question
stringlengths 15
100
| context
stringlengths 18
412k
|
|---|---|
who sang tears of a clown in the 80s | The Tears of a Clown - wikipedia
"The Tears of a Clown '' is a song written by Smokey Robinson, Stevie Wonder, and Hank Cosby and originally recorded by Smokey Robinson & the Miracles for the Tamla Records label subsidiary of Motown, first appearing on the 1967 album Make It Happen. It was re-released in the United Kingdom as a single in July 1970, and it became a # 1 hit on the UK singles chart for the week ending 12 September 1970. Subsequently, Motown released "The Tears of a Clown '' as a single in the United States as well, where it quickly became a # 1 hit on both the Billboard Hot 100 and R&B Singles charts.
This song is an international multi-million seller and a 2002 Grammy Hall of Fame inductee. Its success led Miracles lead singer, songwriter, and producer Smokey Robinson, who had announced plans to leave the act, to stay until 1972.
Stevie Wonder (who was discovered by Miracles member Ronnie White) and his producer Hank Cosby wrote the music for the song, and Cosby produced the instrumental track recording. Wonder brought the instrumental track to the 1966 Motown Christmas party because he could not come up with a lyric to fit the instrumental. Wonder wanted to see what Robinson could come up with for the track. Robinson, who remarked that the song 's distinctive calliope motif "sounded like a circus, '' provided lyrics that reflected his vision and sang lead vocal. In the song, his character, sad because a woman has left him, compares himself to the characters in the opera Pagliacci, comedians / clowns who hide their hurt and anger behind empty smiles. He had used this comparison before: the line "just like Pagliacci did / I 'll try to keep my sadness hid '' appears in the song "My Smile Is Just A Frown (Turned Upside Down), '' which he had written in 1964 for Motown artist Carolyn Crawford. The record is one of the few hit pop singles to feature the bassoon, which was played by Charles R. Sirard.
"The Tears of a Clown '' was an album track on 1967 's Make It Happen but was not released as a single. "The Tears of a Clown '' on the monaural version of Make It Happen contains an alternate lead vocal. By 1969, Robinson had tired of constantly touring with the Miracles, and wanted to remain home in Detroit, Michigan, with his wife Claudette and their two children, Berry and Tamla (both named after aspects of the Motown corporation). Robinson informed his groupmates Pete Moore, Bobby Rogers, and best friend Ronald White that he would be retiring from the act to concentrate on his duties as vice-president of Motown Records.
In 1970, to capitalize on the Miracles ' success there, and due to a lack of new material from the group, Motown Britain selected "The Tears of a Clown '' from the group 's catalog for single release. A new mix of the song was made in February 1970 for the US single release (the original UK single used the original 1967 stereo mix from the Make It Happen LP), and "The Tears of a Clown '' became a # 1 hit in the UK seven weeks after its July release.
This newfound popularity prompted Motown to release the song as a single in the United States, where it became a # 1 hit on both the pop and R&B charts within two months of its release. Despite the fact that the Miracles had been one of Motown 's premier acts in the early and mid-1960s and its first successful group act, "The Tears of a Clown '' was their first and only # 1 hit while Smokey Robinson was lead singer. (The Miracles hit # 1 again several years later with the smash hit "Love Machine '', but by that time Smokey had long since left the group, replaced by Billy Griffin. "Shop Around '' had hit # 1 on the Cash Box Pop Chart, but only # 2 on Billboard 's.)
The 45 single was issued with two different B - sides: the first pressing had an alternate version of the 1967 Miracles Top 20 hit single "The Love I Saw in You Was Just a Mirage; '' the second had a new Miracles song, "Promise Me. '' Motown released a Tears of a Clown LP in 1970 as well, which was essentially a re-packaging of the Miracles ' 1967 Make It Happen. It was included again on the group 's 1971 LP One Dozen Roses, which used a new stereo mix.
Two years later, Smokey Robinson decided to follow through with his plans to leave the Miracles and retire. Smokey Robinson & the Miracles embarked on a six - month farewell tour, culminating in a July 16, 1972 performance in Washington, DC, where Robinson introduced the Miracles ' new lead singer, Billy Griffin.
The song charted again in the UK in 1976, peaking at # 34 (see The Miracles discography). "The Tears of a Clown '' continues to be a popular radio request.
There is some uncertainty about who from the Motown session musicians The Funk Brothers played bass on the recording of The Tears of a Clown. Variously Tony Newton, Bob Babbitt and James Jamerson have been noted as playing on takes of the song.
|
how do you say music artist in spanish | Reggaeton - wikipedia
Reggaeton (also known as reggaetón and reguetón) is a musical genre which originated in Puerto Rico during the late 1990s. It is influenced by hip hop and Latin American and Caribbean music. Vocals include rapping and singing, typically in Spanish.
The word "reggaeton '' (from the Puerto Rican tradition of combining a word with the suffix - tón) was first used in 1995, when DJ Nelson listed it as a potential name for an upcoming album. Although there are several Spanish spellings, Fundéu BBVA recommends reguetón; "reggaeton '' or "reggaetón '' should appear in italics if used.
Often mistaken for reggae or reggae en español, reggaeton is a younger genre which originated in the clubs of San Juan, Puerto Rico in 1991. It became known as "underground '' music, due to its circulation through informal networks and performances at unofficial venues. DJ Playero and DJ Nelson were inspired by hip hop and Latin American music to produce "riddims, '' the first reggaeton tracks. As Caribbean and African - American music gained momentum in Puerto Rico, reggae rap in Spanish marked the beginning of the Boricua underground and was a creative outlet for many young people. This created an inconspicuous - yet - prominent underground youth culture which sought to express itself. As a youth culture existing on the fringes of society and the law, it has often been criticized. The Puerto Rican police launched a campaign against underground music by confiscating cassette tapes from music stores under penal obscenity codes, levying fines and demonizing rappers in the media. Bootleg recordings and word of mouth became the primary means of distribution for this music until 1998, when it coalesced into modern reggaeton. The genre 's popularity increased when it was discovered by international audiences during the early 2000s.
The new genre, simply called "underground '', had explicit lyrics about drugs, violence, poverty, friendship, love and sex. These themes, depicting the troubles of inner - city life, can still be found in reggaeton. "Underground '' music was recorded in marquesinas (Puerto Rican carports) and distributed in the streets on cassettes. The marquesinas were crucial to the development of Puerto Rico 's underground scene because of the state 's "fear of losing the ability to manipulate ' taste ' ''. Marquesinas were often in public "housing complexes such as Villa Kennedy and Jurutungo ''. Despite being recorded in housing projects, most of the marquesinas were good quality (which helped increase their popularity among Puerto Rican youth of all social classes). The availability and quality of the cassettes led to reggaeton 's popularity, which crossed socioeconomic barriers in the Puerto Rican music scene. The most popular cassettes in the early 1990s were DJ Negro 's The Noise I and II and DJ Playero 's 37 and 38. Gerardo Cruet (who created the recordings) spread the genre from the marginalized residential areas into other sectors of society, particularly private schools.
By the mid-1990s, "underground '' cassettes were being sold in music stores. The genre caught up to middle - class youth, and found its way into the media. By this time, Puerto Rico had several clubs dedicated to the underground scene; Club Rappers in Carolina and PlayMakers in Puerto Nuevo were the most notable. Bobby "Digital '' Dixon 's "Dem Bow '' production was played in clubs. Underground music was not originally intended to be club music. In South Florida, DJ Laz and Hugo Diaz of the Diaz Brothers were popularizing the genre from Palm Beach to Miami.
Underground music in Puerto Rico was harshly criticized. In February 1995, there was a government - sponsored campaign against underground music and its cultural influence. Puerto Rican police raided six record stores in San Juan, hundreds of cassettes were confiscated and fines imposed in accordance with Laws 112 and 117 against obscenity. The Department of Education banned baggy clothing and underground music from schools. For months after the raids local media demonized rappers, calling them "irresponsible corrupters of the public order. ''
In 1995 DJ Negro released The Noise 3 with a mockup label reading, "Non-explicit lyrics ''. The album had no cursing until the last song. It was a hit, and underground music continued to seep into the mainstream. Senator Velda González of the Popular Democratic Party and the media continued to view the movement as a social nuisance.
During the mid-1990s, the Puerto Rican police and National Guard confiscated reggaeton tapes and CDs to get "obscene '' lyrics out of the hands of consumers. Schools banned hip hop clothing and music to quell reggaeton 's influence. In 2002, Senator González led public hearings to regulate the sexual "slackness '' of reggaeton lyrics. Although the effort did not seem to negatively affect public opinion about reggaeton, it reflected the unease of the government and the upper social classes with what the music represented. Because of its often sexually - charged content and its roots in poor, urban communities, many middle - and upper - class Puerto Ricans found reggaeton threatening, "immoral, as well as artistically deficient, a threat to the social order, apolitical ''.
Despite the controversy, reggaeton slowly gained acceptance as part of Puerto Rican culture -- helped, in part, by politicians (including González) who began to use reggaeton in election campaigns to appeal to younger voters in 2003. Puerto Rican mainstream acceptance of reggaeton has grown and the genre has become part of popular culture, including a 2006 Pepsi commercial with Daddy Yankee and PepsiCo 's choice of Ivy Queen as musical spokesperson for Mountain Dew. Other examples of greater acceptance in Puerto Rico are religiously - and educationally = influenced lyrics; Reggae School is a rap album produced to teach math skills to children, similar to School House Rock. Reggaeton expanded when other producers, such as DJ Nelson and DJ Eric, followed DJ Playero. During the 1990s, Ivy Queen 's 1996 album En Mi Imperio DJ Playero 's Playero 37 (introducing Daddy Yankee) and The Noise: Underground, The Noise 5 and The Noise 6 were popular in Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic. Singers Don Chezina, Tempo, Eddie Dee, Baby Rasta & Gringo and Lito & Polaco were also popular.
The name "reggaeton '' became prominent during the early 2000s, characterized by the dembow beat. It was coined in Puerto Rico to describe a unique fusion of Puerto Rican music. Reggaeton is currently popular throughout Latin America. It increased in popularity with Latino youth in the United States when DJ Joe and DJ Blass worked with Plan B and Speedy on Reggaeton Sex, Sandunguero and Fatal Fantasy.
In 2004, reggaeton became popular in the United States and Europe. Tego Calderón was receiving airplay in the U.S., and the music was popular among youth. Daddy Yankee 's El Cangri.com became popular that year in the country, as did Héctor & Tito. Luny Tunes and Noriega 's Mas Flow, Yaga & Mackie 's Sonando Diferente, Tego Calderón 's El Abayarde, Ivy Queen 's Diva, Zion & Lennox 's Motivando a la Yal and the Desafío compilation were also well - received. Rapper N.O.R.E. released a hit single, "Oye Mi Canto ''. Daddy Yankee released Barrio Fino and a hit single, "Gasolina ''. Tego Calderón recorded the singles "Pa ' Que Retozen '' and "Guasa Guasa ''. Don Omar was popular, particularly in Europe, with "Pobre Diabla '' and "Dale Don Dale ''. Other popular reggaeton artists include Tony Dize, Angel & Khriz, Nina Sky, Dyland & Lenny, RKM & Ken - Y, Julio Voltio, Calle 13, Héctor Delgado, Wisin & Yandel and Tito El Bambino. In late 2004 and early 2005 Shakira recorded "La Tortura '' and "La Tortura -- Shaketon Remix '' for her album, Fijación Oral Vol. 1 (Oral Fixation Vol. 1), popularizing reggaeton in North America, Europe and Asia. Musicians began to incorporate bachata into reggaeton, with Ivy Queen releasing singles ("Te He Querido, Te He Llorado '' and "La Mala '') featuring bachata 's signature guitar sound, slower, romantic rhythms and emotive singing style. Daddy Yankee 's "Lo Que Paso, Paso '' and Don Omar 's "Dile '' are also bachata - influenced. In 2005 producers began to remix existing reggaeton music with bachata, marketing it as bachaton: "bachata, Puerto Rican style ''.
In May 2006 Don Omar 's King of Kings was the highest - ranking reggaeton LP to date on the U.S. charts, debuting atop the Top Latin Albums chart and peaking at number seven on the Billboard 200 chart. Omar 's single, "Angelito '', topped the Billboard Latin Rhythm Radio Chart. He broke Britney Spears ' in - store - appearance sales record at Downtown Disney 's Virgin music store.
In June 2007 Daddy Yankee 's El Cartel III: The Big Boss set a first - week sales record for a reggaeton album, with 88,000 copies sold. It topped the Top Latin Albums and Top Rap Albums charts, the first reggaeton album to do so on the latter. The album peaked at number nine on the Billboard 200, the second - highest reggaeton album on the mainstream chart.
The third - highest - ranking reggaeton album was Wisin & Yandel 's Wisin vs. Yandel: Los Extraterrestres, which debuted at number 14 on the Billboard 200 and number one on the Top Latin Albums chart later in 2007. In 2008 Daddy Yankee soundtrack to his film, Talento de Barrio, debuted at number 13 on the Billboard 200 chart. It peaked at number one on the Top Latin Albums chart, number three on Billboard 's Top Soundtracks and number six on the Top Rap Albums chart. In 2009, Wisin & Yandel 's La Revolucion debuted at number seven on the Billboard 200, number one on the Top Latin Albums and number three on the Top Rap Albums charts.
In 2017, the music video for Despacito by Luis Fonsi featuring Daddy Yankee reached over a billion views in under 3 months. With its 3.3 million certified sales plus track - equivalent streams, "Despacito '' became one of the best - selling Latin singles in the United States.
The dembow riddim was created by Jamaican dancehall producers during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Also known as "son bow '', dembow consists of a kick drum, kickdown drum, palito, snare drum, timbal, timballroll and (sometimes) a high - hat cymbal. Dembow 's percussion pattern was influenced by dancehall and other West Indian music (soca, calypso and cadence); this gives dembow a pan-Caribbean flavor. Steely & Clevie, creators of the Poco Man Jam riddim, are usually credited with the creation of dembow. At its heart is the 3 + 3 + 2 (tresillo) rhythm, complemented by a bass drum in 4 / 4 time.
The riddim was first highlighted by Shabba Ranks in "Dem Bow '', from his 1991 album Just Reality. Dembow is created with a personal computer. During the mid-1980s, dancehall music was revolutionized by the electronic keyboard and drum machine; subsequently, many dancehall producers used them to create different dancehall riddims. Dembow 's role in reggaeton is a basic building block, a skeletal sketch in percussion.
Reggaeton dembow also incorporates Bam Bam, Hot This Year, Poco Man Jam, Fever Pitch, Red Alert, Trailer Reloaded and Big Up riddims, and several samples are often used. Newer reggaeton hits incorporate a lighter, electrified version of the riddim. Examples are "Pa ' Que la Pases Bien '' and "Quiero Bailar '', which uses the Liquid riddim.
Reggaeton lyrical structure resembles that of hip hop. Although most reggaeton artists recite their lyrics rapping (or resembling rapping) rather than singing, many alternate rapping and singing. Reggaeton uses traditional verse - chorus - bridge pop structure. Like hip hop, reggaeton songs have a hook which is repeated throughout the song. Latino ethnic identity is a common musical, lyrical and visual theme.
Unlike hip - hop CDs, reggaeton discs generally do not have parental advisories. An exception is Daddy Yankee 's Barrio Fino en Directo (Barrio Fino Live), whose live material (and Snoop Dogg in "Gangsta Zone '') were labeled explicit. Artists such as Alexis & Fido circumvent radio and television censorship by sexual innuendo and lyrics with double meanings. Some songs have raised concerns about their depiction of women. Although reggaeton began as a mostly - male genre, the number of women artists has been a slowly increasing and include the "Queen of Reggaeton '', Ivy Queen, Mey Vidal, K - Narias, Adassa, La Sista and Glory.
Sandungueo, or perreo, is a dance associated with reggaeton which emerged during the early 1990s in Puerto Rico. It focuses on grinding, with one partner facing the back of the other (usually male behind female). Another way of describing this dance is "back - to - front '', where the woman presses her rear into the pelvis of her partner to create sexual stimulation. Since traditional couple dancing is face - to - face (such as square dancing and the waltz), reggaeton dancing initially shocked observers with its sensuality but was featured in several music videos. It is known as daggering, grinding or juking in the U.S.
Reggaeton is popular in Puerto Rico, Cuba, Panama, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, Colombia, Costa Rica, Venezuela and Peru. A staple of parties and events, it complements the common mix of merengue, bachata, salsa and pop.
The New York - based rapper N.O.R.E. (also known as Noreaga) produced Nina Sky 's 2004 hit "Oye Mi Canto '', which featured Tego Calderón and Daddy Yankee, and reggaeton became popular in the U.S. Daddy Yankee then caught the attention of many hip - hop artists with his song, "Gasolina '', and that year XM Radio introduced its reggaeton channel, Fuego (XM). Although XM Radio removed the channel in December 2007 from home and car receivers, it can still be streamed from the XM Satellite Radio website. Reggaeton is the foundation of a Latin - American commercial - radio term, Hurban, a combination of "Hispanic '' and "urban '' used to evoke the musical influences of hip hop and Latin American music. Reggaeton, which evolved from hip hop and reggae, has helped Latin - Americans contribute to urban American culture and keep many aspects of their Hispanic heritage. The music relates to American socioeconomic issues (including gender and race), in common with hip hop.
Although reggaeton is less popular in Europe than it is in Latin America, it appeals to Latin American immigrants (especially in Spain). A Spanish media custom, "La Canción del Verano '' ("The Summer Song ''), in which one or two songs define the season 's mood, was the basis of the popularity of reggaeton songs such as Panamanian rapper Lorna 's "Papi Chulo (Te Traigo el Mmm) '' in 2003 and "Baila Morena '' by Héctor & Tito and Daddy Yankee 's "Gasolina '' in 2005.
In the Philippines, reggaeton artists primarily use the Filipino language instead of Spanish or English.
|
how many players in a pga golf tournament | PGA Tour - Wikipedia
The PGA Tour (stylized in all capital letters as PGA TOUR by its officials) is the organizer of the main professional golf tours played primarily by men in the United States and North America. It organizes most of the events on the flagship annual series of tournaments also known as the PGA Tour, as well as PGA Tour Champions (for golfers age 50 and older) and the Web.com Tour (for professional players who have not yet qualified to play in the PGA Tour), as well as PGA Tour Canada, PGA Tour Latinoamérica, and PGA Tour China. It is headquartered in Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida, a suburb of Jacksonville.
Originally established by the Professional Golfers ' Association of America, it was spun off in December 1968 into a separate organization for tour players, as opposed to club professionals, the focal members of today 's PGA of America. Originally the "Tournament Players Division, '' it adopted the name "PGA Tour '' in 1975 and runs most of the week - to - week professional golf events on the tournament known as the PGA Tour, including The Players Championship, hosted at TPC Sawgrass, the FedEx Cup, with its finale at The Tour Championship at East Lake Golf Club, and the biennial Presidents Cup. The remaining events on the PGA Tour are run by different organizations, as are the U.S. - based LPGA Tour for women and the other men 's and women 's professional tours around the world.
The tour began 88 years ago in 1929 and at various times the tournament players had attempted to operate independently from the club professionals. With an increase of revenue in the late 1960s due to expanded television coverage, a dispute arose between the touring professionals and the PGA of America on how to distribute the windfall. The tour players wanted larger purses, where the PGA desired the money to go to the general fund to help grow the game at the local level. Following the final major in July 1968 at the PGA Championship, several leading tour pros voiced their dissatisfaction with the venue and the abundance of club pros in the field. The increased friction resulted in a new entity in August, what would eventually become the PGA Tour. Tournament players formed their own organization, American Professional Golfers, Inc. (APG), independent of the PGA of America.
After several months, a compromise was reached in December: the tour players agreed to abolish the APG and form the PGA "Tournament Players Division, '' a fully autonomous division under the supervision of a new 10 - member Tournament Policy Board. The board consisted of four tour players, three PGA of America executives, and three outside members, initially business executives.
Joseph Dey, the recently retired USGA executive director, was selected by the board as the tour 's first commissioner in January 1969 and agreed to a five - year contract. He was succeeded by tour player Deane Beman in early 1974, who served for twenty years. The name officially changed to the "PGA Tour '' in 1975. Beman was succeeded by commissioner Tim Finchem in June 1994. On January 1, 2017, Jay Monahan succeeded Finchem as commissioner.
In late August 1981, the PGA Tour had a marketing dispute with the PGA of America and officially changed its name to the "TPA Tour, '' for the "Tournament Players Association. '' The disputed issues were resolved within seven months and the tour 's name was changed back to the "PGA Tour '' in March 1982.
Without the tour players, the PGA of America became primarily an association of club professionals, but retained control of two significant events; the PGA Championship and the Ryder Cup. The former was an established major championship, but the latter was an obscure match play team event which was not particularly popular with golf fans, due to predictable dominance by the United States. With the addition of players from continental Europe in 1979 and expanded television coverage, it became very competitive and evolved into the premier international team event, lately dominated by Europe. Both events are very important revenue streams for the PGA of America.
Due to the multiplicity of names, there is often confusion as to what the PGA Tour organization does and does not run. Of the events in the PGA Tour schedule, it does not run any of the four major championships (the Masters Tournament, the U.S. Open, The Open Championship and the PGA Championship), or the Ryder Cup. The PGA of America, not the PGA Tour, runs the PGA Championship, the Senior PGA Championship, and co-organizes the Ryder Cup with Ryder Cup Europe, a company controlled by the PGA European Tour. Additionally, the PGA Tour is not involved with the women 's golf tours in the U.S., which are mostly controlled by the LPGA. The PGA Tour is also not the governing body for the game of golf in the United States; this, instead, is the role of the United States Golf Association (USGA), which organizes the U.S. Open. What the PGA Tour does organize are the remaining 43 (in 2009) week - to - week events, including The Players Championship and the FedEx Cup events, as well as the biennial Presidents Cup. It also runs the main tournaments on five other tours: PGA Tour Champions, the Web.com Tour, PGA Tour Canada, PGA Tour China, and PGA Tour Latinoamérica.
The PGA Tour operates six tours. Three of them are primarily contested in the U.S., and the other three are international developmental tours centered on a specific country or region.
The PGA Tour also conducts an annual Qualifying Tournament, known colloquially as "Q - School '' and held over six rounds each fall. Before 2013, the official name of the tournament was the PGA Tour Qualifying Tournament; it is now officially the Web.com Tour Qualifying Tournament. Through the 2012 edition, the top - 25 finishers, including ties, received privileges to play on the following year 's PGA Tour. Remaining finishers in the top 75, plus ties, received full privileges on the Web.com Tour. Since 2013, all competitors who made the final phase of Q - School earned status on the Web.com Tour at the start of the following season, with high finishers receiving additional rights as follows:
Since 2013, 50 Web.com Tour golfers earn privileges during the next PGA Tour season, which now begins the month after the Tour Finals. The top 25 money winners over the regular season (i.e., before the Tour Finals) receive PGA Tour cards, as do the top 25 money winners in the Finals. The priority position of all 50 golfers on the PGA Tour is based on money earned during the Tour Finals, except that the regular season money leader shares equal status with the Finals money leader. In addition, a golfer who wins three events on that tour in a calendar year earns a "performance promotion '' (informally a "battlefield promotion '') which garners PGA Tour privileges for the remainder of the year plus the following full season.
At the end of each year, the top 125 in FedEx Cup points (top 125 on the money list before 2013) receive a tour card for the following season, which gives them exemption from qualifying for most of the next year 's tournaments. However, at some events, known as invitationals, exemptions apply only to the previous year 's top 70 players. Since 2013, players who are ranked between 126 -- 200 in FedEx Cup points (and are not already exempt by other means) are eligible for entry in the Web.com Tour Finals, where they can regain their PGA Tour privileges. Non-exempt players who finish 126th - 150th in the FedEx Cup but fail to regain their PGA Tour cards are given conditional PGA Tour status for the season and are fully exempt on the Web.com Tour. Those 151 - 200 are given conditional Web.com Tour status.
Winning a PGA Tour event provides a tour card for a minimum of two years, with an extra year added for each additional win with a maximum of five years. Winning a World Golf Championships event, The Tour Championship, the Arnold Palmer Invitational, or the Memorial Tournament provides a three - year exemption. Winners of the major championships and The Players Championship earn a five - year exemption. Other types of exemptions include lifetime exemptions for players with twenty wins on the tour; one - time, one year exemptions for players in the top fifty on the career money earnings list who are not otherwise exempt; two - time, one year exemptions for players in the top twenty - five on the career money list; and medical exemptions for players who have been injured or are going through a family crisis, which give them an opportunity to regain their tour card after a period out of the tour. In 2015, the PGA Tour added a clause which would freeze an exemption for those required to perform military service in their native countries in response to South Korea 's Bae Sang - moon having to leave the Tour for that reason. At the end of the season, the person leading the FedEx Cup earns a five - year exemption.
Non-members can play their way into the PGA Tour by finishing the equivalent or better of 125th in either earnings or FedEx Cup points. Those who fail but fall within the top 200 in current season points are eligible for the Web.com Tour Finals. During the season, non-members can earn Special Temporary Member status by exceeding the equivalent of 150th in the previous season 's FedEx Cup. Special Temporary Members receive unlimited sponsor exemptions, while non-members are limited to seven per season.
Similar to other major league sports, there is no rule that limits PGA Tour players to "men only. '' In 1938 Babe Zaharias became the first woman to compete in a PGA Tour event. In 1945, Zaharias became the first and only woman to make a cut in a PGA Tour event. In 2003, Annika Sörenstam and Suzy Whaley played in PGA Tour events, and Michelle Wie did so in each year from 2004 through 2008. In 2011, Isabelle Beisiegel became the first woman to earn a Tour card on a "men 's '' professional golf tour, the Canadian Tour, now PGA Tour Canada.
The LPGA Tour like all other women 's sports, is limited to female participants only.
There is also a PGA European Tour, which is separate from either the PGA Tour or the PGA of America; this organization runs a tour, mostly in Europe but with events throughout the world outside of North America, that is second only to the PGA Tour in worldwide prestige. There are several other regional tours around the world. However, the PGA Tour, European Tour, and many of the regional tours co-sponsor the World Golf Championships. These, along with the major championships, usually count toward the official money lists of each tour as well as the Official World Golf Ranking.
The PGA Tour places a strong emphasis on charity fundraising, usually on behalf of local charities in cities where events are staged. With the exception of a few older events, PGA Tour rules require all Tour events to be non-profit; the Tour itself is also a non-profit company. In 2005, it started a campaign to push its all - time fundraising tally past one billion dollars ("Drive to a Billion ''), and it reached that mark one week before the end of the season. However, monies raised for charities derive from the tournaments ' positive revenues (if any), and not any actual monetary donation from the PGA Tour, whose purse monies and expenses are guaranteed. The number of charities which receive benefits from PGA Tour, Champions Tour and Nationwide Tour events is estimated at over 2,000. In 2009, the total raised for charity was some $108 million.
In September 2011, the PGA Tour announced a new set of television deals running through 2021.
CBS Sports will remain the main carrier of PGA Tour events, and covers about 20 events per year. NBC Sports covers about 10 events per year. Golf Channel (which is now operated as a division of NBC Sports since Comcast 's acquisition of NBC Universal in 2011) is the tour 's provider television partner, providing early round coverage of all official money events and four round coverage of a few events at the beginning and towards the end of the season.
The fees involved are not subject to public disclosure.
As they are not organized by the PGA Tour itself, certain events (such as the major championships) are not part of the overall broadcast contracts, but are broadcast under separate contracts with their respective organizers. CBS carries the Masters Tournament and the PGA Championship, the first and last majors of the year, over broadcast television, with ESPN serving as its Masters cable partner for early round action and TNT serving that role for the PGA Championship. As of 2015, as part of an agreement with the United States Golf Association, the year 's second major, the U.S. Open, is carried by Fox Sports and is usually carried over broadcast television each day of the tournament. Beginning in 2016, The Open Championship, the year 's third major, airs on NBC, with cable coverage on the Golf Channel (previously, ESPN had carried the entire tournament).
ABC no longer carries any golf. From 1966 until 1991 ABC carried the PGA Championship and also televised the U.S. Open until 1994. NBC took over the U.S. Open in 1995 and aired it until 2014, while ABC 's last Open Championship aired in 2009. ESPN also shared coverage of the U.S. Open, airing portions of the tournaments that did not fall into NBC 's broadcast window.
