run the risk of denying their vice presidential candidate the absolute majority required to secure the election, even if the presidential candidate is elected. This would then place the vice presidential election in the hands of the Senate.
In practice, however, residency is rarely an issue. Parties have avoided nominating tickets containing two candidates from the same state. Further, the candidates may themselves take action to alleviate any residency conflict. For example, at the start of the 2000 election cycle Dick Cheney was a resident of Texas; Cheney quickly changed his residency back to Wyoming, where he had previously served as a U.S. Representative, when Texas governor and Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush asked Cheney to be his vice presidential candidate.
Though the vice president does not need to have any political experience, most major - party vice presidential nominees are current or former United States Senators or Representatives, with the occasional nominee being a current or former Governor, a high - ranking military officer, or a holder of a major post within the Executive Department. The vice presidential candidates of the major national political parties are formally selected by each party 's quadrennial nominating convention, following the selection of the party 's presidential candidates. The official process is identical to the one by which the presidential candidates are chosen, with delegates placing the names of candidates into nomination, followed by a ballot in which candidates must receive a majority to secure the party 's nomination.
In practice, the presidential nominee has considerable influence on the decision, and in the 20th century it became customary for that person to select a preferred running mate, who is then nominated and accepted by the convention. In recent years, with the presidential nomination usually being a foregone conclusion as the result of the primary process, the selection of a vice presidential candidate is often announced prior to the actual balloting for the presidential candidate, and sometimes before the beginning of the convention itself. The first presidential aspirant to announce his selection for vice president before the beginning of the convention was Ronald Reagan who, prior to the 1976 Republican National Convention announced that Richard Schweiker would be his running mate. Reagan 's supporters then sought to amend the convention rules so that Gerald R. Ford would be required to name his vice presidential running mate in advance as well. The proposal was defeated, and Reagan did not receive the nomination in 1976. Often, the presidential nominee will name a vice presidential candidate who will bring geographic or ideological balance to the ticket or appeal to a particular constituency.
The vice presidential candidate might also be chosen on the basis of traits the presidential candidate is perceived to lack, or on the basis of name recognition. To foster party unity, popular runners - up in the presidential nomination process are commonly considered. While this selection process may enhance the chances of success for a national ticket, in the past it often insured that the vice presidential nominee represented regions, constituencies, or ideologies at odds with those of the presidential candidate. As a result, vice presidents were often excluded from the policy - making process of the new administration. Many times their relationships with the president and his staff were aloof, non-existent, or even adversarial.
The ultimate goal of vice presidential candidate selection is to help and not hurt the party 's chances of getting elected, nonetheless several vice presidential selections have been controversial. In 1984, Democratic nominee Walter Mondale 's groundbreaking choice of Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate (the first woman in U.S. history nominated for Vice President by a major political party), became a drag on the ticket due to repeated questions about her husband 's finances. A selection whose positive traits make the presidential candidate look less favorable in comparison or which can cause the presidential candidate 's judgment to be questioned often backfire, such as in 1988 when Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis chose experienced Texas Senator Lloyd Bentsen; Bentsen was considered a more seasoned statesman in federal politics and somewhat overshadowed Dukakis. Questions about Dan Quayle 's experience were raised in the 1988 presidential campaign of George H.W. Bush, but the Bush - Quayle ticket still won handily. James Stockdale, the choice of third - party candidate Ross Perot in 1992, was seen as unqualified by many and Stockdale had little preparation for the vice presidential debate, but the Perot - Stockdale ticket still won about 19 % of the vote. In 2008, Republican John McCain chose Sarah Palin as his running mate over his primary rivals and / or campaign surrogates such as Mitt Romney or Tom Ridge. This surprise move would, it was hoped, draw women voters disappointed by Hillary Clinton 's defeat in the Democratic presidential primaries into the McCain camp. Palin 's selection soon came to be seen as a negative for McCain, due to her several controversies during her gubernatorial tenure which were highlighted by the press, and her feuding with McCain campaign chairman Steve Schmidt. This perception continued to grow throughout the campaign, especially after her interviews with Katie Couric led to concerns about her fitness for the presidency.
Historically, vice presidential candidates were chosen to provide geographic and ideological balance to a presidential ticket, widening a presidential candidate 's appeal to voters from outside his regional base or wing of the party. Candidates from electoral - vote rich states were usually preferred. However, in 1992, moderate Democrat Bill Clinton (of Arkansas) chose moderate Democrat Al Gore (of Tennessee) as his running mate. Despite the two candidates ' near - identical ideological and regional backgrounds, Gore 's extensive experience in national affairs enhanced the appeal of a ticket headed by Clinton, whose political career had been spent entirely at the local and state levels of government. In 2000, George W. Bush chose Dick Cheney of Wyoming, a reliably Republican state with only three electoral votes, and in 2008, Barack Obama mirrored Bush 's strategy when he chose Joe Biden of Delaware, a reliably Democratic state, likewise one with only three electoral votes. Both Cheney and Biden were chosen for their experience in national politics (experience lacked by both Bush and Obama) rather than the ideological balance or electoral vote advantage they would provide.
The first presidential candidate to choose his vice presidential candidate was Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940. The last not to name a vice presidential choice, leaving the matter up to the convention, was Democrat Adlai Stevenson in 1956. The convention chose Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver over Massachusetts Senator (and later president) John F. Kennedy. At the tumultuous 1972 Democratic convention, presidential nominee George McGovern selected Senator Thomas Eagleton as his running mate, but numerous other candidates were either nominated from the floor or received votes during the balloting. Eagleton nevertheless received a majority of the votes and the nomination, though he later resigned from the ticket, resulting in Sargent Shriver becoming McGovern 's final running mate; both lost to the Nixon - Agnew ticket by a wide margin, carrying only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.
In cases where the presidential nomination is still in doubt as the convention approaches, the campaigns for the two positions may become intertwined. In 1976, Ronald Reagan, who was trailing President Gerald R. Ford in the presidential delegate count, announced prior to the Republican National Convention that, if nominated, he would select Senator Richard Schweiker as his running mate. This move backfired to a degree, as Schweiker 's relatively liberal voting record alienated many of the more conservative delegates who were considering a challenge to party delegate selection rules to improve Reagan 's chances. In the end, Ford narrowly won the presidential nomination and Reagan 's selection of Schweiker became moot.
In the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries which pitted Hillary Clinton against Barack Obama, Clinton suggested a Clinton - Obama ticket with Obama in the vice president slot as it would be "unstoppable '' against the presumptive Republican nominee. Obama rejected the offer outright saying "I want everybody to be absolutely clear. I 'm not running for vice president. I 'm running for president of the United States of America '' while noting "With all due respect. I won twice as many states as Sen. Clinton. I 've won more of the popular vote than Sen. Clinton. I have more delegates than Sen. Clinton. So, I do n't know how somebody who 's in second place is offering vice presidency to the person who 's in first place ''. Obama stated that the nomination process would have to be a choice between himself and Clinton, saying "I do n't want anybody here thinking that ' Somehow, maybe I can get both ' '', by nominating Clinton as president and assuming he would be her running mate ". Some suggested that it was a ploy by the Clinton campaign to denigrate Obama as less qualified for the presidency. Later, when Obama became the presumptive Democratic nominee, former President Jimmy Carter cautioned against Clinton being picked for the vice president slot on the ticket, saying "I think it would be the worst mistake that could be made. That would just accumulate the negative aspects of both candidates '', citing opinion polls showing 50 % of US voters with a negative view of Hillary Clinton.
Vice presidents are elected indirectly in the United States. A number of electors, collectively known as the Electoral College, officially select the president and vice president. On Election Day, voters in each of the states and the District of Columbia cast ballots for these electors. Each state is allocated a number of electors, equal to the size of its delegation in both Houses of Congress combined. Generally, the ticket that wins the most votes in a state wins all of that state 's electoral votes and thus has its slate of electors chosen to vote in the Electoral College.
The winning slate of electors meet at its state 's capital on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, to vote. They then send a record of that vote to Congress. The vote of the electors is opened by the sitting vice president, acting in his capacity as President of the Senate and read aloud to a joint session of the incoming Congress, which was elected at the same time as the president and vice president.
Pursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the vice president 's term of office begins at noon on January 20 of the year following the election. This date, known as Inauguration Day, marks the beginning of the four - year terms of both the president and vice president.
Although Article VI requires that the vice president take an oath or affirmation of allegiance to the US Constitution, unlike the president, the United States Constitution does not specify the precise wording of the oath of office for the vice president. Several variants of the oath have been used since 1789; the current form, which is also recited by Senators, Representatives and other government officers, has been used since 1884:
I, (first name last name), do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God.
The term of office for vice president is four years. While the Twenty - Second Amendment generally restricts the president to two terms, there is no such limitation on the office of vice president, meaning an eligible person could hold the office as long as voters continued to vote for electors who in turn would reelect the person to the office. Additionally, a vice president could even serve under different presidents. George Clinton and John C. Calhoun both did so during the early 1800s.
Under the original terms of the Constitution, the electors of the Electoral College voted only for office of president rather than for both president and vice president. Each elector was allowed to vote for two people for the top office. The person receiving the greatest number of votes (provided that such a number was a majority of electors) would be president, while the individual who received the next largest number of votes became vice president. If no one received a majority of votes, then the House of Representatives would choose among the five candidates with the largest numbers of votes, with each state 's representatives together casting a single vote. In such a case, the person who received the highest number of votes but was not chosen president would become vice president. In the case of a tie for second, then the Senate would choose the vice president.
The original plan, however, did not foresee the development of political parties and their adversarial role in the government. For example, in the election of 1796, Federalist John Adams came in first, but because the Federalist electors had divided their second vote amongst several vice presidential candidates, Democratic - Republican Thomas Jefferson came second. Thus, the president and vice president were from opposing parties. Predictably, Adams and Jefferson clashed over issues such as states ' rights and foreign policy.
A greater problem occurred in the election of 1800, in which the two participating parties each had a secondary candidate they intended to elect as vice president, but the more popular Democratic - Republican party failed to execute that plan with their electoral votes. Under the system in place at the time (Article II, Section 1, Clause 3), the electors could not differentiate between their two candidates, so the plan had been for one elector to vote for Thomas Jefferson but not for Aaron Burr, thus putting Burr in second place. This plan broke down for reasons that are disputed, and both candidates received the same number of votes. After 35 deadlocked ballots in the House of Representatives, Jefferson finally won on the 36th ballot and Burr became vice president.
This tumultuous affair led to the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804, which directed the electors to use separate ballots to vote for the president and vice president. While this solved the problem at hand, it ultimately had the effect of lowering the prestige of the vice presidency, as the office was no longer for the leading challenger for the presidency. The separate ballots for president and vice president became something of a moot issue later in the 19th century when it became the norm for popular elections to determine a state 's Electoral College delegation. Electors chosen this way are pledged to vote for a particular presidential and vice presidential candidate (offered by the same political party). So, while the Constitution says that the president and vice president are chosen separately, in practice they are chosen together.
If no vice presidential candidate receives an Electoral College majority, then the Senate selects the vice president, in accordance with the United States Constitution. The Twelfth Amendment states that a "majority of the whole number '' of Senators (currently 51 of 100) is necessary for election. Further, the language requiring an absolute majority of Senate votes precludes the sitting vice president from breaking any tie which might occur. The election of 1836 is the only election so far where the office of the vice president has been decided by the Senate. During the campaign, Martin Van Buren 's running mate Richard Mentor Johnson was accused of having lived with a black woman. Virginia 's 23 electors, who were pledged to Van Buren and Johnson, refused to vote for Johnson (but still voted for Van Buren). The election went to the Senate, where Johnson was elected 33 - 17.
The vice president 's salary is $230,700. The salary was set by the 1989 Government Salary Reform Act, which also provides an automatic cost of living adjustment for federal employees. The vice president does not automatically receive a pension based on that office, but instead receives the same pension as other members of Congress based on his position as President of the Senate. The vice president must serve a minimum of two years to qualify for a pension.
Since 1974, the official residence of the vice president and their family has been Number One Observatory Circle, on the grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C.
Article I, Section 2, Clause 5 and Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution both authorize the House of Representatives to serve as a "grand jury '' with the power to impeach high federal officials, including the president, for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. '' Similarly, Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 and Article II, Section 4 both authorize the Senate to serve as a court with the power to remove impeached officials from office, given a two - thirds vote to convict. No vice president has ever been impeached.
Prior to ratification of the Twenty - fifth Amendment in 1967, no constitutional provision existed for filling an intra-term vacancy in the vice presidency. As a result, when one occurred, the office was left vacant until filled through the next ensuing election and inauguration. Between 1812 and 1967, the vice presidency was vacant on sixteen occasions -- as a result of seven deaths, one resignation, and eight cases in which the vice president succeeded to the presidency.
Since the Twenty - Fifth Amendment came into force the office has been vacant twice, until the confirmation of a new vice president by both houses of Congress and the swearing in ceremony. The first such instance occurred in 1973 following the resignation of Spiro Agnew, Richard Nixon 's vice president. Gerald Ford was subsequently nominated by President Nixon and confirmed by Congress. The second occurred 10 months later when Nixon resigned following the Watergate scandal and Ford assumed the presidency. The resulting vice presidential vacancy was filled by Nelson Rockefeller. Ford and Rockefeller are the only two people to have served as vice president without having been elected to the office, and Ford remains the only person to have served as both vice president and president without being elected to either office.
For much of its existence, the office of vice president was seen as little more than a minor position. Adams, the first vice president, was the first of many who found the job frustrating and stupefying, writing to his wife Abigail that "My country has in its wisdom contrived for me the most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived. '' Many vice presidents lamented the lack of meaningful work in their role. John Nance Garner, who served as vice president from 1933 to 1941 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, claimed that the vice presidency "is n't worth a pitcher of warm piss. '' Harry Truman, who also served as vice president under Roosevelt, said that the office was as "useful as a cow 's fifth teat. ''
Thomas R. Marshall, the 28th vice president, lamented: "Once there were two brothers. One ran away to sea; the other was elected Vice President of the United States. And nothing was heard of either of them again. '' His successor, Calvin Coolidge, was so obscure that Major League Baseball sent him free passes that misspelled his name, and a fire marshal failed to recognize him when Coolidge 's Washington residence was evacuated.
When the Whig Party asked Daniel Webster to run for the vice presidency on Zachary Taylor 's ticket, he replied "I do not propose to be buried until I am really dead and in my coffin. '' This was the second time Webster declined the office, which William Henry Harrison had first offered to him. Ironically, both of the presidents making the offer to Webster died in office, meaning the three - time presidential candidate could have become president if he had accepted either. Since presidents rarely died in office, however, the better preparation for the presidency was considered to be the office of Secretary of State, in which Webster served under Harrison, Tyler, and later, Taylor 's successor, Fillmore.
For many years, the vice president was given few responsibilities. Garret Hobart, the first vice president under William McKinley, was one of the very few vice presidents at this time who played an important role in the administration. A close confidant and adviser of the president, Hobart was called "Assistant President. '' However, until 1919, vice presidents were not included in meetings of the President 's Cabinet. This precedent was broken by President Woodrow Wilson when he asked Thomas R. Marshall to preside over Cabinet meetings while Wilson was in France negotiating the Treaty of Versailles. President Warren G. Harding also invited his vice president, Calvin Coolidge, to meetings. The next vice president, Charles G. Dawes, did not seek to attend Cabinet meetings under President Coolidge, declaring that "the precedent might prove injurious to the country. '' Vice President Charles Curtis was also precluded from attending by President Herbert Hoover.
In 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt raised the stature of the office by renewing the practice of inviting the vice president to cabinet meetings, which every president since has maintained. Roosevelt 's first vice president, John Nance Garner, broke with him over the "court - packing issue, early in his second term, and became Roosevelt 's leading critic. At the start of that term, on January 20, 1937, Garner had been the first Vice President to be sworn into office on the Capitol steps in the same ceremony with the president; a tradition that continues. Prior to that time, vice presidents were traditionally inaugurated at a separate ceremony in the Senate chamber. Gerald R. Ford and Nelson A. Rockefeller, who were both appointed to the office under the terms of the 25th amendment, were inaugurated in the House and Senate chambers, respectively.
Henry Wallace, Roosevelt 's Vice President during his third term (1941 -- 1945), was given major responsibilities during World War II. However, after numerous policy disputes between Wallace and other Roosevelt Administration and Democratic Party officials, he was denied renomination to office at the 1944 Democratic National Convention. Harry Truman was selected instead. During his 82 day vice presidency, Truman was not informed about any war or post-war plans, including the Manhattan Project, leading Truman to remark, wryly, that the job of the Vice President was to "go to weddings and funerals. '' As a result of this experience, Truman, after succeeding to the presidency upon Roosevelt ' s death, recognized the need to keep the Vice President informed on national security issues. Congress made the vice president one of four statutory members of the National Security Council in 1949.
The stature of the Vice-presidency grew again while Richard Nixon was in office (1953 -- 1961). He attracted the attention of the media and the Republican party, when Dwight Eisenhower authorized him to preside at Cabinet meetings in his absence. Nixon was also the first vice president to formally assume temporary control of the executive branch, which he did after Eisenhower suffered a heart attack on September 24, 1955, ileitis in June 1956, and a stroke in November 1957.
Until 1961, vice presidents had their offices on Capitol Hill, a formal office in the Capitol itself and a working office in the Russell Senate Office Building. Lyndon B. Johnson was the first vice president to be given an office in the White House complex, in the Old Executive Office Building. The former Navy Secretary 's office in the OEOB has since been designated the "Ceremonial Office of the Vice President '' and is today used for formal events and press interviews. President Jimmy Carter was the first president to give his vice president, Walter Mondale, an office in the West Wing of the White House, which all vice presidents have since retained. Because of their function as Presidents of the Senate, vice presidents still maintain offices and staff members on Capitol Hill.
Though Walter Mondale 's tenure was the beginning of the modern day power of the vice presidency, the tenure of Dick Cheney saw a rapid growth in the office of the vice president. Vice President Cheney held a tremendous amount of power and frequently made policy decisions on his own, without the knowledge of the President. After his tenure, and during the 2008 presidential campaign, both vice presidential candidates, Sarah Palin and Joe Biden, stated the office had expanded too much under Cheney 's tenure and both claimed they would reduce the role to simply being an adviser to the president.
Four vice presidents have been elected to the presidency while serving as vice president: John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Martin Van Buren and George H.W. Bush. Additionally, John C. Breckinridge, Richard Nixon, Hubert Humphrey and Al Gore were each nominated by their respective parties, but did not succeed the presidents with whom they were elected, though Nixon was elected president eight years later.
Two vice presidents served under different presidents. George Clinton served under both Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, while John C. Calhoun served under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson. In 1900, Adlai Stevenson I, who had earlier served as vice president under Grover Cleveland, ran for another term, this time as William Jennings Bryan 's running mate. Charles W. Fairbanks, vice president under Theodore Roosevelt, sought unsuccessfully to return to office as Charles Evans Hughes ' running mate in 1916.
Some former vice presidents have sought other offices after serving as vice president. Daniel D. Tompkins ran for Governor of New York in 1820 while serving as vice president under James Monroe. He lost to DeWitt Clinton, but was re-elected vice president. John C. Calhoun resigned as vice president to accept election as US Senator from South Carolina. Hannibal Hamlin, Andrew Johnson, Alben Barkley and Hubert H. Humphrey were all elected to the Senate after leaving office. Levi P. Morton, vice president under Benjamin Harrison, was elected Governor of New York after leaving office.
Adlai Stevenson I was narrowly defeated for Governor of Illinois in 1908. Richard Nixon unsuccessfully sought the governorship of California in 1962, nearly two years after leaving office as vice president and just over six years before becoming president. Walter Mondale ran unsuccessfully for president in 1984, served as U.S. Ambassador to Japan from 1993 to 1996, and then sought unsuccessfully to return to the Senate in 2002. George H.W. Bush won the presidency, and his vice president, Dan Quayle, sought the Republican nomination in 2000.
Since 1977, former presidents and vice presidents who are elected or re-elected to the Senate are entitled to the largely honorific position of Deputy President pro tempore. So far, the only former vice president to have held this title is Hubert Humphrey following his return to the Senate. Walter Mondale would have been entitled to the position had his 2002 Senate bid been successful.
Under the terms of an 1886 Senate resolution, all former vice presidents are entitled to a portrait bust in the Senate wing of the United States Capitol, commemorating their service as presidents of the Senate. Dick Cheney is the most recent former vice president to be so honored.
Unlike former presidents, who receive a pension automatically regardless of their time in office, former vice presidents must reach pension eligibility by accumulating the appropriate time in federal service. Since 2008, former vice presidents are also entitled to Secret Service personal protection. Former vice presidents traditionally receive Secret Service protection for up to six months after leaving office, by order of the Secretary of Homeland Security, though this can be extended if the Secretary believes the level of threat is sufficient.
In 2008, a bill titled the "Former Vice President Protection Act '' was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Bush. It provides six - month Secret Service protection by law to a former vice president and family. According to the Department of Homeland Security, protection for former vice president Cheney has been extended numerous times because threats against him have not decreased since his leaving office.
This is a graphical timeline listing of the Vice Presidents of the United States.
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when did dreams by fleetwood mac come out | Dreams (Fleetwood Mac song) - wikipedia
"Dreams '' is a song by British - American rock band Fleetwood Mac from their eleventh studio album Rumours (1977). In the United States, "Dreams '' was released as the second single from Rumours on March 24, 1977, while in the United Kingdom it was released as the third single in June 1977. A performance of "Dreams '' on stage was used as the promotional music video.
In the US, "Dreams '' reached the top spot on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, the band 's only number - one single there; it sold over a million copies. In Canada, "Dreams '' also reached number one on the RPM Top 100 Singles chart.
The members of Fleetwood Mac were experiencing emotional upheavals while recording the Rumours album. Mick Fleetwood was going through a divorce. John McVie was separating from his wife Christine McVie. Lindsey Buckingham and Stevie Nicks were ending their eight - year relationship. "We had to go through this elaborate exercise of denial, '' explained Buckingham to Blender magazine, "keeping our personal feelings in one corner of the room while trying to be professional in the other. ''
Nicks wrote the song in early 1976 at the Record Plant studio in Sausalito, California. "One day when I was n't required in the main studio, '' remembers Nicks to Blender magazine, "I took a Fender Rhodes piano and went into another studio that was said to belong to Sly Stone, of Sly and the Family Stone. It was a black - and - red room, with a sunken pit in the middle where there was a piano, and a big black - velvet bed with Victorian drapes. ''
"I sat down on the bed with my keyboard in front of me, '' continues Nicks. "I found a drum pattern, switched my little cassette player on and wrote ' Dreams ' in about 10 minutes. Right away I liked the fact that I was doing something with a dance beat, because that made it a little unusual for me. ''
When Nicks played the song to the rest of the group, "They were n't nuts about it. But I said ' Please! Please record this song, at least try it '. Because the way I play things sometimes... you really have to listen. '' The band recorded it the following day. Only a basic track was recorded at Sausalito. Recording assistant Cris Morris remembers that "all (they) kept was the drum track and live vocal from Stevie -- the guitars and bass were added later in Los Angeles. '' Christine McVie described the song as having "just three chords and one note in the left hand '' and "boring '' when Nicks played a rough version on the piano. McVie changed her mind, after Buckingham "fashioned three sections out of identical chords, making each section sound completely different. He created the impression that there 's a thread running through the whole thing. ''
In the United States, "Dreams '' reached the number - one spot on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on June 18, 1977, and held it for one week. On the Adult Contemporary chart, "Dreams '' was Fleetwood Mac 's highest charting single during the 1970s when it reached number 11. In the United Kingdom, "Dreams '' went to number 24, staying in the top 40 for eight weeks.
Oakenfold and Osborne released "Dreams '' in 1995 under the name Wild Colour. The song received remixes by BT, Tin Tin Out and Jason Nevins. It was then featured on Oakenfold 's 1995 album Perfection: A Perfecto Compilation.
The Corrs originally recorded "Dreams '' for Legacy: A Tribute to Fleetwood Mac 's Rumours, the 20th anniversary album of cover versions which also featured "Do n't Stop '' by Elton John, "You Make Loving Fun '' by Jewel and others from the Goo Goo Dolls and the Cranberries. It was then remixed by Todd Terry for single release and became the first big hit for The Corrs in the UK, reaching number 6 in the UK singles chart and staying in the chart for 10 weeks. The video also won the "Best Adult Contemporary Video '' award from Billboard magazine in 1998. The Corrs ' second studio album, Talk on Corners, was then re-released with "Dreams '' added.
The Corrs performed "Dreams '' with Mick Fleetwood from Fleetwood Mac in their concert at the Royal Albert Hall on St. Patrick 's Day, 1998 (which was also Caroline Corr 's 25th birthday).
Billboard wrote about the song: "The Corrs bring an interesting Celtic flavor to the first pop single from "Legacy: A Tribute To Fleetwood Mac 's Rumours. '' Although it 's difficult to let go of the intense drama of the original recording, the act 's earnest delivery is to be commended and appreciated. In an effort to better connect with the kids of crossover radio, club icon Todd Terry has been enlisted to remix the song with a more forceful disco sound. It was a wise move that gives this single a fighting chance in drawing the positive attention of the pop masses. ''
(Durations for tracks 1 (listed as 3: 59) and 4 (listed as 8: 40) on the sleeve and on the CD are wrong, corrected below. The radio edit is actually longer than the album version. The single was released in Germany, South Africa and Australia with the same track listing - and wrong travk lengths - but with different covers.)
In 2005, Nicks contributed new vocals to a remake of the song by DJ and house music duo Deep Dish. The song appears on their album George Is On, and was a top twenty UK Singles Chart hit and climbed to number 26 on the US Hot Dance Club Play chart. Also, an edited version of the song is included on her 2007 album Crystal Visions -- The Very Best of Stevie Nicks.
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how far is swainsboro ga from statesboro ga | Statesboro, Georgia - wikipedia
Statesboro is the largest city and county seat of Bulloch County, Georgia, United States, located in the southeastern part of the state.
Statesboro is home to the flagship campus of Georgia Southern University and is part of the Savannah -- Hinesville -- Statesboro Combined Statistical Area. As of 2016, the Statesboro Micropolitan Statistical Area, which consists of Bulloch County, had an estimated population of 74,722. The city had an estimated 2016 population of 31,419. Statesboro is the largest Micropolitan Statistical Area in Georgia. It is largest city in the Magnolia Midlands Region.
The city was chartered in 1803, starting as a small trading community providing basic essentials for surrounding cotton plantations. This drove the economy throughout the 19th century, both before and after the U.S. Civil War.
In 1906, Statesboro and area leaders joined together to bid for and win the First District A&M School, a land grant college that eventually developed into Georgia Southern University.
Statesboro inspired the blues song "Statesboro Blues, '' written by Blind Willie McTell in the 1920s, and covered in a well - known version by the Allman Brothers Band.
In 2017, Statesboro was selected in the top three of the national America 's Best Communities competition and was named one of nine Georgia "live, work, play '' cities by the Georgia Municipal Association.
In 1801, George Sibbald of Augusta donated a 9,301 - acre (37.64 km) tract for a centrally located county seat for the growing agricultural community of Bulloch County. The area was developed by white planters largely for cotton plantations that were worked by black slave labor. In December 1803, the Georgia legislature created the town of Statesborough. In 1866 the state legislature granted a permanent charter to the city, changing the spelling of its name to the present "Statesboro. ''
During the Civil War and General William T. Sherman 's famous March to the Sea through Georgia, a Union officer asked a saloon proprietor for directions to Statesboro. The proprietor replied, "You are standing in the middle of town, '' indicating its small size. The soldiers destroyed the courthouse, a crude log structure that doubled as a barn when court was not in session. After the Civil War, the small town began to grow, and Statesboro has developed as a major town in southeastern Georgia. Many freedmen stayed in the area, working on plantations as sharecroppers and tenant farmers.
Following the Reconstruction era, racial violence of whites against blacks increased. In the era from 1880 to 1930, Georgia had the highest rate of lynchings of any state in the nation. Among them were three black men who were lynched and burned to death on August 16, 1904, near Statesboro. A fourth man was lynched later in the month in Bulloch County. After a white farm family was killed, the white community spread unfounded rumors of black clergy urging blacks to violence against whites, and more than twelve black men were arrested in this case.
Paul Reed and Will Cato were convicted of the Hodge family murders by an all - white jury and sentenced to death on August 16, 1904, but they were abducted that day from the courthouse by a lynch mob and brutally burned to death. Handy Bell, another suspect, was lynched and burned by a mob that night. White violence against blacks did not end; both men and women were physically attacked on the streets. Area newspaper coverage of the trial and lynching had been sensationalized, arousing anger, and two more black men were lynched in August 1904: Sebastian McBride in Portal in Bulloch County and A.L. Scott in Wilcox County.
To escape oppression and violence, many African Americans left Statesboro and Bulloch County altogether, causing local businessmen to worry about labor shortages in the cotton and turpentine industries. African Americans made a Great Migration from the rural South to northern cities in the first half of the 20th century. Local effects can be seen in the drop in Statesboro population growth from 1910 to 1930 on the census tables below in the "Demographics '' section.
Around the turn of the century, new businesses in Statesboro included stores and banks built along the town 's four major streets, each named Main. In 1908 Statesboro led the world in sales of long - staple Sea Island Cotton, a specialty of the Low Country.
Mechanization of agriculture decreased the need for some farm labor. After the boll weevil destroyed the cotton crop in the 1930s, farmers shifted to tobacco. The insect had invaded the South from the west, disrupting cotton cultivation throughout the region. By 1953, however, more than 20 million pounds of tobacco passed through warehouses in Statesboro, then the largest market of the "Bright Tobacco Belt '' spanning Georgia and Florida.
The 1906 First District Agricultural & Mechanical School at Statesboro was developed as a land grant college, initiated by federal legislation to support education. Its mission shifted in the 1920s to teacher training; and in 1924 it was renamed as the Georgia Normal School. With expansion of the curriculum to a 4 - year program, it was renamed as the South Georgia Teachers College in 1929. Other name changes were to Georgia Teachers College in 1939, and Georgia Southern College in 1959. After this period, it became racially integrated and with development of graduate programs and research in numerous fields, since 1990 it has had university status as Georgia Southern University.
During the Cold War, the Statesboro Bomb Plot was reported at the 12th RBS Squadron, a Strategic Air Command radar station for Radar Bomb Scoring.
The economy of Statesboro is based on education, manufacturing, and agribusiness sectors. Statesboro serves as a regional economic hub and has more than one billion dollars in annual retail sales.
Georgia Southern University is the largest employer in the city, with 6,700 regional jobs tied directly and indirectly to the campus.
Agriculture is responsible for $100 million in annual farm gate revenues.
Statesboro is home to multiple manufacturing facilities. Statesboro Briggs & Stratton Plant is the third - largest employer in the region with 950 employees.
GAF, the largest privately owned roofing manufacturer in North America, relocated to Statesboro in the early 21st century.
Statesboro is located at 32 ° 26 ′ 43 '' N 81 ° 46 ′ 45 '' W / 32.44528 ° N 81.77917 ° W / 32.44528; - 81.77917 (32.445147, - 81.779234). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 13.9 square miles (35.9 km), of which 13.5 square miles (35.0 km) is land and 0.35 square miles (0.9 km), or 2.60 %, is water. The city is in the coastal plain region, or Low Country, of Georgia, so it is mainly flat with a few small hills. With an elevation of 250 feet (76 m), the downtown area is one of the highest places in Bulloch County. Pine, oak, magnolia, dogwood, palm, sweetgum, and a variety of other trees can be found in the area.
Statesboro has a humid subtropical climate, according to the Köppen classification. The city experiences very hot and humid summers with average July highs of about 91 degrees and lows around 70. Afternoon thunderstorms associated with the summer heat and humidity can spawn from time to time. Winters are mild with average January highs of 58 degrees and lows of 36 degrees. Winter storms are rare, but they happen periodically, the most recent being an ice storm in January 2014. On February 12, 2010, approximately two inches of snow fell on the city.
As of the census of 2010, there were 28,422 people, 8,560 households, and 3,304 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,812.9 people per square mile (700.0 / km2). There were 9,235 housing units at an average density of 737.6 per square mile (284.8 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 53 % White, 39.4 % African American, 0.1 % Native American, 2.8 % Asian, 1.6 % from other races, and 3 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.2 % of the population.
There were 8,560 households out of which 17.9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 21.9 % were married couples living together, 13.5 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 61.4 % were non-families. 31.4 % of all households were made up of individuals and 7.3 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.93.
In the city, the population was spread out with 14.3 % under the age of 18, 48.7 % from 18 to 24, 16.6 % from 25 to 44, 11.3 % from 45 to 64, and 9.2 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 22 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.3 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $19,016, and the median income for a family was $35,391. Males had a median income of $29,132 versus $20,718 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,585. About 20.5 % of families and 42.6 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.9 % of those under age 18 and 21.4 % of those age 65 or over.
Georgia Southern University is the city 's principal institution of higher learning. The university, a unit of the University System of Georgia, was founded as the First District Agricultural and Mechanical School in 1906 as a land grant college, open only to white students. On July 1, 1990, it became the fifth university of the University System, and as of 2015 is a comprehensive residential university of nearly 20,000 students. The university 's graduate programs are offered on campus, at satellite centers, and by distance and on - line delivery. For the past decade, the university has combined a capital building program with beautification of the nearly 700 - acre (2.8 km) campus.
The university facilities include a museum of cultural and natural history, a botanical garden, and a center for wildlife education located within the campus grounds. The university 's Division I athletic teams, the Georgia Southern Eagles, compete in the Sun Belt Conference.
Two community colleges are also located in Statesboro. East Georgia State College, a University System of Georgia college based in the nearby city of Swainsboro, operates a satellite campus in Statesboro. Ogeechee Technical College is a part of the Technical College System of Georgia, providing technical and adult education to area students. Both schools are located on U.S. Highway 301 South, outside of the city limits and approximately 3 miles (5 km) from the campus of Georgia Southern.
The Bulloch County Board of Education runs the public school district in Statesboro. The largest school in the city is Statesboro High School. Other public schools include Southeast Bulloch High School, William James Middle School, Langston Chapel Middle School, Southeast Bulloch Middle School, Julia P. Bryant Elementary School, Sallie Zetterower Elementary School, Mattie Lively Elementary School, Langston Chapel Elementary School, and Mill Creek Elementary School. Private schools include Bulloch Academy, Trinity Christian School, and Bible Baptist Christian School. The Charter Conservatory for Liberal Arts and Technology, part of the CCAT public school district, is a charter school located within the city limits. In 2016 CCAT was renamed Statesboro STEAM - College, Careers, Arts, & Technology Academy.
The culture of Statesboro reflects a blend of both its southern heritage and college town identity.
The city has developed a unique culture, common in many college towns, that coexists with the university students in creating an art scene, music scene and intellectual environment. Statesboro is home to numerous restaurants, bars, live music venues, bookstores and coffee shops that cater to its creative college town climate.
Statesboro 's downtown was named one of eight "Renaissance Cities '' by Georgia Trend magazine. The downtown area is currently undergoing a revitalization. The Old Bank of Statesboro and Georgia Theater have been adapted with renovation for the David H. Averitt Center for the Arts. It houses the Emma Kelly Theater, named after the local singer, known as the "Lady of 6,000 Songs ''. The center also contains art studios, conference rooms and an exhibition area. Downtown Statesboro has been featured in several motion pictures including Now and Then (1995) as well as 1969. Georgia Southern offers a variety of cultural options available both for the university and the wider community: the Georgia Southern Symphony, the Georgia Southern Planetarium, Georgia Southern Museum, and the Botanical Gardens at Bland Cottage. Touring groups appear at the Performing Arts Center, and also featured are shows put on by Georgia Southern students and faculty.
Mill Creek Regional Park is a large outdoor recreational facility with athletic fields and a water park, Splash in the Boro.
In 2015, the Premier Development League awarded a soccer franchise to Statesboro. South Georgia Tormenta FC 's inaugural season was the 2016 season. Games are played at Eagle Field.
Statesboro is served by a variety of media outlets in print, radio, television, and the Internet. Statesboro Magazine is the community 's premier quality of life publication. The local newspaper is the Statesboro Herald, a daily with a circulation of about 6,000. Other newspapers include the George - Anne produced by Georgia Southern University students, Connect Statesboro, a weekly entertainment publication, and the E11eventh Hour, a twice - a-month entertainment publication. Radio stations include WHKN, WMCD, WPMX, WPTB, WWNS, and WVGS. Statesboro Business Magazine offers Statesboro and area business news, articles, features, jobs, real estate listings and other area business information and reviews.
StatesboroHerald.com has received numerous state and national awards from the newspaper industry for online innovation.
The Allman Brothers Band song Statesboro Blues is about Statesboro, Georgia.
Approximately 3 miles (5 km) outside of Statesboro is the Statesboro - Bulloch County Airport, which can accommodate private aircraft but does not have a control tower or commercial flights. Most travelers use the nearby Savannah / Hilton Head International Airport, which is located 45 miles (72 km) to the east and is served by nine commercial airlines. Statesboro is about three hours by highway from the major Hartsfield -- Jackson Atlanta International Airport.
Interstate 16 is located 10 miles (16 km) to the south of Statesboro. Statesboro is also served by three U.S. highways: U.S. Highway 301, which runs north - south through the city, U.S. Highway 25, which runs northwest - south through the city, and U.S. Highway 80, which is the main east - west route through the city. The Veterans Memorial Parkway (Highway 301 Bypass and Highway 25 Bypass) forms a near circle around the city.
U.S. Routes:
State Routes:
Rail service for freight is provided by Georgia Southern Railroad.
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when does the bonus episode of life is strange before the storm come out | Life is Strange: Before the Storm - Wikipedia
Life Is Strange: Before the Storm is an episodic graphic adventure video game developed by Deck Nine and published by Square Enix. The three episodes were released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One in late 2017. It is the second entry in the Life Is Strange series, set as a prequel to the first game, focusing on sixteen - year - old Chloe Price and her relationship with schoolmate Rachel Amber. Gameplay concerns itself mostly with the use of branching dialogues.
Deck Nine began developing the game in 2016, using the Unity game engine. Ashly Burch from the original game did not voice Chloe Price in Before the Storm because of the SAG - AFTRA strike, but reprised her role in a bonus episode once the strike was resolved. British indie band Daughter wrote and performed the score. Life Is Strange: Before the Storm received mixed to generally favourable reviews, praising characters, themes, and story, while criticising aspects like plotholes, the main relationship, and the impact of player decisions near the end of the game.
Life Is Strange: Before the Storm is a graphic adventure played from a third - person view. The player assumes control of sixteen - year - old Chloe Price, three years before Life Is Strange. Unlike its predecessor, the game does not include time travel. Instead, Before the Storm features the ability "Backtalk '', which the player can use to call upon Chloe to get out of certain precarious situations; "Backtalk '' may also make a situation worse. A dialogue tree is used when a conversation or commentary is prompted. Occasional decisions will temporarily or permanently change outcomes. The environment can be interacted with and altered, including marking walls with graffiti.
In her Oregon hometown of Arcadia Bay, sixteen - year - old Chloe Price sneaks into a house concert at an old mill. Conflict arises with two men inside, but she evades them when schoolmate Rachel Amber causes a distraction. The next day, Chloe and Rachel reunite at Blackwell Academy and decide to ditch class, stowing away on a cargo train and ending up at a lookout point. They people - watch through a viewfinder and see a man and woman kiss in the park, which upsets Rachel. They steal wine from local campers and take a walk to a scrapyard. Chloe confronts Rachel about her change in mood, but she refuses to answer. When Chloe meets Rachel later, she discloses that she witnessed her father, James, through the viewfinder, cheating on her mother. Rachel destroys a family photo in a burning trash bin, and in a fit of rage kicks it over, igniting a wildfire.
The next day, Chloe and Rachel are reprimanded by Principal Wells for ditching school. Chloe hides out at the scrapyard where she finds an old truck in need of repair. She then receives a call from local drug dealer Frank Bowers, who arranges a meeting to discuss settling her debt with him. Chloe agrees to repay him by helping him steal money from her classmate Drew, who owes Frank a large sum. However, Chloe learns that Drew is being violently extorted by another drug dealer, Damon Merrick, and she must decide whether to pay off the dealer with the stolen money to protect Drew or keep it. Later, when a student is unable to participate in the school 's theater production of The Tempest due to road closures caused by the wildfire, Chloe reluctantly takes on the role opposite Rachel. After the play, they decide to leave Arcadia Bay with the truck from the scrapyard, and return to Rachel 's house to pack. There, following a confrontation, James reveals that the woman they saw him kissing was Rachel 's biological mother.
Rachel is told that her biological mother, Sera, is a drug addict, and that on the day her father kissed her, he had rejected Sera 's plea to reunite with Rachel, after she adopted her away years before. Chloe vows to find Sera, against James ' wishes. Chloe contacts Frank, who agrees to meet her at the scrapyard. She repairs the truck there before Rachel arrives. They are ambushed by Frank and Damon, who stabs Rachel after he realises she is the district attorney 's daughter. Surviving the wound, Rachel recovers at the hospital. Chloe continues the search by investigating James ' office for clues about Sera, instead revealing that James has been in contact with Damon; Chloe uses James ' phone to convince Damon to disclose where Sera is located, and finds out that Damon has kidnapped her for ransom. She races to Damon to pay him off, but learns, when she reaches him, that James wanted him to kill Sera. Frank appears and fights Damon, after which Sera entreats Chloe to never tell Rachel about James ' actions. Back at the hospital, Chloe is faced with a choice: tell Rachel everything or protect her from the truth.
In the bonus episode "Farewell '', a 13 - year old Max Caulfield struggles to break the news to Chloe that her family is moving to Seattle in three days. The two find a recording of their 8 - year old selves speaking of a buried treasure. After finding the map and an amulet in the attic, Max and Chloe discover the treasure 's spot, only to find that Chloe 's dad, William, had put their time capsule in a keg, along with his own recording, for safekeeping. Max can choose to either tell Chloe the truth, or hide it; regardless of her decision, their plans for the rest of the day are cut short when Chloe 's mother, Joyce, returns home with the terrible news of William 's death. Max attends William 's funeral days later and leaves for Seattle with her parents immediately after, leaving Chloe in grief.
Publisher Square Enix chose Deck Nine to develop the prequel to Life Is Strange after the developer 's proprietary StoryForge tools, made up of a screenwriting software and cinematic engine, had made an impression. Development began in 2016 with assistance from Square Enix London Studios, employing the Unity game engine. Rhianna DeVries, who initially did the game 's motion capture for Chloe Price, voiced the character, while the original voice actress Ashly Burch served as writing consultant. Burch did not reprise her role due to the SAG - AFTRA strike. With the strike over, Burch and Hannah Telle, who voiced Max Caulfield in Life Is Strange, returned for the bonus episode. The game went under different working titles during casting, according to Kylie Brown, who was cast as Rachel Amber (then codenamed Rebecca) in February 2017. The music was written and performed by the British indie folk band Daughter, and released as an official soundtrack by Glassnote Records on 1 September 2017. Instrumentation was employed to represent different sides of the lead character: piano for isolation, electric guitar for rebelliousness, and layered vocals for friendship. Daughter took the script and concept artwork as inspiration. The writers researched memoirs and psychology to understand Chloe 's grieving process. The script was composed of 1,500 pages, written by lead writer Zak Garriss and a writers ' room. The first pitch for the bonus episode revolved around its ending and how to build from that.
Prior to its official announcement, images had leaked online indicating that a prequel to Life Is Strange was in development. Square Enix revealed Life Is Strange: Before the Storm on 11 June during E3 2017, saying it would be released over three chapters starting on 31 August for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One. The Deluxe Edition includes the bonus chapter "Farewell '' -- featuring Max Caulfield of the original game as a playable character -- three additional outfits, and Mixtape Mode, allowing players to customise playlists using the game 's soundtrack. The bonus episode launched on 6 March 2018, the same day as the physical releases of the Limited and Vinyl Edition; the Limited Edition contains an art book and the soundtrack on CD, while the Vinyl Edition includes the latter on phonograph record, and if pre-ordered, figures of Chloe and Rachel -- both have content found in the Deluxe Edition, but add episode 1 of Life Is Strange. Feral Interactive, who published Life Is Strange for macOS and Linux in 2016, is also porting Before the Storm for the same platforms, with a release dated sometime in Q1 / Q2 2018.
Following E3 2017, Life Is Strange: Before the Storm received one of GamesRadar 's Best of E3 awards and was nominated for Hardcore Gamer 's Adventure Game award. It was also nominated for "Best Simulation Game '' and "Best Family Game '' at the Gamescom 2017 Awards. The game was met with generally favourable reviews for the PC and "mixed or average '' for PlayStation 4, according to Metacritic. Critics praised the characters, themes, and story, but criticised plotholes, the main relationship, and the impact of players ' decisions near the end of the game.
It was nominated in the Games for Impact category at The Game Awards 2017. At the 2017 Golden Joystick Awards, it was nominated for Best Audio and Best Performer for Kylie Brown. It won the award for Best Soundtrack and Most Touching Moment (The Tempest school play with Chloe and Rachel) in Game Informer 's 2017 Adventure Game of the Year Awards, while it took the lead for Best Adventure Game in their Reader 's Choice Best of 2017 Awards. Eurogamer ranked the game 16th on their list of the Top 50 Games of 2017. It was also nominated for the "Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award '' at the 2018 SXSW Gaming Awards, and for "Game Beyond Entertainment '' at the 14th British Academy Games Awards; it won the award for "Song Collection '' at the 2018 National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers Awards, whereas its other nominations were for "Game, Franchise Adventure '' and "Writing in a Drama ''.
Critics mostly praised Episode 1: Awake for the character development of Chloe Price and Rachel Amber. Jeremy Peeples of Hardcore Gamer found Chloe 's behaviour "endearing '' and noted that her personality was portrayed with multiple layers. Sam Loveridge at GamesRadar wrote that Rachel was the more authentic character because of her more "grounded '' dialogue. Despite disparaging Chloe for being "her same tiresomely combative self '' early on, Metro saw her fleshed out by enduring the loss of her father. Game Informer 's Kimberley Wallace thought the younger version of Chloe brought a "naivety and vulnerability '' worthy of sympathy. Conversely, the relationship between the leads was said to have formed "at unnatural speed. '' Peeples and Loveridge favoured the "Backtalk '' gameplay feature, while Metro and Wallace cared little for it.
Reviewers found Episode 2: Brave New World to either be better than the first instalment or one of the series ' greatest. Metro praised how choices made a difference with a "profound effect '' on character arc, while Ozzie Mejia of Shacknews relished in Chloe 's "genuine growth '' contrasting her "fiery spirit ''. Similarly, Game Informer 's Joe Juba appreciated the continued comprehension of the character, declaring this "its biggest strength ''. However, Juba 's biggest complaint echoed that of Wallace, in reference to the "forced '' manner with which Chloe and Rachel become friends. Brett Makedonski, writing for Destructoid, thought that the character exposition was done "to great effect. '' Most noted was The Tempest school play sequence, which Metro said was their favorite, Mejia called "one of the funniest '' in Before the Storm, and Juba observed as the culmination of all past choices. Metro criticised the script for being "uneven '' and disapproved of the voice acting. Mejia felt the ending could have been done away with, saying it was "a bit drawn out, '' though he was impressed with "Backtalk ''.
Metro and Peeples agreed that Episode 3: Hell Is Empty was the most emotional of the season. The writing was lauded as authentic and genuine, with Wallace noting that it showed new sides to minor characters; conversely, Makedonski criticised that an ancillary character with little development became a primary antagonist. Although Metro observed some inconsistent dialogue and voice acting, Peeples said the cast showed "incredible chemistry ''. Metro saw the relationship between Rachel and Chloe as "the least compelling '' aspect, Wallace thought their "tender moments '' were the best parts of the episode, and Makedonski said "their struggles, their mutual escapism, and their sacrifices '' provided more than enough investment. Reviewers generally approved of how the game concluded. Wallace declared it "gripping and satisfying '' and Metro called it "every bit as earth - shattering as the first game. ''
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when does the new rolling stone magazine come out | Rolling Stone - wikipedia
Rolling Stone is an American biweekly magazine that focuses on popular culture. It was founded in San Francisco in 1967 by Jann Wenner, who is still the magazine 's publisher, and the music critic Ralph J. Gleason. It was first known for its musical coverage and for political reporting by Hunter S. Thompson. In the 1990s, the magazine shifted focus to a younger readership interested in youth - oriented television shows, film actors, and popular music. In recent years, it has resumed its traditional mix of content.
Rolling Stone Press is the magazine 's associated book publishing imprint. Straight Arrow Press was the magazine 's associated book publishing imprint, Straight Arrow Publishing Co., Inc. was the publishing company that published the Rolling Stone.
Rolling Stone magazine was founded in San Francisco in 1967 by Jann Wenner and Ralph Gleason. To get it off the ground, Wenner borrowed $7,500 from his own family and from the parents of his soon - to - be wife, Jane Schindelheim. The first issue carried a cover date of November 9, 1967, and was in newspaper format with a lead article on the Monterey Pop Festival. The cover price was 25 ¢ (equivalent to $1.83 in 2016).
In the first issue, Wenner explained that the title of the magazine referred to the 1950 blues song, "Rollin ' Stone '', recorded by Muddy Waters, the rock and roll band the Rolling Stones, and Bob Dylan 's hit single "Like a Rolling Stone '':
You 're probably wondering what we 're trying to do. It 's hard to say: sort of a magazine and sort of a newspaper. The name of it is Rolling Stone which comes from an old saying, "A rolling stone gathers no moss. ''
Muddy Waters used the name for a song he wrote. The Rolling Stones took their name from Muddy 's song. "Like a Rolling Stone '' was the title of Bob Dylan 's first rock and roll record. We have begun a new publication reflecting what we see are the changes in rock and roll and the changes related to rock and roll. "-- Jann Wenner, Rolling Stone, November 9, 1967, p. 2
Some authors have attributed the name solely to Dylan 's hit single: "At (Ralph) Gleason 's suggestion, Wenner named his magazine after a Bob Dylan song. '' Rolling Stone initially identified with and reported the hippie counterculture of the era. However, it distanced itself from the underground newspapers of the time, such as Berkeley Barb, embracing more traditional journalistic standards and avoiding the radical politics of the underground press. In the very first edition, Wenner wrote that Rolling Stone "is not just about the music, but about the things and attitudes that music embraces ''.
In the 1970s, Rolling Stone began to make a mark with its political coverage, with the likes of gonzo journalist Hunter S. Thompson writing for the magazine 's political section. Thompson first published his most famous work Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas within the pages of Rolling Stone, where he remained a contributing editor until his death in 2005. In the 1970s, the magazine also helped launch the careers of many prominent authors, including Cameron Crowe, Lester Bangs, Joe Klein, Joe Eszterhas, Ben Fong - Torres, Patti Smith and P.J. O'Rourke. It was at this point that the magazine ran some of its most famous stories, including that of the Patty Hearst abduction odyssey. One interviewer, speaking for a large number of his peers, said that he bought his first copy of the magazine upon initial arrival on his college campus, describing it as a "rite of passage ''.
In 1977, the magazine moved its headquarters from San Francisco to New York City. Editor Jann Wenner said San Francisco had become "a cultural backwater ''.
During the 1980s, the magazine began to shift towards being a general "entertainment '' magazine. Music was still a dominant topic, but there was increasing coverage of celebrities in television, films and the pop culture of the day. The magazine also initiated its annual "Hot Issue '' during this time.
Rolling Stone was initially known for its musical coverage and for Thompson 's political reporting. In the 1990s, the magazine changed its format to appeal to a younger readership interested in youth - oriented television shows, film actors and popular music. This led to criticism that the magazine was emphasizing style over substance. In recent years, the magazine has resumed its traditional mix of content, including in - depth political stories. It has also expanded content to include coverage of financial and banking issues. As a result, the magazine has seen its circulation increase and its reporters invited as experts to network television programs of note.
The printed format has gone through several changes. The first publications, in 1967 -- 72, were in folded tabloid newspaper format, with no staples, black ink text, and a single color highlight that changed each edition. From 1973 onwards, editions were produced on a four - color press with a different newsprint paper size. In 1979, the bar code appeared. In 1980, it became a gloss - paper, large format (10 "× 12 '') magazine. As of edition of October 30, 2008, Rolling Stone has had a smaller, standard - format magazine size.
After years of declining readership, the magazine experienced a major resurgence of interest and relevance with the work of two young journalists in the late 2000s, Michael Hastings and Matt Taibbi.
In 2005, Dana Leslie Fields, former publisher of Rolling Stone, who had worked at the magazine for 17 years, was an inaugural inductee into the Magazine Hall of Fame.
In 2009, Taibbi unleashed an acclaimed series of scathing reports on the financial meltdown of the time. He famously described Goldman Sachs as "a great vampire squid ''.
Bigger headlines came at the end of June 2010. Rolling Stone caused a controversy in the White House by publishing in the July issue an article by journalist Michael Hastings entitled, "The Runaway General '', quoting criticism by General Stanley A. McChrystal, commander of the International Security Assistance Force and U.S. Forces - Afghanistan commander, about Vice President Joe Biden and other Administration members of the White House. McChrystal resigned from his position shortly after his statements went public.
In 2010, Taibbi documented illegal and fraudulent actions by banks in the foreclosure courts, after traveling to Jacksonville, Florida and sitting in on hearings in the courtroom. His article, Invasion of the Home Snatchers also documented attempts by the judge to intimidate a homeowner fighting foreclosure and the attorney Taibbi accompanied into the court.
In January 2012, the magazine ran exclusive excerpts from Hastings ' book just prior to publication. The book, The Operators: The Wild and Terrifying Inside Story of America 's War in Afghanistan, provided a much more expansive look at McChrystal and the culture of senior American military and how they become embroiled in such wars. The book reached Amazon 's bestseller list in the first 48 hours of release, and it received generally favorable reviews. Salon 's Glenn Greenwald described it as "superb, '' "brave '' and "eye - opening ''.
In 2012, Taibbi, through his coverage of the Libor scandal, emerged as an expert on that topic, which led to media appearances outside Rolling Stone.
On November 9, 2012, the magazine published its first Spanish - language section on Latino music and culture, in the issue dated November 22.
In September 2016, Advertising Age reported that Wenner is in the process of selling a 49 % stake of the magazine to a company from Singapore called BandLab. The new investor will have no direct involvement in the editorial content of the magazine.
In September 2017, Wenner Media announced that the remaining 51 % of Rolling Stone magazine is up for sale. In December 2017, Penske Media announced to buy the remaining stake from Wenner Media.
Rolling Stone 's website features selected current articles, reviews, blogs, MP3s. The website also has other features, such as searchable and free encyclopedic articles about artists, with images and sometimes sound clips of their work. The articles and reviews are sometimes in a revised form of the published versions. The website also carries political and cultural articles and entries selected from the magazine 's archives.
The site at one time had an extensive message - board forum. By the late 1990s, this had developed into a thriving community, with a large number of regular members and contributors worldwide. However, the site was also plagued with numerous Internet trolls and malicious code - hackers, who vandalized the forum substantially. The magazine abruptly deleted the forum in May 2004, then began a new, much more limited message board community on their site in late 2005, only to remove it again in 2006. In March 2008, the website started a new message board section once again, then deleted it in April 2010.
Rolling Stone devotes one of its table of contents pages to promoting material currently appearing on its website, listing detailed links to the items. The magazine also has a page at MySpace, Facebook and Twitter.
On April 19, 2010, the website was updated drastically and now features the complete archives of Rolling Stone. The archive was first launched under a for - pay model, but has since transitioned to a free - with - print - subscription model. In the spring of 2012, Rolling Stone launched a federated search feature which searches both the website and the archive.
The website has become an interactive source of biographical information on music artists in addition to historical rankings from the magazine. Users can cross-reference lists and they are also provided with historical insights. For example, one group that is listed on both Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time and Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time is Toots and the Maytals, with biographical details from Rolling Stone that explain how Toots and the Maytals are responsible for coining the term "reggae '' in their song "Do the Reggay ''. For biographical information on all artists, the website contains a directory listed alphabetically.
In May 2016, Wenner Media announced plans to create a separate online publication dedicated to the coverage of video games and their culture. Gus Wenner, Jann Wenner 's son, stated that "gaming is today what rock ' n ' roll was when Rolling Stone was founded ''. Glixel was originally hosted on Rolling Stone 's website and transitioned to its own domain by October 2016. Stories from Glixel are included on the Rolling Stone website, while writers for Rolling Stone were also able to contribute to Glixel. The site was headed by John Davison, and its offices were located in San Francisco. Rolling Stone closed down the offices in June 2017 and fired the entire staff, citing the difficulties of working with the remote site from their main New York office. Brian Crecente, founder of Kotaku and co-founder of bigger Polygon, was hired as editorial director and runs the site from the main New York office.
In December 2009, the Los Angeles Times reported that the owners of Rolling Stone magazine planned to open a Rolling Stone restaurant in the Hollywood & Highland Center in Hollywood in the spring of 2010. The expectation was that the restaurant could become the first of a national chain if it was successful. As of November 2010, the "soft opening '' of the restaurant was planned for December 2010. In 2011, the restaurant was open for lunch and dinner as well as a full night club downstairs on the weekends. The restaurant closed in February 2013.
One major criticism of Rolling Stone involves its generational bias toward the 1960s and 1970s. One critic referred to the Rolling Stone list of the "99 Greatest Songs '' as an example of "unrepentant rockist fogeyism ''. In further response to this issue, rock critic Jim DeRogatis, a former Rolling Stone editor, published a thorough critique of the magazine 's lists in a book called Kill Your Idols: A New Generation of Rock Writers Reconsiders the Classics, which featured differing opinions from many younger critics.
Rolling Stone magazine has been criticized for reconsidering many classic albums that it had previously dismissed, and for frequent use of the 3.5 - star rating. For example, Led Zeppelin was largely written off by Rolling Stone magazine critics during the band 's most active years in the 1970s, but by 2006, a cover story on the band honored them as "the Heaviest Band of All Time ''. A critic for Slate magazine described a conference at which 1984 's The Rolling Stone Record Guide was scrutinized. As he described it, "The guide virtually ignored hip - hop and ruthlessly panned heavy metal, the two genres that within a few years would dominate the pop charts. In an auditorium packed with music journalists, you could detect more than a few anxious titters: How many of us will want our record reviews read back to us 20 years hence? ''
The hiring of former FHM editor Ed Needham further enraged critics who alleged that Rolling Stone had lost its credibility.
The 2003 Rolling Stone 's 100 Greatest Guitarists of all Time article, which named only two female musicians, resulted in Venus Zine answering with their own list, entitled "The Greatest Female Guitarists of All Time ''.
Conservative columnist Jonah Goldberg stated that Rolling Stone had "essentially become the house organ of the Democratic National Committee ''. Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner has made all of his political donations to Democrats.
Rolling Stone 's film critic, Peter Travers, has been criticized for his high number of repetitively used blurbs.