The PGA Tour is also covered extensively outside the United States. In the United Kingdom, Sky Sports was the main broadcaster of the tour for a number of years up to 2006. Setanta Sports won exclusive UK and Ireland rights for six years from 2007 for a reported cost of £ 103 million. The deal includes Champions Tour and the Nationwide Tour events, but like the U.S. television deals it does not include the major championships, and unlike the U.S. deal, it does not include the World Golf Championships. Setanta set up the Setanta Golf channel to present its coverage. On June 23, 2009, Setanta 's UK arm went into administration and ceased broadcasting. Eurosport picked up the television rights for the remainder of the 2009 season. Sky Sports regained the TV rights with an eight - year deal from 2010 to 2017. In South Korea, SBS, which has been the tour 's exclusive TV broadcaster in that country since the mid-1990s, agreed in 2009 to extend its contract with the PGA Tour through 2019. As a part of that deal, it became sponsor of the season 's opening tournament, a winners - only event that was renamed the SBS Championship effective in 2010. In 2011 however, Korean automobile manufacturer Hyundai took over the title sponsorship, but SBS still remains a sponsor of the event. In Latin America, ESPN and Golf Channel split coverage of the PGA Tour.
The Indian broadcaster NEO Prime obtained exclusive rights to the PGA Tour on the Indian subcontinent in 2008, and has since extended its deal through the 2015 season.
Since 2005, Sirius XM Radio has provided a PGA Tour branded station, the PGA Tour Network, which airs golf related programming and coverage of events, including the PGA Tour 's circuits. In the United States, Dial Global provides some coverage of tournaments through its former connections as Westwood One before CBS spun it off, including the Masters.
Three of the four majors take place in eight weeks between June and August. In the past, this has threatened to make the last two and a half months of the season anti-climactic, as some of the very top players competed less from that point on. In response, the PGA Tour has introduced a new format, the FedEx Cup. From January through mid-August players compete in "regular season '' events and earn FedEx Cup points, in addition to prize money. At the end of the regular season, the top 125 FedEx Cup points winners are eligible to compete in the "playoffs, '' four events taking place from mid-August to mid-September. The field sizes for these events are reduced from 125 to 100 to 70 and finally the traditional 30 for the Tour Championship. Additional FedEx Cup points are earned in these events. At the end of the championship, the top point winner is the season champion. To put this new system into place, the PGA Tour has made significant changes to the traditional schedule.
In 2007, The Players Championship moved to May so as to have a marquee event in five consecutive months. The Tour Championship moved to mid-September, with an international team event (Ryder Cup or Presidents Cup) following at the end of September. The schedule was tweaked slightly in both 2008 and 2009. After the third FedEx Cup playoff event, the BMW Championship, the Tour takes a full week off. In 2008, the break came before the Ryder Cup, with the Tour Championship the week after that. In 2009, the break was followed by the Tour Championship, with the Presidents Cup taking place two weeks after that.
The Tour continues through the fall, with the focus on the scramble of the less successful players to earn enough money to retain their tour cards. A circuit known as the Fall Series, originally with seven tournaments but now with four, was introduced in 2007. In its inaugural year, its events were held in seven consecutive weeks, starting the week after the Tour Championship. As was the case for the FedEx Cup playoff schedule, the Fall Series schedule was also tweaked in 2008 and 2009. The first 2008 Fall Series event was held opposite the Ryder Cup, and the Fall Series took a week off for the Tour Championship before continuing with its remaining six events.
The Fall Series saw major changes for 2009, with one of its events moving to May and another dropping off the schedule entirely. It returned to its original start date of the week after the Tour Championship. Then, as in 2008, it took a week off, this time for the Presidents Cup. It then continued with events in three consecutive weeks, took another week off for the HSBC Champions (now elevated to World Golf Championships status), and concluded the week after that.
Most recently, the Fall Series was reduced to four events, all held after the Tour Championship, for 2011. This followed the move of the Viking Classic into the regular season as an alternate event.
2007 saw the introduction of a tournament in Mexico, an alternate event staged the same week as the WGC - Accenture Match Play Championship. A tournament in Puerto Rico was introduced in 2008 as an alternate event staged opposite the WGC - CA Championship.
The 2013 season, which was the last before the tour transitioned to a schedule spanning two calendar years, had 40 official - money events in 38 weeks, including three alternate events played the same week as a higher - status tournament. The other event that is considered part of the 2013 season is the biennial Presidents Cup, matching a team of golfers representing the USA with an "International '' team consisting of non-European players (Europeans instead play in the Ryder Cup, held in even - numbered years).
Before the transition, the Tour held a group of events known as the PGA Tour Fall Series, which provided a final opportunity for golfers to make the top 125 in season earnings and thereby retain their Tour cards. With the change to an October - to - September season, several of the former Fall Series events will now open the season. The Tour also sanctions two events in Asia during that part of the year:
Most members of the tour play between 20 and 30 tournaments in the season. The geography of the tour is determined by the weather. It starts in Hawaii in January and spends most of its first two months in California and Arizona during what is known as the "West Coast Swing '' and then moves to the American Southeast for the "Southern Swing. '' Each swing culminates in a significant tour event. In April, tour events begin to drift north. The summer months are spent mainly in the Northeast and the Midwest, and in the fall (autumn) the tour heads south again.
In most of the regular events on tour, the field is either 132, 144 or 156 players, depending on time of year (and available daylight hours). All players making the cut earn money for the tournament with the winner usually receiving 18 % of the total purse.
In 2008, the PGA Tour Policy Board approved a change in the number of players that will make the cut. The cut will continue to be low 70 professionals and ties, unless that results in a post-cut field of more than 78 players. Under that circumstance, the cut score will be selected to make a field as close to 70 players as possible without exceeding 78. Players who are cut in such circumstances but who have placed 70th or worse will get credit for making the cut and will earn official money and FedEx Cup points. This policy affected two of the first three events with cuts, the Sony Open in Hawaii and the Buick Invitational. In late February, the Policy Board announced a revised cut policy, effective beginning with the Honda Classic. The new policy calls for 36 - hole cut to the low 70 professionals and ties and, if that cut results in more than 78 players, a second 54 - hole cut to the low 70 professionals and ties. Those who do not survive the 54 - hole cut are designated as MDF (made the cut, did not finish).
In the event that the PGA Tour can not guarantee four rounds of play, the PGA Tour can shorten an event to 54 holes. A 54 - hole event is still considered official, with full points and monies awarded. Any tournament stopped before 54 holes can be completed is reverted to the 36 - hole score and the win is considered unofficial.
The PGA Tour maintains a priority ranking system that is used to select the fields for each tournament on tour. Below is the 2016 -- 17 ranking system, in order of priority.
Some tournaments deviate from this system; for example, the Phoenix Open has only five sponsor exemptions and three Monday qualifying spots, while invitational tournaments such as the Arnold Palmer Invitational, Memorial Tournament, and Dean & DeLuca Invitational have completely different eligibility categories.
There are also a number of events which are recognized by the PGA Tour, but which do not count towards the official money list. Most of these take place in the off season (November and December). This slate of unofficial, often made - for - TV events (which have included the PGA Grand Slam of Golf, the Wendy 's 3 - Tour Challenge, the Franklin Templeton Shootout, the Skins Game, etc.) is referred to as the "Challenge Season '' or more commonly as the "Silly Season. ''
On March 20, 2012, the tour announced radical changes to the tour 's season and qualifying process. Further details of these changes relating to the Fall Series were announced on June 26, with the remaining details announced on July 10. One of the final details received a minor tweak, effective for the 2013 season only, on September 11.
First, the 2013 season was the last to be conducted entirely within a calendar year. The 2014 season started in October 2013, shortly after the Tour Championship, and future seasons will start in October of the previous calendar year. Beginning with the 2014 season, the tournaments in the now season - opening Fall Series will award full FedEx Cup points.
As a result of the schedule change, the qualifying school no longer grants playing rights on the PGA Tour, but only privileges on the Web.com Tour (known as the Nationwide Tour at the time of the March announcement; the tour was renamed on June 27, 2012 in mid-season).
The criterion for retaining tour cards at the end of the season also changed. Through 2012, the top 125 players on the money list at the end of the PGA Tour season retained their tour cards. For the 2013 season only, the top 125 players on both the money list and the FedEx Cup points list at the end of the FedEx Cup regular season in August retained their cards. The tour also said that it would decide at a later time whether to keep this aspect of the qualifying system in place in future seasons. Otherwise, the planned move by the tour to have the top 125 players on the FedEx Cup points list retain their tour cards will take effect with the 2014 season. The next 75 players on the points list, along with the top 75 on the money list of the Web.com Tour at the end of that tour 's regular season, will be eligible to play a series of three tournaments in September known as the Web.com Tour Finals. The Finals field, however, is not expected to consist of all 150 players, as some of the PGA Tour players will still be exempt by other criteria, such as a tournament win in the previous two years. A total of 50 PGA Tour cards for the next season will be awarded at the end of the Finals. The 25 leading money winners during the Web.com Tour regular season will receive cards, and total money earned during the Finals will determine the remaining 25 card earners. For all 50 new card earners, their positions on the PGA Tour 's priority order for purposes of tournament entry will be based on money earned in the Finals. College players who turn professional can enter the series if their earnings are equivalent to a top - 200 PGA Tour or top - 75 Web.com Tour finish.
In addition, the leading money winners on the Web.com Tour in both the regular season and Finals will receive automatic invitations to The Players Championship (note that if a golfer tops both money lists, only one Players invitation will be awarded).
Finally, two events held in Asia after the end of the PGA Tour 's current regular season -- the CIMB Classic in Malaysia, and the HSBC Champions, a World Golf Championships event held in China -- will become full PGA Tour events, with official prize money, for the first time. Before 2013, neither event had full PGA Tour status despite being sanctioned by the Tour. Wins in the CIMB Classic were not classified as official PGA Tour wins, and HSBC Champions victories were official wins only for current PGA Tour members. Money earned in these events did not count as official PGA Tour earnings for any purpose.
Players who lead the money list on the PGA Tour win the Arnold Palmer Award (since 1981).
The following players have won more than one money list title through 2017:
PGA Tour players compete for two player of the year awards. The PGA Player of the Year award dates back to 1948 and is awarded by the PGA of America. Since 1982 the winner has been selected using a points system with points awarded for wins, money list position and scoring average. The PGA Tour Player of the Year award, also known as the Jack Nicklaus Trophy, is administered by the PGA Tour and was introduced in 1990; the recipient is selected by the tour players by ballot, although the results are not released other than to say who has won. More often than not the same player wins both awards; in fact, as seen in the table below, the PGA and PGA Tour Players of the Year have been the same every year from 1992 through 2016. The Rookie of the Year award was also introduced in 1990. Players are eligible in their first season of PGA Tour membership if they competed in less than seven events from any prior season. Several of the winners had a good deal of international success before their PGA Tour rookie season, and some have been in their thirties when they won the award. In March 2012, a new award, the PGA Tour Courage Award, was introduced in replacement of the defunct Comeback Player of the Year award.
Note: No award was presented in 1968 due to the rift between the PGA of America and the professional golfers on the PGA tour.
The following players have won more than one PGA Player of the Year Award through 2017:
The following players have won more than one PGA Tour Player of the Year Award through 2017 (first awarded in 1990):
The top ten career money leaders on the tour as of September 24, 2017 are as follows:
A complete list updated weekly is available on the PGA Tour 's website.
Due to increases in prize funds over the years, this list consists entirely of current players. Two players on the list, Vijay Singh and Davis Love III, are eligible for PGA Tour Champions (having respectively turned 50 in February 2013 and April 2014). Both have lifetime exemptions on the PGA Tour for 20 wins and 15 years on the Tour, and Love has won a tournament on the main PGA Tour since turning 50. The figures are not the players ' complete career prize money as they do not include FedEx Cup bonuses, winnings from unofficial money events, or earnings on other tours such as the European Tour. In addition, elite golfers often earn several times as much from endorsements and golf - related business interests as they do from prize money.
|
what is a major criticism of social disorganization theory | Social disorganization theory - wikipedia
In sociology, the social disorganization theory is a theory developed by the Chicago School, related to ecological theories. The theory directly links crime rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics; a core principle of social disorganization theory states that location matters. In other words, a person 's residential location is a substantial factor shaping the likelihood that that person will become involved in illegal activities. The theory suggests that, among determinants of a person 's later illegal activity, residential location is as significant as or more significant than the person 's individual characteristics (e.g., age, gender, or race). For example, the theory suggests that youths from disadvantaged neighborhoods participate in a subculture which approves of delinquency, and that these youths thus acquire criminality in this social and cultural setting.
Larry Gaines and Roger Miller state in their book Criminal Justice in Action that "crime is largely a product of unfavorable conditions in certain communities ''. According to the social disorganization theory, there are ecological factors that lead to high rates of crime in these communities, and these factors linked to constantly elevated levels of "high school dropouts, unemployment, deteriorating infrastructures, and single - parent homes '' (Gaines and Miller). The theory is not intended to apply to all types of crime, just street crime at the neighborhood level. The theory has not been used to explain organized crime, corporate crime, or deviant behavior that takes place outside neighborhood settings.
Up to the beginning of 1970s, this theory took a back seat to the psychological explanation of crime. A recent overview of social disorganization theory, including suggestions for refining and extending the theory, is a journal article by Kubrin and Weitzer (2003).
W.I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki 's The Polish Peasant in Europe and America (1918 -- 1920) introduced the idea that a person 's thinking processes and attitudes are constructed by the interaction between that person 's situation and his or her behavior. Attitudes are not innate; rather, they stem from a process of acculturation. Any proposed action will have social importance to an individual both because it relates to the objective situation within which the subject has to act, and because it has been shaped by attitudes formed through a lifetime of social and cultural experiences.
This is based on the "four wishes '' of the Thomas theorem, viz., "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences ''. These four wishes are the desire for new experiences, the desire for recognition, the desire for domination, and the desire for security. Combined with the cultural values of a pre-existing situation, the four wishes give rise to certain attitudes which are subjectively defined meanings and shared experience, strongly emphasised and embodied in specific institutions.
The root of new attitudes arises from the formation of new relationships and interaction between the person and the world outside the community. For example, the emergence of economics as an independent sphere reflected the tendency to reduce quality to a quantity in barter transactions and led to the development of money.
Robert E. Park and Ernest Burgess (1925) developed a theory of urban ecology which proposed that cities are environments like those found in nature, governed by many of the same forces of Darwinian evolution; i.e. competition, which affects natural ecosystems. When a city is formed and grows, people and their activities cluster in a particular area (this is the process of "concentration ''). Gradually, this central area becomes highly populated, so there is a scattering of people and their activities away from the central city to establish the suburbs (this is "dispersion '').
They suggested that, over time, the competition for land and other scarce urban resources leads to the division of the urban space into distinctive ecological niches, "natural areas '' or zones in which people share similar social characteristics because they are subject to the same ecological pressures. As a zone becomes more prosperous and "desirable '', property values and rents rise, and people and businesses migrate into that zone, usually moving outward from the city center in a process Park and Burgess called "succession '' (a term borrowed from plant ecology), and new residents take their place.
At both a micro and macro level, society was thought to operate as a super organism, where change is a natural aspect of the process of growth, and is neither chaotic nor disorderly. Thus, an organized area is invaded by new elements. This gives rise to local competition, and there will either be succession or an accommodation which results in a reorganization. But, during the early stages of competition, there will always be some level of disorganization because there will be disruption to (or breakdowns in) the normative structure of the community, which may or may not lead to deviant behavior. Thus, although a city was a physical organization, it also had social and moral structures that could be disorganized.
Their model -- known as concentric zone model and first published in The City (1925) -- predicted that, once fully grown, cities would take the form of five concentric rings, with areas of social and physical deterioration concentrated near the city center and more prosperous areas located near the city 's edge. This theory seeks to explain the existence of social problems such as unemployment and crime in specific Chicago districts, making extensive use of synchronic mapping to reveal the spatial distribution of social problems and to permit comparison between areas. They argued that "neighborhood conditions, be they of wealth or poverty, had a much greater determinant effect on criminal behavior than ethnicity, race, or religion '' (Gaines and Miller). In the post-war period, the cartographic approach was criticized as simplistic in that it neglected the social and cultural dimensions of urban life, the political and economic impact of industrialization on urban geography, and the issues of class, race, gender, and ethnicity.
Edwin Sutherland adopted the concept of social disorganization to explain the increases in crime that accompanied the transformation of preliterate and peasant societies -- in which "influences surrounding a person were steady, uniform, harmonious and consistent '' -- to modern Western civilization, which he believed was characterized by inconsistency, conflict, and un-organization (1934: 64). He also believed that the mobility, economic competition, and individualistic ideology that accompanied capitalist and industrial development had been responsible for the disintegration of the large family and homogeneous neighborhoods as agents of social control. The failure of extended kin groups expanded the realm of relationships no longer controlled by the community and undermined governmental controls, leading to persistent "systematic '' crime and delinquency.
Sutherland also believed that such disorganization causes and reinforces the cultural traditions and cultural conflicts that support antisocial activity. The systematic quality of the behavior was a reference to repetitive, patterned, or organized offending, as opposed to random events. He depicted the law - abiding culture as dominant and more extensive than alternative criminogenic cultural views, and as capable of overcoming systematic crime if organized for that purpose (1939: 8). But because society is organized around individual and small group interests, society permits crime to persist. Sutherland concluded that if the society is organized with reference to the values expressed in the law, the crime is eliminated; if it is not organized, crime persists and develops (1939: 8).
In later works, Sutherland switched from the concept of social disorganization to differential social organization to convey the complexity of overlapping and conflicting levels of organization in a society.
In 1928, Ruth Shonle Cavan produced Suicide, a study of personal disorganization in which she confirmed that the mortality rate is relatively stable, regardless of economic and social conditions. Despite finding this result, Cavan was excluded from faculty status at Chicago. She served on various research committees for six years, and then moved to Rockford College in Illinois.
She was particularly interested in dance halls, brothels, insanity, divorce, nonvoting, suicide, and other forms of socially problematic behavior of interest to the political reformers, studying the working lives of "business '' girls and their dispersal throughout the zones of Chicago (1929). Partly as a result of her studies, Cavan (1953) emphasized the importance to the efficient functioning of the entire social order of the regulation of sex. While there are variations in the specific arrangements, all societies contain family groups, forbid incest, sanction marriage, approve more highly of legitimate than of illegitimate births, and look upon marriage as the most highly approved outlet for sexual expression of adults.
She has continued the work to review delinquency in different countries (1968), returning to write of the Chicago School itself in 1983.
Mapping can also show spatial distributions of delinquency and crime, but it can not explain the results. Indeed, such research has often been used politically to ascribe immorality to specific population groups or ethnicities. Social disorganization theory and cultural transmission theory examine the consequences when a community is unable to conform to common values and to solve the problems of its residents.
Clifford Shaw and Henry D. McKay (1942) applied Sutherland 's theory of systematic criminal behavior, and claimed that delinquency was not caused at the individual level, but is a normal response by normal individuals to abnormal conditions. Thus, if a community is not self - policing and if it is imperfectly policed by outside agencies, some individuals will exercise unrestricted freedom to express their dispositions and desires, often resulting in delinquent behavior. They considered the concentric zone model, and produced a diachronic analysis to demonstrate that delinquency was already dispersed in urban areas, and that more wealthy and important groups moved to avoid the existing social disorganization.
Their concepts, hypothesis, and research methods have been a strong influence on the analysis of delinquency and crime. Their dependent variables in the delinquency rates were measured by arrests, court appearances, and court adjudications of institutional commitment. Their independent variables were economic conditions by square - mile areas, ethnic heterogeneity, and population turnover. These variables were based on where delinquents lived and consisted of 10 - to 16 - year - old males who were petitioned to juvenile court (56,000 juvenile court records from 1900 -- 1933 were used as data). The time frames they selected showed strong patterns of immigrant migration; Shaw and McKay believed that they could demonstrate whether delinquency was caused by particular immigrant groups or by the environment in which the immigrants lived:
Shaw and McKay demonstrated that social disorganization was endemic to the urban areas which were the only places the newly arriving poor could afford to live. In these areas, there was a high rate of turnover in the population (residential instability), and mixes of people from different cultural backgrounds (ethnic diversity). Shaw and McKay 's analyses relating delinquency rates to these structural characteristics established key facts about the community correlates of crime and delinquency:
Comparing the maps, Shaw and McKay recognized that the pattern of delinquency rates corresponded to the "natural urban areas '' of Park and Burgess ' concentric zone model. This evidenced the conclusion that delinquency rates always remained high for a certain region of the city (ecological zone 2), no matter which immigrant group lived there. Hence, delinquency was not "constitutional '', but was to be correlated with the particular ecological environment in which it occurs. In this context, Shaw and McKay asserted that ethnic diversity interferes with communication among adults, with effective communication less likely in the face of ethnic diversity because differences in customs and a lack of shared experiences may breed fear and mistrust.
Although research in different countries has tended to support Shaw and McKay 's findings that delinquent rates are highest in areas with economic decline and instability, that research has not found that crime rates spatially disperse from the city center outward. In fact, in some countries, the wealthy live in city centers, while the poorest zones are near city fringes. Further, their work does not consider why there is significant non-delinquency in delinquency areas. Thus, the theory identifies social causes of delinquency that seem to be located in specific geographical areas, but its conclusions are not completely generalizable. For a general discussion of their work, see Snodgrass (1976).
Robert E. Lee Faris (1955) extended the concept of social disorganization to explain social pathologies and social problems in general, including crime, suicide, mental illness, and mob violence. Defining organization as definite and enduring patterns of complementary relations (1955: 3), he defined social disorganization as the weakening or destruction of the relationships which hold together a social organization (1955: 81). Such a concept was to be employed objectively as a measurable state of a social system, independent of personal approval or disapproval. When applied to crime, Faris ' central proposition was that, "A crime rate is... a reflection of the degree of disorganization of the control mechanisms in a society. '' In turn, crime also contributes to disorganization, and disorganization of such conventional mechanisms is especially likely in large, rapidly growing industrial cities where such disorganization permits highly organized criminality, as well as less organized forms of group and individual crime and delinquency.
Robert J. Sampson (1993) claims that any theory of crime must begin with the fact that most violent criminals belonged to teenage peer - groups, particularly street gangs, and that a gang member will become a full - time criminal if social controls are insufficient to address delinquent behaviour at an early age. He follows Shaw and McKay (1969) in accepting that, if the family and relatives offer inadequate supervision or incomplete socialization, children from broken families are more likely to join violent gangs, unless others take the parents ' place. However, even children from unstable families are less likely to be influenced by peer groups in a community where most family units are intact. Tight - knit communities are more likely to identify strangers, report deviants to their parents, and pass warnings along. High rates of residential mobility and high - rise housing disrupt the ability to establish and maintain social ties. Formal organizations like schools, churches, and the police act as surrogates for family and friends in many communities, but poor, unstable communities often lack the organisation and political connections to obtain resources for fighting crime and offering young people an alternative to deviant behavior. Sampson concludes that "the empirical data suggest that the structural elements of social disorganisation have relevance for explaining macro level variations in violence. ''
Social disorganisation may also produce crime by isolating communities from the mainstream culture. Sampson and Wilson (1995) proposed a theory of race and urban inequality to explain the disproportionate representation of African Americans as victims and offenders in violent crime. The basic idea proposed was that community - level patterns of racial inequality give rise to the social isolation and ecological concentration of the truly disadvantaged, which in turn leads to structural barriers and cultural adaptations that undermine social organisation and ultimately the control of crime. Sampson and Wilson (1995) pursued this logic to argue that the community - level causes of violence are the same for both whites and blacks, but that racial segregation by community differentially exposes members of minority groups to key violence - inducing and violence - protecting social mechanisms, thereby explaining black - white disparities in violence. Their thesis has come to be known as "racial invariance '' in the fundamental causes of crime.
Robert J. Bursik Jr 's scholarly works played an important role in the revival of Social Disorganization Theory following its fall in popularity during the 1960s. One of the main criticisms of Shaw and McKay 's theory was that it suggested, in certain area 's delinquency rates remained high regardless of the ethnicity group that lived there. Researchers during this period felt that it was unlikely that crime patterns remained stable even though there were constant changes in population without these areas. Bursik 's work helped negate some of the criticisms associated with Shaw and McKay 's work; Bursik showed that it was possible and likely to have stable crime patterns within an area that showed constant population change. Specifically Bursik points out that "development of primary relationships that result in informal structures of social control is less likely when local networks are in continual state of flux. '' In the example of Chicago, as immigrants continue to come in, the population already there leave soon as it 's financially feasible, which in return makes it difficult for any stable form of social control to take place.
Robert J. Bursik and Harold G. Grasmick further contributed to Social Disorganization Theory by reformulating concepts of social control within neighbourhoods that was introduced by Sampson and Groves, into three types of social control that are influenced by structural factors. Personal Social Control, Parochial Social Control and Public Social Control which are influenced by structural factors within a neighbourhood such as poverty, residential mobility, heterogeneity and broken homes affect the ability of the neighbourhood to implement models of social control.
When Scholars associated with Social Disorganization theory developed spatial analytical techniques seventy years ago, they wanted a way to study violent crimes. These theorists were particularly concerned about the adverse impacts of that immigration, internal migration and ethnic heterogeneity might have on the ability of neighborhoods to control the behavior of their residents. Shaw and McKay, Sampson and Groves and Bursik and Grasmick all suggest that immigration and ethnic heterogeneity within the neighborhood can have adverse effect within the community. Recent work by Matthew T. Lee and Ramiro Martinez JR, suggest that might not always be the case; recent studies have found that immigration generally does not increase crime rates in areas in where immigrants settle; in fact some studies show that these areas are less involved in crime than natives. Lee and Martinez suggest that current immigration trends do not have the negative consequences expected by disorganization theories; rather these studies show that immigration can strength social control rather than compromise it.
Immigration Revitalization thesis argues that immigration can revitalize poor areas and strengthen social control within neighborhoods because of strong familial ties, job opportunities associated with enclave economies that result in less crime. In fact Lee and Martinez state that immigration is required as an essential ingredient for continued viability of urban areas where population has declined or community decay occurs, as was the case in previous decades.
|
what are the 12 banks of the federal reserve | Federal Reserve Bank - Wikipedia
A Federal Reserve Bank is a regional bank of the Federal Reserve System, the central banking system of the United States. There are twelve in total, one for each of the twelve Federal Reserve Districts that were created by the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. The banks are jointly responsible for implementing the monetary policy set forth by the Federal Open Market Committee, and are divided as follows:
Some banks also possess branches, with the whole system being headquartered at the Eccles Building in Washington, D.C.
Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of Treasury, started a movement in 1780 advocating for the creation of a central bank. The Bank Bill created by Hamilton was a proposal to institute a national bank in order to improve the economic stability of the nation after its independence from Britain. Although the national bank was to be used as a tool for the government, it was to be privately owned. Hamilton wrote several articles providing information regarding his national bank idea where he expressed the validity and "would be '' success of the national bank based upon: incentives for the rich to invest, ownerships of bonds and shares, being rooted in fiscal management, and stable monetary system.
In response to this, the First Bank of the United States was established in 1791, its charter signed by George Washington. The First Bank of the United States was headquartered in Philadelphia, but had branches in other major cities. The Bank performed the basic banking functions of accepting deposits, issuing bank notes, making loans and purchasing securities.
When its charter expired 20 years later, the United States was without a central bank for a few years, during which it suffered an unusual inflation. In 1816, James Madison signed the Second Bank of the United States into existence. Then, in 1833, before that bank 's charter expired, President Jackson removed the government funds as part of the Bank War, and the United States went without a central bank for 40 years.
A financial crisis known as the Panic of 1907 was headed off by a private conglomerate (led by J.P. Morgan), who set themselves up as "lenders of last resort '' to banks in trouble. This effort succeeded in stopping the panic, and led to calls for a Federal agency to do the same thing.
In response to this, the Federal Reserve System was created by the Federal Reserve Act of December 23, 1913, establishing a new central bank intended to serve as a formal "lender of last resort '' to banks in times of liquidity crisis -- panics where depositors tried to withdraw their money faster than a normal fractional - reserve - based bank could pay it out.
The Federal Reserve Act presented by Congressman Carter Glass and Senator Robert L. Owen incorporated modifications by Woodrow Wilson and allowed for a regional Federal Reserve System, operating under a supervisory board in Washington, D.C. Congress approved the Act, and President Wilson signed it into law on December 23, 1913. The Act, "Provided for the establishment of Federal Reserve Banks, to furnish an elastic currency, to afford means of rediscounting commercial paper, to establish a more effective supervision of banking in the United States, and for other purposes. The Act provided for a Reserve Bank Organization Committee that would designate no less than eight but no more than twelve cities to be Federal Reserve cities, and would then divide the nation into districts, each district to contain one Federal Reserve City.
The legislation provided for a system that included a number of regional Federal Reserve Banks and a seven - member governing board. All national banks were required to join the system and other banks could join.