The August 2013 Rolling Stone cover, featuring then - accused (later convicted) Boston Marathon bomber Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, drew widespread criticism that the magazine was "glamorizing terrorism '' and that the cover was a "slap in the face to the great city of Boston ''. The online edition of the article was accompanied by a short editorial stating that the story "falls within the traditions of journalism and Rolling Stone 's long - standing commitment to serious and thoughtful coverage of the most important political and cultural issues of our day ''. The controversial cover photograph that was used by Rolling Stone had previously featured on the front page of The New York Times on May 5, 2013.
In response to the outcry, New England - based CVS Pharmacy and Tedeschi Food Shops banned their stores from carrying the issue. Also refusing to sell the issue were Walgreens; Rite - Aid and Kmart; Roche Bros. and Stop & Shop; H-E-B and Walmart; 7 - Eleven; Hy - Vee, Rutter 's Farm, and United Supermarkets; Cumberland Farms and Market Basket; and Shaw 's. Boston mayor Thomas Menino sent a letter to Rolling Stone publisher Jann Wenner, calling the cover "ill - conceived, at best... (it) reaffirms a message that destruction gains fame for killers and their ' causes '. '' Menino also wrote, "To respond to you in anger is to feed into your obvious market strategy '', and that Wenner could have written about the survivors or the people who came to help after the bombings instead. In conclusion he wrote, "The survivors of the Boston Marathon deserve Rolling Stone cover stories, though I no longer feel that Rolling Stone deserves them. ''
In the November 19, 2014 issue, the story "A Rape on Campus '' was run about an alleged gang rape on the campus of the University of Virginia. Separate inquiries by Phi Kappa Psi, the fraternity accused by Rolling Stone of facilitating the alleged rape, and The Washington Post revealed major errors, omissions and discrepancies in the story. Reporter Sabrina Erdely 's story was subject to intense media criticism. The Washington Post and Boston Herald issued calls for magazine staff involved in the report to be fired. Rolling Stone subsequently issued three apologies for the story. Some suggested that legal action against the magazine by persons accused of the rape might result.
On December 5, 2014, Rolling Stone 's managing editor, Will Dana, apologized for not fact - checking the story. Rolling Stone commissioned an outside investigation of the story and its problems by the dean of the Columbia School of Journalism. The report uncovered journalistic failure in the UVA story and institutional problems with reporting at Rolling Stone. Rolling Stone retracted the story on April 5, 2015. On April 6, 2015, following the investigation and retraction of the story, Phi Kappa Psi announced plans to pursue all available legal action against Rolling Stone, including claims of defamation.
On May 12, 2015, UVA associate dean Nicole Eramo, chief administrator for handling sexual assault issues at the school, filed a $7.5 million defamation lawsuit in Charlottesville Circuit Court against Rolling Stone and Erdely, claiming damage to her reputation and emotional distress. Said the filing, "Rolling Stone and Erdely 's highly defamatory and false statements about Dean Eramo were not the result of an innocent mistake. They were the result of a wanton journalist who was more concerned with writing an article that fulfilled her preconceived narrative about the victimization of women on American college campuses, and a malicious publisher who was more concerned about selling magazines to boost the economic bottom line for its faltering magazine, than they were about discovering the truth or actual facts. '' On November 4, 2016, after 20 hours of deliberation, a jury consisting of eight women and two men found Rolling Stone, the magazine 's publisher and Erdely liable for defaming Eramo.
On July 29, 2015, three graduates of the fraternity Phi Kappa Psi filed a lawsuit against Rolling Stone, its publisher Wenner Media, and a journalist for defamation and infliction of emotional distress. The same day, and just months after the controversy began, The New York Times reported that managing editor Will Dana was departing the magazine with his last date recorded as August 7, 2015. On November 9, 2015, the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity filed suit for $25 million for damages to its reputation caused by the magazine 's publication of this story, "with reckless disregard for the truth ''.
George Harrison 's song "This Guitar '' (1975), a lyrical sequel to his Beatles track "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' (1968), references the magazine in its second verse: "Learned to get up when I fall / Can even climb Rolling Stone walls ''. The song was written in response to some highly unfavorable reviews from Rolling Stone and other publications for Harrison 's 1974 North American tour and the Dark Horse album.
"The Cover of Rolling Stone '' is a song written by Shel Silverstein and first recorded by American rock group Dr. Hook & the Medicine Show. The song satirizes success in the music business; the song 's narrator laments that his band, despite having the superficial attributes of a successful rock star (including drug usage, "teenage groupies, who 'll do anything we say '' and a frenetic guitar solo) has been unable to "get their pictures / on the cover of the Rolling Stone ''.
Some artists have been featured on the cover many times, and some of these pictures went on to become iconic. The Beatles, for example, have appeared on the cover more than 30 times, either individually or as a band. The first 10 issues featured, in order of appearance, the following:
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where does the concept of due process come from | Due process - wikipedia
Due process is the legal requirement that the state must respect all legal rights that are owed to a person. Due process balances the power of law of the land and protects the individual person from it. When a government harms a person without following the exact course of the law, this constitutes a due process violation, which offends the rule of law.
Due process has also been frequently interpreted as limiting laws and legal proceedings (see substantive due process) so that judges, instead of legislators, may define and guarantee fundamental fairness, justice, and liberty. That interpretation has proven controversial. Analogous to the concepts of natural justice, and procedural justice used in various other jurisdictions, the interpretation of due process is sometimes expressed as a command that the government must not be unfair to the people or abuse them physically. The term is not used in contemporary English law, but two similar concepts are natural justice, which generally applies only to decisions of administrative agencies and some types of private bodies like trade unions, and the British constitutional concept of the rule of law as articulated by A.V. Dicey and others. However, neither concept lines up perfectly with the American theory of due process, which, as explained below, presently contains many implied rights not found in either ancient or modern concepts of due process in England.
Due process developed from clause 39 of Magna Carta in England. Reference to due process first appeared in a statutory rendition of clause 39 in 1354 thus: "No man of what state or condition he be, shall be put out of his lands or tenements nor taken, nor disinherited, nor put to death, without he be brought to answer by due process of law. '' When English and American law gradually diverged, due process was not upheld in England but became incorporated in the US Constitution.
In clause 39 of Magna Carta, issued in 1215, John of England promised: "No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled, or deprived of his standing in any other way, nor will we proceed with force against him, or send others to do so, except by the lawful judgment of his equals or by the law of the land. '' Magna Carta itself immediately became part of the "law of the land '', and Clause 61 of that charter authorized an elected body of 25 barons to determine by majority vote what redress the King must provide when the King offends "in any respect against any man. '' Thus, Magna Carta established the rule of law in England by not only requiring the monarchy to obey the law of the land but also limiting how the monarchy could change the law of the land. However, in the 13th century, the provisions may have been referring only to the rights of landowners, and not to ordinary peasantry or villagers.
Shorter versions of Magna Carta were subsequently issued by British monarchs, and Clause 39 of Magna Carta was renumbered "29. '' The phrase due process of law first appeared in a statutory rendition of Magna Carta in 1354 during the reign of Edward III of England, as follows: "No man of what state or condition he be, shall be put out of his lands or tenements nor taken, nor disinherited, nor put to death, without he be brought to answer by due process of law. ''
In 1608, the English jurist Edward Coke wrote a treatise in which he discussed the meaning of Magna Carta. Coke explained that no man shall be deprived but by legem terrae, the law of the land, "that is, by the common law, statute law, or custom of England... (that is, to speak it once and for all) by the due course, and process of law... ''
Both the clause in Magna Carta and the later statute of 1354 were again explained in 1704 (during the reign of Queen Anne) by the Queen 's Bench, in the case of Regina v. Paty. In that case, the British House of Commons had deprived John Paty and certain other citizens of the right to vote in an election and committed them to Newgate Prison merely for the offense of pursuing a legal action in the courts. The Queen 's Bench, in an opinion by Justice Powys, explained the meaning of "due process of law '' as follows:
(I) t is objected, that by Mag. Chart. c. 29, no man ought to be taken or imprisoned, but by the law of the land. But to this I answer, that lex terrae is not confined to the common law, but takes in all the other laws, which are in force in this realm; as the civil and canon law... By the 28 Ed. 3, c. 3, there the words lex terrae, which are used in Mag. Char. are explained by the words, due process of law; and the meaning of the statute is, that all commitments must be by a legal authority; and the law of Parliament is as much a law as any, nay, if there be any superiority this is a superior law.
Chief Justice Holt dissented in this case because he believed that the commitment had not in fact been by a legal authority. The House of Commons had purported to legislate unilaterally, without approval of the British House of Lords, ostensibly to regulate the election of its members. Although the Queen 's Bench held that the House of Commons had not infringed or overturned due process, John Paty was ultimately freed by Queen Anne when she prorogued Parliament.
Throughout centuries of British history, many laws and treatises asserted various requirements as being part of "due process '' or included in the "law of the land ''. That view usually held in regards to what was required by existing law, rather than what was intrinsically required by due process itself. As the United States Supreme Court has explained, a due process requirement in Britain was not "essential to the idea of due process of law in the prosecution and punishment of crimes, but was only mentioned as an example and illustration of due process of law as it actually existed in cases in which it was customarily used. ''
Ultimately, the scattered references to "due process of law '' in English law did not limit the power of the government; in the words of American law professor John V. Orth, "the great phrases failed to retain their vitality. '' Orth points out that this is generally attributed to the rise of the doctrine of parliamentary supremacy in the United Kingdom, which was accompanied by hostility towards judicial review as an undemocratic foreign invention.
Scholars have occasionally interpreted Lord Coke 's ruling in Dr. Bonham 's Case as implying the possibility of judicial review, but by the 1870s, Lord Campbell was dismissing judicial review as "a foolish doctrine alleged to have been laid down extra-judicially in Dr. Bonham 's Case..., a conundrum (that) ought to have been laughed at. '' Lacking the power of judicial review, English courts possessed no means by which to declare government statutes or actions invalid as a violation of due process. In contrast, American legislators and executive branch officers possessed virtually no means by which to overrule judicial invalidation of statutes or actions as due process violations, with the sole exception of proposing a constitutional amendment, which are rarely successful. As a consequence, English law and American law diverged. Unlike their English counterparts, American judges became increasingly assertive about enforcing due process of law. In turn, the legislative and executive branches learned how to avoid such confrontations in the first place, by tailoring statutes and executive actions to the constitutional requirements of due process as elaborated upon by the judiciary.
In 1977, an English political science professor explained the present situation in England for the benefit of American lawyers:
An American constitutional lawyer might well be surprised by the elusiveness of references to the term ' due process of law ' in the general body of English legal writing... Today one finds no space devoted to due process in Halsbury 's Laws of England, in Stephen 's Commentaries, or Anson 's Law and Custom of the Constitution. The phrase rates no entry in such works as Stroud 's Judicial Dictionary or Wharton 's Law Lexicon.
Two similar concepts in contemporary English law are natural justice, which generally applies only to decisions of administrative agencies and some types of private bodies like trade unions, and the British constitutional concept of the rule of law as articulated by A.V. Dicey and others. However, neither concept lines up perfectly with the American conception of due process, which presently contains many implied rights not found in the ancient or modern concepts of due process in England.
The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution each contain a Due Process Clause. Due process deals with the administration of justice and thus the Due Process Clause acts as a safeguard from arbitrary denial of life, liberty, or property by the government outside the sanction of law. The Supreme Court of the United States interprets the clauses as providing four protections: procedural due process (in civil and criminal proceedings), substantive due process, a prohibition against vague laws, and as the vehicle for the incorporation of the Bill of Rights.
Various countries recognize some form of due process under customary international law. Although the specifics are often unclear, most nations agree that they should guarantee foreign visitors a basic minimum level of justice and fairness. Some nations have argued that they are bound to grant no more rights to aliens than they do to their own citizens, the doctrine of national treatment, which also means that both would be vulnerable to the same deprivations by the government. With the growth of international human rights law and the frequent use of treaties to govern treatment of foreign nationals abroad, the distinction, in practice, between these two perspectives may be disappearing.
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what is the population of newburgh new york | Newburgh, New York - wikipedia
Newburgh / ˈnuːbərɡ / is a city located in Orange County, New York, United States, 60 miles (97 km) north of New York City, and 90 miles (140 km) south of Albany, on the Hudson River. Newburgh is a part of the New York CSA. The Newburgh area was first settled in the early 18th century by the Germans and British. During the American Revolution, Newburgh served as the headquarters of the Continental Army. Prior to its chartering in 1865, the city of Newburgh was part of the town of Newburgh; the town now borders the city to the north and west. East of the city is the Hudson River; the city of Beacon, New York is across the river; and it is connected to Newburgh via the Newburgh -- Beacon Bridge. The entire southern boundary of the city is with the town of New Windsor. Most of this boundary is formed by Quassaick Creek. In May 2016, the city requested help for its PFOS contaminated water supply under Superfund.
At the time of European contact the area of Newburgh was occupied by the Waoranek, a branch of the Lenape. The area that became Newburgh was first explored by Europeans when Henry Hudson stopped by during his 1609 expedition up the river that now bears his name. His navigator, Robert Juet, is said to have called the site "a pleasant place to build a town '', although some later historians believe he may actually have been referring to the area where Cornwall - on - Hudson now stands.
Around 1683 provincial governor Thomas Dongan purchased the land from the Woaranek. The first settlement was made in the spring of 1709 by fifty - four Palatine refugees, sponsored by Queen Anne of Great Britain. The settlers named it the Palatine Parish by Quassic. In 1743 a ferry at the foot of First Street had been established between Newburgh and Fishkill Landing. In 1752 the land had been surveyed by Cadwallader Colden and named "Newburgh '' after Newburgh in his native Scotland. Shipyards were established and docks and warehouses lined the waterfront.
Newburgh was the headquarters of the Continental Army from March, 1782 until the latter part of 1783. While the army was camped at Newburgh, some of its senior officers began the "Newburgh conspiracy '' to overthrow the government. General George Washington was able to persuade his officers to stay loyal to him. The army was disbanded here in 1783. Washington received the famous Newburgh letter from Lewis Nicola proposing that he become king here. It drew a vigorous rebuke from Washington. In honor of his refusal of that suggestion, Kings Highway, the north - south street on which the Newburgh headquarters is located, was renamed Liberty Street.
The year 1793 saw Newburgh 's first newspaper, The Newburgh Packet. The hamlet of Newburgh was incorporated as a village in 1800. At the time of its settlement it was in Ulster County and was that county 's seat. When Rockland County was split from Orange County in 1798, Newburgh and the other towns north of Moodna Creek were put in a redrawn Orange County. Newburgh thus lost its status as the county seat to Goshen. The former Ulster County courthouse still stands as Newburgh 's old city courthouse building (currently used as municipal office space).
By 1793 there were four sloop lines operating out of Newburgh. As new turnpikes opened trade extended into the interior. Passenger coaches and farm wagons raveled as far west as Canandaigua. This was the shortest route from the Hudson to the West. By 1819 a steamboat on Cayuga Lake connected Newburgh stage lines with Ithaca. Streets leading to the river were often blocked for hours with farmers ' wagons waiting to be unloaded at the wharves. With the opening of the Erie Canal much of the traffic from the Southern Tier was diverted. In 1830 Richard Carpenter of Newburgh had the steamboat William Young built at Low Point; it ran between Newburgh and Albany. Prosperity returned with the arrival of the railroads.
On the evening of September 24, 1824 beacon fires in the Highlands announced the arrival of the Marquis de Lafayette. Having been feted in New York, he sailed upriver on the chartered steamer James Kent. The next day, people came from the surrounding towns to catch a glimpse of the General as her made his way to a reception at the Orange Hotel. The Rev. John Brown of St. George 's Episcopal Church was part of the welcoming committee. At 2 a.m. Lafayette sailed from Reeve & Falls dock for Poughkeepsie.
The Erie Railroad charter was amended April 8, 1845 to allow the building of the Newburgh Branch, running from the main line near Harriman north - northeast to Newburgh, also on the Hudson River. The branch opened January 8, 1850. It was later used as a connection to the New York and New England Railroad via a car float operation across the river to Beacon, New York.
Newburgh was chartered as a city in April 1865.
Newburgh became quite prosperous during the Gilded Age that followed. Newburgh had telephone service in 1879. In 1883 there was a steamboat landing on Second Street. The United States Hotel was on Front Street opposite the landing. Also on Front Street near the landing was the Union Depot. In 1883, the West Shore Railroad inaugurated service to the Pennsylvania Railroad Depot at Jersey City and by 1886 was traveling to Weehawken Terminal, where passengers transferred to ferries to Manhattan.
With its situation on the Hudson River, midway between New York City and Albany, it became a transportation hub and an industrial center. Its industries included manufacturings of cottons, woolens, silks, paper, felt hats, baking powder, soap, paper boxes, brick, plush goods, steam boilers, tools, automobiles, coin silver, bleach, candles, waterway gates, ice machines, pumps, moving - picture screens, overalls, perfumes, furniture, carpets, carburetors, spiral springs, spiral pipe, shirt waists, shirts, felt goods, lawn mowers; shipyards; foundries and machine shops; tanneries; leatherette works; plaster works.
J.J. Nutt made this comment about Newburgh: "The year 1891 finds us the most thriving city on the Hudson, with citizens full of spirit of public enterprise, with public institutions comparatively unequalled, and with apparently every factor and requisite to ensure its bright future as a manufacturing and commercial city of importance... ''
Newburgh was home to the second Edison power plant, installed to power 126 lamps at the Orange Woolen Mill, and was the second American city (after New York 's Pearl Street) to have a street lighted using electricity. Broadway, which at 132 feet (40 m) in width is one of the widest streets in the state of New York, runs through the city culminating with views of the Hudson River.
Newburgh played a pivotal role in television history. In October, 1939, RCA chose to test - market televisions in Newburgh, which was within range of the television signal of RCA 's experimental station W2XBS. 600 sets were sold in Newburgh at a deep discount. The test - marketing campaign 's success encouraged RCA to go forward with developing the new medium. Additionally, with consumer television production ceasing during World War II, those Newburgh households which purchased televisions during 1939 and 1940 were among the few to enjoy television (albeit with a greatly reduced programming schedule) during the war.
Newburgh was one of the first cities in the country to fluoridate its water in 1945.
In the late 20th century the industrial base of the city declined as industries relocated operations south or to other locations with cheaper labor costs and lower taxes. The Hudson River, which previously served as the main means of transporting goods, lost much of its shipping traffic to trucking. The city 's trolley system was shut down in 1924 in favor of buses. The nation moved to the automobile for transportation and, as with many other cities, there was a resulting migration to the suburbs. In 1963 the Newburgh -- Beacon Bridge was opened, carrying Interstate 84 and spanning the Hudson River, bypassing the Newburgh waterfront and the City of Newburgh altogether. The ferry closed down soon thereafter − it was not revived until 2005 − and the waterfront area declined rapidly.
In 1962, Lloyd 's Department Store became the first major shopping center in the Town of Newburgh. Its motto was "Years Ahead '' and the motto proved prophetic. Many features of Lloyd 's, including widely divergent ministores under one roof, did not become common in other shopping centers for many decades. Lloyd 's successfully drew a great deal of retail business away from the downtown area. In 1964, the Mid Valley Mall opened, also outside of the city limits in the Town of Newburgh, and attracted many long - established local businesses away from the waterfront and downtown City of Newburgh. Other retail shopping malls soon sprang up, all also outside the City of Newburgh, and the retail portion of the City was doomed. The city continued to lose its previously well regarded retail sector along Water Street and Broadway to the suburban shopping malls, which did not share the City 's congested parking and traffic problems -- or the perceived rising crime rate.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the city 's response to the economic decline was an ambitious urban renewal plan. The city 's historic waterfront area, an area composed of several square blocks which included numerous historically significant buildings, was completely demolished between 1970 and 1973. Residents were relocated, or were supposed to be relocated, to newer housing projects around Muchattoes Lake in the city 's interior.
A grand complex that was planned for the urban renewal area was never built when state and federal spending began to dry up after the 1973 oil crisis. To this day, the blocks which slope down to the river remain open, grassy slopes, offering sweeping views of the Hudson but generating no property taxes for the city. Public sentiment is mixed on whether they should be built on again at all, and the city 's view - protection ordinances make it less likely. Below, the waterfront was developed in the late 1990s after the city was once again able to secure grants from the state 's Environmental Protection fund for riprap (a type of stone) to stabilize the shoreline.
In the early 1960s, city manager Joseph McDowell Mitchell and the council attracted nationwide attention and the admiration of political conservatives when they attempted to require welfare recipients to pick up their payments at police headquarters. Mitchell later announced a program aimed largely at blacks on welfare, whom many in the community blamed for its economic problems. The program would have denied welfare payments to all after three months except the aged, the blind and the handicapped. Those affected would have largely been single mothers of young children, the only category in which blacks were predominant. After opposition by both state and federal officials, the program created a national controversy and never went into effect. Along with the failed urban renewal, the mid to late 1960s in Newburgh were also marked by race riots and other tensions.
Newburgh in the early 21st century is more racially diverse than it used to be, as a growing Latin immigrant (mainly of Mexican descent) population complements the city 's sizable African - American contingent. Economic development is a major concern, but poorly realized, as the good jobs once found in the local manufacturing sector have not been replaced. Pockets of poverty persist in the city, often mere blocks away from its many historical and architectural landmarks. In addition to this, the city has been facing issues regarding illegal immigration, like many other cities across the United States, ranging from overcrowded apartment buildings to mild racial conflict.
In spite of this Newburgh is experiencing a spurt of new businesses on its historic Liberty Street near Washington 's Headquarters. An art supply store, a gourmet food market, an antique store, a used furniture shop, a souvenir shop, a flower shop, a bakery and a restaurant have joined an existing cafe, a graphic design shop and two additional antique stores in the final months of 2008 and January 2009. This is all in the midst of the redevelopment of East Parmenter Street in a partnership with Habitat for Humanity and a private developer to build 24 new houses. The city has completed the overhaul of the infrastructure of the street.
Newburgh 's preservation history can be traced all the way back to 1850 when Washington 's Headquarters was designated a state historic site, the first in the country. The Historical Society of Newburgh Bay and the Highlands was chartered by the State of New York. Incorporated in 1884. The David Crawford House, on Montgomery Street, built in 1834 by Captain, is the current home of the Newburgh Historical Society.
The city 's modern preservation efforts began when the Dutch Reformed Church, a Greek Revival structure designed by Alexander Jackson Davis, was slated for demolition as part of urban renewal after the congregation left the decaying building in 1967. The movement to stop it led to the development of a historic district, now the second largest in New York State. The church was added to the National Register of Historic Places three years later, and in 2001 became the city 's second National Historic Landmark after Washington 's Headquarters.
The city was designated a Preserve America community in 2005 and it also signed an agreement with the State Office of Historic Preservation as a Certified Local Government community. Its East End Historic District, recognized by the National Register of Historic Places as that and the Montgomery - Grand - Liberty Streets Historic District, has the most contributing properties of any historic district in the state.
The city 's historic architecture, featuring historic designs by Calvert Vaux, Andrew Jackson Downing and Frederick Law Olmsted, has attracted a stable core of preservation - minded community activists willing to invest spend time and money in renovating property.
Located on Broadway, the Belknap house was built around 1750 as is the second oldest house in the city. Belknap chaired the local Committee of Safety during the war. The house served as James Clinton 's headquarters.
Newburgh Colored Burial Ground is a historic cemetery and national historic district located at Broadway and Robinson Avenue. The 19th - century burial ground was active between about 1832 and 1867 and contains approximately 100 graves.
The city is on the west bank of the Hudson River. Next to it, the land rises at first sharply to a bluff, where many historic homes are located due to the sweeping views it offers of the Hudson Highlands to the south, Mount Beacon to the east and the bridge to the north; then more gradually to a relatively level western half. There are some notable hills in outlying areas, such as Overlook Terrace in the city 's southeast corner and Mount St. Mary 's at the northeast.
The lowest elevation in the city is sea level along the river; the highest is roughly 690 feet (210 m) on Snake Hill along the city 's southern boundary with the Town of New Windsor.
Newburgh is located at (41.503193, − 74.019636).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 4.8 sq mi (12.4 km). 3.8 sq mi (9.9 km) of it is land and 0.97 sq mi (2.5 km) of it (20.08 %) is water.
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 28,866 people, 9,030 households, and 6,051 families residing in the city of Newburgh. The racial makeup of the city was 39.4 % White, 30.2 % Black, 1.7 % American Indian, 1.0 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 22.6 % from other races, 5.2 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 47.9 % of the population, an increase from 36.30 % in 2000.
Of the 9,030 households, 39.4 % had children under the age 18, 30.8 % were married couples living together, 26.6 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.0 % were non-families. 25.9 % of all households were made up of individuals living alone, and 9.4 % consisted of individuals over the age of 65 living alone. The average household size was 3.09, and the average family size was 3.71.
As of the census of 2000, there were 28,259 people, 9,144 households, and 6,080 families residing in the city. The population density was 7,393.6 inhabitants per square mile (2,856.2 / km). There were 10,476 housing units at an average density of 2,740.9 per square mile (1,058.8 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 42.33 % White, 32.96 % African American (U.S. Census) or African American, 0.71 % Native American, 0.76 % Asian, 0.06 % Pacific Islander, 18.11 % from other races, and 5.07 % from two or more races.
There were 9,144 households out of which 40.0 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.1 % were married couples living together, 25.4 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.5 % were non-families. 27.1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11.0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.97 and the average family size was 3.62.
In the city, the population was spread out with 33.2 % under the age of 18, 12.7 % from 18 to 24, 28.8 % from 25 to 44, 16.1 % from 45 to 64, and 9.2 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females there were 90.0 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $30,332, and the median income for a family was $32,519. Males had a median income of $26,633 versus $21,718 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,360. About 23.0 % of families and 25.8 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 35.3 % of those under age 18 and 16.1 % of those age 65 or over.
Despite progress from the early 1990s, poverty remains a significant problem. The 2000 census found that two of the city 's five census tracts are among the poorest in the entire state. In 2004 the state declared it one of the state 's five most "stressed '' cities, based on a mix of statistics like families headed by single mothers, abandoned buildings, unemployment, residents under the poverty line and adults without a high school diploma.
Newburgh has seven elected officials, a mayor and six city council members, four elected by ward to four - year terms, staggered so that the mayor and two at - large councilmembers are up for re-election one year and four others, by ward, two years later. It was anticipated that in November 2007, Newburgh voters would decide on whether to split Newburgh into eight wards and elect one councilmember from each ward. The City Council voted to disallow this referendum from appearing on the ballot pending further public input.
In 1915 it became one of the first American cities to delegate routine governmental authority to a city manager. The mayor accepts all legal process and often serves as the symbolic head of the city, but other than that has no special powers or role. The city manager, who appoints all other city officials subject to council approval, serves at their pleasure. Since the position was created, there have been 33 managers who have served an average tenure of 2.7 years, with John Fogarty holding the longevity record at eight years in the 1950s. His term ended with his dismissal, as did eight others.
In January 2009, Jean Anne McGrane, the first woman to hold the position, was fired for, among other issues, withholding an unfavorable federal report on the city 's mishandling of two HUD grants from the City Council in the midst of the consideration of a $6 million bond, the 2009 city budget and the 2009 CDBG funds.
The city has had five mayors and eight city managers (five if two who served twice are counted only once) since 2000. Two subsequent acting city managers, after McGrane, quit. Richard Herbek, the third acting manager, took the job months later. He resigned in 2013 amid reports that he had misrepresented an encounter with a prostitute the year before. The (former) police chief, Michael Ferrara, replaced him on an interim basis. Michael G. Ciaravino was appointed City Manager of Newburgh on May 19, 2014 by unanimous vote of the City Council.
A recurring complaint has been that, rather than taking direction from council, some city managers have exploited divisions among members to turn it into a rubber stamp for their policies and actions and render themselves unaccountable. There have been proposals to change the situation by assigning council members to or eliminating the city manager 's position. But they have been perceived as politically motivated, and thus have not been adopted. Newburgh is in the 18 Congressional District.
In May 2016, the city requested help for its PFOS contaminated water supply under Superfund; The source of the contamination is unknown. Representative Sean Patrick Maloney demanded Emergency Action after EPA announced PFOA and PFOS Standards for Drinking Water, and called Stewart Air National Guard Base being "the most likely source '' of contamination.
Tensions flared during the city 's hotly contested 1995 mayoral election. Allegations of electoral fraud had dogged the city 's first African - American woman mayor, Audrey Carey, since her 1991 victory in a four - way race. Supporters of Republican candidate Regina Angelo alleged that many registered voters in neighborhoods Carey had carried heavily used false addresses. In response, four years later deputy sheriffs were stationed at polling places and challenged voters to provide proof of residency and identity. Although she won, Carey 's supporters claimed that the deputy sheriffs had singled out minority voters for such challenges, and accused the Republicans of voter suppression. These tensions were only aggravated when the council selected the city 's Republican chairman at the time, Harry Porr, as the new city manager. Carey was defeated by Tyrone Crabb, a black man running on the Republican line, in 1999. Porr was fired, rehired and fired again in 2001. Crabb died suddenly of a heart attack ten days before he was slated to take office. The vacancy was filled by his widow, Mary.
Despite demographics and urban trends favoring Democrats, the voters of the city had until recent years regularly voted across party lines. Nicholas Valentine, Mayor from 2003 until 2011 and several other recent mayors and councilmembers were Republicans. The late Thomas Kirwan - Republican, a resident who served in the New York State Assembly until 2008 -- and was re-elected in a successful comeback bid in 2010, by one of the smallest margins in state history (15 votes). He died late in 2011. On March 20, a Special Election was held to fill the vacancy in which former Assemblyman Frank Skartados - Democrat, won by a large margin. In the general election held in November 2011, a newcomer to the city named Judith Kennedy was overwhelmingly elected Mayor over incumbent Republican Councilwoman Christine Bello. In addition, the Democratic candidates for Council seats, Gay Lee and Cedric Brown, were also overwhelmingly elected. Accordingly, the Council is now 5 - 0 Democrat -- the first time in memory one party monopolizes the City government.
An independent documentary was made in 2004 about the mayoral race in Newburgh, called Saving Newburgh.
In 2009, the Republican party did not field its own candidates for City Council. Instead, the Republican Committee endorsed two Democrats -- - one a former Councilman, the other an incumbent Councilwoman -- - and they were not opposed for the Republican nomination in the primary despite their being registered Democrats. The Conservative and Independence Parties both nominated them also. They lost the Democratic primary and despite their appearing on three party lines they lost the November election to two straight Democrats, both one time Republicans.
Newburgh has now declared itself a sanctuary city.
The City of Newburgh is protected by the firefighters of the City of Newburgh Fire Department which has 70 members and operates out of two citywide firehouses. The department runs a frontline apparatus fleet of four engine companies (including two reserve engines), two ladder companies (including one reserve ladder), one fire boat, one fire alarm truck, and seven support units. It also houses and runs one of the Orange County Technical Rescue trailers as well as a Foam Trailer as part of the NYS Foam Task Force.
Newburgh 's Fire Department is one of the oldest chartered departments in New York State being established by an act of the young state legislature on March 24, 1797. The earliest Newburgh fire companies were the Protection Engine Company, Cataract Engine Co., Washington Engine Co., and Empire Hook & Ladder. More appeared as neighborhoods expanded. The department purchased its first steam engine in 1872. In its inaugural test, the engine threw a stream of water over the top of the cross of St. Patrick 's Church, 161 feet high, to the delight of the citizens watching. The first firefighter to die in the line of duty, Joseph Tillotson, burned to death in a fire at The Bleachery on Lake Street in 1887. In March 1889, the city purchased and installed a modern electric telegraph fire alarm system with 23 alarm boxes placed around the city, these boxes are still in service today. As horses were phased out of service, Ringgold Hose on Colden Street was the first of Newburgh 's companies to get a motorized fire truck in 1907. As early as 1915, editorials were calling for the establishment of a paid fire department to assure the response necessary for a densely populated and heavily commercial and industrial city like Newburgh. Beginning with drivers, tillermen and then officers, paid positions for full - time firemen were gradually created for each company. In 1934, the volunteer companies disbanded, and a professional department was instituted by resolution of the City Council. Protection has a cost. Eight men have perished in the line of duty during the department 's history: Joseph Tillotson, Willis Meginn, James Hunter, Moses Embler, Armand Santacroce, Edward Maney, Frederick Carpenter and Patrick Bardin.
In 1728 the Rev. Richard Charlton was sent from England to be a missionary to the people of New Windsor in then Ulster County (later Newburgh in Orange County). St. George 's Church developed from St. Thomas ' Church in New Windsor. In 1770, during the tenure of the Rev. John Sayre, St. George 's Church was granted a royal charter by King George III. The Rev. Mr. Sayres left for Canada at the time of the Revolution. In 1790 Rev George Spierin served as both minister and schoolmaster, but resigned in 1793. St. George 's Church was re-established in 1805. In 1838 the Rev Dr. John Brown organized St. George 's Cemetery, open to members of any race, religion or belief. He was also a founder of St. Luke 's Hospital. Originally, services were held in the old Glebe schoolhouse until the church was built in 1819. In 1834 the bell tower was added. Dr. Brown was succeeded by his assistant, Rev. Octavius Applegate who founded the mission chapel, of the Good Shepherd.
The first Catholic service in Newburgh took place around 1816 when Mass was said in the house of Henry Gilmore on Western Avenue (now Broadway) by Rev. James McKenna. He was followed in 1817 by Rev. Ffrench. A church was formed in 1826, served by circuit - riding missionaries. Rev. Philip O'Reilly made Newburgh the base from which he served other communities. St. Patrick 's Church was founded in 1836. Fr. Patrick Duffy was the first pastor and served for seventeen years until his death in 1853. He was followed by Rev. Gallagher, who was succeeded by Rev. Edward J. O'Reilly. Father O'Reilly was followed by Father Broidy.
A stone church building was completed in December 1842 and formerly dedicated by Bishop John Hughes of New York in 1849. In 1852 land was purchased for a cemetery at the corner of First and Stone streets. The rectory was built in 1854. The parish established in 1855 a Library Association, later known as the Young Men 's Catholic Lyceum. In 1881 a new building was erected for the Lyceum on Liberty St.
In 1879 Right Rev. Monsignor J.F. Mooney became pastor and started the mission of St. Joseph 's in New Windsor. He also founded Calvary Cemetery which opened on May 30, 1898.
St. Patrick 's began its Hispanic ministry in the mid-1960s. In 1966 Father John Filippelli of the Society of Saint Joseph of the Sacred Heart initiated a Spanish Mass as well as cultural celebrations such as the Feast of Three Kings. In 1973, Fr. Rogelio Cuesta, OP was named Director of the Hispanic Apostolate of Newburgh and Beacon. Other patronal feasts were celebrated such as Our Lady of Charity from Cuba, Señor de los Milagros of Peru, and Our Lady of Suyapa of Honduras, reflecting the diversity of the community. In 1989 the ministry was expanded to include outreach to migrant workers.
In 1850 a school was established in the basement of the church; the school building was constructed in 1858 and staffed by the Sisters of Charity. St. Patrick 's Female Academy was at 5 Grand St. In 1877 St. Patrick 's Institute was founded and staffed by the Brothers of the Christian Schools. In 1914 Monsignor Henry O'Carroll was appointed pastor of St. Patrick 's, where he served forty - three years. During his tenure the Newburg Wheelman 's Club Building, designed by Newburgh architect Frank E. Estabrook, was purchased for the establishment of St. Patrick 's High School. In 1957, a new elementary school housing both male and female students was built at 157 Liberty St. and the high school was renovated under the leadership of Monsignor Francis Doersam. In 1967 it was decided to phase out St. Patrick 's High School. The school briefly relocated to Epiphany College in New Windsor until John S. Burke High School in Goshen opened. St. Patrick 's High School closed in 1969.
On August 1, 2015 St. Mary 's Parish merged with St. Patrick / Our Lady of the Lake.
St. Mary 's Church was founded on March 19, 1875, on the application of a number of members of St. Patrick 's to Archbishop McCloskey, who granted an order dividing the original parish and constituting from the northern part of its territory St. Mary 's parish. Rev. Michael J. Phelan was appointed pastor, and said his first mass in the parish on Easter Sunday, 1875, in the opera - house. The Wilson property at Gidney Avenue and South Street was purchased and mass celebrated in the mansion on the premises. In May following a temporary frame building for church purposes was erected. In 1880 the building occupied by the church until 2015 was erected. It was dedicated by Archbishop McCloskey on Sunday, October 3. The Academy of Our Lady of Mercy (a branch convent of the Sisters of Mercy of New York), which was opened at Balmville in the summer of 1875.
In 1883 Father Phelan invited the Sisters of Dominic to open an academy for young ladies and Mt. St. Mary 's Academy was founded. In 1884 the Rev. John C Henry appointed rector and opened St. Mary 's Parochial School on September 1, 1886. under the direction of four Sisters of St. Dominic.
In 2005, the Archdiocese of New York decided to close St. Mary 's Church as a cost saving measure. The people of the parish, and of the Newburgh community as a whole, rose up in protest and the Archdiocese withdrew the proposal. Then, in the summer of 2015, the Archdiocese proposed closing the parish yet again, and while the community protests eclipsed those of 2005, this time the proposal was carried through. St. Mary 's Parish was merged with St. Patrick 's effective August 1, 2015. The church building was shuttered and closed and has not been used since that date. Father William Scafidi, the pastor and arguably the most popular community leader in Newburgh at that time, was transferred by the Archdiocese to a parish church in Liberty, New York.
In December 1908, Father Francis Fabian, pastor of Immaculate Conception Parish in Rondout visited Newburgh. Seeing that there the city had only two churches serving a large Catholic population, Fr. Fabian began to look into establishing another parish. Meetings were held and funds were raised and on April 22, 1909, Archbishop John Farley of New York appointed Fr Fabian pastor of the new congregation. Land was purchased at Benkard Avenue and Avoca Street and by May a temporary chapel was started. By August 15, 1909, the first Mass was celebrated in a small chapel on Benkard Avenue.
In May 1911, construction began on the main church, designed by Fabian in the style of a traditional European Basilica. The bricks were donated by nearby brickyards and transported from the different yards to the dock in Newburgh free of charge. Gustave Fettweise donated a bell. The church was completed on August 15, 1909, and a rectory completed that same year. The parish grew so rapidly that two year later excavation was begun for a new stone church on a hill east of the rectory. Services were continued in the old chapel until September 1, 1913 when the new church was dedicated. The interior has beautiful Bavarian stained glass windows and a large mural behind the altar that was painted in Bavaria. The Tracker organ was built in 1862. It has 2600 pipes and two keyboards. The interior was completely renovated in 2000.
Sacred Heart Parish traces its roots to when Rev. John B. Gallo came to Newburgh to minister to the spiritual needs of the Italian - speaking people who had been attending Mass at St. Patrick 's Church. The parish became separate from St. Patrick 's on September 8, 1912. Land was purchased on the southeast corner of Robinson Avenue and Ann Street. A temporary chapel situated in a vacant store at 286 Washington Street was used until the church was completed. The first Mass was celebrated in the new church on the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, December 8, 1913. Rev. Cyrus Falco was the pastor who guided the parish through the trying years of the Great Depression. In 1933 he invited the Sisters of St. Dominic to take charge of our parish Sunday School. Rev. John B. Caldarola was pastor during World War II.
Rev. Salvatore Celauro became pastor in 1947. The groundbreaking ceremony for the parish school was held on April 23, 1950 and school opened on September 9, 1951. In the mid-1950s it became apparent that a new church was needed as repairs would not be cost - effective. Work began in May 1963 and the first Mass in the new church was said on Christmas Eve, 1964. In September 1967 Rev. Salvatore Cantatore was named pastor of Sacred Heart and in October 1978, opened the Sacred Heart Parish Center was opened. Msgr. George J. Valastro became pastor in 1981 and saw the parish celebrate its o75th Anniversary in 1987. Msgr. Valastro purchased the building at 319 Broadway which became the Activity Center.
In 1978 students at Newburgh Free Academy, the city 's public high school, boycotted classes. This ultimately led to a major reorganization of the school system. Newburgh is served by the Newburgh Enlarged City School District. The local high school is called Newburgh Free Academy or "NFA '', and is the largest public high school in Orange County. It serves approximately 3,000 students in grades 9 - 12 from the Newburgh area. NFA is currently split into two campuses, with NFA main located on Fullerton Avenue and NFA North located on Robinson Avenue a few blocks away. The north campus of NFA was formerly North Junior High School. Between the two campuses, there are roughly 3,600 students enrolled.
Two colleges are located in Newburgh, Mount Saint Mary College and the Newburgh campus of SUNY Orange.
Newburgh, New York was ranked more dangerous than 95 percent of US cities by website NeighborhoodScout, based on 2012 FBI crime data. This group also ranked Newburgh as the 10th most dangerous place to live in the United States based on the same 2012 dataset. It was ranked at number 12 in the previous year 's rankings.
In 2010, the New York Times wrote an extensive article on gang activity in Newburgh.
Stewart International Airport serves the city. Metro North Railroad is accessible via the Newburgh -- Beacon Ferry during peak hours connects to the Hudson Line, with frequent service to Westchester County and Grand Central Terminal in New York City. There is also service on Metro North Railroad nearby in Salisbury Mills - Cornwall on the Port Jervis line to Hoboken Terminal and Secaucus Junction in New Jersey with a connection to Penn Station in New York City.
Ulster County Area Transit provides limited bus service to New Paltz on its route X. Short Line, part of Coach USA, provides daily service down Route 32 to Central Valley and points in New Jersey and New York City. Local service is also provided within the city. Leprechaun Lines also provides a Newburgh - Beacon - Stewart link. Coach USA also provides transportation to other points in Orange County, including Middletown and Woodbury.
New York State Route 32 and U.S. Route 9W pass through the city. New York State Route 17K and New York State Route 207 also reach their eastern termini within city limits. Interstate 84 passes just north of the city and the New York State Thruway is not far to the west.
Delano - Hitch formerly served as the home field for the Newburgh Black Diamonds and Newburgh Nighthawks baseball teams.
The Hudson Valley Renegades are a minor league baseball team affiliated with the Tampa Bay Rays. The team is a member of the New York -- Penn League, and play at Dutchess Stadium in nearby Fishkill.
The Hudson Valley Highlanders of the North American Football League played their home games at Dietz Stadium in nearby Kingston.
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when did the draft start for the vietnam war | Draft lottery (1969) - wikipedia
On December 1, 1969, the Selective Service System of the United States conducted two lotteries to determine the order of call to military service in the Vietnam War for men born from 1944 to 1950. These lotteries occurred during a period of conscription from just before World War II to 1973. It was the first time a lottery system had been used to select men for military service since 1942.
The lottery numbers assigned in December 1969 were used during calendar year 1970 both to call for induction and to call for physical examination, a preliminary call covering more men.
The days of the year (including February 29) were written on slips of paper. These pieces of paper were then placed in separate plastic capsules that were mixed in a shoebox and then dumped into a deep glass jar. Capsules were drawn from the jar one at a time.
The first number drawn was 258 (September 14), so all registrants with that birthday were assigned lottery number 1. The second number drawn corresponded to April 24, and so forth. All men of draft age (born 1944 to 1950) who shared a birth date would be called to serve at once. The first 195 birthdates drawn were later called to serve in the order they were drawn; the last of these was September 24.
Also on December 1, 1969, a second lottery was held with the 26 letters of the alphabet. Among men with the same birthdate, the order of induction was determined by the ranks of the first letters of their last, first, and middle names. Anyone with initials "JJJ '' would have been first within the shared birthdate, followed by "JGJ '', "JDJ '', and "JXJ ''; anyone with initials "VVV '' would have been last.
People soon noticed that the lottery numbers were not distributed uniformly over the year. In particular, November and December births, or dates 306 to 366, were assigned mainly to lower draft numbers representing earlier calls to serve (see figure). This led to complaints that the lottery was not random as the legislation required. Analysis of the procedure suggested that mixing 366 capsules in the shoe box did not mix them sufficiently before dumping them into the jar. ("The capsules were put in a box month by month, January through December, and subsequent mixing efforts were insufficient to overcome this sequencing. '') Only five days in December -- Dec. 2, 12, 15, 17 and 19 -- were higher than the last call number of 195; had the days been evenly distributed, 14 days in December would have been expected to remain uncalled. From January to December, the rank of the average draft pick numbers were 5 4 1 3 2 6 8 9 10 7 11 12. A Monte Carlo simulation found that the probability of a random order of months being this close to the 1 -- 12 sequence expected for unsorted slips was 0.09 %.
Draft lotteries were conducted again in 1970 (for those born in 1951) and from 1971 to 1975 (for 1952 to 1956 births). The draft numbers issued in 1972 were never used the next year to call for induction into service, because the last call was December 7 and authority to induct expired on June 30, 1973.
The 1972 to 1975 lottery numbers were used to call some men born 1953 to 1956 for physical exams. The highest number called for a physical was 215 (for tables 1970 through 1976).
The reason for the 1969 draft was to add personnel to a war to stop the spread of communism in Vietnam. After World War II, Japan left Vietnamese Emperor Bao Dai in command. Ho Chi Minh, another Vietnamese leader, saw this as an opportunity to strike and took over Hanoi. Ho Chi Minh then set up the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Emperor Bo, in the South, set up the Vietnam State with Saigon as the capital. Ho Chi Minh was basing his political structure off of the communist states such as Russia while Emperor Bao Dai in the south wanted a Vietnam that was modeled after the west, like the United States.
The North and the South began armed conflict against one another until the battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954 ended with the Viet Minh forces as the victor. Afterwards at the Geneva conference Vietnam was split along the 17th latitude. There was supposed to be a reunification election in 1956 but another leader took over the South. Ngo Dinh Diem took over leadership from Emperor Bao Dai who took a very hard stance against communism.
In other parts of the world, the Cold War was intensifying between Soviet Russia and the United States. The U.S. was becoming more rigid in its policies with the communist allies of Russia. President Dwight D. Eisenhower started supporting the South Vietnamese who were also against the communist north.
The U.S. begun training and equipping Diem 's forces with weapons. Conflicts between communist sympathizers began occurring in the South. At the time, the U.S. had only committed around 800 personnel to train and outfit the South Vietnamese. In 1961, the John F. Kennedy administration started working under the "Domino Theory, '' which stated that if South Vietnam was to fall to the North, then other places in southeast Asia were to become vulnerable to the communists as well. This caused President Kennedy to begin sending additional American soldiers to Vietnam. By 1962, there were around 9,000 personnel in Vietnam.
In 1963, a coup was organized by South Vietnamese generals which resulted in the death of Diem. President Lyndon B. Johnson increased U.S. personnel in Vietnam due to the political instability in the country. In August 1964, two U.S. warships were attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. Johnson issued an attack order against North Vietnam, and Congress passed a motion which gave him more authority over military decisions. In 1965, President Johnson had sent 82,000 troops to Vietnam, and his officials wanted another 175,000. Due to the heavy demand for military personnel, the United States required more than what the regular military could provide, causing the acceleration of the draft. Between 1965 and 1972 the draft provided 2,215,000 service members to the U.S. military.
Previously in the United States, during the War of 1812, President Madison established a commission to recommend the best ways to raise military manpower; to keep the draft or to institute a volunteer army.
After much debate within the Nixon administration and Congress, it was decided that an all - volunteer force was affordable, feasible, and would enhance the nation 's security. President Richard Nixon issued an executive order prescribing regulations for random selection by the United States Selective Service on November 26, 1969.
In the 1960s anti-war movements started to occur in the U.S., mainly among those on college campuses and in more leftist circles, especially those who embraced the "hippie '' lifestyle. College students were entitled to a deferment (2 - S status) but were subject to the draft if they dropped out or graduated.
In 1967, the number of U.S. military personnel in Vietnam was around 500,000. The war was costing the U.S. $25 billion a year, and many of the young men drafted were being sent to a war they wanted no part of. Martin Luther King Jr. also started to support the anti-war movement on the grounds of it being immoral and the amount of African Americans that were being killed.
November 15, 1969 marked the largest anti war movement in the history of the United States. This protest featured many anti-war political speakers and popular singers of the time. Many people at the time saw Richard Nixon as a liar; when he took office, he claimed that he would begin troop withdrawals from Vietnam immediately. After ten months of being in office, the president had yet to start withdrawals, and United States citizens felt lied to. Later, president Nixon claimed to have been watching sports as the anti-war demonstration took place outside the White House.
The 1970s were a time of turmoil in the United States, beginning with the civil rights movement which set the standards for practices by the anti-war movement. The 1969 draft lottery only encouraged resentment of the Vietnam War and the draft. It strengthened the anti-war movement, and all over the United States, people decried discrimination by the draft system "against low - education, low - income, underprivileged members of society ''.
The draft lottery had social and economic consequences because it generated resistance to military service and the resisters, draft evaders or "draft dodgers '', were generally young, well - educated, healthy men. The fear of military service in Vietnam influenced many young men born in the late 1940s to join the National Guard. These young men were aware that the National Guard would be unlikely to send its soldiers to Vietnam. Many men were unable to join the National Guard, even though they had passed their physicals, because many state National Guards had long waiting lists just to enlist. Still others chose legal sanctions such as imprisonment, either showing their disapproval by burning their draft cards or draft letters, or simply not presenting themselves for the military service test. Others left the country, commonly moving to Canada. The number of American citizens who moved to Canada during the Vietnam war because of the draft is estimated to be around 125,000; it is believed that about half returned to the United States after the Nixon era (when the war was also over) (1975).
Lottery procedure was improved the next year although public discontent continued to grow until "authority to induct expired on June 30, 1973 ''.
In 1970, covering 1951 birthdates for use during 1971 (sometimes called the 1971 draft), scientists at the National Bureau of Standards prepared 78 random permutations of the numbers 1 to 366 using random numbers selected from published tables. From the 78 permutations, 25 were selected at random and transcribed to calendars using 1 = January 1, 2 = January 2,... 365 = December 31. Those calendars were sealed in envelopes. 25 more permutations were selected and sealed in 25 more envelopes without transcription to calendars. The two sets of 25 envelopes were furnished to the Selective Service System.
On June 2, an official picked two envelopes, thus one calendar and one raw permutation. The 365 birthdates (for 1951) were written down, placed in capsules, and put in a drum in the order dictated by the selected calendar. Similarly, the numbers from 1 to 365 were written down and placed into capsules in the order dictated by the raw permutation.
On July 1, the drawing date, one drum was rotated for an hour and the other for a half - hour (its rotating mechanism failed). Pairs of capsules were then drawn, one from each drum, one with a 1951 birthdate and one with a number 1 to 366. The first date and number drawn were September 16 and 139, so all men born September 16, 1951, were assigned draft number 139. The 11th draws were the date July 9 and the number 1, so men born July 9 were assigned draft number 1 and drafted first.
The military draft method used back in the 1950s and 1960s involved using dates and numbers mixed randomly and then drawn to decide who would go to war. In the present - day, not much has changed on how the draft would be conducted if it was ever needed. The Selective Service Committee who presides over the draft procedures still have a large tumbler that holds all the number and dates that will be drawn to select candidates and the only thing that seems to have changed between the method of the past and the present one is that instead of using pieces of paper in blue capsules the SSC now uses ping pong balls with the dates and numbers on them.
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where did the first settlers in canada come from | History of Canada - wikipedia
The history of Canada covers the period from the arrival of Paleo - Indians thousands of years ago to the present day. Prior to European colonization, the lands encompassing present - day Canada were inhabited for millennia by Indigenous peoples, with distinct trade networks, spiritual beliefs, and styles of social organization. Some of these older civilizations had long faded by the time of the first European arrivals and have been discovered through archaeological investigations.
Starting in the late 15th century, French and British expeditions explored, colonized, and fought over various places within North America in what constitutes present - day Canada. The colony of New France was established in 1534 and was ceded to the United Kingdom in 1763 after the French defeat in the Seven Years ' War. The now British Province of Quebec was divided into Upper and Lower Canada in 1791 and reunified in 1841. In 1867, the Province of Canada was joined with two other British colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia through Confederation, forming a self - governing entity named Canada. The new dominion expanded by incorporating other parts of British North America, finishing with Newfoundland and Labrador in 1949.
Although responsible government had existed in Canada since 1848, Britain continued to set its foreign and defence policies until the end of the First World War. The passing of the Statute of Westminster in 1931 recognized that Canada had become co-equal with the United Kingdom. After the Constitution was patriated in 1982, the final vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament were removed. Canada currently consists of ten provinces and three territories and is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state.
Over centuries, elements of Indigenous, French, British and more recent immigrant customs have combined to form a Canadian culture that has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic, geographic and economic neighbour, the United States. Since the conclusion of the Second World War, Canadians have supported multi-lateralism abroad and socioeconomic development domestically.
Archeological and Indigenous genetic evidence indicate that North and South America were the last continents into which humans migrated. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50,000 -- 17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move gradually across the Bering land bridge (Beringia), from Siberia into northwest North America. At that point, they were blocked by the Laurentide ice sheet that covered most of Canada, confining them to Alaska and the Yukon for thousands of years. The exact dates and routes of the peopling of the Americas are the subject of an ongoing debate.
By 16,000 years ago the glacial melt allowed people to move by land south and east out of Beringia, and into Canada. The Queen Charlotte Islands, Old Crow Flats, and Bluefish Caves contain some of the earliest Paleo - Indian archaeological sites in Canada. Ice Age hunter - gatherers of this period left lithic flake fluted stone tools and the remains of large butchered mammals.
The North American climate stabilized around 8000 BCE (10,000 years ago). Climatic conditions were similar to modern patterns; however, the receding glacial ice sheets still covered large portions of the land, creating lakes of meltwater. Most population groups during the Archaic periods were still highly mobile hunter - gatherers. However, individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally; thus with the passage of time, there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization (i.e.: Paleo - Arctic, Plano and Maritime Archaic traditions).
The Woodland cultural period dates from about 2000 BCE to 1000 CE and is applied to the Ontario, Quebec, and Maritime regions. The introduction of pottery distinguishes the Woodland culture from the previous Archaic - stage inhabitants. The Laurentian - related people of Ontario manufactured the oldest pottery excavated to date in Canada.
The Hopewell tradition is an Indigenous culture that flourished along American rivers from 300 BCE to 500 CE. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell Exchange System connected cultures and societies to the peoples on the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario. Canadian expression of the Hopewellian peoples encompasses the Point Peninsula, Saugeen, and Laurel complexes.
The eastern woodland areas of what became Canada were home to the Algonquian and Iroquoian peoples. The Algonquian language is believed to have originated in the western plateau of Idaho or the plains of Montana and moved with migrants eastward, eventually extending in various manifestations all the way from Hudson Bay to what is today Nova Scotia in the east and as far south as the Tidewater region of Virginia.
Speakers of eastern Algonquian languages included the Mi'kmaq and Abenaki of the Maritime region of Canada and likely the extinct Beothuk of Newfoundland. The Ojibwa and other Anishinaabe speakers of the central Algonquian languages retain an oral tradition of having moved to their lands around the western and central Great Lakes from the sea, likely the Atlantic coast. According to oral tradition, the Ojibwa formed the Council of Three Fires in 796 CE with the Odawa and the Potawatomi.
The Five Nations of the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) were centred from at least 1000 CE in northern New York, but their influence extended into what is now southern Ontario and the Montreal area of modern Quebec. They spoke varieties of Iroquoian languages. The Iroquois Confederacy, according to oral tradition, was formed in 1142 CE. In addition, there were other Iroquoian - speaking peoples in the area, including the St. Lawrence Iroquoians, the Erie, and others.
On the Great Plains, the Cree or Nēhilawē (who spoke a closely related Central Algonquian language, the plains Cree language) depended on the vast herds of bison to supply food and many of their other needs. To the northwest were the peoples of the Na - Dene languages, which include the Athapaskan - speaking peoples and the Tlingit, who lived on the islands of southern Alaska and northern British Columbia. The Na - Dene language group is believed to be linked to the Yeniseian languages of Siberia. The Dene of the western Arctic may represent a distinct wave of migration from Asia to North America.
The Interior of British Columbia was home to the Salishan language groups such as the Shuswap (Secwepemc), Okanagan and southern Athabaskan language groups, primarily the Dakelh (Carrier) and the Tsilhqot'in. The inlets and valleys of the British Columbia Coast sheltered large, distinctive populations, such as the Haida, Kwakwaka'wakw and Nuu - chah - nulth, sustained by the region 's abundant salmon and shellfish. These peoples developed complex cultures dependent on the western red cedar that included wooden houses, seagoing whaling and war canoes and elaborately carved potlatch items and totem poles.
In the Arctic archipelago, the distinctive Paleo - Eskimos known as Dorset peoples, whose culture has been traced back to around 500 BCE, were replaced by the ancestors of today 's Inuit by 1500 CE. This transition is supported by archaeological records and Inuit mythology that tells of having driven off the Tuniit or ' first inhabitants '. Inuit traditional laws are anthropologically different from Western law. Customary law was non-existent in Inuit society before the introduction of the Canadian legal system.
There are reports of contact made before the 1492 voyages of Christopher Columbus and the age of discovery between First Nations, Inuit and those from other continents. The Norse, who had settled Greenland and Iceland, arrived around the year 1000 and built a small settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows at the northernmost tip of Newfoundland (carbon dating estimate 990 -- 1050 CE) L'Anse aux Meadows is also notable for its connection with the attempted colony of Vinland established by Leif Erikson around the same period or, more broadly, with Norse exploration of the Americas.
Under letters patent from King Henry VII of England, the Italian John Cabot became the first European known to have landed in Canada after the time of the Vikings. Records indicate that on 24 June 1497 he sighted land at a northern location believed to be somewhere in the Atlantic provinces. Official tradition deemed the first landing site to be at Cape Bonavista, Newfoundland, although other locations are possible. After 1497 Cabot and his son Sebastian Cabot continued to make other voyages to find the Northwest Passage, and other explorers continued to sail out of England to the New World, although the details of these voyages are not well recorded.
Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas, the Spanish Crown claimed it had territorial rights in the area visited by John Cabot in 1497 and 1498 CE. However, Portuguese explorers like João Fernandes Lavrador would continue to visit the north Atlantic coast, which accounts for the appearance of "Labrador '' on topographical maps of the period. In 1501 and 1502 the Corte - Real brothers explored Newfoundland (Terra Nova) and Labrador claiming these lands as part of the Portuguese Empire. In 1506, King Manuel I of Portugal created taxes for the cod fisheries in Newfoundland waters. João Álvares Fagundes and Pêro de Barcelos established fishing outposts in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia around 1521 CE; however, these were later abandoned, with the Portuguese colonizers focusing their efforts on South America. The extent and nature of Portuguese activity on the Canadian mainland during the 16th century remains unclear and controversial.
French interest in the New World began with Francis I of France, who in 1524 sponsored Giovanni da Verrazzano to navigate the region between Florida and Newfoundland in hopes of finding a route to the Pacific Ocean. Although the English had laid claims to it 1497 when John Cabot made landfall somewhere on the North American coast (likely either modern - day Newfoundland or Nova Scotia) and had claimed the land for England on behalf of King Henry VII, these claims were not exercised and England did not make any attempts at permanent colonization. For the French however, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula in 1534 and claimed the land in the name of Francis I establishing a region called Canada the following summer. Permanent settlement attempts by Cartier at Charlesbourg - Royal in 1541, at Sable Island in 1598 by Marquis de La Roche - Mesgouez, and at Tadoussac, Quebec in 1600 by François Gravé Du Pont had all eventually failed. Despite these initial failures, French fishing fleets sailed the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, trading and making alliances with First Nations, as well as establishing fishing settlements such as in Percé in 1603. As a result of France 's claim and activities in the colony of Canada, the name "Canada '' was present on international maps denoting this colony within the St - Lawrence river region.