On April 2, 1914, the Reserve Bank Organization Committee announced its decision, and twelve Federal Reserve banks were established to cover various districts throughout the country. Those opposed to the establishment of an overwhelmingly powerful New York Fed prevailed in their desire that its scope and influence should be limited. Initially, this bank 's influence was restricted to New York State. Nonetheless, with over $20,000,000 in capital stock, the New York Bank had nearly four times the capitalization of the smallest banks in the system, such as Atlanta and Minneapolis. As a result, it was impossible to prevent the New York Fed from being the largest and most dominant bank in the system.
The Federal Reserve Banks opened for business in November 1914. The New York Fed opened for business under the leadership of Benjamin Strong, Jr., previously president of the Bankers Trust Company, on November 16, 1914. The initial staff consisted of seven officers and 85 clerks, many on loan from local banks. Mr. Strong recalled the starting days at the Bank in a speech: "It may be said that the Bank 's equipment consisted of little more than a copy of the Federal Reserve Act. '' During its first day of operation, the Bank took in $100 million from 211 member banks; made two rediscounts; and received its first shipment of Federal Reserve Notes. Congress created Federal Reserve notes to provide the nation with a flexible supply of currency. The notes were to be issued to Federal Reserve Banks for subsequent transmittal to banking institutions in accordance with the needs of the public.
The Bank 's staff grew rapidly during the early years, necessitating the need for a new home. Land was bought on a city block encompassing Liberty Street, Maiden Lane, William Street and Nassau Street. A public competition was held and the architectural firm of York & Sawyer submitted the winning design reminiscent of the palaces in Florence, Italy. The Bank 's vaults, located 86 feet below street level, were built on Manhattan 's bedrock. In 1924, the Fed moved into its new home. By 1927, the vault contained ten percent of the world 's entire store of monetary gold.
The Federal Reserve System is considered to be an independent agency that exists outside of the cabinet of the executive and its powers are derived directly from Congress. Over the past century, the Fed 's power has expanded from its original roles such as a private response to problems in banking systems and to establishing a more effective supervisory role of banking systems in the United States, to its now current position of being a lender of last resort to banking institutions that require additional credit to stay afloat.
The twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks were established as the operating arms of the nation 's central banking system. They are organized much like private corporations -- possibly leading to some confusion about ownership.
The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies. The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax - exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. In Lewis v. United States, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: "The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA (the Federal Tort Claims Act), but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations. '' The opinion went on to say, however, that: "The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes. '' Another relevant decision is Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the Board of Governors, which is a federal agency.
Regarding the structural relationship between the twelve Federal Reserve banks and the various commercial (member) banks, political science professor Michael D. Reagan has written that:
... the "ownership '' of the Reserve Banks by the commercial banks is symbolic; they do not exercise the proprietary control associated with the concept of ownership nor share, beyond the statutory dividend, in Reserve Bank "profits. ''... Bank ownership and election at the base are therefore devoid of substantive significance, despite the superficial appearance of private bank control that the formal arrangement creates.
The Federal Reserve System provides the government with a ready source of loans and serves as the safe depository for federal money. The Federal Reserve is also a low - cost mechanism for transferring funds and is an inexpensive agent for meeting payments on the national debt and government salaries. The Federal Reserve Banks were created as instrumentalities to carry out the policies of the Federal Reserve System.
The Federal Reserve Banks issue shares of stock to member banks. However, owning Federal Reserve Bank stock is quite different from owning stock in a private company. The Federal Reserve Banks are not operated for profit, and ownership of a certain amount of stock is, by law, a condition of membership in the system. The stock may not be sold or traded or pledged as security for a loan; dividends are, by law, limited to 6 % per year.
The dividends paid to member banks are considered partial compensation for the lack of interest paid on member banks ' required reserves held at the Federal Reserve. By law, banks in the United States must maintain fractional reserves, most of which are kept on account at the Federal Reserve. Historically, the Federal Reserve did not pay interest on these funds. The Federal Reserve now has authority, granted by Congress in the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act (EESA) of 2008, to pay interest on these funds.
A major responsibility of The Federal Reserve is to oversee their banking and financial systems. Overseeing the banking and financial systems of a bank is crucial in a society.
Confidence in the soundness of the banking and financial systems is what mobilizes a society 's savings, allows the savings to be channeled into productive investments, and encourages economic growth.
Each Federal Reserve Bank funds its own operations, primarily from interest on its loans and on the securities it holds. Expenses and dividends paid are typically a small fraction of a Federal Reserve Bank 's revenue each year. By law the remainder must be transferred to the Board of Governors, which then deposits the full amount to the Treasury as interest on outstanding Federal Reserve Notes.
The Federal Reserve Banks conduct ongoing internal audits of their operations to ensure that their accounts are accurate and comply with the Federal Reserve System 's accounting principles. The banks are also subject to two types of external auditing. Since 1978 the Government Accountability Office (GAO) has conducted regular audits of the banks ' operations. The GAO audits are reported to the public, but they may not review a bank 's monetary policy decisions or disclose them to the public. Since 1999 each bank has also been required to submit to an annual audit by an external accounting firm, which produces a confidential report to the bank and a summary statement for the bank 's annual report. Some members of Congress continue to advocate a more public and intrusive GAO audit of the Federal Reserve System, but Federal Reserve representatives support the existing restrictions to prevent political influence over long - range economic decisions.
The Federal Reserve officially identifies Districts by number and Reserve Bank city.
The New York Federal Reserve district is the largest by asset value. San Francisco, followed by Kansas City and Minneapolis, represent the largest geographical districts. Missouri is the only state to have two Federal Reserve Banks (Kansas City and St. Louis). California, Florida, Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Texas are the only states which have two or more Federal Reserve Bank branches seated within their states, with Missouri, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee having branches of two different districts within the same state. In the 12th District, the Seattle Branch serves Alaska, and the San Francisco Bank serves Hawaii. New York, Richmond, and San Francisco are the only banks that oversee non-U.S. state territories. The System serves these territories as follows: the New York Bank serves the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands; the Richmond Bank serves the District of Columbia; the San Francisco Bank serves American Samoa, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. The Board of Governors last revised the branch boundaries of the System in February 1996.
|
what channel is bloomberg tv on cox cable | Bloomberg Television - wikipedia
Bloomberg Television (typically referred to on - air as simply Bloomberg) is an American - based international cable and satellite business news television channel, owned by Bloomberg L.P. It is distributed globally, reaching over 310 million homes worldwide. It is headquartered in New York City, with European headquarters in London and Asian headquarters in Hong Kong.
most of the channels listed are not directly operated by Bloomberg but are operated by local companies who franchise the Bloomberg brand and may take some of its English - language programming.
Bloomberg 's U.S. broadcasts are headed by Justin Smith, the CEO of Bloomberg Media Group. Smith replaced Andy Lack, who would eventually return to NBC News. The network also provides funding and studio facilities for the nightly PBS / WNET program Charlie Rose.
Bloomberg Television first launched in the United States on January 1, 1994 under the name Bloomberg Information TV, before it was shortened to its current name in 1998. Shortly after Bloomberg 's launch, the now - defunct American Independent Network carried a simulcast of the channel at various times each weekday from 1995 to 1997, which was picked up by some broadcast stations in early morning periods to provide a de facto morning business show. The network 's morning pre-opening bell programming was also aired on the USA Network, simulcasted in a paid programming arrangement with the channel until 2004, when that network dropped the simulcast months before the NBC Universal merger was consummated, due to concerns that USA would then air the coverage of a competitor to future sister network CNBC. The simulcast then moved to E! (which became NBCUniversal - owned in January 2011 due to that company 's purchase by Comcast), where it remained until the simulcast ended in January 2009, when the network had expanded its reach on digital cable systems enough to discontinue the simulcast. During its time on E!, the 5 -- 8 a.m. block was the most watched period for the network, according to Nielsen Media Research.
Bloomberg Television 's U.S. network debuted a new graphics package in January 2009. This current scheme was first used on the network 's now - defunct pre-market program, Starting Bell, before the new graphics expanded to all of the network 's programs on February 17, 2009. Also on that date, Bloomberg U.S. revamped its weekday programming lineup (see "Programs on Bloomberg '' below).
In October 2009, Bloomberg Television debuted another new graphics package. In 2011, Bloomberg Television announced a strategic relationship with Gas Station TV (GSTV) to deliver personal finance and business news to more than 27 million viewers each month at GSTV pumps.
Bloomberg launched a high definition simulcast feed on May 9, 2011, with Time Warner Cable as the first provider to carry it. In mid-April 2013, DIRECTV started carrying Bloomberg HD.
As of July 2014, Bloomberg Television 's standard - definition feed now shows a down - scaled version of its native HD feed, with the 16: 9 letterbox picture on its 4: 3 SD feed.
In February 2009, Bloomberg Television announced that it would cease operating some of the international variations of the channel, placing a greater focus on a more international Bloomberg channel.
On March 9, 2009, the localized channels available in Germany, France, Italy and Spain ceased operations. Today, throughout Europe, the original pan-European version of Bloomberg Europe (International) is available on cable and digital television providers.
Since March 9, 2009, Bloomberg Television utilizes its existing international production teams in Hong Kong (Bloomberg Asia), Europe (Bloomberg Europe) and America (Bloomberg), adding a more global feel to the channel. Bloomberg International provides programming from Hong Kong in the early morning, produced by Bloomberg Asia (International), from London in the late morning, produced by Bloomberg Europe (International), and from its main headquarters in New York City in the afternoon. Each Bloomberg receives localized advertising and a relevant business news ticker on screen.
Bloomberg Japan ceased broadcasting on April 30, 2009. The channel was then replaced by Bloomberg Asia (International). Bloomberg Japan 's Japanese language print newsroom and website continue to operate as normal. In June 2009, the Japanese service began running small on - air segments in cooperation with BS - Fuji Television. In October 2009, segments produced with the Tokyo Broadcasting System were added. Bloomberg Brazil and Bloomberg Latin America were integrated into the global Bloomberg channel during 2009.
Bloomberg is an associate member of the Caribbean Cable & Telecommunications Association and the Caribbean Cable Cooperative.
In November 2011, Bloomberg announced the formation of "Bloomberg TV Mongolia '' in partnership with Trade and Development Bank of Mongolia (TDB), the oldest and one of the largest commercial banks in Mongolia. The channel offers a mix of locally produced, Mongolian language content as well as English language news from Bloomberg Television.
In February 2015, it was reported that Bloomberg had partnered with Channel Zero to launch Bloomberg TV Canada later in the year; it will feature a mix of Canadian - produced programs and news coverage produced from an expansion of its existing studio at Toronto 's Brookfield Place, and Bloomberg 's other Canadian bureaus, with the remainder of its programming sourced from the U.S. version. The studio 's expanded staff will also produce multi-platform content for Bloomberg 's other platforms. The service will launch as an "exempted '' Category B service, meaning that it will not immediately require approval from the Canadian Radio - television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) to launch until it reaches 200,000 subscribers, and will replace Bloomberg TV U.S. on existing providers.
Daily shows
Weekly shows
Daily shows
Weekly shows
Daily shows
Weekly shows
In the United Kingdom, Bloomberg Television was severely reprimanded for breach of Ofcom rules during the 2005 UK national (General) election. Bloomberg was found to have shown pro-Labour Party bias. This occurred due to a breach of British law. In the run up to a general election, television channels must provide equal time to all major political parties. Bloomberg covered the release by the Labour Party of their so - called "Business Manifesto '', but did not provide counterbalancing air time to the Conservatives or Liberal Democrats.
Bloomberg was well known for using a datascreen format that occupied most of the television screen and the camera shots. Until 1998, Bloomberg did not have a moving ticker. Instead, it had boxes that were dedicated to world news, as well as weather conditions in selected cities, in addition to market data which was confined to the bottom of the screen. This changed gradually to focus more on business news. The data screen was reformatted several times to include a moving stock ticker and accommodate new graphics.
The datascreen format was phased out in late 2007, where the programs were seen almost in full - screen with the ticker and headlines bar confined to the lower part of the screen. However, Bloomberg HD (available in the US only) features more data boxes on the right side of the screen compared to its SD counterpart. This effectively makes on - screen presentation on Bloomberg HD resemble the pre-2007 datascreen.
On Monday September 22, 2014 Bloomberg Television dropped the long - standing live stock ticker as part of the new on screen information format. No reason for this was given.
The widespread growth of mobile devices and social media have influenced sites such as Bloomberg to expand its news platforms into other areas. Bloomberg Television offers some off - air news updates via social media including Facebook, Google+, and Twitter. Rebroadcasts of news and other special programs are additionally aired on the station 's official YouTube channel "Bloomberg Television ''. On mobile devices, Bloomberg Television released an app available for the iPad. Apple TV, and other streaming services including Pluto TV.
|
is there a second season of london spy | London Spy - wikipedia
London Spy is a British - American five - part drama television serial created and written by Tom Rob Smith that aired on BBC Two from 9 November until 7 December 2015.
London Spy begins as the story of two young men: Danny (Ben Whishaw) -- gregarious, hedonistic, and romantic -- falls in love with Alex (Edward Holcroft) -- asocial, enigmatic, and brilliant. Just as they discover how perfect they are for each other, Alex disappears. Danny finds Alex 's body. They lived very different lives: Danny is from a world of clubbing and youthful excess; Alex, it turns out, worked for the Secret Intelligence Service. Although utterly ill - equipped to take on the world of espionage, Danny decides to fight for the truth about Alex 's death.
The series was commissioned by Janice Hadlow and Polly Hill, and produced by Guy Heeley for Working Title Television. The executive producers were Juliette Howell, Tim Bevan, Eric Fellner, and Polly Hill. Filming began in 2014 in London, West London Film Studios, Kent, on the Isle of Grain and at Dartford.
The story is based on the death of Gareth Williams, an actual MI6 agent who was found dead under similar, mysterious circumstances.
The first episode premiered in the U.K. on BBC Two at 9pm on Monday 9 November 2015, and the serial concluded 7 December 2015. In the U.S., it premiered on BBC America starting 21 January 2016.
Reviewing Episode One for The Guardian, Lucy Mangan called it "an unutterably delicious, satisfying dish, '' with "Jim Broadbent, in fully teddy - bear - carrying - a-switchblade mode... '' and Whishaw "the most powerful actor ever made out of thistledown and magic. '' The Daily Telegraph 's Jasper Rees was unconvinced: "Whishaw 's intense fixity of purpose could do nothing to defibrillate his DOA dialogue... '' The same newspaper 's Harry Mount gave a critical review of episode 3 which he regarded as "wearily unconvincing '' with "long spells of ennui. '' In the Daily Mail, Christopher Stevens wrote: "Believe it or not, BBC execs reckon there is not enough gay drama on the Beeb (...) You might think that it 's become impossible to switch the telly on without seeing two men locked in a naked clinch, or in drag, or snogging. '' The Huffington Post UK reported that Stevens ' review had inspired a reader backlash, with online comments noting, "It 's not a gay spy drama, it 's a spy drama and some of the characters happen to be gay. ''
After Episode 4 had screened, several prominent critics agreed that, whatever they thought of its story, the series possessed a haunting quality. Gabriel Tate of The Daily Telegraph wrote: "London Spy, has been adored and abhorred. Its ambition has delighted and infuriated, its obfuscation has intrigued and frustrated. It is, if nothing else, a singular vision... '' A.A. Gill of The Sunday Times wrote: "This is a strange, inexplicably compelling story. There are vast lacunas in the plot, filled with the unblinking performance of Ben Whishaw, made more memorable because most of it is done without words. Everyone else revolves around him, but he remains essentially a hole at the centre of the doughnut. It is a characterisation of great depth, in a plot that is nothing more than a series of enigmas, presented enigmatically. ''
Jack Searle in The Guardian called it an "intoxicating series '' with "a beguiling emotional aesthetic. '' "It was inevitable that, when prosaic explanation finally had to intrude on all this elliptical artistry, the spell was partly broken. A thriller has n't so boldly made the genre beautiful since The Shadow Line. London Spy has lived in the gap between plot and subtext -- between what it 's about, and what it 's really about. It 's really about self - knowledge, and how lovers try to know each other while lying about themselves. ''
Following the screening of the final episode, Gabriel Tate wrote in The Guardian that the series had "a somewhat daft and implausible ending, but there was still much to enjoy, mostly from the brilliant Ben Whishaw. '' Benji Wilson in The Daily Telegraph called it "wonderful and infuriating in equal measure... Has there ever been a television series that 's frustrated as much as London Spy (BBC 2)? Over five weeks this contemporary thriller has scaled giddy heights and then plumbed ludicrous depths, gone from being completely gripping to turgid as hell, thrown up single scenes of startling brilliance then followed them with some preposterous self - indulgence... London Spy 's potentially great script was in desperate need of some doughty editing. ''
The Guardian 's Mark Lawson named the series one of the best shows of 2015.
The series was nominated for the GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding TV Movie or Limited Series.
|
who plays the sister in guardians of the galaxy | Karen Gillan - wikipedia
Karen Gillan (born 28 November 1987) is a Scottish actress, director, screenwriter and model. She played the role of Amy Pond, companion to the Eleventh Doctor, in the BBC One science fiction series Doctor Who (2010 -- 2013). She has received wide recognition for portraying Nebula in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 (2017), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), and its untitled sequel (2019), and also played Ruby Roundhouse in the box - office hit Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle (2017).
In 2018, she released her first feature film as writer and director, titled The Party 's Just Beginning.
Gillan was born and raised in Inverness. When she turned 16, Gillan moved to Edinburgh and completed an HNC Acting and Performance course at Telford College. She moved to London at age 18 to study at the drama school, Italia Conti Academy of Theatre Arts.
While studying at Italia Conti, Gillan was scouted by a modelling agency. Gillan has said she would not give up her acting career to return to modelling, stating that she enjoyed modelling but acting was always her main interest and goal.
Gillan 's early television acting career included guest appearances on several drama series, with her first role being in an episode of Rebus, a role she obtained while still at Italia Conti. Gillan then undertook a two - year stint as a member of the ensemble cast of the sketch comedy series The Kevin Bishop Show, in which she played multiple characters including celebrities such as Katy Perry and Angelina Jolie. Gillan also appeared on TV in a leading role in a horror project entitled The Well, which was broadcast as a series of episodic short films on BBC Two and later as a web series on BBC.co.uk. Part of the BBC 's multimedia "switch '' programming, the short episodes interconnect with online games that further explore the environments presented in the series.
Gillan portrayed Amy Pond, companion to the Eleventh Doctor, on the British sci - fi series Doctor Who. Before cast in the lead role in May 2009, she previously appeared on Doctor Who in series four episode "The Fires of Pompeii '' in the role of a Soothsayer. She made her first on - screen appearance as Amy Pond in "The Eleventh Hour '' with her cousin Caitlin Blackwood portraying a young Amelia (Amy) Pond. In 2010, she won in the Entertainment category at Young Scot Awards. She appeared in the following sixth series in 2011 and the first five episodes of the seventh series in 2012, after which her character and Rory Williams (portrayed by Arthur Darvill) have left the series. Gillan reprised her role in a cameo appearance in the 2013 Christmas special "The Time of the Doctor ''.
She was cast in comedian Charlie Brooker 's TV series A Touch of Cloth, portraying Kerry Newblood. Gillan joined the regular cast of Adult Swim 's NTSF: SD: SUV:: for the show 's third season in 2013.
In February 2014, Gillan was cast as the lead in Selfie, an American single - camera sitcom for ABC, which is produced by Warner Bros. Television and was greenlit for the 2014 -- 15 US television season. Gillan played a social media - obsessed socialite named Eliza Dooley, a modern - day take on the main character from My Fair Lady, Eliza Doolittle. This was Gillan 's first time starring in the lead role of an American television series. The series was cancelled by ABC on 7 November 2014 after seven episodes; the remaining six episodes were made available on Hulu starting 25 November 2014.
She appeared in the Channel 4 film Stacked.
In August 2011, it was announced that Gillan would star in an indie Scottish romantic comedy called Not Another Happy Ending alongside Emun Elliott. She was selected by director John McKay because he came to know her during the production of We 'll Take Manhattan, which he also directed, as "a very bubbly, vibrant, energetic, funny, slightly clumsy person '' who was a perfect fit for the character. Filming took place in July 2012, though Elliott was replaced by Stanley Weber. Gillan told journalists that she was happy to be involved in a Scottish production that "is n't about drug use or fighting the English ''. The film premiered at the Edinburgh International Film Festival in June 2013. In 2012, Gillan appeared in the television film We 'll Take Manhattan playing the part of supermodel Jean Shrimpton, which told the story of Shrimpton 's relationship with the photographer David Bailey.
Gillan starred in the lead role in the supernatural horror movie Oculus, which was filmed in Alabama and released in April 2014.
In May 2013, Gillan was cast as Nebula in the Marvel superhero science fiction film Guardians of the Galaxy, which was released in August 2014. Gillan had her head shaved bald for the role.
In May 2014, Gillan was cast in the Ti West - directed Western film In a Valley of Violence opposite John Travolta, Ethan Hawke and Taissa Farmiga. Gillan portrayed Ellen, the older sister to Farmiga 's character.
In 2015, Gillan appeared in the Adam McKay - directed drama film The Big Short alongside Brad Pitt, Christian Bale, Ryan Gosling, Steve Carell and Melissa Leo.
In 2017, Gillan reprised her role as Nebula in Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, this time becoming a member of the film 's eponymous team, and co-starred in The Circle, alongside Emma Watson, Tom Hanks, and John Boyega. The latter film, released in April, was directed and written by James Ponsoldt, and was based on the novel by Dave Eggers. Also that year, Gillan played the lead female role in Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle, a sequel to 1995 film Jumanji, starring alongside Dwayne Johnson, Kevin Hart, Jack Black and Nick Jonas.
Gillan reprised her Nebula character in Avengers: Infinity War and its untitled, upcoming, sequel, which were filmed back - to - back. Principal photography began in January 2017, at Pinewood Atlanta Studios in Fayette County, Georgia.
In 2011, Gillan made her first theatre appearance playing the role of Shirley in John Osborne 's play Inadmissible Evidence along with Douglas Hodge. The play debuted at the Donmar Warehouse on 16 October 2011.
In November 2013, Gillan appeared on Broadway in a play called Time to Act, one of the plays included in "The 24 Hour Plays on Broadway '' to benefit the non-profit Urban Arts Partnership.
Gillan has also voiced advertisements for eHarmony and The Royal Bank of Scotland. Gillan also appeared in TV on the Radio 's "Happy Idiot '' music video, released on 3 October 2014.
Gillan wrote and directed her first short film, Coward, which screened at the 2015 Edinburgh Film Festival, and nominated for several awards. Later in the year she wrote, directed, and starred in another short film called Conventional.
On 2 November 2016, it was announced that Gillan will write, direct and star in her feature directorial debut with Burbank - based development and production company Mt. Hollywood Films ' indie drama project titled Tupperware Party. Set in her home city of Inverness in the Scottish Highlands, filming began in January 2017 and wrapped in the next month. The title of the film was later changed to The Party 's Just Beginning.
In 2011, Gillan helped promote Fashion Targets Breast Cancer (FTBC) and the opening of Squirrel Ward in Great Ormond Street Hospital in London. During a 2012 interview on The Late Late Show, she stated that she had relocated to the US to star in the film Oculus.
She has stated that, although her family is Catholic, she has not been christened and is not religious, instead agreeing with the statement that, "we 're just minuscule dots in the vast cosmic emptiness of the universe ''.
|
what is the exact location of san andreas fault | San Andreas fault - wikipedia
The San Andreas Fault is a continental transform fault that extends roughly 1,200 kilometers (750 mi) through California. It forms the tectonic boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, and its motion is right - lateral strike - slip (horizontal). The fault divides into three segments, each with different characteristics and a different degree of earthquake risk. The slip rate along the fault ranges from 20 to 35 mm (0.79 to 1.38 in) / yr.
The fault was identified in 1895 by Professor Andrew Lawson of UC Berkeley, who discovered the northern zone. It is often described as having been named after San Andreas Lake, a small body of water that was formed in a valley between the two plates. However, according to some of his reports from 1895 and 1908, Lawson actually named it after the surrounding San Andreas Valley. Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Lawson concluded that the fault extended all the way into southern California.
In 1953, geologist Thomas Dibblee concluded that hundreds of miles of lateral movement could occur along the fault. A project called the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) near Parkfield, Monterey County, is drilling into the fault to improve prediction and recording of future earthquakes.
The northern segment of the fault runs from Hollister, through the Santa Cruz Mountains, epicenter of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, then up the San Francisco Peninsula, where it was first identified by Professor Lawson in 1895, then offshore at Daly City near Mussel Rock. This is the approximate location of the epicenter of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The fault returns onshore at Bolinas Lagoon just north of Stinson Beach in Marin County. It returns underwater through the linear trough of Tomales Bay which separates the Point Reyes Peninsula from the mainland, runs just east of Bodega Head through Bodega Bay and back underwater, returning onshore at Fort Ross. (In this region around the San Francisco Bay Area several significant "sister faults '' run more - or-less parallel, and each of these can create significantly destructive earthquakes.) From Fort Ross, the northern segment continues overland, forming in part a linear valley through which the Gualala River flows. It goes back offshore at Point Arena. After that, it runs underwater along the coast until it nears Cape Mendocino, where it begins to bend to the west, terminating at the Mendocino Triple Junction.
The central segment of the San Andreas Fault runs in a northwestern direction from Parkfield to Hollister. While the southern section of the fault and the parts through Parkfield experience earthquakes, the rest of the central section of the fault exhibits a phenomenon called aseismic creep, where the fault slips continuously without causing earthquakes.
The southern segment (also known as the Mojave segment) begins near Bombay Beach, California. Box Canyon, near the Salton Sea, contains upturned strata associated with that section of the fault. The fault then runs along the southern base of the San Bernardino Mountains, crosses through the Cajon Pass and continues northwest along the northern base of the San Gabriel Mountains. These mountains are a result of movement along the San Andreas Fault and are commonly called the Transverse Range. In Palmdale, a portion of the fault is easily examined at a roadcut for the Antelope Valley Freeway. The fault continues northwest alongside the Elizabeth Lake Road to the town of Elizabeth Lake. As it passes the towns of Gorman, Tejon Pass and Frazier Park, the fault begins to bend northward, forming the "Big Bend ''. This restraining bend is thought to be where the fault locks up in Southern California, with an earthquake - recurrence interval of roughly 140 -- 160 years. Northwest of Frazier Park, the fault runs through the Carrizo Plain, a long, treeless plain where much of the fault is plainly visible. The Elkhorn Scarp defines the fault trace along much of its length within the plain.
The southern segment, which stretches from Parkfield in Monterey County all the way to the Salton Sea, is capable of an 8.1 - magnitude earthquake. At its closest, this fault passes about 35 miles (56 km) to the northeast of Los Angeles. Such a large earthquake on this southern segment would kill thousands of people in Los Angeles, San Bernardino, Riverside, and surrounding areas, and cause hundreds of billions of dollars in damage.
The Pacific Plate, to the west of the fault, is moving in a northwest direction while the North American Plate to the east is moving toward the southwest, but relatively southeast under the influence of plate tectonics. The rate of slippage averages about 33 to 37 millimeters (1.3 to 1.5 in) a year across California.
The southwestward motion of the North American Plate towards the Pacific is creating compressional forces along the eastern side of the fault. The effect is expressed as the Coast Ranges. The northwest movement of the Pacific Plate is also creating significant compressional forces which are especially pronounced where the North American Plate has forced the San Andreas to jog westward. This has led to the formation of the Transverse Ranges in Southern California, and to a lesser but still significant extent, the Santa Cruz Mountains (the location of the Loma Prieta earthquake in 1989).
Studies of the relative motions of the Pacific and North American plates have shown that only about 75 percent of the motion can be accounted for in the movements of the San Andreas and its various branch faults. The rest of the motion has been found in an area east of the Sierra Nevada mountains called the Walker Lane or Eastern California Shear Zone. The reason for this is not clear. Several hypotheses have been offered and research is ongoing. One hypothesis -- which gained interest following the Landers earthquake in 1992 -- suggests the plate boundary may be shifting eastward away from the San Andreas towards Walker Lane.
Assuming the plate boundary does not change as hypothesized, projected motion indicates that the landmass west of the San Andreas Fault, including Los Angeles, will eventually slide past San Francisco, then continue northwestward toward the Aleutian Trench, over a period of perhaps twenty million years.
The San Andreas began to form in the mid Cenozoic about 30 Mya (million years ago). At this time, a spreading center between the Pacific Plate and the Farallon Plate (which is now mostly subducted, with remnants including the Juan de Fuca Plate, Rivera Plate, Cocos Plate, and the Nazca Plate) was beginning to reach the subduction zone off the western coast of North America. As the relative motion between the Pacific and North American Plates was different from the relative motion between the Farallon and North American Plates, the spreading ridge began to be "subducted '', creating a new relative motion and a new style of deformation along the plate boundaries. These geological features are what are chiefly seen along San Andreas Fault. It also includes a possible driver for the deformation of the Basin and Range, separation of the Baja California Peninsula, and rotation of the Transverse Range.
The main southern section of the San Andreas Fault proper has only existed for about 5 million years. The first known incarnation of the southern part of the fault was Clemens Well - Fenner - San Francisquito fault zone around 22 -- 13 Ma. This system added the San Gabriel Fault as a primary focus of movement between 10 -- 5 Ma. Currently, it is believed that the modern San Andreas will eventually transfer its motion toward a fault within the Eastern California Shear Zone. This complicated evolution, especially along the southern segment, is mostly caused by either the "Big Bend '' and / or a difference in the motion vector between the plates and the trend of the fault and it surrounding branches.
The fault was first identified in Northern California by UC Berkeley geology professor Andrew Lawson in 1895 and named by him after the Laguna de San Andreas, a small lake which lies in a linear valley formed by the fault just south of San Francisco. Eleven years later, Lawson discovered that the San Andreas Fault stretched southward into southern California after reviewing the effects of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Large - scale (hundreds of miles) lateral movement along the fault was first proposed in a 1953 paper by geologists Mason Hill and Thomas Dibblee. This idea, which was considered radical at the time, has since been vindicated by modern plate tectonics.
Seismologists discovered that the San Andreas Fault near Parkfield in central California consistently produces a magnitude 6.0 earthquake approximately once every 22 years. Following recorded seismic events in 1857, 1881, 1901, 1922, 1934, and 1966, scientists predicted that another earthquake should occur in Parkfield in 1993. It eventually occurred in 2004. Due to the frequency of predictable activity, Parkfield has become one of the most important areas in the world for large earthquake research.
In 2004, work began just north of Parkfield on the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD). The goal of SAFOD is to drill a hole nearly 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) into the Earth 's crust and into the San Andreas Fault. An array of sensors will be installed to record earthquakes that happen near this area.
The San Andreas Fault System has been the subject of a flood of studies. In particular, scientific research performed during the last 23 years has given rise to about 3,400 publications.
A study published in 2006 in the journal Nature found that the San Andreas fault has reached a sufficient stress level for an earthquake of magnitude greater than 7.0 on the moment magnitude scale to occur. This study also found that the risk of a large earthquake may be increasing more rapidly than scientists had previously believed. Moreover, the risk is currently concentrated on the southern section of the fault, i.e. the region around Los Angeles, because massive earthquakes have occurred relatively recently on the central (1857) and northern (1906) segments of the fault, while the southern section has not seen any similar rupture for at least 300 years. According to this study, a massive earthquake on that southern section of the San Andreas fault would result in major damage to the Palm Springs - Indio metropolitan area and other cities in San Bernardino, Riverside and Imperial counties in California, and Mexicali Municipality in Baja California. It would be strongly felt (and potentially cause significant damage) throughout much of Southern California, including densely populated areas of Los Angeles County, Ventura County, Orange County, San Diego County, Ensenada Municipality and Tijuana Municipality, Baja California, San Luis Rio Colorado in Sonora and Yuma, Arizona. Older buildings would be especially prone to damage or collapse, as would buildings built on unconsolidated gravel or in coastal areas where water tables are high (and thus subject to soil liquefaction). The paper concluded:
The information available suggests that the fault is ready for the next big earthquake but exactly when the triggering will happen and when the earthquake will occur we can not tell (...) It could be tomorrow or it could be 10 years or more from now.
Nevertheless, in the 11 years since that publication there has not been a substantial quake in the Los Angeles area, and two major reports issued by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) have made variable predictions as to the risk of future seismic events. The ability to predict major earthquakes with sufficient precision to warrant increased precautions has remained elusive.
The U.S. Geological Survey most recent forecast, known as UCERF3 (Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast 3), released in November 2013, estimated that an earthquake of magnitude 6.7 M or greater (i.e. equal to or greater than the 1994 Northridge earthquake) occurs about once every 6.7 years statewide. The same report also estimated there is a 7 % probability that an earthquake of magnitude 8.0 or greater will occur in the next 30 years somewhere along the San Andreas Fault. A different USGS study in 2008 tried to assess the physical, social and economic consequences of a major earthquake in southern California. That study predicted that a magnitude 7.8 earthquake along the southern San Andreas Fault could cause about 1,800 deaths and $213 billion in damage.
A 2008 paper, studying past earthquakes along the Pacific coastal zone, found a correlation in time between seismic events on the northern San Andreas Fault and the southern part of the Cascadia subduction zone (which stretches from Vancouver Island to northern California). Scientists believe quakes on the Cascadia subduction zone may have triggered most of the major quakes on the northern San Andreas within the past 3,000 years. The evidence also shows the rupture direction going from north to south in each of these time - correlated events. However the 1906 San Francisco earthquake seems to have been the exception to this correlation because the plate movement was moved mostly from south to north and it was not preceded by a major quake in the Cascadia zone.
The San Andreas Fault has had some notable earthquakes in historic times:
|
who came 1st 2nd 3rd and 4th in grand national | List of Grand National first four placings - wikipedia
This article lists the first, second, third and fourth - placed runners in the Grand National, a National Hunt horse race held annually over a distance of 4 miles 31⁄2 furlongs at Aintree Racecourse in England.
Shaded areas indicate the unofficial precursors of the Grand National (1836 -- 38), the wartime substitutes at Gatwick Racecourse (1916 -- 18), the cancelled period during World War II (1941 -- 45) and the void race in 1993.
The list features two horses called Peter Simple and two called Royal Mail. It also includes two with slightly different spellings, Mathew (1847) and Matthew (1902). For the purposes of this article, the horses with identical names are distinguished by (1) and (2).
Shading indicates a horse placed in an unofficial 1830s precursor or a wartime substitute race.
|
when does winter officially start in south africa | Winter - wikipedia
Winter is the coldest season of the year in polar and temperate zones (winter does not occur in the tropical zone). It occurs after autumn and before spring in each year. Winter is caused by the axis of the Earth in that hemisphere being oriented away from the Sun. Different cultures define different dates as the start of winter, and some use a definition based on weather. When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere, and vice versa. In many regions, winter is associated with snow and freezing temperatures. The moment of winter solstice is when the sun 's elevation with respect to the North or South Pole is at its most negative value (that is, the sun is at its farthest below the horizon as measured from the pole). The day on which this occurs has the shortest day and the longest night, with a daylength increasing and nightlength decreasing as the season processes after the solstice. The earliest sunset and latest sunrise dates outside the polar regions differ from the date of the winter solstice, however, and these depend on latitude, due to the variation in the solar day throughout the year caused by the Earth 's elliptical orbit (see earliest and latest sunrise and sunset).
The English word "winter '' comes from the Proto - Indo - European root "wend, '' relating to water.
The tilt of the Earth 's axis relative to its orbital plane plays a large role in the formation of weather. The Earth is tilted at an angle of 23.44 ° to the plane of its orbit, causing different latitudes to directly face the Sun as the Earth moves through its orbit. This variation brings about seasons. When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere, the Southern Hemisphere faces the Sun more directly and thus experiences warmer temperatures than the Northern Hemisphere. Conversely, winter in the Southern Hemisphere occurs when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted more toward the Sun. From the perspective of an observer on the Earth, the winter Sun has a lower maximum altitude in the sky than the summer Sun.
During winter in either hemisphere, the lower altitude of the Sun causes the sunlight to hit that hemisphere at an oblique angle. In regions experiencing winter, the same amount of solar radiation is spread out over a larger area. This effect is compounded by the larger distance that the light must travel through the atmosphere, allowing the atmosphere to dissipate more heat. Compared with these effects, the changes in the distance of the earth from the sun are negligible.
The manifestation of the meteorological winter (freezing temperatures) in the northerly snow -- prone parallels is highly variable depending on elevation, position versus marine winds and the amount of precipitation. A case in point is Canada, a country normally associated with tough winters. Winnipeg on the Great Plains at a relative distance from large bodies of water has a January high of − 11.3 ° C (11.7 ° F) and a low of − 21.4 ° C (− 6.5 ° F). In comparison, Vancouver on the coast with a marine influence from moderating Pacific winds has a January low of 1.4 ° C (34.5 ° F) with days well above freezing at 6.9 ° C (44.4 ° F). Both areas are on the 49th parallel north and in the same western half of the continent. A similar effect, although with less extreme differentials, is found in Europe where in spite of the northerly latitude of the islands, the British Isles has not a single non-mountain weather station with a below - freezing mean temperature.
Meteorological reckoning is the method of measuring the winter season used by meteorologists based on "sensible weather patterns '' for record keeping purposes, so the start of meteorological winter varies with latitude. Winter is often defined by meteorologists to be the three calendar months with the lowest average temperatures. This corresponds to the months of December, January and February in the Northern Hemisphere, and June, July and August in the Southern Hemisphere. The coldest average temperatures of the season are typically experienced in January or February in the Northern Hemisphere and in June, July or August in the Southern Hemisphere. Nighttime predominates in the winter season, and in some regions winter has the highest rate of precipitation as well as prolonged dampness because of permanent snow cover or high precipitation rates coupled with low temperatures, precluding evaporation. Blizzards often develop and cause many transportation delays. Diamond dust, also known as ice needles or ice crystals, forms at temperatures approaching − 40 ° F (− 40 ° C) due to air with slightly higher moisture from aloft mixing with colder, surface based air. They are made of simple ice crystals that are hexagonal in shape. The Swedish meteorological institute (SMHI) define winter as when the daily mean temperatures go below 0 ° C (32 ° F) for five consecutive days. According to the SMHI, winter in Scandinavia is more pronounced when Atlantic low - pressure systems take more southerly and northerly routes, leaving the path open for high - pressure systems to come in and cold temperatures to occur. As a result, the coldest January on record in 1987 was also the sunniest in Stockholm.
Accumulations of snow and ice are commonly associated with winter in the Northern Hemisphere, due to the large land masses there. In the Southern Hemisphere, the more maritime climate and the relative lack of land south of 40 ° S makes the winters milder; thus, snow and ice are less common in inhabited regions of the Southern Hemisphere. In this region, snow occurs every year in elevated regions such as the Andes, the Great Dividing Range in Australia, and the mountains of New Zealand, and also occurs in the southerly Patagonia region of South Argentina. Snow occurs year - round in Antarctica.
In the Northern Hemisphere, some authorities define the period of winter based on astronomical fixed points (i.e. based solely on the position of the Earth in its orbit around the sun), regardless of weather conditions. In one version of this definition, winter begins at the winter solstice and ends at the vernal equinox. These dates are somewhat later than those used to define the beginning and end of the meteorological winter -- usually considered to span the entirety of December, January, and February in the Northern Hemisphere and June, July, and August in the Southern.
Astronomically, the winter solstice, being the day of the year which has fewest hours of daylight, ought to be in the middle of the season, but seasonal lag means that the coldest period normally follows the solstice by a few weeks. In some cultures, the season is regarded as beginning at the solstice and ending on the following equinox -- in the Northern Hemisphere, depending on the year, this corresponds to the period between 21 or 22 December and 19, 20 or 21 March.
In the UK, meteorologists consider winter to be the three coldest months of December, January and February. In Scandinavia, winter in one tradition begins on 14 October and ends on the last day of February. In Russia, currently calendar winter starts on 1 December and lasts through to the end of February, though traditionally it was reckoned from the Christmas (25 December in Julian calendar, or 7 January in Gregorian) until the Annunciation (25 March in Julian). In many countries in the Southern Hemisphere, including Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, winter begins on 1 June and ends on 31 August. In Celtic nations such as Ireland (using the Irish calendar) and in Scandinavia, the winter solstice is traditionally considered as midwinter, with the winter season beginning 1 November, on All Hallows, or Samhain. Winter ends and spring begins on Imbolc, or Candlemas, which is 1 or 2 February. This system of seasons is based on the length of days exclusively. (The three - month period of the shortest days and weakest solar radiation occurs during November, December and January in the Northern Hemisphere and May, June and July in the Southern Hemisphere.)
Also, many mainland European countries tended to recognize Martinmas or St. Martin 's Day (11 November), as the first calendar day of winter. The day falls at midpoint between the old Julian equinox and solstice dates. Also, Valentine 's Day (14 February) is recognized by some countries as heralding the first rites of spring, such as flowers blooming.
In Chinese astronomy and other East Asian calendars, winter is taken to commence on or around 7 November, with the Jiéqì (known as 立冬 lì dōng -- literally, "establishment of winter '').
The three - month period associated with the coldest average temperatures typically begins somewhere in late November or early December in the Northern Hemisphere and lasts through late February or early March. This "thermological winter '' is earlier than the solstice delimited definition, but later than the daylight (Celtic) definition. Depending on seasonal lag, this period will vary between climatic regions.
Cultural influences such as Christmas creep may have led to the winter season being perceived as beginning earlier in recent years, although high latitude countries like Canada are usually well into their real winters before the December solstice.
Since by almost all definitions valid for the Northern hemisphere, winter spans 31 December and 1 January, the season is split across years, just like summer in the Southern hemisphere. Each calendar year includes parts of two winters. This causes ambiguity in associating a winter with a particular year, e.g. "Winter 2018 ''. Solutions for this problem include naming both years, e.g. "Winter 18 / 19 '', settling on the year the season starts in or on the year most of its days belong to, which is the later year for most definitions.
Ecological reckoning of winter differs from calendar - based by avoiding the use of fixed dates. It is one of six seasons recognized by most ecologists who customarily use the term hibernal for this period of the year (the other ecological seasons being prevernal, vernal, estival, serotinal, and autumnal). The hibernal season coincides with the main period of biological dormancy each year whose dates vary according to local and regional climates in temperate zones of the Earth. The appearance of flowering plants like the crocus can mark the change from ecological winter to the prevernal season as early as late January in mild temperate climates.
To survive the harshness of winter, many animals have developed different behavioral and morphological adaptations for overwintering:
Some annual plants never survive the winter. Other annual plants require winter cold to complete their life cycle, this is known as vernalization. As for perennials, many small ones profit from the insulating effects of snow by being buried in it. Larger plants, particularly deciduous trees, usually let their upper part go dormant, but their roots are still protected by the snow layer. Few plants bloom in the winter, one exception being the flowering plum, which flowers in time for Chinese New Year. The process by which plants become acclimated to cold weather is called hardening.
Humans evolved in tropical climates, and met cold weather as they migrated into Eurasia, although earlier populations certainly encountered Southern Hemisphere winters in Southern Africa. Micro-evolution in Caucasian, Asiatic and Inuit people show some adaptation to the climate.
Humans are sensitive to cold, see hypothermia. Snowblindness, norovirus, seasonal depression, slipping on black ice and falling icicles are other health concerns associated with cold and snowy weather. In the Northern Hemisphere, it is not unusual for homeless people to die from hypothermia in the winter.
One of the most common diseases associated with winter is influenza. Symptoms include: headache, fever, muscle pains, sinus infection, fatigue, dizziness, cough, and loss of appetite.
In Persian culture, the winter solstice is called Yaldā (meaning: birth) and it has been celebrated for thousands of years. It is referred to as the eve of the birth of Mithra, who symbolised light, goodness and strength on earth.
In Greek mythology, Hades kidnapped Persephone to be his wife. Zeus ordered Hades to return her to Demeter, the goddess of the Earth and her mother. However, Hades tricked Persephone into eating the food of the dead, so Zeus decreed that Persephone would spend six months with Demeter and six months with Hades. During the time her daughter is with Hades, Demeter became depressed and caused winter.
In Welsh mythology, Gwyn ap Nudd abducted a maiden named Creiddylad. On May Day, her lover, Gwythr ap Greidawl, fought Gwyn to win her back. The battle between them represented the contest between summer and winter.
|
what is the purpose of a unix mount table | Fstab - wikipedia
The fstab (or file systems table) file is a system configuration file commonly found at / etc / fstab on Unix and Unix - like computer systems. In Linux it is part of the util - linux package. The fstab file typically lists all available disk partitions and other types of file systems and data sources that are not necessarily disk - based, and indicates how they are to be initialized or otherwise integrated into the larger file system structure.
The fstab file is read by the mount command, which happens automatically at boot time to determine the overall file system structure, and thereafter when a user executes the mount command to modify that structure. It is the duty of the system administrator to properly create and maintain the fstab file.
While fstab is still used for basic system configuration, for other uses it has been superseded by automatic mounting mechanisms.
The file has other names on some versions of Unix; for example, it is found at / etc / vfstab on Solaris systems.
The fstab file is read by programs that work with disk partitions and other file systems and is not automatically maintained. Instead it is written by the system administrator or sometimes by an operating system installation program. However, some administration tools can automatically build and edit fstab, or act as graphical editors for it, such as the Kfstab graphical configuration utility available for KDE.
Modern Linux systems use udev as an automounter to handle the hot swapping of devices (such as MP3 players or digital cameras) instead of relying on fstab. Programs such as pmount allow ordinary users to mount and unmount filesystems without a corresponding fstab entry; traditional Unix has always allowed privileged users (the root user and users in the wheel group) to mount or unmount devices without an fstab entry.
The following is an example of an fstab file on a typical Linux system.
The order of records in fstab is important because fsck (8), mount (8), and umount (8) sequentially iterate through fstab doing their thing.
Blank lines and comment lines beginning with a "# '' are ignored.
The space - or tab - separated fields within each row (typically aligned in columns, as above, but this is not a requirement) must appear in a specific order, as follows:
Missing values in the last two fields are interpreted as zeros. If necessary, space characters in the first, second, and fourth fields are indicated by the octal character code \ 040.
As the filesystems in / etc / fstab will eventually be mounted using mount (8) it is not surprising that the options field simply contains a comma - separated list of options which will be passed directly to mount when it tries to mount the filesystem.
The options common to all filesystems are:
There are many options for the specific filesystems supported by mount. Listed below are some of the more commonly used. The full list may be found in the documentation for mount. Note that these are for Linux; traditional UNIX - like systems have generally provided similar functionality but with slightly different syntax.
More detailed information about the fstab file can be found in the man page about Linux fstab; for other systems see below.
This command will mount all (not - yet - mounted) filesystems mentioned in fstab and is used in system script startup during booting. Note that this command will ignore all those entries containing "noauto '' in the options section.
|
watch 7 deadly sins season 2 ep 12 | List of the Seven Deadly Sins episodes - wikipedia
The Seven Deadly Sins (Nanatsu no Taizai / 七 つの 大罪) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Nakaba Suzuki. The series follows Elizabeth, the third princess of the Kingdom of Liones, who is in search of the Seven Deadly Sins, a group of former Holy Knights who were disbanded after the kingdom was overthrown. She enlists the help of Meliodas and Hawk, the captain of the Seven Deadly Sins and his talking pet pig, to assemble the remaining members of the Seven Deadly Sins and take back the kingdom from the Holy Knights. The series debuted on MBS and other Japan News Network stations on October 5, 2014. A second season of the anime series was confirmed on September 27, 2015, and aired on January 13, 2018.
An original video animation (OVA) titled "Ban 's Additional Chapter '' (バン の 番外 編, Ban no Bangai - hen) was included with the limited edition of volume 15 of the manga, released on June 17, 2015. A second OVA composed of nine humorous shorts was shipped with the limited edition of the sixteenth volume of the manga, released on August 12, 2015.
The first The Seven Deadly Sins anime series was licensed for English release by Netflix as its second exclusive anime, following their acquisition of Knights of Sidonia. All 24 episodes were released on November 1, 2015 in both subtitled or English dub formats. The Signs of Holy War arc of the series, labeled as Season 2, was added to the service on February 17, 2017. The Revival of the Commandments arc, labeled as Season 3, was released on October 15, 2018 in the United States.
The show 's first opening theme song is "Netsujō no Spectrum '' (熱情 の スペクトラム, Netsujō no Supekutoramu, "Spectrum of Passion '') performed by Ikimono - gakari for the first twelve episodes and the second opening theme is "Seven Deadly Sins '' performed by Man with a Mission, while the first ending theme titled "7 - Seven '' is a collaboration between Flow and Granrodeo, the second ending theme from episode thirteen onwards is "Season '' the major label debut of Alisa Takigawa.
The Seven Deadly Sins: Revival of The Commandments first opening theme song titled "Howling '' is a collaboration between Flow and Granrodeo, and first ending theme song is "Beautiful '' performed by Anly. The second opening theme titled "Ame ga Furu kara, Niji ga Deru '' (雨 が 降る から 虹 が 出る) by Sky Peace and second ending theme titled "Chikai '' (誓い) by Sora Amamiya.
|
when does destiny 2 come out on the pc | Destiny 2 - Wikipedia
Destiny 2 is an online - only multiplayer first - person shooter video game developed by Bungie and published by Activision. It was released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on September 6, 2017, followed by a Microsoft Windows version the following month. It is the sequel to 2014 's Destiny and its subsequent expansions. Set in a "mythic science fiction '' world, the game features a multiplayer "shared - world '' environment with elements of role - playing games. Players assume the role of a Guardian, protectors of Earth 's last safe city as they wield a power called Light to protect the Last City from different alien races. One of these races, the Cabal, led by the warlord Dominus Ghaul, infiltrate the Last City and strips all Guardians of their Light. The player sets out on a journey to regain their Light and find a way to defeat Ghaul and his Red Legion army and take back the Last City.
Like the original, activities in Destiny 2 are divided among player versus environment (PvE) and player versus player (PvP) game types. In addition to normal story missions, PvE features three - player "strikes '' and six - player raids. A free roam patrol mode is also available for each planet and features public events as well as new activities not featured in the original. These new activities have an emphasis on exploration of the planets and interactions with non-player characters (NPCs) on the planets; the original Destiny only featured NPCs in social spaces. PvP features objective - based modes, as well as traditional deathmatch game modes. All PvP game modes are four - versus - four, a change from the previous installment, which featured six - versus - six, three - versus - three, and two - versus - two variants. Like the original Destiny, the game features expansion packs which further the story and adds new content and missions. The first expansion, Curse of Osiris, released in December 2017, while a second, Gods of Mars, is planned for release in early 2018.
Upon release, Destiny 2 received generally favorable reviews from critics. The game received praise for its many improvements over its predecessor. The original Destiny received much criticism for its story, but Destiny 2 was praised as having a "more robust story '' and an actual fleshed out villain. As with the original, gameplay for the most part was also highly praised. Reviews were split on the recategorization of the weapons and the newer activities like the Adventures and Lost Sectors, but praise was unanimous on the exploration of the game world. Changes to PvP were welcomed by some reviewers, though others were critical for the mode lacking player choice. Destiny 2 won Best PC Game at the 2017 Game Critics Awards and received six nominations at The Game Awards 2017.
Similar to its predecessor, Destiny 2 is a first - person shooter game that incorporates role - playing and massively multiplayer online game (MMO) elements. The original Destiny included on - the - fly matchmaking that allowed players to communicate only with other players with whom they were "matched '' by the game. To communicate with other players in the game world, players had to use their respective console 's messaging system. Destiny 2 features a more optimal way of matchmaking called "Guided Games '', which allows players to search for clans who may need additional players for activities, such as strikes or raids. Like the original, activities in Destiny 2 are divided among player versus environment (PvE) and player versus player (PvP) game types.
As in the original game, players are able to improve their characters, referred to as Guardians, by gaining experience points (EXP) -- when a set number of experience points are accumulated, the player 's character will "level up '' and gain improved statistics which further enhance performance in battle. Milestones, including the "main scenario '' milestones, are specific tasks given to the player by non-player characters (NPCs) which reward items and EXP. Completing main scenario milestones progresses the overarching plot of the game.
Destiny 2 features the same three character classes as the original Destiny. Each class has their own specific upgrades, perks, special abilities, and three sub-classes that allow players to finely tune their individual characters to provide a different play style. After choosing a class, players select one of three species for their character: Human, Awoken (bluish - gray - skinned descendants of Humans), or Exo (humanoid machines). They can then customize their character, such as changing its gender or skin color. A character 's species is only cosmetic and does not affect gameplay. Players can create two more characters to have a character of each class.
Hunters continue to have access to the Solar - based "Gunslinger '' sub-class of the original, along with its "Golden Gun '' super, and the Void - based "Nightstalker '' sub-class from the original 's The Taken King expansion, along with its "Shadowshot '' super, both with noticeable gameplay changes. The Hunter 's new sub-class for Destiny 2 is the Arc - based "Arcstrider '', replacing the "Bladedancer '' sub-class of the original. Arcstrider 's super, "Arc Staff '', focuses on an electrified staff and a large amount of rapid mobility. Warlocks continue to have access to the Void - based "Voidwalker '' sub-class of the original, along with its "Nova Bomb '' super, and the Arc - based "Stormcaller '' sub-class from The Taken King, along with its "Stormtrance '' super, both with several changes. The Warlock 's new sub-class for Destiny 2 is the Solar - based "Dawnblade '' with a super called "Daybreak '', replacing the "Sunsinger '' sub-class of the original. The Daybreak super allows the player to make Solar Light blades to strike enemies from mid-air, similar to the Titan 's "Sunbreaker '' sub-class with its super. Titans continue to have access to the Arc - based "Striker '' sub-class and its "Fists of Havoc '' super of the original, and the Solar - based "Sunbreaker '' from The Taken King, along with its "Hammer of Sol '' super, both with significant gameplay changes. The Titan 's new sub-class for Destiny 2 is the Void - based "Sentinel '', replacing the "Defender '' sub-class of the original, although the Sentinel sub-class can create the Defender 's Ward of Dawn shielding bubble if this option is selected. Sentinel 's super, "Sentinel Shield '', allows the player to summon a shield that can block enemy fire and be used offensively, similar to Captain America 's shield.
Upon reaching the character EXP level cap (level 20 at launch), character progression shifts to improving their "Power '' level (formerly "Light '' level) by acquiring new and better equipment. This equipment can be gained through a variety of sources, including "strikes '', raids, and in - game events. The three weapon classes and five pieces of armor each have a Power level; a character 's Power level is the average of that gear. A higher character level allows for better equipment with higher Power levels to be equipped. A higher Power level improves damage output and defense. The highest obtainable Power level at launch was 305. Weapons and armor were reorganized in Destiny 2. In the original game, weapons were divided as Primary, Special, and Heavy weapons. In Destiny 2, the weapons are categorized as Kinetic, Energy, and Power weapons. Primary weapons and some Special weapons in the original - such as hand cannons and sidearms - are classified as Kinetic and Energy weapons. Those without an elemental damage type go in the Kinetic weapons slot while those with an elemental damage type (Arc, Solar, or Void) go in the Energy weapons slot. Power weapons include the Heavy weapons and the more powerful Special weapons from the first game, such as shotguns and sniper rifles, as well as new weapon types, such as the grenade launcher. With armor, the name of the stats have been changed. Instead of Strength, Intellect, and Discipline, there are stats for Armor, Recovery, and Mobility. Also for armor, the helmet, gauntlets, chest, legs, and class item slots have remained unchanged, but the artifacts slot has been replaced with one for a player 's clan banners.
Like the original game, player versus environment game types make up the majority of the game. Areas to explore include Earth 's European Dead Zone (which was only represented by PvP maps in the original), Saturn 's moon Titan, Jupiter 's moon Io, and the centaur planet Nessus. There is also a new social space in the European Dead Zone called "The Farm '', as the main portion of the Tower of the original was destroyed at the start of Destiny 2 's campaign. However, a lower, undamaged portion of the Tower becomes the main social space post-campaign. Like the original, there are Patrol missions and public events, but emphasis has been placed more on exploration of the worlds, including towns that players can visit and friendly NPCs who can be found in - game and will give side - quests. New missions were added called ' Adventures ', which allow players to explore the area and go on a treasure hunt - like journey to dungeon - like areas. Some Adventures culminate in what is called a Lost Sector, which are somewhat hidden areas in worlds that lead players to a boss that yields rewards upon its defeat. Lost Sectors can be found and accessed without doing an Adventure. A map has also been added to the game, which shows the locations of the NPCs, Patrol beacons, Adventures, and Lost Sectors. The maps of these new areas are much larger than those in the original Destiny, with one being described as twice as large as any area of the original. Players no longer have to leave a planet and go to orbit to travel to another location; they can now do so immediately from their current in - game location. Another new activity has been added called Flashpoints, which is a weekly event that takes place on one of the four planets and rotates each week. In the event, players complete a set of challenges to earn high level rewards. Similar to the original game, players can pledge their allegiance to one of three factions -- Dead Orbit, Future War Cult, or New Monarchy. In Destiny 2, however, the factions now compete against each other in the Faction Rally, which is a periodic event that lasts for one week. Faction points are earned by doing various activities. The faction with the most points at the end of the week earns a high level reward for 1,000 Glimmer (in - game currency). The losing factions can also gain the reward, but must pay 50,000 Glimmer for their faction 's item.
Once a player has completed the main story and has reached level 20, they unlock access to different types of end - game content. These activities include the Nightfall strike (a weekly featured strike with high level rewards) and the "Leviathan '' raid, among other PvP activities. Much harder versions of these also exist, called prestige mode (formerly heroic in the original game). These end - game activities reward players with powerful gear upon successful completion to increase their Power level.