In 1604, a North American fur trade monopoly was granted to Pierre Du Gua, Sieur de Mons. The fur trade became one of the main economic ventures in North America. Du Gua led his first colonization expedition to an island located near the mouth of the St. Croix River. Among his lieutenants was a geographer named Samuel de Champlain, who promptly carried out a major exploration of the northeastern coastline of what is now the United States. In the spring of 1605, under Samuel de Champlain, the new St. Croix settlement was moved to Port Royal (today 's Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia). Samuel de Champlain also landed at Saint John Harbour on June 24, 1604 (the feast of St. John the Baptist) and is where the city of Saint John, New Brunswick and the Saint John River gets its name.
In 1608 Champlain founded what is now Quebec City, one of the earliest permanent settlements, which would become the capital of New France. He took personal administration over the city and its affairs, and sent out expeditions to explore the interior. Champlain himself discovered Lake Champlain in 1609. By 1615, he had travelled by canoe up the Ottawa River through Lake Nipissing and Georgian Bay to the centre of Huron country near Lake Simcoe. During these voyages, Champlain aided the Wendat (aka "Hurons '') in their battles against the Iroquois Confederacy. As a result, the Iroquois would become enemies of the French and be involved in multiple conflicts (known as the French and Iroquois Wars) until the signing of the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701.
The English, led by Humphrey Gilbert, had claimed St. John 's, Newfoundland, in 1583 as the first North American English colony by royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I. In the reign of King James I, the English established additional colonies in Cupids and Ferryland, Newfoundland, and soon after established the first successful permanent settlements of Virginia to the south. On September 29, 1621, a charter for the foundation of a New World Scottish colony was granted by King James to Sir William Alexander. In 1622, the first settlers left Scotland. They initially failed and permanent Nova Scotian settlements were not firmly established until 1629 during the end of the Anglo - French War. These colonies did not last long except the fisheries in Ferryland under Sir David Kirke. In 1631, under Charles I of England, the Treaty of Suza was signed, ending the war and returning Nova Scotia to the French. New France was not fully restored to French rule until the 1632 Treaty of Saint - Germain - en - Laye. This led to new French immigrants and the founding of Trois - Rivières in 1634.
During this period, in contrast to the higher density and slower moving agricultural settlement development by the English inward from the east coast of the colonies, New France 's interior frontier would eventually cover an immense area with a thin network centred on fur trade, conversion efforts by missionaries, establishing and claiming an empire, and military efforts to protect and further those efforts. The largest of these canoe networks covered much of present - day Canada and central present - day United States.
After Champlain 's death in 1635, the Roman Catholic Church and the Jesuit establishment became the most dominant force in New France and hoped to establish a utopian European and Aboriginal Christian community. In 1642, the Sulpicians sponsored a group of settlers led by Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve, who founded Ville - Marie, precursor to present - day Montreal. In 1663 the French crown took direct control of the colonies from the Company of New France.
Although immigration rates to New France remained very low under direct French control, most of the new arrivals were farmers, and the rate of population growth among the settlers themselves had been very high. The women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who remained in France. Yves Landry says, "Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time. '' This was due to the natural abundance of meat, fish, and pure water; the good food conservation conditions during the winter; and an adequate wheat supply in most years. The 1666 census of New France was conducted by France 's intendant, Jean Talon, in the winter of 1665 -- 1666. The census showed a population count of 3,215 Acadians and habitants (French - Canadian farmers) in the administrative districts of Acadia and Canada. The census also revealed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women.
By the early 1700s the New France settlers were well established along the shores of the Saint Lawrence River and parts of Nova Scotia, with a population around 16,000. However new arrivals stopped coming from France in the proceeding decades, resulting in the English and Scottish settlers in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the southern Thirteen Colonies to vastly outnumber the French population approximately ten to one by the 1750s. From 1670, through the Hudson 's Bay Company, the English also laid claim to Hudson Bay and its drainage basin known as Rupert 's Land establishing new trading posts and forts, while continuing to operate fishing settlements in Newfoundland. French expansion along the Canadian canoe routes challenged the Hudson 's Bay Company claims, and in 1686, Pierre Troyes led an overland expedition from Montreal to the shore of the bay, where they managed to capture a handful of outposts. La Salle 's explorations gave France a claim to the Mississippi River Valley, where fur trappers and a few settlers set up scattered forts and settlements.
There were four French and Indian Wars and two additional wars in Acadia and Nova Scotia between the Thirteen American Colonies and New France from 1688 to 1763. During King William 's War (1688 to 1697), military conflicts in Acadia included: Battle of Port Royal (1690); a naval battle in the Bay of Fundy (Action of July 14, 1696); and the Raid on Chignecto (1696). The Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 ended the war between the two colonial powers of England and France for a brief time. During Queen Anne 's War (1702 to 1713), the British Conquest of Acadia occurred in 1710, resulting in Nova Scotia, other than Cape Breton, being officially ceded to the British by the Treaty of Utrecht including Rupert 's Land, which France had conquered in the late 17th century (Battle of Hudson 's Bay). As an immediate result of this setback, France founded the powerful Fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island.
Louisbourg was intended to serve as a year - round military and naval base for France 's remaining North American empire and to protect the entrance to the St. Lawrence River. Father Rale 's War resulted in both the fall of New France influence in present - day Maine and the British recognition of having to negotiate with the Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia. During King George 's War (1744 to 1748), an army of New Englanders led by William Pepperrell mounted an expedition of 90 vessels and 4,000 men against Louisbourg in 1745. Within three months the fortress surrendered. The return of Louisbourg to French control by the peace treaty prompted the British to found Halifax in 1749 under Edward Cornwallis. Despite the official cessation of war between the British and French empires with the Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle; the conflict in Acadia and Nova Scotia continued on as the Father Le Loutre 's War.
The British ordered the Acadians expelled from their lands in 1755 during the French and Indian War, an event called the Expulsion of the Acadians or le Grand Dérangement. The "expulsion '' resulted in approximately 12,000 Acadians being shipped to destinations throughout Britain 's North America and to France, Quebec and the French Caribbean colony of Saint - Domingue. The first wave of the expulsion of the Acadians began with the Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755) and the second wave began after the final Siege of Louisbourg (1758). Many of the Acadians settled in southern Louisiana, creating the Cajun culture there. Some Acadians managed to hide and others eventually returned to Nova Scotia, but they were far outnumbered by a new migration of New England Planters who were settled on the former lands of the Acadians and transformed Nova Scotia from a colony of occupation for the British to a settled colony with stronger ties to New England. Britain eventually gained control of Quebec City and Montreal after the Battle of the Plains of Abraham and Battle of Fort Niagara in 1759, and the Battle of the Thousand Islands and Battle of Sainte - Foy in 1760.
With the end of the Seven Years ' War and the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1763), France ceded almost all of its remaining territory in mainland North America, except for fishing rights off Newfoundland and the two small islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon where its fishermen could dry their fish. France had already secretly ceded its vast Louisiana territory to Spain under the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762) in which King Louis XV of France had given his cousin King Charles III of Spain the entire area of the drainage basin of the Mississippi River from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Appalachian Mountains to the Rocky Mountains. France and Spain kept the Treaty of Fontainebleau secret from other countries until 1764. In return for acquiring Canada, Britain returned to France its most important sugar - producing colony, Guadeloupe, which the French at the time considered more valuable than Canada. (Guadeloupe produced more sugar than all the British islands combined, and Voltaire had notoriously dismissed Canada as "Quelques arpents de neige '', "A few acres of snow '').
The new British rulers of Canada abolished and later reinstated most of the property, religious, political, and social culture of the French - speaking habitants, guaranteeing the right of the Canadiens to practice the Catholic faith and to the use of French civil law (now Quebec Civil Code) through the Quebec Act of 1774. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 had been issued in October, by King George III following Great Britain 's acquisition of French territory. The proclamation organized Great Britain 's new North American empire and stabilized relations between the British Crown and Aboriginal peoples through regulation of trade, settlement, and land purchases on the western frontier.
During the American Revolution, there was some sympathy for the American cause among the Acadians and the New Englanders in Nova Scotia. Neither party joined the rebels, although several hundred individuals joined the revolutionary cause. An invasion of Quebec by the Continental Army in 1775, with a goal to take Quebec from British control, was halted at the Battle of Quebec by Guy Carleton, with the assistance of local militias. The defeat of the British army during the Siege of Yorktown in October 1781 signaled the end of Britain 's struggle to suppress the American Revolution.
When the British evacuated New York City in 1783, they took many Loyalist refugees to Nova Scotia, while other Loyalists went to southwestern Quebec. So many Loyalists arrived on the shores of the St. John River that a separate colony -- New Brunswick -- was created in 1784; followed in 1791 by the division of Quebec into the largely French - speaking Lower Canada (French Canada) along the St. Lawrence River and Gaspé Peninsula and an anglophone Loyalist Upper Canada, with its capital settled by 1796 in York, in present - day Toronto. After 1790 most of the new settlers were American farmers searching for new lands; although generally favorable to republicanism, they were relatively non-political and stayed neutral in the War of 1812. In 1785 Saint John, New Brunswick became the first incorporated city in what would later become Canada.
The signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the war. Britain made several concessions to the Americans at the expense of the North American colonies. Notably, the borders between Canada and the United States were officially demarcated; all land south of the Great Lakes, which was formerly a part of the Province of Quebec and included modern day Michigan, Illinois and Ohio, was ceded to the Americans. Fishing rights were also granted to the United States in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and on the coast of Newfoundland and the Grand Banks. The British ignored part of the treaty and maintained their military outposts in the Great Lakes areas it had ceded to the U.S., and they continued to supply their native allies with munitions. The British evacuated the outposts with the Jay Treaty of 1795, but the continued supply of munitions irritated the Americans in the run - up to the War of 1812.
Canadian historians have had mixed views on the long - term impact of the American Revolution. Arthur Lower in the 1950s provided the long - standard historical interpretation that for English Canada the results were counter-revolutionary:
(English Canada) inherited, not the benefits, but the bitterness of the Revolution.... English Canada started its life with as powerful a nostalgic shove backward into the past as the Conquest had given to French Canada: two little peoples officially devoted to counter-revolution, to lost causes, to the tawdry ideals of a society of men and masters, and not to the self - reliant freedom alongside of them.
Recently Michel Ducharme has agreed that Canada did indeed oppose "republican liberty '', as exemplified by the United States and France. However he says it did find a different path forward when it fought against British rulers after 1837 to secure "modern liberty ''. That form of liberty focused not on the virtues of citizens but on protecting their rights from infringement by the state.
The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and the British, with the British North American colonies being heavily involved. Greatly outgunned by the British Royal Navy, the American war plans focused on an invasion of Canada (especially what is today eastern and western Ontario). The American frontier states voted for war to suppress the First Nations raids that frustrated settlement of the frontier. The war on the border with the United States was characterized by a series of multiple failed invasions and fiascos on both sides. American forces took control of Lake Erie in 1813, driving the British out of western Ontario, killing the Native American leader Tecumseh, and breaking the military power of his confederacy. The war was overseen by British army officers like Isaac Brock and Charles de Salaberry with the assistance of First Nations and loyalist informants, most notably Laura Secord.
The War ended with no boundary changes thanks to the Treaty of Ghent of 1814, and the Rush -- Bagot Treaty of 1817. A demographic result was the shifting of the destination of American migration from Upper Canada to Ohio, Indiana and Michigan, without fear of Indian attacks. After the war, supporters of Britain tried to repress the republicanism that was common among American immigrants to Canada. The troubling memory of the war and the American invasions etched itself into the consciousness of Canadians as a distrust of the intentions of the United States towards the British presence in North America.
The rebellions of 1837 against the British colonial government took place in both Upper and Lower Canada. In Upper Canada, a band of Reformers under the leadership of William Lyon Mackenzie took up arms in a disorganized and ultimately unsuccessful series of small - scale skirmishes around Toronto, London, and Hamilton.
In Lower Canada, a more substantial rebellion occurred against British rule. Both English - and French - Canadian rebels, sometimes using bases in the neutral United States, fought several skirmishes against the authorities. The towns of Chambly and Sorel were taken by the rebels, and Quebec City was isolated from the rest of the colony. Montreal rebel leader Robert Nelson read the "Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada '' to a crowd assembled at the town of Napierville in 1838. The rebellion of the Patriote movement was defeated after battles across Quebec. Hundreds were arrested, and several villages were burnt in reprisal.
British Government then sent Lord Durham to examine the situation; he stayed in Canada only five months before returning to Britain and brought with him his Durham Report, which strongly recommended responsible government. A less well - received recommendation was the amalgamation of Upper and Lower Canada for the deliberate assimilation of the French - speaking population. The Canadas were merged into a single colony, the United Province of Canada, by the 1840 Act of Union, and responsible government was achieved in 1848, a few months after it was accomplished in Nova Scotia. The parliament of United Canada in Montreal was set on fire by a mob of Tories in 1849 after the passing of an indemnity bill for the people who suffered losses during the rebellion in Lower Canada.
Between the Napoleonic Wars and 1850, some 800,000 immigrants came to the colonies of British North America, mainly from the British Isles, as part of the great migration of Canada. These included Gaelic - speaking Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia and Scottish and English settlers to the Canadas, particularly Upper Canada. The Irish Famine of the 1840s significantly increased the pace of Irish Catholic immigration to British North America, with over 35,000 distressed Irish landing in Toronto alone in 1847 and 1848..
Spanish explorers had taken the lead in the Pacific Northwest coast, with the voyages of Juan José Pérez Hernández in 1774 and 1775. By the time the Spanish determined to build a fort on Vancouver Island, the British navigator James Cook had visited Nootka Sound and charted the coast as far as Alaska, while British and American maritime fur traders had begun a busy era of commerce with the coastal peoples to satisfy the brisk market for sea otter pelts in China, thereby launching what became known as the China Trade. In 1789 war threatened between Britain and Spain on their respective rights; the Nootka Crisis was resolved peacefully largely in favor of Britain, the much stronger naval power. In 1793 Alexander MacKenzie, a Canadian working for the North West Company, crossed the continent and with his Aboriginal guides and French - Canadian crew, reached the mouth of the Bella Coola River, completing the first continental crossing north of Mexico, missing George Vancouver 's charting expedition to the region by only a few weeks. In 1821, the North West Company and Hudson 's Bay Company merged, with a combined trading territory that was extended by a licence to the North - Western Territory and the Columbia and New Caledonia fur districts, which reached the Arctic Ocean on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the west.
The Colony of Vancouver Island was chartered in 1849, with the trading post at Fort Victoria as the capital. This was followed by the Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands in 1853, and by the creation of the Colony of British Columbia in 1858 and the Stikine Territory in 1861, with the latter three being founded expressly to keep those regions from being overrun and annexed by American gold miners. The Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands and most of the Stikine Territory were merged into the Colony of British Columbia in 1863 (the remainder, north of the 60th Parallel, became part of the North - Western Territory).
The Seventy - Two Resolutions from the 1864 Quebec Conference and Charlottetown Conference laid out the framework for uniting British colonies in North America into a federation. They had been adopted by the majority of the provinces of Canada and became the basis for the London Conference of 1866, which led to the formation of the Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867. The term dominion was chosen to indicate Canada 's status as a self - governing colony of the British Empire, the first time it was used about a country. With the coming into force of the British North America Act (enacted by the British Parliament), the Province of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia became a federated kingdom in its own right. (According to J. McCullough, use of the phrase "Dominion of Canada... was gradually phased out '' during the "late 1940 's, 50 's, and early 60 's '' with the growth of "post-colonial Canadian nationalism ''.)
Federation emerged from multiple impulses: the British wanted Canada to defend itself; the Maritimes needed railroad connections, which were promised in 1867; British - Canadian nationalism sought to unite the lands into one country, dominated by the English language and British culture; many French - Canadians saw an opportunity to exert political control within a new largely French - speaking Quebec and fears of possible U.S. expansion northward. On a political level, there was a desire for the expansion of responsible government and elimination of the legislative deadlock between Upper and Lower Canada, and their replacement with provincial legislatures in a federation. This was especially pushed by the liberal Reform movement of Upper Canada and the French - Canadian Parti rouge in Lower Canada who favored a decentralized union in comparison to the Upper Canadian Conservative party and to some degree the French - Canadian Parti bleu, which favored a centralized union.
Using the lure of the Canadian Pacific Railway, a transcontinental line that would unite the nation, Ottawa attracted support in the Maritimes and in British Columbia. In 1866, the Colony of British Columbia and the Colony of Vancouver Island merged into a single Colony of British Columbia; it joined the Canadian Confederation in 1871. In 1873, Prince Edward Island joined. Newfoundland -- which had no use for a transcontinental railway -- voted no in 1869, and did not join Canada until 1949.
In 1873 John A. Macdonald (First Prime Minister of Canada) created the North - West Mounted Police (now the Royal Canadian Mounted Police) to help police the Northwest Territories. Specifically the Mounties were to assert Canadian sovereignty over possible American encroachments into the sparsely populated land.
The Mounties ' first large - scale mission was to suppress the second independence movement by Manitoba 's Métis, a mixed blood people of joint First Nations and European descent, who originated in the mid-17th century. The desire for independence erupted in the Red River Rebellion in 1869 and the later North - West Rebellion in 1885 led by Louis Riel. Suppressing the Rebellion was Canada 's first independent military action. It cost about $5 million and demonstrated the need to complete the Canadian Pacific Railway. It guaranteed Anglophone control of the Prairies, and demonstrated the national government was capable of decisive action. However, it lost the Conservative Party most of their support in Quebec and led to permanent distrust of the Anglophone community on the part of the Francophones.
In the 1890s, legal experts codified a framework of criminal law, culminating in the Criminal Code, 1892. This solidified the liberal ideal of "equality before the law '' in a way that made an abstract principle into a tangible reality for every adult Canadian. Wilfrid Laurier who served 1896 -- 1911 as the Seventh Prime Minister of Canada felt Canada was on the verge of becoming a world power, and declared that the 20th century would "belong to Canada ''
The Alaska boundary dispute, simmering since the Alaska purchase of 1867, became critical when gold was discovered in the Yukon during the late 1890s, with the U.S. controlling all the possible ports of entry. Canada argued its boundary included the port of Skagway. The dispute went to arbitration in 1903, but the British delegate sided with the Americans, angering Canadians who felt the British had betrayed Canadian interests to curry favour with the U.S.
In 1905 Saskatchewan and Alberta were admitted as provinces. They were growing rapidly thanks to abundant wheat crops that attracted immigration to the plains by Ukrainians and Northern and Central Europeans and by settlers from the United States, Britain and eastern Canada.
Laurier signed a reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would lower tariffs in both directions. Conservatives under Robert Borden denounced it, saying it would integrate Canada 's economy into that of the U.S. and loosen ties with Britain. The Conservative party won the Canadian federal election, 1911.
Canadian culture as it is understood today can be traced to its time period of westward expansion. Contributing factors include Canada 's unique geography, climate, and cultural makeup. Being a cold country with long winter nights for most of the year, certain unique leisure activities developed in Canada during this period including hockey and lacrosse. During this period the churches tried to steer leisure activities, by preaching against drinking and scheduling annual revivals and weekly club activities. By 1930 radio played a major role in uniting Canadians behind their local or regional hockey teams. Play - by - play sports coverage, especially of ice hockey, absorbed fans far more intensely than newspaper accounts the next day. Rural areas were especially influenced by sports coverage. Canadians in the 19th century came to believe themselves possessed of a unique "northern character, '' due to the long, harsh winters that only those of hardy body and mind could survive. This hardiness was claimed as a Canadian trait, and such sports as ice hockey and snowshoeing that reflected this were asserted as characteristically Canadian. Outside the sports arena Canadians express the national characteristics of being peaceful, orderly and polite. Inside they scream their lungs out at ice hockey games, cheering the speed, ferocity, and violence, making hockey an ambiguous symbol of Canada.
The Canadian Forces and civilian participation in the First World War helped to foster a sense of British - Canadian nationhood. The highpoints of Canadian military achievement during the First World War came during the Somme, Vimy, Passchendaele battles and what later became known as "Canada 's Hundred Days ''. The reputation Canadian troops earned, along with the success of Canadian flying aces including William George Barker and Billy Bishop, helped to give the nation a new sense of identity. The War Office in 1922 reported approximately 67,000 killed and 173,000 wounded during the war. This excludes civilian deaths in war - time incidents like the Halifax Explosion.
Support for Great Britain during the First World War caused a major political crisis over conscription, with Francophones, mainly from Quebec, rejecting national policies. During the crisis, large numbers of enemy aliens (especially Ukrainians and Germans) were put under government controls. The Liberal party was deeply split, with most of its Anglophone leaders joining the unionist government headed by Prime Minister Robert Borden, the leader of the Conservative party. The Liberals regained their influence after the war under the leadership of William Lyon Mackenzie King, who served as prime minister with three separate terms between 1921 and 1949.
Women 's political status without the vote was vigorously promoted by the National Council of Women of Canada from 1894 to 1918. It promoted a vision of "transcendent citizenship '' for women. The ballot was not needed, for citizenship was to be exercised through personal influence and moral suasion, through the election of men with strong moral character, and through raising public - spirited sons. The National Council position reflected its nation - building program that sought to uphold Canada as a White settler nation. While the woman suffrage movement was important for extending the political rights of White women, it was also authorized through race - based arguments that linked White women 's enfranchisement to the need to protect the nation from "racial degeneration ''.
Women did have a local vote in some provinces, as in Canada West from 1850, where women owning land could vote for school trustees. By 1900 other provinces adopted similar provisions, and in 1916 Manitoba took the lead in extending full women 's suffrage. Simultaneously suffragists gave strong support to the prohibition movement, especially in Ontario and the Western provinces.
The Military Voters Act of 1917 gave the vote to British women who were war widows or had sons or husbands serving overseas. Unionists Prime Minister Borden pledged himself during the 1917 campaign to equal suffrage for women. After his landslide victory, he introduced a bill in 1918 for extending the franchise to women. This passed without division, but did not apply to Quebec provincial and municipal elections. The women of Quebec gained full suffrage in 1940. The first woman elected to Parliament was Agnes Macphail of Ontario in 1921.
As a result of its contribution to Allied victory in the First World War, Canada became more assertive and less deferential to British authority. Convinced that Canada had proven itself on the battlefields of Europe, Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden demanded that it have a separate seat at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. This was initially opposed not only by Britain but also by the United States, which saw such a delegation as an extra British vote. Borden responded by pointing out that since Canada had lost nearly 60,000 men, a far larger proportion of its men, its right to equal status as a nation had been consecrated on the battlefield. British Prime Minister David Lloyd George eventually relented, and convinced the reluctant Americans to accept the presence of delegations from Canada, India, Australia, Newfoundland, New Zealand, and South Africa. These also received their own seats in the League of Nations. Canada asked for neither reparations nor mandates. It played only a modest role at Paris, but just having a seat was a matter of pride. It was cautiously optimistic about the new League of Nations, in which it played an active and independent role.
In 1923 British Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, appealed repeatedly for Canadian support in the Chanak crisis, in which a war threatened between Britain and Turkey. Canada refused. The Department of External Affairs, which had been founded in 1909, was expanded and promoted Canadian autonomy as Canada reduced its reliance on British diplomats and used its own foreign service. Thus began the careers of such important diplomats as Norman Robertson and Hume Wrong, and future prime minister Lester Pearson.
In 1921 to 1926, William Lyon Mackenzie King 's Liberal government pursued a conservative domestic policy with the object of lowering wartime taxes and, especially, cooling wartime ethnic tensions, as well as defusing postwar labour conflicts. The Progressives refused to join the government, but did help the Liberals defeat non-confidence motions. King faced a delicate balancing act of reducing tariffs enough to please the Prairie - based Progressives, but not too much to alienate his vital support in industrial Ontario and Quebec, which needed tariffs to compete with American imports. King and Conservative leader Arthur Meighen sparred constantly and bitterly in Commons debates. The Progressives gradually weakened. Their effective and passionate leader, Thomas Crerar, resigned to return to his grain business, and was replaced by the more placid Robert Forke. The socialist reformer J. S. Woodsworth gradually gained influence and power among the Progressives, and he reached an accommodation with King on policy matters.
In 1926 Prime Minister Mackenzie King advised the Governor General, Lord Byng, to dissolve Parliament and call another election, but Byng refused, the only time that the Governor General has exercised such a power. Instead Byng called upon Meighen, the Conservative Party leader, to form a government. Meighen attempted to do so, but was unable to obtain a majority in the Commons and he, too, advised dissolution, which this time was accepted. The episode, the King -- Byng Affair, marks a constitutional crisis that was resolved by a new tradition of complete non-interference in Canadian political affairs on the part of the British government.
Canada was hard hit by the worldwide Great Depression that began in 1929. Between 1929 and 1933, the gross national product dropped 40 % (compared to 37 % in the US). Unemployment reached 27 % at the depth of the Depression in 1933. Many businesses closed, as corporate profits of $396 million in 1929 turned into losses of $98 million in 1933. Canadian exports shrank by 50 % from 1929 to 1933. Construction all but stopped (down 82 %, 1929 -- 33), and wholesale prices dropped 30 %. Wheat prices plunged from 78c per bushel (1928 crop) to 29c in 1932.
Urban unemployment nationwide was 19 %; Toronto 's rate was 17 %, according to the census of 1931. Farmers who stayed on their farms were not considered unemployed. By 1933, 30 % of the labour force was out of work, and one fifth of the population became dependent on government assistance. Wages fell as did prices. Worst hit were areas dependent on primary industries such as farming, mining and logging, as prices fell and there were few alternative jobs. Most families had moderate losses and little hardship, though they too became pessimistic and their debts became heavier as prices fell. Some families saw most or all of their assets disappear, and suffered severely.
In 1930, in the first stage of the long depression, Prime Minister Mackenzie King believed that the crisis was a temporary swing of the business cycle and that the economy would soon recover without government intervention. He refused to provide unemployment relief or federal aid to the provinces, saying that if Conservative provincial governments demanded federal dollars, he would not give them "a five cent piece. '' His blunt wisecrack was used to defeat the Liberals in the 1930 election. The main issue was the rapid deterioration in the economy and whether the prime minister was out of touch with the hardships of ordinary people. The winner of the 1930 election was Richard Bedford Bennett and the Conservatives. Bennett had promised high tariffs and large - scale spending, but as deficits increased, he became wary and cut back severely on Federal spending. With falling support and the depression getting only worse, Bennett attempted to introduce policies based on the New Deal of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in the United States, but he got little passed. Bennett 's government became a focus of popular discontent. For example, auto owners saved on gasoline by using horses to pull their cars, dubbing them Bennett Buggies. The Conservative failure to restore prosperity led to the return of Mackenzie King 's Liberals in the 1935 election.
In 1935, the Liberals used the slogan "King or Chaos '' to win a landslide in the 1935 election. Promising a much - desired trade treaty with the U.S., the Mackenzie King government passed the 1935 Reciprocal Trade Agreement. It marked the turning point in Canadian - American economic relations, reversing the disastrous trade war of 1930 -- 31, lowering tariffs, and yielding a dramatic increase in trade.
The worst of the Depression had passed by 1935, as Ottawa launched relief programs such as the National Housing Act and National Employment Commission. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation became a crown corporation in 1936. Trans - Canada Airlines (the precursor to Air Canada) was formed in 1937, as was the National Film Board of Canada in 1939. In 1938, Parliament transformed the Bank of Canada from a private entity to a crown corporation.
One political response was a highly restrictive immigration policy and a rise in nativism.
Times were especially hard in western Canada, where a full recovery did not occur until the Second World War began in 1939. One response was the creation of new political parties such as the Social Credit movement and the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation, as well as popular protest in the form of the On - to - Ottawa Trek.
Following the Balfour Declaration of 1926, the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster in 1931 which acknowledged Canada as coequal with the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms. It was a crucial step in the development of Canada as a separate state in that it provided for nearly complete legislative autonomy from the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Although the United Kingdom retained formal authority over certain Canadian constitutional changes, it relinquished this authority with the passing of the Canada Act 1982 which was the final step in achieving full sovereignty.
Canada 's involvement in the Second World War began when Canada declared war on Nazi Germany on September 10, 1939, delaying it one week after Britain acted to symbolically demonstrate independence. The war restored Canada 's economic health and its self - confidence, as it played a major role in the Atlantic and in Europe. During the war, Canada became more closely linked to the U.S. The Americans took virtual control of Yukon in order to build the Alaska Highway, and were a major presence in the British colony of Newfoundland with major airbases.
Mackenzie King -- and Canada -- were largely ignored by Winston Churchill and the British government despite Canada 's major role in supplying food, raw materials, munitions and money to the hard - pressed British economy, training airmen for the Commonwealth, guarding the western half of the North Atlantic Ocean against German U-boats, and providing combat troops for the invasions of Italy, France and Germany in 1943 -- 45. The government successfully mobilized the economy for war, with impressive results in industrial and agricultural output. The depression ended, prosperity returned, and Canada 's economy expanded significantly. On the political side, Mackenzie King rejected any notion of a government of national unity. The Canadian federal election, 1940 was held as normally scheduled, producing another majority for the Liberals.
Building up the Royal Canadian Air Force was a high priority; it was kept separate from Britain 's Royal Air Force. The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan Agreement, signed in December 1939, bound Canada, Britain, New Zealand, and Australia to a program that eventually trained half the airmen from those four nations in the Second World War.
After the start of war with Japan in December 1941, the government, in cooperation with the U.S., began the Japanese - Canadian internment, which sent 22,000 British Columbia residents of Japanese descent to relocation camps far from the coast. The reason was intense public demand for removal and fears of espionage or sabotage. The government ignored reports from the RCMP and Canadian military that most of the Japanese were law - abiding and not a threat.
The Battle of the Atlantic began immediately, and from 1943 to 1945 was led by Leonard W. Murray, from Nova Scotia. German U-boats operated in Canadian and Newfoundland waters throughout the war, sinking many naval and merchant vessels, as Canada took charge of the defenses of the western Atlantic. The Canadian army was involved in the failed defence of Hong Kong, the unsuccessful Dieppe Raid in August 1942, the Allied invasion of Italy, and the highly successful invasion of France and the Netherlands in 1944 -- 45.
The Conscription Crisis of 1944 greatly affected unity between French and English - speaking Canadians, though was not as politically intrusive as that of the First World War. Of a population of approximately 11.5 million, 1.1 million Canadians served in the armed forces in the Second World War. Many thousands more served with the Canadian Merchant Navy. In all, more than 45,000 died, and another 55,000 were wounded.
Prosperity returned to Canada during the Second World War and continued in the following years, with the development of universal health care, old - age pensions, and veterans ' pensions. The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a crown colony ruled by a British governor. In 1948, the British government gave voters three Newfoundland Referendum choices: remaining a crown colony, returning to Dominion status (that is, independence), or joining Canada. Joining the United States was not made an option. After bitter debate Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.
The foreign policy of Canada during the Cold War was closely tied to that of the United States. Canada was a founding member of NATO (which Canada wanted to be a transatlantic economic and political union as well). In 1950, Canada sent combat troops to Korea during the Korean War as part of the United Nations forces. The federal government 's desire to assert its territorial claims in the Arctic during the Cold War manifested with the High Arctic relocation, in which Inuit were moved from Nunavik (the northern third of Quebec) to barren Cornwallis Island; this project was later the subject of a long investigation by the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.
In 1956, the United Nations responded to the Suez Crisis by convening a United Nations Emergency Force to supervise the withdrawal of invading forces. The peacekeeping force was initially conceptualized by Secretary of External Affairs and future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson. Pearson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 for his work in establishing the peacekeeping operation. Throughout the mid-1950s, Louis St. Laurent (12th Prime Minister of Canada) and his successor John Diefenbaker attempted to create a new, highly advanced jet fighter, the Avro Arrow. The controversial aircraft was cancelled by Diefenbaker in 1959. Diefenbaker instead purchased the BOMARC missile defense system and American aircraft. In 1958 Canada established (with the United States) the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD).
In the 1960s, what became known as the Quiet Revolution took place in Quebec, overthrowing the old establishment which centred on the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quebec and led to modernizing of the economy and society. Québécois nationalists demanded independence, and tensions rose until violence erupted during the 1970 October Crisis. John Saywell says, "The two kidnappings and the murder of Pierre Laporte were the biggest domestic news stories in Canada 's history '' In 1976 the Parti Québécois was elected to power in Quebec, with a nationalist vision that included securing French linguistic rights in the province and the pursuit of some form of sovereignty for Quebec. This culminated in the 1980 referendum in Quebec on the question of sovereignty - association, which was turned down by 59 % of the voters.
In 1965, Canada adopted the maple leaf flag, although not without considerable debate and misgivings among large number of English Canadians. The World 's Fair titled Expo 67 came to Montreal, coinciding with the Canadian Centennial that year. The fair opened April 28, 1967, with the theme "Man and his World '' and became the best attended of all BIE - sanctioned world expositions until that time.
Legislative restrictions on Canadian immigration that had favoured British and other European immigrants were amended in the 1960s, opening the doors to immigrants from all parts of the world. While the 1950s had seen high levels of immigration from Britain, Ireland, Italy, and northern continental Europe, by the 1970s immigrants increasingly came from India, China, Vietnam, Jamaica and Haiti. Immigrants of all backgrounds tended to settle in the major urban centres, particularly Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.
During his long tenure in the office (1968 -- 79, 1980 -- 84), Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau made social and cultural change his political goals, including the pursuit of official bilingualism in Canada and plans for significant constitutional change. The west, particularly the petroleum - producing provinces like Alberta, opposed many of the policies emanating from central Canada, with the National Energy Program creating considerable antagonism and growing western alienation. Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government during the prime ministership of Pierre Trudeau.
In 1981, the Canadian House of Commons and Senate passed a resolution requesting that the British Parliament enact a package of constitutional amendments which would end the last powers of the British Parliament to legislate for Canada and would create an entirely Canadian process for constitutional amendments. The resolution set out the text of the proposed Canada Act, which also included the text of the Constitution Act, 1982. The British Parliament duly passed the Canada Act 1982, the Queen granting Royal Assent on March 29, 1982, 115 years to the day since Queen Victoria granted Royal Assent to the Constitution Act, 1867. On April 17, 1982, the Queen signed the Proclamation on the grounds of Parliament Hill in Ottawa bringing the Constitution Act, 1982 into force, thus patriating the Constitution of Canada. Previously, the main portions of the constitution had existed only as an act passed of the British parliament, though under the terms of the Statute of Westminster, it could not be altered without Canadian consent. Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country, with the Queen 's role as monarch of Canada separate from her role as the British monarch or the monarch of any of the other Commonwealth realms.
In addition to the enactment of a Canadian amending formulas, the Constitution Act, 1982 enacted the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter is a constitutionally entrenched bill of rights which applies to both the federal government and the provincial governments, unlike the earlier Canadian Bill of Rights. The patriation of the constitution was Trudeau 's last major act as Prime Minister; he resigned in 1984.
On June 23, 1985, Air India Flight 182 was destroyed above the Atlantic Ocean by a bomb on board exploding; all 329 on board were killed, of whom 280 were Canadian citizens. The Air India attack is the largest mass murder in Canadian history.
The Progressive Conservative (PC) government of Brian Mulroney began efforts to gain Quebec 's support for the Constitution Act 1982 and end western alienation. In 1987 the Meech Lake Accord talks began between the provincial and federal governments, seeking constitutional changes favourable to Quebec. The failure of the Meech Lake Accord resulted in the formation of a separatist party, Bloc Québécois. The constitutional reform process under Prime Minister Mulroney culminated in the failure of the Charlottetown Accord which would have recognized Quebec as a "distinct society '' but was rejected in 1992 by a narrow margin.
Under Brian Mulroney, relations with the United States began to grow more closely integrated. In 1986, Canada and the U.S. signed the "Acid Rain Treaty '' to reduce acid rain. In 1989, the federal government adopted the Free Trade Agreement with the United States despite significant animosity from the Canadian public who were concerned about the economic and cultural impacts of close integration with the United States. On July 11, 1990, the Oka Crisis land dispute began between the Mohawk people of Kanesatake and the adjoining town of Oka, Quebec. The dispute was the first of a number of well - publicized conflicts between First Nations and the Canadian government in the late 20th century. In August 1990, Canada was one of the first nations to condemn Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait, and it quickly agreed to join the U.S. - led coalition. Canada deployed destroyers and later a CF - 18 Hornet squadron with support personnel, as well as a field hospital to deal with casualties.
Following Mulroney 's resignation as prime minister in 1993, Kim Campbell took office and became Canada 's first female prime minister. Campbell remained in office for only a few months: the 1993 election saw the collapse of the Progressive Conservative Party from government to two seats, while the Quebec - based sovereigntist Bloc Québécois became the official opposition. Prime Minister Jean Chrétien of the Liberals took office in November 1993 with a majority government and was re-elected with further majorities during the 1997 and 2000 elections.
In 1995, the government of Quebec held a second referendum on sovereignty that was rejected by a margin of 50.6 % to 49.4 %. In 1998, the Canadian Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province to be unconstitutional, and Parliament passed the Clarity Act outlining the terms of a negotiated departure. Environmental issues increased in importance in Canada during this period, resulting in the signing of the Kyoto Accord on climate change by Canada 's Liberal government in 2002. The accord was in 2007 nullified by Prime Minister Stephen Harper 's Conservative government, which proposed a "made - in - Canada '' solution to climate change.
Canada became the fourth country in the world and the first country in the Americas to legalize same - sex marriage nationwide with the enactment of the Civil Marriage Act. Court decisions, starting in 2003, had already legalized same - sex marriage in eight out of ten provinces and one of three territories. Before the passage of the Act, more than 3,000 same - sex couples had married in these areas.
The Canadian Alliance and PC Party merged into the Conservative Party of Canada in 2003, ending a 13 - year division of the conservative vote. The party was elected twice as a minority government under the leadership of Stephen Harper in the 2006 federal election and 2008 federal election. Harper 's Conservative Party won a majority in the 2011 federal election with the New Democratic Party forming the Official Opposition for the first time.
Under Harper, Canada and the United States continued to integrate state and provincial agencies to strengthen security along the Canada -- United States border through the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative. From 2002 to 2011, Canada was involved in the Afghanistan War as part of the U.S. stabilization force and the NATO - commanded International Security Assistance Force. In July 2010, the largest purchase in Canadian military history, totalling C $ 9 billion for the acquisition of 65 F - 35 fighters, was announced by the federal government. Canada is one of several nations that assisted in the development of the F - 35 and has invested over C $168 million in the program.
On October 19, 2015, Stephen Harper 's Conservatives were defeated by a newly resurgent Liberal party under the leadership of Justin Trudeau and which had been reduced to third party status in the 2011 elections.
Multiculturalism (cultural and ethnic diversity) has been emphasized in recent decades. Ambrose and Mudde conclude that: "Canada 's unique multiculturalism policy... which is based on a combination of selective immigration, comprehensive integration, and strong state repression of dissent on these policies. This unique blend of policies has led to a relatively low level of opposition to multiculturalism ''.
The Conquest of New France has always been a central and contested theme of Canadian memory. Cornelius Jaenen argues:
Historians of the 1950s tried to explain the economic inferiority of the French - Canadians by arguing that the Conquest:
destroyed an integral society and decapitated the commercial class; leadership of the conquered people fell to the Church; and, because commercial activity came to be monopolized by British merchants, national survival concentrated on agriculture.
At the other pole, are those Francophone historians who see the positive benefit of enabling the preservation of language, and religion and traditional customs under British rule. French Canadian debates have escalated since the 1960s, as the Conquest is seen as a pivotal moment in the history of Québec 's nationalism. Historian Jocelyn Létourneau suggested in the 21st century, "1759 does not belong primarily to a past that we might wish to study and understand, but, rather, to a present and a future that we might wish to shape and control. ''
Anglophone historians, on the other hand, portray the Conquest as a victory for British military, political and economic superiority that was a permanent benefit to the French.
Allan Greer argues that Whig history was once the dominant style of scholars. He says the:
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yes i'm ready kc with teri desario | Yes, I 'm Ready - wikipedia
"Yes, I 'm Ready '' a song by Barbara Mason from her album Yes, I 'm Ready (1965). It has been covered by numerous artists, and was a hit single for Teri DeSario and K.C. when they recorded a duet version in 1980.
Mason, a soul / R&B singer from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, had released a few singles while she was a teenager in the mid-1960s. "Yes, I 'm Ready '' became Mason 's first big hit on the music charts, peaking at # 2 on the Billboard R&B chart, and No. 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the summer of 1965. While Mason would continue recording into the 1980s, this song has been her highest charting hit. Mason later re-recorded the song for her 1973 album, Give Me Your Love. The key personnel who helped bring this hit recording to life later became the important creators of the "Philly Sound ''. These people include: Kenny Gamble as a backup singer, Bobby Eli and Norman Harris on guitar, Ronnie Baker on bass and Earl Young on drums (Eli, Harris and Baker later on became principal members of MFSB and Kenny Gamble would co-found Philadelphia International Records with Leon Huff).
DeSario, a vocalist from Miami, Florida, was a high school classmate of Harry Wayne Casey, best known as the lead vocalist and songwriter for KC and the Sunshine Band. Casey liked the original recording and wanted to record a cover version of the song, and he was producing DeSario 's second studio album, Moonlight Madness, for Casablanca Records. Neil Bogart, president of the record label, had an idea to record the song as a duet, and it was the first single released from the album in late 1979. Their version of the song spent two weeks at No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in March 1980, kept from the summit by "Crazy Little Thing Called Love '' by the rock group Queen. It also spent two weeks at No. 1 on the Billboard adult contemporary chart and reached No. 20 on the Billboard R&B chart, earning Gold Record certification from the RIAA.
"Yes, I 'm Ready '' has been covered by other artists, including Mona Carita (fi) (as "Tahdon ''), Shirley Ellis, Gladys Knight and the Pips, Maureen McGovern, Jeffrey Osborne, and Carla Thomas. It was recorded as a duet by the artist Jed and American singer La Toya Jackson. This single was released only in 7 '' format in Japan, where it failed to chart. It was not included on any of Jackson 's albums and includes the instrumental version on the B - side. In 1997, teenage singing sensation Kimberly Scott, mostly known for her hit "Tuck Me In '', remade this song with Taiwanese musician Harlem Yu, which was included in Harlem Yu 's 1997 English cover album "Harlem Music Channel ''.
Barbara Mason 's original 1965 recording was sampled by Phantogram for their 2013 hit single "Fall In Love. ''
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how many stores does the north face have | The North Face - wikipedia
The North Face, Inc. is an American outdoor product company specializing in outerwear, fleece, coats, shirts, footwear, and equipment such as backpacks, tents, and sleeping bags.
Its clothing and equipment lines are catered towards outdoor enthusiasts, climbers, mountaineers, skiers, snowboarders, hikers, and endurance athletes.
The company sponsors professional athletes from the worlds of running, climbing, skiing and snowboarding.
The North Face began as a San Francisco - based climbing equipment retail store, founded in 1966 by Douglas Tompkins and his then - wife, Susie Tompkins. It was acquired two years later by Kenneth "Hap '' Klopp.
The name was derived to evoke homage to the fact the north face of a mountain in the northern hemisphere is "generally the coldest, iciest and most formidable route to climb. ''
Originally the store offered only highly selective merchandise, targeted to climbers and backpackers. By the 1980s, skiwear was added, followed by camping equipment. Today The North Face offers many product categories from athletic clothing to more casual sportswear, though they are best known for insulated jackets.
The North Face is now a wholly owned subsidiary of the VF Corporation. It is headquartered in Alameda, California, co-located with its corporate sibling, JanSport. In 2007, JanSport was the world 's largest backpack manufacturer; combined, the two manufactured nearly half of all small backpacks sold in the United States.
The North Face 's quarter - circle logo, produced by California designer David Alcorn in 1971, evokes Half Dome, a massive granitic monolith in Yosemite National Park. The North Face maintains strong links with the outdoor community through sponsoring athletes, including Lizzy Hawker, winner of the Ultra Trail Tour du Mont Blanc in 2005, 2008 and 2010.
North Face attire has grown in popularity. The rise in the popularity of the North Face attire has resulted in wearers of the line becoming the targets of robbery. In early 2005, a group of teenagers from Washington D.C. were arrested on charges including the armed robbery of, specifically, The North Face jackets from students on the street.
In December 2008, The North Face filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri against The South Butt, its creator James A. Winkelmann, Jr., and a company which handled the firm 's marketing and manufacturing. In the legal action, The North Face alleged trademark infringement and sought injunctive relief. After the court ordered mediation in the case, the parties reached a closed settlement agreement on April 1, 2010; however, in October 2012, Winkelmann admitted in court that he and his father violated the settlement agreement with The North Face and agreed to pay $65,000, an amount that will be reduced by $1,000 for every month of compliance.
In addition to selling through department stores and outdoor retailers, The North Face operates over 55 retail and 20 outlet locations in the United States, 4 retail and 2 outlet locations in Canada, 19 locations in the United Kingdom and many others worldwide.
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where does the story my brother's keeper begin | My brother 's Keeper (the Vampire Diaries) - wikipedia
Phoebe Tonkin as Hayley David Alpay as Professor Shane Grace Phipps as April Young
"My Brother 's Keeper '' is the seventh episode of The Vampire Diaries 's fourth season, premiering November 29, 2012 on The CW.
The Miss Mystic Falls pageant is back, and Elena and Caroline help April find a dress to wear. Meanwhile, Caroline calls Stefan and he tells her about Elena 's feelings for Damon, which Caroline disapproves of. Klaus shows up shortly afterwards, questioning his trust in him. Damon and Stefan 's relationship is strained, but nonetheless, they still search for the cure. Caroline and Elena are suspicious of Shane, who Damon decides to confront. Ever since awakening as a hunter, Jeremy has been having nightmares of killing Elena, and Stefan uses criminals to provide vampires to complete Jeremy 's tattoo. Hayley and Tyler work to break the sire bond of Klaus 's hybrids.
Caroline is stressed by a favor she owes Klaus, which is a date. Klaus makes her jealous of Hayley and Tyler 's friendship, but also charms her and she asks if he ever wanted to be human again. Jeremy 's hunter instinct develops to the extent where he grows a hatred for vampires and attacks Stefan. Damon asks why Shane showed up in Mystic Falls in the first place and reveals his vampirism to him. Jeremy arrives at the pageant and attacks Elena, nearly killing her, but she is rescued by Stefan and Matt.
Stefan reveals to Elena he provided vampires for Jeremy to kill and she replies she does n't want her humanity back if it costs her brother his. Matt moves into her house and Elena decides to stay in the Salvatore House for safety. Stefan then decides to leave, unable to stay in the same house as Elena. It is eventually revealed that Shane and Hayley are working together to break the sire bond with Klaus 's hybrids.
Caroline and Stefan begin to believe that Elena is sired to Damon. Later, Elena moves into the boarding house. She and Damon talk for a bit before they stand up and begin to dance by the fireplace. After a moment or so of dancing and holding each other close, they kiss. The two make out in the living room for a while before they go upstairs to Damon 's bedroom and have sex for the very first time. The episode ends with Damon and Elena cradling each other 's faces in a loving kiss.
When the episode aired on November 29, 2012, the episode was viewed by 2.86 million American viewers.
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where is the black dog inn filmed in the coroner | The Coroner - wikipedia
The Coroner is a BBC Birmingham daytime drama series of 20 episodes starring Claire Goose as Jane Kennedy, a coroner based in a fictional South Devon coastal town. Matt Bardock stars as Detective Sergeant Davey Higgins.
The BBC announced on 2 March 2017 that there would be no further series.
Jane Kennedy returns to Lighthaven as the local coroner. She works with Davey Higgins, a Detective Sergeant in the South Dart police; they were childhood sweethearts and he broke her heart. They investigate any sudden, violent or unexplained deaths in the South Hams district of South Devon.
Also featuring: Beth, Kennedy 's 15 - year - old daughter; Judith, Kennedy 's mother; Judith 's boyfriend, Mick Sturrock; Clint Holman, Coroner 's Officer.
Sally Abbott created The Coroner from an idea by Will Trotter, executive producer and head of BBC Drama Birmingham, about a woman coroner aged about 40 and in a location such as the Cotswolds or Devon. The series would have self - contained stories with drama and humour; a formula successfully used in Father Brown from the same production team. The characters, Jane and Davey, were based on Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracey in "Adams Rib '' with the unresolved sexual tension between them. Abbott wrote the Davey character with Matt Bardock in mind. She created four other characters to complete the cast.
According to the BBC, the series is not based on, or inspired by, MR Hall 's best - selling books including The Coroner. Hall stated he was "unhappy '' about the "enormous similarities '', but the BBC say any resemblance with his books -- also about an unusually pro-active, Land Rover driving, forty - something female solicitor who after a failed relationship returns to the West Country to take up the post of coroner -- are purely coincidental.
The production office was located at Dartington where some interior scenes were filmed. Filming began in mid-April 2015 for 15 weeks. The episodes were divided into blocks of two with the same director, assistant director, and director of photography.
Locations included Dartmouth, Torquay, and Broadsands Beach, Paignton. The Mansion, now a community building, in Totnes was used as the Coroners Court. A brass plate was attached to the brickwork. The exterior and interior of Oldway Mansion is used as Lighthaven 's town hall. The Old Customs House in Bayard 's Cove, Dartmouth is the location of the Coroners office.
The set for The Black Dog Inn is the derelict Crooked Spaniards Inn, Cargreen, Cornwall. The tower at Gribben Head, Cornwall featured in the first episode.
The Old Custom House, Bayards Cove
The derelict Crooked Spaniards
Gribben Tower, Gribben Head
The BBC announced on 2 March 2017 that there would be no further series.
Dazzler Media published the complete first series in February 2016 and the second series in January 2017.
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how long ago did the dire wolf live | Dire wolf - wikipedia
The dire wolf (Canis dirus, "fearsome dog '') is an extinct species of the genus Canis. It is one of the most famous prehistoric carnivores in North America, along with its extinct competitor, the sabre - toothed cat Smilodon fatalis. The dire wolf lived in the Americas during the Late Pleistocene epoch (125,000 -- 10,000 years ago). The species was named in 1858, four years after the first specimen had been found. Two subspecies are recognized, these being Canis dirus guildayi and Canis dirus dirus. The dire wolf probably evolved from Armbruster 's wolf (Canis armbrusteri) in North America. The largest collection of its fossils has been obtained from the Rancho La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles.
Dire wolf remains have been found across a broad range of habitats including the plains, grasslands, and some forested mountain areas of North America, and in the arid savannah of South America. The sites range in elevation from sea level to 2,255 meters (7,400 ft). Dire wolf fossils have rarely been found north of 42 ° N latitude, with five unconfirmed reports above this latitude. This range restriction is thought to be due to temperature, prey, or habitat limitations imposed by proximity to the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets that existed at the time.
The dire wolf was about the same size as the largest modern gray wolves (Canis lupus), which are the Yukon wolf and the northwestern wolf. C. d. guildayi weighed on average 60 kilograms (132 lb) and C. d. dirus was on average 68 kg (150 lb). Its skull and dentition matched those of C. lupus, but its teeth were larger with greater shearing ability, and its bite force at the canine tooth was the strongest of any known Canis species. These characteristics are thought to be adaptations for preying on Late Pleistocene megaherbivores, and in North America its prey are known to have included horses, ground sloths, mastodons, bison, and camels. As with other large Canis hypercarnivores today, the dire wolf is thought to have been a pack hunter. Its extinction occurred during the Quaternary extinction event along with most of the American megafauna of the time, including a number of other carnivores, that occurred soon after the appearance of humans in the New World. Its reliance on megaherbivores has been proposed as the cause of its extinction, along with climate change and competition with other species, but the cause remains controversial. Dire wolves lived as recently as 9,440 years ago, according to dated remains.
From the 1850s, the fossil remains of extinct large wolves were being found in the United States, and it was not immediately clear that these all belonged to one species. The first specimen of what would later become associated with Canis dirus was found in mid-1854 in the bed of the Ohio River near Evansville, Indiana. The fossilized jawbone with cheek - teeth was obtained by the geologist Joseph Granville Norwood from an Evansville collector, Francis A. Linck. The paleontologist Joseph Leidy determined that the specimen represented an extinct species of wolf and reported it under the name of Canis primaevus. Norwood 's letters to Leidy are preserved along with the type specimen (the first of a species that has a written description) at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. In 1857, while exploring the Niobrara River valley in Nebraska, Leidy found the vertebrae of an extinct Canis species that he reported the following year under the name C. dirus. The name C. primaevus (Leidy 1854) was later renamed Canis indianensis (Leidy 1869) when Leidy found out that the name C. primaevus had previously been used by the British naturalist Brian Houghton Hodgson for the dhole.
In 1876 the zoologist Joel Asaph Allen discovered the remains of Canis mississippiensis (Allen 1876) and associated these with C. dirus (Leidy 1858) and Canis indianensis (Leidy 1869). As so little was found of these three specimens, Allen thought it best to leave each specimen listed under its provisional name until more material could be found to reveal their relationship. In 1908 the paleontologist John Campbell Merriam began retrieving numerous fossilized bone fragments of a large wolf from the Rancho La Brea tar pits. By 1912 he had found a skeleton sufficiently complete to be able to formally recognize these and the previously found specimens under the name C. dirus (Leidy 1858). Because the rules of nomenclature stipulated that the name of a species should be the oldest name ever applied to it, Merriam therefore selected the name of Leidy 's 1858 specimen, C. dirus. In 1915 the paleontologist Edward Troxell indicated his agreement with Merriam when he declared C. indianensis a synonym of C. dirus. In 1918, after studying these fossils, Merriam proposed consolidating their names under the separate genus Aenocyon (from Aenos, terrible and cyon, wolf) to become Aenocyon dirus, but not everyone agreed with this extinct wolf being placed in a new genus separate from the genus Canis. Canis ayersi (Sellards 1916) and Aenocyon dirus (Merriam 1918) were recognized as synonyms of C. dirus by the paleontologist Ernest Lundelius in 1972. All of the above taxa were declared synonyms of C. dirus in 1979, according to the paleontologist Ronald M. Nowak.
In 1984 a study by Björn Kurten recognized a geographic variation within the dire wolf populations and proposed two subspecies: Canis dirus guildayi (named by Kurten in honor of the paleontologist John E. Guilday) for specimens from California and Mexico that exhibited shorter limbs and longer teeth, and Canis dirus dirus for specimens east of the North American Continental Divide that exhibited longer limbs and shorter teeth. Kurten designated a maxilla found in Hermit 's Cave, New Mexico as representing the nominate subspecies C. d. dirus.
Both the canid family and its genus Canis are thought to have originated in North America, roughly 40 and 6 million years ago, respectively. Members of both radiations subsequently emigrated to the Old World. Wolf - like species of Canis apparently originated there, and then returned to North America.
In 1974 Robert A. Martin proposed that the large North American wolf C. armbrusteri (Armbruster 's wolf) was C. lupus. Nowak, Kurten, and Annalisa Berta proposed that C. dirus was not derived from C. lupus. In 1987, a new hypothesis proposed that a mammal population could give rise to a larger form called a hypermorph during times when food was abundant, but when food later became scarce the hypermorph would either adapt to a smaller form or go extinct. This hypothesis might explain the large body sizes found in many Late Pleistocene mammals compared to their modern counterparts. Both extinction and speciation -- a process by which a new species splits from an older one -- could occur together during periods of climatic extremes. Gloria D. Goulet agreed with Martin, proposing further that this hypothesis might explain the sudden appearance of C. dirus in North America and, judging from the similarities in their skull shapes, that C. lupus had given rise to the C. dirus hypermorph due to an abundance of game, a stable environment, and large competitors.
The three paleontologists Xiaoming Wang, Richard H. Tedford, and Ronald M. Nowak have proposed that C. dirus evolved from Canis armbrusteri, with Nowak stating that specimens found in Cumberland Cave, Maryland, appear to be C. armbrusteri diverging into C. dirus. The early wolf from China, Canis chihliensis, may have been the ancestor of both C. armbrusteri and the gray wolf C. lupus. The sudden appearance of C. armbrusteri in North America during the Early Pleistocene suggests that this was an immigrant from Asia, as was C. lupus later in the Pleistocene. In 2010 Francisco Prevosti proposed that C. dirus was a sister taxon to C. lupus.
Canis dirus lived in the late Pleistocene to the early Holocene (125,000 -- 10,000 years before present or YBP) in North and South America (although no members of Canis survive in the latter continent). The majority of fossils from the eastern C. d. dirus have been dated 125,000 -- 75,000 YBP, but the western C. d. guildayi fossils are not only smaller in size but more recent; thus it has been proposed that C. d. guildayi derived from C. d. dirus. However, there are disputed specimens of C. dirus that date to 250,000 YBP. Fossil specimens of C. dirus discovered at four sites in the Hay Springs area of Sheridan County, Nebraska, were named Aenocyon dirus nebrascensis (Frick 1930, undescribed), but Frick did not publish a description of them. Nowak later referred to this material as C. armbrusteri; then, in 2009, Tedford formally published a description of the specimens and noted that, although they exhibited some morphological characteristics of both C. armbrusteri and C. dirus, he referred to them only as C. dirus. These Nebraskan fossil specimens may represent the earliest record of C. dirus.
A fossil discovered in the Horse Room of the Salamander Cave in the Black Hills of South Dakota may possibly be C. dirus; if so, this fossil is one of the earliest specimens on record. It was catalogued as Canis cf. C. dirus (where cf. in Latin means confer, uncertain). The fossil of a horse found in the Horse Room provided a uranium - series dating of 252,000 years YBP and the Canis cf. dirus specimen was assumed to be from the same period. C. armbrusteri and C. dirus share some characteristics (synapomorphies) that imply the latter 's descent from the former. The fossil record suggests C. dirus originated around 250,000 YBP in the open terrain of the mid-continent before expanding eastward and displacing its ancestor C. armbrusteri. The first appearance of C. dirus would therefore be 250,000 YBP in California and Nebraska, and later in the rest of the United States, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru, but the identity of these earliest fossils is not confirmed.
In South America, C. dirus specimens dated to the Late Pleistocene were found along the north and west coasts, but none have been found in Argentina, an area that was inhabited by Canis gezi and Canis nehringi. One study found that C. dirus was the most evolutionarily derived Canis species in the New World, and compared to C. nehringi was larger in the size and construction of its lower molars for more efficient predation. For this reason, some researchers have proposed that C. dirus may have originated in South America. In 2009 a proposal was made that C. armbrusteri was the common ancestor for both the North and South American wolves. The following year, a study yielded evidence that led to the conclusion that C. dirus and C. nehringi were the same species and thus that C. dirus had migrated from North America into South America, making it a late participant in the Great American Interchange.
In 1992 an attempt was made to extract a mitochondrial DNA sequence from the skeletal remains of C. d. guildayi to compare its relationship to other Canis species. The attempt was unsuccessful because these remains had been removed from the La Brea pits and tar could not be removed from the bone material. In 2014 an attempt to extract DNA from a Columbian mammoth from the tar pits also failed, with the study concluding that organic compounds from the asphalt permeate the bones of all ancient samples from the La Brea pits, hindering the extraction of DNA samples.
The age of most dire wolf localities is determined solely by biostratigraphy, but biostratigraphy is an unreliable indicator within asphalt deposits. Some sites have been radiocarbon dated, with C. dirus specimens from La Brea pits dated in calendar years as follows: 82 specimens dated 13,000 -- 14,000 YBP; 40 specimens dated 14,000 -- 16,000 YBP; 77 specimens dated 14,000 -- 18,000 YBP; 37 specimens dated 17,000 -- 18,000 YBP; 26 specimens dated 21,000 -- 30,000 YBP; 40 specimens dated 25,000 -- 28,000 YBP; and 6 specimens dated 32,000 -- 37,000 YBP. A specimen from Powder Mill Creek Cave, Missouri, was dated at 13,170 YBP.
The dire wolf is the largest species of the genus Canis known to have existed. Its shape and proportions were similar to those of two modern North American wolves: the Yukon wolf (Canis lupus pambasileus) and the Northwestern wolf (Canis lupus occidentalis). The largest northern wolves today have a shoulder height of 38 in (97 cm) and a body length of 69 in (180 cm). Some dire wolf specimens from Rancho La Brea are smaller than this, and some are larger.
The dire wolf had smaller feet and a larger head when compared with a northern wolf of the same body size. The skull length could reach up to 310 mm (12 in) or longer, with a broader palate, frontal region, and zygomatic arches compared with the Yukon wolf. These dimensions make the skull very massive. Its sagittal crest was higher, with the inion showing a significant backward projection, and with the rear ends of the nasal bones extending relatively far back into the skull. A connected skeleton of a dire wolf from Rancho La Brea is difficult to find because the tar allows the bones to disassemble in many directions. Parts of a vertebral column have been assembled, and it was found to be similar to that of the modern wolf, with the same number of vertebrae.
Geographic differences in dire wolves were not detected until 1984, when a study of skeletal remains showed differences in a few cranio - dental features and limb proportions between specimens from California and Mexico (C. d. guildayi) and those found from the east of the Continental Divide (C. d. dirus). A comparison of limb size shows that the rear limbs of C. d. guildayi were 8 % shorter than the Yukon wolf due to a significantly shorter tibia and metatarsus, and that the front limbs were also shorter due to their slightly shorter lower bones. With its comparatively lighter and smaller limbs and massive head, C. d. guildayi was not as well adapted for running as timber wolves and coyotes. C. d. dirus possessed significantly longer limbs than C. d. guildayi. The forelimbs were 14 % longer than C. d. guildayi due to 10 % longer humeri, 15 % longer radii, and 15 % longer metacarpals. The rear limbs were 10 % longer than C. d. guildayi due to 10 % longer femora and tibiae, and 15 % longer metatarsals. C. d. dirus is comparable to the Yukon wolf in limb length. The largest C. d. dirus femur was found in Carroll Cave, Missouri, and measured 278 mm (10.9 in).
C. d. guildayi is estimated to have weighed on average 60 kg (130 lb), and C. d. dirus weighed on average 68 kg (150 lb) with some specimens being larger, but these could not have exceeded 110 kg (240 lb) due to skeletal limits. In comparison, the average weight of the Yukon wolf is 43 kg (95 lb) for males and 37 kg (82 lb) for females. Individual weights for Yukon wolves can vary from 21 kg (46 lb) to 55 kg (121 lb), with one Yukon wolf weighing 79.4 kg (175 lb). These figures show the average dire wolf to be similar in size to the largest modern gray wolf.
The remains of a complete male C. dirus are sometimes easy to identify compared to other Canis specimens because the baculum (penis bone) of the dire wolf is very different from that of all other living canids.
Ecological factors such as habitat type, climate, prey specialization, and predatory competition have been shown to greatly influence gray wolf craniodental plasticity, which is an adaptation of the cranium and teeth due to the influences of the environment. Similarly, the dire wolf was a hypercarnivore, with a skull and dentition adapted for hunting large and struggling prey; the shape of its skull and snout changed across time, and changes in the size of its body have been correlated to climate fluctuations.
The last glacial period, commonly referred to as the "Ice Age '', spanned 125,000 -- 14,500 YBP and was the most recent glacial period within the current ice age, which occurred during the last years of the Pleistocene era. The Ice Age reached its peak during the Last Glacial Maximum, when ice sheets began advancing from 33,000 YBP and reached their maximum limits 26,500 YBP. Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere approximately 19,000 YBP and in Antarctica approximately 14,500 years YBP, which is consistent with evidence that glacial meltwater was the primary source for an abrupt rise in sea level 14,500 YBP. Access into northern North America was blocked by the Wisconsin glaciation. The fossil evidence from the Americas points to the extinction mainly of large animals, termed Pleistocene megafauna, near the end of the last glaciation.
Coastal southern California from 60,000 YBP to the end of the Last Glacial Maximum was cooler and with a more balanced supply of moisture than today. During the Last Glacial Maximum, the mean annual temperature decreased from 11 ° C (52 ° F) down to 5 ° C (41 ° F) degrees, and annual precipitation had decreased from 100 cm (39 in) down to 45 cm (18 in). This region was unaffected by the climatic effects of the Wisconsin glaciation, and is thought to have been an Ice Age refugium for animals and cold - sensitive plants. By 24,000 YBP, the abundance of oak and chaparral decreased, but pines increased, creating open parklands similar to today 's coastal montane / juniper woodlands. After 14,000 YBP, the abundance of conifers decreased, and those of the modern coastal plant communities, including oak woodland, chaparral, and coastal sage scrub, increased. The Santa Monica Plain lies north of the city of Santa Monica and extends along the southern base of the Santa Monica Mountains, and 28,000 -- 26,000 YBP it was dominated by coastal sage scrub, with cypress and pines at higher elevations. The Santa Monica Mountains supported a chaparral community on its slopes and isolated coast redwood and dogwood in its protected canyons, along with river communities that included willow, red cedar, and sycamore. These plant communities suggest a winter rainfall similar to that of modern coastal southern California, but the presence of coast redwood now found 600 kilometres (370 mi) to the north indicates a cooler, moister, and less seasonal climate than today. This environment supported large herbivores that were prey for dire wolves and their competitors.
A range of animal and plant specimens that became entrapped and were then preserved in tar pits have been removed and studied so that researchers can learn about the past. The Rancho La Brea tar pits located near Los Angeles in southern California are a collection of pits of sticky asphalt deposits that differ in deposition time from 40,000 to 12,000 YBP. Commencing 40,000 YBP, trapped asphalt has been moved through fissures to the surface by methane pressure, forming seeps that can cover several square meters and be 9 -- 11 m (30 -- 36 ft) deep. The dire wolf has been made famous because of the large number of its fossils recovered there. Over 200,000 specimens (mostly fragments) have been recovered from the tar pits, with the remains ranging from Smilodon to squirrels, invertebrates, and plants. The time period represented in the pits includes the Last Glacial Maximum when global temperatures were 8 ° C (14 ° F) lower than today, the Pleistocene -- Holocene transition (Bølling - Allerød interval), the Oldest Dryas cooling, the Younger Dryas cooling from 12,800 to 11,500 YBP, and the American megafaunal extinction event 12,700 YBP when 90 genera of mammals weighing over 44 kg (97 lb) became extinct.
Isotope analysis can be used to identify some chemical elements, allowing researchers to make inferences about the diet of the species found in the pits. An isotope analysis of bone collagen extracted from La Brea specimens provides evidence that the dire wolf, Smilodon, and the American lion (Panthera leo atrox) competed for the same prey. Their prey included "yesterday 's camel '' (Camelops hesternus), the Pleistocene bison (Bison antiquus), the "dwarf '' pronghorn (Capromeryx minor), the western horse (Equus occidentalis), and the "grazing '' ground sloth (Paramylodon harlani) native to North American grasslands. The Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) and the American mastodon (Mammut americanum) were rare at La Brea. The horses remained mixed feeders and the pronghorns mixed browsers, but at the Last Glacial Maximum and its associated shift in vegetation the camels and bison were forced to rely more heavily on conifers.
A study of isotope data of La Brea dire wolf fossils dated 10,000 YBP provides evidence that the horse was an important prey species at the time, and that sloth, mastodon, bison, and camel were less common in the dire wolf diet. This indicates that the dire wolf was not a prey specialist, and at the close of the late Pleistocene before its extinction it was hunting or scavenging the most available herbivores.
A study of Canis dentition concluded that the dire wolf was the most advanced, or evolutionary derived, Canis species in the Americas. The dire wolf could be identified separately from all other Canis species by its possession of: "P2 with a posterior cusplet; P3 with two posterior cusplets; M1 with a mestascylid, entocristed, entoconulid, and a transverse crest extending from the metaconid to the hyperconular shelf; M2 with entocristed and entoconulid. ''
A study of the estimated bite force at the canine teeth of a large sample of living and fossil mammalian predators, when adjusted for the body mass, found that for placental mammals the bite force at the canines (in newtons / kilogram of body weight) was greatest in the dire wolf (163), followed among the modern canids by the four hypercarnivores that often prey on animals larger than themselves: the African hunting dog (142), the gray wolf (136), the dhole (112), and the dingo (108). The bite force at the carnassials showed a similar trend to the canines. A predator 's largest prey size is strongly influenced by its biomechanical limits. The morphology of the dire wolf was similar to that of its living relatives, and assuming that the dire wolf was a social hunter, then its high bite force relative to living canids suggests that it preyed on relatively large animals. The bite force rating of the bone - consuming spotted hyena (117) challenged the common assumption that high bite force in the canines and the carnassials was necessary to consume bone.
A study of the cranial measurements and jaw muscles of dire wolves found no significant differences with modern gray wolves in all but 4 of 15 measures. Upper dentition was the same except that the dire wolf had larger dimensions, and the P4 had a relatively larger, more massive blade that enhanced slicing ability at the carnassial. The jaw of the dire wolf had a relatively broader and more massive temporalis muscle, able to generate slightly more bite force than the gray wolf. Due to the jaw arrangement, the dire wolf had less temporalis leverage than the gray wolf at the lower carnassial (m1) and lower p4, but the functional significance of this is not known. The lower premolars were relatively slightly larger than those of the gray wolf, and the dire wolf m1 was much larger and had more shearing ability. The dire wolf canines had greater bending strength than those of living canids of equivalent size and were similar to those of hyenas and felids. All these differences indicate that the dire wolf was able to deliver stronger bites than the gray wolf, and with its flexible and more rounded canines was better adapted for struggling with its prey.
North American
(125,000 -- 75,000 YBP)
(50,000 YBP)
(40,000 -- 13,000 YBP)
At La Brea, predatory birds and mammals were attracted to dead or dying herbivores that had become mired, and then these predators became trapped themselves. Herbivore entrapment was estimated to have occurred once every fifty years, and for every instance of herbivore remains found in the pits there were an estimated ten carnivores. C. d. guildayi is the most common carnivoran found at La Brea, followed by Smilodon. Remains of dire wolves outnumber remains of gray wolves in the tar pits by a ratio of five to one. During the Last Glacial Maximum, coastal California, with a climate slightly cooler and wetter than today, is thought to have been a refuge, and a comparison of the frequency of dire wolves and other predator remains at La Brea to other parts of California and North America indicates significantly greater abundances; therefore, the higher dire wolf numbers in the La Brea region did not reflect the wider area. Assuming that only a few of the carnivores that were feeding became trapped, it is likely that fairly sizeable groups of dire wolves fed together on these occasions.
The difference between the male and female of a species apart from their sex organs is called sexual dimorphism, and in this regard little variance exists among the canids. A study of dire wolf remains dated 15,360 -- 14,310 YBP and taken from one pit that focused on skull length, canine tooth size, and lower molar length showed little dimorphism, similar to that of the gray wolf, indicating that dire wolves lived in monogamous pairs. Their large size and highly carnivorous dentition supports the proposal that the dire wolf was a predator that fed on large prey. To kill ungulates larger than themselves, the African wild dog, the dhole, and the gray wolf depend on their jaws as they can not use their forelimbs to grapple with prey, and they work together as a pack consisting of an alpha pair and their offspring from the current and previous years. It can be assumed that dire wolves lived in packs of relatives that were led by an alpha pair. Large and social carnivores would have been successful at defending carcasses of prey trapped in the tar pits from smaller solitary predators, and thus the most likely to become trapped themselves. The many C. d. guildayi and Smilodon remains found in the tar pits suggests that both were social predators.
All social terrestrial mammalian predators prey mostly on terrestrial herbivorous mammals with a body mass similar to the combined mass of the social group members attacking the prey animal. The large size of the dire wolf provides an estimated prey size in the 300 to 600 kg (660 to 1,320 lb) range. Stable isotope analysis of dire wolf bones provides evidence that they had a preference for consuming ruminants such as bison rather than other herbivores but moved to other prey when food became scarce, and occasionally scavenged on beached whales along the Pacific coast when available. A pack of timber wolves can bring down a 500 kg (1,100 lb) moose that is their preferred prey, and a pack of dire wolves bringing down a bison is conceivable. Although some studies have suggested that because of tooth breakage, the dire wolf must have gnawed bones and may have been a scavenger, its widespread occurrence and the more gracile limbs of C. d. dirus indicate a predator. Like the gray wolf today, the dire wolf probably used its post-carnassial molars to gain access to marrow, but the dire wolf 's larger size enabled it to crack larger bones.
Tooth breakage is related to a carnivore 's behavior. A study of nine modern carnivores found that one in four adults had suffered tooth breakage and that half of these breakages were of the canine teeth. The most breakage occurred in the spotted hyena that consumes all of its prey including the bone; the least breakage occurred in the African wild dog, and the gray wolf ranked in between these two. The eating of bone increases the risk of accidental fracture due to the relatively high, unpredictable stresses that it creates. The most commonly broken teeth are the canines, followed by the premolars, carnassial molars, and incisors. Canines are the teeth most likely to break because of their shape and function, which subjects them to bending stresses that are unpredictable in both direction and magnitude. The risk of tooth fracture is also higher when killing large prey.
A study of the fossil remains of large carnivores from La Brea pits dated 36,000 -- 10,000 YBP shows tooth breakage rates of 5 -- 17 % for the dire wolf, coyote, American lion, and Smilodon, compared to 0.5 -- 2.7 % for ten modern predators. These higher fracture rates were across all teeth, but the fracture rates for the canine teeth were the same as in modern carnivores. The dire wolf broke its incisors more often when compared to the modern gray wolf; thus, it has been proposed that the dire wolf used its incisors more closely to the bone when feeding. Dire wolf fossils from Mexico and Peru show a similar pattern of breakage. A 1993 study proposed that the higher frequency of tooth breakage among Pleistocene carnivores compared with living carnivores was not the result of hunting larger game, something that might be assumed from the larger size of the former. When there is low prey availability, the competition between carnivores increases, causing them to eat faster and thus consume more bone, leading to tooth breakage. As their prey became extinct around 10,000 years ago, so did these Pleistocene carnivores, except for the coyote (which is an omnivore).
A later La Brea pits study compared tooth breakage of dire wolves in two time periods. One pit contained fossil dire wolves dated 15,000 YBP and another dated 13,000 YBP. The results showed that the 15,000 YBP dire wolves had three times more tooth breakage than the 13,000 YBP dire wolves, whose breakage matched those of nine modern carnivores. The study concluded that between 15,000 -- 14,000 YBP prey availability was less or competition was higher for dire wolves, and that by 13,000 YBP, as the prey species moved towards extinction, predator competition had declined and therefore the frequency of tooth breakage in dire wolves had also declined.
Carnivores include both pack hunters and solitary hunters. The solitary hunter depends on a powerful bite at the canine teeth to subdue their prey, and thus exhibits a strong mandibular symphysis. In contrast, a pack hunter, which delivers many shallower bites, has a comparably weaker mandibular symphysis. Thus, researchers can use the strength of the mandibular symphysis in fossil carnivore specimens to determine what kind of hunter it was -- a pack hunter or a solitary hunter -- and even how it consumed its prey. The mandibles of canids are buttressed behind the carnassial teeth to enable the animals to crack bones with their post-carnassial teeth (molars M2 and M3). A study found that the mandible buttress profile of the dire wolf was lower than that of the gray wolf and the red wolf, but very similar to the coyote and the African hunting dog. The dorsoventrally weak symphyseal region (in comparison to premolars P3 and P4) of the dire wolf indicates that it delivered shallow bites similar to its modern relatives and was therefore a pack hunter. This suggests that the dire wolf may have processed bone but was not as well adapted for it as was the gray wolf. The fact that the incidence of fracture for the dire wolf reduced in frequency in the late Pleistocene to that of its modern relatives suggests that reduced competition had allowed the dire wolf to return to a feeding behavior involving a lower amount of bone consumption, a behavior for which it was best suited.
The results of a study of dental microwear on tooth enamel for specimens of the carnivore species from La Brea pits, including dire wolves, suggest that these carnivores were not food - stressed just before their extinction. The evidence also indicated that the extent of carcass utilization (i.e., amount consumed relative to the maximum amount possible to consume, including breakup and consumption of bones) was less than among large carnivores today. These finding indicates that tooth breakage was related to hunting behavior and the size of prey.
Past studies proposed that changes in dire wolf body size correlated with climate fluctuations. A later study compared dire wolf craniodental morphology from four La Brea pits, each representing four different time periods. The results are evidence of a change in dire wolf size, dental wear and breakage, skull shape, and snout shape across time. Dire wolf body size had decreased between the start of the Last Glacial Maximum and near its ending at the warm Allerød oscillation. Evidence of food stress (food scarcity leading to lower nutrient intake) is seen in smaller body size, skulls with a larger cranial base and shorter snout (shape neoteny and size neoteny), and more tooth breakage and wear. Dire wolves dated 17,900 YBP showed all of these features, which indicates food stress. Dire wolves dated 28,000 YBP also showed to a degree many of these features but were the largest wolves studied, and it was proposed that these wolves were also suffering from food stress and that wolves earlier than this date were even bigger in size. Nutrient stress is likely to lead to stronger bite forces to more fully consume carcasses and to crack bones, and with changes to skull shape to improve mechanical advantage. North American climate records reveal cyclic fluctuations during the glacial period that included rapid warming followed by gradual cooling, called Dansgaard -- Oeschger events. These cycles would have caused increased temperature and aridity, and at La Brea would have caused ecological stress and therefore food stress. A similar trend was found with the gray wolf, which in the Santa Barbara basin was originally massive, robust, and possibly convergent with the dire wolf, but was replaced by more gracile forms by the start of the Holocene.
Just before the appearance of the dire wolf, North America was invaded by the genus Xenocyon (ancestor of the Asian dhole and the African hunting dog) that was as large as the dire wolf and more hypercarnivorous. The fossil record shows them as rare, and it is assumed that they could not compete with the newly derived dire wolf. Stable isotope analysis provides evidence that the dire wolf, Smilodon, and the American lion competed for the same prey. Other large carnivores included the extinct North American giant short - faced bear (Arctodus simus), the modern cougar (Puma concolor), the Pleistocene coyote (Canis latrans), and the Pleistocene gray wolf that was more massive and robust than today. These predators may have competed with humans who hunted for similar prey.
Specimens that have been identified by morphology as Beringian wolves (C. lupus) and radiocarbon dated 25,800 -- 14,300 YBP have been found in the Natural Trap Cave at the base of the Bighorn Mountains in Wyoming, in the western United States. The location is directly south of what would at that time have been a division between the Laurentide Ice Sheet and the Cordilleran Ice Sheet. A temporary channel between the glaciers may have existed that allowed these large, Alaskan direct competitors of the dire wolf, which were also adapted for preying on megafauna, to come south of the ice sheets. Dire wolves were absent north of 42 ° N latitude in the Late Pleistocene; therefore, this region would have been available for Beringian wolves to expand south along the glacier line. How widely they were then distributed is not known. These also became extinct at the end of the Late Pleistocene, as did the dire wolf.
Dire wolf remains have been found across a broad range of habitats including the plains, grasslands, and some forested mountain areas of North America, and in the arid savannah of South America. The sites range in elevation from sea level to 2,255 m (7,400 ft). The location of these fossil remains suggests that dire wolves lived predominantly in the open lowlands along with its prey the large herbivores. Dire wolf remains do not occur at high latitudes, unlike its close relative the gray wolf.
In the United States, dire wolf fossils have been reported in Arizona, California, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, Wyoming, and Nevada. The identity of fossils reported farther north than California is not confirmed. There have been five reports of unconfirmed dire wolf fossils north of 42 ° N latitude at Fossil Lake, Oregon (125,000 -- 10,000 YBP), American Falls Reservoir, Idaho (125,000 -- 75,000 YBP), Salamander Cave, South Dakota (250,000 YBP), and four closely grouped sites in northern Nebraska (250,000 YBP). This suggests a range restriction on dire wolves due to temperature, prey, or habitat. The major fossil - producing sites for C. d. dirus are located east of the Rocky Mountains and include Friesenhahn Cave, near San Antonio, Texas; Carroll Cave, near Richland, Missouri; and Reddick, Florida.
Localities in Mexico where dire wolf remains have been collected include El Cedazo in Aguascalientes, Comondú Municipality in Baja California Sur, El Cedral in San Luis Potosí, El Tajo Quarry near Tequixquiac, state of Mexico, Valsequillo in Puebla, Lago de Chapala in Jalisco, Loltun Cave in Yucatán, Potrecito in Sinaloa, San Josecito Cave near Aramberri in Nuevo León and Térapa in Sonora. The specimens from Térapa were confirmed as C. d. guildayi. The finds at San Josecito Cave and El Cedazo have the greatest number of individuals from a single locality.
In South America, dire wolves have been dated younger than 17,000 YBP and reported from only three localities: Muaco in Falcón state, Venezuela; Talara Province in Peru; and Tarija Department in Bolivia. If the dire wolf originated in North America, the species likely dispersed into South America via the Andean corridor, a proposed pathway for temperate mammals to migrate from Central to South America because of the favorable cool, dry, and open habitats that characterized the region at times. This most likely happened during a glacial period because the pathway then consisted of open, arid regions and savanna, whereas during inter-glacial periods it would have consisted of tropical rain forest.
During the American megafaunal extinction event around 12,700 YBP, 90 genera of mammals weighing over 44 kilograms (97 lb) became extinct. The extinction of the large carnivores and scavengers is thought to have been caused by the extinction of the megaherbivore prey upon which they depended. The cause of the extinction of the megafauna is debated but has been attributed to the impact of climate change, competition with other species including overexploitation by newly arrived human hunters, or a combination of both. One study proposes that several extinction models should be investigated because so little is known about the biogeography of the dire wolf and its potential competitors and prey, nor how all these species interacted and responded to the environmental changes that occurred at the time of extinction.
Ancient DNA and radiocarbon data indicates that local genetic populations were replaced by others within the same species or by others within the same genus. Both the dire wolf and the Beringian wolf went extinct in North America, leaving only the less carnivorous and more gracile form of the wolf to thrive, which may have outcompeted the dire wolf. Dire wolf remains having the youngest geological ages are dated at 9,440 YBP at Brynjulfson Cave, Boone County, Missouri, 9,860 YBP at Rancho La Brea, California, and 10,690 YBP at La Mirada, California. Dire wolf remains have been radiocarbon dated to 8,200 YBP from Whitewater Draw in Arizona, However, one author has stated that radiocarbon dating of bone carbonate is known to be unreliable, and that while many dire wolf remains are found in fossil assemblages dated to the terminal Pleistocene, there are no confirmed Holocene finds.
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explain the main objectives of the fiscal policy of india | Economic policy - wikipedia
The economic policy of governments covers the systems for setting levels of taxation, government budgets, the money supply and interest rates as well as the labour market, national ownership, and many other areas of government interventions into the economy.
Most factors of economic policy can be divided into either fiscal policy, which deals with government actions regarding taxation and spending, or monetary policy, which deals with central banking actions regarding the money supply and interest rates.
Such policies are often influenced by international institutions like the International Monetary Fund or World Bank as well as political beliefs and the consequent policies of parties.
Almost every aspect of government has an important economic component. A few examples of the kinds of economic policies that exist include:
Stabilization policy attempts to stimulate an economy out of recession or constrain the money supply to prevent excessive inflation.
Policy is generally directed to achieve particular objectives, like targets for inflation, unemployment, or economic growth. Sometimes other objectives, like military spending or nationalization are important.
These are referred to as the policy goals: the outcomes which the economic policy aims to achieve.
To achieve these goals, governments use policy tools which are under the control of the government. These generally include the interest rate and money supply, tax and government spending, tariffs, exchange rates, labor market regulations, and many other aspects of government.
Government and central banks are limited in the number of goals they can achieve in the short term. For instance, there may be pressure on the government to reduce inflation, reduce unemployment, and reduce interest rates while maintaining currency stability. If all of these are selected as goals for the short term, then policy is likely to be incoherent, because a normal consequence of reducing inflation and maintaining currency stability is increasing unemployment and increasing interest rates.
This dilemma can in part be resolved by using microeconomic supply - side policy to help adjust markets. For instance, unemployment could potentially be reduced by altering laws relating to trade unions or unemployment insurance, as well as by macroeconomic (demand - side) factors like interest rates.
For much of the 20th century, governments adopted discretionary policies like demand management designed to correct the business cycle. These typically used fiscal and monetary policy to adjust inflation, output and unemployment.
However, following the stagflation of the 1970s, policymakers began to be attracted to policy rules.
A discretionary policy is supported because it allows policymakers to respond quickly to events. However, discretionary policy can be subject to dynamic inconsistency: a government may say it intends to raise interest rates indefinitely to bring inflation under control, but then relax its stance later. This makes policy non-credible and ultimately ineffective.
A rule - based policy can be more credible, because it is more transparent and easier to anticipate. Examples of rule - based policies are fixed exchange rates, interest rate rules, the stability and growth pact and the Golden Rule. Some policy rules can be imposed by external bodies, for instance the Exchange Rate Mechanism for currency.
A compromise between strict discretionary and strict rule - based policy is to grant discretionary power to an independent body. For instance, the Federal Reserve Bank, European Central Bank, Bank of England and Reserve Bank of Australia all set interest rates without government interference, but do not adopt rules.
Another type of non-discretionary policy is a set of policies which are imposed by an international body. This can occur (for example) as a result of intervention by the International Monetary Fund.
The first economic problem was how to gain the resources it needed to be able to perform the functions of an early government: the military, roads and other projects like building the Pyramids.
Early governments generally relied on tax in kind and forced labor for their economic resources. However, with the development of money came the first policy choice. A government could raise money through taxing its citizens. However, it could now also debase the coinage and so increase the money supply.
Early civilizations also made decisions about whether to permit and how to tax trade. Some early civilizations, such as Ptolemaic Egypt adopted a closed currency policy whereby foreign merchants had to exchange their coin for local money. This effectively levied a very high tariff on foreign trade.
By the early modern age, more policy choices had been developed. There was considerable debate about mercantilism and other restrictive trade practices like the Navigation Acts, as trade policy became associated with both national wealth and with foreign and colonial policy.
Throughout the 19th Century, monetary standards became an important issue. Gold and silver were in supply in different proportions. Which metal was adopted influenced the wealth of different groups in society.
With the accumulation of private capital in the Renaissance, states developed methods of financing deficits without debasing their coin. The development of capital markets meant that a government could borrow money to finance war or expansion while causing less economic hardship.
This was the beginning of modern fiscal policy.
The same markets made it easy for private entities to raise bonds or sell stock to fund private initiatives.
The business cycle became a predominant issue in the 19th century, as it became clear that industrial output, employment, and profit behaved in a cyclical manner. One of the first proposed policy solutions to the problem came with the work of Keynes, who proposed that fiscal policy could be used actively to ward off depressions, recessions and slumps. The Austrian School of economics argues that central banks create the business cycle.
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are any of the original cast of hawaii five o still alive | Jack Lord - wikipedia
John Joseph Patrick Ryan (December 30, 1920 -- January 21, 1998), best known by his stage name, Jack Lord, was an American television, film and Broadway actor and director and producer. He was known for his starring role as Steve McGarrett in the CBS television program Hawaii Five - O, which ran from 1968 to 1980.
Born in Brooklyn, New York, Lord was the son of Irish - American parents. His father, William Lawrence Ryan, was a steamship company executive. He grew up in Morris Park (now known as Richmond Hill), Queens, New York.
As a child, Lord developed his equestrian skills on his mother 's fruit farm in the Hudson River Valley. He started spending summers at sea, and from the decks of cargo ships painted and sketched the landscapes he encountered -- Africa, the Mediterranean and China. He was educated at St. Benedict Joseph Labre School, John Adams High School, in Ozone Park, Queens, and the United States Merchant Marine Academy, then located at Fort Trumbull in New London, Connecticut, graduating as an Ensign with a Third Mates License. He attended New York University (NYU) on a football scholarship, and earned a degree in Fine Arts.
He spent the first year of the United States ' involvement in World War II with the United States Army Corps of Engineers, building bridges in Persia. He returned to the Merchant Marine as an Able Seaman before enrolling in the deck officer course at Fort Trumbull. While making maritime training films, he took to the idea of acting.
Lord received theatrical training from Sanford Meisner at the Neighborhood Playhouse. He worked first as a car salesman for Horgan Ford, then later as a Cadillac salesman in New York to fund his studies. Later he studied at the Actors Studio.
His Broadway debut was as Slim Murphy in Horton Foote 's The Traveling Lady with Kim Stanley. The show ran for 30 performances, October 27, 1954 through November 20, 1954. Lord won the Theatre World Award for his performance. Lord was then cast as Brick in a replacement for Ben Gazzara in the 1955 -- 1956 production of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof. He had been in The Little Hut (his first play), The Illegitimist, and The Savage.
His first commercial film role was in the 1949 film The Red Menace a.k.a. Project X, an anti-Communist production. He was associate producer in his 1950 film Cry Murder. In 1957, Lord starred in Williamsburg: the Story of a Patriot, which has run daily at Colonial Williamsburg since then. In 1958, Lord co-starred as Buck Walden in God 's Little Acre, the film adaptation of Erskine Caldwell 's 1933 novel.
Lord was the first actor to play the character Felix Leiter in the James Bond film series, introduced in the first Bond film, Dr. No. According to screenwriter Richard Maibaum, Lord demanded co-star billing, a bigger role and more money to reprise the role in Goldfinger, which resulted in director Guy Hamilton casting Cec Linder in the role.
In 1962, Lord starred as series namesake Stoney Burke, a rodeo cowboy from Mission Ridge, South Dakota. The basis for the series was real - life champion rodeo rider Casey Tibbs. The series featured Warren Oates and Bruce Dern in recurring supporting roles. Lord credited Gary Cooper as his on - screen role model, and the inspiration for his characterization of Stoney Burke.
Lord was considered for Eliot Ness in The Untouchables before Robert Stack won the role. He did appear in the Season One episode "The Jake Lingle Killing. '' In 1965 he guest - starred as Colonel ' Pres ' Gallagher in second - season episode 5, "Big Brother '' of 12 O - Clock High. Other television guest appearances include Appointment with Adventure, The Americans, Bonanza, The High Chaparral, Combat!, The Man from U.N.C.L.E., The Reporter starring Harry Guardino, The Fugitive, The Invaders, Rawhide, Ironside, and The F.B.I.
Lord appeared on the first episode of Have Gun, Will Travel. In 1968, Lord appeared with Susan Strasberg in the film The Name of the Game Is Kill.
According to William Shatner, in 1966, Gene Roddenberry offered Lord the role of Captain James T. Kirk on Star Trek, to replace Jeffrey Hunter, whose wife was making too many demands. Lord asked for 50 percent ownership of the show, so Roddenberry offered the role to Shatner.
Jack Lord helped conceive Hawaii Five - O and starred for its 12 seasons as Detective Stephen McGarrett, appointed by the Governor to head the (fictional) State Police criminal investigation department in Honolulu, Hawaii. The opening sequence includes a shot of Lord standing on a penthouse balcony of the Ilikai hotel. Chin Ho Kelly, the name of the police detective played by Kam Fong, was a tip - of - the - hat to Ilikai developer Chinn Ho. Lord 's catchphrase, "Book ' em, Danno! '', became a part of pop culture. He was instrumental in the casting of native Hawaiians, instead of mainland actors. Lord insisted his character drive Ford vehicles; McGarrett drove a 1967 Mercury Park Lane in the pilot, a 1968 Park Lane from 1968 -- 1974, and a 1974 Mercury Marquis for the remainder of the series (this very car was shown in the 2010 remake). Lord was a perfectionist. At the airing of its last episode, Hawaii Five - O was the longest - running cop show in television history.
When series creator Leonard Freeman died in 1974, the show 's ownership was shared among Lord, CBS and Freeman 's estate, with a contract that made Lord executive producer and gave him complete control over content. He was a hands - on partner who paid attention to minute details, and was known for battles with network executives.
During his years at NYU, Lord and his brother Bill opened the Village Academy of Arts. Jack 's childhood dream was to become an artist. His first professional sale was in 1941 to the Metropolitan Museum of Art for his two linoleum cuts, entitled Vermont and Fishing Shacks, Block Island.
Lord 's first marriage to Anne Willard ended in divorce in 1947. Lord met his son (from his first marriage) only once when the boy was an infant. The boy was later killed in an accident at age 13.
Jack met his second wife while house hunting in upstate New York. On January 17, 1949, Lord married Marie de Narde, who gave up her career in fashion design to devote her life to him. Marie designed Lord 's off - camera wardrobe, as well as her own.
Lord was a chain - smoker who failed at traditional methods of quitting. According to Lord, it was his faith in God that broke his habit. Lord and a friend visited a Catholic church where both knelt while Lord promised God he would stop smoking.
Lord was known for being a cultured man who loved reading poetry out loud on the set of his television show and for being reclusive at his Honolulu home.
Cinematographers sometimes refer to a 50mm lens ("5 - 0 '') as a "Jack Lord '' in reference to the name of the show that made him famous.
After his series ended in 1980, Lord kept a low profile, rarely making public appearances. His final TV appearance was that same year in a failed pilot for a new CBS series called M Station: Hawaii which he also directed. Lord suffered from Alzheimer 's disease for at least seven years before his death, though some accounts have suggested that he may have had the illness as early as the twelfth season of Hawaii Five - O. He died of congestive heart failure at his home in Honolulu, on January 21, 1998, at age 77, leaving an estate of $40 million. He was a philanthropist and the entire estate went to Hawaiian charities upon his wife Marie 's death in 2005.
A bronze bust of Lord by Hawaii sculptor Lynn Weiler Liverton was unveiled in a ceremony at the Kahala Mall on June 19, 2004. The Lords lived in a condominium in the Kahala area, and they were known to frequent the neighborhood mall. The nonprofit Jack Lord Memorial Fund, which raised the money for the memorial, was co-chaired by British Hawaii Five - O fan Esperanza Isaac and Lord 's co-star Doug Mossman.
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who made up the labor force of the central pacific railroad while it was being built | Central Pacific Railroad - wikipedia
The Central Pacific Railroad (CPRR) was a rail route between California and Utah built eastwards from the West Coast in the 1860s, to complete the western part of the "First Transcontinental Railroad '' in North America. It later became part of the Union Pacific Railroad.
Many 19th century national proposals to build a transcontinental railroad failed because of the energy consumed by political disputes over slavery. With the secession of the South, the modernizers in the Republican Party controlled the US Congress. They passed legislation authorizing the railroad, with financing in the form of government railroad bonds. These were all eventually repaid with interest. The government and the railroads both shared in the increased value of the land grants, which the railroads developed. The construction of the railroad also secured for the government the economical "safe and speedy transportation of the mails, troops, munitions of war, and public stores. ''
Planned by Theodore Judah, the Central Pacific Railroad was authorized by Congress in 1862. It was financed and built through "The Big Four '' (who called themselves "The Associates ''): Sacramento, California businessmen Leland Stanford, Collis Huntington, Charles Crocker, and Mark Hopkins. Crocker was in charge of construction. Construction crews comprised 12,000 Chinese emigrant workers by 1868, when they constituted eighty percent of the entire work force. They laid the first rails in 1863. The "Golden spike '', connecting the western railroad to the Union Pacific Railroad at Promontory, Utah, was hammered on May 10, 1869. Coast - to - coast train travel in eight days became possible, replacing months - long sea voyages and lengthy, hazardous travel by wagon trains.
In 1885 the Central Pacific Railroad was leased by the Southern Pacific Company. Technically the CPRR remained a corporate entity until 1959, when it was formally merged into Southern Pacific. (It was reorganized in 1899 as the Central Pacific "Railway ''.) The original right - of - way is now controlled by the Union Pacific, which bought Southern Pacific in 1996.
The Union Pacific - Central Pacific (Southern Pacific) mainline followed the historic Overland Route from Omaha, Nebraska to San Francisco Bay.
Chinese labor was the most vital source for constructing the railroad. Fifty Chinese laborers were hired by the Central Pacific Railroad in February 1865, and soon more and more Chinese men were hired. Working conditions were harsh, and Chinese men were compensated less than their white counterparts. Chinese men were paid thirty - one dollars each month, and while white workers were paid the same, they were also given room and board.
Construction of the road was financed primarily by 30 - year, 6 % U.S. government bonds authorized by Sec. 5 of the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862. They were issued at the rate of $16,000 per mile of tracked grade completed west of the designated base of the Sierra Nevada range near Roseville, CA where California state geologist Josiah Whitney had determined were the geologic start of the Sierras ' foothills. Sec. 11 of the Act also provided that the issuance of bonds "shall be treble the number per mile '' (to $48,000) for tracked grade completed over and within the two mountain ranges (but limited to a total of 300 miles (480 km) at this rate), and "doubled '' (to $32,000) per mile of completed grade laid between the two mountain ranges. The U.S. Government Bonds, which constituted a lien upon the railroads and all their fixtures, were repaid in full (and with interest) by the company as and when they became due.
Sec. 10 of the 1864 amending Pacific Railroad Act (13 Statutes at Large, 356) additionally authorized the company to issue its own "First Mortgage Bonds '' in total amounts up to (but not exceeding) that of the bonds issued by the United States. Such company - issued securities had priority over the original Government Bonds. (Local and state governments also aided the financing, although the City and County of San Francisco did not do so willingly. This materially slowed early construction efforts.) Sec. 3 of the 1862 Act granted the railroads 10 square miles (26 km) of public land for every mile laid, except where railroads ran through cities and crossed rivers. This grant was apportioned in 5 sections on alternating sides of the railroad, with each section measuring 0.2 miles (320 m) by 10 miles (16 km). These grants were later doubled to 20 square miles (52 km) per mile of grade by the 1864 Act.
Although the Pacific Railroad eventually benefited the Bay Area, the City and County of San Francisco obstructed financing it during the early years of 1863 - 1865. When Stanford was Governor of California, the Legislature passed on April 22, 1863, "An Act to Authorize the Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco to take and subscribe One Million Dollars to the Capital Stock of the Western Pacific Rail Road Company and the Central Pacific Rail Road Company of California and to provide for the payment of the same and other matters relating thereto '' (which was later amended by Section Five of the "Compromise Act '' of April 4, 1864). On May 19, 1863, the electors of the City and County of San Francisco passed this bond by a vote of 6,329 to 3,116, in a highly controversial Special Election.
The City and County 's financing of the investment through the issuance and delivery of Bonds was delayed for two years, when Mayor Henry P. Coon, and the County Clerk, Wilhelm Loewy, each refused to countersign the Bonds. It took legal actions to force them to do so: in 1864 the Supreme Court of the State of California ordered them under Writs of Mandamus (The People of the State of California ex rel the Central Pacific Railroad Company vs. Henry P. Coon, Mayor; Henry M. Hale, Auditor; and Joseph S. Paxson, Treasurer, of the City and County of San Francisco. 25 Cal. 635) and in 1865, a legal judgment against Loewy (The People ex rel The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California vs. The Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco, and Wilhelm Lowey, Clerk 27 Cal. 655) directing that the Bonds be countersigned and delivered. In 1863 the legislature 's forcing of City and County action became known as the "Dutch Flat Swindle ''. Critics claimed the CPRR intended to build a railroad only as far as Dutch Flat, to connect to the Dutch Flat Wagon Road which they already controlled.
A replica of the Sacramento, California Central Pacific Railroad passenger station is part of the California State Railroad Museum, located in the Old Sacramento State Historic Park.
Nearly all the company 's early correspondence is preserved at Syracuse University, as part of the Collis Huntington Papers collection. It has been released on microfilm (133 reels). The following libraries have the microfilm: University of Arizona at Tucson; and Virginia Commonwealth University at Richmond. Additional collections of manuscript letters are held at Stanford University and the Mariners ' Museum at Newport News, Virginia. Alfred A. Hart was the official photographer of the CPRR construction.
The Central Pacific 's first three locomotives were of the then common 4 - 4 - 0 type, although with the American Civil War raging in the east, they had difficulty acquiring engines from eastern builders, who at times only had smaller 4 - 2 - 4 or 4 - 2 - 2 types available. Until the completion of the Transcontinental rail link and the railroad 's opening of its own shops, all locomotives had to be purchased by builders in the northeastern U.S. The engines had to be dismantled, loaded on a ship, which would embark on a four - month journey that went around South America 's Cape Horn until arriving in Sacramento where the locomotives would be unloaded, re-assembled, and placed in service.
Locomotives at the time came from many manufacturers, such as Cooke, Schenectady, Mason, Rogers, Danforth, Norris, Booth, and McKay & Aldus, among others. Interestingly, the railroad had been on rather unfriendly terms with the Baldwin Locomotive Works, one of the more well - known firms. It is not clear as to the cause of this dispute, though some attribute it to the builder insisting on cash payment (though this has yet to be verified). Consequently, the railroad refused to buy engines from Baldwin, and three former Western Pacific Railroad (which the CP had absorbed in 1870) engines were the only Baldwin engines owned by the Central Pacific. The Central Pacific 's dispute with Baldwin remained unresolved until well after the road had been acquired by the Southern Pacific.
In the 1870s, the road opened up its own locomotive construction facilities in Sacramento. Central Pacific 's 173 was rebuilt by these shops and served as the basis for CP 's engine construction. The locomotives built before the 1870s were given names as well as numbers. By the 1870s, it was decided to eliminate the names and as each engine was sent to the shops for service, their names would be removed. However, one engine that was built in the 1880s did receive a name: the El Gobernador.
Construction of the rails was often dangerous work. Towards the end of construction, almost all workers were Chinese immigrants. The ethnicity of workers depended largely on the "gang '' of workers / specific area on the rails they were working.
The following CP engines have been preserved:
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what was one reason for keeping the georgia state flag of 1956 | Flag of Georgia (U.S. state) - Wikipedia
The current flag of the state of Georgia was adopted on May 8, 2003. The flag bears three stripes consisting of red - white - red, and a blue canton containing a ring of 13 white stars encompassing the state 's coat of arms in gold. In the coat of arms, the arch symbolizes the state 's constitution and the pillars represent the three branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial. The words of the state motto, "Wisdom, Justice, and Moderation '', are wrapped around the pillars, guarded by a male figure dressed in colonial attire dating back to the time of the American Revolutionary War. Within the arms, a sword is drawn to represent the defense of the state 's constitution. An additional motto, In God We Trust, is positioned underneath these elements acting as the state 's "foundation ''. The ring of stars that encompass the state 's coat of arms symbolize Georgia 's status as one of the original Thirteen Colonies. The design principle is based on the first national flag of the Confederacy, which was nicknamed the "Stars and Bars ''.
I pledge allegiance to the Georgia Flag and to the principles for which it stands: Wisdom, Justice, and Moderation.
The 1879 flag was introduced by Georgia state senator Herman H. Perry and was adopted to memorialize Confederate soldiers during the American Civil War. Perry was a former colonel in the Confederate army during the war, and based the design of the flag on the first national flag of the Confederacy, also known as the "Stars and Bars ''. Over the following decades, the flag was changed by adding, and then changing the "charge '' on the flag.
The Georgia state flag that was used from 1956 to 2001 featured a prominent Confederate battle flag and was designed by Southern Democrat John Sammons Bell, a World War II veteran and an attorney who was an outspoken supporter of segregation.
The 1956 flag was adopted in an era when the Georgia General Assembly "was entirely devoted to passing legislation that would preserve segregation and white supremacy '', according to a 2000 research report by the Georgia Senate. There are few, if any, written records of what was said on the Georgia House and Senate floors when the 1956 flag bill was being introduced and passed by the Georgia legislature, nor does Georgia law provide for a statement of legislative intent when a bill is introduced, although former U.S. Congressman James Mackay, one of the 32 House members who opposed the change, later stated, "There was only one reason for putting the flag on there: like the gun rack in the back of a pickup truck, it telegraphs a message. '' Additionally, the 2000 report concluded that the "1956 General Assembly changed the state flag '' during "an atmosphere of preserving segregation and resentment '' to the U.S. government 's rulings on integration.
The 2000 report states that the people who had supported the flag 's change in the 1950s said, in recalling the event years later, that "the change was made in preparation for the Civil War centennial, which was five years away; or that the change was made to commemorate and pay tribute to the Confederate veterans of the Civil War. '' Bell, who designed the 1956 flag and supported its adoption during the 1950s as a defense of the state 's "institutions '', which at the time included segregation, claimed years later that he did so to honor Confederate soldiers. The 2000 report states that the claims that the flag was ostensibly changed in 1956 to honor Confederate soldiers came much later after the flag 's adoption, in an attempt by the change 's supporters to backtrack from prior support of segregationism in an era where it was no longer fashionable, saying that the "argument that the flag was changed in 1956 in preparation for the approaching Civil War centennial appears to be a retrospective or after - the - fact argument '' and that "no one in 1956, including the flag 's sponsors, claimed that the change was in anticipation of the coming anniversary ''.
At the time, opposition to changing the flag came from various sides, including from Confederate historical groups like the United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC). Opponents to a change of the flag stated that incorporating the Confederate battle flag into the design would be too sectionalist, counterproductive, and divisive, saying that people should show patriotism towards the United States rather than the defunct Confederacy, referring to the U.S. Pledge of Allegiance, which states that the U.S. was "one nation '' and "indivisible ''. Opponents to the flag 's change also said that there was nothing wrong with the 1920 flag and that people were content with it. Others opposed changing the flag out of the burden it would place on those who would have to purchase a new flag to replace the outdated one.
The 2000 Georgia senate report and other critics have interpreted the adoption of the 1956 flag as a symbol of racist protest, citing legislation passed in 1956 which included bills rejecting Brown v. Board of Education and pro-segregationist comments by then - Governor Marvin Griffin, such as "The rest of the nation is looking to Georgia for the lead in segregation. ''
Political pressure for a change in the official state flag increased during the 1990s, in particular during the run - up to the 1996 Olympic Games that were held in Atlanta. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) focused on the Georgia flag as a major issue and some business leaders in Georgia felt that the perceptions of the flag were causing economic harm to the state. In 1992, Governor Zell Miller announced his intention to get the battle flag element removed, but the state legislature refused to pass any flag - modifying legislation. The matter was dropped after the 1993 legislative session. Many Atlanta residents and some Georgia politicians refused to fly the 1956 flag and flew the pre-1956 flag instead.
Miller 's successor as governor, Roy Barnes, responded to the increasing calls for a new state flag, and in 2001 hurried a replacement through the Georgia General Assembly. His new flag, designed by architect Cecil Alexander, sought a compromise, by featuring small versions of some (but not all) of Georgia 's former flags, including the controversial 1956 flag, under the words "Georgia 's History. '' Those flags are a thirteen - star U.S. flag of the "Betsy Ross '' design; the first Georgia flag (before 1879); the 1920 -- 1956 Georgia flag; the previous state flag (1956 -- 2001); and the current fifty - star U.S. flag.
In a 2001 survey on state and provincial flags in North America conducted by the North American Vexillological Association, the redesigned Georgia flag was ranked the worst by a wide margin. The group stated that the flag "violates all the principles of good flag design. '' After the 1956 state flag was replaced in 2001, the Georgia city of Trenton adopted a modified version as its official city flag, to protest its discontinuation.
In 2002, Sonny Perdue was elected Governor of Georgia, partially on a platform of allowing Georgians to choose their own flag in a state referendum. He authorized the Georgia legislature to draft a new flag in 2003.
The Georgia General Assembly 's proposed flag combined elements of Georgia 's previous flags, creating a composition that was inspired by the Confederate First National flag, the Stars and Bars, rather than the Confederate Battle Flag. Perdue signed the legislation into law on May 8, 2003.
The 2003 flag legislation also authorized a public referendum on which of the two most recent flags (the 2001 and 2003 versions) would be adopted as the flag of the state. The referendum took place during the state 's March 2, 2004 presidential primary election. If the 2003 flag was rejected, the pre-2001 design would have been put to a vote. The 2003 design won 73.1 % of the vote in the referendum.
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has the game of thrones book series finished | A Song of Ice and Fire - wikipedia
A Song of Ice and Fire is a series of epic fantasy novels by the American novelist and screenwriter George R.R. Martin. He began the first volume of the series, A Game of Thrones, in 1991 and had it published in 1996. Martin, who initially envisioned the series as a trilogy, has published five out of a planned seven volumes. The fifth and most recent volume of the series published in 2011, A Dance with Dragons, took Martin six years to write. He is still writing the sixth novel, The Winds of Winter.
A Song of Ice and Fire takes place on the fictional continents Westeros and Essos. The point of view of each chapter in the story is a limited perspective of a range of characters growing from nine, in the first novel, to thirty - one by the fifth. Three main stories interweave a dynastic war among several families for control of Westeros, the rising threat of the supernatural Others in the northernmost reaches of Westeros, and the ambition of Daenerys Targaryen, the deposed king 's exiled daughter, to assume the Iron Throne.
Martin 's inspirations included the Wars of the Roses and the French historical novels The Accursed Kings by Maurice Druon. A Song of Ice and Fire received praise for its diverse portrayal of women and religion, as well as its realism. An assortment of disparate and subjective points of view confronts the reader, and the success or survival of point of view characters is never assured. Within the often morally ambiguous world of A Song of Ice and Fire, questions concerning loyalty, pride, human sexuality, piety, and the morality of violence frequently arise.
As of April 2015, the books have sold more than 60 million copies worldwide and, as of January 2017, have been translated into 47 languages. The fourth and fifth volumes reached the top of The New York Times Best Seller lists upon their releases. Among the many derived works are several prequel novellas, a TV series, a comic book adaptation, and several card, board, and video games.
A Song of Ice and Fire takes place in a fictional world in which seasons last for years and end unpredictably. Nearly three centuries before the events of the first novel (see backstory), the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros were united under the Targaryen dynasty by Aegon I and his sisters Visenya and Rhaenys, with Aegon Targaryen becoming the first king of the whole of the continent of Westeros, save for the southerly Dorne. At the beginning of A Game of Thrones, 15 peaceful years have passed since the rebellion led by Robert Baratheon deposed and killed the last Targaryen king, Aerys II, and proclaimed Robert king of the Seven Kingdoms, with a nine year long summer coming to an end.
The principal story chronicles the power struggle for the Iron Throne among the great Houses of Westeros following the death of King Robert in A Game of Thrones. Robert 's heir apparent, the 13 - year old Joffrey, is immediately proclaimed king through the machinations of his mother, Queen Cersei Lannister. When Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark, Robert 's chief advisor, discovers that Joffrey and his siblings are the product of incest between Cersei and her twin brother Jaime "The Kingslayer '' Lannister, Eddard attempts to unseat Joffrey but is betrayed and executed for treason. In response, Robert 's brothers Stannis and Renly both lay separate claims to the throne. During this period of instability, two of the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros attempt to become independent from the Iron Throne: Eddard 's eldest son Robb is proclaimed King in the North, while Balon Greyjoy desires to recover the sovereignty of his region, the Iron Islands. The so - called "War of the Five Kings '' is in full progress by the middle of the second book, A Clash of Kings.
The second story takes place in the far north of Westeros, where an 8,000 - year - old wall of ice, simply called "the Wall '', defends the Seven Kingdoms from the Others. The Wall 's sentinels, the Sworn Brotherhood of the Night 's Watch, also protect the realm from the incursions of the "wildlings '' or "Free Folk '', who are humans living north of the Wall. The Night 's Watch story is told primarily through the point of view of Jon Snow, Eddard 's bastard son. Jon follows the footsteps of his uncle Benjen Stark and joins the Watch at a young age, rising quickly through the ranks, eventually becoming Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch. In the third volume, A Storm of Swords, the Night 's Watch storyline becomes increasingly entangled with the War of the Five Kings.
The third story follows Daenerys Targaryen, daughter of Aerys, the last Targaryen king. On the continent of Essos, east of Westeros across the Narrow Sea, Daenerys is married off by her elder brother Viserys Targaryen to a powerful warlord, but slowly becomes an independent and intelligent ruler in her own right. Her rise to power is aided by the historic birth of three dragons, hatched from eggs given to her as wedding gifts. The three dragons soon become not only a symbol of her bloodline and her legitimate claim to the throne, but also devastating weapons of war.
Books in the Ice and Fire series are first published in hardcover and are later re-released as paperback editions. In the UK, Harper Voyager publishes special slipcased editions. The series has also been translated into more than 30 languages. All page totals given below are for the US first editions.
George R.R. Martin was already a successful fantasy and sci - fi author and TV writer before writing his A Song of Ice and Fire book series. Martin had published his first short story in 1971 and his first novel in 1977. By the mid-1990s, he had won three Hugo Awards, two Nebula Awards, and other awards for his short fiction. Although his early books were well received within the fantasy fiction community, his readership remained relatively small and Martin took on jobs as a writer in Hollywood in the mid-1980s. He worked principally on the revival of The Twilight Zone throughout 1986 and on Beauty and the Beast until 1990, but he also developed his own TV pilots and wrote feature film scripts. He grew frustrated that his pilots and screenplays were not getting made and that TV - related production limitations like budgets and episode lengths were forcing him to cut characters and trim battle scenes. This pushed Martin back towards writing books, where he did not have to worry about compromising the size of his imagination. Admiring the works of J.R.R. Tolkien in his childhood, he wanted to write an epic fantasy, though he did not have any specific ideas.
When Martin was between Hollywood projects in the summer of 1991, he started writing a new science fiction novel called Avalon. After three chapters, he had a vivid idea of a boy seeing a man 's beheading and finding direwolves in the snow, which would eventually become the first non-prologue chapter of A Game of Thrones. Putting Avalon aside, Martin finished this chapter in a few days and grew certain that it was part of a longer story. After a few more chapters, Martin perceived his new book as a fantasy story and started making maps and genealogies. However, the writing of this book was interrupted for a few years when Martin returned to Hollywood to produce his TV series Doorways that ABC had ordered but ultimately never aired.
In 1994, Martin gave to his agent, Kirby McCauley, the first 200 pages and a two - page story projection as part of a planned trilogy with the novels A Dance with Dragons and The Winds of Winter intended to follow. When Martin had still not reached the novel 's end at 1400 manuscript pages, he felt that the series needed to be four and eventually six books long, which he imagined as two linked trilogies of one long story. Martin chose A Song of Ice and Fire as the overall series title: Martin saw the struggle of the cold Others and the fiery dragons as one possible meaning for "Ice and Fire '', whereas the word "song '' had previously appeared in Martin 's book titles A Song for Lya and Songs the Dead Men Sing, stemming from his obsessions with songs. Martin also named Robert Frost 's 1920 poem "Fire and Ice '' and cultural associations such as passion versus betrayal as possible influences for the series ' title.
The revised finished manuscript for A Game of Thrones was 1088 pages long (without the appendices), with the publication following in August 1996. Wheel of Time author Robert Jordan had written a short endorsement for the cover that was influential in ensuring the book 's and hence series ' early success with fantasy readers. Blood of the Dragon, a pre-release sample novella drawn from Daenerys 's chapters, went on to win the 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novella.
The 300 pages removed from the A Game of Thrones manuscript served as the opening of the second book, entitled A Clash of Kings. It was released in February 1999 in the United States, with a manuscript length (without appendices) of 1184 pages. A Clash of Kings was the first book of the Ice and Fire series to make the best - seller lists, reaching 13 on The New York Times Best Seller list in 1999. After the success of The Lord of the Rings films, Martin received his first inquiries to the rights of the Ice and Fire series from various producers and filmmakers.
Martin was several months late turning in the third book, A Storm of Swords. The last chapter he had written was about the "Red Wedding '', a pivotal scene notable for its violence (see Themes: Violence and death). A Storm of Swords was 1521 pages in manuscript (without appendices), causing problems for many of Martin 's publishers around the world. Bantam Books published A Storm of Swords in a single volume in the United States in November 2000, whereas some other - language editions were divided into two, three, or even four volumes. A Storm of Swords debuted at number 12 in the New York Times bestseller list.
After A Game of Thrones, A Clash of Kings, and A Storm of Swords, Martin originally intended to write three more books. The fourth book, tentatively titled A Dance with Dragons, was to focus on Daenerys Targaryen 's return to Westeros and the associated conflicts. Martin wanted to set this story five years after A Storm of Swords so that the younger characters could grow older and the dragons grow larger. Agreeing with his publishers early on that the new book should be shorter than A Storm of Swords, Martin set out to write the novel closer in length to A Clash of Kings. A long prologue was to establish what had happened in the meantime, initially just as one chapter of Aeron Damphair on the Iron Islands at the Kingsmoot. Since the events on the Iron Islands were to have an impact in the book and could not be told with existing POV characters, Martin eventually introduced three new viewpoints.
In 2001, Martin was still optimistic that the fourth installment might be released in the last quarter of 2002. However, the five - year gap did not work for all characters during writing. On one hand, Martin was unsatisfied with covering the events during the gap solely through flashbacks and internal retrospection. On the other hand, it was implausible to have nothing happen for five years. After working on the book for about a year, Martin realized he needed an additional interim book, which he called A Feast for Crows. The book would pick up the story immediately after the third book, and Martin scrapped the idea of a five - year gap. The material of the written 250 - page prologue was mixed in as new viewpoint characters from Dorne and the Iron Islands. These expanded storylines and the resulting story interactions complicated the plot for Martin.
The manuscript length of A Feast for Crows eventually surpassed A Storm of Swords. Martin was reluctant to make the necessary deep cuts to get the book down to publishable length, as that would have compromised the story he had in mind. Printing the book in "microtype on onion skin paper and giving each reader a magnifying glass '' was also not an option for him. On the other hand, Martin rejected the publishers ' idea of splitting the narrative chronologically into A Feast for Crows, Parts One and Two. Being already late with the book, Martin had not even started writing all characters ' stories and also objected to ending the first book without any resolution for its many viewpoint characters as in previous books.