Like the original, player versus player combat exists in what is called the Crucible with Lord Shaxx returning as its NPC. The original Destiny 's Crucible featured six - versus - six and three - versus - three game modes, as well as a limited time two - versus - two mode. In Destiny 2, all game modes are four - versus - four as Bungie shifted their focus to smaller teams for competitive multiplayer and better map design. Like the original, player statistics such as weapon power and defense are balanced between players in Crucible game modes. The in - game HUD was updated so that players can see if an enemy has their super charged or has heavy ammo. Players currently do not have the option to select a single game mode to play. Excluding Trials of the Nine and Iron Banner modes, Crucible features two options, quickplay and competitive. Quickplay rotates between three game modes from the original Destiny that were modified for the new player count: Clash, Control, and Supremacy. Competitive rotates between Destiny 2 's two new modes: Countdown and Survival. "Countdown '', a best - of - ten rounds mode, is "an asymmetric objective mode where players have to plant a bomb in the enemy base and then defend it until it explodes. '' One team attempts to plant bombs at designated locations, while the other team defends those locations to prevent bombs from being planted. If the opposing team plants a bomb, they must defend it until it explodes, while the other team attempts to defuse it. If the original defending team kills all players on the offensive team, the round is over, similar to the ' Search and Destroy ' game modes from other first - person shooters. In "Survival '', a best - of - seven rounds mode, a team has a certain amount of lives that is shared across that team. If a player dies and their team 's total lives is at zero, they can not be revived for the remainder of the round.
Trials of Osiris from the original game was replaced by Trials of the Nine. Like Trials of Osiris, Trials of the Nine begins on Fridays and ends with the weekly reset on Tuesdays. The game mode for this new Trials, however, has changed; instead of using the Elimination mode of the original, Trials of the Nine rotates each week between Destiny 2 's two new game modes, Countdown and Survival. Only one map is featured for Trials ' four - day duration, but the map also rotates weekly. Player 's gear is locked during Trials, meaning they can not change it for the duration of a match. Unlike Trials of Osiris, players can gain access to the Trials of the Nine 's social space called The Spire, located in unknown space, for simply completing a match of Trials and earning Trials tokens. There, players will meet an NPC called the Emissary of the Nine, who will exchange tokens for gear. Gaining three, five, and seven wins on the score card, respectively, gains access to the upper tiers of the social space with greater rewards at each tier. Going flawless with seven wins allows admittance into an exclusive area with even greater rewards. Three losses resets the score card. To access Trials of the Nine, players must have completed the campaign, completed Lord Shaxx 's "Call to Arms '' milestone, and have a Power level of at least 260.
The periodic competitive Iron Banner PvP mode of the original game, which disabled balancing of player 's gear, also returned for the sequel. Destiny 2 's Iron Banner, however, does not disable balancing, with Bungie stating that "Your fighting abilities, not your power levels, will decide the outcome ''. Like the original, Iron Banner lasts for one week and features milestones to complete daily. Players must have completed the campaign and be level 20 to access Iron Banner, which features the returning Lord Saladin from the original game as its NPC.
One year after the SIVA Crisis, Cabal forces of the Red Legion launch an aerial assault on the Last City, destroying the main portion of the Tower, the headquarters of the Guardians. The player 's Guardian and their Ghost respond by assisting the Vanguard in assaulting the Red Legion command ship. As they confront the Red Legion 's commander, Dominus Ghaul, his forces attach a device to the Traveler and begin draining it of the Light, the power used by the Guardians. The Guardian loses their powers and is nearly killed by Ghaul. Waking two days after the attack, the Guardian locates their Ghost. They find a haven known as "the Farm '' in the European Dead Zone (EDZ) with the assistance of Suraya Hawthorne, a non-Guardian human from the outskirts of the Last City.
The Guardian follows a vision to encounter a shard of the Traveler hidden in a forest within the EDZ. Ghost interfaces with the shard and both its and the Guardian 's Light are restored. After restoring long range communications, Hawthorne intercepts a distress call from Commander Zavala, urging surviving Guardians to travel to Saturn 's moon Titan and assist in mounting a counter-offensive. Against Hawthorne 's objections, the Guardian travels to Titan, which has been overrun by the Hive. With assistance from Deputy Commander Sloane, they learn that the Red Legion was dispatched to the Milky Way in response to a distress call sent during the Taken War two years prior, and that Ghaul possesses a superweapon known as the Almighty, a space station capable of destroying stars. Resistance to Cabal rule has resulted in entire star systems being destroyed. The intelligence also reveals that the Almighty is positioned near the Sun, breaking up the planet Mercury as fuel. Zavala tasks the Guardian to find Ikora Rey and Cayde - 6 to assist in a counterattack to retake the Last City. During this time, it is shown that Ghaul, aided by his mentor, the Consul, overthrew Emperor Calus and took control of the Cabal, and has been studying the Traveler in order to learn how to use the Light and legitimize himself as Emperor.
The Guardian locates Cayde - 6 on the centaur planet Nessus, which has almost been completely transformed by the Vex. With the aid of Failsafe, an AI from the crashed starship Exodus Black, the Guardian frees Cayde from a Vex portal loop, and claims a teleporter for use in taking back the City. Cayde directs the Guardian to find Ikora on the Jovian moon of Io, where she had gone to find answers about the Traveler. Ikora and Io researcher Asher Mir directs the Guardian to locate a Warmind, an ancient defensive AI for intelligence on the Almighty. Afterwards, the Vanguard reunites at the Farm and conclude that the only way to retake the Last City and save the Traveler is to shut down the Almighty first, eliminating the possibility of it destroying the Sun. The Guardian boards the Almighty and destroys the weapon, signaling Zavala to begin the counterattack. As the Vanguard begins the assault, the Consul admonishes Ghaul for his obsession with the Traveler, and urges him to take the Light; Ghaul is reluctant until the Consul kills the Speaker, whom Ghaul had captured and tortured to try and learn more about the Traveler. Ghaul then proclaims that he will take the Light, and strangles the Consul in a fit of rage.
The Guardian returns to Earth to assist in the counterattack and infiltrates Ghaul 's command ship alone to save the Traveler. Ghaul forcibly takes the Light, corrupting it, and uses its power against the Guardian, but the Guardian is successful in defeating Ghaul. Ghaul reemerges as a massive ethereal figure who then speaks to the Traveler directly. In doing so, the Traveler wakes from its long sleep, destroying the device that was harvesting its power and killing Ghaul. It sends a massive shockwave, restoring the Light and decimating the Red Legion 's forces. The game ends with a posthumous voiceover from the Speaker, reminding all that the Light can never be stopped. The Guardian and Ghost convene with Zavala, Ikora, Cayde, and Hawthorne at an undamaged portion of the Tower, with the Vanguard returning to their old duties and Hawthorne assuming a new post there. In a post-credits scene, the shockwave sent by the Traveler is shown reaching the entire system. The wave of Light extends beyond the Solar System and spreads beyond the Milky Way, before panning across a fleet of dark, unknown ships sitting some distance away in extragalactic space.
Following Ghaul 's defeat, a massive Cabal ship called the Leviathan appears in orbit of Nessus, under the control of the exiled Emperor Calus. Calus invites Guardians to complete a series of challenges before reaching his throne. A fireteam of Guardians complete his challenges before facing Calus himself; however, after overcoming his strange powers and defeating him, they discover that they were fighting a mechanical doppelganger. The real Calus speaks through the machine, claiming that what they know is a lie and that there is a truth beyond what the Speaker had told them.
After the awakening of the Traveler, Ikora calls the Guardian to the Tower, explaining that her agents, the Hidden, discovered a damaged Ghost on the intact remnants of Mercury. Ikora identifies the Ghost as Sagira, belonging to her former mentor, the legendary Warlock Osiris, who had been exiled from the City years before the first game. Traveling to Mercury, the Guardian locates the gateway to the Infinite Forest, a simulated universe created by the Vex inside the planet 's core, but is unable to enter; the Guardian then comes under attack from Vex constructs from various points in time. Brother Vance, the fanatical leader of the Followers of Osiris (returning from House of Wolves), directs the Guardian to a hidden temple in an abandoned radio tower in the EDZ on Earth, with a modified Vex device that can restore Sagira. The device temporarily merges Sagira with the Guardian 's Ghost, allowing them to access the gateway to the Infinite Forest.
Inside the Forest, the Guardian encounters reflections of Osiris created to explore its different simulated realities. The reflections explain that in the past, Mercury had been a garden world shaped by the Traveler, before the Vex arrived and created the Forest in Mercury 's core. The Guardian witnesses a simulated future scenario created by Panoptes, the Vex Mind that controls the Infinite Forest, in which Light and Darkness no longer exist, all non-Vex life has been wiped out, and the Sun is darkened. Osiris ' reflections claim that they have been unable to find a way to prevent the dark future, but believe that the Guardian may be the key to stopping it. Ikora directs the Guardian to the Pyramidion, a Vex construct on Io, which contains the location of a map that leads to Panoptes ' lair. Following the Pyramidion 's data back to the Forest and battling Red Legion simulations within, Sagira discovers that the map changes too quickly to find Panoptes. The Guardian travels to Nessus to obtain the core of a smaller Vex Mind to boost Sagira 's processing power. Returning to the Forest 's simulated past on a tip from Ikora, the Guardian combines the map data with Panoptes ' algorithms from the moment of its creation, allowing Sagira to locate Panoptes ' lair. At that moment, Panoptes itself arrives and forcibly separates Sagira from Ghost before ejecting the Guardian from the Forest.
Regrouping at the Tower, Ikora accompanies the Guardian back to Mercury, where she forces open the gateway to allow the Guardian to return to the Forest. Upon reaching Panoptes ' lair, the Guardian fights through Panoptes ' simulated legions, but is unable to damage the Vex Mind alone; Panoptes prepares to "delete '' the Guardian from the Forest when Osiris himself arrives to aid the Guardian. Osiris is able to hold Panoptes at bay long enough for the Guardian to weaken and then destroy Panoptes, freeing Sagira and preventing the dark future from occurring. The Guardian and Osiris emerge from the gateway, where Ikora invites Osiris to return to the City. Osiris declines, and bids farewell to his former student and the Guardian before returning to the Infinite Forest.
Following the defeat of Panoptes, Emperor Calus extends another invitation to travel to the Leviathan on Nessus, where the fireteam of Guardians venture deep into the Leviathan 's core to confront another Vex Mind, Argos, which was responsible for the transformation of Nessus.
A sequel to Destiny was first mentioned in November 2014, two months after the original released, by Activision chief executive officer Eric Hirshberg, where he said "Work has also begun on future expansion packs as well as on our next full game release ''. Based on documents of the original release schedule for Destiny, Bungie and Activision intended to release new, disc - based sequels every other year until 2019, with large downloadable expansions in between. Originally planned for a September 2016 release (based on the original documents), Bungie confirmed on February 11, 2016 that a full sequel would release in 2017. That same month, video game writer Christopher Schlerf, who was the lead writer for Halo 4 and worked on Mass Effect: Andromeda, joined Bungie. In December 2016, Bungie announced that Vicarious Visions would be joining the development team along with Activision. Unlike the original, it was rumored that Destiny 2 would also release on Microsoft Windows, which was confirmed on March 30, 2017.
In Activision 's earnings report for 2016, Hirshberg said that Destiny 's sequel was still "on track for release this fall (2017). '' Activision said the sequel would "broaden the franchise 's global reach. '' Hirshberg elaborated that players who had spent hours in the original would "love '' the sequel, and for those who had not played Destiny, or had not played in a while,
... we think we 've made a sequel that 's going to have a lot for them to love, too. The cornerstone of that is a great cinematic story that 's been a real focus with a great cast of memorable, relatable characters, coupled with some very nice ways to make the game more accessible to a casual player. Without losing anything that our core players love, we 've made it more accessible to someone who just wants to have a great, more casual first - person action experience.
Bungie had said that players ' characters and progression would carry over into future releases. However, this turned out to only be half true. Characters and progression did carry over into Destiny 's expansions, but for the sequel, only players ' characters ' physical appearance carried over if they had reached level 20 and completed the Black Garden quest in the original. In regards to why progression and items did not carry over, Bungie said "We believe this is the best path forward. It allows us to introduce the major advancements and improvements that all of us expect from a sequel, ensuring it will be the best game we can create, unencumbered by the past. '' Bungie awarded veteran players in Destiny 2 with in - game emblems that acknowledged their accomplishments in the original Destiny. Players ' characters, progression, and items are still accessible in the original Destiny, which will continue to remain online.
On March 23, 2017, a promotional poster for the sequel was leaked by Lega Network, revealing the game 's name as Destiny 2 and a release date of September 8, 2017, with the mention of a public beta for the game. The poster showed that just like the original, Destiny 2 would have PlayStation exclusive content. On March 27, 2017, although not directly responding to the leaked information, Bungie tweeted an image of Destiny 2. The image showed The Last City in smoke and flames with "Destiny '' and a large "2 '' over the Traveler. This was followed up with a teaser trailer narrated by character Cayde - 6. The teaser showed the Tower under attack by the Cabal, one of the enemy races from the original game. PlayStation 's YouTube channel showed a slightly extended teaser, officially confirming that there would be timed exclusive content for PlayStation 4, and it would last until at least fall 2018. A full reveal trailer released on March 30, showing the three class Vanguards, Commander Zavala (Titan), Cayde - 6 (Hunter), and Ikora Rey (Warlock), rallying Guardians in the war - torn Tower. The Cabal are being lead by Ghaul, the commander of the Red Legion. The trailers confirmed that Lance Reddick, Nathan Fillion, and Gina Torres would be reprising their roles as the class Vanguards, respectively. Nolan North also confirmed that he would be reprising Ghost, the Guardian 's AI companion. Bungie had a live stream of Destiny 2 's gameplay on May 18. On May 19, 2017, Destiny 2 project lead Mark Noseworthy told IGN that there were no plans for a Nintendo Switch version of the game. Noseworthy went on to say, "I think it 's pretty unrealistic given we 're an online - only game, right? The Switch, because it 's a portable - and I love my Switch, I 've got Breath of the Wild here, I 've got it with me. It 's incredible, I love the console, but in terms of where it 's at, I do n't want to leave anyone with the possibility of like, ' it 's a thing we 'll consider, maybe next year. ' There 's no plans right now for Switch. ''
The Microsoft Windows version of Destiny 2 supports native 4K resolution and uncapped frame rate (fps), full mouse and keyboard support, text chat, adjustable field of view, and 21: 9 monitor support, as well as being exclusive to Blizzard Entertainment 's Battle.net service. Although not native 4K, Destiny 2 does support 4K enhancements for the PlayStation 4 Pro, an updated version of the standard PlayStation 4 that supports 4K rendering. Similarly, the Xbox One had an updated version called the Xbox One X that released in November 2017 after Destiny 2 's launch. Bungie added 4K support for the One X, as well as HDR support for both updated consoles, on December 5, 2017. Unlike the Windows version, however, the console versions are locked at 30fps. Destiny 2 also has an improvement with its servers, which are a combination of dedicated servers and peer - to - peer networking. Lead engineer Matt Segur explained, "Every activity in Destiny 2 is hosted by one of our servers... That means (players) will never again suffer a host migration during (a) Raid attempt or Trials match. This differs from Destiny 1, where these hosting duties were performed by player consoles and only script and mission logic ran in the data center. ''
Grimoire cards that were found in the original game, which detailed the lore of the Destiny universe and could only be accessed from Bungie 's website and the Destiny app, did not return for the sequel. For Destiny 2, Bungie shifted their focus to in - game storytelling, which was something the original was criticized for lacking. To detail the lore of the universe in Destiny 2, there are many artifacts around the maps that can be scanned by Ghost, who will give details and backstory. Exotic gear and some legendary gear also have a lore tab. At the 2017 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3), a new cinematic trailer was shown, narrated by the main antagonist, Dominus Ghaul. It showed that Bungie did focus more on the story for the sequel than the original, as Bungie was "attempting to go in - depth into the universe and the motivations of the characters. '' E3 2017 also revealed that Destiny 2 's release date was moved up to September 6, 2017, and the Windows version was confirmed for an October 24 release. The dates for the beta on the console versions were also confirmed at E3 2017. Early access for pre-order customers began on PS4 on July 18 followed by Xbox One on July 19; non-pre - order customers received access beginning July 21. The console beta concluded on July 25, after a 2 - day extension. The beta for the PC began on August 29 and concluded on August 31.
Destiny 2 was released worldwide for the PlayStation 4 and the Xbox One on September 6, 2017, and the Microsoft Windows version released worldwide on October 24. There were several editions of the game, including a Collector 's Edition, a Limited Edition, a Digital Deluxe Edition, and the standard base game. Like the original, there is an Expansion Pass, which grants access to the first two expansions of Destiny 2. Also like the original Destiny, pre-orders for the game received early access to the game 's beta, as well as other in - game pre-order bonuses, such as early access to the exotic rifle "Coldheart ''. Pre-orders from GameStop received a Cayde - 6 collectible figure. Other figures and toys, such as Lord Saladin, were released after Destiny 2 's console launch. The Windows version is distributed exclusively through the Blizzard Battle.net, marking the first non-Blizzard Entertainment title to be distributed via the platform. Per an exclusivity agreement with Sony Interactive Entertainment that began with the original Destiny, the PlayStation 4 version of Destiny 2 features timed - exclusive content until at least late 2018.
The Collector 's Edition of Destiny 2 included the base game in a SteelBook case, the Expansion Pass, a themed backpack, a "Frontier Kit '', which featured a solar panel USB charger with built - in light, a paracord, and a solar blanket, a 15 '' laptop / tablet sleeve with protective pocket slip, a Cabal - themed collector 's box with various items, and premium digital content. The Limited Edition, distributed exclusively from GameStop, included the same physical and digital items as the Collector 's Edition, minus the backpack, "Frontier Kit '', and laptop / tablet sleeve. The Digital Deluxe Edition includes all of the premium digital content. There was also a limited - time PlayStation 4 bundle that included a glacier white PlayStation 4 Pro, Destiny 2, the Expansion Pass, and premium digital content.
Prior to the console release, Bungie said that they had already began working on post-release content. Bungie plans on providing post-release content at a quicker rate than that of the original Destiny, which was criticized for not having enough content post-launch and between each of its expansions releases. One of the team 's remedies for this are the Adventures and Lost Sectors activities that were added to the free roam Patrol mode. Bungie also announced the Destiny 2 Expansion Pass prior to launch, which grants access to the first two expansions of the game. The in - game clan features became available a few days after the game 's launch. The Guided Games feature became available on September 12 for the Nightfall activity, the game 's first raid, "Leviathan '', unlocked on September 13 (with the Guided Games in beta), and Trials of the Nine became available on September 15, along with the character Xûr from the original game, the exotic items vendor who only appears on the weekends. The three factions and their respective NPCs from the original game returned on September 26 for the new periodic event, Faction Rally. The competitive Iron Banner PvP mode from the original returned on October 10. The prestige mode for the Leviathan raid was originally scheduled to unlock on October 10, but was delayed to October 17.
The game 's first expansion released on December 5, 2017. Named Curse of Osiris, it focuses on the character Osiris from the lore of the original Destiny and for whom the Trials of Osiris PvP mode in the original was named. The expansion takes players to the planet Mercury with its own patrol mode. Additionally, the EXP level cap was raised to 25 and the Power level cap was raised to 330. In addition to the character Osiris, his Ghost named Sagira was added with a female voice, as well as the character Brother Vance from the original game, who is now the NPC of Mercury in The Lighthouse (formerly an exclusive social space in Destiny for those who went flawless in Trials of Osiris). There is also a timed - exclusive Crucible map for PS4 players called Wormhaven. Instead of an entirely new raid, a feature called raid lair was added, featuring new areas to the existing Leviathan raid. "Expansion II '' will be released in early 2018 and will focus on the Warmind Rasputin from the original game. "The Dawning '' holiday event from the original Destiny returned on December 19, 2017 and will end on January 9, 2018. Both social spaces were redecorated for the event along with snow weather. Players can create snowballs in the social spaces and during strikes and throw these at other players or enemies (which damage enemies). The Crucible game mode "Mayhem '' (all abilities restore rapidly) was also brought back from the original Destiny. New Milestones with event - themed rewards were also added.
Destiny 2 received "generally favorable '' reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Some reviewers labeled the game as Destiny 1.5 due to its many similarities to the original Destiny, but praise was given to improvements made over its predecessor. Destiny 2 sold 50,263 copies on PlayStation 4 within its first week on sale in Japan, which placed it at number one on the weekly sales charts. The weekend consisting of September 23, Destiny 2 took the number 1 spot on the UK sales chart. For the 2017 Game Critics Awards, it was awarded Best PC Game for E3 2017. At The Game Awards 2017, Destiny 2 was one of four games to receive six nominations, the most for the year 's event, which were for Best Art Direction, Best Score / Music, Best Audio Design, Best Ongoing Game, Best Action Game, and Best Multiplayer. Destiny 2 was also the second highest - grossing console game of 2017 in North America, and was also Activision 's biggest PC release based on units sold.
As with the original, gameplay was highly praised, with Chris Carter of Destructoid saying that it was what "the game nails... the most ''. Game Informer 's Matt Miller said that like the original, "Gameplay features remarkably taut FPS gunplay enhanced with seemingly magical powers. '' Miller went on to say that the gameplay 's biggest change was a welcome, referring to the reorganization of destinations and the emphasis on exploration. Evan Slead of Electronic Gaming Monthly (EGM) also praised the exploration, but was not a fan of the recategorization of the weapons. Although he said the variety of weapons were fun, the Kinetic weapons "did n't seem to pack as much of a punch as their Energy (weapon) counterparts. '' Cody Perez of Game Revolution, however, welcomed the recategorized weapons, saying they were less restrictive and said that "Bungie are masters of gun - play ''. Kallie Plagge of GameSpot said that the game features mostly the same structure as the original, including its "mechanically excellent shooting and satisfying loot grind ''. Carter praised the Lost Sectors and public events, as well as the additional story quests and Adventures post-campaign. Miller said that the Lost Sectors were fun, but they became less interesting with the more that were done. Perez, however, was not a fan of the Adventures and Lost Sectors activities, saying they were a "disconnect (from) the main campaign ''. He said that they were filler content, and that they were "monotonous and a bore to accomplish, lacking the heart that fills the campaign. '' He did praise the public events as they are only periodic.
The Leviathan raid received praise and criticism. Matt Miller of Game Informer stated that the Leviathan raid was "one of Bungie 's most intricate and fascinating environments to date '', praising its maze - like structure with hidden chests and secret passages. He was critical of the award system, however, stating that it "separates the excitement of new gear from the moment of victory '', as it does not offer most loot until a full completion. Evan Slead of EGM said that "the bread and butter of Destiny is still these post-campaign quests '', also referring to Strikes and the weekly Nightfall activity. Cody Perez of Game Revolution, who did not play any of the original game 's raids, was a big fan of the Leviathan raid, stating that it exceeded its hype. Kallie Plagge of GameSpot said that "solving (the raid 's) often obscure puzzles can be both rewarding and frustrating '', but "each failure teaches you something new ''.
The original Destiny was largely criticized for its story. Destiny 2, however, was praised for its improvements to the story and easier access to the universe 's lore. Evan Slead of EGM said that it has a "more robust story '' and Bungie fixed the "meandering storytelling from the first ''. Chris Carter of Destructoid said that although its story was similar to others in the same genre, "it 's easy to follow and even easier to get invested in, with the game 's cast coming front and center. '' Cody Perez of Game Revolution said that the story "(gripped) me in a way that only Bungie 's former series Halo was able to. '' He said that there were many moments that were of shock and awe, and that the game had a meaningful narrative with an actual fleshed out villain. Kallie Plagge of GameSpot said that the story serves its main purpose and that its strength "lie in atmosphere and side details '', while also praising its "mournful soundtrack '' as fantastic.
Miller of Game Informer praised the Crucible mode for feeling more competitive than the original Destiny 's, with teamwork being "highly valued ''. However, Miller was "perplexed by the decision to force players into one of two playlists '', instead of letting them choose. He was also indifferent to the change of making all modes four - versus - four, but said that "the compact group size demands everyone pull their weight, which is great. '' Cody Perez of Game Revolution was disappointed that Crucible did not receive "the same love that the singleplayer had been given. '' He said that although the smaller map sizes were not a bad thing, it causes multiplayer to be non-stop action, not allowing players to take a moment to strategize. David Houghton of GamesRadar said that the changes to the Crucible mode "shine in a tight, focused, clear, and tactically co-operative format. ''
Entertainment Weekly ranked Destiny 2 sixth on their list of the "Best Games of 2017 '', while Eurogamer ranked it seventh on their list of the "Top 50 Games of 2017 ''. In Game Informer 's Reader 's Choice Best of 2017 Awards, the game came in second place for "Best Co-op Multiplayer '' and for "Best Shooter ''.
|
what's the state capital of new york | Albany, New York - Wikipedia
Albany (/ ˈɔːlbəni / (listen) ALL - bə - nee) is the capital of the U.S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. Albany is located on the west bank of the Hudson River approximately 10 miles (16 km) south of its confluence with the Mohawk River and approximately 150 miles (240 km) north of New York City.
Albany is known for its rich history, commerce, culture, architecture, and institutions of higher education. Albany constitutes the economic and cultural core of the Capital District of New York State, which comprises the Albany - Schenectady - Troy, NY Metropolitan Statistical Area, including the nearby cities and suburbs of Troy, Schenectady, and Saratoga Springs. With a 2013 Census - estimated population of 1.1 million the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States. As of the 2010 census, the population of Albany was 97,856.
The area that later became Albany was settled by Dutch colonists who in 1614, built Fort Nassau for fur trading and, in 1624, built Fort Orange. In 1664, the English took over the Dutch settlements, renaming the city as Albany, in honor of the then Duke of Albany, the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The city was officially chartered in 1686 under English rule. It became the capital of New York in 1797 following formation of the United States. Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies, and is the longest continuously chartered city in the United States.
During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th, Albany was a center of trade and transportation. The city lies toward the north end of the navigable Hudson River, was the original eastern terminus of the Erie Canal connecting to the Great Lakes, and was home to some of the earliest railroad systems in the world. In the 1920s, a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in Albany. In the latter part of the 20th century, Albany experienced a decline in its population due to urban sprawl and suburbanization; however, the New York State Legislature approved a $234 million building and renovation plan for the City in the 1990s that spurred renovation and building projects around the downtown area. In the early 21st century, Albany has experienced growth in the high - technology industry, with great strides in the nanotechnology sector.
Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. The Hudson River area was originally inhabited by Algonquian - speaking Mohican (Mahican), who called it Pempotowwuthut - Muhhcanneuw, meaning "the fireplace of the Mohican nation. '' Based to the west along the Mohawk River, the Iroquoian - speaking Mohawk referred to it as Sche - negh - ta - da, or "through the pine woods, '' referring to the path they took there. The Mohawk were one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, or Haudenosaunee, and became strong trading partners with the Dutch and English. It is likely the Albany area was visited by European fur traders, perhaps as early as 1540, but the extent and duration of those visits has not been determined.
Permanent European claims began when Englishman Henry Hudson, exploring for the Dutch East India Company on the Half Moon (Dutch: Halve Maen), reached the area in 1609, claiming it for the United Netherlands. In 1614, Hendrick Christiaensen built Fort Nassau, a fur - trading post and the first documented European structure in present - day Albany. Commencement of the fur trade provoked hostility from the French colony in Canada and among the natives, all of whom vied to control the trade. In 1618, a flood ruined the fort on Castle Island, but it was rebuilt in 1624 as Fort Orange. Both forts were named in honor of the Dutch royal House of Orange - Nassau. Fort Orange and the surrounding area were incorporated as the village of Beverwijck (English: Beaver District) in 1652. In these early decades of trade, the Dutch, Mohican and Mohawk developed relations that reflected differences among their three cultures.
When New Netherland was captured by the English in 1664, the name was changed from Beverwijck to Albany in honor of the Duke of Albany (later James II of England and James VII of Scotland). Duke of Albany was a Scottish title given since 1398, generally to a younger son of the King of Scots. The name is ultimately derived from Alba, the Gaelic name for Scotland. The Dutch briefly regained Albany in August 1673 and renamed the city Willemstadt; the English took permanent possession with the Treaty of Westminster (1674). On November 1, 1683, the Province of New York was split into counties, with Albany County being the largest. At that time the county included all of present New York State north of Dutchess and Ulster Counties in addition to present - day Bennington County, Vermont, theoretically stretching west to the Pacific Ocean; Albany became the county seat. Albany was formally chartered as a municipality by provincial Governor Thomas Dongan on July 22, 1686. The Dongan Charter was virtually identical in content to the charter awarded to the city of New York three months earlier. Dongan created Albany as a strip of land 1 mile (1.6 km) wide and 16 miles (26 km) long. Over the years Albany would lose much of the land to the west and annex land to the north and south. At this point, Albany had a population of about 500 people.
In 1754, representatives of seven British North American colonies met in the Stadt Huys, Albany 's city hall, for the Albany Congress; Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania presented the Albany Plan of Union there, which was the first formal proposal to unite the colonies. Although it was never adopted by Parliament, it was an important precursor to the United States Constitution. The same year, the French and Indian War, the fourth in a series of wars dating back to 1689, began; it ended in 1763 with French defeat, resolving a situation that had been a constant threat to Albany and held back its growth. In 1775, with the colonies in the midst of the Revolutionary War, the Stadt Huys became home to the Albany Committee of Correspondence (the political arm of the local revolutionary movement), which took over operation of Albany 's government and eventually expanded its power to control all of Albany County. Tories and prisoners of war were often jailed in the Stadt Huys alongside common criminals. In 1776, Albany native Philip Livingston signed the Declaration of Independence at Independence Hall in Philadelphia.
During and after the Revolutionary War, Albany County saw a great increase in real estate transactions. After Horatio Gates ' win over John Burgoyne at Saratoga in 1777, the upper Hudson Valley was generally at peace as the war raged on elsewhere. Prosperity was soon seen all over Upstate New York. Migrants from Vermont and Connecticut began flowing in, noting the advantages of living on the Hudson and trading at Albany, while being only a few days ' sail from New York City. Albany reported a population of 3,498 in the first national census in 1790, an increase of almost 700 % since its chartering. In 1797, the state capital of New York was moved permanently to Albany. From statehood to this date, the Legislature had frequently moved the state capital between Albany, Kingston, Hurley, Poughkeepsie, and the city of New York. Albany is the tenth - oldest state capital in the United States, but only the second - oldest state capital that is a city, after Santa Fe, New Mexico.
Albany has been a center of transportation for much of its history. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Albany saw development of the turnpike and by 1815, Albany was the turnpike center of the state. Simeon De Witt developed a grid block system in 1794, and renamed streets for birds and mammals that had honored British royalty. This grid was intersected by the major arterials coming out of Albany, which cut through the city at unexpected angles. The construction of the turnpike across the state, in conjunction with canal and railroad systems, made Albany the hub of transportation for pioneers going to Buffalo and the Michigan Territory in the early - and mid-19th century.
In 1807, Robert Fulton initiated a steamboat line from New York to Albany, the first successful enterprise of its kind. By 1810, with 10,763 people, Albany was the 10th - largest urban place in the nation. The town and village were known as "the Colonie '' to the north of Albany was annexed in 1815. In 1825 the Erie Canal was completed, forming a continuous water route from the Great Lakes to New York City. Unlike the current Barge Canal, which ends at nearby Waterford, the original Erie Canal ended at Albany; Lock 1 was north of Colonie Street. The Canal emptied into a 32 - acre (13 ha) man - made lagoon called the Albany Basin, which was Albany 's main port from 1825 until the Port of Albany - Rensselaer opened in 1932. In 1829, while working as a professor at the Albany Academy, Joseph Henry, widely regarded as "the foremost American scientist of the 19th century '', built the first electric motor. Three years later, he discovered electromagnetic self - induction (the SI unit for which is now the henry). He went on to be the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. In the 1830 and 1840 censuses, Albany was ranked as the 9th - largest urban place in the nation, then back to 10th in 1850. This was the last time the city was one of the top ten largest urban places in the nation.
Albany also has significant history with rail transport, as the location of two major regional railroad headquarters. The Delaware and Hudson Railway was headquartered in Albany at what is now the SUNY System Administration Building. In 1853, Erastus Corning, a noted industrialist and Albany 's mayor from 1834 to 1837, consolidated ten railroads stretching from Albany to Buffalo into the New York Central Railroad (NYCRR), headquartered in Albany until Cornelius Vanderbilt moved it to New York City in 1867. One of the ten companies that formed the NYCRR was the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad, which was the first railroad in the state and the first successful steam railroad running regularly scheduled service in the country.
While the key to Albany 's economic prosperity in the 19th century was transportation, industry and business also played a role. Largely thanks to the city 's Dutch and German roots, beer was one of its biggest commodities. Beverwyck Brewery, originally known as Quinn and Nolan (Nolan being mayor of Albany 1878 -- 1883), was the last remaining brewer from that time when it closed in 1972. The city 's location at the east end of the Erie Canal gave it unparalleled access to both raw products and a captive customer base in the west. Albany was known for its publishing houses, and to some extent, still is. Albany was second only to Boston in the number of books produced for most of the 19th century. Iron foundries in both the north and south ends of the city attracted thousands of immigrants to the city for industrial jobs. To this day, one can see many intricate wrought - iron details that were constructed in those years on what are now historic buildings. The iron industry waned by the 1890s due to increased costs associated with a newly unionized workforce and the opening of mines in the Mesabi Range in Minnesota.
Albany 's other major exports during the 18th and 19th centuries were furs, wheat, meat, and lumber. By 1865, there were almost 4,000 saw mills in the Albany area and the Albany Lumber District was the largest lumber market in the nation. The city was also home to a number of banks. The Bank of Albany (1792 -- 1861) was the second chartered bank in New York. The city was the original home of the Albank (founded in 1820 as the Albany Savings Bank), KeyBank (founded in 1825 as the Commercial Bank of Albany), and Norstar Bank (founded as the State Bank of Albany in 1803). American Express was founded in Albany in 1850 as an express mail business. In 1871, the northwestern portion of Albany -- west from Magazine Street -- was annexed to the neighboring town of Guilderland after the town of Watervliet refused annexation of said territory. In return for this loss, portions of Bethlehem and Watervliet were added to Albany. Part of the land annexed to Guilderland was ceded back to Albany in 1910, setting up the current western border.
Albany opened one of the first commercial airports in the world, and the first municipal airport in the United States, in 1908. Originally on a polo field on Loudon Road, it moved to Westerlo Island in 1909 and remained there until 1928. The Albany Municipal Airport -- jointly owned by the city and county -- was moved to its current location in Colonie in 1928. By 1916 Albany 's northern and southern borders reached their modern courses; Westerlo Island, to the south, became the second - to - last annexation, which occurred in 1926.
Erastus Corning 2nd, arguably Albany 's most notable mayor (and great - grandson of the former mayor of the same name), was elected in 1941. Although he was one of the longest - serving mayors of any city in United States history (1942 until his death in 1983), one historian describes Corning 's tenure as "long on years, short on accomplishments. '' Grondahl cited Corning 's preference for maintaining the status quo as a factor that held back potential progress during his tenure. While Corning brought stability to the office of mayor, it is said even those who admire him greatly can not come up with a sizable list of "major concrete Corning achievements. '' Corning is given credit for saving -- albeit somewhat unintentionally -- much of Albany 's historic architecture.
During the 1950s and 1960s, a time when federal aid for urban renewal was plentiful, Albany did not have growth in its economy or infrastructure. It lost more than 20 percent of its population during the Corning years, as people moved to newer housing in the suburbs, followed by most of the downtown businesses moving there as well. While cities across the country grappled with similar issues, the problems were magnified in Albany: interference from the Democratic political machine hindered progress considerably. In 1960, the mayor sold the city 's stake in the airport to the county, citing budget issues. It was known from then on as Albany County Airport until a massive upgrade and modernization project between 1996 and 1998, when it was rechristened Albany International Airport.
Governor Nelson Rockefeller (1959 -- 1973) (R) tried to stimulate the city with new monumental architecture and large, government - sponsored building projects; he drove construction of the Empire State Plaza, SUNY Albany 's uptown campus, and much of the W. Averell Harriman State Office Building Campus. Albany County Republican Chairman Joseph C. Frangella once quipped, "Governor Rockefeller was the best mayor Albany ever had. '' Corning, although opposed to the project, was responsible for negotiating the payment plan for the Empire State Plaza. Rockefeller did not want to be limited by the Legislature 's power of the purse, so Corning devised a plan to have the county pay for the construction and have the state sign a lease - ownership agreement. The state paid off the bonds until 2004. It was Rockefeller 's only viable option, and he agreed. Due to the clout Corning gained from the situation, he gained inclusion of the State Museum, a convention center, and a restaurant, back in the plans -- ideas which Rockefeller had originally vetoed. The county gained $35 million in fees and the city received $13 million for lost tax revenue. Having the state offices in the city enabled it to keep good jobs and retain middle - class residents.
Another major project of the 1960s and 1970s was Interstate 787 and the South Mall Arterial. Construction began in the early 1960s. One of the project 's main results, since regretted, was separating the city from the Hudson River, its source of development. Corning has been described as shortsighted with respect to use of the waterfront, as he could have used his influence to change the location of I - 787, which now cuts the city off from "its whole raison d'être ''. Much of the original plan never came to fruition, however: Rockefeller had wanted the South Mall Arterial to pass through the Empire State Plaza. The project would have required an underground trumpet interchange below Washington Park, connecting to the (eventually cancelled) Mid-Crosstown Arterial. To this day, evidence of the original plan is still visible. In 1967 the hamlet of Karlsfeld was the last annexation by the city, taken from the Town of Bethlehem.
When Corning died in 1983, Thomas Whalen assumed the mayorship and was reelected twice. He encouraged redevelopment of historic structures and helped attract federal dollars earmarked for that purpose. What Corning had saved from destruction, Whalen refurbished for continued and new uses. The Mayor 's Office of Special Events was created in an effort to increase the number of festivals and artistic events in the city, including a year - long Dongan Charter tricentennial celebration in 1986. Whalen is credited for an "unparalleled cycle of commercial investment and development '' in Albany due to his "aggressive business development programs ''.
Prior to the recession of the 1990s, downtown Albany was home to four Fortune 500 companies. After the death of Corning and the retirement of Congressman Sam Stratton, the political environment changed. Long - term office holders became rare in the 1980s. Local media began following the drama surrounding county politics (specifically that of the newly created county executive position); the loss of Corning (and eventually the machine) led to a lack of interest in city politics. The election of Gerald Jennings was a surprise, and he served as Mayor from 1994 until his retirement at the end of 2013. His tenure essentially ended the political machine that had been in place since the 1920s.
During the 1990s, the State Legislature approved the $234 million "Albany Plan '', "a building and renovation project (that) was the most ambitious building project to affect the area since the Rockefeller era. '' Under the Albany Plan, renovation and new building projects were initiated around the downtown area. Many state workers were relocated from the Harriman State Office Campus to downtown, helping its retail businesses and vitality.
Fortune 500 companies with offices in Albany include American Express, J.P. Morgan and Chase, Merrill Lynch, General Electric, Verizon, Goldman Sachs, International Paper, and Key Bank.
Albany won the All - America City Award in both 1991 and 2009.
Albany is about 150 miles (240 km) north of New York City on the Hudson River. It has a total area of 21.8 square miles (56 km), of which 21.4 square miles (55 km) is land and 0.4 square miles (1.0 km) (1.8 %) is water. The city is bordered on the north by the town of Colonie (along with the village of Menands), on the west by the town of Guilderland, and on the south by the town of Bethlehem. The Hudson River represents the city 's eastern border. Patroon Creek, along the northern border, and the Normans Kill, along the southern border, are the two major streams in the city. The former Foxes Creek, Beaver Kill, and Rutten Kill still exist, but were diverted underground in the 19th century. There are four lakes within city limits: Buckingham Lake; Rensselaer Lake at the mouth of the Patroon Creek; Tivoli Lake, which was formed as a reservoir and once connected to the Patroon Creek; and Washington Park Lake, which was formed by damming the Beaver Kill.
The highest natural point in Albany is a USGS benchmark near the Loudonville Reservoir off Birch Hill Road, at 378 feet (115 m) above sea level. The lowest point is sea level at the Hudson River (the average water elevation is 2 feet (0.61 m)), which is still technically an estuary at Albany and is affected by the Atlantic tide. The interior of Albany consists of rolling hills which were once part of the Albany Pine Bush, an area of pitch pine and scrub oak, and has arid, sandy soil that is a remnant of the ancient Lake Albany. Due to development, the Pine Bush has shrunk from an original 25,000 to 6,000 acres (10,100 to 2,400 ha) today. A preserve was set up by the State Legislature in 1988 and is on the city 's western edge, spilling into Guilderland and Colonie; it is the only sizable inland pine barrens sand dune ecosystem in the United States, and is home to many endangered species, including the Karner Blue butterfly.
Albany is in the humid continental climate zone (Köppen climate classification: Dfa), and features cold, snowy winters, and warm, humid summers; the city experiences four distinct seasons. Albany is in plant hardiness zone 6a near downtown and along the shore of the Hudson and 5b at its western end. Albany receives 39.4 inches (1,000 mm) of precipitation per year, with 138 days of at least 0.01 in (0.25 mm) of precipitation each year. Snowfall is significant, totaling 59.1 inches (150 cm) annually, but with less accumulation than the lake effect areas to the north and west, as it is farther from Lake Ontario. However, Albany is close enough to the Atlantic coast to receive heavy snow from Nor'easters and the city occasionally receives Alberta clippers. Winters can be very cold with fluctuating conditions; temperatures drop to 0 ° F (− 18 ° C) or below on nine nights per annum. Summers in Albany can contain stretches of excessive heat and humidity, with temperatures of 90 ° F (32 ° C) or hotter on nine days per year. Record temperature extremes range from − 28 ° F (− 33 ° C), on January 19, 1971, to 104 ° F (40 ° C) on July 4, 1911.
New York has an effective statewide crime rate of 385 / 100,000 people as of 2009. Albany 's violent crime rate is nearly on a par with Rochester (1028 violent crimes / 100,000 population vs 968 / 100,000 in Rochester) and much lower than Buffalo at 1514 / 100,000. By comparison, New York City 's violent crime rate was 639 / 100,000 in 2013.
The neighborhoods of Albany are varied demographically, geographically, architecturally, and historically. Downtown Albany is the city 's oldest neighborhood, centered on State Street, one of Albany 's oldest streets and its original main street. North and south of Downtown Albany are old residential communities often consisting of row houses; to the north, those neighborhoods include Sheridan Hollow, Arbor Hill, and North Albany, while to the south is the super-neighborhood of the South End, which includes several smaller neighborhoods.
West of Downtown Albany is the Empire State Plaza, which effectively cuts Downtown off from the gentrified neighborhoods of Center Square and Hudson / Park. Single - family detached homes, duplexes, and apartments, along with single - family houses that have been divided into multiple units, can be found west of the older neighborhoods. These neighborhoods, such as Pine Hills, Delaware Avenue, Whitehall, Helderberg, and New Scotland / Woodlawn, tend to have larger lots and more suburban surroundings than the neighborhoods nearer to the Hudson River. Further west, the neighborhoods become more affluent and are dominated almost exclusively by single - family dwellings. The western portion of the City includes the W. Averell Harriman State Office Building Campus and the University at Albany 's main campus, as well as offices and commercial properties lining frontage roads along Washington Avenue Extension.
Albany has more than 60 public parks and recreation areas. Washington Park was organized as the Middle Public Square in 1806. Its current location has been public property since the Dongan Charter of 1686 gave the city title to all property not privately owned. Washington Park was designed by John Bogart and John Cuyler in 1870, and opened for public use the following year. The original lake house, designed by Frederick W. Brown, was added in 1876. The park had previously been used as a cemetery; its graves were moved to Albany Rural Cemetery. Washington Park is a popular place to exercise and play sports; skate during the winter; people - watch during Tulip Fest; and attend plays at the amphitheater during the summer.
Other parks in Albany include Lincoln Park, Buckingham Park, the Corning Preserve, and the Pine Bush. Lincoln Park, southwest of the Empire State Plaza, was organized in 1886 and was originally known as Beaver Park. Today, the park has a pool that is open during the summer months. Buckingham Lake Park is between Manning Boulevard and Route 85 in the Buckingham Pond neighborhood; it contains a pond with fountains, a footpath, a playground, and picnic tables. The Albany Riverfront Park at the Corning Preserve has an 800 - seat amphitheatre that hosts events in non-winter months, most notably the Alive at 5 summer concert series. The Preserve 's visitors center details the ecology of the Hudson River and the local environment. The park has a bike trail and boat launch and was effectively separated from downtown by Interstate 787 until the opening of the Hudson River Way in 2002.
Other public parks include Westland Hill Park, Hoffman Park, Beverwyck Park, and Liberty Park, today a small circular grassy patch in downtown on Hudson Avenue, which is Albany 's oldest park. Ridgefield Park is home to the clay courts of the Albany Tennis Club, one of the oldest tennis clubs in the United States. The municipal golf course, New Course at Albany, was constructed in 1929 as the Albany Municipal Golf Course, later renamed the Capital Hills at Albany, and remodeled in 1991.
The Empire State Plaza, a collection of state agency office buildings, dominates almost any view of Albany. Built between 1965 and 1978 at the hand of Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller and architect Wallace Harrison, the complex is a powerful example of late American modern architecture and remains a controversial building project both for displacing city residents and for its architectural style. The most recognizable aspect of the complex is the Erastus Corning Tower, the tallest building in New York outside of New York City. Juxtaposed at the north end of the Plaza is the 19th - century New York State Capitol, the seat of the New York State Legislature and the home of the Governor 's office.
Albany 's initial architecture incorporated many Dutch influences, followed soon after by those of the English. Quackenbush House, a Dutch Colonial brick mansion, was built c. 1736; Schuyler Mansion, a Georgian - style mansion, was built in 1765; and the oldest building in Albany is the 1728 Van Ostrande - Radliff House at 48 Hudson Avenue. Albany 's housing varies greatly, with mostly row houses in the older sections of town, closer to the river. Housing type quickly changes as one travels westward, beginning with two - family homes of the late 19th century, and one - family homes built after World War II in the western end of the city.
Albany City Hall, designed by Henry Hobson Richardson, was opened in 1883. The New York State Capitol was opened in 1899 (after 32 years of construction) at a cost of $25 million, making it the most expensive government building at the time. Albany 's Union Station, a major Beaux - Arts design, was under construction at the same time; it opened in 1900. In 1912, the Beaux - Arts styled New York State Department of Education Building opened on Washington Avenue near the Capitol. It has a classical exterior, which features a block - long white marble colonnade. The 1920s brought the Art Deco movement, which is illustrated by the Home Savings Bank Building (1927) on North Pearl Street and the Alfred E. Smith Building (1930) on South Swan Street, two of Albany 's tallest high - rises.
Architecture from the 1960s and 1970s is well represented in the city, especially at the W. Averell Harriman State Office Building Campus (1950s and 1960s) and on the uptown campus of the University at Albany (1962 -- 1971). The state office campus was planned in the 1950s by governor W. Averell Harriman to offer more parking and easier access for state employees. The uptown SUNY campus was built in the 1960s under Governor Rockefeller on the site of the city - owned Albany Country Club. Straying from the popular open campus layout, SUNY Albany has a centralized building layout with administrative and classroom buildings at center surrounded by four student housing towers. The design called for much use of concrete and glass, and the style has slender, round - topped columns and pillars reminiscent of those at Lincoln Center in New York City.
Downtown has seen a revival in recent decades, often considered to have begun with Norstar Bank 's renovation of the former Union Station as its corporate headquarters in 1986. The Times Union Center (TU Center) was originally slated for suburban Colonie, but was instead built downtown and opened in 1990. Other development in downtown includes the construction of the State Dormitory Authority headquarters at 515 Broadway (1998); the State Department of Environmental Conservation building, with its iconic green dome, at 625 Broadway (2001); the State Comptroller headquarters on State Street (2001); the Hudson River Way (2002), a pedestrian bridge connecting Broadway to the Corning Preserve; and 677 Broadway (2005), "the first privately owned downtown office building in a generation ''.
Historically, Albany 's population has been mixed. First dominated by the Dutch and Germans, it was overtaken by the English in the early 19th century. Irish immigrants soon outnumbered most other ethnicities by the mid-19th century, and were followed by Italians and Poles. In the mid-to - late 20th century, the African - American population increased with thousands of people from the rural South, as part of the Great Migration. As historian (and Albany Assemblyman) John McEneny puts it,
Dutch and Yankee, German and Irish, Polish and Italian, black and Chinese -- over the centuries Albany 's heritage has reflected a succession of immigrant nationalities. Its streets have echoed with a dozen languages, its neighborhoods adapting to the distinctive life - style and changing economic fortunes of each new group.
Until after the Revolution, Albany 's population consisted mostly of ethnic Dutch descendants. Settlers migrating from New England tipped the balance toward British ethnicity in the early 19th century. Jobs on the turnpikes, canals, and railroads attracted floods of Irish immigrants in the early 19th century, especially in the 1840s during the Irish potato famine, solidifying the city 's Irish base. Albany elected its first Irish Catholic mayor (Michael Nolan) two years before Boston did. Polish and Italian immigrants began arriving in Albany in the wave of immigration in the latter part of the 19th century. Their numbers were smaller than in many other eastern cities mainly because most had found manufacturing jobs at General Electric in Schenectady. The Jewish community had been established early, with Sephardic Jewish members as part of the Beverwijck community. Its population rose during the late 19th century, when many Ashkenazi Jews immigrated from eastern Europe. In that period, there was also an influx of Chinese and east Asian immigrants, who settled in the downtown section of the city. Many of their descendants have since moved to suburban areas. Immigration all but halted after the Immigration Act of 1924.
Albany was also a destination of internal migration, as many African Americans moved north in their Great Migration from the rural South before and after World War I to fill industrial positions and find new opportunities. In the early years, they lived together with Italians, Jews and other immigrants in the South End, where housing was older and less expensive. The black community has grown as a proportion of the population since then: African Americans made up 3 percent of the city 's population in 1950, 6 percent in 1960, 12 percent in 1970, and 30 percent in 2010. The change in proportion is related mostly to middle - class white families moving to the suburbs, and black families remaining within city limits during the same time period.
Since 2007 the number of Burmese refugees has increased, who are mostly of the Karen ethnicity; an estimated 5,000 reside in Albany as of January 2015.
As of the 2010 census, there were 97,856 people residing in the city. The population of the census area in 2009 was estimated to be 1,170,483. The population density in 2010 was 4,572.7 per square mile (1,779.2 / km2). There were 46,362 housing units at an average density of 2,166.4 per square mile (842.9 / km2); 5,205 of these units (11.2 %) were vacant. The racial makeup of the city residents was 52.3 % white; 27 % black or African American; 0.06 % Native American or Native Alaskan; 7.4 % Asian; 0.1 % Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander;. 06 % from other races; and 3.6 % from two or more races. A total of 9.2 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Non-Hispanic Whites were 52.0 % of the population in 2010, compared to 87.0 % in 1970.
As of the 2000 census, the top five ancestry groups in the city were African (27 %), Irish (18.1 %), Italian (12.4 %), German (10.4 %), and English (5.2 %); (33.1 %) of the population reported "other ancestries ''. Albany is home to a Triqui language - speaking community of Mexican - Americans.
The population had 20.0 % under the age of 18, 19.3 % from 18 to 24, 29.2 % from 25 to 44, 18.1 % from 45 to 64, and 13.4 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31.4 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.5 males. Some 81.3 % of the population had completed high school or earned an equivalency diploma.
There were 40,709 households in 2000, out of which 22.0 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 25.3 % were married couples living together, 16.1 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 54.8 % were non-families. 41.9 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11.5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.11 and the average family size was 2.95.
The median income for a household in the city in 2000 was $73,512, and the median income for a family was $76,294 (male, year - round worker) and $69,209 (female, year - round worker). The per capita income for the city was $56,236. About 16.0 % of families and 21.7 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 28.8 % of those under age 18 and 12.5 % of those age 65 or over. The rate of reported violent crimes for 2008 (1,095 incidents per 100,000 residents) is more than double the rate for similarly sized US cities. Reported property crimes (4,669 incidents per 100,000 residents) are somewhat lower.
Demographically speaking, the population of Albany and the Capital District mirrors the characteristics of the United States consumer population as a whole better than any other major municipality in the country. According to a 2004 study conducted by the Acxiom Corporation, Albany and its environs are the top - ranked standard test market for new business and retail products. Albany, Rochester, and Syracuse all scored within the top five.
Albany 's geographic situation -- roughly equidistant between New York City to the south and Montreal to the north, as well as approximately 4.5 hours east of Buffalo, and 2.5 hours west of Boston -- makes it a convenient stop for nationally touring artists and acts. The Palace Theatre and The Egg provide mid-sized forums for music, theater, and spoken word performances, with the Capital Repertory Theatre filling the small - sized niche. The TU Center serves as the city 's largest musical venue for nationally and internationally prominent bands. It also hosts trade shows, sporting events, and other large - scale community gatherings. While some praise the cultural contributions of Albany and the greater Capital District, others suggest the city has a "cultural identity crisis '' due to its widespread geography, which requires a car (and driving time) to experience most of what the area has to offer, a necessity not seen in larger and more densely populated metropolitan areas such as New York and Boston.
In recent years, the city 's government has invested resources to cultivate venues and neighborhoods that attract after - hours business. Madison Avenue, Pearl Street, Delaware Avenue and Lark Street serve as the most active entertainment areas in the city. Many restaurants, clubs, and bars have opened since the mid-1990s, revitalizing numerous areas that had once been abandoned; various establishments have reclaimed old row houses, businesses, and even a pump station. The bar scene generally incorporates three main strips. The downtown scene is focused on Pearl Street, stretching about two blocks. Up State Street, past the business district, is the Lark Street strip, home to smaller bars that fit into the neighborhood 's artistic and eclectic style. Lastly, the midtown strip, with several bars on Western and Madison Avenues, centers around the campuses of the College of Saint Rose and SUNY Albany 's downtown campus. The midtown strip generally draws a younger crowd, as it is popular to the local college students.
Last call in Albany is 4: 00 am nightly; New York law sets that time as last call throughout the state by default, and although counties may set an earlier time, individual municipalities may not. More than half of the state 's counties have an earlier closing time, but Albany County, as with all counties in the Capital District, has retained the 4: 00 am last call time.
Alive at 5 is a free, weekly concert series held downtown during the summer on Thursdays; with 10 concerts in 2010, total attendance was roughly 100,000. The Tulip Festival is set in Washington Park and celebrates the city 's Dutch heritage. This traditional Albany event marks the beginning of spring as thousands of tulips bloom in the park in early May; attendance to the Tulip Festival in 2010 was approximately 80,000. Another large festival in Albany is the Capital Pride Parade and Festival, a major gay pride event held each June, attended by an estimated 30,000 spectators annually from across Upstate New York.
The Price Chopper Fabulous Fourth and Fireworks Festival at the Empire State Plaza celebrates Independence Day with musical performances and the region 's largest fireworks display. Freihofer 's Run for Women is a 5 - kilometer run through the city that draws more than 4,000 participants from across the country; it is an annual event that began in 1978. The Albany Chefs ' Food & Wine Festival: Wine & Dine for the Arts is an annual Festival that hosts more than 3500 people over 3 days. The Festival showcases more than 70 Regional Chefs & Restaurants, 250 Global Wines & Spirits, a NYS Craft Beer Pavilion, 4 competitions (The Signature Chef Invitational, Rising Star Chef, Barista Albany and Battle of the Bartenders) and one Grand Gala Reception, Dinner & Auction featuring 10 f Albany 's Iconic Chefs. The Albany Chefs ' Food & Wine Festival donates all net proceeds to deserving Albany Arts Organizations and is held the Thursday - Saturday preceding Martin Luther King Weekend. Smaller events include the African American Family Day Arts Festival each August at the Empire State Plaza; the Latin Fest, held each August at the Corning Preserve; the Albany Jazz Festival, an annual end - of - summer event held at the Corning Preserve; and Lark Fest, a music and art festival held each fall.
Because of Albany 's historical and political significance, the city has numerous museums, historical buildings, and historic districts. Albany is home to the New York State Museum, the New York State Library and the New York State Archives; all three facilities are in the Cultural Education Center at the south end of Empire State Plaza and are free to the public. The USS Slater (DE-766), a decommissioned World War II destroyer escort that was restored in 1998, is a museum ship docked in the Hudson River at Quay Street. It is the only ship of its kind still afloat. The Albany Heritage Area Visitors Center, at the corner of Clinton Avenue and Broadway at Quackenbush Square, hosts a museum, gift shop, and the Henry Hudson Planetarium. In early 2012, the Irish American Heritage Museum opened in downtown Albany. The museum is home to exhibits highlighting the contributions of the Irish people in America.