With the characters spread out across the world, a friend suggested that Martin divide the story geographically into two volumes, of which A Feast for Crows would be the first. This approach would give Martin the room to complete his commenced story arcs as he had originally intended, which he still felt was the best approach years later. Martin moved the unfinished characters ' stories set in the east (Essos) and north (Winterfell and the Wall) into the next book, A Dance with Dragons, and left A Feast for Crows to cover the events on Westeros, King 's Landing, the Riverlands, Dorne, and the Iron Islands. Both books begin immediately after the end of A Storm of Swords, running in parallel instead of sequentially, and involve different casts of characters with only little overlap. Martin split Arya 's chapters into both books after having already moved the three other most popular characters (Jon Snow, Tyrion, and Daenerys) into A Dance with Dragons.
Upon its release in October 2005 in the UK and November 2005 in the US, A Feast for Crows went straight to the top of The New York Times bestseller list. Among the positive reviewers was Lev Grossman of Time, who dubbed Martin "the American Tolkien ''. However, fans and critics alike were disappointed with the story split that left the fates of several popular characters unresolved after A Storm of Swords ' cliffhanger ending. With A Dance with Dragons said to be half - finished, Martin mentioned in the epilogue of A Feast for Crows that the next volume would be released by the next year. However, planned release dates were repeatedly pushed back. Meanwhile, HBO acquired the rights to turn Ice and Fire into a dramatic series in 2007 and aired the first of ten episodes covering A Game of Thrones in April 2011.
With around 1600 pages in manuscript length, A Dance with Dragons was eventually published in July 2011 after six years of writing, longer in page count and writing time than any of the preceding four novels. The story of A Dance with Dragons catches up and goes beyond A Feast for Crows around two - thirds into the book, but nevertheless covers less story than Martin had intended, omitting at least one planned large battle sequence and leaving several character threads ending in cliff - hangers. Martin attributed the delay mainly to his untangling "the Meereenese knot '', which the interviewer understood as "making the chronology and characters mesh up as various threads converged on (Daenerys) ''. Martin also acknowledged spending too much time on rewriting and perfecting the story, but soundly rejected the theories of some of his critics that he had lost interest in the series or would bide his time to make more money.
Martin believes the last two volumes of the series will be big books of 1500 manuscript pages each. The sixth book will be called The Winds of Winter, taking the title of the last book of the originally planned trilogy. Displeased with the provisional title A Time for Wolves for the final volume, Martin ultimately announced A Dream of Spring as the title for the seventh book in 2006. Martin said in March 2012 that the final two novels will take readers farther north than any of the previous books, and that the Others will appear in the book.
The Winds of Winter will resolve the Dance with Dragons cliffhangers early on and "will open with the two big battles that (the fifth book) was building up to, the battle in the ice and the battle (...) of Slaver 's Bay. And then take it from there. '' By the middle of 2010, Martin had already finished five chapters of The Winds of Winter from the viewpoints of Sansa Stark, Arya Stark, Arianne Martell, and Aeron Greyjoy, accumulating to around 100 completed pages. After the publication of A Dance with Dragons in 2011, Martin announced he would return to writing in January 2012. He spent the meantime on book tours, conventions, and continued working on his The World of Ice & Fire companion guide and a new Tales of Dunk and Egg novella.
In December 2011, Martin posted a chapter from The Winds of Winter from the viewpoint of Theon Greyjoy; several other chapters have been made public since. Four hundred pages of the sixth novel have been written as of October 2012, although Martin considers only 200 as "really finished ''; the rest needs revising. In 2011, Martin gave three years as a realistic estimate for finishing the sixth book at a good pace, but said ultimately the book "will be done when it 's done '', acknowledging that his publication estimates had been too optimistic in the past. Martin did not intend to separate the characters geographically again.
In 2015 there were indications that the book would be published before the sixth season of the HBO show but in early January 2016 Martin confirmed that he had not met an end - of - year deadline that he had established with his publisher for release of the book before the sixth season. He added that there was "a lot still left to write '' and that completion of the book was "months away still... if the writing goes well. '' Martin also revealed there had been a previous deadline of October 2015 that he had considered achievable in May 2015, and that in September 2015 he had still considered the end - of - year deadline achievable. He further confirmed that some of the plot of the book might be revealed in the upcoming season of Game of Thrones. In February 2016, Martin stated that he dropped all his editing projects except for Wild Cards, and that he would not be writing any teleplays, screenplays, short stories, introductions or forewords before delivering The Winds of Winter.
During the Guadalajara International Book Fair in Mexico in early December 2016, Martin offered the following hint as to the tone of this book:
There are a lot of dark chapters right now... I 've been telling you for 20 years that winter was coming. Winter is the time when things die, and cold and ice and darkness fill the world, so this is not going to be the happy feel - good that people may be hoping for. Some of the characters (are) in very dark places.
Martin is firm about ending the series with the seventh novel "until I decide not to be firm ''. With his stated goal of telling the story from beginning to end, he will not truncate the story to fit into an arbitrary number of volumes. He knows the ending in broad strokes as well as the future of the main characters, and will finish the series with bittersweet elements where not everyone will live happily ever after. Martin hopes to write an ending similar to The Lord of the Rings that he felt gave the story a satisfying depth and resonance. On the other hand, Martin noted the challenge to avoid a situation like the finale of the TV series Lost, which left some fans disappointed by deviating too far from their own theories and desires. In 2015, Martin said that he was not writing A Dream of Spring together with The Winds of Winter, and in early 2016, he said he did not believe A Dream of Spring would be published before the last season of the HBO show.
Martin offered the following hint as to how the series would conclude during a Q&A at the Guadalajara International Book Fair. "I 'm not going to tell you how I 'm going to end my book, but I suspect the overall flavor is going to be as much bittersweet as it is happy. ''
Early during the development of the TV series, Martin told major plot points to producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. (The New York Times reported in 2011 that, at age 62, Martin was by all accounts in robust health.) Martin was confident he would have published at least The Winds of Winter before the TV series overtook him. Nevertheless, there was general concern about whether Martin would be able to stay ahead of the show. As a result, head writers Benioff and Weiss learned more future plot points from Martin in 2013 to help them set up the show 's new possible seasons. This included the end stories for all the core characters. Deviations from the books ' storylines are also being considered, but a two - year show hiatus to wait for new books is not an option for them as the child actors continue to grow and the show 's popularity would wane. Martin indicated he would not permit another writer to finish the book series. On January 2, 2016, Martin confirmed that the sixth volume would not be published before the start of the sixth season of the HBO series.
Regarding A Song of Ice and Fire as his magnum opus, Martin is certain never to write anything on this scale again and would only return to this fictional universe in the context of stand - alone novels. He prefers to write stories about characters from other Ice and Fire periods of history such as his Tales of Dunk and Egg project, instead of continuing the series directly. A possible future side project is a prequel set during Aegon 's conquest of Westeros. Martin said he would love to return to writing short stories, novellas, novelettes, and stand - alone novels from diverse genres such as science fiction, horror, fantasy, or even a murder mystery. However, he will see if his audience follows him after publishing his next project.
George R.R. Martin believes the most profound influences to be the ones experienced in childhood. Having read H.P. Lovecraft, Robert E. Howard, Robert A. Heinlein, Eric Frank Russell, Andre Norton, Isaac Asimov, Fritz Leiber, and Mervyn Peake in his youth, Martin never categorized these authors ' literature into science fiction, fantasy, or horror and will write from any genre as a result. Martin classified A Song of Ice and Fire as "epic fantasy '', and specifically named Tad Williams as very influential for the writing of the series. One of his favorite authors is Jack Vance, although Martin considered the series not particularly Vancean.
The medieval setting has been the traditional background for epic fantasy. However, where historical fiction leaves versed readers knowing the historical outcome, original characters may increase suspense and empathy for the readers. Yet Martin felt historical fiction, particularly when set during the Middle Ages, had an excitement, grittiness, and a realness to it that was absent in fantasy with a similar backdrop. Thus, he wanted to combine the realism of historical fiction with the magic appeal of the best fantasies, subduing magic in favor of battles and political intrigue. He also decided to avoid the conventional good versus evil setting typical for the genre, using the fight between Achilles and Hector in Homer 's Iliad, where no one stands out as either a hero or a villain, as an example of what he wants to achieve with his books.
Martin is widely credited with broadening the fantasy fiction genre for adult content, including incest, paedophilia, and adultery. For The Washington Post 's Writing for The Atlantic, Amber Taylor assessed the novels as hard fantasy with vulnerable characters to which readers become emotionally attached. CNN found in 2000 that Martin 's mature descriptions were "far more frank than those found in the works of other fantasy authors '', although Martin assessed the fantasy genre to have become rougher - edged a decade later and that some writers ' work was going beyond the mature themes of his novels. Adam Roberts called Martin 's series the most successful and popular example of the emerging subgenre of grimdark fantasy, influencing other writers associated with that style, such as Joe Abercrombie.
Setting out to write something on an epic scale, Martin projected to write three books of 800 manuscript pages in the very early stages of the series. His original 1990s contract specified one - year deadlines for his previous literary works, but Martin only realized later that his new books were longer and hence required more writing time. In 2000, Martin planned to take 18 months to two years for each volume and projected the last of the planned six books to be released five or six years later. However, with the Ice and Fire series evolving into the biggest and most ambitious story he has ever attempted writing, he still has two more books to write as of 2016. Martin said he needed to be in his own office in Santa Fe, New Mexico to immerse himself in the fictional world and write. As of 2011, Martin was still typing his fiction on a DOS computer with WordStar 4.0 software. He begins each day at 10 am with rewriting and polishing the previous day 's work, and may write all day or struggle to write anything. Excised material and previous old versions are saved to be possibly re-inserted at a later time.
Martin set the Ice and Fire story in a secondary world inspired by Tolkien 's writing. Unlike Tolkien, who created entire languages, mythologies, and histories for Middle - earth long before writing The Lord of the Rings, Martin usually starts with a rough sketch of an imaginary world that he improvises into a workable fictional setting along the way. He described his writing as coming from a subconscious level in "almost a daydreaming process '', and his stories, which have a mythic rather than a scientific core, draw from emotion instead of rationality. Martin employs maps and a cast list topping 60 pages in the fourth volume, but keeps most information in his mind. His imagined backstory remains subject to change until published, and only the novels count as canon. Martin does not intend to publish his private notes after the series is finished.
Martin drew much inspiration from actual history for the series, having several bookcases filled with medieval history for research and visiting historic European landmarks. For an American who speaks only English, the history of England proved the easiest source of medieval history for him, giving the series a British rather than a German or Spanish historic flavor. For example, Ned and Robb Stark resemble Richard, 3rd Duke of York and his son Edward IV, and Queen Cersei resembles both Margaret of Anjou and Elizabeth Woodville. Martin immersed himself in many diverse medieval topics such as clothing, food, feasting, and tournaments, to have the facts at hand if needed during writing. The series was in particular influenced by the Hundred Years ' War, the Crusades, the Albigensian Crusade, and the Wars of the Roses, although Martin refrained from making any direct adaptations. Martin was also inspired by the French historical novels The Accursed Kings by Maurice Druon, which are about the French monarchy in the 13th and 14th centuries.
The story is written to follow principal landmarks with an ultimate destination, but leaves Martin room for improvisation. On occasion, improvised details significantly affected the planned story. By the fourth book, Martin kept more private notes than ever before to keep track of the many subplots, which became so detailed and sprawling by the fifth book as to be unwieldy. Martin 's editors, copy editors, and readers monitor for accidental mistakes, although some errors have slipped into publication. For instance, Martin has inconsistently referred to certain characters ' eye colors, and has described a horse as being of one sex and then another.
The books are divided into chapters, each one narrated in the third person limited through the eyes of a point of view character, an approach Martin learned himself as a young journalism student. Beginning with nine POV characters in A Game of Thrones, the number of POV characters grows to a total of 31 in A Dance with Dragons (see table). The short - lived one - time POV characters are mostly restricted to the prologue and epilogue. David Orr of The New York Times noted the story importance of "the Starks (good guys), the Targaryens (at least one good guy, or girl), the Lannisters (conniving), the Greyjoys (mostly conniving), the Baratheons (mixed bag), the Tyrells (unclear) and the Martells (ditto), most of whom are feverishly endeavoring to advance their ambitions and ruin their enemies, preferably unto death ''. However, as Time 's Lev Grossman noted, readers "experience the struggle for Westeros from all sides at once '', such that "every fight is both triumph and tragedy (...) and everybody is both hero and villain at the same time ''.
Modeled on The Lord of the Rings, the Ice and Fire story begins with a tight focus on a small group (with everyone in Winterfell, except Daenerys) and then splits into separate stories. The storylines are to converge again, but finding the turning point in this complex series has been difficult for Martin and has slowed down his writing. Depending on the interview, Martin is said to have reached the turning point in A Dance with Dragons, or to not quite have reached it yet in the books. The series ' structure of multiple POVs and interwoven storylines was inspired by Wild Cards, a multi-authored shared universe book series edited by Martin since 1985. As the sole author, Martin begins each new book with an outline of the chapter order and may write a few successive chapters from a single character 's viewpoint instead of working chronologically. The chapters are later rearranged to optimize character intercutting, chronology, and suspense.
Influenced by his television and film scripting background, Martin tries to keep readers engrossed by ending each Ice and Fire chapter with a tense or revelational moment, a twist or a cliffhanger, similar to a TV act break. Scriptwriting has also taught him the technique of "cutting out the fat and leaving the muscle '', which is the final stage of completing a book, a technique that brought the page count in A Dance with Dragons down almost eighty pages. Dividing the continuous Ice and Fire story into books is much harder for Martin. Each book shall represent a phase of the journey that ends in closure for most characters. A smaller portion of characters is left with clear - cut cliffhangers to make sure readers come back for the next installment, although A Dance with Dragons had more cliffhangers than Martin originally intended. Both one - time and regular POV characters are designed to have full character arcs ending in tragedy or triumph, and are written to hold the readers ' interest and not be skipped in reading. Main characters are killed off so that the reader will not rely on the hero to come through unscathed and will instead feel the character 's fear with each page turn.
The unresolved larger narrative arc encourages speculation about future story events. According to Martin, much of the key to Ice and Fire 's future lies over a dozen years in the fictional past, of which each volume reveals more. Events planned from the beginning are foreshadowed, although Martin is careful not to make the story predictable. The viewpoint characters, who serve as unreliable narrators, may clarify or provide different perspectives on past events. Therefore, what the readers believe to be true may not necessarily be true.
Regarding the characters as the heart of the story, Martin planned the epic Ice and Fire fantasy to have a large cast of characters and many different settings from the beginning. A Feast for Crows has a 63 - page list of characters, with many of the thousands of characters mentioned only in passing or disappearing from view for long stretches. When Martin adds a new family to the ever - growing number of genealogies in the appendices, he devises a secret about the personality or fate of the family members. However, their backstory remains subject to change until written down in the story. Martin drew most character inspiration from history (without directly translating historical figures) and his own experiences, but also from the manners of his friends, acquaintances, and people of public interest. Martin aims to "make my characters real and to make them human, characters who have good and bad, noble and selfish well - mixed in their natures ''. Jeff VanderMeer of the Los Angeles Times remarked that "Martin 's devotion to fully inhabiting his characters, for better or worse, creates the unstoppable momentum in his novels and contains an implied criticism of Tolkien 's moral simplicity '' (see Themes: Moral ambiguity).
Martin deliberately ignored the writing rule of never giving two characters names starting with the same letter. Instead, character names reflect the naming systems in various European family histories, where particular names were associated with specific royal houses and where even the secondary families assigned the same names repeatedly. The Ice and Fire story therefore has children called "Robert '' in honor of King Robert of House Baratheon, a "Brandon '' in every other generation of the Starks in commemoration of Brandon the Builder (of the Wall), and the syllable "Ty '' commonly occurring in given names of House Lannister. Confident that readers would pay attention, Martin distinguished people sharing a given name by adding numbers or locations to their given names (e.g. Henry V of England). The family names were designed in association with ethnic groups (see backstory): the First Men in the North of Westeros had very simply descriptive names like Stark and Strong, whereas the descendants of the Andal invaders in the South have more elaborate, undescriptive house names like Lannister or Arryn, and the Targaryens and Valyrians from the Eastern continent have the most exotic names with the letter Y.
All characters are designed to speak with their own internal voices to capture their views of the world. The Atlantic pondered whether Martin ultimately intended the readers to sympathize with characters on both sides of the Lannister -- Stark feud long before plot developments force them to make their emotional choices. Contrary to most conventional epic fantasies, the Ice and Fire characters are vulnerable so that, according to The Atlantic, the reader "can not be sure that good shall triumph, which makes those instances where it does all the more exulting. '' Martin gets emotionally involved in the characters ' lives during writing, which makes the chapters with dreadful events sometimes very difficult to write. Seeing the world through the characters ' eyes requires a certain amount of empathy with them, including the villains, all of whom he has said he loves as if they were his own children. Martin found that some characters had minds of their own and took his writing in different directions. He returns to the intended story if it does not work out, but these detours sometimes prove more rewarding for him.
Arya Stark, Tyrion Lannister, Jon Snow, and Daenerys Targaryen generate the most feedback from readers. Martin has stated that Tyrion is his personal favorite, as the grayest of the gray characters, with his cunning and wit making him the most fun to write. Martin has also said that Bran Stark is the hardest character to write. As the character most deeply involved in magic, Bran 's story needs to be handled carefully within the supernatural aspects of the books. Bran is also the youngest viewpoint character, and has to deal with the series ' adult themes like grief, loneliness, and anger. Martin set out to have the young characters grow up faster between chapters, but, as it was implausible for a character to take two months to respond, a finished book represents very little time passed. Martin hoped the planned five - year break would ease the situation and age the children to almost adults in terms of the Seven Kingdoms, but he later dropped the five - year gap (see section Bridging the timeline gap).
Although modern fantasy may often embrace strangeness, the Ice and Fire series is generally praised for what is perceived as a sort of medieval realism. Believing that magic should be used moderately in the epic fantasy genre, Martin set out to make the story feel more like historical fiction than contemporary fantasy, with less emphasis on magic and sorcery and more on battles, political intrigue, and the characters. Though the amount of magic has gradually increased throughout the story, the series is still to end with less overt magic than most contemporary fantasies. In Martin 's eyes, literary effective magic needs to represent strange and dangerous forces beyond human comprehension, not advanced alien technologies or formulaic spells. As such, the characters understand only the natural aspects of their world, but not the magical elements like the Others.
Since Martin drew on historical sources to build the Ice and Fire world, Damien G. Walter of The Guardian saw a strong resemblance between Westeros and England in the period of the Wars of the Roses. The Atlantic 's Adam Serwer regarded A Song of Ice and Fire as "more a story of politics than one of heroism, a story about humanity wrestling with its baser obsessions than fulfilling its glorious potential '', where the emergent power struggle stems from the feudal system 's repression and not from the fight between good and evil. Martin not only wanted to reflect the frictions of the medieval class structures in the novels, but also explore the consequences of the leaders ' decisions, as general goodness does not automatically make competent leaders and vice versa.
A common theme in the fantasy genre is the battle between good and evil, which Martin rejects for not mirroring the real world. Attracted to gray characters, Martin instead endorses William Faulkner 's view that only the human heart in conflict with itself was worth writing about. Martin explores the questions of redemption and character change in the Ice and Fire series. The multiple viewpoint structure allows characters to be explored from many sides, such that the supposed villains can provide their viewpoint.
Although fantasy comes from an imaginative realm, Martin sees an honest necessity to reflect the real world where people die sometimes ugly deaths, even beloved people. Main characters are killed off so that the reader will not expect the supposed hero to survive, and instead will feel the same tension and fear that the characters might. The novels also reflect the substantial death rates in war. The deaths of supernumerary extras or orcs have no major effect on readers, whereas a friend 's death has much more emotional impact. Martin prefers a hero 's sacrifice to say something profound about human nature.
According to Martin, the fantasy genre rarely focuses on sex and sexuality, instead often treating sexuality in a juvenile way or neglecting it completely. Martin, however, considers sexuality an important driving force in human life that should not be excluded from the narrative. Providing sensory detail for an immersive experience is more important than plot advancement for Martin, who aims to let the readers experience the novels ' sex scenes, "whether it 's a great transcendent, exciting, mind blowing sex, or whether it 's disturbing, twisted, dark sex, or disappointing perfunctory sex. '' Martin was fascinated by medieval contrasts where knights venerated their ladies with poems and wore their favors in tournaments while their armies mindlessly raped women in wartime. The non-existent concept of adolescence in the Middle Ages served as a model for Daenerys ' sexual activity at the age of 13 in the books. The novels also allude to the incestuous practices in the Ptolemaic dynasty of Ancient Egypt to keep their bloodlines pure.
Martin provides a variety of female characters to explore the place of women in a patriarchal society. Writing all characters as human beings with the same basic needs, dreams, and influences, his female characters are to cover the same wide spectrum of human traits as the males.
Science Fiction Weekly stated in 2000 that "few would dispute that Martin 's most monumental achievement to date has been the groundbreaking A Song of Ice and Fire historical fantasy series '', for which reviews have been "orders of magnitude better '' than for his previous works, as Martin described to The New Yorker. In 2007, Weird Tales magazine described the series as a "superb fantasy saga '' that "raised Martin to a whole new level of success ''. Shortly before the release of A Dance with Dragons in 2011, Bill Sheehan of The Washington Post was sure that "no work of fantasy has generated such anticipation since Harry Potter 's final duel with Voldemort '', and Ethan Sacks of Daily News saw the series turning Martin into a darling of literary critics as well as mainstream readers, which was "rare for a fantasy genre that 's often dismissed as garbage not fit to line the bottom of a dragon 's cage ''. Salon.com 's Andrew Leonard stated:
The success is all the more remarkable because (the series debuted) without mass market publicity or any kind of buzz in the fantasy / SF scene. George R.R. Martin earned his following the hard way, by word of mouth, by hooking his characters into the psyche of his readers to an extent that most writers of fantasy only dream of.
Publishers Weekly noted in 2000 that "Martin may not rival Tolkien or Robert Jordan, but he ranks with such accomplished medievalists of fantasy as Poul Anderson and Gordon Dickson. '' After the fourth volume came out in 2005, Time 's Lev Grossman considered Martin a "major force for evolution in fantasy '' and proclaimed him "the American Tolkien '', explaining that, although Martin was "(not) the best known of America 's straight - up fantasy writers '' at the time and would "never win a Pulitzer or a National Book Award... his skill as a crafter of narrative exceeds that of almost any literary novelist writing today ''. As Grossman said in 2011, the phrase American Tolkien "has stuck to (Martin), as it was meant to '', being picked up by the media including The New York Times ("He 's much better than that ''), the New Yorker, Entertainment Weekly ("an acclaim that borders on fantasy blasphemy ''), The Globe and Mail, and USA Today. Time magazine named Martin one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2011, and USA Today named George R.R. Martin their Author of the Year 2011.
According to The Globe and Mail 's John Barber, Martin manages simultaneously to master and transcend the genre so that "Critics applaud the depth of his characterizations and lack of cliché in books that are nonetheless replete with dwarves and dragons ''. Publishers Weekly gave favorable reviews to the first three Ice and Fire novels at their points of release, saying that A Game of Thrones had "superbly developed characters, accomplished prose and sheer bloody - mindedness '', that A Clash of Kings was "notable particularly for the lived - in quality of (their fictional world and) for the comparatively modest role of magic '', and that A Storm of Swords was one "of the more rewarding examples of gigantism in contemporary fantasy ''. However, they found that A Feast For Crows as the fourth installment "sorely misses its other half. The slim pickings here are tasty, but in no way satisfying. '' Their review for A Dance with Dragons repeated points of criticism for the fourth volume, and said that, although "The new volume has a similar feel to Feast '', "Martin keeps it fresh by focusing on popular characters (who were) notably absent from the previous book. ''
According to the Los Angeles Times, "Martin 's brilliance in evoking atmosphere through description is an enduring hallmark of his fiction, the settings much more than just props on a painted stage '', and the novels captivate readers with "complex storylines, fascinating characters, great dialogue, perfect pacing, and the willingness to kill off even his major characters ''. CNN remarked that "the story weaves through differing points of view in a skillful mix of observation, narration and well - crafted dialogue that illuminates both character and plot with fascinating style '', and David Orr of The New York Times found that "All of his hundreds of characters have grace notes of history and personality that advance a plot line. Every town has an elaborately recalled series of triumphs and troubles. '' Salon. com 's Andrew Leonard "could n't stop reading Martin because my desire to know what was going to happen combined with my absolute inability to guess what would happen and left me helpless before his sorcery. At the end, I felt shaken and exhausted. '' The Christian Science Monitor advised reading the novels with an A Song of Ice and Fire encyclopedia at hand to "catch all the layered, subtle hints and details that (Martin) leaves throughout his books. If you pay attention, you will be rewarded and questions will be answered. ''
Among the most critical voices were Sam Jordison and Michael Hann, both of The Guardian. Jordison detailed his misgivings about A Game of Thrones in a 2009 review and summarized "It 's daft. It 's unsophisticated. It 's cartoonish. And yet, I could n't stop reading... Archaic absurdity aside, Martin 's writing is excellent. His dialogue is snappy and frequently funny. His descriptive prose is immediate and atmospheric, especially when it comes to building a sense of deliciously dark foreboding (of the long impending winter). '' Hann did not consider the novels to stand out from the general fantasy genre, despite Martin 's alterations to fantasy convention, although he rediscovered his childhood 's views:
That when things are, on the whole, pretty crappy (in the real world), it 's a deep joy to dive headfirst into something so completely immersive, something from which there is no need to surface from hours at a time. And if that immersion involves dragons, magic, wraiths from beyond death, shapeshifting wolves and banished princes, so be it.
The reported overall sales figures of the A Song of Ice and Fire series vary. The New Yorker said in April 2011 (before the publication of A Dance with Dragons) that more than 15 million Ice and Fire books had been sold worldwide, a figure repeated by The Globe and Mail in July 2011. Reuters reported in September 2013 that the books including print, digital and audio versions have sold more than 24 million copies in North America. The Wall Street Journal reported more than six million sold copies in North America by May 2011. USA Today reported 8.5 million copies in print and digital overall in July 2011, and over 12 million sold copies in print in December 2011. The series has been translated into more than 20 languages; USA Today reported the fifth book to be translated into over 40 languages. Forbes estimated that Martin was the 12th highest - earning author worldwide in 2011 at $15 million.
Martin 's publishers initially expected A Game of Thrones to be a best - seller, but the first installment did not even reach any lower positions in bestseller list. This left Martin unsurprised, as it is "a fool 's game to think anything is going to be successful or to count on it ''. However, the book slowly won the passionate advocacy of independent booksellers and the book 's popularity grew by word of mouth. The series ' popularity skyrocketed in subsequent volumes, with the second and third volume making The New York Times Best Seller lists in 1999 and 2000, respectively. The series gained Martin 's old writings new attention, and Martin 's American publisher Bantam Spectra was to reprint his out - of - print solo novels.
The fourth installment, A Feast for Crows, was an immediate best - seller at its 2005 release, hitting number one on "The New York Times '' hardcover fiction bestseller list November 27, 2005, which for a fantasy novel suggested that Martin 's books were attracting mainstream readers. The paperback edition of A Game of Thrones reached its 34th printing in 2010, surpassing the one million mark. Before it even premiered, the TV series had boosted sales of the book series, with Ice and Fire approaching triple - digit growth in year - on - year sales. Bantam was looking forward to seeing the tie - ins boost sales further, and Martin 's British publisher Harper Voyager expected readers to rediscover their other epic fantasy literature. With a reported 4.5 million copies of the first four volumes in print in early 2011, the four volumes re-appeared on the paperback fiction bestseller lists in the second quarter of 2011.
At its point of publication in July 2011, A Dance with Dragons was in its sixth print with more than 650,000 hardbacks in print. It also had the highest single and first - day sales of any new fiction title published in 2011 at that point, with 170,000 hardcovers, 110,000 e-books, and 18,000 audio books reportedly sold on the first day. A Dance with Dragons reached the top of The New York Times bestseller list on July 31, 2011. Unlike most other big titles, the fifth volume sold more physical than digital copies early on, but nevertheless, Martin became the tenth author to sell 1 million Amazon Kindle e-books. All five volumes and the four - volume boxed set were among the top 100 best - selling books in the United States in 2011 and 2012.
The TV series has contributed significantly boosting sales of both the books and collectibles like box - sets, merchandise, and other items. The TV series also contributed in increasing the geographic coverage of the books, introducing new customers in emerging countries like India and Brazil to the book series. All this has significantly increased the overall book sales.
During the 1980s and early 1990s, Martin 's novels had slowly earned him a reputation in science fiction circles, although he said to only have received a few fans ' letters a year in the pre-internet days. The publication of A Game of Thrones caused Martin 's following to grow, with fan sites springing up and a Trekkie - like society of followers evolving that meet regularly. Westeros.org, one of the main Ice and Fire fansites with about seventeen thousand registered members as of 2011, was established in 1999 by a Swedish - based fan of Cuban - American descent, Elio M. García, Jr., and his girlfriend; their involvement with Martin 's work has now become semi-professional. The Brotherhood Without Banners, an unofficial fan club operating globally, was formed in 2001. Their founders and other longtime members are among Martin 's good friends.
Martin runs an official website and administers a lively blog with the assistance of Ty Franck. He also interacts with fandom by answering emails and letters, although he stated in 2005 that their sheer numbers might leave them unanswered for years. Since there are different types of conventions nowadays, he tends to go to three or four science - fiction conventions a year simply to go back to his roots and meet friends. He does not read message boards anymore, so that his writing will not be influenced by fans foreseeing twists and interpreting characters differently from what he intended.
While Martin calls the majority of his fans "great '', and enjoys interacting with them, some of them turned against him because of the six years it took to release A Dance with Dragons. A movement of disaffected fans called GRRuMblers formed in 2009, creating sites such as Finish the Book, George and Is Winter Coming?. When fans ' vocal impatience for A Dance with Dragons peaked shortly after, Martin issued a statement called "To My Detractors '' on his blog that received media attention. The New York Times noted that it was not uncommon for Martin to be mobbed at book signings either. The New Yorker called this "an astonishing amount of effort to devote to denouncing the author of books one professes to love. Few contemporary authors can claim to have inspired such passion. ''
Martin has written several prequel novellas. The Tales of Dunk and Egg series, three novellas set ninety years before the events of the novel series, feature the adventures of Ser Duncan the Tall and his squire "Egg '', the later King Aegon V Targaryen. The stories have no direct connection to the plot of A Song of Ice and Fire, although both characters are mentioned in A Storm of Swords and A Feast For Crows, respectively. The first installment, The Hedge Knight, was published in the 1998 anthology Legends. The Sworn Sword followed in 2003, published in Legends II. Both were later adapted into graphic novels. The third novella, titled The Mystery Knight, was first published in the 2010 anthology Warriors, and is planned to be adapted as a graphic novel as well. Martin planned to release the first three novellas as one collection in 2014. Up to eight further Dunk and Egg installments are planned.
The novella The Princess and the Queen or, the Blacks and the Greens appeared in Tor Books 's 2013 anthology Dangerous Women, and explains some of the Targaryen backstory two centuries before the events of the novels. The Rogue Prince, or, the King 's Brother, published in the 2014 anthology Rogues, is itself a prequel to the events of The Princess and the Queen.
Chapter sets from the novels were also compiled into three novellas that were released between 1996 and 2003 by Asimov 's Science Fiction and Dragon:
With the popularity of the series growing, HBO optioned A Song of Ice and Fire for a television adaptation in 2007. A pilot episode was produced in late 2009, and a series commitment for nine further episodes was made in March 2010. The series, titled Game of Thrones, premiered in April 2011 to great acclaim and ratings (see Game of Thrones: Reception). The network picked up the show for a second season covering A Clash of Kings two days later. Shortly after the conclusion of the first season, the show received 13 Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, winning Outstanding Main Title Design and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for Peter Dinklage 's portrayal of Tyrion Lannister. HBO announced a renewal for a third season in April 2012, ten days after the season 2 premiere. Due to the length of the corresponding book, the third season only covered roughly the first half of A Storm of Swords.
Shortly after the season 3 premiere in March 2013, the network announced that Game of Thrones would be returning for a fourth season, which would cover the second half of A Storm of Swords along with the beginnings of A Feast for Crows and A Dance With Dragons. Game of Thrones was nominated for 15 Emmy Awards for season 3. Two days after the fourth season premiered in April 2014, HBO renewed Game of Thrones for a fifth and sixth season. Season 5 premiered on April 12, 2015 and set a Guinness World Records for winning the highest number of Emmy Awards for a series in a single season and year, winning 12 out of 24 nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series. These episodes were watched by 8 million viewers, setting a record number for the series. The sixth season premiered on April 24, 2016. These episodes received the most nominations for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards with 23, winning 12, including the award for Outstanding Drama Series.
A Song of Ice and Fire spawned an industry of spin - off products. Fantasy Flight Games released a collectible card game, a board game, and two collections of artwork inspired by the Ice and Fire series. Various roleplaying game products were released by Guardians of Order and Green Ronin. Dynamite Entertainment adapted A Game of Thrones into a same - titled monthly comic in 2011. Several video games are available or in production, including A Game of Thrones: Genesis (2011) and Game of Thrones (2012) by Cyanide; both received mediocre ratings from critics. A social network game titled Game of Thrones Ascent (2013) by Disruptor Beam allows players to live the life of a noble during the series ' period setting. Random House released an official map book called The Lands of Ice and Fire, which includes old and new maps of the Ice and Fire world. The companion book The World of Ice & Fire by Martin and the Westeros.org owners Elio M. García Jr. and Linda Antonsson was published in October 2014. Other licensed products include full - sized weapon reproductions, a range of collectable figures, Westeros coinage reproductions, and a large number of gift and collectible items based on the HBO television series. The popularity of the HBO series has made its version of the Iron Throne an icon of the entire media franchise.
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when does episode 2 come out minecraft story mode | Minecraft: Story Mode - wikipedia
Minecraft: Story Mode is an episodic point - and - click graphic adventure video game developed and published by Telltale Games, based on the sandbox video game Minecraft in association with Mojang. The first five episodes of the game were released between October 2015 through March 2016, and an additional three episodes were released as downloadable content in mid-2016. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, macOS, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Wii U, Nintendo Switch, Xbox 360, Xbox One, Android, iOS, and Apple TV. The game was developed in association with Mojang, the original developer of Minecraft. A retail version was released in December 2016.
The game follows the episodic format that Telltale Games used for its titles: The Walking Dead, The Wolf Among Us, Tales from the Borderlands, and Game of Thrones. The game centers around a new character named Jesse, who can be either male or female, as they and their allies attempt to save their world by defeating the Wither Storm.
A second five - episode season was released by Telltale in July 2017, continuing the story from the first season and influenced by players ' choices made during that season.
Minecraft: Story Mode is a episodic interactive comedy - drama point - and - click graphic adventure video game. Similar to Telltale Games 's other games, it was released as a number of episodes. Players can collect items, solve puzzles, and talk to non-player characters through conversation trees to learn about the story and determine what to do next. Like other ones of Telltale Games 's games, decisions that the player makes will impact events in both the current episode and later episodes. However, unlike Telltale Games 's previous games, which tend to carry more mature or emotional overtones (including the death of major characters), Minecraft: Story Mode is intended to be a family - friendly title. As such, the decisions are intended to be pivotal and emotional, but not involve mature imagery or themes. Elements of crafting and building, central to Minecraft, were included in the gameplay. The game includes combat and other action sequences, carried out through both quick time events, similarly to Telltale Games 's other episodic games, and more arcade - like controls, such as steering around debris on a road.
Minecraft: Story Mode takes place in an interpretation of the world of Minecraft. The main character, Jesse, is a passionate newbie Minecraft player who sets out on a journey with their friends within the world of Minecraft to find The Order of the Stone (Gabriel, Ellegaard, Magnus, Soren) -- four legendary adventurers who saved the Minecraft world. The game includes settings that are normally difficult to access from within Minecraft, including the Nether, The End, and the Far Lands.
The player can customize Jesse, including choice of gender and skin tone. Jesse is voiced by Patton Oswalt if male and by Catherine Taber if female. Other characters within the Minecraft world include the humans Petra (voiced by Ashley Johnson) Axel (Brian Posehn), Olivia (Martha Plimpton), Lukas (Scott Porter), Maya, Ivy, Fangirl (GK Bowes), Owen (Owen Hill), Gill (Phil LaMarr), Aiden, Otis (Matthew Mercer), Ivor Sigge (Paul Reubens), Usher (Jason ' jtop ' Topolski), Fanboy (Billy West), Lydia (Lydia Winters), the Announcer (Erin Yvette), Jesse 's pet pig Reuben (Dee Bradley Baker) and the four Order of the Stone members: Gabriel the Warrior (Dave Fennoy), Magnus the Rogue (Corey Feldman), Ellegaard the Redstone Engineer (Grey Griffin), and Soren the Architect (John Hodgman). Stauffer said that the human characters as a whole represent the different types of gamers who play Minecraft. Billy West narrates the story.
This is a broad overview of the plot. Certain decisions made by the player will alter details of specific events.
Young builder Jesse, his friends Olivia and Axel, and their pet pig Reuben go to the Endercon building competition, which they lose every year to a rival team called the Ocelots. Despite this, they manage to build an impressive contraption (determined by the player), which Ocelot member Aiden jealously sabotages, scaring off Reuben. Jesse goes after Reuben, and the two are saved from mobs by their friend Petra, who convinces Jesse to help her with a business deal: selling a Wither skull for a diamond.
Back at the competition (which the group either wins or loses, depending on whether Jesse let his friends help them search for Reuben) the deal goes bad when Ivor, the man Petra sells the skull to, rips her off and flees. Jesse and Petra, joined by Axel, Olivia and the sympathetic Ocelot leader, Lukas, follow Ivor into an underground laboratory. There, they discover him making a Wither, an incredibly dangerous creature, but are unable to stop him. The creature attacks the event and targets Gabriel, a member of the legendary Order of the Stone, whom Ivor seems to know. Ivor loses control of the Wither, which, with the power of the special ' command block ' implanted in the Wither 's chest, transforms into an advanced, more horrific version of itself, called ' The Wither Storm '. It then destroys the town, forcing the group to escape into Gabriel 's fortress, where Gabriel sends Jesse 's group to find Order members Magnus and Ellegaard, and gives them an amulet to guide them. They head into the dangerous Nether, leaving Petra and Gabriel behind in the process (one of them being sucked into the Wither Storm, depending on your choices).
In the Nether, Jesse 's group finds a train track left by the Order, and goes to the Overworld, where the group decides to bunk for the night. Axel has an unexplained bitterness towards Lukas, and Jesse must choose who he will side with. The next morning, the group arrives at the Order Fortress, where they discover that Ivor had actually been a member of the Order, but had been inexplicably kicked out. They later find a contraption that, when hooked up to the amulet, shows on a map the current locations of the members of the Order. Lukas decides to stay and fortify the fortress, and asks that one of the four stay with him. The player then has a choice: to go with Axel to get Magnus, or with Olivia to get Ellegaard. As Jesse and Axel / Olivia prepare to leave, the Wither Storm approaches.
Jesse and Axel / Olivia head to Boom Town / Redstonia to recruit Magnus / Ellegaard to help them. After successfully getting Magnus / Ellegaard to join them (with different mishaps), they return to the temple to discover that Olivia / Axel (whoever did n't accompany Jesse) has subsequently retrieved Ellegaard / Magnus (whichever one Jesse did not personally find), and are now reunited with either Petra or Gabriel (depending on who Jesse saved before entering the Nether). Returning to the machine, they discover that it now shows the location of the last, long thought lost member, Soren, as well as Ivor, who is heading towards him. Ellegaard reveals that she and Soren had been building a "Formidi Bomb '' (an incredibly powerful explosive), and proposes this as a solution to the problem of the Wither Storm. The group leaves to find Soren and his secret lab. There, Jesse, Lukas and Reuben find a massive herd of endermen. Magnus and Ellegaard (who clearly do n't get along well) depart in two different directions to find the "F - Bomb ''. Jesse and Petra / Gabriel follow Jesse, while Lukas, Olivia and Axel follow the others. As they walk, Petra / Gabriel reveals to Jesse that, despite his saving him / her, they have "Wither Sickness '', which gets worse by the minute. Eventually, they confront Ivor, but he taunts them, saying that the Order will be unable to do anything to stop him, then escapes.
The group is trapped (Ivor 's doing in the prior episode). They manage to escape, but end up in the foreboding End. There, they spot Soren and follow him into his massive house, where Jesse finds him researching the dangerous Endermen. Jesse convinces Soren to help destroy the Wither Storm using the incredibly powerful Formidi Bomb, just as the Wither Storm attacks. They return to the surface, where they reunite with Magnus and Ellegaard. Soren asks for a volunteer to set off the Formidi - Bomb, reminding them that the bomb will go off seconds after being made. This task falls on Jesse 's shoulders. Accepting either Magnus or Ellegaard 's armor, Jesse constructs and uses the Formidi - Bomb, and survives, but Magnus / Ellegaard (whoever gave Jesse the armor) is killed by an attack from the Wither Storm. The Formidi - Bomb destroys the Wither Storm, freeing the citizens it ate, including a now amnesiac Gabriel or Petra. Unfortunately, due to the bomb not reaching the Command Block keeping it alive, the Wither Storm reforms, having split apart to make three Wither Storms, forcing everyone to flee.
The group is forced to flee the new Storms. They then encounter Ivor, who wants to fix his mistake and offers a solution: using a book of enchantments he has at his house in the Far Lands that can enchant a weapon so powerful it can destroy the command block. The group (possibly Axel, Lukas and the sick member) goes to Ivor 's house, where they learn that the story of the Ender Dragon battle that made the Order famous was n't entirely true: Soren just used the Command Block to glitch the Ender Dragon out of existence. Ivor left the Order in disgust and summoned the Wither Storm to show the world who the Order really are: liars and frauds.
Despite this shocking truth, Jesse constructs the weapon which, with the unwitting help of the Endermen, they use to enter the Wither Storm and destroy the Command Block, though Reuben is fatally wounded in the process and dies shortly after. As the world praises the new heroes, Jesse convinces Gabriel, who now cured (same with Petra), to either tell the truth about the Order 's past or continue keeping it a secret. Either way, Jesse and their friends are then made the famous New Order of the Stone.
Sometime later, the New Order goes, on a tip from Ivor, to a temple where they discover a mysterious enchanted flint and steel. Outside the temple, they 're accosted by Aiden, who usurped Lukas as the new leader of the Ocelots (now going by the "Blaze Rods '') and is bitter towards the fame the New Order has attained, though they manage to chase him and his lackeys away. Back in town, the group shows their found loot to Ivor, who reveals the enchanted flint and steel to be the key to the Eversource, a source of unlimited building power. Returning to the temple, Jesse, Petra, Lukas and Ivor find a portal, which Jesse activates with the flint and steel. Unfortunately, the Blaze Rods surprise them and enter the portal first.
Pursuing them, the group ends up in a sky dimension, where they have to build a bridge with dirt. They come to Sky City, a metropolis island in the clouds, where building is strictly regulated by the town 's stern Founder. Unluckily for the group, Aiden gets to the Founder first and tricks her into turning the whole town against the Order. Though Ivor and Lukas are captured, Petra is saved by Milo, a barman and the leader of an underground resistance called Build Club (Jesse 's decisions choose who he goes with). They are quickly reunited, and soon find the Eversource, revealed to be a chicken which lays spawn eggs.
The group is then attacked by the Founder and Aiden, only for him to betray her and knock her, Jesse and possibly Lukas over the side. They land safely on land below, which is surprising to the Founder, as she thought there was nothing but an abyss. She and Jesse (Lukas will sit this out, feeling weak from fighting Aiden in the palace) build a tower back to Sky City, which is now overrun with monsters Aiden summoned from spawn eggs laid by the Eversource chicken. Though Jesse defeats Aiden and his crownies, the city is lost and the remaining townsfolk get into a waterfall and flow safely down to the land below. After deciding what to do with Aiden and the Eversource and how the new government should be run, Jesse and the group use a portal they and the Founder discovered while building the tower to return home, only to find themselves in a corridor filled with portals.
After entering one of the portals, Jesse, Lukas, Petra and Ivor end up in a world very similar to their own, except there are two moons, and everything appears swampy. After reading an invitation and escaping a massive horde of zombies, they end up in the mansion of other invitees, who end up to be five well - known Minecraft YouTubers: CaptainSparklez, StampyCat, DanTDM, LDShadowLady and StacyPlays, as well as two other fictional ones: TorqueDawg and Cassie Rose. They are revealed to be just as oblivious to this place as the New Order, since portraits of the Youtubers and the Order somehow appeared in the house. While meeting Sparklez and TorqueDawg, all lights go out and TorqueDawg is mysteriously killed by a trap with poisoned arrows.
Through a series of investigation, causing the death trap of CaptainSparklez, right after his announcement of the fact that the murderer (who referred to him / herself as the ' White Pumpkin ') was killing them off for the enchanted flint and steel (such as the one as Jesse has), as well as the death of Lizzie / Dan, the majority of the Youtubers point the evidence at Lukas, but Petra and Jesse fiercely disagree. The two, along with Stampy, (who then reveals that he had an enchanted flint and steel), prove that Cassie Rose was the White Pumpkin, who then accidentally sets off one of her own traps and dies. Jesse, Petra, Ivor, and Lukas peacefully depart with the remaining Youtubers. The New Order walks over to an unlit portal frame, and attempt to use the flint and steel on it, and open another portal back to their home.
Though the flint and steel had the power to send them back to their world, it is revealed that the portal was a trap from Rose, who was not dead. While she threatens them with Endermites, Jesse is able to defeat her with his sword and his own collection of Ender pearls and leaves her to be eaten by the Endermites, while Jesse and his friends return through the real portal, although it is unknown whether they return home or not.
Back in the portal hallway, Petra, who is bitter towards Jesse for leading to nowhere in multiple worlds and portals, flees into a redstone portal, concluding that redstone meant "smart people ''. Jesse, Lukas and Ivor, having no choice, follow her into the portal.
Upon arrival, they are taken hostage by a population of players controlled with redstone chips by the psychopathy artificial intelligence computer screen PAMA (Prototype: Autonomous Management Agent), who was created by redstone user Harper but, against Harper 's will, controlled the population in order to "make them useful ''. Wanting to invade Jesse 's territory and world, PAMA questions him and takes over Petra and Lukas, allowing it to see what they know. Jesse and Ivor escape PAMA with the help of Harper, who shows them her laboratory, where she reveals that she is an "old builder ''. They are soon attacked by PAMA controlled monsters, alongside the mind controlled Lukas and Petra. Through a stroke of luck, Jesse manages to destroy the redstone chips controlling some spiders, and either Lukas or Petra.
Harper is captured by whoever Jesse did n't free by orders of PAMA, and Harper tells Jesse to find the ' headset '. Eventually, after solving Harper 's puzzle, Jesse finds the headset, and wears it. It allows Jesse to take control over and migrate into PAMA - controlled mobs. Eventually finding Harper being captured by PAMA, Jesse is able to free her, only for her to be recaptured, but finds out from her that PAMA 's internal redstone heart is supposed to be destroyed. Using one of Ivor 's potions, Jesse is able to break into PAMA but is engaged in a fight with either Lukas or Petra before destroying PAMA 's heart. After the townspeople are freed from PAMA 's possession, they discover that Harper had created PAMA, and immediately hate her for it. Harper accompanies the group to the portal hallway, where she unlocks a stairway with the redstone heart leading to where the ' Old Builders ' live, who might be able to help them find their way home, via a "Portal Atlas ''.
Arriving at the Old Builder 's village, the five accidentally interrupt a game of spleef hosted by the Old Builders; Hadrian, Mevia and Otto. Lukas and either Ivor or Petra (whoever Jesse does n't choose to help) are seemingly killed, but respawn to be sent to the Nether mines, where other losers of the Old Builder 's games are sent. Jesse strikes a deal with Hadrian: if Jesse wins the games, they get the Portal Atlas and go home. In the village, Harper explains to Jesse that Hadrian and Mevia began to force players from other worlds to play the games - they would only be free if they won the games, which was virtually rigged.
After freeing Lukas and his other companion from the mines, Jesse successfully completes the second game, despite Hadrian sending the green team to eliminate Jesse. Ivor / Petra (whoever Jesse saved) are killed, but quickly respawn. Harper convinces sympathetic Old Builder Otto to help Jesse. Hadrian reveals to Jesse that he kept Olivia and Axel captive using the Atlas, and makes another deal: If Jesse loses the games, Olivia, Axel, Petra, Lukas, Ivor and Reuben (Hadrian confused the latter with the EnderCon Usher) can go free while Jesse stays imprisoned. Otherwise, everyone stays imprisoned.
The next day, on the third task, Jesse eventually convinces the other teams to cooperate and rebel against Hadrian and Mevia by all winning. Otto accepts this victory, but Hadrian and Mevia trap him and most players, and kill Jesse, and the player respawns in the respawn area, where Emily, leader of the green team, Olivia, Axel, Petra, Lukas, Harper, and Ivor have stolen items for Jesse to defeat the Old Builders. The plan is successful, and they eventually receive the Atlas from Otto. Back in the Portal Hallway, Otto plans to work on making the games fun again. Harper and Emily either return home, stay in the games, or leave with the Order (Jesse 's suggestion), and the Order of the Stone return home. There, after Jesse shows Axel and Olivia their cool new artifacts (the Flint and Steel, the Eversource Crown, the White Pumpkin Head, the Redstone Heart, and the Atlas). Ivor takes the enchanted flint and steel and the Atlas, in which Jesse either decides to go after him or trust him with their new treasure.
Lukas narrates a novel about Jesse and their friends ' adventures and their popularity. As he finishes, Jesse, Axel, and Olivia provide feedback for the novel. Along with Radar, Jesse 's new assistant, the five leave the Order 's palace to prepare for Founding Day celebrations throughout the world. Radar stays with Jesse to help with various tasks in Beacontown. Afterwards, Jesse heads to the mines to meet Petra, who has been sent to find a mystery monster by Stella, who has Petra 's golden sword.
In the mines, Jesse and Petra fight off zombies, then race through the mine shaft to find the "mystery monster '', which turns out to be a llama named Lluna. They capture the llama, and also find a strange glove on top of a pyramid that whispers Jesse 's name. The pyramid collapses and reveals a bottomless pit. They close off the pit and escape. Back on the surface, Jesse leaves a warning sign, and they head to Champion City to take the llama to Stella. The two meet Stella and give the llama back to her. Stella informs Petra that the "adventure '' was a scam and does n't return the sword. The two decide to "steal '' the golden sword back. Once they reach Stella 's treasure room, they find that the sword is missing. Stella shows up, accepts "defeat '', and gives the sword back.
As they head back to Beacontown, the bottomless pit blows open and spews out charged creepers. They fight them off with ease before sealing it again. They head straight to Beacontown to meet Jack, a former treasure hunter. Jack talks to Jesse about the glove, and introduces them to Nurm, who makes Jack 's maps. The four get some armor from the Order 's palace, and head to the ocean temple. As they travel, Jack informs them how the ocean monument is ran by "the Admin '', a creature that plays by its own rules. They suit up in water helmets, and swim to the ocean monument. Jesse completes a door frame, which frees Vos. Jack is surprised that Vos is alive, and the five reach the main part of the temple. They find the two structure blocks, and must pick one. After fighting off stone guards, including "the Admin '', the player can choose to help either Petra or Jack. The five then escape back to Beacontown. After closing the pit with the structure block, everyone celebrates Founding Day. As the celebrations start, "the Admin '' goes after Jesse, vowing to demolish them. While Lukas is at his house writing his novel with his pet ocelot, he sees the Colossus approaching Beacontown, he proceeds to dress up in his armor and ride to help Jesse.
"The Admin '' meets Jesse at Beacontown, and the two fight against each other, destroying part of Beacontown in the process, He uses a giant clock to turn day into night so that monsters would invade the city. "The Admin '' also takes the structure block away from Jesse and swallows it whole. Just as "The Admin '' is about to swallow Jesse whole, Lukas distracts him with a bow to the eye, and saves Jesse from certain death. Jesse then realizes that the symbol on "The Admin 's '' head was the same symbol shown on the back of the Prismarine Golem at the ocean temple, and Jesse realizes that destroying the symbol is the only way of destroying "the Admin ''. With no time to spare, Jesse takes Lukas ' horse, climbs up "the Admin '', and kills it, dropping a giant clock in the process, which Jesse uses to make the sun come up.
In the aftermath, Jesse and others are doing all they can to rebuild Beacontown, and Jesse can choose whether to give Lukas or Radar the title of "Clockmaster '', which basically involves watching a giant clock all day. Jesse then meets up with Jack and Vos, who unintentionally spill that they are about to go on a new adventure with Nurm and Petra, much to the disgust of Jesse. Suddenly, Jesse and Petra see snowflakes falling in Beacontown, and one of them ends up melting inside the glove, revealing "the Admin '' to be a snowman. The snowman then gives Jesse a challenge: Beacontown will remain dark and huddled with hostile mobs until Jesse reclaims the giant clock, which the snowman says is "at the tippy top of my awesome, fantastic, super-deadly icy palace of despair ''. Jesse and numerous others fight off numerous strays and zombies, and the group (consisting of Jesse, Petra, Lukas, Radar, Jack, and Vos) head toward the ice palace. On the way to the ice palace, the group encounter Lluna and Stella, once again talking about their "rivalry ''. The group ignore her, and she eventually tags along with them in order to "keep an eye on them ''. Stella then reveals that Radar was originally part of Stella 's inventory management team.
At the ice palace, the snowman drops the group into the pit, and Jesse can choose whether to go with Lukas or Petra in order to find the clock. The group eventually end up in a roller - coaster - like maze, and meet the snowman once more, giving the group (consisting of Jesse, Lukas, and Radar or Jesse, Petra, Jack, and Vos) several challenges, such as a shooting gallery, parkour, and a fight with a giant snow golem. Nonetheless, the Admin insists that only one person is supposed to win, and throws Radar / Jack into another challenge, with Vos randomly disappearing. The group then mine their way out with a diamond pickaxe and face numerous Snow Endercreepers. Jesse can then choose whether Petra or Jack should get the clock, and whether Stella should come along or leave her be. Petra / Jack makes it up to the clock and destroys it, turning the world back to normal time. Jack insists on finding Vos, and the group help Jack find him. Suddenly, it is revealed that Vos was actually the Admin the entire time as the real Vos died years ago, and he is convinced on partnering up by Stella. The Admin then transports the Glove to whoever destroyed the clock & proceeds to teleport Jesse to a jailhouse.
Jesse arrives at the "Sunshine Institute '', a place where the Admin likes to keep people that he detests as well as people meant to control those people. Jesse immediately tries to escape with help from Jack / Petra (who was not chosen as a champion) where they discover that the prison is in the middle of a labyrinth filled with dangerous monsters. They are immediately apprehended and sent back to the prison. Jesse meets the Warden, a former "Guest '' (prisoner) that was promoted, who proceeds to torture Radar in order to coerce Jesse into becoming an "Associate '' (Guard), which Jesse can either accept this new role or refuse it. If he accepts the role he will be an Associate, but if not the Warden will break Radar 's glasses & give him a black - eye. They also discover that Stella is also an Associate of the deeper floor. After hearing of an attempted escape from Prisoner X, they discover that they need her help in order for them to get out of there.
As an Associate / Guest, Jesse will find another Guest 's secret stash, a Mooshroom. Once the Warden finds out, he will ask Jesse to shear the mushrooms from the Mooshroom to change it back to a regular cow promising a promotion to the lower depths if he obeys. If he shears the cow, Jesse will be promoted to an associate in the lower depths (Jack / Petra, Nurm & Radar will cause trouble to be demoted to follow you), but upon refusal, Jesse and his friends will be demoted to the lower depths as guests. Once in the lower levels, Jesse asks assistance from Stella to make a lever to open Prisoner X 's cell. You can either promise to help her escape as well or not. After successfully opening the gate to Prisoner X 's cell, the Admin shows up, fires the Warden, and forces Jesse & Jack / Petra (whoever became the champion in the previous episode) to fight to the death, but they instead cooperate to try and attack the Admin. Annoyed by this he abandons the Sunshine Institute. Before leaving, however, the Admin comes up with a new plan to impersonate Jesse and take over his perfect life in Beacontown and proceeds to take Stella with him.
They proceed to Prisoner X 's isolated cell, which is booby trapped to explode if no one is standing on at least one stone pressure plate, which means that either Nurm or Lluna (Stella 's llama) need to be left behind so that they can escape. After their escape they learn that Prisoner X, whose name is Xara, is a former Admin. They were told that Xara & another Admin named Fred fought with Romeo (the Admin 's real name) for control of the world, but Fred was killed & Xara 's powers was taken away.
After fighting through the monster - filled labyrinth, Jesse decides to choose to help Xara when she ditches him, or to leave her to fend for herself. Whatever the player choose they will meet up with her at the base of a Diamond Tower. Xara explains that there is a passageway beneath the tower and they need to dig into the bedrock to escape, she also explains that the secret to rid Romeo of his abilities also lies there as well. They enter the passageway, but the audience sees that there is a giant Enderman in the passageway. Romeo, in Jesse 's form, proceeds to give the Order of the Stone 's Amulet to an armored assailant to try and hunt down Jesse & his friends.
The main Minecraft: Story Mode game was separated into five episodes for Season 1, released in one month intervals. Three additional episodes were later released.
In July 2017, the first trailer was released for season 2 revealing a release date of July 11.
The idea for Minecraft: Story Mode came around the end of 2012 when Telltale Games was engaged in work for Tales from the Borderlands, an episodic series based on the Borderlands series. The idea of developing stories around other established video game franchises led the team to brainstorm the idea for a Minecraft - related game, given that the game was essentially a "blank canvas '' for storytelling, according to Job Stauffer, and would create an interesting challenge. The two groups recognized the amount of fan - generated narrative content that existed in the way of YouTube videos and other media forms that demonstrated the potential for storytelling in the game. Many on Telltale 's staff were also already fans of Minecraft, with a private server that they played on, with some of the incidents that occurred on there becoming ideas for the game 's story. Telltale began negotiations with Mojang in early 2013, and began work on the title shortly thereafter. Stauffer noted that Microsoft 's acquisition of Mojang was not a factor in the game 's development, as their interaction with Mojang began well before Microsoft 's negotiations.
Telltale opted to create a new main character of Jesse for Minecraft: Story Mode instead of using default "Steve '' character from Minecraft, feeling that they did not want to attempt to rewrite how players already saw this character in the game. Other primary characters in the game are loosely designed around archetypes of common player - characters for Minecraft, such that those that engage in building, fighting, or griefing other players. The game will not attempt to provide any background for some concepts in Minecraft, such as the creepers, as to avoid the various interpretations that fans have done for these elements, though they are elements of the game 's story.
Stauffer stated that the game 's story would be aimed as family - friendly, similar to the films The Goonies or Ghostbusters; their intended content would be equivalent to a PG - 13 or PEGI - 12 rating. A number of the voice actors are alumni of such films of the 1980s such as Corey Feldman who starred in The Goonies, and the game includes various references to these types of films. Stauffer reflected that while Telltale 's more recent games like The Walking Dead were more mature stories, their original adventure games like Sam & Max and Strong Bad 's Cool Game for Attractive People were written as family - friendly, and that they consider their approach to Minecraft: Story Mode as "part of our DNA ''. The story was aimed to be accessible to both existing players of Minecraft - both novice and advanced players - and to new audiences outside of the game.