The Albany Institute of History and Art, on Washington Avenue near the Center Square Neighborhood and State Capitol, is "dedicated to collecting, preserving, interpreting and promoting interest in the history, art, culture of Albany and the Upper Hudson Valley region. '' The museum 's most notable permanent exhibits include an extensive collection of paintings by the Hudson River School and an exhibit on Ancient Egypt featuring the Institute 's "Albany Mummies. ''
Albany is home to 57 listings on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) and five National Historic Landmarks. The Ten Broeck Mansion, a 1797 Federal - style mansion (later renovated in the Greek - Revival style) built for Abraham Ten Broeck (mayor of Albany 1779 -- 1783 and 1796 -- 1798) is a historic house museum and the headquarters of the Albany County Historical Association; it was added to the NRHP in 1971. Later known as "Arbor Hill '', it gave the current neighborhood its name.
Albany has been the subject, inspiration, or location for many written and cinematic works. Many non-fiction works have been written on the city. One of the city 's more notable claims to fame is Ironweed (1983), the 1984 Pulitzer Prize - winning book by Albany native William Kennedy. Ironweed was the third in a series of books by Kennedy known as the "Albany Cycle ''. The elusive author Trevanian also grew up in Albany and wrote The Crazyladies of Pearl Street (2005), about a North Albany neighborhood along Pearl Street. The book is considered a semi-autobiographical memoir.
In 1987, the film version of Ironweed premiered at the Palace Theatre. The movie starred Jack Nicholson and Meryl Streep, each of whom were nominated for Academy Awards for their performances; much of the filming was done on location in Albany. Most recently the downtown area was the site of filming for the action - thriller Salt, starring Angelina Jolie, and the action - comedy The Other Guys, starring Will Ferrell and Mark Wahlberg.
Authors Herman Melville and Henry James lived with their families in Albany when young, before their careers. James identified his character Isabel Archer, the heroine of his novel The Portrait of a Lady, as being from Albany. Gregory Maguire, author of Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West (adapted for the Broadway hit Wicked), grew up in North Albany and graduated from SUNY Albany.
The City School District of Albany (CSDA) operates the city 's public school system, which consists of 17 schools and learning centers; in addition, there are 7 charter schools. In the 2015 - 16 school year, over 9,000 students were enrolled in the public school system. The district had an average class size of 18, an 81 - percent graduation rate, and a 5 - percent dropout rate. The district 's 2010 -- 11 budget is $202.8 million. Although considered by the state to be one of the lowest - achieving high schools in New York, Albany High was listed as the nation 's 976th best high school in a 2010 Newsweek / Washington Post report. Albany also has a number of private schools, including the coed Bishop Maginn High School and Albany Free School; the all - boys Albany Academy; and the all - girls Academy of the Holy Names and Albany Academy for Girls.
Albany has a prominent history in higher education and was ranked third in a Forbes survey called "The Best Places with the Best Education '' in 2005; it ranked top on Forbes ' "IQ Campuses '' list as part of its 150 Cheap Places to Live series in 2006. The Albany Medical College (private), today part of Albany Medical Center, was founded in 1838. Albany Law School (private) is the oldest law school in New York and the fourth - oldest in the country; it was opened in 1851. President William McKinley was an alumnus. The Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences (private) is the second - oldest pharmacy school in New York and the fifteenth - oldest in the United States.
The New York State Normal School, one of the oldest teachers colleges in the United States, opened in 1844; it was later known as the State Teachers College. It eventually evolved into the University at Albany, also known as SUNY Albany (public), which inherited the Normal School 's original downtown campus on Western Avenue. The center of the campus moved to its current Uptown Campus in the west end of the city in 1970. SUNY Albany is a unit of the State University of New York and one of only four university centers in the system. Other colleges and universities in Albany include Empire State College, The College of Saint Rose, Excelsior College, Maria College, Mildred Elley, and Sage College of Albany. Nearby Hudson Valley Community College (HVCC) fills the community college niche in the Albany - Troy area. The effect of the campuses on the city 's population is substantial: Combining the student bodies of all the aforementioned campuses (except HVCC) results in 63,149 students, or almost 70 percent of the 2008 estimate of Albany 's permanent population.
Albany 's economy, along with that of the Capital District in general, is heavily dependent on government, health care, education, and more recently, technology. Because of these typically steady economic bases, the local economy has been relatively immune to national economic recessions in the past. More than 25 percent of the city 's population works in government - related positions. The current recession has been more difficult to deal with because of the many issues on Wall Street, from which the state government receives much of its tax revenue. In March 2010, the Albany area had the lowest unemployment rate of any major metropolitan area in New York, at 7.8 %, compared to 9.4 % in New York as a whole. Albany 's estimated daytime population is more than 162,000. Companies based in Albany include Trans World Entertainment and Clough Harbour.
Since the 2000s, the economy of Albany and the surrounding Capital District has been redirected toward a high technology focus. Tech Valley is a marketing name for the eastern part of New York State, encompassing Albany, the Capital District, and the Hudson Valley. Originated in 1998 to promote the greater Albany area as a high - tech competitor to regions such as Silicon Valley and Boston, it has since grown to represent the counties in the Capital District and extending to 19 counties from IBM 's Westchester County plants in the south to the Canada -- US border in the north. The area 's high technology ecosystem is supported by technologically focused academic institutions including Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and the State University of New York Polytechnic Institute. Tech Valley encompasses 19 counties straddling both sides of the Adirondack Northway and the New York Thruway, and with heavy state taxpayer subsidy, has experienced significant growth in the computer hardware side of the high - technology industry, with great strides in the nanotechnology sector, digital electronics design, and water - and electricity - dependent integrated microchip circuit manufacturing.
In 2012, the Albany - Schenectady area was listed fourth on Forbes Magazine 's annual "Best Cities for Jobs '' list, noting that job losses in state and local government were overcome by expansion of the high - tech field.
Albany has a mayor - council form of government, which functions under the Dongan Charter, adopted in 1686 when Albany was incorporated as a city. A revised charter was adopted by referendum in 1998, but was applied strictly as an amendment to Dongan. This gives Albany the distinction of having the oldest active city charter in the United States and "arguably the longest - running instrument of municipal government in the Western Hemisphere. '' The mayor, who is elected every four years, heads the executive branch of city government. The current mayor, Kathy Sheehan, was first elected in 2013. She replaced former mayor Gerald Jennings who was mayor for 20 years from 1994 to 2013. The Common Council represents the legislative branch of city government and is made up of fifteen council members (each elected from one ward) and an at - large Common Council President. The current president is Corey Ellis; he began his term in January 2018.
While Albany has its own city government, it has also been the seat of Albany County since the county 's formation in 1683 and the capital of New York since 1797. As such, the city is home to all branches of the county and state governments, as well as its own. Albany City Hall sits on Eagle Street, opposite the State Capitol, and the Albany County Office Building is on State Street. The state government has offices scattered throughout the city.
Albany is in the 20th Congressional district, represented by Paul Tonko (D) in the United States House of Representatives. The city is represented by Chuck Schumer (D) and Kirsten Gillibrand (D) in the United States Senate. On the state level, the city is in the 44th district in the New York Senate, represented by Neil Breslin (D). In the New York Assembly, the western portion of the city is in the 109th district, represented by Patricia Fahy (D) and the eastern portion is in the 108th district, represented by John T. McDonald III (D). As the seat of Albany County, the city is the location of the county 's courts including Family Court, County Court, Surrogate Court, Supreme Court, and Court of Appeals. Albany is the site of a United States district court for the Northern District of New York courthouse.
Albany 's politics have been dominated by the Democratic Party since the 1920s; Daniel (Uncle Dan) O'Connell established a political machine in the city with the election of William Stormont Hackett as mayor in 1922. Prior to that, William Barnes Jr. had set up a Republican machine in the 1890s. Barnes ' success is attributed to the fact that he owned two newspapers in Albany and that he was the grandson of Thurlow Weed, the influential newspaper publisher and political boss. O'Connell's organization overcame Barnes ' in 1922 and survived well into the 1980s (even after his death), as the machine put forth candidates for whom the electorate dutifully voted. In many instances, votes were outright bought; it was not uncommon for the machine to "buy poor folks ' loyalty and trust with a fiver ''.
Gerald Jennings ' upset in the 1993 Democratic mayoral primary over Harold Joyce, who had the Democratic Party 's formal endorsement and had only recently been its county chairman, is often cited as the end of the O'Connell era in Albany. Albany continues to be dominated by the Democratic party as enrollment in the city was 38,862 in 2009 compared to Republican enrollment of 3,487. This gives Democrats a 10 -- 1 advantage in the general election. Every elected city position has been held by a Democrat since 1931.
In November 2013, Kathy Sheehan became the first woman to be elected Mayor of Albany.
Like most cities of comparable age and size, Albany has well - established Orthodox Christian, Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish communities. Albany is home to the oldest Christian congregation in Upstate New York and the Mother Churches of two Christian dioceses. As of June 2010, eight churches or religious buildings in the city were listed on the National Register of Historic Places, one of which -- St. Peter 's Episcopal Church on State Street -- is a National Historic Landmark.
Established in 1642, the congregation of the First Church in Albany (Reformed), also known as the North Dutch Church (lon North Pearl Street), is the second - oldest Reformed Church in America. The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception (Eagle Street and Madison Avenue, built 1852) is the cathedral of the Roman Catholic diocese, led by Bishop Edward Scharfenberger, and the Cathedral of All Saints (South Swan Street and Elk Street, built 1888) is the cathedral of the Episcopal diocese, led by Bishop William Love. The city is home to eleven Catholic churches and six Episcopal churches.
A significant Jewish presence has existed in Albany since as early as 1658, and today includes many synagogues; there are two Conservative, a Chabad - Lubavitch, an Orthodox, and two Reform synagogues. Albany is also home to one of the few Karaite synagogues outside Israel. The city has a membership of between 12,000 and 13,000.
Exact numbers on religious denominations in Albany are not readily available. Demographic statistics in the United States depend heavily on the United States Census Bureau, which can not ask about religious affiliation as part of its decennial census. It does compile some national and statewide religious statistics, but these are not representative of a city the size of Albany. One report from 2000 offers religious affiliations for Albany County. According to the data, 59.2 % of Albany County residents identified as Christian: 47 % are Roman Catholic, 8.4 % are mainline Protestants, 2.7 % are Evangelical Protestants, and 1.1 % are Eastern or Oriental Orthodox Christians. Residents who practice Judaism make up 4.2 % of the population and Muslims represent 0.2 %. Note that these values are county - wide; city values could be significantly different.
The Times Union is Albany 's primary daily newspaper and the only one based close to the city; its headquarters moved from within city limits to suburban Colonie in the 1960s after a dispute with Mayor Corning over land needed for expansion. Its circulation totals about 73,000 on weekdays and 143,000 on Sundays. Serving Albany to a lesser degree are The Daily Gazette, based in Schenectady, and The Record, of Troy. Metroland is the alternative newsweekly in the area, publishing each Thursday, while The Business Review is a business weekly published each Friday. The Legislative Gazette, another weekly newspaper, focuses exclusively on issues related to the Legislature and the state government.
The Albany - Schenectady - Troy media market is the 63rd - largest in the country in terms of radio and the 57th - largest in terms of television audiences. It is a broadcast market with historical significance. The pioneering influence of General Electric in Schenectady directly contributed to the area emerging as the birthplace of station - based television with WRGB; the station was also the first affiliate of NBC. In 1947, the region was home to the first independently owned and operated commercial FM radio station in the United States: W47A. WGY was the second commercial radio station in New York and the twelfth in the nation. The Capital District is home to ABC affiliate WTEN 10, CBS affiliate WRGB 6 (also operating CW affiliate WCWN 45), Fox affiliate WXXA 23, NBC affiliate WNYT 13 (also operating MyNetworkTV affiliate WNYA 51), and PBS member station WMHT 17. Charter Communications hosts Spectrum News Capital Region, the area 's only local 24 - hour news channel. The area has numerous radio stations.
The Northway (Interstate 87 north of the New York State Thruway) connects Albany by car to Canada at Champlain; Autoroute 15 continues into Quebec, linking Albany to Montreal. Interstate 90 connects Albany to both Buffalo and Boston, via the New York State Thruway and the Massachusetts Turnpike respectively, both of which use I - 90 (the NYS Thruway partially, the Massachusetts Turnpike fully). South of Albany, I - 87 becomes part of the Thruway and ends at Interstate 278 in the Bronx. Albany is literally at the crossroad of I - 87 and I - 90, creating a junction between Buffalo and Boston, and Montreal and New York. Interstate 787 links Albany to Watervliet, Colonie, and Menands; by way of Route 7, I - 787 connects to the Northway, offering Saratoga County residents a rather direct, albeit congested route to and from Albany during rush hour.
With the closure of Union Station on Broadway, area passenger - rail service is provided by Amtrak at the Albany - Rensselaer station across the river in Rensselaer. In 2009, the station saw more than 720,000 passengers, making it Amtrak 's second - busiest in New York, behind New York 's Penn Station. Amtrak provides service south to New York City; north to Montreal, and Rutland (Vermont); west to Niagara Falls, Toronto and Chicago; and east to Boston.
Albany 's nearest airport is Albany International Airport in Colonie. Major airline service to Albany includes service by: American Airlines, Cape Air, Delta Air Lines, Southwest Airlines, JetBlue Airlines, and United Air Lines; Million Air is the local fixed - base operator. In 2010, Albany had the highest average airfare in New York, though the per - mile cost on its busiest routes was second - lowest in the state.
The Capital District Transportation Authority (CDTA) provides bus service throughout Albany and the surrounding area, including Schenectady, Troy, and Saratoga Springs. The city was once served by an urban streetcar service maintained by the United Traction Company. As in many American cities, after the advent of the automobile, light rail services declined in Albany and were replaced by bus and taxi services. Greyhound Lines, Trailways, Peter Pan, Short Line, Vermont Translines, and Yankee Trails buses all serve a downtown terminal. Brown Coach provides commuter service. Low - cost curbside bus service from the SUNY Albany campus and the Rensselaer station is also provided by Megabus, with direct service to New York City.
Albany, long an important Hudson River port, today serves domestic and international ships and barges through the Port of Albany - Rensselaer, on both sides of the river. The port has the largest mobile harbor crane in the state of New York. The New York State Barge Canal, the ultimate successor of the Erie Canal, is in use today, largely by tourist and private boats.
Albany has no major league professional sports teams, and minor league teams have low support.
The most recent attempt at a minor league team in Albany were the Albany Devils ice hockey team, which moved to the city for the 2010 -- 2011 season. They played in the American Hockey League and were affiliated with the New Jersey Devils of the National Hockey League. The Devils replaced the Albany River Rats, who played in the Capital Region from 1990 to 2010, when they relocated to Charlotte, North Carolina. The Albany Devils moved to Binghamton, New York in 2017.
The Albany Firebirds played in the Arena Football League from 1990 to 2000, while a second team, originally known as the Albany Conquest and later the Firebirds, played in af2, the AFL 's developmental league, from 2002 to 2009. The Tri-City ValleyCats short season minor league baseball team have played at the Joseph L. Bruno Stadium on the Hudson Valley Community College campus in North Greenbush since 2002. Prior to the ValleyCats ' arrival, the Albany - Colonie Diamond Dogs (1995 -- 2002) played at Heritage Park in Colonie; due to financial pressures, and facing impending competition from the ValleyCats, the franchise folded in 2002. The local basketball team is the Albany Legends (International Basketball League), who play in the Washington Avenue Armory. The Albany Patroons were two basketball teams that played at the Armory. Both folded due to financial problems.
With the large number of local colleges and universities around Albany, college sports are popular. The University at Albany 's Great Danes play at the Division I level in all sports. The football team is a member of the Colonial Athletic Association (CAA), while all other sports teams play as members of the America East Conference (AEC). In 2006, UAlbany became the first SUNY - affiliated school to send a team to the NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament. UAlbany has also hosted the New York Giants training camp since 1996. The Siena Saints have seen a rise in popularity after their men 's basketball team made it to the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship (March Madness) in 2008, 2009, and 2010. All 18 Saints teams are Division I and play in the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference (MAAC). Although Siena 's campus is in nearby Colonie, the men 's basketball team plays at the TU Center.
Albany has five official sister city agreements and two other twin - city relationships. The city of Nijmegen, Netherlands connected with Albany following World War II. With the help of the Catholic university in Albany, the Catholic University of Nijmegen (Radboud University Nijmegen) rebuilt its partly destroyed library, with over 50,000 books being donated to the Dutch university. To show its gratitude for post-war assistance, the city sent Albany 50,000 tulip bulbs in 1948; this act led to the establishment of the annual Tulip Festival. Most of the other connections were made in the 1980s during Mayor Whalen 's term in office as part of his cultural expansion program. The official sister cities are:
The additional twin - city relationships are with:
Nation:
States:
Territories:
|
what is the difference in audi s line | Audi S and RS models - wikipedia
Audi S and RS models are a range of high performance versions of certain car models of the German automotive company AUDI AG. These cars primarily focus on enhanced "sport '' performance. Production of Audi "S '' cars began in 1990 with the S2 Coupé, whilst the first "RS '' car appeared four years later with the Audi RS 2 Avant.
Today 's S and RS models are based on the A / TT / Q models with the same number (e.g S4 / RS 4 is based on the A4 or the TT RS based on the TT), but the "Ur - S4 '' from 1991 -- 1994 was based on the Audi 100 / 200 later named A6 and the first S2 / RS2 generation from 1990 -- 1995 was based on the Audi 80 / 90 platform later replaced by the A4.
The history of road versions of Audi racing cars begins in the 1980s. from models Audi Quattro and Audi Sport Quattro made by concern Audi AG in the city of Ingolstadt. In 1983, the company Quattro GmbH was founded (since November 2016, "Audi Sport GmbH '') in the city of Neckarsulm responsible for the development of sports models of cars of Audi brand. In 1990, appeared based on the model Audi 80 sports model S2 as a receiver Audi Quattro but already under the designation of the series "S '' in the name and having a capacity of 220 hp. And in 1994 there was even more powerful model Audi RS2 Avant based on Audi 80 model of joint development of Audi and Porsche having 315 hp. The model was equipped with components from Porsche. As in 1973, Audi, together with Porsche, also developed a prototype based on the Audi 100 Coupé S, produced in 1968, which has 112 hp. the "Grand tourer '' class. which received the name "100 Coupé S V3 '' and was equipped with a V8 engine with a power of 350 hp.
Since 1994, the development of the Audi S and RS sports series was started directly from the Quattro GmbH (Audi Sport GmbH).
Numerous "S '' models, from most of Audi 's mainstream model ranges have been produced over the years. These cars are recognisable by their "S '' badges, and unique emphasis lines on their front grills and on the back side, instead of the letter "A '' in the designation of numbers and also in use in the notation "S3 '', "TTS '' and "SQ5 ''.
All Audi "S '' models are equipped with Audi 's ' trademark ' quattro four - wheel drive system as standard. Unique internal combustion engines, along with larger, more powerful brakes, stiffer suspension systems, additional exterior body styling, and carbon fibre interior trims set them apart from their related "siblings '' of their respective model range.
In the past, some Audi S models competed directly with BMW M and Mercedes - AMG models, such as the B6 Audi S4 4.2 FSI versus the BMW M3 and Mercedes - Benz C32 AMG. Since 2010 however, Audi S models have been positioned more as optional engine trims. For instance the base Audi A4 (B8) engine is the 2.0 TFSI turbo four - cylinder, and with the discontinuation of the 3.2 FSI V6, that makes the Audi S4 's 3.0 TFSI V6 the performance option (the B8 Audi S4 3.0 TFSI positioned closer to the E90 BMW 335i than the BMW M3). The Audi A6 (C7) no longer has a V8 engine upgrade in the non "S '' range, with the discontinuation of the C6 Audi A6 4.2 FSI that was offered from 2004 -- 2011, one must go to the C7 Audi S6 4.0 TFSI..
Audi "S '' models should not be confused with the Audi "A, Q, TT '' series, equipped with a package "S line '' models, which feature leather trim, S - line badging, sports steering wheel and sports suspension, but they are not equipped with a high - power engine.
Audi Sport GmbH (formerly quattro GmbH), AUDI AGs high performance private subsidiary, creates even higher performance versions, known by their "RS '' badging. The "RS '' initials are taken from the German: RennSport -- literally translated as "racing sport ''. The characteristics and cost of these cars are equated to cars belonging to the supercar class.
RS is Audi 's highest performance ' top - tier ' trim level, positioned distinctly above the "S '' ("Sport '') specification level of Audi 's regular model range. All "RS '' cars pioneer some of Audi 's latest and most advanced technology and engineering prowess, therefore, "RS '' cars could be described as "halo vehicles ''. Audi RS cars are some of the most powerful vehicles ever offered by Audi as well as R8. Audi RS 6 (5.0 TFSI quattro), for instance, is more powerful than the physically larger Audi S8 (5.2 FSI quattro) However, the 2012 -- 2015 Audi S8 shares the same engine as the 2013 --... Audi RS 6 and Audi RS7, albeit in a lower state of tune, while for the 2016 -- 2017 model years, the Audi S8 plus features an uprated engine with the same output as the smaller RS 6 and RS7.
Available for limited time and only in select markets, on a restricted model range, these "RS '' (and "S '' models) models are wholly designed, developed and produced in - house by Audi AG 's high performance private subsidiary company, Audi Sport GmbH, at its Neckarsulm factory.
Unlike Audi "S '' models whose interiors are well - furnished in order to retain the feel of sport luxury, the interior of Audi "RS '' models are often spartan by comparison as the emphasis is more on track performance than luxury. The 2008 Audi RS 4 sold in Europe had lightweight racing - style front seats and roll - up windows for the rear doors, although its counterpart sold in the United States has luxurious power - adjustable front seats and power windows for all doors (2).
Audi "RS '' models are considered direct competitors to similar sized hardcore sport models from BMW M and Mercedes - AMG, whereas the Audi "S '' models (as of 2010) have been positioned more as engine upgrades. Taking the 2012 model year for example, the Audi RS 5 competes directly with the BMW M3, M4 whereas the Audi S5 competes with the BMW 335i, while the Audi RS 6 competes with the BMW M5 and the Audi S6 competes with the BMW 550i. However the Audi RS 6 (C6) was never exported to the United States due to emissions regulations, leaving the Audi S6 (C6) as the top performing trim to compete against the BMW M5 (E60) in that market (3).
There used to be only one RS model in production at a time, but recently Audi has revised its policies and decided to make more than one RS model at a time, claiming that "customers want them, then why not give it to them ''. However, RS models are not available in all markets.
(233 -- 250 km / h)
(250 km / h)
(305 km / h)
The following Audi "S '' and "RS '' high performance models are being, or have been produced, or are speculated to be in future production:
(In model range order)
0 -- 62 mph
(0 -- 100 km / h)
(250 km / h)
(320 km / h)
174 mph (280 km / h)
(280 km / h)
4 dr, 4 seat Sportback (fastback)
2018
(250 km / h)
4 dr, 4 seat Sportback (fastback)
2 dr, 4 seat mid-size Cabriolet
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Supermini (sportback)
(coupé)
5.2 -- 5.9 sec.
(roadster)
(250 km / h)
2 dr, 2 seat compact Roadster (convertible)
3.9 sec. (roadster)
(280 km / h)
2 dr, 2 seat compact Roadster (convertible)
(hatch. 3 dr.)
5.3 -- 4.9 sec.
(hatch. 5 dr.)
5.3 -- 4.9 sec. (sedan)
5.4 sec. (cabriolet)
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Hatchback
4 dr, 5 seat Saloon
(sedan)
2 dr, 4 seat Cabriolet
2017 (facelift)
(250 km / h)
174 mph
(280 km / h)
4 dr, 5 seat Saloon (sedan)
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
(avant / sedan)
4.6 / 4.4 sec. (2014)
(avant / sedan)
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
2014 (facelift)
3.7 sec. (performance)
(305 km / h)
2015 (facelift)
2016 (performance)
(250 km / h)
(250 km / h)
(In chronological order of production end -- oldest first)
0 -- 62 mph
(0 -- 100 km / h)
(242 -- 246 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
4 dr, 5 seat Saloon (sedan)
(244 km / h)
--
(262 km / h)
("Ur - S6 '')
(241 -- 250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
5.7 sec. (avant)
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
(250 km / h)
6.6 -- 5.4 sec. (1999)
(250 km / h)
-
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
-
6.8 -- 5.8 sec. (avant)
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
6.6 sec. (2001)
238 km / h (1999)
151 mph
243 km / h (2001)
--
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
(280 km / h)
5.9 -- 5.8 sec. (avant)
6.2 -- 5.9 sec. (cabrio.)
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
2 dr, 4 seat Cabriolet
(convertible)
4.9 sec. (avant)
4.9 sec. (cabrio.)
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
2 dr, 4 seat Cabriolet
(convertible)
2006 -- 2007 (Avant)
2007 -- 2008 (Cabrio.)
5.9 -- 5.8 sec. (avant)
6.2 -- 5.9 sec. (cabrio.)
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
2 dr, 4 seat Cabriolet
(convertible)
--
2006 -- 2009 (Cabrio.)
(Lamborghini V10)
5.3 sec. (avant)
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
(Lamborghini V10)
(250 km / h)
188 mph
(303 km / h) (Plus)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
--
(Lamborghini V10)
(250 km / h)
5.4 -- 5.2 sec. (avant)
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
--
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Hatchback
-
2008 -- 2012
(250 km / h)
(250 km / h)
--
5.6 -- 5.4 sec. (roadster)
(250 km / h)
2 dr, 2 seat compact Roadster (convertible)
--
4.7 -- 4.4 sec. (roadster)
4.3 -- 4.1 sec.
(coupé) (plus)
4.4 -- 4.2 sec. (roadster) (plus)
(250 km / h)
174 mph
(280 km / h) (plus)
2 dr, 2 seat compact Roadster (convertible)
--
(280 km / h)
(250 km / h)
5 dr, 5 seat Avant (estate / wagon)
--
(250 km / h)
2 dr, 4 seat Cabriolet
(convertible)
4 dr, 4 seat Sportback (fastback)
2011 (facelift)
(Audi MLB / MLP)
4.5 sec. (2012)
4.9 sec. (2012 --...)
(cabriolet)
280 km / h (with raised speed limiter)
2 dr, 4 seat Cabriolet
(convertible)
2013 (facelift)
(280 km / h)
2,967 cc V6 TDI
(313 -- 340 PS; 308 -- 335 bhp)
5.1 sec. (diesel)
(250 km / h)
(2013)
250 kW (340 PS; 335 bhp)
(2014)
270 kW (367 PS; 362 bhp) (performance)
4.8 sec. (2014)
(250 km / h)
Audi produce a specification of optional sports trim packages to their mainstream models A / Q / TT, known as the S line. This is merely a trim specification which allows customers to effect a sporty appearance in their mainstream Audi model. Whilst the specific S line trim parts are designed and produced by Audi Sport GmbH at its Neckarsulm factory, these mainstream cars are still manufactured and assembled by AUDI AG at their relevant factories on the same production lines alongside their other standard models.
Cars with S line trim are not to be confused with the specific high performance offerings -- the "S '' models (made by AUDI AG), and the "RS '' models (made by Audi Sport GmbH); Audi cars with S line trim bear identical performance figures to their counterparts with base or SE trim levels.
A3 Sportback e-tron
|
what finger do you wear a graduation ring on | Class ring - wikipedia
A class ring (also known as a graduation, graduate, senior, or grad ring) is a ring worn by students and alumni to commemorate their graduation, generally for a high school, college, or university.
Today class rings can be customized, from the material and style that the ring is made of to the color and cut of the gem in the center. There is a wide selection of emblems, pictures, and words that can be added to the sides of the rings and even inside the center gem.
The tradition of class rings originated with the class of 1835 at the United States Military Academy at West Point.
The Complete Book of Etiquette by Amy Vanderbilt indicates the following protocol for wearing of a class ring. For as long as the wearer is in school, the insignia should face the wearer to remind him / her of the goal of graduation. Upon graduation, the class ring gains the status of a "badge of honor '' similar to a diploma, with the effect that graduation entitles the wearer to display the insignia facing outward so that it faces other viewers. An additional justification for this practice is the rationale that the ring also symbolizes the graduate him / herself: During the wearer 's time in school, he or she focuses on self - development and goals specific to the insular academic environment; upon graduation, the wearer enters the wider world and puts what he or she has learned to work in shaping it.
A notable exception to this protocol is the custom followed by older graduating classes of the United States Military Academy at West Point: Today, as in years past, Academy graduates frequently wear their rings on the left hand in observance of the ancient belief, which also underlay the Anglo - American custom of wearing wedding bands on the left hand, that a vein connects the left ring finger to the heart. Prior to graduation, these classes wore the USMA Class Ring with the Class Crest closest to the heart, signifying a given cadet 's bond to his class within the Academy. Following graduation, members of these classes wore (and, for surviving members, still wear) the ring with the Academy Crest closest to the heart, signifying their bond with the Academy as a whole.
At the United States Military Academy, United States Naval Academy, United States Air Force Academy, and at The Citadel each cadet 's class ring contains melted gold from rings donated to the respective school from deceased alumni.