Minecraft: Story Mode was formally announced in December 2014 as a collaboration project between Mojang and Telltale; the announcement was presented as an interactive adventure game named "Info Quest II ''. Its first trailer was released during the Minecon 2015 convention in early July. The game is planned for a five - episode series for release on Android, iOS, Microsoft Windows, OS X, PlayStation and Xbox consoles by late 2015; Telltale has confirmed that they will release the game for the Wii U, representing the first time a Minecraft game has been released on a Nintendo platform, as well as the first time a Telltale 's title has been released on a Nintendo platform since Back to the Future: The Game. Minecraft: Story Mode - The Complete Adventure, incorporating both the main episodes and downloadable content, was also announced for the Nintendo Switch.
The series released for most systems on October 13, 2015, with the PlayStation Vita and Wii U versions to follow at a later date. A season pass of the game was available for purchase on October 27, 2015, which allows the player to access the other four episodes once they are released. Retail versions of the game were released on October 27, 2015.
Minecraft: Story Mode -- Season Two was released on July 11, 2017 across five episodes, for Windows, macOS, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One, iOS and Android. It continues the story from the first season, with the player 's choices affecting elements within Season 2. Patton Oswalt, Catherine Taber, Ashley Johnson, and Scott Porter are confirmed to continue voicework for the new season. The game supports the new Crowd Play feature that Telltale introduced in Batman: The Telltale Series, allowing up to 2,000 audience members to vote on decisions for player using Twitch or other streaming services.
On August 3, 2017, Telltale announced that Episode 2, "Giant Consequences '', was released on August 15.
On September 19, 2017, Episode 3 "Jailhouse Block '' was released.
Minecraft: Story Mode received mixed reviews from critics. It received praise for its humor, faithfulness to its source material, action sequences and light hearted tone compared to some of Telltale 's previous works although the presence of technical issues was criticized. Critical reception to the story and characters was widely polarized.
Episode 1: The Order of the Stone received "mixed or average '' reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 71 / 100 based on 25 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 71 / 100 based on 23 reviews and the Xbox One version 77 / 100 based on 13 reviews.
Episode 2: Assembly Required received "mixed or average '' reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 59 / 100 based on 13 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 53 / 100 based on 7 reviews and the Xbox One version 61 / 100 based on 8 reviews.
Episode 3: The Last Place You Look received "mixed or average '' reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 73 / 100 based on 10 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 73 / 100 based on 7 reviews and the Xbox One version 75 / 100 based on 9 reviews.
Episode 4: A Block and a Hard Place received "mixed or average '' reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 68 / 100 based on 8 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 72 / 100 based on 8 reviews and the Xbox One version 71 / 100 based on 8 reviews.
Episode 5: Order Up! received "mixed or average '' reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 70 / 100 based on 6 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 72 / 100 based on 9 reviews and the Xbox One version 69 / 100 based on 6 reviews.
Episode 6: A Portal to Mystery received mixed reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 64 / 100 based on 5 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 69 / 100 based on 6 reviews and the Xbox One version 71 / 100 based on 5 reviews.
Episode 7: Access Denied received mixed reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 69 / 100 based on 4 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 68 / 100 based on 6 reviews and the Xbox One version 71 / 100 based on 5 reviews.
Episode 8: A Journey 's End? received mixed reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the PlayStation 4 version 69 / 100 based on 6 reviews.
Episode 1: Hero in Residence received mixed reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the PC version 71 / 100 based on 8 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 67 / 100 based on 8 reviews, and the Xbox One version 76 / 100 based on 4 reviews.
Episode 2: Giant Consequences received positive reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the PC version 74 / 100, based on 8 reviews, the Playstation 4 version 73 / 100 based on 4 reviews, and the Xbox One version 76 / 100 based on 5 reviews.
Episode 3: Jailhouse Block received mixed reviews. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the PC version 71 / 100, based on 8 reviews, and the Playstation 4 63 / 100 based on 4 reviews.
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how many games did barcelona play last season | 2016 -- 17 FC Barcelona season - wikipedia
The 2016 -- 17 season was Football Club Barcelona 's 117th in existence and the club 's 86th consecutive season in the top flight of Spanish football. Barcelona was involved in four competitions after completing the Double of winning La Liga and Copa del Rey during the last season.
On 1 June, the club announced that Sandro Ramírez 's contract would be rescinded.
On 2 June, Barcelona announced that Dani Alves would be departing the club after eight seasons.
On 3 June, Barcelona announced that German club Borussia Dortmund have informed them of their desire to activate the buy - out clause for Marc Bartra.
On 5 June, the club announced that Denis Suárez will be forming part of the first team for this season.
On 1 July, Barcelona and Neymar negotiated a five - year contract extension lasting until 30 June 2021.
On 4 July, the club completed the transfer of Denis Suárez.
On 12 July, the club announced the transfers of 22 - year - old French international defender Samuel Umtiti from Lyon and Lucas Digne from Paris Saint - Germain for the next five seasons, respectively.
On 14 July, the two transfers were completed.
On 19 July, Barcelona and Sergi Samper negotiated a three - year contract extension lasting until 30 June 2019, including promotion to the first team.
On 19 July, Barcelona and Munir El Haddadi also negotiated a three - year contract extension lasting until 30 June 2019.
On 19 July, Barcelona and Qatar Airways extended sponsorship agreement for one year more.
On 21 July, Barcelona and Valencia reached an agreement for the transfer of Portuguese international midfielder André Gomes. On 26 July, the transfer was completed.
During the press conference of Gomes ' presentation, the club announced midfielder Javier Mascherano 's contract was extended until 30 June 2019.
On 30 July, Barcelona won their first pre-season match against Scottish champions Celtic with a 1 -- 3 score in Dublin as part of the 2016 International Champions Cup.
On 1 August, the club cancelled the contracts of Alex Song and Martín Montoya.
On 3 August, Barcelona defeated English Premier League champions Leicester City 4 -- 2 in Stockholm with goals from Munir (2), Luis Suárez and Barcelona B player Rafa Mújica.
On 6 August, Barcelona were soundly defeated by Liverpool 4 -- 0 at Wembley Stadium in London.
On 8 August, the club loaned Thomas Vermaelen to Italian club Roma with an option to buy.
On 10 August, the 2016 Joan Gamper Trophy was played against Italian club Sampdoria, finishing 3 -- 2 with a goal from Luis Suárez and two from Lionel Messi.
On 14 August, Barcelona won the first official match in the 2016 Supercopa de España against Sevilla with a 0 -- 2 away score.
On 18 August, Barcelona beat Sevilla with 3 -- 0 (5 -- 0 aggregate) and won their 12th Supercopa de España.
On 20 August, Barcelona defeated Real Betis 6 -- 2 in their first Liga match, with a hat - trick from Luis Suárez, two goals from Messi and one from Arda Turan.
On 25 August, the club completed the transfer of 27 - year - old goalkeeper Jasper Cillessen from Ajax on a five - year contract, with goalkeeper Claudio Bravo then joining Manchester City after a two - year spell with Barça. Several hours later, both teams were drawn into Group C of the Champions League draw, alongside Borussia Mönchengladbach and Celtic.
On 28 August, Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 0 -- 1 with a goal from Rakitić and Luis Enrique wins his 100th match as Barça manager, Ter Stegen made most goalkeeper passes in one single match in LaLiga.
On 30 August, the club completed the last transfer of Paco Alcácer from Valencia.
On 10 September, in the match against Deportivo Alavés, Barcelona suffered a 1 - 2 defeat.
On 13 September, Barcelona defeated Celtic 7 -- 0 in the opening match of Group C in the Champions League. Messi notched his first hat - trick of the season, while Neymar provided four assists and a free - kick goal.
On 17 September, Barcelona faced for the first time recently promoted Leganés at the Estadio Municipal de Butarque. Barcelona won 1 -- 5 with two goals from Messi and one each from Luis Suárez, Neymar and Rafinha.
On 21 September, Barcelona drew against Atlético Madrid 1 -- 1; Ivan Rakitić gave Barça the lead before half - time, but Atlético battled back to draw level in the second half after Messi was substituted out due to injury.
On 24 September, Barcelona won 0 -- 5 over Sporting de Gijón through two goals from Neymar and one each from Suárez, Turan and Rafinha.
On 28 September, Barcelona defeated Borussia Mönchengladbach 1 -- 2 with goals from Turan and Gerard Piqué, turning around a 1 -- 0 first - half deficit to Barça top of Group C.
On 2 October, Barcelona lost to Celta de Vigo 4 -- 3; a second - half resurgence not enough for Luis Enrique 's side as they finished on the wrong end of a seven - goal thriller away in Vigo.
On 15 October, Barcelona defeated Deportivo de La Coruña 4 -- 0 with two goals from Rafinha and one each from Luis Suárez and Messi, the latter who returned from injury in the match.
On 19 October, Barcelona defeated Manchester City -- led by former Barça manager Pep Guardiola -- 4 -- 0 at home on the strength of a Messi hat - trick.
On 22 October, Barcelona defeated Valencia 2 -- 3 at Mestalla, Messi spot - kick in injury time secured three points out of an electrifying encounter.
On 29 October, Barcelona won against Granada 1 -- 0 in the 1,500 th game at Camp Nou, Barça found it tough to breakdown the stubborn visitors but Rafinha 's strike was enough to claim the win.
On 1 November, Barcelona was defeated by Manchester City 3 -- 1 at Manchester, Guardiola 's team came from behind after Messi opened scoring.
On 6 November, Barcelona won 1 -- 2 against Sevilla at the Sánchez Pizjuán; Messi canceled out Vitolo 's opener late in the first half before setting up Luis Suárez for the winner in a frenetic game.
On 16 November, the club announced Rakuten signed up as FC Barcelona 's new main global partner; the Japanese company will appear on the front of the team 's shirt and become the Global Innovation and Entertainment Partner for the next four seasons, starting 1 July 2017.
On 19 November, Barça drew Málaga 0 -- 0, a domineering performance was frustrated by 90 minutes of intense Andalusian defending.
On 23 November, Barcelona won 2 -- 0 against Celtic at Celtic Park; coupled with Man City 's draw in Germany, they clinched a seeded berth in the round of sixteen. Also in this game Messi reached 100 goals in international competitions for Barcelona.
On 27 November, Barcelona drew 1 -- 1 with Real Sociedad at Anoeta, Messi 's second - half leveller halted Barça 's run of four straight league losses in San Sebastian.
On 30 November, Barcelona drew Hércules 1 -- 1, a fine long range strike from debutant Aleña gave Barça a slight advantage going into the second leg.
On 3 December, Barcelona drew 1 -- 1 with Real Madrid, Luis Suárez ' header being cancelled out by 90th minute Ramos equaliser.
On 6 December, Barcelona won 4 -- 0 against Borussia Mönchengladbach, a game which saw a hat - trick from Arda Turan.
On 10 December, Barcelona won Osasuna 0 -- 3, Luis Suárez breaks the deadlock in the second half, and two further goals from Leo Messi go on to claim all three points in Pamplona.
On 12 December, Barcelona were drawn against Paris Saint - Germain in the round of 16 of the Champions League.
On 15 December, Barcelona and Suárez negotiated a five - year contract extension lasting until 30 June 2021.
On 18 December, Barcelona won 4 -- 1 against Espanyol in the Derbi barceloní.
On 21 December, Barcelona won 7 -- 0 against Hércules; Paco Alcácer scored his first official goal and Arda Turan got a hat - trick as Barça cruised into the last 16 of the Copa del Rey.
On 23 December, Barcelona was drawn against Athletic Club in the round of 16 of the Copa del Rey.
On 8 January Barcelona drew 1 -- 1 with Villarreal, with Messi scoring the equalizer in the 90th minute.
On 11 January, Barcelona won 3 - 1 against Athletic Bilbao, goals from Suárez, Neymar and Messi secured an action - packed victory that kept alive the quest for a third consecutive Copa del Rey trophy.
On 14 January, Barcelona won 5 - 0 against Las Palmas, a brace from Luis Suárez and one each for Leo Messi, Arda Turan and Aleix Vidal gave Barça a winning home start to the league in 2017.
On 19 January Barcelona won 0 -- 1 against Real Sociedad, Neymar 's 21st - minute penalty ended decade of disappointments in San Sebastián.
On 22 January, Barcelona won 0 - 4 against Eibar, a first - half strike from Denis followed by a goal each from the trident in the second secured another three points to stay within reach of the top two.
On 26 January, Barcelona won 5 - 2 against Real Sociedad, a brace from Denis Suárez and further goals by Leo Messi, Luis Suárez and Arda Turan sent Barça into the final four of the Copa del Rey.
On 29 January Barcelona drew 1 -- 1 with Real Betis, an incident - packed game saw Suárez snatched a draw in the 90th minute after the Catalans had already seen at least one valid equaliser overruled.
On 1 February, Barcelona won 2 - 1 against Atlético Madrid, Suárez and Messi put them in command but Griezmann 's second half header kept Atlético alive.
On 4 February, Barcelona won 3 - 0 against Athletic Club Bilbao, Paco Alcácer, Leo Messi, and Aleix Vidal all found the net.
On 7 February, Barcelona draw 1 - 1 against Atlético Madrid, Luis Suárez 's tap - in just before half - time was enough to see the Catalans into a fourth consecutive Copa del Rey final despite late drama which saw the visitors equalise and a player sent off.
On 11 February, Barcelona won 6 - 0 against Alavés. Luis Suárez (2), Neymar Jr, Leo Messi and Ivan Rakitic were on target, plus one own goal; Aleix Vidal suffered a very serious ankle injury late in the game.
On 14 February, Barcelona lost 4 - 0 against Paris Saint - Germain in the first leg of the first knockout round of the Champions League.
On 19 February, Barcelona won 2 - 1 against Leganés, Leo Messi 's 90th - minute penalty won the game at the Camp Nou.
On 26 February, Barcelona won 2 - 1 against Atlético Madrid, Rafinha 's opener was quickly cancelled out by Godín 's header but Messi sealed three points in the closing stages.
On 1 March, Barcelona won 6 - 1 against Sporting Gijón, with goals from Messi, Suárez, Alcácer, Neymar Jr, Rakitić and an own goal at the Camp Nou. During the press conference after the match, Luis Enrique announced his decision to leave at the end of the season.
On 4 March, Barcelona won 5 - 0 against Celta, with goals from Messi (2), Neymar, Rakitic and Umtiti.
On 8 March, Barça came back from a 4 - 0 deficit in the first leg. In the second leg, they were up 3 - 1, but by way of scoring three goals in the last seven minutes, they advanced. Marc - Andre Ter Stegen 's saves coupled with Neymar 's brace and Sergi Roberto 's goal at the death clinched the 6 - 5 aggregate win.
On 9 March, Barcelona and Rakitic negotiated a four - year contract extension lasting until 30 June 2021.
On 12 March, Barcelona lost to Deportivo la Coruña 2 -- 1, two goals from corners condemned Barça to defeat in Galicia, with Luis Suárez scoring in between.
On 17 March, Barcelona were drawn against Juventus in the quarter finals of the Champions League.
On 19 March, Barcelona won 4 - 2 against Valencia, with goals from Suárez, André Gomes and a brace from Messi.
Barcelona defeated Granada on 2 April 1 -- 4 away, goals from Suárez, Alcácer, Rakitic and Neymar handed Barça another three points to keep in close proximity of the top.
On 5 April, Barcelona defeated Sevilla 3 - 0, with a goal from Suárez and two from Messi in 8 minutes.
On 8 April, Barcelona lost to Málaga 2 -- 0, ten - man Barça missed out on the chance to return to the top of the table.
On 11 April, Barcelona lost to Juventus 3 -- 0, Barça could not break through Juve 's rock - solid defense.
On 15 April, Barcelona beat Real Sociedad 3 -- 2, Barça edged past La Real in a hard - fought duel thanked to two goals from Leo Messi and one from Paco Alcácer.
On 19 April, Barcelona drew 0 - 0 with Juventus, Barça bade farewell to the Champions League after being unable to break down a resilient Juve backline.
On 23 April, Barcelona beat Real Madrid 3 - 2, Barça grabbed a dramatic victory at the Santiago Bernabéu thanks to an injury - time strike from Leo Messi to move joint - top of the table. The Argentine star scored his 500th official goal in blaugrana colours at the same time.
On 26 April, Barcelona beat Osasuna 7 -- 1, braces for Gomes, Messi and Alcácer, and a first ever Barça goal for Mascherano, earned the points.
On 29 April, Barcelona beat Espanyol 3 - 0, all goals after half time, including a Suárez brace and one from Rakitic, to stay top of the table.
On 6 May, Barcelona beat Villarreal 4 -- 1, Messi, Suarez and Neymar all scored to keep the Liga title challenge alive, in the process surpassing a combined 100 goals for a third consecutive season.
On 14 May, Barcelona beat Las Palmas 4 - 1, Neymar Jr scored three of the four goals that meant the championship race would now go to the last weekend.
On 21 May, Barcelona won Eibar 4 - 2, Luis Enrique 's men rally back from two goals down to claim victory on the final day of the league campaign but it was not enough to earn the title.
On 27 May, Barcelona won Alavés 3 - 1, Barça become the first side since the 1950s to win the Copa del Rey three years in a row, on Luis Enrique 's last game in charge.
On 29 May, Barcelona and Ter Stegen negotiated a five - year contract extension lasting until 30 June 2022.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Total spending: € 122.75 M
Total income: € 31.6 million
Net: € 91.15 million
Last updated: 26 August 2015 Source: FC Barcelona First Team, FC Barcelona B Team, Luis Enrique 's full staff, Football Area Technical Commission
Last updated: 5 August 2016 Source: La liga statistics, UEFA Champions League statistics, Copa Del Rey statistics
Players Used: Barcelona has used a total of -- different players in all competitions.
Last updated: 27 May 2017
(H) -- Home; (A) -- Away
As of 14 January 2017.
Includes all competitive matches. Players listed below made at least one appearance for Barcelona first squad during the season.
Last updated: 27 May 2017 Source: ESPNFC.com, FCBarcelona.com Ordered by, and = Number of bookings; = Number of sending offs after a second yellow card; = Number of sending offs by a direct red card.
- Player is injured - Player has recovered from injury Last updated: 18 December 2017 Source: FC Barcelona
Win Draw Loss
Win Draw Loss
Last updated: 27 May 2017 (2017 - 05 - 27). Source: Competitions
Last updated: 21 May 2017 (2017 - 05 - 21). Source: League matches
Ground: A = Away; H = Home. Result: D = Draw; L = Loss; W = Win; P = Postponed.
Note: Sergio was given a yellow card (90 + 6 ') which was later rescinded by the Royal Spanish Football Federation.
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at age 17 became a court musician in salzburg austria | Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart - wikipedia
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (/ ˈwʊlfɡæŋ æməˈdeɪəs ˈmoʊtsɑːrt / MOHT - sart; German: (ˈvɔlfɡaŋ amaˈdeːʊs ˈmoːtsaʁt); 27 January 1756 -- 5 December 1791), baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era.
Born in Salzburg, he showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood. Already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. At 17, Mozart was engaged as a musician at the Salzburg court, but grew restless and traveled in search of a better position. While visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in the capital, where he achieved fame but little financial security. During his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best - known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his death.
The circumstances of his early death have been much mythologized. He was survived by his wife Constanze and two sons.
He composed more than 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most enduringly popular of classical composers, and his influence is profound on subsequent Western art music. Ludwig van Beethoven composed his own early works in the shadow of Mozart, and Joseph Haydn wrote: "posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years ''.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born on 27 January 1756 to Leopold Mozart (1719 -- 1787) and Anna Maria, née Pertl (1720 -- 1778), at 9 Getreidegasse in Salzburg. This was the capital of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, an ecclesiastic principality in what is now Austria, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was the youngest of seven children, five of whom died in infancy. His elder sister was Maria Anna Mozart (1751 -- 1829), nicknamed "Nannerl ''. Mozart was baptized the day after his birth, at St. Rupert 's Cathedral in Salzburg. The baptismal record gives his name in Latinized form, as Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart. He generally called himself "Wolfgang Amadè Mozart '' as an adult, but his name had many variants.
Leopold Mozart, a native of Augsburg, Germany, was a minor composer and an experienced teacher. In 1743, he was appointed as fourth violinist in the musical establishment of Count Leopold Anton von Firmian, the ruling Prince - Archbishop of Salzburg. Four years later, he married Anna Maria in Salzburg. Leopold became the orchestra 's deputy Kapellmeister in 1763. During the year of his son 's birth, Leopold published a violin textbook, Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule, which achieved success.
When Nannerl was 7, she began keyboard lessons with her father, while her three - year - old brother looked on. Years later, after her brother 's death, she reminisced:
He often spent much time at the clavier, picking out thirds, which he was ever striking, and his pleasure showed that it sounded good... In the fourth year of his age his father, for a game as it were, began to teach him a few minuets and pieces at the clavier... He could play it faultlessly and with the greatest delicacy, and keeping exactly in time... At the age of five, he was already composing little pieces, which he played to his father who wrote them down.
These early pieces, K. 1 -- 5, were recorded in the Nannerl Notenbuch. There is some scholarly debate about whether Mozart was four or five years old when he created his first musical compositions, though there is little doubt that Mozart composed his first three pieces of music within a few weeks of each other: K. 1a, 1b, and 1c.
In his early years, Wolfgang 's father was his only teacher. Along with music, he taught his children languages and academic subjects. Solomon notes that, while Leopold was a devoted teacher to his children, there is evidence that Mozart was keen to progress beyond what he was taught. His first ink - spattered composition and his precocious efforts with the violin were of his own initiative, and came as a surprise to Leopold, who eventually gave up composing when his son 's musical talents became evident.
While Wolfgang was young, his family made several European journeys in which he and Nannerl performed as child prodigies. These began with an exhibition in 1762 at the court of Prince - elector Maximilian III of Bavaria in Munich, and at the Imperial Courts in Vienna and Prague. A long concert tour followed, spanning three and a half years, taking the family to the courts of Munich, Mannheim, Paris, London, The Hague, again to Paris, and back home via Zurich, Donaueschingen, and Munich. During this trip, Wolfgang met a number of musicians and acquainted himself with the works of other composers. A particularly important influence was Johann Christian Bach, whom he visited in London in 1764 and 1765. The family again went to Vienna in late 1767 and remained there until December 1768.
Mozart wrote his first symphony when he was eight years old. It is probable that his father transcribed most of it for him.
The family trips were often difficult, and travel conditions were primitive. They had to wait for invitations and reimbursement from the nobility, and they endured long, near - fatal illnesses far from home: first Leopold (London, summer 1764), then both children (The Hague, autumn 1765).
After one year in Salzburg, Leopold and Wolfgang set off for Italy, leaving Anna Maria and Nannerl at home. This tour lasted from December 1769 to March 1771. As with earlier journeys, Leopold wanted to display his son 's abilities as a performer and a rapidly maturing composer. Wolfgang met Josef Mysliveček and Giovanni Battista Martini in Bologna, and was accepted as a member of the famous Accademia Filarmonica. In Rome, he heard Gregorio Allegri 's Miserere twice in performance, in the Sistine Chapel, and wrote it out from memory, thus producing the first unauthorized copy of this closely guarded property of the Vatican.
In Milan, Mozart wrote the opera Mitridate, re di Ponto (1770), which was performed with success. This led to further opera commissions. He returned with his father twice to Milan (August -- December 1771; October 1772 -- March 1773) for the composition and premieres of Ascanio in Alba (1771) and Lucio Silla (1772). Leopold hoped that these visits would result in a professional appointment for his son, and indeed ruling Archduke Ferdinand contemplated hiring Mozart but owing to his mother Empress Maria Theresa 's reluctance to employ "useless people '', the matter was dropped and Leopold 's hopes were never realized.
Toward the end of the final Italian journey, Mozart wrote the first of his works to be still widely performed today, the solo motet Exsultate, jubilate, K. 165.
After finally returning with his father from Italy on 13 March 1773, Mozart was employed as a court musician by the ruler of Salzburg, Prince - Archbishop Hieronymus Colloredo. The composer had a great number of friends and admirers in Salzburg and had the opportunity to work in many genres, including symphonies, sonatas, string quartets, masses, serenades, and a few minor operas. Between April and December 1775, Mozart developed an enthusiasm for violin concertos, producing a series of five (the only ones he ever wrote), which steadily increased in their musical sophistication. The last three -- K. 216, K. 218, K. 219 -- are now staples of the repertoire. In 1776, he turned his efforts to piano concertos, culminating in the E-flat concerto K. 271 of early 1777, considered by critics to be a breakthrough work.
Despite these artistic successes, Mozart grew increasingly discontented with Salzburg and redoubled his efforts to find a position elsewhere. One reason was his low salary, 150 florins a year; Mozart longed to compose operas, and Salzburg provided only rare occasions for these. The situation worsened in 1775 when the court theater was closed, especially since the other theater in Salzburg was largely reserved for visiting troupes.
Two long expeditions in search of work interrupted this long Salzburg stay. Mozart and his father visited Vienna from 14 July to 26 September 1773, and Munich from 6 December 1774 to March 1775. Neither visit was successful, though the Munich journey resulted in a popular success with the premiere of Mozart 's opera La finta giardiniera.
In August 1777, Mozart resigned his position at Salzburg and on 23 September ventured out once more in search of employment, with visits to Augsburg, Mannheim, Paris, and Munich.
Mozart became acquainted with members of the famous orchestra in Mannheim, the best in Europe at the time. He also fell in love with Aloysia Weber, one of four daughters of a musical family. There were prospects of employment in Mannheim, but they came to nothing, and Mozart left for Paris on 14 March 1778 to continue his search. One of his letters from Paris hints at a possible post as an organist at Versailles, but Mozart was not interested in such an appointment. He fell into debt and took to pawning valuables. The nadir of the visit occurred when Mozart 's mother was taken ill and died on 3 July 1778. There had been delays in calling a doctor -- probably, according to Halliwell, because of a lack of funds. Mozart stayed with Melchior Grimm, who, as personal secretary of the Duke d'Orléans, lived in his mansion.
While Mozart was in Paris, his father was pursuing opportunities of employment for him in Salzburg. With the support of the local nobility, Mozart was offered a post as court organist and concertmaster. The annual salary was 450 florins, but he was reluctant to accept. By that time, relations between Grimm and Mozart had cooled, and Mozart moved out. After leaving Paris in September 1778 for Strasbourg, he lingered in Mannheim and Munich, still hoping to obtain an appointment outside Salzburg. In Munich, he again encountered Aloysia, now a very successful singer, but she was no longer interested in him. Mozart finally returned to Salzburg on 15 January 1779 and took up his new appointment, but his discontentment with Salzburg remained undiminished.
Among the better known works which Mozart wrote on the Paris journey are the A minor piano sonata, K. 310 / 300d and the "Paris '' Symphony (No. 31), which were performed in Paris on 12 and 18 June 1778.
In January 1781, Mozart 's opera Idomeneo premiered with "considerable success '' in Munich. The following March, Mozart was summoned to Vienna, where his employer, Archbishop Colloredo, was attending the celebrations for the accession of Joseph II to the Austrian throne. For Colloredo, this was simply a matter of wanting his musical servant to be at hand (Mozart indeed was required to dine in Colloredo 's establishment with the valets and cooks.) But Mozart was planning a bigger career even as he continued in the archbishop 's service; for example, to his father he wrote:
My main goal right now is to meet the emperor in some agreeable fashion, I am absolutely determined he should get to know me. I would be so happy if I could whip through my opera for him and then play a fugue or two, for that 's what he likes.
Mozart did indeed soon meet the Emperor, who eventually was to support his career substantially with commissions and a part - time position.
In the same letter to his father just quoted, Mozart outlined his plans to participate as a soloist in the concerts of the Tonkünstler - Societät, a prominent benefit concert series; this plan as well came to pass after the local nobility prevailed on Colloredo to drop his opposition.
Colloredo 's wish to prevent Mozart from performing outside his own establishment was in other cases, however, carried through, raising the composer 's anger; one example was a chance to perform before the Emperor at Countess Thun 's for a fee equal to half of his yearly Salzburg salary.
The quarrel with the archbishop came to a head in May: Mozart attempted to resign and was refused. The following month, permission was granted, but in a grossly insulting way: the composer was dismissed literally "with a kick in the arse '', administered by the archbishop 's steward, Count Arco. Mozart decided to settle in Vienna as a freelance performer and composer.
The quarrel with the archbishop went harder for Mozart because his father sided against him. Hoping fervently that he would obediently follow Colloredo back to Salzburg, Mozart 's father exchanged intense letters with his son, urging him to be reconciled with their employer. Mozart passionately defended his intention to pursue an independent career in Vienna. The debate ended when Mozart was dismissed by the archbishop, freeing himself both of his employer and his father 's demands to return. Solomon characterizes Mozart 's resignation as a "revolutionary step '', and it greatly altered the course of his life.
Mozart 's new career in Vienna began well. He performed often as a pianist, notably in a competition before the Emperor with Muzio Clementi on 24 December 1781, and he soon "had established himself as the finest keyboard player in Vienna ''. He also prospered as a composer, and in 1782 completed the opera Die Entführung aus dem Serail ("The Abduction from the Seraglio ''), which premiered on 16 July 1782 and achieved a huge success. The work was soon being performed "throughout German - speaking Europe '', and fully established Mozart 's reputation as a composer.
Near the height of his quarrels with Colloredo, Mozart moved in with the Weber family, who had moved to Vienna from Mannheim. The father, Fridolin, had died, and the Webers were now taking in lodgers to make ends meet.
Aloysia, who had earlier rejected Mozart 's suit, was now married to the actor and artist Joseph Lange. Mozart 's interest shifted to the third Weber daughter, Constanze.
The courtship did not go entirely smoothly; surviving correspondence indicates that Mozart and Constanze briefly separated in April 1782. Mozart faced a very difficult task in getting his father 's permission for the marriage. The couple were finally married on 4 August 1782 in St. Stephen 's Cathedral, the day before his father 's consent arrived in the mail.
The couple had six children, of whom only two survived infancy:
In the course of 1782 and 1783, Mozart became intimately acquainted with the work of Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel as a result of the influence of Gottfried van Swieten, who owned many manuscripts of the Baroque masters. Mozart 's study of these scores inspired compositions in Baroque style and later influenced his personal musical language, for example in fugal passages in Die Zauberflöte ("The Magic Flute '') and the finale of Symphony No. 41.
In 1783, Mozart and his wife visited his family in Salzburg. His father and sister were cordially polite to Constanze, but the visit prompted the composition of one of Mozart 's great liturgical pieces, the Mass in C minor. Though not completed, it was premiered in Salzburg, with Constanze singing a solo part.
Mozart met Joseph Haydn in Vienna around 1784, and the two composers became friends. When Haydn visited Vienna, they sometimes played together in an impromptu string quartet. Mozart 's six quartets dedicated to Haydn (K. 387, K. 421, K. 428, K. 458, K. 464, and K. 465) date from the period 1782 to 1785, and are judged to be a response to Haydn 's Opus 33 set from 1781. Haydn in 1785 told Mozart 's father: "I tell you before God, and as an honest man, your son is the greatest composer known to me by person and repute, he has taste and what is more the greatest skill in composition. ''
From 1782 to 1785 Mozart mounted concerts with himself as soloist, presenting three or four new piano concertos in each season. Since space in the theaters was scarce, he booked unconventional venues: a large room in the Trattnerhof (an apartment building), and the ballroom of the Mehlgrube (a restaurant). The concerts were very popular, and the concertos he premiered at them are still firm fixtures in the repertoire. Solomon writes that during this period Mozart created "a harmonious connection between an eager composer - performer and a delighted audience, which was given the opportunity of witnessing the transformation and perfection of a major musical genre ''.
With substantial returns from his concerts and elsewhere, Mozart and his wife adopted a rather plush lifestyle. They moved to an expensive apartment, with a yearly rent of 460 florins. Mozart bought a fine fortepiano from Anton Walter for about 900 florins, and a billiard table for about 300. The Mozarts sent their son Karl Thomas to an expensive boarding school, and kept servants. Saving was therefore impossible, and the short period of financial success did nothing to soften the hardship the Mozarts were later to experience.
On 14 December 1784, Mozart became a Freemason, admitted to the lodge Zur Wohltätigkeit ("Beneficence ''). Freemasonry played an important role in the remainder of Mozart 's life: he attended meetings, a number of his friends were Masons, and on various occasions he composed Masonic music, e.g. the Maurerische Trauermusik.
Despite the great success of Die Entführung aus dem Serail, Mozart did little operatic writing for the next four years, producing only two unfinished works and the one - act Der Schauspieldirektor. He focused instead on his career as a piano soloist and writer of concertos. Around the end of 1785, Mozart moved away from keyboard writing and began his famous operatic collaboration with the librettist Lorenzo Da Ponte. 1786 saw the successful premiere of The Marriage of Figaro in Vienna. Its reception in Prague later in the year was even warmer, and this led to a second collaboration with Da Ponte: the opera Don Giovanni, which premiered in October 1787 to acclaim in Prague, but less success in Vienna in 1788. The two are among Mozart 's most important works and are mainstays of the operatic repertoire today, though at their premieres their musical complexity caused difficulty for both listeners and performers. These developments were not witnessed by Mozart 's father, who had died on 28 May 1787.
In December 1787, Mozart finally obtained a steady post under aristocratic patronage. Emperor Joseph II appointed him as his "chamber composer '', a post that had fallen vacant the previous month on the death of Gluck. It was a part - time appointment, paying just 800 florins per year, and required Mozart only to compose dances for the annual balls in the Redoutensaal (see Mozart and dance). This modest income became important to Mozart when hard times arrived. Court records show that Joseph 's aim was to keep the esteemed composer from leaving Vienna in pursuit of better prospects.
In 1787, the young Ludwig van Beethoven spent several weeks in Vienna, hoping to study with Mozart. No reliable records survive to indicate whether the two composers ever met.
Toward the end of the decade, Mozart 's circumstances worsened. Around 1786 he had ceased to appear frequently in public concerts, and his income shrank. This was a difficult time for musicians in Vienna because of the Austro - Turkish War: both the general level of prosperity and the ability of the aristocracy to support music had declined.
By mid-1788, Mozart and his family had moved from central Vienna to the suburb of Alsergrund. Although it has been suggested that Mozart 's aim was to reduce his rental expenses, research shows that by moving to the suburb, Mozart had not in fact reduced his expenses (as claimed in his letter to Puchberg), but merely increased the housing space at his disposal. Mozart began to borrow money, most often from his friend and fellow Mason Michael Puchberg; "a pitiful sequence of letters pleading for loans '' survives. Maynard Solomon and others have suggested that Mozart was suffering from depression, and it seems that his output slowed. Major works of the period include the last three symphonies (Nos. 39, 40, and 41, all from 1788), and the last of the three Da Ponte operas, Così fan tutte, premiered in 1790.
Around this time, Mozart made some long journeys hoping to improve his fortunes: to Leipzig, Dresden, and Berlin in the spring of 1789, and to Frankfurt, Mannheim, and other German cities in 1790. The trips produced only isolated success and did not relieve the family 's financial distress.
Mozart 's last year was, until his final illness struck, a time of great productivity -- and by some accounts, one of personal recovery. He composed a great deal, including some of his most admired works: the opera The Magic Flute; the final piano concerto (K. 595 in B - flat); the Clarinet Concerto K. 622; the last in his great series of string quintets (K. 614 in E-flat); the motet Ave verum corpus K. 618; and the unfinished Requiem K. 626.
Mozart 's financial situation, a source of anxiety in 1790, finally began to improve. Although the evidence is inconclusive, it appears that wealthy patrons in Hungary and Amsterdam pledged annuities to Mozart in return for the occasional composition. He is thought to have benefited from the sale of dance music written in his role as Imperial chamber composer. Mozart no longer borrowed large sums from Puchberg, and made a start on paying off his debts.
He experienced great satisfaction in the public success of some of his works, notably The Magic Flute (which was performed several times in the short period between its premiere and Mozart 's death) and the Little Masonic Cantata K. 623, premiered on 17 November 1791.
Mozart fell ill while in Prague for the 6 September 1791 premiere of his opera La clemenza di Tito, written in that same year on commission for the Emperor 's coronation festivities. He continued his professional functions for some time and conducted the premiere of The Magic Flute on 30 September. His health deteriorated on 20 November, at which point he became bedridden, suffering from swelling, pain, and vomiting.
Mozart was nursed in his final illness by his wife and her youngest sister, and was attended by the family doctor, Thomas Franz Closset. He was mentally occupied with the task of finishing his Requiem, but the evidence that he actually dictated passages to his student Franz Xaver Süssmayr is minimal.
Mozart died in his home on 5 December 1791 (1791 - 12 - 05) (aged 35) at 12: 55 am. The New Grove describes his funeral:
Mozart was interred in a common grave, in accordance with contemporary Viennese custom, at the St. Marx Cemetery outside the city on 7 December. If, as later reports say, no mourners attended, that too is consistent with Viennese burial customs at the time; later Jahn (1856) wrote that Salieri, Süssmayr, van Swieten and two other musicians were present. The tale of a storm and snow is false; the day was calm and mild.
The expression "common grave '' refers to neither a communal grave nor a pauper 's grave, but to an individual grave for a member of the common people (i.e., not the aristocracy). Common graves were subject to excavation after ten years; the graves of aristocrats were not.
The cause of Mozart 's death can not be known with certainty. The official record has it as hitziges Frieselfieber ("severe miliary fever '', referring to a rash that looks like millet seeds), more a description of the symptoms than a diagnosis. Researchers have posited at least 118 causes of death, including acute rheumatic fever, streptococcal infection, trichinosis, influenza, mercury poisoning, and a rare kidney ailment.
Mozart 's modest funeral did not reflect his standing with the public as a composer; memorial services and concerts in Vienna and Prague were well - attended. Indeed, in the period immediately after his death, his reputation rose substantially. Solomon describes an "unprecedented wave of enthusiasm '' for his work; biographies were written (first by Schlichtegroll, Niemetschek, and Nissen); and publishers vied to produce complete editions of his works.
Mozart 's physical appearance was described by tenor Michael Kelly, in his Reminiscences: "a remarkably small man, very thin and pale, with a profusion of fine, fair hair of which he was rather vain ''. His early biographer Niemetschek wrote, "there was nothing special about (his) physique. (...) He was small and his countenance, except for his large intense eyes, gave no signs of his genius. '' His facial complexion was pitted, a reminder of his childhood case of smallpox. He loved elegant clothing. Kelly remembered him at a rehearsal: "(He) was on the stage with his crimson pelisse and gold - laced cocked hat, giving the time of the music to the orchestra. '' Of his voice his wife later wrote that it "was a tenor, rather soft in speaking and delicate in singing, but when anything excited him, or it became necessary to exert it, it was both powerful and energetic ''.
Mozart usually worked long and hard, finishing compositions at a tremendous pace as deadlines approached. He often made sketches and drafts; unlike Beethoven 's these are mostly not preserved, as his wife sought to destroy them after his death.
Mozart lived at the center of the Viennese musical world, and knew a great number and variety of people: fellow musicians, theatrical performers, fellow Salzburgers, and aristocrats, including some acquaintance with the Emperor Joseph II. Solomon considers his three closest friends to have been Gottfried von Jacquin, Count August Hatzfeld, and Sigmund Barisani; others included his older colleague Joseph Haydn, singers Franz Xaver Gerl and Benedikt Schack, and the horn player Joseph Leutgeb. Leutgeb and Mozart carried on a curious kind of friendly mockery, often with Leutgeb as the butt of Mozart 's practical jokes.
He enjoyed billiards and dancing, and kept pets: a canary, a starling, a dog, and a horse for recreational riding. He had a startling fondness for scatological humor, which is preserved in his surviving letters, notably those written to his cousin Maria Anna Thekla Mozart around 1777 -- 1778, and in his correspondence with his sister and parents. Mozart also wrote scatological music, a series of canons that he sang with his friends.
Mozart was raised a Roman Catholic and remained a devout member of the church throughout his life.
Mozart 's music, like Haydn 's, stands as an archetype of the Classical style. At the time he began composing, European music was dominated by the style galant, a reaction against the highly evolved intricacy of the Baroque. Progressively, and in large part at the hands of Mozart himself, the contrapuntal complexities of the late Baroque emerged once more, moderated and disciplined by new forms, and adapted to a new aesthetic and social milieu. Mozart was a versatile composer, and wrote in every major genre, including symphony, opera, the solo concerto, chamber music including string quartet and string quintet, and the piano sonata. These forms were not new, but Mozart advanced their technical sophistication and emotional reach. He almost single - handedly developed and popularized the Classical piano concerto. He wrote a great deal of religious music, including large - scale masses, as well as dances, divertimenti, serenades, and other forms of light entertainment.
The central traits of the Classical style are all present in Mozart 's music. Clarity, balance, and transparency are the hallmarks of his work, but simplistic notions of its delicacy mask the exceptional power of his finest masterpieces, such as the Piano Concerto No. 24 in C minor, K. 491; the Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K. 550; and the opera Don Giovanni. Charles Rosen makes the point forcefully:
It is only through recognizing the violence and sensuality at the center of Mozart 's work that we can make a start towards a comprehension of his structures and an insight into his magnificence. In a paradoxical way, Schumann 's superficial characterization of the G minor Symphony can help us to see Mozart 's daemon more steadily. In all of Mozart 's supreme expressions of suffering and terror, there is something shockingly voluptuous.
During his last decade, Mozart frequently exploited chromatic harmony. A notable instance is his String Quartet in C major, K. 465 (1785), whose introduction abounds in chromatic suspensions, giving rise to the work 's nickname, the "Dissonance '' quartet.
Mozart always had a gift for absorbing and adapting valuable features of others ' music. His travels helped in the forging of a unique compositional language. In London as a child, he met J. C. Bach and heard his music. In Paris, Mannheim, and Vienna he met with other compositional influences, as well as the avant - garde capabilities of the Mannheim orchestra. In Italy he encountered the Italian overture and opera buffa, both of which deeply affected the evolution of his own practice. In London and Italy, the galant style was in the ascendent: simple, light music with a mania for cadencing; an emphasis on tonic, dominant, and subdominant to the exclusion of other harmonies; symmetrical phrases; and clearly articulated partitions in the overall form of movements. Some of Mozart 's early symphonies are Italian overtures, with three movements running into each other; many are homotonal (all three movements having the same key signature, with the slow middle movement being in the relative minor). Others mimic the works of J. C. Bach, and others show the simple rounded binary forms turned out by Viennese composers.
As Mozart matured, he progressively incorporated more features adapted from the Baroque. For example, the Symphony No. 29 in A major K. 201 has a contrapuntal main theme in its first movement, and experimentation with irregular phrase lengths. Some of his quartets from 1773 have fugal finales, probably influenced by Haydn, who had included three such finales in his recently published Opus 20 set. The influence of the Sturm und Drang ("Storm and Stress '') period in music, with its brief foreshadowing of the Romantic era, is evident in the music of both composers at that time. Mozart 's Symphony No. 25 in G minor K. 183 is another excellent example.
Mozart would sometimes switch his focus between operas and instrumental music. He produced operas in each of the prevailing styles: opera buffa, such as The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, and Così fan tutte; opera seria, such as Idomeneo; and Singspiel, of which Die Zauberflöte is the most famous example by any composer. In his later operas he employed subtle changes in instrumentation, orchestral texture, and tone color, for emotional depth and to mark dramatic shifts. Here his advances in opera and instrumental composing interacted: his increasingly sophisticated use of the orchestra in the symphonies and concertos influenced his operatic orchestration, and his developing subtlety in using the orchestra to psychological effect in his operas was in turn reflected in his later non-operatic compositions.
Mozart 's most famous pupil, whom the Mozarts took into their Vienna home for two years as a child, was probably Johann Nepomuk Hummel, a transitional figure between Classical and Romantic eras. More important is the influence Mozart had on composers of later generations. Ever since the surge in his reputation after his death, studying his scores has been a standard part of classical musicians ' training.
Ludwig van Beethoven, Mozart 's junior by fifteen years, was deeply influenced by his work, with which he was acquainted as a teenager. He is thought to have performed Mozart 's operas while playing in the court orchestra at Bonn, and traveled to Vienna in 1787 hoping to study with the older composer. Some of Beethoven 's works have direct models in comparable works by Mozart, and he wrote cadenzas (WoO 58) to Mozart 's D minor piano concerto K. 466. For further details see Mozart and Beethoven.
Composers have paid homage to Mozart by writing sets of variations on his themes. Beethoven wrote four such sets (Op. 66, WoO 28, WoO 40, WoO 46). Others include Fernando Sor 's Introduction and Variations on a Theme by Mozart (1821), Mikhail Glinka 's Variations on a Theme from Mozart 's Opera "Die Zauberflöte '' (1822), Frédéric Chopin 's Variations on "Là ci darem la mano '' from Don Giovanni (1827), and Max Reger 's Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Mozart (1914), based on the variation theme in the piano sonata K. 331;
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky wrote his Orchestral Suite No. 4 in G, Mozartiana (1887), as a tribute to Mozart.
For unambiguous identification of works by Mozart, a Köchel catalogue number is used. This is a unique number assigned, in regular chronological order, to every one of his known works. A work is referenced by the abbreviation "K. '' or "KV '' followed by this number. The first edition of the catalogue was completed in 1862 by Ludwig von Köchel. It has since been repeatedly updated, as scholarly research improves knowledge of the dates and authenticity of individual works.
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how many episodes in season 9 of grey's anatomy | Grey 's Anatomy (season 9) - wikipedia
The ninth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy began airing in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) on September 27, 2012, with the season premiere Going, Going, Gone and consists of 24 episodes with the finale Perfect Storm airing on May 16, 2013. The season was produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunner being Shonda Rhimes. The season was officially released on DVD as a six - disc boxset under the title of Grey 's Anatomy: The Complete Ninth Season - Everything Changes on August 27, 2013 by Buena Vista Home Entertainment.
The season follows the characters dealing with the aftermath of the season eight plane crash that claimed the life of Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) and upon rescue Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), who dies after sustaining injuries from the crash. Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) finds his surgical career in doubt after badly damaging his hand but Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) ultimately manages to save his hand. The show 's protagonist Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) deals with the loss of her half - sister Lexie and later discovers that she is pregnant. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) who is severely traumatized upon rescue and later decides to take up her fellowship in Minnesota. Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) another survivor of the plane crash upon return realizes that her leg has to be amputated to save her life, reacts badly to this, becoming bitter and blaming her wife Callie and her former friend Alex Karev (Justin Chambers). To prevent the doctors ' court case from being thrown out, Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) decides to divorce Yang, but the two agree to start again. The hospital itself becomes liable for the crash, putting its future in extreme doubt prompting the four crash survivors and Torres to purchase the hospital. Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) marries her partner Ben Warren (Jason George), April Kepner (Sarah Drew) returns home to Ohio, but is brought back by Hunt to rejoin the hospital and she restarts her relationship with Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams).
The season ended with an average of 12.51 million viewers and ranked no. 26 which was higher than the previous two seasons and in the 18 - 49 key demographic ranked at no. 10. Ellen Pompeo won the Favorite TV Drama Actress at the 39th People 's Choice Awards and the show itself won the Favorite Network TV Drama. It was announced by ABC on May 10, 2013 that the tenth season of Grey 's Anatomy would begin in the fall of 2013.
The season follows the story of surgical interns, residents and their competent mentors, as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Seattle Grace - Mercy West Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington. A major theme of the season is the characters adapting to change, as all of the fifth - year surgical residents have turned into surgical attendings, and are now teaching interns, and operating on their own surgeries. The early episodes of the season depict the characters dealing with the aftermath of the season eight plane crash that claimed the life of Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) and upon rescue Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), who dies in the first episode.
Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) finds his surgical career in doubt after badly damaging his hand but ultimately his sister Liz (Neve Campbell) donates a nerve from her leg and Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) is able to save his hand. Later, Shepherd receives more good news when his wife Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) discovers that she is pregnant, despite her previously being told that it was unlikely that she could conceive. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) is severely traumatized upon rescue and suffers from brief reactive psychosis and eventually decides to take up her fellowship in Minnesota, though soon grows unhappy in her new surroundings and returns to Seattle after the death of her friend and mentor, Doctor Thomas. Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) survives the plane crash in spite of her leg injury, but upon return her wound becomes infected and her leg has to be amputated to save her life. Robbins reacts badly to this, becoming bitter and blaming her wife Callie and her former friend Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) and refuses to leave her bed or return to work.
Derek discovers that prior to the plane crash, the hospital had recently changed airlines to one with a poorer safety record for budgetary reasons, resulting in the four crash survivors (Grey, Shepherd, Robbins and Yang) deciding to pursue a lawsuit, and it soon becomes apparent that chief of surgery Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) had given the go - ahead to the change. To prevent the doctors ' court case from being thrown out, Hunt decides to divorce Yang, but the two secretly resume their relationship and agree to start again. Despite contemplating a settlement, the doctors decide to continue with the lawsuit and eventually are awarded fifteen million dollars each, but the insurance company discovers an unexpected loophole and refuse to pay, resulting in the hospital itself becoming liable, putting its future in extreme doubt. Dr. Alana Cahill (Constance Zimmer) is appointed to cut costs at the hospital and she eventually decides the best course of action would be to seek out a new buyer and attracts the interest of a company named Pegasus. Later however, Torres and Richard Webber (James Pickens Jr.) discover the unpleasant consequences that would fall upon the hospital should they be taken over by Pegasus prompting the four crash survivors (and Torres on the behalf of Sloan) to pool their money together in a bid to purchase the hospital themselves and quit their jobs, resulting in Pegasus pulling out. The doctors run into trouble when they fail to secure an extra benefactor, but at the last minute Catherine Avery (Debbie Allen) reveals that the Harper Avery Foundation is willing to provide a majority share in the company, on the condition that they have at least one member on the board of directors. The doctors agree and their purchase is complete, only for Catherine to appoint her son Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) to part of the board, effectively putting him in charge of the entire hospital.
In other storylines, Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) marries her partner Ben Warren (Jason George), despite suffering from last - minute nerves and missing the original wedding ceremony due to Adele Webber (Loretta Devine) being admitted to the hospital. Adele later dies after her surgery, leaving her husband Richard wracked with guilt due to his relationship with Catherine Avery. A new group of interns arrives at Seattle Grace and soon Karev strikes up a close friendship with Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) but the pair fall short of developing a romance, despite other characters commenting on their chemistry. After failing her board exams in season eight, April Kepner (Sarah Drew) returns home to Ohio, but is later brought back by Hunt and resumes her job at the hospital. Upon her return, Kepner restarts her sexual relationship with Jackson, despite being filled with conflict due to her religious beliefs. The pair eventually split up when Kepner refuses to make a commitment, and Avery starts dating intern Stephanie Edwards (Jerrika Hinton), while Kepner starts dating a paramedic named Matthew (Justin Bruening).
In May 2012, it was announced that six original cast mates, Ellen Pompeo, Patrick Dempsey, Sandra Oh, Chandra Wilson, Justin Chambers, and James Pickens, Jr. had renewed their contracts for another two seasons, as Meredith Grey, Derek Shepherd, Cristina Yang, Miranda Bailey, Alex Karev, and Richard Webber respectively. In July 2012, it was announced that cast member Eric Dane would not be returning to Grey 's Anatomy as a series regular, and would leave after two episodes to give his character a proper ending. In addition, Chyler Leigh requested to be released from her contract to spend more time with her family and her character was killed off in the season eight finale, while Kim Raver also departed from the show following the events of the season eight finale, having declined the offer of a contract extension. Other series regulars, Sara Ramirez, Kevin McKidd, Jessica Capshaw, Sarah Drew, and Jesse Williams all returned to the series as regulars, though Capshaw would not have a major role in the first few episodes because of her maternity leave.
In August 2012, it was announced that Camilla Luddington, Gaius Charles, and Tina Majorino had been cast as Jo Wilson, Shane Ross, and Heather Brooks, respectively; these characters would be the new interns of Seattle Grace - Mercy West. TVGuide later reported that even with all of the recurring cast being added to Grey 's Anatomy for the new season that True Blood star Camilla Luddington is the only actress with an option to become a series regular. In September 2012, it was announced that Jerrika Hinton and Tessa Ferrer had been cast as new interns Stephanie Edwards and Leah Murphy, respectively. In August 2012, it was announced that Debbie Allen would reprise her role as Catherine Avery at sometime in series, and she is set to direct the third episode. In September 2012, it was announced that Steven Culp would be cast as a new doctor at a new hospital, and would be known as Dr. Parker.
In September 2012, it was announced that William Daniels, former Boy Meets World star, and Jason George would reprise their roles as Dr. Craig Thomas, and Ben Warren respectively. In September 2012, TVLine reported that Bones 's Andrew Leeds had been cast in a potentially recurring role for the ninth season. In December 2012, Wetpaint reported that Constance Zimmer had been cast in a recurring role as Dr. Cahill and would appear in at least four episodes. In November 2012 it was announced that Neve Campbell, known for her role in Scream, would be cast as one of Derek 's sisters. It was not until late November that her role was revealed as Liz Shepherd, a therapist. In November 2012, it was announced that in 2013, someone would die on Grey 's Anatomy. TVGuide then reported that Loretta Devine, who is known as Adele Webber, would be reprising her role for two episodes, and that she would be the one to die. In November 2012, TVLine reported that Nip / Tuck alum Roma Maffia was cast in a recurring role as a member of the hospital board. In December 2012, TVLine and Wetpaint reported that Ringer and Switched at Birth star, Justin Bruening, was cast as a paramedic known as Matt.
In January 2013, it was announced that Gaius Charles, Tina Majorino, Jerrika Hinton and Tessa Ferrer were all given the option to become series regulars if Grey 's Anatomy were to be renewed. Sarah Chalke is set to guest star in an episode in the spring, as TVLine reported in January 2013. It was announced by E! Online on March 29, One Tree Hill alumni Hilarie Burton will be cast in a recurring role as a specialist in an investigation going on in the hospital. Her character is to arrive on the 22nd episode of the season. However, this later turned out to be untrue as Hilarie Burton ended up portraying a specialist doctor named Lauren Boswell.
Grey 's Anatomy was renewed by ABC on May 10, 2012. In June 2012, ABC set the premiere date of Grey 's Anatomy to September 27, 2012, and it would remain in the Thursday at 9: 00pm timeslot that it has had since the third season. In October 2012 it was reported that this season would have the same episode count as season eight, meaning it would have a total of 24 episodes. Shonda Rhimes revealed that the season nine finale would not revolve around a ' disaster ' episode.
Grey 's Anatomy 's ninth season opened up to 11.73 million viewers with a 4.4 / 12 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic. The viewership for the episode was an 11 percent increase from the previous season premiere, which was viewed by a total of 10.38 million people. The rating was a 7 percent increase from the previous season premiere, which received a 4.1 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic. The Nielsen score additionally registered the show as the week 's highest - rated drama in the 18 -- 49 demographic. As of December 2012 "Going, Going, Gone '' has served as the season 's most viewed episode. "Run, Baby, Run '' is the season 's least viewed episode, with 8.17 million viewers and a 2.9 / 8 Neilsen rating / share in the 18 - 49 demographic. At the time, the season finale was the series lowest watched season finale with 8.99 million viewers and 3.1 in the 18 - 49 rating demo.
The season received mostly positive reviews with critics praising numerous aspects of the long running medical drama including the bonds of the characters with each other and its connection with the audience. Robert Bianco of USA Today noted that after 9 seasons, "There 's still life left in Grey 's. '' What Culture gave a positive review for the season, "Grey 's Anatomy has developed into a fine example of how a TV show can mature beyond its initial purpose. '' Toronto Star called it "a solid return to form ''. TV Fanatic gave a largely positive review to the season, "Grey 's Anatomy always knows how to bring the drama and they did not fail in the Season 9. ''
Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly also gave a generally positive response stating, "There 's still one good reason to keep watching: Where else can you find such deep friendships between female co-workers? Margaret Lyons of New York Magazine wrote that the first part of the season "has been mostly a downer, thanks in part to a whole bunch of people dying at the beginning of the season and also the shocking lack of interesting romances. ''
Examiner.com reviewing the season finale wrote, "(Greys) delivered yet another epic and emotional season finale that pushes our characters in challenging new directions ''. The site added, "Perfect Storm gets 5 out of 5 stars. This storm brought on all kinds of emotional strife and death that truly tests the seasoned doctors and pushes them to their element. They bond together, guiding each other through the dark and as the dust settles from this mayhem, there are casualties of all kinds. The tragedy that leaves us hanging until next fall is one hell of a thrill ride full to the brim with shocks. ''
The number in the "No. in series '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
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briefly describe two ethical guidelines enforced by the institutional review board (irb) | Institutional review board - wikipedia
An institutional review board (IRB), also known as an independent ethics committee (IEC), ethical review board (ERB), or research ethics board (REB), is a type of committee that applies research ethics by reviewing the methods proposed for research to ensure that they are ethical. Such boards are formally designated to approve (or reject), monitor, and review biomedical and behavioral research involving humans. They often conduct some form of risk - benefit analysis in an attempt to determine whether or not research should be conducted. The purpose of the IRB is to assure that appropriate steps are taken to protect the rights and welfare of humans participating as subjects in a research study. Along with developed countries, many developing countries have established national, regional or local Institutional Review Boards in order to safeguard ethical conduct of research concerning both national and international norms, regulations or codes.
A key goal of IRBs is to protect human subjects from physical or psychological harm, which they attempt to do by reviewing research protocols and related materials. The protocol review assesses the ethics of the research and its methods, promotes fully informed and voluntary participation by prospective subjects capable of making such choices (or, if that is not possible, informed permission given by a suitable proxy), and seeks to maximize the safety of subjects.
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Department of Health and Human Services (specifically Office for Human Research Protections) regulations (see Human subject research legislation in the United States) have empowered IRBs to approve, require modifications in planned research prior to approval, or disapprove research. IRBs are responsible for critical oversight functions for research conducted on human subjects that are "scientific '', "ethical '', and "regulatory ''. The equivalent body responsible for overseeing U.S. federally funded research using animals is the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).
IRBs are most commonly used for studies in the fields of health and the social sciences, including anthropology, sociology, and psychology. Such studies may be clinical trials of new drugs or devices, studies of personal or social behavior, opinions or attitudes, or studies of how health care is delivered and might be improved.
Formal review procedures for institutional human subject studies were originally developed in direct response to research abuses in the 20th century. Among the most notorious of these abuses were the experiments of Nazi physicians, which became a focus of the post-World War II Doctors ' Trial, the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, a long - term project conducted between 1932 and 1972 by the U.S. Public Health Service, and numerous human radiation experiments conducted during the Cold War. Other controversial U.S. projects undertaken during this era include the Milgram obedience experiment, the Stanford prison experiment, and Project MKULTRA, a series of classified mind control studies organized by the CIA.
The result of these abuses was the National Research Act of 1974 and the development of the Belmont Report, which outlined the primary ethical principles in human subjects review; these include "respect for persons '', "beneficence '', and "justice ''. An IRB may only approve research for which the risks to subjects are balanced by potential benefits to society, and for which the selection of subjects presents a fair or just distribution of risks and benefits to eligible participants. A bona fide process for obtaining informed consent from participants is also generally needed. However, this requirement may be waived in certain circumstances -- for example, when the risk of harm to participants is clearly minimal.
In the United States, IRBs are governed by Title 45 Code of Federal Regulations Part 46. These regulations define the rules and responsibilities for institutional review, which is required for all research that receives support, directly or indirectly, from the United States federal government. IRBs are themselves regulated by the Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) within the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Additional requirements apply to IRBs that oversee clinical trials of drugs involved in new drug applications, or to studies that are supported by the United States Department of Defense.
In addition to registering its IRB with the OHRP, an institution is also required to obtain and maintain a Federalwide Assurance or FWA, before undertaking federally funded human research. This is an agreement in which the institution commits to abiding by the regulations governing human research. A secondary supplement to the FWA is required when institutions are undertaking research supported by the U.S. Department of Defense. This DoD Addendum includes further compliance requirements for studies using military personnel, or when the human research involves populations in conflict zones, foreign prisoners, etc.
U.S. regulations identify several research categories that are considered exempt from IRB oversight. These categories include:
Generally, human research ethics guidelines require that decisions about exemption are made by an IRB representative, not by the investigators themselves.
Numerous other countries have equivalent regulations or guidelines governing human subject studies and the ethics committees that oversee them. However, the organizational responsibilities and the scope of the oversight purview can differ substantially from one nation to another, especially in the domain of non-medical research. The United States Department of Health and Human Services maintains a comprehensive compilation of regulations and guidelines in other countries, as well as related standards from a number of international and regional organizations.
Although "IRB '' is a generic term used in the United States by the FDA and HHS, each institution that establishes such a board may use whatever name it chooses. Many simply capitalize the term "Institutional Review Board '' as the proper name of their instance. Regardless of the name chosen, the IRB is subject to the FDA 's IRB regulations when studies of FDA - regulated products are reviewed and approved. At one time such a committee was named the "Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects ''. Originally, IRBs were simply committees at academic institutions and medical facilities to monitor research studies involving human participants, primarily to minimize or avoid ethical problems. Today, some of these reviews are conducted by for - profit organizations known as ' independent ' or ' commercial ' IRBs. The responsibilities of these IRBs are identical to those based at academic or medical institutions, and they are governed by the same U.S. federal regulations.
The regulations set out the board 's membership and composition requirements, with provisions for diversity in experience, expertise, and institutional affiliation. For example, the minimum number of members is five, at least one scientist, and at least one non-scientist. The guidance strongly suggests that the IRB contain both men and women, but there is no regulatory requirement for gender balance in the IRB 's membership. The full requirements are set out in 21 CFR 56.107.
Unless a research proposal is determined to be exempt (see below), the IRB undertakes its work either in a convened meeting (a "full '' review) or by using an expedited review procedure. When a full review is required, a majority of the IRB members must be present at the meeting, at least one of whom has primary concern for the nonscientific aspects of the research. The research can be approved if a majority of those present are in favor.
An expedited review may be carried out if the research involves no more than minimal risk to subjects, or where minor changes are being made to previously approved research. The regulations provide a list of research categories that may be reviewed in this manner. An expedited review is carried out by the IRB chair, or by their designee (s) from the board membership. Research activity can not be disapproved by expedited review.
The International Conference on Harmonisation sets out guidelines for registration of pharmaceuticals in multiple countries. It defines Good Clinical Practice (GCP), which is an agreed quality standard that governments can transpose into regulations for clinical trials involving human subjects.
Here is a summary of several key regulatory guidelines for oversight of clinical trials:
The reviewers may also request that more information be given to subjects when, in their judgment, the additional information would add meaningfully to the protection of the rights, safety and / or well - being of the subjects. When a non-therapeutic trial is to be carried out with the consent of the subject 's legally acceptable representative, reviewers should determine that the proposed protocol and / or other document (s) adequately address relevant ethical concerns and meets applicable regulatory requirements for such trials. Where the protocol indicates prior consent of the trial subject or the subject 's legally acceptable representative is not possible, the review should determine that the proposed protocol and / or other document (s) adequately addresses relevant ethical concerns and meets applicable regulatory requirements for such trials (i.e., in emergency situations).
While the Belmont principles and U.S. federal regulations were formulated with biomedical and social - behavioral research in mind, the enforcement of the regulations, the examples used in typical presentations regarding the history of the regulatory requirements, and the extensiveness of written guidance have been predominantly focused on biomedical research.
Numerous complaints by investigators about the fit between the federal regulations and its IRB review requirements as they relate to social science research have been received. Broad complaints range from the legitimacy of IRB review, the applicability of the concepts of risk as it pertains to social science (e.g., possibly unneeded, over-burdensome requirements), and the requirements for the documentation of participants ' informed consent (i.e., consent forms). Researchers have tried to determine under what instances participants are more likely to read informed consent forms, and ways to improve their efficacy in the social sciences. Social scientists have criticized biomedical IRBs for failing to adequately understand their research methods (such as ethnography). In 2003, the Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP), in conjunction with the Oral History Association and American Historical Association, issued a formal statement that taking oral histories, unstructured interviews (as if for a piece of journalism), collecting anecdotes, and similar free speech activities often do not constitute "human subject research '' as defined in the regulations and were never intended to be covered by clinical research rules.
Other federal agencies supporting social science have attempted to provide guidance in this area, especially the National Science Foundation. In general, the NSF guidelines assure IRBs that the regulations have some flexibility and rely on the common sense of the IRB to focus on limiting harm, maximizing informed consent, and limiting bureaucratic limitations of valid research.
Aspects of big data research pose formidable challenges for research ethics and thus show potential for wider applicability of formal review processes. One theme is data breaches, but another with high difficulty is potentially dangerous predictive analytics with unintended consequences, via false - positives or new ways to invade privacy. A 2016 article on the hope to expand ethics reviews of such research included an example of a data breach in which a big data researcher leaked 70,000 OkCupid profiles with usernames and sexual orientation data. It also gave an example of potential privacy invasion and government repression in which machine learning was used to build automated gaydar, labeling strangers as "probably gay '' based on their facial photographs. Analogies with phrenology and Nazis identifying people as "probably part - Jewish '' based on facial features have been made to show what can go wrong with research whose authors may have failed to adequately think through the risks of harm. Such challenges broach familiar themes, such as mistaken identity, precrime, and persecution, in new applications.
While the IRB approval and oversight process is designed to protect the rights and welfare of the research subjects, it has been the subject of criticism, by bioethicists and others, for conflicts of interest resulting in lax oversight. In 2005, the for - profit Western Institutional Review Board claimed to conduct the majority of reviews for new drug submissions to the FDA. In a 2006 study of 575 IRB members at university medical centers, over one - third reported industry financial ties and over one - third admitted they "rarely or never '' disclosed conflicts of interest to other board members.
In 2009 the Government Accountability Office (GAO) set up a series of undercover tests to determine whether the IRB system was vulnerable to unethical manipulation. In one test, a fake product "Adhesiabloc '' was submitted to a number of IRBs for approval for human tests. The product, company, and CVs of the supposed researchers were all fictitious and documents were forged by the GAO. The product was deliberately formulated to match some "significant risk '' criteria of the FDA and was described by GAO as a "gel that would be poured into a patient 's stomach after surgery to collect the bits and pieces left over from an operation. '' Despite this, one IRB approved the device for human testing. Other IRBs to whom the device was submitted rejected the application, one of them saying it was "the riskiest thing I 've ever seen on this board ''. However, none of the IRBs approached detected that the company and product were fake. The GAO also set up a fake IRB and obtained requests for approval from companies. They succeeded in getting assurance approval from the HHS for their fake IRB. HHS has only three staff to deal with 300 IRB registrations and 300 assurance applications per month. HHS stated that it would not be worthwhile to carry out additional evaluation even if they had the staff to do it.
Enfield, K.B. & Truwit, J.D. (2008). The Purpose, Composition, and Function of an Institutional Review Board: Balancing Priorities. Respiratory Care, 53, 1330 - 1336.
Fairchild, A.L. & Bayer, R. (1999). Uses and Abuses of Tuskegee. American Association for the Advancement of Science, 284, 919 - 921.
Perrault, E.K. & Nazione, S.A. (2016). Informed Consent -- Uninformed Participants: Shortcomings of Online Social Science Consent Forms and Recommendations for Improvement. Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics. 11 (3), 274 - 280. doi = 10.1177 / 1556264616654610
Pope, T.M. (2009). Multi-Institutional Healthcare Ethics Committees: The Procedurally Fair Internal Dispute Resolution Mechanism, 31 Campbell Law Review 257 - 331.
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how did the neolithic revolution affect world population | Neolithic Revolution - wikipedia
The Neolithic Revolution, Neolithic Demographic Transition, or Agricultural Revolution, was the wide - scale transition of many human cultures from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of agriculture and settlement, making possible an increasingly larger population. These settled communities permitted humans to observe and experiment with plants to learn how they grew and developed. This new knowledge led to the domestication of plants.
Archaeological data indicates that the domestication of various types of plants and animals happened in separate locations worldwide, starting in the geological epoch of the Holocene around 12,500 years ago. It was the world 's first historically verifiable revolution in agriculture. The Neolithic Revolution greatly narrowed the diversity of foods available, with a switch to agriculture which led to a downturn in human nutrition.
The Neolithic Revolution involved far more than the adoption of a limited set of food - producing techniques. During the next millennia it would transform the small and mobile groups of hunter - gatherers that had hitherto dominated human pre-history into sedentary (non-nomadic) societies based in built - up villages and towns. These societies radically modified their natural environment by means of specialized food - crop cultivation, with activities such as irrigation and deforestation which allowed the production of surplus food.
These developments provided the basis for densely populated settlements, specialization and division of labour, more trade, the development of non-portable art and architecture, centralized administrations and political structures, hierarchical ideologies, depersonalized systems of knowledge (e.g. writing), and property ownership. The earliest known civilization developed in Sumer in southern Mesopotamia (c. 5,500 BP); its emergence also heralded the beginning of the Bronze Age.
The relationship of the above - mentioned Neolithic characteristics to the onset of agriculture, their sequence of emergence, and empirical relation to each other at various Neolithic sites remains the subject of academic debate, and varies from place to place, rather than being the outcome of universal laws of social evolution. The Levant saw the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC, followed by sites in the wider Fertile Crescent. The Neolithic Revolution "inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel, the planting of the first cereal crops and the development of cursive script, mathematics, astronomy and agriculture. ''
The term Neolithic Revolution was coined in 1923 by V. Gordon Childe to describe the first in a series of agricultural revolutions in Middle Eastern history. The period is described as a "revolution '' to denote its importance, and the great significance and degree of change affecting the communities in which new agricultural practices were gradually adopted and refined.
The beginning of this process in different regions has been dated from 10,000 to 8,000 BC in the Fertile Crescent and perhaps 8000 BC in the Kuk Early Agricultural Site of Melanesia. This transition everywhere seems associated with a change from a largely nomadic hunter - gatherer way of life to a more settled, agrarian - based one, with the inception of the domestication of various plant and animal species -- depending on the species locally available, and probably also influenced by local culture. Recent archaeological research suggests that in some regions such as the Southeast Asian peninsula, the transition from hunter - gatherer to agriculturalist was not linear, but region - specific.
There are several competing (but not mutually exclusive) theories as to the factors that drove populations to take up agriculture. The most prominent of these are:
Once agriculture started gaining momentum, around 9000 BC, human activity resulted in the selective breeding of cereal grasses (beginning with emmer, einkorn and barley), and not simply of those that would favour greater caloric returns through larger seeds. Plants with traits such as small seeds or bitter taste would have been seen as undesirable. Plants that rapidly shed their seeds on maturity tended not to be gathered at harvest, therefore not stored and not seeded the following season; years of harvesting selected for strains that retained their edible seeds longer.
Several plant species, the "pioneer crops '' or Neolithic founder crops, were identified by Daniel Zohary, who highlighted the importance of the three cereals, and suggested that domestication of flax, peas, chickpeas, bitter vetch and lentils came a little later. Based on analysis of the genes of domesticated plants, he preferred theories of a single, or at most a very small number of domestication events for each taxon that spread in an arc from the Levantine corridor around the Fertile Crescent and later into Europe. Gordon Hillman and Stuart Davies carried out experiments with wild wheat varieties to show that the process of domestication would have occurred over a relatively short period of between 20 and 200 years. Some of these pioneering attempts failed at first and crops were abandoned, sometimes to be taken up again and successfully domesticated thousands of years later: rye, tried and abandoned in Neolithic Anatolia, made its way to Europe as weed seeds and was successfully domesticated in Europe, thousands of years after the earliest agriculture. Wild lentils presented a different problem: most of the wild seeds do not germinate in the first year; the first evidence of lentil domestication, breaking dormancy in their first year, was found in the early Neolithic at Jerf el Ahmar (in modern Syria), and quickly spread south to the Netiv HaGdud site in the Jordan Valley. This process of domestication allowed the founder crops to adapt and eventually become larger, more easily harvested, more dependable in storage and more useful to the human population.
Selectively propagated figs, wild barley and wild oats were cultivated at the early Neolithic site of Gilgal I, where in 2006 archaeologists found caches of seeds of each in quantities too large to be accounted for even by intensive gathering, at strata datable to c. 11,000 years ago. Some of the plants tried and then abandoned during the Neolithic period in the Ancient Near East, at sites like Gilgal, were later successfully domesticated in other parts of the world.
Once early farmers perfected their agricultural techniques like irrigation, their crops would yield surpluses that needed storage. Most hunter gatherers could not easily store food for long due to their migratory lifestyle, whereas those with a sedentary dwelling could store their surplus grain. Eventually granaries were developed that allowed villages to store their seeds longer. So with more food, the population expanded and communities developed specialized workers and more advanced tools.
The process was not as linear as was once thought, but a more complicated effort, which was undertaken by different human populations in different regions in many different ways.
Early agriculture is believed to have originated and become widespread in Southwest Asia around 10,000 -- 9,000 BP, though earlier individual sites have been identified. The Fertile Crescent region of Southwest Asia is the centre of domestication for three cereals (einkorn wheat, emmer wheat and barley), four legumes (lentil, pea, bitter vetch and chickpea) and flax. The Mediterranean climate consists of a long dry season with a short period of rain, which may have favored small plants with large seeds, like wheat and barley. The Fertile Crescent also had a large area of varied geographical settings and altitudes and this variety may have made agriculture more profitable for former hunter - gatherers in this region in comparison with other areas with a similar climate.
Finds of large quantities of seeds and a grinding stone at the paleolithic site of Ohalo II in the vicinity of the Sea of Galilee, dated to around 19,400 BP has shown some of the earliest evidence for advanced planning of plant food consumption and suggests that humans at Ohalo II processed the grain before consumption. Tell Aswad is oldest site of agriculture with domesticated emmer wheat dated to 8800 BC. Soon after came hulled, two - row barley found domesticated earliest at Jericho in the Jordan valley and Iraq ed - Dubb in Jordan. Other sites in the Levantine corridor that show the first evidence of agriculture include Wadi Faynan 16 and Netiv Hagdud. Jacques Cauvin noted that the settlers of Aswad did not domesticate on site, but "arrived, perhaps from the neighbouring Anti-Lebanon, already equipped with the seed for planting ''. The Heavy Neolithic Qaraoun culture has been identified at around fifty sites in Lebanon around the source springs of the River Jordan, however the dating of the culture has never been reliably determined.
Northern China appears to have been the domestication center for foxtail millet (Setaria italica) and broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) with evidence of domestication of these species approximately 8,000 years ago. These species were subsequently widely cultivated in the Yellow River basin (7,500 years ago). Rice was domesticated in southern China later on. Soybean was domesticated in northern China 4,500 years ago. Orange and peach also originated in China. They were cultivated around 2500 BC.
The fertile Carpathian Basin was the place where Europeans survived the Ice Age. The territory between the Danube and the Tisza rivers was a powerhouse of agricultural knowledge.
On the African continent, three areas have been identified as independently developing agriculture: the Ethiopian highlands, the Sahel and West Africa. By contrast, Agriculture in the Nile River Valley is thought to have developed from the original Neolithic Revolution in the Fertile Crescent. Many grinding stones are found with the early Egyptian Sebilian and Mechian cultures and evidence has been found of a neolithic domesticated crop - based economy dating around 7,000 BP. Unlike the Middle East, this evidence appears as a "false dawn '' to agriculture, as the sites were later abandoned, and permanent farming then was delayed until 6,500 BP with the Tasian and Badarian cultures and the arrival of crops and animals from the Near East.
Bananas and plantains, which were first domesticated in Southeast Asia, most likely Papua New Guinea, were re-domesticated in Africa possibly as early as 5,000 years ago. Asian yams and taro were also cultivated in Africa.
The most famous crop domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands is coffee. In addition, khat, ensete, noog, teff and finger millet were also domesticated in the Ethiopian highlands. Crops domesticated in the Sahel region include sorghum and pearl millet. The kola nut was first domesticated in West Africa. Other crops domesticated in West Africa include African rice, yams and the oil palm.
Agriculture spread to Central and Southern Africa in the Bantu expansion during the 1st millennium BC to 1st millennium AD.
Maize (corn), beans and squash were among the earliest crops domesticated in Mesoamerica, with maize beginning about 4000 BC, squash as early as 6000 BC, and beans by no later than 4000 BC. Potatoes and manioc were domesticated in South America. In what is now the eastern United States, Native Americans domesticated sunflower, sumpweed and goosefoot around 2500 BC. Sedentary village life based on farming did not develop until the second millennium BC, referred to as the formative period.
Evidence of drainage ditches at Kuk Swamp on the borders of the Western and Southern Highlands of Papua New Guinea shows evidence of the cultivation of taro and a variety of other crops, dating back to 11,000 BP. Two potentially significant economic species, taro (Colocasia esculenta) and yam (Dioscorea sp.), have been identified dating at least to 10,200 calibrated years before present (cal BP). Further evidence of bananas and sugarcane dates to 6,950 to 6,440 BP. This was at the altitudinal limits of these crops, and it has been suggested that cultivation in more favourable ranges in the lowlands may have been even earlier. CSIRO has found evidence that taro was introduced into the Solomon Islands for human use, from 28,000 years ago, making taro cultivation the earliest crop in the world. It seems to have resulted in the spread of the Trans -- New Guinea languages from New Guinea east into the Solomon Islands and west into Timor and adjacent areas of Indonesia. This seems to confirm the theories of Carl Sauer who, in "Agricultural Origins and Dispersals '', suggested as early as 1952 that this region was a centre of early agriculture.
When hunter - gathering began to be replaced by sedentary food production it became more profitable to keep animals close at hand. Therefore, it became necessary to bring animals permanently to their settlements, although in many cases there was a distinction between relatively sedentary farmers and nomadic herders. The animals ' size, temperament, diet, mating patterns, and life span were factors in the desire and success in domesticating animals. Animals that provided milk, such as cows and goats, offered a source of protein that was renewable and therefore quite valuable. The animal 's ability as a worker (for example ploughing or towing), as well as a food source, also had to be taken into account. Besides being a direct source of food, certain animals could provide leather, wool, hides, and fertilizer. Some of the earliest domesticated animals included dogs (East Asia, about 15,000 years ago), sheep, goats, cows, and pigs.
The Middle East served as the source for many animals that could be domesticated, such as sheep, goats and pigs. This area was also the first region to domesticate the dromedary. Henri Fleisch discovered and termed the Shepherd Neolithic flint industry from the Bekaa Valley in Lebanon and suggested that it could have been used by the earliest nomadic shepherds. He dated this industry to the Epipaleolithic or Pre-Pottery Neolithic as it is evidently not Paleolithic, Mesolithic or even Pottery Neolithic. The presence of these animals gave the region a large advantage in cultural and economic development. As the climate in the Middle East changed and became drier, many of the farmers were forced to leave, taking their domesticated animals with them. It was this massive emigration from the Middle East that would later help distribute these animals to the rest of Afroeurasia. This emigration was mainly on an east - west axis of similar climates, as crops usually have a narrow optimal climatic range outside of which they can not grow for reasons of light or rain changes. For instance, wheat does not normally grow in tropical climates, just like tropical crops such as bananas do not grow in colder climates. Some authors, like Jared Diamond, have postulated that this East - West axis is the main reason why plant and animal domestication spread so quickly from the Fertile Crescent to the rest of Eurasia and North Africa, while it did not reach through the North - South axis of Africa to reach the Mediterranean climates of South Africa, where temperate crops were successfully imported by ships in the last 500 years. Similarly, the African Zebu of central Africa and the domesticated bovines of the fertile - crescent -- separated by the dry sahara desert -- were not introduced into each other 's region.
Despite the significant technological advance, the Neolithic revolution did not lead immediately to a rapid growth of population. Its benefits appear to have been offset by various adverse effects, mostly diseases and warfare.
The introduction of agriculture has not necessarily led to unequivocal progress. The nutritional standards of the growing Neolithic populations were generally inferior to that of hunter - gatherers, and that their life expectancy may well have been shorter too, in part due to diseases and harder work. Hunter - gatherers must have covered their food needs with about 20 hours work a week, while agriculture required much more and was at least as uncertain. The hunter - gatherers ' diet was more varied and balanced than what agriculture later allowed. Average height went down from 5'10 '' (178 cm) for men and 5'6 '' (168 cm) for women to 5'5 '' (165 cm) and 5'1 '' (155 cm), respectively, and it took until the twentieth century for average human height to come back to the pre-Neolithic Revolution levels. Agriculturalists had more anaemias and vitamin deficiencies, more spinal deformations and more dental pathologies.
The traditional view is that agricultural food production supported a denser population, which in turn supported larger sedentary communities, the accumulation of goods and tools, and specialization in diverse forms of new labor. The development of larger societies led to the development of different means of decision making and to governmental organization. Food surpluses made possible the development of a social elite who were not otherwise engaged in agriculture, industry or commerce, but dominated their communities by other means and monopolized decision - making. Jared Diamond (in The World Until Yesterday) identifies the availability of milk and cereal grains as permitting mothers to raise both an older (e.g. 3 or 4 year old) and a younger child concurrently. The result is that a population can increase more rapidly. Diamond points out that agriculture brought about deep social divisions and encouraged inequality between the sexes.
Andrew Sherratt has argued that following upon the Neolithic Revolution was a second phase of discovery that he refers to as the secondary products revolution. Animals, it appears, were first domesticated purely as a source of meat. The Secondary Products Revolution occurred when it was recognised that animals also provided a number of other useful products. These included:
Sherratt argued that this phase in agricultural development enabled humans to make use of the energy possibilities of their animals in new ways, and permitted permanent intensive subsistence farming and crop production, and the opening up of heavier soils for farming. It also made possible nomadic pastoralism in semi arid areas, along the margins of deserts, and eventually led to the domestication of both the dromedary and Bactrian camel. Overgrazing of these areas, particularly by herds of goats, greatly extended the areal extent of deserts.
Living in one spot would have more easily permitted the accrual of personal possessions and an attachment to certain areas of land. From such a position, it is argued, prehistoric people were able to stockpile food to survive lean times and trade unwanted surpluses with others. Once trade and a secure food supply were established, populations could grow, and society would have diversified into food producers and artisans, who could afford to develop their trade by virtue of the free time they enjoyed because of a surplus of food. The artisans, in turn, were able to develop technology such as metal weapons. Such relative complexity would have required some form of social organisation to work efficiently, so it is likely that populations that had such organisation, perhaps such as that provided by religion, were better prepared and more successful. In addition, the denser populations could form and support legions of professional soldiers. Also, during this time property ownership became increasingly important to all people. Ultimately, Childe argued that this growing social complexity, all rooted in the original decision to settle, led to a second Urban Revolution in which the first cities were built.
Throughout the development of sedentary societies, disease spread more rapidly than it had during the time in which hunter - gatherer societies existed. Inadequate sanitary practices and the domestication of animals may explain the rise in deaths and sickness following the Neolithic Revolution, as diseases jumped from the animal to the human population. Some examples of infectious diseases spread from animals to humans are influenza, smallpox, and measles. In concordance with a process of natural selection, the humans who first domesticated the big mammals quickly built up immunities to the diseases as within each generation the individuals with better immunities had better chances of survival. In their approximately 10,000 years of shared proximity with animals, such as cows, Eurasians and Africans became more resistant to those diseases compared with the indigenous populations encountered outside Eurasia and Africa. For instance, the population of most Caribbean and several Pacific Islands have been completely wiped out by diseases. 90 % or more of many populations of the Americas were wiped out by European and African diseases before recorded contact with European explorers or colonists. Some cultures like the Inca Empire did have a large domestic mammal, the llama, but llama milk was not drunk, nor did llamas live in a closed space with humans, so the risk of contagion was limited. According to bioarchaeological research, the effects of agriculture on physical and dental health in Southeast Asian rice farming societies from 4000 to 1500 B.P. was not detrimental to the same extent as in other world regions.
In his book Guns, Germs, and Steel, Jared Diamond argues that Europeans and East Asians benefited from an advantageous geographical location that afforded them a head start in the Neolithic Revolution. Both shared the temperate climate ideal for the first agricultural settings, both were near a number of easily domesticable plant and animal species, and both were safer from attacks of other people than civilizations in the middle part of the Eurasian continent. Being among the first to adopt agriculture and sedentary lifestyles, and neighboring other early agricultural societies with whom they could compete and trade, both Europeans and East Asians were also among the first to benefit from technologies such as firearms and steel swords.
The dispersal of Neolithic culture from the Middle East has recently been associated with the distribution of human genetic markers. In Europe, the spread of the Neolithic culture has been associated with distribution of the E1b1b lineages and Haplogroup J that are thought to have arrived in Europe from North Africa and the Near East respectively. In Africa, the spread of farming, and notably the Bantu expansion, is associated with the dispersal of Y - chromosome haplogroup E1b1a from West Africa.
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how many episodes of the only way is essex are there | The Only Way Is Essex - wikipedia
The Only Way Is Essex (often abbreviated as TOWIE / ˈtaʊwiː /) is a British reality television series based in Brentwood, England. It shows "real people in modified situations, saying unscripted lines but in a structured way ''. The show is filmed just a few days in advance. It is narrated by Denise van Outen, who is from Basildon, Essex. The show has been described as Britain 's answer to The Hills and Jersey Shore.
Each series lasts six weeks, airing on Wednesdays and Sundays at 10pm on ITV2 from 2010 to 2014, although it was announced in February 2014 that the show would be moved to ITV2 's sister channel ITVBe when the channel launches. The first series consisted of 10 episodes and ran for 30 minutes, with a Christmas special following later in the year. Due to popularity, the show was extended to 45 - minute episodes and renewed for a year 's airing. On 22 May 2011, the series won the Audience Award at the 2011 BAFTA Awards. The 12th series was the last to air on ITV2 before the show moved to ITV 's new channel, ITVBe in October 2014.
On 13 March 2016, ITVBe aired a one - off documentary hosted by former cast member Mark Wright discussing the history of the show. Celebrities as well as cast members past and present united to talk about the popularity of the show, the fame the cast members have achieved from appearing in the series as well as the influence it has had on the economy.
On 28 February 2017, with the announcement of the cast for the show 's twentieth series it was confirmed that instead of the usual three series per year, ITVBe would only be airing two series, but with more episodes.
On 21 December 2017, it was announced that a further two series had been commissioned for 2018. It was also confirmed that the series will only air once a week unlike past series which aired twice a week. It was also announced that episode running times would be increased from 50 minutes to 60 minutes.
The first series of the show began airing on 10 October 2010 and concluded on 10 November 2010, consisting of 10 episodes. Due to the success of the series, a Christmas special aired the same year on 24 December 2010. This series was heavily centered on the love triangle of Mark Wright, Lauren Goodger, and Lucy Mecklenburgh. This was the only series to feature cast members Candy Jacobs and Michael Woods. Mark also appeared alongside fellow cast members Amy Childs, James Argent, Nanny Pat and Sam Faiers on Alan Carr: Chatty Man on 21 February 2011 to discuss the first series and also confirmed a second series.
The second series began airing on 20 March 2011 and concluded on 4 May 2011. Due to the popularity of the first series, the second series consisted of 14 episodes. Before the series aired, the cast filmed a four - minute music video that was screened on ITV2; dance duo LMFAO remixed their hit single "I 'm in Miami Bitch '' and replaced it with "I 'm in Essex Girl ''. This series saw the departure of Amy Childs off screen and introduced new characters Joey Essex, Gemma Collins, Chloe Sims, Debbie Douglass, Carol Wright and Mick Norcross.
The third series began airing on 24 September 2011 and concluded on 9 November 2011, consisting of 14 episodes. As well as being the first series to feature new cast members Mario Falcone, Dino and Georgio Georgiades, Billi Mucklow and Cara Kilbey, this series saw the departures of original cast members Mark Wright, Harry Derbidge, Kirk Norcross and Maria Fowler. A second Christmas special aired on 20 December. The cast of the third series (excluding Wright and Norcross) covered the Wham! single "Last Christmas ''; the official video premiered on ITV2 in November and the single peaked at number 32 on the UK Singles Chart.
The fourth series began airing on 29 January 2012 and concluded on 29 February 2012, consisting of 10 episodes. On 25 January, the show was nominated for "Most Popular Reality Programme '' at the National Television Awards. The series was the last to feature Dino and Georgio Georgiades but included the arrival of new cast members Ricky Rayment, Bobby - Cole Norris, James "Diags '' Bennewith, Georgia Dorsett, Tom Kilbey, Little Chris Drake and Charlie King. Mick Norcross returned to the series for the first time without his son Kirk. This was also the first series where the opening scenes changed to include silhouettes of the current characters, with the theme tune playing on the background.
The fifth series began airing on 15 April 2012 and yet again ran for 10 episodes concluding on 27 May 2012. The series included just one new cast member as Danni Park - Dempsey made her first appearance. It was also the last to include Georgina Dorsett who left after just two series. Shortly after the series, an hour - long special entitled The Only Way Is Marbs, set in the holiday destination of Marbella, aired on 13 June 2012. Tinchy Stryder made a guest appearance in the episode.
The sixth series started airing from 22 July 2012 and concluded on 22 August 2012. Lauren Goodger confirmed that this series would be her last and she departed at the end of the series. Former cast member Mark Wright, who last appeared in Series 3, made a cameo in the eighth episode, but did not have a speaking part.
The seventh series started airing from 30 September 2012 with all of the cast from the previous series returning apart from Lauren Goodger, and original cast member Kirk Norcross returning to the series after departing in Series 3. This made him the first cast member to return to the show. The series was renewed for two further series in August 2012, set to air sometime in 2013. On 13 November 2012 it was confirmed that three festive specials would air in December including a live episode, a first for the show. The live episode was met with numerous negative reviews, with Digital Spy commenting that it just did n't work and was complete car crash TV with it not making much sense. On 14 December 2012 it was confirmed that former cast member Mark Wright would return for a cameo appearance in the 2012 Christmas special. Original cast member Lydia Bright, Tom Kilbey, and Cara Kilbey all left after this series, and it was the first to include Danny Walia and Jasmin Walia, who had previously made a cameo in the first Christmas special of the show.
The eighth series started airing from 24 February 2013 and saw the introduction of several new cast members including James Locke, Dan Osborne, Jack Bennewith and Abi Clarke. Twin sisters Amy and Sally Broadbent were also confirmed to have joined the cast however after two episodes, Lucy Mecklenburgh announced on Twitter that they had been used by the show to create storylines and had been dropped from the cast. The series saw the departures of numerous long serving cast members such as Kirk Norcross, Debbie Douglas and Mick Norcross, Billi Mucklow and Danni Park - Dempsey who all announced their departures midway through the series.
The ninth series began airing from 2 June 2013 with two The Only Way Is Marbs specials and concluded after 12 episodes on 10 July 2013. On 24 May 2013 it was revealed that Gary Lineker 's brother, Wayne Lineker, had joined the cast. However he only appeared in two episodes. The series was the first to include new cast members Ferne McCann and Charlie Sims, and was the last to include Charlie King. It also featured the one off return of Lydia Bright, who had previously featured in the show from Series 1 through to 7.
The tenth series began with two - hour long The Only Way Is Vegas specials on 6 and 9 October 2013, as confirmed by ITV Press Centre on 25 September 2013. The regular tenth series followed running from 13 October to 13 November 2013. Ahead the series finale it was confirmed that Joey Essex would make his final appearance. As well as being the last series to include Joey, Abi, and Little Chris also made their final appearances during this series. Elliott Wright, Lewis Bloor and Danni Armstrong all made their first appearances in this series. A third Christmas special aired on 11 December 2013 and was Lucy Mecklenburgh 's final episode.
The eleventh series started airing from 23 February 2014 consisting of 12 episodes, ending on 2 April 2014. This series was the first to include Fran Parman, Grace Andrews and Georgia Kousoulou but was the last to feature original cast member Sam Faiers as she departed to focus on her health. Mark Wright also made another cameo appearance during this series, and it also included the return of Lydia Bright who made a full - time return to the series during the series finale.
The twelfth series began on 22 June 2014 with two The Only Way Is Marbs specials followed by 10 regular episodes, concluding on 30 July 2014. Original cast member Harry Derbidge made a full - time return to this series, however he was axed at the end of the series and did not return for the thirteenth. It was also the final series to feature Grace Andrews but first to include Vas J. Morgan. Mario Falcone was also absent during this series following a suspension.
The thirteenth series, the first to air on new channel ITVBe, began on 8 October 2014 with two The Only Way Is Ibiza specials, followed by 10 regular episodes, concluding on 16 November 2014, with the 2014 Christmas special following a month later on 10 December 2014. The new channel also launched on 8 October 2014. Because of this, the first episode of The Only Way Is Ibiza featured a live after party straight after the episode hosted by Mark Wright and narrator of the show Denise van Outen. Mario Falcone returned to the series following his suspension. This was the final series to feature long running cast member Tom Pearce, and the only series to include Georgia "George '' Harrison. Tommy "Mal '' Mallet also made his first appearance during this series. George later went onto appear in Love Island in 2017.
The fourteenth series began on 22 February 2015 and consisted of thirteen episodes ending on 5 April 2015. Original cast member Arg returned to the show after his suspension during the thirteenth series. After the launch of the new series, Mark Wright returned to host another live after party. The series includes the final appearances of Charlie Sims and Dan Osborne, but the first for Dan Edgar, Chloe Lewis and Jake Hall.
The fifteenth series launched on 14 June 2015 with two Marbella specials. It is the third series to feature on ITV 's new channel ITVBe. As well as confirming the new launch date, it was confirmed that ITV had renewed the show for a further six series, taking it to series 21. Ahead of the series it was announced that cast member Ricky Rayment had taken a short break from the show but would be back, however he did not return. It was also confirmed that Mario Falcone had been suspended from the show for the second time, this time after promoting slimming pills on social media. He returned to the show during the fourth episode.
The sixteenth series began on 4 October 2015. This is the first series to be included under the new contract which was confirmed on 3 June 2015, renewing the show for a further six series. Ahead of the series, it was announced that cast member Gemma Collins had quit the show. She had appeared on the show since the second series. For the Essexmas special, Gemma Collins, Mario Falcone and Lauren Goodger each made a brief return to the show. This was the last series to feature Nanny Pat who died on 16 December 2015, and Lauren Pope who made her exit during the series.
The seventeenth series began on 28 February 2016. Ahead of the series, it was announced that Jess Wright, who had appeared on the show since the first series had quit. It was also confirmed that Ferne McCann would be taking a break from the series. It will be the first series to include new cast members Chloe Meadows, Courtney Green, and Chris and Jon Clark. Jon previously appeared on ITV2 's Love Island. This series will also feature the show 's 200th episode. Despite previously announcing that she 'd quit the show, Gemma Collins appeared in this series. On 9 March 2016, it was announced that former Ex on the Beach star and Celebrity Big Brother housemate Megan McKenna has joined the cast and would be making her debut during the 200th episode. However, Megan previously made a brief appearance on the first Essexmas special in 2010 where she originally auditioned for Jess Wright 's new girl group. On 13 March 2016, ahead of the show 's milestone 200th episode, a special episode titled "The Power of TOWIE '' aired hosted by Mark Wright, where cast past and present united to discuss the show 's history.
The eighteenth series began on 17 July 2016 with a The Only Way is Mallorca special. Ahead of the series it was announced that cast member Jake Hall had quit the show having appeared since the fourteenth series. Despite quitting the show at the end of the sixteenth series, Jess Wright made a one - off appearance to support Bobby over the loss of his dog. It was also the first series not to include long - running cast member Lewis Bloor, who quit during the previous series. New cast member Amber Dowding joined the show for this series. Love Island winners Nathan Massey and Cara De La Hoyde also made guest appearances during the ninth episode of the series. This was the final series to include Billie Faiers after it was announced she had quit the show, as well as Mike Hassini, who did not return for the nineteenth series.
The nineteenth series began on 9 October 2016 with a The Only Way Is Marbs special. Ahead of the series it was confirmed that former cast member Lauren Goodger would be making her return to the series having previously appeared during the first to the sixth series, and then again during the 2015 Essexmas special. This is the first series not to include Billie Faiers, after it was announced she had quit the show. It includes the first appearances of new cast members Ben Shenel and Ercan Ramadan. Mario Falcone and Frankie Essex also made a surprise one - off return to the series during the final episode of the series to celebrate Chloe Sims 's 35th birthday. Love Island winners Nathan Massey and Cara De La Hoyde both made another guest appearance during the eighth episode. Original cast member James Argent was also absent for most of this series due to him taking a break from the show. A further two Essexmas specials aired in December 2016, where Danni announced her departure from the series.
The twentieth series began on 5 March 2017 with the cast heading to Tenerife, and concluded on 3 May 2017 after eighteen episodes, making this the longest series to date. Ahead of the series it was announced that James Argent had taken a break from the series having only appeared in the first half of the previous series. It was also announced that Mario Falcone, Jamie Reed and Charlie King would all be returning to the series. Lauren Pope also made a return to the series during the final episode, and Fran Parman also made a brief return during this episode. This was the first series to include new cast members Amber Turner, Myles Barnett, Yazmin Oukhellou, Jack Rigden, Jordan Brook and Jade Lewis. This was the final series to include cast members Ben Shenel and Ercan Ramadan, as well as Kate Wright who announced her departure ahead of the final episode.
The twenty - first series began on 10 September 2017 with the cast heading to Marbella, and will conclude after eighteen episodes. Ahead of the series it was announced that James Argent would be returning to the series following his break from the show. It was also confirmed that after making brief appearances during the previous series, Lauren Pope and Mario Falcone would be returning to the series as full - time cast members. With this announcement, it was revealed that Mike Hassini would also be returning to the series having previously left the show after the eighteenth series. New cast members Ruby Lacey, Maddie Hooper and Taylor Barnett were also confirmed to have joined the show. Former cast member Danielle Armstrong also made a brief return to the series, appearing in the Halloween special episode airing on 29 October 2017.
On 21 December 2017, it was announced that a further two series had been commissioned for 2018. It was also confirmed that the series will only air once a week unlike past series which aired twice a week. It was also announced that episode running times would be increased from 50 minutes to 60 minutes.
This is a list of main and supporting cast members currently appearing in the show. From series 1 -- 3, the main cast received star billing in the opening credits and were credited by their first names.
As well as appearing in The Only Way Is Essex, some of the cast members have competed in other reality TV shows including Celebrity Big Brother, I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!, Let 's Sing and Dance, Splash!, Dancing on Ice, Celebrity Super Spa, The Jump, Tumble, Strictly Come Dancing, Get Your Act Together, Celebrity MasterChef, Dance Dance Dance and Love Island.
The genre of "scripted reality '' has attracted much criticism for a lack of authenticity, or indeed outright deception (see article on reality television).
The show has been criticised for its negative and stereotypical representation of Essex, and there have been a number of complaints to ITV2. Some Essex residents felt it was not a true representation of the area and the people who live there. Kirk Norcross responded to this criticism by saying, "We are all from Essex, so this is Essex. It 's not acting. It 's not like they 've got people from America and said ' Right, act like you think you know where Essex is. ' We are Essex people so what you 're watching is Essex. ''
In April 2011, it was reported that Big Brother 8 winner Brian Belo intended to sue the makers of The Only Way Is Essex -- claiming they "stole his idea ''. Belo was in the original pilot of the show -- provisionally titled Totally Essex -- alongside current stars Mark Wright, Sam Faiers, Kirk Norcross and Amy Childs. Belo plans to sue his former manager and Lime Productions, which makes the show, for lost earnings of up to £ 100,000 a series. The Sun reported that Belo had spent the previous two years working on an idea for a United Kingdom version of The Hills, with his manager successfully pitching the pilot to Lime Productions. After not making the cast list, Belo believed he might be involved in producing the show, but was "cut '' from the production entirely.
On 24 October 2011, it was reported that sisters Sam and Billie Faiers had been attacked by a group of girls on a night out: "The sisters were first targeted inside the club when the girls made off with Billie 's handbag... When they left, the gang followed them back to Essex. '' An insider also commented saying "Both Sam and Billie later went to A&E to get checked out. They are fine now, just a bit shocked, although Sam has been left with two black eyes. '' A video of the attack leaked online a day later. The aftermath of the attack was aired during series 3 episode 10.
In May 2012, it was reported that original cast member Lauren Goodger had fallen out with the show 's director for her bad timekeeping on set and her diva demands. Goodger appeared in the first four episodes of series 5, and was suspended from appearing in the show, however on 18 May 2012, it was confirmed that the issues had been resolved and that Goodger would be returning to the programme. Goodger returned in episode 9 and her absence from the show was not mentioned on screen.
On 1 December 2012, it was reported that X Factor finalist Rylan Clark would appear on the TOWIE Live special episode and later return as a full - time cast member in 2013. Mario Falcone reacted to the rumours by saying, "If he comes on Monday 's live show, that 's fine because it 's all for charity, but if he comes on TOWIE as a main character, I 'll leave. We hate him. He 's a douche bag. '' Kirk Norcross commented, "I 've met Rylan before and he 's actually a really nice boy but when people think of Essex they just think of the abbreviation, the ' Shut - up ', the ' Oh my god ' - that was all Amy Childs and we do n't want that. '' On 3 December, following Falcone and Norcross 's comments, Clark pulled out of his one - off appearance for the live episode, later saying: "TOWIE 's a great programme and I wish them all the best of luck, but I ca n't do the show because I 've got commitments to the X Factor tour and I 've got to be in rehearsals. I 've never met Mario in my life, so I find it very unprofessional and ungentlemanly for him to go around talking about people he has n't even met, Anyone who cheats on his girlfriend that much is n't worth my time. ''
The live episode was called "an utter car crash '' and "possibly the worst TV show ever ''.
The show is filmed just a few days in advance, and is narrated by Denise van Outen, who is a native of the Essex town of Basildon. The first series ran initially for four weeks, airing every Wednesday and Sunday. The show has been described by the Daily Mirror as Britain 's answer to The Hills and Jersey Shore. Series 2 began on 20 March 2011, once again airing every Wednesday and Sunday, but with longer episodes than Series 1. Series 2 also saw the departure of original cast member Amy Childs. The second series consisted of 14 episodes, ending on 4 May 2011. The series returned for a third series on 25 September 2011 and was the final series to feature two of the original cast members Mark Wright whose departure was seen in the final episode while Kirk Norcross departed off - screen like Childs. The series ended on 9 November 2011. On 2 December 2011, it was revealed that many of the cast would not be returning for the fourth series in 2012 but would feature in the 2011 Christmas Special. The fourth series began in January 2012.
Digital Spy reported that the series had been renewed for a further four series following the Christmas Special and would air four 10 - episode runs in 2012. On 11 January it was reported that 12 new characters would be joining the cast.
Fresh Out of Essex was a set of mini online 5 -- 12 minute episodes that were uploaded onto the official website when the series was off air. 35 mini-episodes were uploaded, with two series airing in 2012. The series has not returned.
In December 2011 the show 's current cast released a cover of the Wham! classic Last Christmas, with their own unique version of the show 's theme song ' The Only Way Is Up ' as the single 's B - side. The version used on the show, by Yazz, spent five weeks at number one in 1988. All profits from the single go to Text Santa, a major new charity initiative set up by ITV, which aims to raise money and awareness for a group of charities, including Crisis, Samaritans and Great Ormond Street Hospital.
The official video for the single premiered on 1 December at 11 pm on ITV2 and featured Jess Wright taking lead vocals alongside Lauren and Gemma. The video shows the current cast from series 3 singing in the studio with clips of the Lauren, Mark and Lucy love triangle from series 1. Half of the current cast, including main singers on the single Jessica Wright and James Argent, performed the single on the final episode of the Text Santa TV series.
Joey Essex Presents Essex Anthems is a 60 - song compilation album of dance tracks selected by Joey Essex, released on 17 March 2014.
The Only Way Is Marbs -- Marbella Sessions is a 61 - song compilation album released 23 June 2014 to coincide with the start of series 12 which saw the return of The Only Way Is Marbs. The album is mixed by Lauren Pope.
The Only Way Is Essex -- Dance Anthems is a 61 - song compilation album due to be released 13 October 2014 The album is the second to be mixed by Lauren Pope.
Series 1 - 17 have been shown in Australia on LifeStyle You channel on Foxtel, and Series 1 - 4 have been shown in New Zealand on LifeStyle You channel on Sky TV. Series 1 -- 20 are available in the United States on video - on - demand site Hulu. The show airs in Israel on yes Drama. Series 1 - 5 has been showing in South Africa (June 2013 - June 2014). Series 17 began broadcasting on UTV Ireland on 18 April 2016.
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where was the movie national lampoon's christmas vacation filmed | National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation - wikipedia
National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation is a 1989 American Christmas comedy film directed by Jeremiah S. Chechik. It is the third installment in National Lampoon 's Vacation film series, and was written by John Hughes, based on his short story in National Lampoon magazine, "Christmas ' 59 ''. The film stars Chevy Chase, Beverly D'Angelo and Randy Quaid, with Juliette Lewis and Johnny Galecki as the Griswold children Audrey and Rusty, respectively.
Since its release in 1989, Christmas Vacation has often been labeled as a modern Christmas classic. It is also the only sequel in the Vacation series to have spawned its own direct sequel: a 2003 made - for - TV release entitled National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation 2: Cousin Eddie 's Island Adventure.
The film has achieved six home video releases: VHS and Laserdisc in early 1990, a bare bones DVD in 1997, and a "Special Edition '' DVD in 2003. A Blu - ray edition was first released in 2006. In 2009, the film was released as an "Ultimate Collector 's Edition. '' At the same time of this release, it was also released on a simple Blu - ray / DVD combo. A steelbook Blu - ray was released in 2015.
With Christmas only a few weeks away, Chicago resident Clark Griswold decides it is time to get a Christmas tree. He gathers his wife Ellen, daughter Audrey, and son Rusty and drives out to the country where he picks out a huge tree. Realizing too late that they did n't bring any tools to cut the tree down, they are forced to uproot it instead, before driving home with the tree strapped to the roof of their car.
Soon after, both Clark 's and Ellen 's parents arrive to spend Christmas, but their bickering quickly begins to annoy the family. Clark, however, maintains a positive attitude, determined to have a "fun old - fashioned family Christmas. '' He covers the house 's entire exterior with 25,000 twinkle lights, which fail to work at first, as he has accidentally wired them through his garage 's light switch. When they finally come on, they temporarily cause a citywide power shortage and create chaos for Clark 's snobby neighbors, Todd and Margo. While standing on the front lawn admiring the lights, Clark is shocked to see Ellen 's cousin Catherine and her husband Eddie, as they arrive unannounced with their children, Rocky and Ruby Sue, and their Rottweiler dog, Snot. Eddie later admits that they are living in the RV they drove, as he is broke and has been forced to sell his home. Clark offers to buy gifts for Eddie 's kids so they can still enjoy Christmas.
Clark begins to wonder why his boss has not given him his yearly bonus, which he desperately needs to replace an advance payment he has made to install a swimming pool. After a disastrous Christmas Eve dinner, he finally receives an envelope from a company messenger, who had overlooked it the day before. Instead of the presumed bonus, the envelope contains a free year 's membership for the Jelly of the Month Club. This prompts Clark to snap and go into a tirade about Frank, and out of anger, requests that he be delivered to the house so Clark can insult him to his face.
Eddie takes the request literally, drives to Frank 's mansion, and kidnaps him. Clark confronts him about the cancellation of the employees ' Christmas bonuses. Meanwhile, Frank 's wife, Helen, calls the police, and a SWAT team storms the Griswold house and holds everyone at gunpoint. Frank decides not to press charges and explains the situation to his wife and the authorities, who scold him for his decision to scrap the bonuses, and decides to reinstate them (with Clark getting an add - on of 20 % of his salary).
The family head outside, with Rocky and Ruby Sue believing they see Santa Claus in the distance. Clark tells them it 's actually the Christmas Star and that he finally realizes what the holiday means to him. Uncle Lewis says the light is coming from the sewage treatment plant; reminding Clark that Eddie had been dumping his sewage into a storm drain. Before Clark can stop him, Uncle Lewis tosses a lit match, triggering an explosion. Aunt Bethany starts singing "The Star - Spangled Banner '' and the whole family and the SWAT team join in, gazing at Clark 's Santa Claus and reindeer set burning and flying into the distance. The entire family and the SWAT team members then celebrate inside the house, while Clark and Ellen happily share a Christmas kiss.
National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation originated from a short story by writer John Hughes called "Christmas ' 59, '' which was published in the December 1980 issue of National Lampoon magazine. "The studio came to me and begged for another one, and I only agreed because I had a good story to base it on, '' said Hughes. "But those movies have become little more than Chevy Chase vehicles. '' Director Chris Columbus initially was to direct the film, but due to a personality clash between him and Chevy Chase, Columbus left the film and was replaced by Chechik. Hughes eventually gave Columbus the script to Home Alone..
Principal photography began on March 27, 1989 in Summit County, Colorado, with footage shot in Silverthorne, Breckenridge, and Frisco. From there the production moved to Warner Bros. Studio Facilities in Burbank, California, where the set of the Griswold family 's house is located.
The musical score for National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation was composed by Angelo Badalamenti. It is the only installment of the Vacation film series not to include Lindsey Buckingham 's "Holiday Road ''. In its place is a song entitled "Christmas Vacation '' that was written for the movie by the husband - wife songwriting team of Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil and performed by Mavis Staples of The Staple Singers fame. The song was covered in 2007 by High School Musical star Monique Coleman for the 2007 Christmas album Disney Channel Holiday.
Despite several popular songs being present in the film, no official soundtrack album was released. In 1999, a bootleg copy containing music featured in the film along with select cuts of dialogue dubbed as the "10th Anniversary Limited Edition '' began to appear on Internet auction sites with the claim that Warner Bros. and RedDotNet had pressed 20,000 CDs for Six Flags Magic Mountain employees to sell to customers entering the park. However, while the discs were individually numbered out of 20,000, only 7,000 were sold as a part of an on demand production printed at gift shop kiosks within the park. Forums on movie music sites such as SoundtrackCollector later declared the disc to be a bootleg due to its inaccuracies. For instance, the cut "Christmas Vacation Medley '' (claiming to be the work of composer Angelo Badalamenti) is really a track called "Christmas at Carnegie Hall '' from Home Alone 2: Lost in New York by composer John Williams and does not actually contain any of Badalamenti 's Christmas Vacation score.
The movie debuted at # 2 at the box - office while grossing $11,750,203 during the opening weekend, behind Back to the Future Part II. The movie eventually topped the box - office charts in its third week of release and remained # 1 the following weekend. It went on to gross a total of $71,319,546 in the United States while showing in movie theaters.
At the time of the film 's release, the film received mixed to positive reviews; however, over time, many have cited it as a Christmas classic. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 64 % of 36 film critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 6.2 out of 10. The site 's consensus reads, "While Christmas Vacation may not be the most disciplined comedy, it 's got enough laughs and good cheer to make for a solid seasonal treat. ''
Entertainment magazine Variety responded positively to the film stating, "Solid family fare with plenty of yocks, National Lampoon 's Christmas Vacation is Chevy Chase and brood doing what they do best. Despite the title, which links it to previous pics in the rambling Vacation series, this third entry is firmly rooted at the Griswold family homestead, where Clark Griswold (Chase) is engaged in a typical over-reaching attempt to give his family a perfect, old - fashioned Christmas. '' Rita Kempley of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review explaining that "it will prove pater - familiar to fans of the 1983 original and the European Vacation sequel. Only it 's a bit more whimsical. ''
Janet Maslin of The New York Times gave the film a mediocre review explaining that the "third look at the quintessentially middle - American Griswold family, led by Clark and the very patient Ellen is only a weary shadow of the original National Lampoon 's Vacation. '' Maslin went on to say that "the best thing the new film does is to bring back Cousin Eddie, the wily, scene - stealing slob whose disgusting habits are a source of considerable amusement. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film two out of four stars saying, "The movie is curious in how close it comes to delivering on its material: Sequence after sequence seems to contain all the necessary material, to be well on the way toward a payoff, and then it somehow does n't work. ''
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who made the first hip hop music video | Hip hop music - wikipedia
Hip hop music, also called hip - hop or rap music, is a music genre developed in the United States by inner - city African Americans in the 1970s which consists of a stylized rhythmic music that commonly accompanies rapping, a rhythmic and rhyming speech that is chanted. It developed as part of hip hop culture, a subculture defined by four key stylistic elements: MCing / rapping, DJing / scratching with turntables, break dancing, and graffiti writing. Other elements include sampling beats or bass lines from records (or synthesized beats and sounds), and rhythmic beatboxing. While often used to refer solely to rapping, "hip hop '' more properly denotes the practice of the entire subculture. The term hip hop music is sometimes used synonymously with the term rap music, though rapping is not a required component of hip hop music; the genre may also incorporate other elements of hip hop culture, including DJing, turntablism, scratching, beatboxing, and instrumental tracks.
Hip hop as both a musical genre and a culture was formed during the 1970s when block parties became increasingly popular in New York City, particularly among African - American, often Muslim youth residing in the Bronx. However hip - hop music did not get officially recorded for the radio or television to play until 1979, largely due to poverty during hip - hop 's birth and lack of acceptance outside ghetto neighborhoods. At block parties DJs played percussive breaks of popular songs using two turntables and a DJ mixer to be able to play breaks from two copies of the same record, alternating from one to the other and extending the "break ''. Hip hop 's early evolution occurred as sampling technology and drum machines became widely available and affordable. Turntablist techniques such as scratching and beatmatching developed along with the breaks and Jamaican toasting, a chanting vocal style, was used over the beats. Rapping developed as a vocal style in which the artist speaks or chants along rhythmically with an instrumental or synthesized beat. Notable artists at this time include DJ Kool Herc, Grandmaster Flash and The Furious Five, Fab Five Freddy, Marley Marl, Afrika Bambaataa, Kool Moe Dee, Kurtis Blow, Doug E. Fresh, Whodini, Warp 9, The Fat Boys, and Spoonie Gee. The Sugarhill Gang 's 1979 song "Rapper 's Delight '' is widely regarded to be the first hip hop record to gain widespread popularity in the mainstream. The 1980s marked the diversification of hip hop as the genre developed more complex styles. Prior to the 1980s, hip hop music was largely confined within the United States. However, during the 1980s, it began to spread to music scenes in dozens of countries, many of which mixed hip hop with local styles to create new subgenres.
New school hip hop was the second wave of hip hop music, originating in 1983 -- 84 with the early records of Run - D.M.C. and LL Cool J. The Golden age hip hop period was an innovative period between the mid-1980s and the early 1990s. Notable artists from this era include the Juice Crew, Public Enemy, Eric B. & Rakim, Boogie Down Productions and KRS - One, EPMD, Slick Rick, Beastie Boys, Kool G Rap, Big Daddy Kane, Ultramagnetic MCs, De La Soul, and A Tribe Called Quest. Gangsta rap is a subgenre of hip hop that often focuses on the violent lifestyles and impoverished conditions of inner - city African - American youth. Schoolly D, N.W.A, Ice - T, Ice Cube, and the Geto Boys are key founding artists, known for mixing the political and social commentary of political rap with the criminal elements and crime stories found in gangsta rap. In the West Coast hip hop style, G - funk dominated mainstream hip hop for several years during the 1990s with artists such as Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg. East Coast hip hop in the early to mid 1990s was dominated by the Afrocentric jazz rap and alternative hip hop of the Native Tongues posse as well as the hardcore rap of artists such as Mobb Deep, Wu - Tang Clan, and Onyx. East Coast hip hop also had gangsta rap musicians such as the Notorious B.I.G. and Lil ' Kim.
In the 1990s, hip hop began to diversify with other regional styles emerging, such as Southern rap and Atlanta hip hop. At the same time, hip hop continued to be assimilated into other genres of popular music, examples being neo soul (e.g.: Lauryn Hill, Erykah Badu) and nu metal (e.g.: Korn, Limp Bizkit). Hip hop became a best - selling genre in the mid-1990s and the top selling music genre by 1999. The popularity of hip hop music continued through the 2000s, with hip hop influences also increasingly finding their way into mainstream pop. The United States also saw the success of regional styles such as crunk (e.g.: Lil Jon & the East Side Boys, the Ying Yang Twins), a Southern genre that emphasized the beats and music more than the lyrics. Starting in 2005, sales of hip hop music in the United States began to severely wane. During the mid-2000s, alternative hip hop secured a place in the mainstream, due in part to the crossover success of artists such as OutKast and Kanye West. During the late 2000s and early 2010s, rappers such as Lil Wayne, Soulja Boy, and B.o.B were the most popular rappers. During the 2010s, rappers such as Drake, Nicki Minaj, J. Cole, and Kendrick Lamar all have been extremely popular. Trap, a subgenre of hip hop, also has been popular during the 2010s with hip hop artists and hip hop music groups such as Migos, Travis Scott, and Kodak Black.
The creation of the term hip hop is often credited to Keith Cowboy, rapper with Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five. However, Lovebug Starski, Keith Cowboy, and DJ Hollywood used the term when the music was still known as disco rap. It is believed that Cowboy created the term while teasing a friend who had just joined the U.S. Army, by scat singing the words "hip / hop / hip / hop '' in a way that mimicked the rhythmic cadence of soldiers marching. Cowboy later worked the "hip hop '' cadence into a part of his stage performance, which was quickly used by other artists such as The Sugarhill Gang in "Rapper 's Delight ''. Universal Zulu Nation founder Afrika Bambaataa is credited with first using the term to describe the subculture in which the music belonged; although it is also suggested that it was a derogatory term to describe the type of music. The first use of the term in print was in The Village Voice, by Steven Hager, later author of a 1984 history of hip hop.
Hip hop as music and culture formed during the 1970s in New York City from the multicultural exchange between African - American youth from the United States and young immigrants and children of immigrants from countries in the Caribbean. Hip hop music in its infancy has been described as an outlet and a voice for the disenfranchised youth of marginalized backgrounds and low - income areas, as the hip hop culture reflected the social, economic and political realities of their lives. Many of the people who helped establish hip hop culture, including DJ Kool Herc, DJ Disco Wiz, Grandmaster Flash, and Afrika Bambaataa were of Latin American or Caribbean origin. It is hard to pinpoint the exact musical influences that most affected the sound and culture of early hip hop because of the multicultural nature of New York City. Hip hop 's early pioneers were influenced by a mix of music from their cultures and the cultures they were exposed to as a result of the diversity of U.S. cities. New York City experienced a heavy Jamaican hip hop influence during the 1990s. This influence was brought on by cultural shifts particularly because of the heightened immigration of Jamaicans to New York City and the American - born Jamaican youth who were coming of age during the 1990s.
In the 1970s, block parties were increasingly popular in New York City, particularly among African - American, Caribbean and Latino youth residing in the Bronx. Block parties incorporated DJs, who played popular genres of music, especially funk and soul music. Due to the positive reception, DJs began isolating the percussive breaks of popular songs. This technique was common in Jamaican dub music, and was largely introduced into New York by immigrants from the Caribbean, including DJ Kool Herc, one of the pioneers of hip hop.
Because the percussive breaks in funk, soul and disco records were generally short, Herc and other DJs began using two turntables to extend the breaks. Herc created the blueprint for hip hop music and culture by building upon the Jamaican tradition of impromptu toasting, a spoken type of boastful poetry and speech over music. On August 11, 1973, DJ Kool Herc was the DJ at his sister 's back - to - school party. He extended the beat of a record by using two record players, isolating the percussion "breaks '' by using a mixer to switch between the two records. Herc 's experiments with making music with record players became what we now know as breaking or "scratching ''.
A second key musical element in hip hop music is emceeing (also called MCing or rapping). Emceeing is the rhythmic spoken delivery of rhymes and wordplay, delivered at first without accompaniment and later done over a beat. This spoken style was influenced by the African American style of "capping '', a performance where men tried to outdo each other in originality of their language and tried to gain the favor of the listeners. The basic elements of hip hop -- boasting raps, rival "posses '' (groups), uptown "throw - downs '', and political and social commentary -- were all long present in African American music. MCing and rapping performers moved back and forth between the predominance of "toasting '' songs packed with a mix of boasting, ' slackness ' and sexual innuendo and a more topical, political, socially conscious style. The role of the MC originally was as a Master of Ceremonies for a DJ dance event. The MC would introduce the DJ and try to pump up the audience. The MC spoke between the DJ 's songs, urging everyone to get up and dance. MCs would also tell jokes and use their energetic language and enthusiasm to rev up the crowd. Eventually, this introducing role developed into longer sessions of spoken, rhythmic wordplay, and rhyming, which became rapping.
By 1979 hip hop music had become a mainstream genre. It spread across the world in the 1990s with controversial "gangsta '' rap. Herc also developed upon break - beat deejaying, where the breaks of funk songs -- the part most suited to dance, usually percussion - based -- were isolated and repeated for the purpose of all - night dance parties. This form of music playback, using hard funk and rock, formed the basis of hip hop music. Campbell 's announcements and exhortations to dancers would lead to the syncopated, rhymed spoken accompaniment now known as rapping. He dubbed his dancers "break - boys '' and "break - girls '', or simply b - boys and b - girls. According to Herc, "breaking '' was also street slang for "getting excited '' and "acting energetically ''.
DJs such as Grand Wizzard Theodore, Grandmaster Flash, and Jazzy Jay refined and developed the use of breakbeats, including cutting and scratching. The approach used by Herc was soon widely copied, and by the late 1970s, DJs were releasing 12 - inch records where they would rap to the beat. Popular tunes included Kurtis Blow 's "The Breaks '' and The Sugarhill Gang 's "Rapper 's Delight ''. Herc and other DJs would connect their equipment to power lines and perform at venues such as public basketball courts and at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue, Bronx, New York, now officially a historic building. The equipment consisted of numerous speakers, turntables, and one or more microphones. By using this technique, DJs could create a variety of music, but according to Rap Attack by David Toop "At its worst the technique could turn the night into one endless and inevitably boring song ''. KC The Prince of Soul, a rapper - lyricist with Pete DJ Jones, is often credited with being the first rap lyricist to call himself an "MC ''.
Street gangs were prevalent in the poverty of the South Bronx, and much of the graffiti, rapping, and b - boying at these parties were all artistic variations on the competition and one - upmanship of street gangs. Sensing that gang members ' often violent urges could be turned into creative ones, Afrika Bambaataa founded the Zulu Nation, a loose confederation of street - dance crews, graffiti artists, and rap musicians. By the late 1970s, the culture had gained media attention, with Billboard magazine printing an article titled "B Beats Bombarding Bronx '', commenting on the local phenomenon and mentioning influential figures such as Kool Herc. The New York City blackout of 1977 saw widespread looting, arson, and other citywide disorders especially in the Bronx where a number of looters stole DJ equipment from electronics stores. As a result, the hip hop genre, barely known outside of the Bronx at the time, grew at an astounding rate from 1977 onward.
DJ Kool Herc 's house parties gained popularity and later moved to outdoor venues in order to accommodate more people. Hosted in parks, these outdoor parties became a means of expression and an outlet for teenagers, where "instead of getting into trouble on the streets, teens now had a place to expend their pent - up energy. '' Tony Tone, a member of the Cold Crush Brothers, stated that "hip hop saved a lot of lives ''. For inner - city youth, participating in hip hop culture became a way of dealing with the hardships of life as minorities within America, and an outlet to deal with the risk of violence and the rise of gang culture. MC Kid Lucky mentions that "people used to break - dance against each other instead of fighting ''. Inspired by DJ Kool Herc, Afrika Bambaataa created a street organization called Universal Zulu Nation, centered around hip hop, as a means to draw teenagers out of gang life, drugs and violence.
The lyrical content of many early rap groups focused on social issues, most notably in the seminal track "The Message '' by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five, which discussed the realities of life in the housing projects. "Young black Americans coming out of the civil rights movement have used hip hop culture in the 1980s and 1990s to show the limitations of the hip hop movement. '' Hip hop gave young African Americans a voice to let their issues be heard; "Like rock - and - roll, hip hop is vigorously opposed by conservatives because it romanticises violence, law - breaking, and gangs ''. It also gave people a chance for financial gain by "reducing the rest of the world to consumers of its social concerns. ''
In late 1979, Debbie Harry of Blondie took Nile Rodgers of Chic to such an event, as the main backing track used was the break from Chic 's "Good Times ''. The new style influenced Harry, and Blondie 's later hit single from 1981 "Rapture '' became the first major single containing hip hop elements by a white group or artist to hit number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 -- the song itself is usually considered new wave and fuses heavy pop music elements, but there is an extended rap by Harry near the end.
Hip hop 's early evolution into a form distinct from R&B also, not coincidentally, occurred around the time that sampling technology and drum - machines became widely available to the general public at a cost that was affordable to the average consumer -- not just professional studios. Drum - machines and samplers were combined in machines that came to be known as MPC 's or ' Music Production Centers ', early examples of which would include the Linn 9000. The first sampler that was broadly adopted to create this new kind of music was the Mellotron used in combination with the TR - 808 drum machine. Mellotrons and Linn 's were succeeded by the AKAI, in the late 1980s.
Turntablist techniques -- such as rhythmic "scratching '' (pushing a record back and forth while the needle is in the groove to create new sounds and sound effects, an approach attributed to Grand Wizzard Theodore), beat mixing and / or beatmatching, and beat juggling -- eventually developed along with the percussion breaks, creating a musical accompaniment or base that could be rapped over in a manner similar to signifying. As well, the art of Jamaican toasting, a style of talking or chanting into a microphone, often in a boastful style, while beats play over a sound system, was an important influence on the development of hip hop music. Toasting is another influence found in Jamaican dub music.
Boxer Muhammad Ali, as an influential African - American celebrity, was widely covered in the media. Ali influenced several elements of hip hop music. Both in the boxing ring and in media interviews, Ali became known in the 1960s for being "rhyming trickster '' in the 1960s. Ali used a "funky delivery '' for his comments, which included "boasts, comical trash talk, (and) the endless quotabl (e) '' lines. According to Rolling Stone, his "freestyle skills '' (a reference to a type of vocal improvisation in which lyrics are recited with no particular subject or structure) and his "rhymes, flow, and braggadocio '' would "one day become typical of old school MCs '' like Run -- D.M.C. and LL Cool J, the latter citing Ali as an influence. Hip hop music in its infancy has been described as an outlet and a "voice '' for the disenfranchised youth of low - income and marginalized economic areas, as the hip hop culture reflected the social, economic and political realities of their lives.
Rapping, also referred to as MCing or emceeing, is a vocal style in which the artist speaks lyrically and rhythmically, in rhyme and verse, generally to an instrumental or synthesized beat. Beats, almost always in 4 / 4 time signature, can be created by sampling and / or sequencing portions of other songs by a producer. They also incorporate synthesizers, drum machines, and live bands. Rappers may write, memorize, or improvise their lyrics and perform their works a cappella or to a beat. Hip hop music predates the introduction of rapping into hip hop culture, and rap vocals are absent from many hip hop tracks, such as "Hip Hop, Be Bop (Do n't Stop) '' by Man Parrish; "Chinese Arithmetic '' by Eric B. & Rakim; "Al - Naafiysh (The Soul) '' and "We 're Rocking the Planet '' by Hashim; and "Destination Earth '' by Newcleus. However, the majority of the genre has been accompanied by rap vocals, such as the Sci - fi influenced electro hip hop group Warp 9. Female rappers appeared on the scene in the late 1970s and early 80s, including Bronx artist MC Sha Rock, member of the Funky Four Plus One, credited with being the first female MC and The Sequence, a hip hop trio signed to Sugar Hill Records, the first all female group to release a rap record, Funk You Up.
The roots of rapping are found in African - American music and ultimately African music, particularly that of the griots of West African culture. The African - American traditions of signifyin ', the dozens, and jazz poetry all influence hip hop music, as well as the call and response patterns of African and African - American religious ceremonies. Soul singer James Brown, and musical ' comedy ' acts such as Rudy Ray Moore, Pigmeat Markham and Blowfly are often considered "godfathers '' of hip hop music. Within New York City, performances of spoken - word poetry and music by artists such as The Last Poets, Gil Scott - Heron and Jalal Mansur Nuriddin had a significant impact on the post-civil rights era culture of the 1960s and 1970s, and thus the social environment in which hip hop music was created.
DJ Kool Herc and Coke La Rock provided an influence on the vocal style of rapping by delivering simple poetry verses over funk music breaks, after party - goers showed little interest in their previous attempts to integrate reggae - infused toasting into musical sets. DJs and MCs would often add call and response chants, often consisting of a basic chorus, to allow the performer to gather his thoughts (e.g. "one, two, three, y'all, to the beat ''). Later, the MCs grew more varied in their vocal and rhythmic delivery, incorporating brief rhymes, often with a sexual or scatological theme, in an effort to differentiate themselves and to entertain the audience. These early raps incorporated the dozens, a product of African - American culture. Kool Herc & the Herculoids were the first hip hop group to gain recognition in New York, but the number of MC teams increased over time.
Often these were collaborations between former gangs, such as Afrikaa Bambaataa 's Universal Zulu Nation -- now an international organization. Melle Mel, a rapper with The Furious Five is often credited with being the first rap lyricist to call himself an "MC ''. During the early 1970s B - boying arose during block parties, as b - boys and b - girls got in front of the audience to dance in a distinctive and frenetic style. The style was documented for release to a worldwide audience for the first time in documentaries and movies such as Style Wars, Wild Style, and Beat Street. The term "B - boy '' was coined by DJ Kool Herc to describe the people who would wait for the break section of the song, getting in front of the audience to dance in a distinctive, frenetic style.
Although there were many early MCs that recorded solo projects of note, such as DJ Hollywood, Kurtis Blow and Spoonie Gee, the frequency of solo artists did not increase until later with the rise of soloists with stage presence and drama, such as LL Cool J. Most early hip hop was dominated by groups where collaboration between the members was integral to the show. An example would be the early hip hop group Funky Four Plus One, who performed in such a manner on Saturday Night Live in 1981.
Hip hop music was both influenced by disco music, as disco also emphasized the key role of the DJ in creating tracks and mixes for dancers. As well, hip hop from the late 1970s used disco tracks as beats. At the same time, hip hop music was also a backlash against certain subgenres of late 1970s disco. While the early disco was African - American and Italian - American - created underground music developed by DJs and producers for the dance club subculture, by the late 1970s, disco airwaves were dominated by mainstream, expensively recorded music industry - produced disco songs. According to Kurtis Blow, the early days of hip hop were characterized by divisions between fans and detractors of disco music. Hip hop had largely emerged as "a direct response to the watered down, Europeanised, disco music that permeated the airwaves ''. The earliest hip hop was mainly based on hard funk loops sourced from vintage funk records. However, by 1979, disco instrumental loops / tracks had become the basis of much hip hop music. This genre was called "disco rap ''. Ironically, the rise of hip hop music also played a role in the eventual decline in disco 's popularity.
The disco sound had a strong influence on early hip hop music. Most of the early rap / hip - hop songs were created by isolating existing disco bass - guitar bass lines and dubbing over them with MC rhymes. The Sugarhill Gang used Chic 's "Good Times '' as the foundation for their 1979 hit "Rapper 's Delight '', generally considered to be the song that first popularized rap music in the United States and around the world. In 1982, Afrika Bambaataa released the single "Planet Rock '', which incorporated electronica elements from Kraftwerk 's "Trans - Europe Express '' and "Numbers '' as well as YMO 's "Riot in Lagos ''. The Planet Rock sound also spawned a hip - hop electronic dance trend, electro music, which included songs such as Planet Patrol 's "Play at Your Own Risk '' (1982), C Bank 's "One More Shot '' (1982), Cerrone 's "Club Underworld '' (1984), Shannon 's "Let the Music Play '' (1983), Freeez 's "I.O.U. '' (1983), Midnight Star 's "Freak - a-Zoid '' (1983), Chaka Khan 's "I Feel For You '' (1984).
DJ Pete Jones, Eddie Cheeba, DJ Hollywood, and Love Bug Starski were disco - influenced hip hop DJs. Their styles differed from other hip hop musicians who focused on rapid - fire rhymes and more complex rhythmic schemes. Afrika Bambaataa, Paul Winley, Grandmaster Flash, and Bobby Robinson were all members of third s latter group. In Washington, D.C. go - go emerged as a reaction against disco and eventually incorporated characteristics of hip hop during the early 1980s. The DJ - based genre of electronic music behaved similarly, eventually evolving into underground styles known as house music in Chicago and techno in Detroit.
The earliest hip hop music was performed live, at house parties and block party events, and it was not recorded. Prior to 1979, recorded hip hop music consisted mainly of PA system soundboard recordings of live party shows and early hip hop mixtapes by DJs. Puerto Rican DJ Disco Wiz is credited as the first hip hop DJ to create a "mixed plate, '' or mixed dub recording, when, in 1977, he combined sound bites, special effects and paused beats to technically produce a sound recording. The first hip hop record is widely regarded to be The Sugarhill Gang 's "Rapper 's Delight '', from 1979. However, much controversy surrounds this assertion as some regard "King Tim III (Personality Jock) '' by The Fatback Band, which was released a few weeks before "Rapper 's Delight '', as a rap record. There are various other claimants for the title of first hip hop record.
By the early 1980s, all the major elements and techniques of the hip hop genre were in place, and by 1982, the electronic (electro) sound had become the trend on the street and in dance clubs. New York City radio station WKTU featured Warp 9 's "Nunk, '' in a commercial to promote the station 's signature sound of emerging hip hop Though not yet mainstream, hip hop had begun to permeate the music scene outside of New York City; it could be found in cities as diverse as Atlanta, Los Angeles, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Baltimore, Dallas, Kansas City, San Antonio, Miami, Seattle, St. Louis, New Orleans, Houston, and Toronto. Indeed, "Funk You Up '' (1979), the first hip hop record released by a female group, and the second single released by Sugar Hill Records, was performed by The Sequence, a group from Columbia, South Carolina which featured Angie Stone. Despite the genre 's growing popularity, Philadelphia was, for many years, the only city whose contributions could be compared to New York City 's. Hip hop music became popular in Philadelphia in the late 1970s. The first released record was titled "Rhythm Talk '', by Jocko Henderson.
The New York Times had dubbed Philadelphia the "Graffiti Capital of the World '' in 1971. Philadelphia native DJ Lady B recorded "To the Beat Y'All '' in 1979, and became the first female solo hip hop artist to record music. Schoolly D, starting in 1984 and also from Philadelphia, began creating a style that would later be known as gangsta rap.
The 1980s marked the diversification of hip hop as the genre developed more complex styles. New York City became a veritable laboratory for the creation of new hip hop sounds. Early examples of the diversification process can be heard in tracks such as Grandmaster Flash 's "The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel '' (1981), a single consisting entirely of sampled tracks as well as Afrika Bambaataa 's "Planet Rock '' (1982), and Warp 9 's "Nunk, '' (1982) which signified the fusion of hip hop music with electro. In addition, Rammellzee & K - Rob 's "Beat Bop '' (1983) was a ' slow jam ' which had a dub influence with its use of reverb and echo as texture and playful sound effects. "Light Years Away, '' by Warp 9 (1983), (produced and written by Lotti Golden and Richard Scher) described as a "cornerstone of early 80 's beatbox afrofuturism, '' by the UK paper, The Guardian, introduced social commentary from a sci - fi perspective. In the 1970s, hip hop music typically used samples from funk and later, from disco. The mid-1980s marked a paradigm shift in the development of hip hop, with the introduction of samples from rock music, as demonstrated in the albums King of Rock and Licensed to Ill. Hip hop prior to this shift is characterized as old - school hip hop.
The proliferation of electro hip hop and hip hop records in the early 1980s can be attributed to the new beat - making abilities that the newly - available Roland TR - 808 drum machine provided to beatmakers and producers. Hitting the market in 1980, it became the drum machine of choice because of its affordability and the unique character of its analog, synthesized drum sounds, especially its bass drum sound, which had a deep, solid sound in club PA systems. The new generation of drum machines such as the 808 and Oberheim DMX were a defining characteristic of many 1980s songs, allowing record companies to quickly produce new electro and electro hip hop records to meet the high demand on the street. Even in the 2010s, the 808 kick drum sound is used by hip hop producers.
Over time sampling technology became more advanced. However, earlier producers such as Marley Marl used drum machines to construct their beats from small excerpts of other beats in synchronisation, in his case, triggering three Korg sampling - delay units through a Roland 808. Later, samplers such as the E-mu SP - 1200 allowed not only more memory but more flexibility for creative production. This allowed the filtration and layering different hits, and with a possibility of re-sequencing them into a single piece. With the emergence of a new generation of samplers such as the AKAI S900 in the late 1980s, producers did not have to create complex, time - consuming tape loops. Public Enemy 's first album was created with the help of large tape loops. The process of looping a break into a breakbeat now became more commonly done with a sampler, now doing the job which so far had been done manually by the DJs using turntables. In 1989, DJ Mark James, under the moniker "45 King '', released "The 900 Number '', a breakbeat track created by synchronizing samplers and vinyl records.
The lyrical content and other instrumental accompaniment of hip hop developed as well. The early lyrical styles in the 1970, which tended to be boasts and clichéd chants, were replaced with metaphorical lyrics exploring a wider range of subjects. As well, the lyrics were performed over more complex, multi-layered instrumental accompaniment. Artists such as Melle Mel, Rakim, Chuck D, KRS - One and Warp 9 revolutionized hip hop by transforming it into a more mature art form, with sophisticated arrangements, often featuring "gorgeous textures and multiple layers '' The influential single "The Message '' (1982) by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five is widely considered to be the pioneering force for conscious rap.
Independent record labels like Tommy Boy, Prism Records and Profile Records became successful in the early 1980s, releasing records at a furious pace in response to the demand generated by local radio stations and club DJs. Early 1980s electro music and rap were catalysts that sparked the hip hop movement, led by artists such as Cybotron, Hashim, Afrika Bambaataa, Planet Patrol, Newcleus and Warp 9. In the New York City recording scene, artists collaborated with producer / writers such as Arthur Baker, John Robie, Lotti Golden and Richard Scher, exchanging ideas that contributed to the development of hip hop. Some rappers eventually became mainstream pop performers. Kurtis Blow 's appearance in a Sprite soda pop commercial marked the first hip hop musician to do a commercial for a major product. The 1981 songs "Rapture '' by Blondie and "Christmas Wrapping '' by the new wave band The Waitresses were among the first pop songs to utilize rap. In 1982, Afrika Bambaataa introduced hip hop to an international audience with "Planet Rock. ''
Prior to the 1980s, hip hop music was largely confined within the context of the United States. However, during the 1980s, it began its spread and became a part of the music scene in dozens of countries. Greg Wilson was the first DJ to introduce electro hip hop to UK club audiences in the early 1980s, opting for the dub or instrumental versions of Nunk by Warp 9, Extra T 's "ET Boogie, '' Hip Hop, Be Bop (Do n't Stop) by Man Parrish, Planet Rock and Dirty Talk (Klein + M.B.O. song).
In the early part of the decade, B - boying became the first aspect of hip hop culture to reach Japan, Australia and South Africa. In South Africa, the breakdance crew Black Noise established the practice before beginning to rap later in the decade. Musician and presenter Sidney became France 's first black TV presenter with his show H.I.P.H.O.P. which screened on TF1 during 1984, a first for the genre worldwide. Sidney is considered the father of French hip hop. Radio Nova helped launch other French hip hop stars including Dee Nasty, whose 1984 album Paname City Rappin ' along with compilations Rapattitude 1 and 2 contributed to a general awareness of hip hop in France.
Hip hop has always kept a very close relationship with the Latino community in New York. DJ Disco Wiz and the Rock Steady Crew were among early innovators from Puerto Rico, combining English and Spanish in their lyrics. The Mean Machine recorded their first song under the label "Disco Dreams '' in 1981, while Kid Frost from Los Angeles began his career in 1982. Cypress Hill was formed in 1988 in the suburb of South Gate outside Los Angeles when Senen Reyes (born in Havana) and his younger brother Ulpiano Sergio (Mellow Man Ace) moved from Cuba to South Gate with his family in 1971. They teamed up with DVX from Queens (New York), Lawrence Muggerud (DJ Muggs) and Louis Freese (B - Real), a Mexican / Cuban - American native of Los Angeles. After the departure of "Ace '' to begin his solo career, the group adopted the name of Cypress Hill named after a street running through a neighborhood nearby in South Los Angeles.
Japanese hip hop is said to have begun when Hiroshi Fujiwara returned to Japan and started playing hip hop records in the early 1980s. Japanese hip hop generally tends to be most directly influenced by old school hip hop, taking the era 's catchy beats, dance culture, and overall fun and carefree nature and incorporating it into their music. Hip hop became one of the most commercially viable mainstream music genres in Japan, and the line between it and pop music is frequently blurred.
The new school of hip hop was the second wave of hip hop music, originating in 1983 -- 84 with the early records of Run - D.M.C. and LL Cool J. As with the hip hop preceding it (which subsequently became known as old school hip hop), the new school came predominately from New York City. The new school was initially characterized in form by drum machine - led minimalism, with influences from rock music, a hip hop "metal music for the 80 's - a hard - edge ugly / beauty trance as desperate and stimulating as New York itself. '' It was notable for taunts and boasts about rapping, and socio - political commentary, both delivered in an aggressive, self - assertive style. In image as in song its artists projected a tough, cool, street b - boy attitude. These elements contrasted sharply with the funk and disco - influenced hip hop groups, whose pre-1984 music was characterized by novelty hits, live bands, synthesizers and "party rhymes '' (not all artists prior to 1984 had these styles). New school artists made shorter songs that could more easily gain radio play, and they produced more cohesive LP albums than their old school counterparts. By 1986, their releases began to establish the hip - hop album as a fixture of mainstream music. Hip hop music became commercially successful, as exemplified by the Beastie Boys ' 1986 album Licensed to Ill, which was the first rap album to hit No. 1 on the Billboard charts.
Hip hop 's "golden age '' (or "golden era '') is a name given to a period in mainstream hip hop, produced between the mid-1980s and the early 1990s, which is characterized by its diversity, quality, innovation and influence. There were strong themes of Afrocentrism and political militancy in golden age hip hop lyrics. The music was experimental and the sampling drew on eclectic sources. There was often a strong jazz influence in the music. The artists and teams most often associated with this phrase are Public Enemy, Boogie Down Productions, Eric B. & Rakim, De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, Gang Starr, Big Daddy Kane and the Jungle Brothers.
The golden age is noted for its innovation -- a time "when it seemed that every new single reinvented the genre '' according to Rolling Stone. Referring to "hip - hop in its golden age '', Spin 's editor - in - chief Sia Michel says, "there were so many important, groundbreaking albums coming out right about that time '', and MTV 's Sway Calloway adds: "The thing that made that era so great is that nothing was contrived. Everything was still being discovered and everything was still innovative and new ''. Writer William Jelani Cobb says "what made the era they inaugurated worthy of the term golden was the sheer number of stylistic innovations that came into existence... in these golden years, a critical mass of mic prodigies were literally creating themselves and their art form at the same time ''. The specific time period that the golden age covers varies. MSNBC states, "the ' Golden Age ' of hip - hop music: The ' 80s ''.
Gangsta rap is a subgenre of hip hop that reflects the violent lifestyles of inner - city American black youths. Gangsta is a non-rhotic pronunciation of the word gangster. The genre was pioneered in the mid-1980s by rappers such as Schoolly D and Ice - T, and was popularized in the later part of the 1980s by groups like N.W.A. Ice - T released "6 in the Mornin ' '', which is often regarded as the first gangsta rap song, in 1986. After the national attention and controversy that Ice - T and N.W.A created in the late 1980s and early 1990s, gangsta rap became the most commercially lucrative subgenre of hip hop.
N.W.A is the group most frequently associated with the founding of gangsta rap. Their lyrics were more violent, openly confrontational, and shocking than those of established rap acts, featuring incessant profanity and, controversially, use of the word "nigga ''. These lyrics were placed over rough, rock guitar - driven beats, contributing to the music 's hard - edged feel. The first blockbuster gangsta rap album was N.W.A 's Straight Outta Compton, released in 1988. Straight Outta Compton would establish West Coast hip hop as a vital genre, and establish Los Angeles as a legitimate rival to hip hop 's long - time capital, New York City. Straight Outta Compton sparked the first major controversy regarding hip hop lyrics when their song "Fuck tha Police '' earned a letter from FBI Assistant Director, Milt Ahlerich, strongly expressing law enforcement 's resentment of the song.
Controversy surrounded Ice - T 's album Body Count, in particular over its song "Cop Killer ''. The song was intended to speak from the viewpoint of a criminal getting revenge on racist, brutal cops. Ice - T 's rock song infuriated government officials, the National Rifle Association and various police advocacy groups. Consequently, Time Warner Music refused to release Ice - T 's upcoming album Home Invasion because of the controversy surrounding "Cop Killer ''. Ice - T suggested that the furor over the song was an overreaction, telling journalist Chuck Philips "... they 've done movies about nurse killers and teacher killers and student killers. (Actor) Arnold Schwarzenegger blew away dozens of cops as the Terminator. But I do n't hear anybody complaining about that. '' In the same interview, Ice - T suggested to Philips that the misunderstanding of Cop Killer and the attempts to censor it had racial overtones: "The Supreme Court says it 's OK for a white man to burn a cross in public. But nobody wants a black man to write a record about a cop killer. ''
The subject matter inherent in gangsta rap more generally has caused controversy. The White House administrations of both George Bush senior and Bill Clinton criticized the genre. "The reason why rap is under attack is because it exposes all the contradictions of American culture... What started out as an underground art form has become a vehicle to expose a lot of critical issues that are not usually discussed in American politics. The problem here is that the White House and wan na - bes like Bill Clinton represent a political system that never intends to deal with inner city urban chaos, '' Sister Souljah told The Times. Due to the influence of Ice T and N.W.A, gangsta rap is often viewed as an originally West Coast phenomenon, despite the contributions of East Coast acts like Boogie Down Productions in shaping the genre.
In 1990, Public Enemy 's Fear of a Black Planet was a significant success with music critics and consumers. The album played a key role in hip hop 's mainstream emergence in 1990, dubbed by Billboard editor Paul Grein as "the year that rap exploded ''. In a 1990 article on its commercial breakthrough, Janice C. Thompson of Time wrote that hip hop "has grown into the most exciting development in American pop music in more than a decade. '' Thompson noted the impact of Public Enemy 's 1989 single "Fight the Power '', rapper Tone Lōc 's single Wild Thing being the best - selling single of 1989, and that at the time of her article, nearly a third of the songs on the Billboard Hot 100 were hip hop songs. In a similar 1990 article, Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times put hip hop music 's commercial emergence into perspective: In 1990, also while working with the rap group Snap!, Ronald "Bee - Stinger '' Savage a former member of the Zulu Nation is credited for carving the term "Six elements of the Hip Hop Movement '' by being inspired by Public Enemy 's recordings. The "Six Elements Of The Hip Hop Movement '' are: Consciousness Awareness, Civil Rights Awareness, Activism Awareness, Justice, Political Awareness, Community Awareness in music. Ronald Savage is known as the Son of The Hip Hop Movement.
It was 10 years ago that the Sugarhill Gang 's "Rapper 's Delight '' became the first rap single to enter the national Top 20. Who ever figured then that the music would even be around in 1990, much less produce attractions that would command as much pop attention as Public Enemy and N.W.A? "Rapper 's Delight '' was a novelty record that was considered by much of the pop community simply as a lightweight offshoot of disco -- and that image stuck for years. Occasional records -- including Grandmaster Flash 's "The Message '' in 1982 and Run - DMC 's "It 's Like That '' in 1984 -- won critical approval, but rap, mostly, was dismissed as a passing fancy -- too repetitious, too one dimensional. Yet rap did n't go away, and an explosion of energy and imagination in the late 1980s leaves rap today as arguably the most vital new street - oriented sound in pop since the birth of rock in the 1950s.
MC Hammer hit mainstream success with the multi platinum album Please Hammer, Do n't Hurt ' Em. The record reached # 1 and the first single, "U Ca n't Touch This '' charted on the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100. MC Hammer became one of the most successful rappers of the early nineties and one of the first household names in the genre. The album raised rap music to a new level of popularity. It was the first hip - hop album certified diamond by the RIAA for sales of over ten million. It remains one of the genre 's all - time best - selling albums. To date, the album has sold as many as 18 million units. Released in 1990, "Ice Ice Baby '' by Vanilla Ice was the first hip hop single to top the Billboard charts in the U.S. It also reached number one in the UK, Australia among others and has been credited for helping diversify hip hop by introducing it to a mainstream audience. In 1992, Dr. Dre released The Chronic. As well as helping to establish West Coast gangsta rap as more commercially viable than East Coast hip hop, this album founded a style called G Funk, which soon came to dominate West Coast hip hop. The style was further developed and popularized by Snoop Dogg 's 1993 album Doggystyle. However, hip hop was still met with resistance from black radio, including urban contemporary radio stations. Russell Simmons said in 1990, "Black radio (stations) hated rap from the start and there 's still a lot of resistance to it ''.
Despite the lack of support from some black radio stations, hip hop became a best - selling music genre in the mid-1990s and the top selling music genre by 1999 with 81 million CDs sold. By the late 1990s hip hop was artistically dominated by the Wu - Tang Clan, Diddy and the Fugees. The Beastie Boys continued their success throughout the decade crossing color lines and gaining respect from many different artists. Record labels based out of Atlanta, St. Louis, and New Orleans also gained fame for their local scenes. The midwest rap scene was also notable, with the fast vocal styles from artists such as Bone Thugs - n - Harmony, Tech N9ne, and Twista. By the end of the decade, hip hop was an integral part of popular music, and many American pop songs had hip hop components.
The East Coast -- West Coast hip hop rivalry was a feud from 1991 to 1997 between artists and fans of the East Coast hip hop and West Coast hip hop scenes in the United States, especially from 1994 to 1997. Focal points of the feud were East Coast - based rapper The Notorious B.I.G. (and his New York - based label, Bad Boy Records) and West Coast - based rapper Tupac Shakur (and his Los Angeles - based label, Death Row Records), who were both fatally shot following drive - by shootings by unknown assailants in 1997 and 1996, respectively.
In the early 1990s East Coast hip hop was dominated by the Native Tongues posse which was loosely composed of De La Soul with producer Prince Paul, A Tribe Called Quest, the Jungle Brothers, as well as their loose affiliates 3rd Bass, Main Source, and the less successful Black Sheep & KMD. Although originally a "daisy age '' conception stressing the positive aspects of life, darker material (such as De La Soul 's thought - provoking "Millie Pulled a Pistol on Santa '') soon crept in. Artists such as Masta Ace (particularly for SlaughtaHouse) & Brand Nubian, Public Enemy, Organized Konfusion, Ignacio Bernal, had a more overtly militant pose, both in sound and manner. In the early 1990s, the Wu - Tang Clan revitalized the New York hip hop scene by pioneering an East coast hardcore rap equivalent in intensity to what was being produced on the West Coast. According to Allmusic, the production on two Mobb Deep albums, The Infamous and Hell on Earth (1996), are "indebted '' to RZA 's early production with Wu - Tang Clan.
The success of artists such as Nas and Notorious B.I.G. during 1994 -- 95 cemented the status of the East Coast during a time of West Coast dominance. In a March 2002 issue of The Source Magazine, Nas referred to 1994 as "a renaissance of New York (City) Hip - Hop. '' The productions of RZA, particularly for Wu - Tang Clan, became influential with artists such as Mobb Deep due to the combination of somewhat detached instrumental loops, highly compressed and processed drums and gangsta lyrical content. Wu - Tang solo albums such as Raekwon the Chef 's Only Built 4 Cuban Linx, Ghostface Killah 's Ironman, and GZA 's Liquid Swords are now viewed as classics along with Wu - Tang "core '' material. The clan 's base extended into further groups called "Wu - affiliates ''. Producers such as DJ Premier (primarily for Gangstarr but also for other affiliated artists such as Jeru the Damaja), Pete Rock (With CL Smooth and supplying beats for many others), Buckwild, Large Professor, Diamond D and The 45 King supplying beats for numerous MCs regardless of location. Albums such as Nas 's Illmatic, Jay - Z 's Reasonable Doubt and O.C. 's Word... Life are made up of beats from this pool of producers.
The rivalry between the East Coast and the West Coast rappers eventually turned personal. Later in the decade the business acumen of the Bad Boy Records tested itself against Jay - Z and his Roc - A-Fella Records and, on the West Coast, Death Row Records. The mid to late 1990s saw a generation of rappers such as the members of D.I.T.C. such as the late Big L and Big Pun. On the East Coast, although the "big business '' end of the market dominated matters commercially the late 1990s to early 2000s saw a number of relatively successful East Coast indie labels such as Rawkus Records (with whom Mos Def and Talib Kweli garnered success) and later Def Jux. The history of the two labels is intertwined, the latter having been started by EL - P of Company Flow in reaction to the former, and offered an outlet for more underground artists such as Mike Ladd, Aesop Rock, Mr Lif, RJD2, Cage and Cannibal Ox. Other acts such as the Hispanic Arsonists and slam poet turned MC Saul Williams met with differing degrees of success.
After N.W.A. broke up, Dr. Dre (a former member) released The Chronic in 1992, which peaked at # 1 on the R&B / hip hop chart, # 3 on the pop chart and spawned a # 2 pop single with "Nuthin ' but a ' G ' Thang. '' The Chronic took West Coast rap in a new direction, influenced strongly by P funk artists, melding smooth and easy funk beats with slowly drawled lyrics. This came to be known as G - funk and dominated mainstream hip hop for several years through a roster of artists on Death Row Records, including Tupac Shakur, whose double disc album All Eyez on Me was a big hit with hit songs "Ambitionz az a Ridah '' and "2 of Amerikaz Most Wanted '', and Snoop Dogg, whose Doggystyle included the songs "What 's My Name? '' and "Gin and Juice '', both top ten hits. As the Los Angeles - based label Death Row Records built an empire around Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg, and the rapper - actor Tupac Shakur. It also entered into a rivalry with New York City 's Bad Boy Records. (See the article on the East Coast - West Coast hip hop rivalry.)
Detached from this scene were other artists such as Freestyle Fellowship, The Pharcyde as well as more underground artists such as the Solesides collective (DJ Shadow and Blackalicious amongst others) Jurassic 5, Ugly Duckling, People Under The Stairs, Tha Alkaholiks, and earlier Souls of Mischief represented a return to hip hop roots of sampling and well planned rhyme schemes.
In the 1990s, hip hop began to diversify with other regional styles emerging on the national scene. Southern rap became popular in the early 1990s. The first Southern rappers to gain national attention were the Geto Boys out of Houston, Texas. Southern rap 's roots can be traced to the success of Geto Boy 's Grip It! On That Other Level in 1989, the Rick Rubin produced The Geto Boys in 1990, and We Ca n't Be Stopped in 1991. The Houston area also produced other artists that pioneered the early southern rap sound such as UGK and the solo career of Scarface.
Atlanta hip hop artists were key in further expanding rap music and bringing southern hip hop into the mainstream. Releases such as Arrested Development 's 3 Years, 5 Months and 2 Days in the Life Of... in 1992, Goodie Mob 's Soul Food in 1995 and OutKast 's ATLiens in 1996 were all critically acclaimed. Later, Master P (Ghetto D) built up a roster of artists (the No Limit posse) based out of New Orleans. Master P incorporated G funk and Miami bass influences; and distinctive regional sounds from St. Louis, Chicago, Washington D.C., Detroit and others began to gain popularity.
In the 1990s, elements of hip hop continued to be assimilated into other genres of popular music. Neo soul, for example, combined hip hop and soul music. In the 1980s and 1990s, rap rock, rapcore and rap metal, fusions of hip hop and rock, hardcore punk and heavy metal became popular among mainstream audiences. Rage Against the Machine and nu metal band Limp Bizkit were among the most well - known bands in these fields.
Digable Planets ' 1993 release Reachin ' (A New Refutation of Time and Space) was an influential jazz rap record sampling the likes of Don Cherry, Sonny Rollins, Art Blakey, Herbie Mann, Herbie Hancock, Grant Green, and Rahsaan Roland Kirk. It spawned the hit single "Rebirth of Slick (Cool Like Dat) '' which reached # 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 Although white rappers like the Beastie Boys, House of Pain and 3rd Bass had had some popular success or critical acceptance from the hip hop community, Eminem 's success, beginning in 1999 with the platinum The Slim Shady LP, surprised many.
The popularity of hip hop music continued through the 2000s. Dr. Dre remained an important figure, and in the year 2000, he produced The Marshall Mathers LP by Eminem. Dre also produced 50 Cent 's 2003 album Get Rich or Die Tryin ', which debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 charts. Hip hop influences also found their way increasingly into mainstream pop during this period, mainly during the mid-2000s, as the Los Angeles style of the 1990s lost power. Nelly 's debut LP, Country Grammar, sold over nine million copies. In the 2000s, crunk music, a derivative of Southern hip hop, gained considerable popularity via Lil Jon and the Ying Yang Twins. Jay - Z represented the cultural triumph of hip hop. As his career progressed, he went from performing artist to entrepreneur, label president, head of a clothing line, club owner, and market consultant -- along the way breaking Elvis Presley 's record for most number one albums on the Billboard magazine charts by a solo artist.
Alternative hip hop, which was introduced in the 1980s and then declined, resurged in the early 2000s with the rejuvenated interest in indie music by the general public. In the 2000s alternative hip hop reattained its place within the mainstream, due in part to the declining commercial viability of gangsta rap as well as the crossover success of artists such as OutKast and Kanye West. The alternative hip hop movement expanded beyond the US to include the Somali - Canadian poet K'naan, Japanese rapper Shing02, and British artist MIA. Alternative hip hop acts have attained much critical acclaim, but receive relatively little exposure through radio and other media outlets. In the mid-to late - 2000s (decade), alternative hip hop artists such as The Roots, Dilated Peoples, Gnarls Barkley and Mos Def achieved significant recognition. Gnarls Barkley 's album St. Elsewhere, which contained a fusion of funk, neo soul and hip hop, debuted at number 20 on the Billboard 200 charts. In addition, Aesop Rock 's 2007 album None Shall Pass was well received, and reached # 50 on the Billboard charts.
Crunk is a regional hip hop genre that originated in Tennessee in the southern United States in the 1990s, influenced by Miami bass. One of the pioneers of crunk, Lil Jon, said that it was a fusion of hip hop, electro, and electronic dance music. The style was pioneered and commercialized by artists from Memphis, Tennessee and Atlanta, Georgia. Looped, stripped - down drum machine rhythms are usually used. The Roland TR - 808 and 909 are among the most popular. The drum machine loops are usually accompanied by simple, repeated synthesizer melodies and heavy bass "stabs ''. The tempo of the music is somewhat slower than hip - hop, around the speed of reggaeton. The focal point of crunk is more often the beats and instrumental music rather than the lyrics. Crunk rappers, however, often shout and scream their lyrics, creating an aggressive, almost heavy, style of hip - hop. While other subgenres of hip - hop address sociopolitical or personal concerns, crunk is almost exclusively "party music '', favoring call and response hip - hop slogans in lieu of more substantive approaches.
Snap music is a subgenre of crunk that emerged from Atlanta, Georgia in the late 1990s. The genre gained mainstream popularity and in mid-2005, artists from other southern states such as Tennessee began to emerge performing in this style. Tracks commonly consist of an Roland TR - 808 bass drum, hi - hat, bass, finger snapping, a main groove and a vocal track. Hit snap songs include "Lean wit It, Rock wit It '' by "Dem Franchize Boyz '', "Laffy Taffy '' by D4L, "It 's Goin ' Down '' by Yung Joc and "Crank That (Soulja Boy) '' by Soulja Boy Tell ' Em.
Glitch hop and wonky music evolved following the rise of trip hop, dubstep and intelligent dance music (IDM). Both glitch hop and wonky music frequently reflect the experimental nature of IDM and the heavy bass featured in dubstep songs. While trip hop has been described as being a distinct British upper - middle class take on hip - hop, glitch - hop and wonky music have much more stylistic diversity. Both genres are melting pots of influence. Glitch hop contains echoes of 1980s pop music, Indian ragas, eclectic jazz and West Coast rap. Los Angeles, London, Glasgow and a number of other cities have become hot spots for these scenes, and underground scenes have developed across the world in smaller communities. Both genres often pay homage to older and more well established electronic music artists such as Radiohead, Aphex Twin and Boards of Canada as well as independent hip hop producers like J Dilla and Madlib.
Glitch hop is a fusion genre of hip hop and glitch music that originated in the early to mid-2000s in the United States and Europe. Musically, it is based on irregular, chaotic breakbeats, glitchy basslines and other typical sound effects used in glitch music, like skips. Glitch hop artists include Prefuse 73, Dabrye and Flying Lotus. Wonky is a subgenre of hip hop that originated around 2008, but most notably in the United States and United Kingdom, and among international artists of the Hyperdub music label, under the influence of glitch hop and dubstep. Wonky music is of the same glitchy style as glitch hop, but it was specifically noted for its melodies, rich with "mid-range unstable synths ''. Scotland has become one of the most prominent wonky scenes, with artists like Hudson Mohawke and Rustie.
Glitch hop and wonky are popular among a relatively smaller audience interested in alternative hip hop and electronic music (especially dubstep); neither glitch hop nor wonky have achieved mainstream popularity. However, artists like Flying Lotus, The Glitch Mob and Hudson Mohawke have seen success in other avenues. Flying Lotus 's music has earned multiple positive reviews on the independent music review site Pitchfork.com as well as a prominent (yet uncredited) spot during Adult Swim commercial breaks. Hudson Mohawke is one of few glitch hop artists to play at major music festivals such as Sasquatch! Music Festival.
Starting in 2005, sales of hip hop music in the United States began to severely wane, leading Time magazine to question if mainstream hip - hop was "dying. '' Billboard Magazine found that, since 2000, rap sales dropped 44 %, and declined to 10 % of all music sales, which, while still a commanding figure when compared to other genres, is a significant drop from the 13 % of all music sales where rap music regularly placed. According to Courtland Milloy of The Washington Post, for the first time on five years, no rap albums were among the top 10 sellers in 2006. NPR culture critic Elizabeth Blair noted that, "some industry experts say young people are fed up with the violence, degrading imagery and lyrics. '' However, the 2005 report Generation M: Media in the Lives of 8 -- 18 Year - Olds found that hip hop music is by far the most popular music genre for children and teenagers with 65 percent of 8 - to - 18 - year - olds listening to it on a daily basis.
Other journalists say the music is just as popular as it ever was, but that fans have found other means to consume the music, such as illegally downloading music through P2P networks, instead of purchasing albums and singles from legitimate stores. For example, Flo Rida is known for his low album sales regardless of his singles being mainstream and having digital success. His second album R.O.O.T.S. sold only 200,000 + total units in the U.S., which could not line up to the sales of the album 's lead single "Right Round ''. This also happened to him in 2008. Some put the blame on the lack of strong lyrical content that hip hop once had. Another example is Soulja Boy Tell ' Em 's 2007 debut album souljaboytellem.com was met with negative reviews. Lack of sampling, a key element of early hip hop, has also been noted for the decrease in quality of modern albums. For example, there are only four samples used in 2008 's Paper Trail by T.I., while there are 35 samples in 1998 's Moment of Truth by Gang Starr. The decrease in sampling is in part due to it being too expensive for producers.
In Byron Hurt 's documentary Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes, he claims that hip hop had changed from "clever rhymes and dance beats '' to "advocating personal, social and criminal corruption. '' Despite the fall in record sales throughout the music industry, hip - hop has remained a popular genre, with hip - hop artists still regularly topping the Billboard 200 Charts. In the first half of 2009 alone artists such as Eminem, Rick Ross, The Black Eyed Peas, and Fabolous all had albums that reached the # 1 position on the Billboard 200 charts. Eminem 's album Relapse was one of the fastest selling albums of 2009.
Hip hop music has influenced musical theater. Rap - style verses were used in musical theater as early as 1956 in the production My Fair Lady. Rap is used popular musicals such as Rent and Dreamgirls While more notable for funk than hip hop, the Broadway musical Bring in ' da Noise, Bring in ' da Funk fuses tap dance and hip hop dance styles, and includes rap. Hip hop music was used in Off Broadway shows in the 1990s and early 2000s, with the musicals So! What Happens Now? and Jam on the Groove. In the Heights used hip hop music, rapping and hip hop dancing. With music and lyrics by Lin Manuel Miranda and book by Quiara Alegría Hudes, it was performed off Broadway in 2007. The 2008 Broadway production fused salsa and hip hop styles, and included rap. Miranda brought hip hop to Richard Rogers Theater a second time in 2015 with his production Hamilton. The show had box office success. Hamilton and In the Heights included rap and the cast recording of Hamilton made a number one album on the Billboard rap charts. The success of Hamilton shows that hip hop can have a key role in musical theater.
During the mid-2000s, alternative hip hop secured a place in the mainstream, due in part to the crossover success of artists such as OutKast, Kanye West, and Gnarls Barkley. Not only did OutKast 's Speakerboxxx / The Love Below receive high acclaim from music critics, manage to appeal to listeners of all ages, and span numerous musical genres -- including rap, rock, R&B, punk, jazz, indie, country, pop, electronica and gospel -- but it also spawned two number - one hit singles and has been certified diamond by selling 11 times platinum by the RIAA for shipping more than 11 million units, becoming one of the best selling hip - hop albums of all time as well as winning a Grammy Award for Album of the Year at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards being only the second rap album to do so. Industry observers view the sales race between Kanye West 's Graduation and 50 Cent 's Curtis as a turning point for hip hop.
West emerged the victor, selling nearly a million copies in the first week alone, proving that innovative rap music could be just as commercially viable as gangsta rap, if not more so. Although he designed it as a melancholic pop rather than rap, Kanye 's following 808s & Heartbreak would have a significant effect on hip hop music. While his decision to sing about love, loneliness, and heartache for the entirety of the album was at first heavily criticized by music audiences and the album predicted to be a flop, its subsequent critical acclaim and commercial success encouraged other mainstream rappers to take greater creative risks with their music. During the release of The Blueprint 3, New York rap mogul Jay - Z revealed that next studio album would be an experimental effort, stating, "... it 's not gon na be a # 1 album. That 's where I 'm at right now. I wan na make the most experimental album I ever made. '' Jay - Z elaborated that like Kanye, he was unsatisfied with contemporary hip hop, was being inspired by indie - rockers like Grizzly Bear and asserted his belief that the indie rock movement would play an important role in the continued evolution of hip - hop.
The alternative hip hop movement is not limited only to the United States, as rappers such as Somali - Canadian poet K'naan, Japanese rapper Shing02, and Sri Lankan British artist M.I.A. have achieved considerable worldwide recognition. In 2009, TIME magazine placed M.I.A in the Time 100 list of "World 's Most Influential people '' for having "global influence across many genres. '' Global themed movements have also sprung out of the international hip - hop scene with microgenres like "Islamic Eco-Rap '' addressing issues of worldwide importance through traditionally disenfranchised voices. Today, due in part to the increasing use of music distribution through the internet, many alternative rap artists find acceptance by far - reaching audiences. Several artists, such as Kid Cudi and Drake, have managed to attain chart - topping hit songs, "Day ' n ' Nite '' and "Best I Ever Had '' respectively, by releasing their music on free online mixtapes without the help of a major record label. New artists such as Wale, J. Cole, Lupe Fiasco, The Cool Kids, Jay Electronica, and B.o.B, some of whom mention being directly influenced by their nineties alt - rap predecessors, in addition to the southern rap sound, while their music has been noted by critics as expressing eclectic sounds, life experiences, and emotions rarely seen in mainstream hip hop.
On July 17, 2017, Forbes reported that hip - hop / R&B (which Nielsen SoundScan classifies as being the same genre) has recently usurped rock as the most consumed musical genre, becoming the most popular genre in music for the first time in U.S. history.
Hip - hop music has reached the cultural corridors of the globe and has been absorbed and reinvented around the world. Hip hop music expanded beyond the US, often blending local styles with hip hop. Hip hop has globalized into many cultures worldwide, as evident through the emergence of numerous regional scenes. It has emerged globally as a movement based upon the main tenets of hip hop culture. The music and the art continue to embrace, even celebrate, its transnational dimensions while staying true to the local cultures to which it is rooted. Hip - hop 's impact differs depending on each culture. Still, the one thing virtually all hip hop artists worldwide have in common is that they acknowledge their debt to those African - American people in New York who launched the global movement.
Latinos and people from the Caribbean played an integral role in the early development of hip hop in New York, and the style spread to almost every country in that region. Hip hop first developed in the South Bronx, which had a high Latino, particularly Puerto Rican, population in the 1970s. Some famous rappers from New York City of Puerto Rican origin are the late Big Pun, Fat Joe, and Angie Martinez. With Latino rap groups like Cypress Hill on the American charts, Mexican rap rock groups, such as Control Machete, rose to prominence in their native land.
In many Latin American countries, as in the U.S., hip hop has been a tool with which marginalized people can articulate their struggle. Hip hop grew steadily more popular in Cuba in the 1980s and 1990s through Cuba 's Special Period that came with the fall of the Soviet Union. During this period of economic crisis, which the country 's poor and black populations especially hard, hip hop became a way for the country 's Afro - descended population to embrace their blackness and articulate a demand for racial equality for black people in Cuba. The idea of blackness and black liberation was not always compatible with the goals of the Cuban government, which was still operating under the idea that a raceless society was the correct realization of the Cuban Revolution. When hip - hop emerged, the Cuban government opposed the vulgar image that rappers portrayed, but later accepted that it might be better to have hip - hop under the influence of the Ministry of Culture as an authentic expression of Cuban Culture. Rappers who explicitly speak about race or racism in Cuba are still under scrutiny by the government. An annual Cuban hip hop concert, beginning in 1995, held at Alamar in Havana helped popularize Cuban hip hop. Famous Cuban rap groups include Krudas Cubensi and Supercrónica Obsesión.
Black and indigenous people in Latin America and Caribbean islands have been using hip hop for decades to discuss race and class issues in their respective countries. Brazilian hip hop is heavily associated with racial and economic issues in the country, where a lot of Afro - Brazilians live in economically disadvantaged communities, known in Brazil as favelas. São Paulo is where hip hop began in the country, but it soon spread all over Brazil, and today, almost every big Brazilian city, including Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Curitiba, Porto Alegre, Belo Horizonte, Recife and Brasilia, has a hip hop scene. Some notable artists include Racionais MC 's, Thaide, and Marcelo D2. One of Brazil 's most popular rappers, MV Bill, has spent his career advocating for black youth in Rio de Janeiro.
Reggaeton, a Puerto Rican style of music, has a lot of similarities with U.S. based hip hop. Both were influenced by Jamaican music, and both incorporate rapping and call and response. Dancehall music and hip from the United States are both popular music in Puerto Rico, and reggaeton is the cumulation of different musical traditions founded by Afro - descended people in the Caribbean and the United States. Some of reggaeton 's most popular artists include Don Omar, Tego Calderón, and Daddy Yankee.
In Venezuela, social unrest at the end of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s coincided with the rise of gangsta rap in the United States and led to the rise of that music in Venezuela as well. Venezuelan rappers in the 1990s generally modeled their music after gangsta rap, embracing and attempting to redefine negative stereotypes about poor and black youth as dangerous and materialistic and incorporating socially conscious critique of Venezuela 's criminalization of young, poor, Afro - descended people into their music.
In Haiti, hip hop developed in the early 1980s. Master Dji and his songs "Vakans '' and "Politik Pa m '' are mostly credited with the rise of Haitian hip hop. What later became known as "Rap Kreyòl '' grew in popularity in the late 1990s with King Posse and Original Rap Stuff. Due to cheaper recording technology and flows of equipment to Haiti, more Rap Kreyòl groups are recording songs, even after the January 12 earthquake. Haitian hip hop has recently become a way for artists of Haitian backgrounds in the Haiti and abroad to express their national identity and political opinions about their country of origin. Rappers have embraced the red and blue of the Flag of Haiti and rapping in Haitian Creole to display their national origin. In the Dominican Republic, a recording by Santi Y Sus Duendes and Lisa M became the first single of merenrap, a fusion of hip hop and merengue.
In Europe, Africa, and Asia, hip hop began to move from the underground to mainstream audiences. In Europe, hip hop was the domain of both ethnic nationals and immigrants. British hip hop, for example, became a genre of its own and spawned artists such as Wiley, Dizzee Rascal, The Streets and many more. Germany produced the well - known Die Fantastischen Vier as well as several Turkish performers like the controversial Cartel, Kool Savaş, and Azad. Similarly, France has produced a number of native - born stars, such as IAM and Suprême NTM, MC Solaar, Rohff, Rim'K or Booba. In the Netherlands, important nineties rappers include The Osdorp Posse, a crew from Amsterdam, Extince, from Oosterhout, and Postmen. Italy found its own rappers, including Jovanotti and Articolo 31, grow nationally renowned, while the Polish scene began in earnest early in the decade with the rise of PM Cool Lee. In Romania, B.U.G. Mafia came out of Bucharest 's Pantelimon neighborhood, and their brand of gangsta rap underlines the parallels between life in Romania 's Communist - era apartment blocks and in the housing projects of America 's ghettos.
One of the countries outside the US where hip - hop is most popular is the United Kingdom. In the 2000s a derivative genre from Hip - Hop (as well as UK Garage and Drum and Bass) known as Grime became popular with artists such as Dizzee Rascal becoming successful. Although it is immensely popular, many British politicians criticize the music for what they see as promoting theft and murder, similar to gangsta rap in America. These criticisms have been deemed racist by the mostly Black British grime industry. Despite its controversial nature, grime has had a major effect on British fashion and pop music, with many young working - class youth emulating the clothing worn by grime stars like Dizzee Rascal and Wiley. There are many subgenres of grime, including "Rhythm and Grime, '' a mix of R&B and grime, and grindie, a mix of indie rock and grime popularized by indie rock band Hadouken!
In Germany and France, gangsta rap has become popular among youths who like the violent and aggressive lyrics. Some German rappers openly or comically flirt with Nazism; for example, Bushido (born Anis Mohamed Youssef Ferchichi) raps "Salutiert, steht stramm, Ich bin der Leader wie A '' (Salute, stand to attention, I am the leader like ' A ') and Fler had a hit with the record Neue Deutsche Welle (New German Wave) complete with the title written in Third Reich style Gothic print and advertised with an Adolf Hitler quote. These references also spawned great controversy in Germany. Meanwhile, in France, artists like Kery James ' Idéal J maintained a radical, anti-authoritarian attitude and released songs like Hardcore which attacked the growth of the French far right. In the Netherlands, MC Brainpower went from being an underground battle rapper to mainstream recognition in the Benelux, thus influencing numerous rap artists in the region. In Israel, rapper Subliminal reaches out to Israeli youth with political and religious - themed lyrics, usually with a Zionist message.
In Asia, mainstream stars rose to prominence in the Philippines, led by Francis Magalona, Rap Asia, MC Lara and Lady Diane. In Japan, where underground rappers had previously found a limited audience, and popular teen idols brought a style called J - rap to the top of the charts in the middle of the 1990s. Of particular importance is the influence on East Asian nations, where hip hop music has become fused with local popular music to form different styles such as K - pop, C - pop and J - pop.
Israel 's hip hop grew greatly in popularity at the end of the decade, with several stars both Palestinian (Tamer Nafar) and Israeli (Subliminal). In Portugal hip hop has his own kind of rapping, which is more political and underground scene, they are known for Valete, Dealema and Halloween. Russian hip hop emerged during last years of Soviet Union and cemented later, with groups like Malchishnik and Bad Balance enjoying mainstream popularity in the 1990s, while Ligalize and Kasta were popular in the 2000s. In former Yugoslavia hip hop first appeared during the 1980s mostly with Serbian hip hop with performers such as B - boy, The Master Scratch Band, Badvajzer, and others. During the late 1990s hip hop had a boom, with Rambo Amadeus and later Beogradski sindikat becoming a major performer. Bosnian and Herzegovinian hip hop is nowadays dominated by Edo Maajka. In the region hip hop is often used as a political and social message in song themes such as war, profiteering, corruption, etc. Frenkie, another Bosnian rapper, is associated with Edo Maajka, and has collaborated beyond Bosnian borders.
In Tanzania in the early 2000s, local hip hop artists became popular by infusing local styles of Afrobeat and arabesque melodies, dancehall and hip - hop beats with Swahili lyrics.
In September 2014 a course in rap linguistics was offered at the University of Calgary in Calgary, Alberta, "examining rap from cultures as diverse as German, French, Navajo and even the Sami people of Northern Europe. '' The course has difficult content as rap is studied using methodologies applied in linguistics, such as grammar analysis and measurement of vowel sounds using software. According to associate professor Darin Flynn, who is teaching this course, rap heroes, such as Eminem or Jay - Z, are "true poet laureate (s) of the working class '' and their songs "crisscross sound, emotion, grammar and multiple metaphors ''.
During the late 2010s, many golden age hip hop artists announced their return to performing, including Eric B. & Rakim, Pete Rock & CL Smooth and A Tribe Called Quest with their latest album titled We Got It from Here... Thank You 4 Your Service.
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