The Lords of Discipline. "I wear the ring. I wear the ring and I return often to the city of Charleston, South Carolina, to study the history of my becoming a man. '' Author Pat Conroy attended and graduated from The Citadel and wrote the fictional account of a cadet 's journey at a military school set in Charleston, South Carolina.
Media related to Class rings at Wikimedia Commons
|
the chinese exclusion act of 1882 was significant in american immigration history because | Chinese Exclusion Act - wikipedia
The Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law signed by President Chester A. Arthur on May 6, 1882, prohibiting all immigration of Chinese laborers. The act followed the Angell Treaty of 1880, a set of revisions to the US -- China Burlingame Treaty of 1868 that allowed the US to suspend Chinese immigration. The act was initially intended to last for 10 years, but was renewed in 1892 with the Geary Act and made permanent in 1902. The Chinese Exclusion Act was the first law implemented to prevent a specific ethnic group from immigrating to the United States. It was repealed by the Magnuson Act on December 17, 1943.
The first significant Chinese immigration to North America began with the California Gold Rush of 1848 -- 1855 and it continued with subsequent large labor projects, such as the building of the First Transcontinental Railroad. During the early stages of the gold rush, when surface gold was plentiful, the Chinese were tolerated, if not well received. As gold became harder to find and competition increased, animosity toward the Chinese and other foreigners increased however. After being forcibly driven from mining by a mixture of state legislators and other miners (the Foreign Miner 's Tax), the immigrant Chinese began to settle in enclaves in cities, mainly San Francisco, and took up low - wage labor, such as restaurant and laundry work. With the post-Civil War economy in decline by the 1870s, anti-Chinese animosity became politicized by labor leader Denis Kearney and his Workingman 's Party as well as by California Governor John Bigler, both of whom blamed Chinese "coolies '' for depressed wage levels. Public opinion and law in California began to demonize Chinese workers and immigrants in any role, with the later half of the 1800s seeing a series of ever more restrictive laws being placed on Chinese labor, behavior and even living conditions. While many of these legislative efforts were quickly overturned by the State Supreme Court, many more anti-Chinese laws continued to be passed in both California and nationally.
In the early 1850s there was resistance to the idea of excluding Chinese migrant workers from immigration because they provided essential tax revenue which helped fill the fiscal gap of California. But toward the end of the decade, the financial situation improved and subsequently, attempts to legislate Chinese exclusion became successful on the state level. In 1858, the California Legislature passed a law that made it illegal for any person "of the Chinese or Mongolian races '' to enter the state; however, this law was struck down by an unpublished opinion of the State Supreme Court in 1862. The Chinese immigrant workers provided cheap labor and did not use any of the government infrastructure (schools, hospitals, etc.) because the Chinese migrant population was predominantly made up of healthy male adults. As time passed and more and more Chinese migrants arrived in California, violence would often break out in cities such as Los Angeles. At one point, Chinese men represented nearly a quarter of all wage - earning workers in California, and by 1878 Congress felt compelled to try and ban immigration from China in legislation that was later vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes. In 1879 however, California adopted a new Constitution, which explicitly authorized the state government to determine which individuals were allowed to reside in the state, and banned the Chinese from employment by corporations and state, county or municipal governments. Though there is great debate over whether the anti-Chinese animus in California drove the federal government (the California Thesis), or whether Chinese racism was simply inherent in the country at that point, by 1882 the federal government was finally convinced to pass the Chinese Exclusion Act, banning all immigration from China for a period of 10 years.
After the act was passed, most Chinese families were faced with a dilemma: stay in the United States alone or go back to China to reunite with their families. Although widespread dislike for the Chinese persisted well after the law itself was passed, of note is that some capitalists and entrepreneurs resisted their exclusion because they accepted lower wages.
For the first time, federal law proscribed entry of an ethnic working group on the premise that it endangered the good order of certain localities. (The earlier Page Act of 1875 had prohibited immigration of Asian forced laborers and sex workers, and the Naturalization Act of 1790 prohibited naturalization of non-white subjects.) The Act excluded Chinese laborers, meaning "skilled and unskilled laborers and Chinese employed in mining, '' from entering the country for ten years under penalty of imprisonment and deportation.
The Chinese Exclusion Act required the few non laborers who sought entry to obtain certification from the Chinese government that they were qualified to emigrate. However, this group found it increasingly difficult to prove that they were not laborers because the 1882 act defined excludables as "skilled and unskilled laborers and Chinese employed in mining. '' Thus very few Chinese could enter the country under the 1882 law. Diplomatic officials and other officers on business, along with their house servants, for the Chinese government were also allowed entry as long as they had the proper certification verifying their credentials.
The Act also affected the Chinese who had already settled in the United States. Any Chinese who left the United States had to obtain certifications for reentry, and the Act made Chinese immigrants permanent aliens by excluding them from U.S. citizenship. After the Act 's passage, Chinese men in the U.S. had little chance of ever reuniting with their wives, or of starting families in their new abodes.
Amendments made in 1884 tightened the provisions that allowed previous immigrants to leave and return, and clarified that the law applied to ethnic Chinese regardless of their country of origin. The Scott Act (1888) expanded upon the Chinese Exclusion Act, prohibiting reentry after leaving the U.S. Constitutionality of the Chinese Exclusion Act and the Scott Act was upheld by the Supreme Court in Chae Chan Ping v. United States (1889); the Supreme Court declared that "the power of exclusion of foreigners (is) an incident of sovereignty belonging to the government of the United States as a part of those sovereign powers delegated by the constitution. '' The Act was renewed for ten years by the 1892 Geary Act, and again with no terminal date in 1902. When the act was extended in 1902, it required "each Chinese resident to register and obtain a certificate of residence. Without a certificate, he or she faced deportation. ''
Between 1882 and 1905, about 10,000 Chinese appealed against negative immigration decisions to federal court, usually via a petition for habeas corpus. In most of these cases, the courts ruled in favor of the petitioner. Except in cases of bias or negligence, these petitions were barred by an act that passed Congress in 1894 and was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in U.S. vs Lem Moon Sing (1895). In U.S. vs Ju Toy (1905), the U.S. Supreme Court reaffirmed that the port inspectors and the Secretary of Commerce had final authority on who could be admitted. Ju Toy 's petition was thus barred despite the fact that the district court found that he was an American citizen. The Supreme Court determined that refusing entry at a port does not require due process and is legally equivalent to refusing entry at a land crossing. All these developments, along with the extension of the act in 1902, triggered a boycott of U.S. goods in China between 1904 and 1906. There was one 1885 case in San Francisco, however, in which Treasury Department officials in Washington overturned a decision to deny entry to two Chinese students.
One of the critics of the Chinese Exclusion Act was the anti-slavery / anti-imperialist Republican Senator George Frisbie Hoar of Massachusetts who described the Act as "nothing less than the legalization of racial discrimination. '' It was primarily meant to retain white superiority especially with regards to working privileges.
The laws were driven largely by racial concerns; immigration of persons of other races was unlimited during this period. Another reason why this Act was enacted was due to the fact that American citizens faced higher unemployment as compared to workers of Chinese decent mostly in the West Coast.
On the other hand, many people strongly supported the Chinese Exclusion Act, including the Knights of Labor, a labor union, who supported it because it believed that industrialists were using Chinese workers as a wedge to keep wages low. Among labor and leftist organizations, the Industrial Workers of the World were the sole exception to this pattern. The IWW openly opposed the Chinese Exclusion Act from its inception in 1905.
For all practical purposes, the Exclusion Act, along with the restrictions that followed it, froze the Chinese community in place in 1882. Limited immigration from China continued until the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1943. From 1910 to 1940, the Angel Island Immigration Station on what is now Angel Island State Park in San Francisco Bay served as the processing center for most of the 56,113 Chinese immigrants who are recorded as immigrating or returning from China; upwards of 30 % more who showed up were returned to China. Angel Island State Park was where the Chinese immigrants were accepted to stay in the United States or made to leave. Furthermore, after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, which destroyed City Hall and the Hall of Records, many immigrants (known as "paper sons '') claimed that they had familial ties to resident Chinese - American citizens. Whether these were true or not can not be proven.
The Chinese Exclusion Act gave rise to the first great wave of commercial human smuggling, an activity that later spread to include other national and ethnic groups.
The Chinese Exclusion Act also led to an expansion of the power of U.S. immigration law through its influence on Canada 's policies on Chinese exclusion during this time because of the need for greater vigilance at the U.S. - Canada border. Shortly after the U.S. Chinese Exclusion Act, Canada established the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 which imposed a head tax on Chinese migrants entering Canada. After increasing pressure from the U.S. government, Canada finally established the Chinese Immigration Act, 1923 which banned most forms of immigration by the Chinese to Canada. There was also a need for this kind of border control along the U.S - Mexico border, however, efforts to control the border went along a different path because Mexico was fearful of expanding imperial power of the U.S. and did not want U.S. interference in Mexico. Not only this, but Chinese immigration to Mexico was welcomed because the Chinese immigrants filled Mexico 's labor needs. The Chinese Exclusion Act actually led to heightened Chinese immigration to Mexico because of exclusion by the U.S. Therefore, the U.S. resorted to heavily policing the border along Mexico.
Later, the Immigration Act of 1924 restricted immigration even further, excluding all classes of Chinese immigrants and extending restrictions to other Asian immigrant groups. Until these restrictions were relaxed in the middle of the twentieth century, Chinese immigrants were forced to live a life separated from their families, and to build ethnic enclaves in which they could survive on their own (Chinatown). The Chinese Exclusion Act did not address the problems that whites were facing; in fact, the Chinese were quickly and eagerly replaced by the Japanese, who assumed the role of the Chinese in society. Unlike the Chinese, some Japanese were even able to climb the rungs of society by setting up businesses or becoming truck farmers. However, the Japanese were later targeted in the National Origins Act of 1924, which banned immigration from east Asia entirely.
In 1891 the Government of China refused to accept the U.S. Senator Mr. Henry W. Blair as U.S. Minister to China due to his abusive remarks regarding China during negotiation of the Chinese Exclusion Act.
The American Christian Rev. Dr. George F. Pentecost spoke out against western imperialism in China, saying: I personally feel convinced that it would be a good thing for America if the embargo on Chinese immigration were removed. I think that the annual admission of 100,000 into this country would be a good thing for the country. And if the same thing were done in the Philippines those islands would be a veritable Garden of Eden in twenty - five years. The presence of Chinese workmen in this country would, in my opinion, do a very great deal toward solving our labor problems. There is no comparison between the Chinaman, even of the lowest coolie class, and the man who comes here from Southeastern Europe, from Russia, or from Southern Italy. The Chinese are thoroughly good workers. That is why the laborers here hate them. I think, too, that the emigration to America would help the Chinese. At least he would come into contact with some real Christian people in America. The Chinaman lives in squalor because he is poor. If he had some prosperity his squalor would cease.
Following the passed legislation of the Chinese Exclusion Act, a period known as the "Driving Out '' era was born. In this period, many anti-Chinese Americans sought out to physically force the Chinese communities to flee to other areas. Many of these outbreaks occurred in the Western states. The Rock Springs Chinese Massacre and the Snake River Massacre of 1887 are two notable events in history.
In 1885, many angry white miners in Sweetwater County, Wyoming felt threatened by the Chinese and blamed them for their unemployment. As a result of the job competition, white miners expressed their frustration in physical violence where they robbed, shot, and stabbed at Chinese in Chinatown. The Chinese quickly tried to flee but in doing so, many ended up burned alive in their homes, starved to death in hidden refuge, or exposed to animal predators of the mountains. Some were successfully rescued by the passing train and by the end of the event, at least twenty - eight lives were sacrificed.
In an attempt to appease the situation, the government intervened by sending federal troops to protect the Chinese. However, following the event, only compensations for destroyed property were paid. No - one was arrested nor held accountable for the atrocities committed during the riot.
The massacre itself gained its name due to its location along the Snake River in Hells Canyon by Deep creek. The area inhabits many rocky cliffs and soaring white rapids that all pose as dangerous threats to humans who ventured into the area. Thirty - four Chinese miners who were employed by Sam Yong company, one of the six largest Chinese companies at the time, worked in this area since October of 1886. An accurate account of the event is still unclear to this day secondary to unreliable law enforcement at the time, biased news reporting, and lack of serious official investigations. However, it is speculated that the dead Chinese miners were not victims of natural causes but rather victims of gun shot wounds and robbery from seven armed horse thieves. An amount of gold worth $4,000 - $5,000 was estimated to be stolen from the miners. The whereabouts of the gold were never recovered nor further investigated. Recently, attempts to formulate an accurate picture of the event were drawn from hidden copies of trial documents that contained grand jury indictment, depositions given by the accused, notes from the trial, and historical accounts of Wallowa County by J. Harland Horner and H. Ross Findley.
Horner and Findley were both schoolboys at the time of the massacre but their accounts had glaring discrepancies. Findley believed the massacre was a planned event with more than just a motive to steal gold from the Chinese miners. He believed the arrested culprits wanted to eliminate the Chinese miners from the area as well, which they successfully accomplished. In contrast to most accounts, Findley only recalled 31 confirmed victims and there was no mention of a trial. On the other hand, Horner believed that the event was a spur of the moment event and affected 34 confirmed victims. The school boys initially only had intentions to steal horses but experienced difficulty crossing the river with the stolen horses. When the Chinese miners refused to loan their boats, the boys decided to take the boats by force.
Other disagreements on the motives could also be attributed to the fact that the bodies of the Chinese miners were only found downstream after two weeks. It is unclear if the mangled bodies found were due to human manslaughter or the aftermath of being thrown into turbulent waters. The rapids and brute force of the current could have mangled the bodies against the rocks. However, it is confirmed that the Chinese men were shot secondary to the gunshot wounds found on the bodies. Only ten bodies were identified on February 16, 1888: Chea - po, Chea - Sun, Chea - Yow, Chea - Shun, Chea Cheong, Chea Ling, Chea Chow, Chea Lin Chung, Kong Mun Kow, and Kong Ngan. Little is known about these identified men.
Shortly following the incident, Sam Yup company of San Francisco hired Lee Loi who later hired Joseph K. Vincent, then U.S. Commissioner, to lead an investigation. Vincent submitted his investigation report to the Chinese consulate who unsuccessfully obtained justice for the Chinese miners. At around the same time, other compensation reports were also unsuccessfully filed for earlier crimes inflicted on the Chinese. In the end, on October 19th, 1888, Congress agreed to greatly under - compensate for the massacre and ignore the claims for the earlier crimes. Even though the amount was greatly underpaid, it was still a small victory to the Chinese who had low expectations for relief or acknowledgement.
The US Board on Geographic Names officially named the Deep Creek massacre site to the Chinese Massacre Cove. This served as the first ever official recognition of the crime. Additionally in June 2012, a memorial was established with private funds and donations for the Chinese miners that were murdered.
The Chinese Exclusion Act brought rigidity not only to the Chinese alone but to Caucasians and other races as well which lasted for about thirty years. The American economy suffered a great loss as a result of this Act. The Act was a sign of injustice and unfair treatment to the Chinese workers because the jobs they engaged in were mostly menial jobs.
The Bubonic Plague outbreak in San Francisco Chinatown strengthened Anti-Chinese sentiment in all of California despite science research at the time showing it was caused by some kind of "germ ''. When the first round of people died from this plague, the companies and the state denied the fact that there was a plague, eventually other states knew what was going on and stopped trading with California. The blame was put on the Chinese community. The plague did not derive from Chinatown. It was due to the unsanitary conditions and population density that outbreaks such as this one were spread quickly, and therefore affected a large number of people in this community. (1)
Its first deaths in San Francisco were in 1898, a ship from a French bark had some passengers who had died of the plague. After its arrival in San Francisco, 18 more Chinatown residents died of the same symptoms. The mayor decided not to release a public Warning of the outbreak, thinking it would affect San Francisco 's commercial business. Chinatown was quarantined, and sanitary services were suspended for some time until presence of bacteriological source was found. A sanitary campaign was launched, however many residents chose to avoid anything and everything that had to do with the plague due to fear and humiliation. As more and more deaths occurred, the city began being more aggressive, and they started checking nearly everyone in Chinatown for any signs of disease. Therefore the Chinese community began to distrust the government even more
The Chinese Exclusion Act was repealed by the 1943 Magnuson Act, during a time when China had become an ally of the U.S. against Japan in World War II. This repeal also occurred in the context of World War II, during which the U.S. fought against German Nazism and needed to embody an image of fairness and justice, and also during a time when the Japanese were becoming vilified. The Magnuson Act permitted Chinese nationals already residing in the country to become naturalized citizens and stop hiding from the threat of deportation. While the Magnuson Act overturned the discriminatory Chinese Exclusion Act, it only allowed a national quota of 105 Chinese immigrants per year, and did not repeal the restrictions on immigration from the other Asian countries. Large scale Chinese immigration did not occur until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. The crackdown on Chinese immigrants reached a new level in its last decade, from 1956 -- 1965, with the Chinese Confession Program launched by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, that encouraged Chinese who had committed immigration fraud to confess, so as to be eligible for some leniency in treatment.
Despite the fact that the exclusion act was repealed in 1943, the law in California prohibiting non-whites from marrying whites was not struck down until 1948, in which the California Supreme Court ruled the ban of interracial marriage within the state unconstitutional in Perez v. Sharp. Other states had such laws until 1967, when the United States Supreme Court unanimously ruled in Loving v. Virginia that anti-miscegenation laws across the nation are unconstitutional.
Even today, although all its constituent sections have long been repealed, Chapter 7 of Title 8 of the United States Code is headed "Exclusion of Chinese. '' It is the only chapter of the 15 chapters in Title 8 (Aliens and Nationality) that is completely focused on a specific nationality or ethnic group. Like the following Chapter 8, "The Cooly Trade '', it consists entirely of statutes that are noted as "Repealed '' or "Omitted. ''
On June 18, 2012, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution which had been introduced by Congresswoman Judy Chu, that formally expresses the regret of the House of Representatives for the Chinese Exclusion Act, an act which imposed almost total restrictions on Chinese immigration and naturalization and denied Chinese - Americans basic freedoms because of their ethnicity. The resolution had been approved by the U.S. Senate in October 2011.
In 2014, the California Legislature took formal action to pass measures that formally recognize the many proud accomplishments of Chinese - Americans in California and to call upon Congress to formally apologize for the 1882 adoption of the Chinese Exclusion Act. Senate Republican Leader Bob Huff (R - Diamond Bar) and incoming Senate President pro-Tem Kevin de León (D - Los Angeles) served as Joint Authors for Senate Joint Resolution (SJR) 23 and Senate Concurrent Resolution (SCR) 122.
SJR 23 acknowledges and celebrates the history and contributions of Chinese Americans in California. The resolution also formally calls on Congress to apologize for laws which resulted in the persecution of Chinese Americans, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act.
Perhaps most importantly is the sociological implications for understanding ethnic / race relations in the context of American history: there is a tendency for minorities to be punished in times of economic, political and / or geopolitical crises. Times of social and systemic stability, however, tend to mute whatever underlying tensions exist between different groups. In times of societal crisis -- whether perceived or real -- patterns or retractability of American identities have erupted to the forefront of America 's political landscape, often generating institutional and civil society backlash against workers from other nations, a pattern documented by Fong 's research into how crises drastically alter social relationships.
|
hum aapke hain koun full hindi movie youtube | Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! - Wikipedia
Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! (English: Who am I to You...!) also known by the initialism HAHK, is a 1994 Indian musical romantic - comedy film, written and directed by Sooraj Barjatya, and produced by Rajshri Productions. Starring Madhuri Dixit and Salman Khan, it celebrates the Indian wedding traditions by relating the story of a married couple and the relationship between their families; a story about sacrificing ones love for ones family. It is an adaptation of the studio 's own Bhojpuri film Nadiya Ke Paar (1982).
Earning over ₹ 1.35 billion (equivalent to ₹ 6.3 billion or US $97 million in 2017) worldwide, Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! became the highest - grossing Bollywood film. It contributed to a change in the Indian film industry, with new methods of distribution and a turn towards less violent stories. It was the first Hindi film to gross over ₹ 1 billion, and when adjusted for inflation, is the highest grossing Hindi film of the 1990s and also still one of the highest - earning Bollywood films ever. Box Office India described it as "the biggest blockbuster of the modern era. '' The film was also dubbed into the Telugu language and released with the title Premalayam. The 14 - song soundtrack, an unusually large number, is also one of the most popular in Bollywood history, with popular singer Lata Mangeshkar lending her voice for 11 of the 14 songs in the film.
Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! won five Filmfare Awards, including Best Film, Best Director, and Best Actress, as well as winning the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment. It made a lasting impact on wedding celebrations in India, which often include songs and games from the film.
Prem (Salman Khan) lost his parents at an early age. He lives with his elder brother Rajesh (Mohnish Bahl) and uncle Kailashnath (Alok Nath). Rajesh manages the family business and his family is on the look - out for a suitable bride for him. Professor Siddharth Chaudhary (Anupam Kher) and Mrs. Chaudhary (Reema Lagoo) have two daughters, Pooja (Renuka Shahane) and Nisha (Madhuri Dixit). The Chaudhary couple and Kailashnath are old friends who meet again after several years. They arrange a marriage between Rajesh and Pooja. From their first meeting, Nisha and Prem start bickering lightheartedly with each other, and the fun and mischief continues throughout Pooja and Rajesh 's wedding.
Prem has an amicable relationship with his warm - hearted sister - in - law. In time, Pooja and Rajesh discover that they are expecting a child. Professor and Mrs. Chaudhary were unable to come to Kailashnath 's house for the ceremony marking the impending arrival of the baby. They send Nisha instead, who is present at the birth. Meanwhile, Nisha and Prem fall in love with each other, but keep it a secret. Professor and Mrs. Chaudhary come over to Kailashnath 's house to celebrate the birth of their grandchild. When the time comes to part, their hosts are dejected, especially Prem. He and Nisha promise each other that they will soon reunite for ever.
Pooja is invited to stay at her parents ' house, and Prem takes her there. When they arrive, Pooja learns that Prem and Nisha are in love, and gives Nisha a necklace as a token, promising to get them married. Shortly afterwards, Pooja accidentally slips and falls down the stairs, and dies from a head injury. Everybody is shattered by the tragedy.
Nisha takes good care of her sister 's son. Hence, her parents and Kailashnath feel that Nisha will be a great mother to the baby. They decide to have Nisha marry Rajesh. Nisha overhears her parents talking about her marrying into Kailashnath 's family and thinks that they are discussing her marriage to Prem, to which she agrees. Later, at a pre-nuptial ceremony, she finds out that she is actually going to marry Rajesh.
Prem and Nisha vow to sacrifice their love for Rajesh and the baby. Moments before the wedding, Nisha asks Prem 's dog Tuffy to give Prem the necklace that Pooja had given her, along with a letter. Tuffy exits Nisha 's room and instead of taking the letter to Prem, delivers it to Rajesh. Rajesh reads the letter and realizes that Prem and Nisha love each other. Subsequently, he halts the wedding and confronts both Nisha and Prem. In the end, Nisha and Prem marry each other with the consent of their families. The film 's title Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! appears and then rephrases to Hum Aapke Hain...! (English: I am yours!).
Director / writer Sooraj Barjatya devoted one year and nine months to write the screenplay of Hum Aapke Hain Koun...!. He spent the first five months trying to write another Maine Pyar Kiya, but then started over after his father Rajkumar Barjatya suggested that he rework one of the family company Rajshri Productions earlier offerings. Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! then became a loose adaptation of their 1982 production Nadiya Ke Paar. Barjatya used musical numbers to avoid treating some situations in a cliché manner, which resulted in so many songs that there were complaints during initial screenings of the film concerning its length and number of songs. Barjayta 's grandfather, company founder Tarachand Barjatya, loved the song "Dhiktana '' so much that the film was nearly given that title.
Barjatya later told India Abroad, "My attempt in this movie has been to reexpose the cinema - going public to the quintessential family life... not to make people feel that they have come to see a movie, but make them feel as if they have come to visit a big joint family that is preparing for a wedding ''. The story was constructed differently than what was popular at the time. There were no villains, violence, or battles between good and evil. From conception to finished product, the film took four years. Madhuri Dixit was paid a salary of ₹ 27,540,000 for playing the role of Nisha. Aamir Khan was initially offered the role of Prem, but he declined the offer due to being dissatisfied with the script. It then went to Salman Khan, helping him to become a superstar.
The producers / distributors exercised a higher than normal level of control over their work. There was a limited release, a new form of television publicity, safeguards against video piracy, and a delay in the releasing of video tapes.
The soundtrack for Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! was composed by Raamlaxman (original name Vijay Patil) who had earlier given music for Rajshri 's Maine Pyar Kiya, with lyrics penned by Ravinder Rawal and Dev Kohli. It was produced under the Sa Re Ga Ma label which at that time was known as HMV (short for His Master 's Voice) and featured veteran playback singers such as Lata Mangeshkar, S.P. Balasubrahmanyam, Kumar Sanu, Udit Narayan, Shailendra Singh and Sharda Sinha. Raamlaxman had about 50 sessions with the director Barjatya during scripting. The finished soundtrack included an unusually large number of songs at 14 (15 if we count the sad version of the song Mujhse Juda Hokar which appears in the movie but not on the Music Album), plus the song "Hasta Hua Noorani Chehra '' (from the film Parasmani), that was used when the characters play a game. The track "Didi Tera Devar Deewana '' is said to be inspired by Ustad Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan 's song "Saare Nabian ''. That song became one of the most popular film songs ever, and was on the charts for over a year. The soundtrack was very successful upon release, becoming the best selling Bollywood soundtrack of the year, and one of the top four sellers of the 1990s, with 10 million units sold. It was ranked the number 29 all - time best Hindi soundtrack by Planet Bollywood.
Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! premiered at Liberty Cinema in southern Mumbai on 5 August 1994; it eventually ran there for over 100 weeks. The film initially saw a very limited release, also showing at the Regal and Eros theatres, with only 26 prints total. Eventually it started to appear in many more theatres. When initial viewers complained about the film 's length, 2 of the 14 song sequences were removed. These were later restored when film goers were found to enjoy all of the songs. Early reviewers of Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! predicted that it would be a huge flop; hence the industry was stunned when it went on to become the most successful film of all time up to that point.
Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! is one of the biggest grossers ever in the history of Hindi cinema, and is said to have changed film business forever in the country. Made on a budget of around ₹ 42.5 million (US $650,000), it went on to collect ₹ 1.23 billion (US $19 million) in India and ₹ 1.35 billion (US $21 million) worldwide. It was the first Hindi film to gross over ₹ 1 billion. Adjusted for inflation, the film has grossed over ₹ 3.1 billion (US $47 million) at the domestic box office. Box Office India gave it the verdict "All Time Blockbuster '', and described it as "the biggest blockbuster of the modern era. '' Much of the success was due to repeat business. For example, painter M.F. Husain was reported to have seen the film over 60 times. Adjusted for inflation, Hum Aapke Hain Kaun is believed to be among the top five highest grossing Hindi films. Its adjusted gross is approximately ₹ 3.09 billion (US $47 million).
Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! received generally positive reviews. India Abroad called it a "cloyingly familial and touchingly sad melodrama replete with typical Indian social situations ''.
Redo, an Indian Spitz, received favourable recognition as Tuffy the dog. He was included in the "Best pets in Hindi films '' list compiled by Daily News and Analysis. After the film, Redo was reportedly adopted by actress Madhuri Dixit.
Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! won the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment. The film was nominated for 12 Filmfare Awards, Including Best Film, Best Director, and Best Actress. The film went on to win five awards making it one of the biggest winners of the year. Lata Mangeshkar, who sang more than 10 songs in the movie, had long retired from accepting awards, but the public demand for the song "Didi Tera Devar Deewana '' was such that she received the Filmfare Special Award that year.
The film also won major awards at the newly introduced ' Screen Awards ', where it won six awards.
Author Kovid Gupta classified Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! as a film that bridges the gap between traditionalism and modernity. He discussed the songs of the films in particular, and the "manifestation of romance under the acceptance and blessings of the family, in specific, the elder sister - in - law ''. Patricia Uberoi called the film a family film in two ways; it is about family relationships, and it is suitable for the entire family to watch. She said that the film is not about the two leads, but about the family, an ideal family. Tejaswini Ganti has called the film a "paean to filial duty '' for how the children are willing to sacrifice their love for the good of their families. The family relationships are also noted for being different from the normal cinematic families of the time due to their mutual civility. Rediff.com noted that "Though the film was initially dismissed as a wedding video, its success indicated that post-liberalisation, Indian audiences still clung to the comfort of the familiar. '' Jigna Desai said that the film 's popularity was due to interactions of the families around the traditional folk wedding practices. In his study on the response to the film, academic Vamsee Juluri concluded that the celebration of the family is HAHK 's "most useful contribution to history ''.
Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! is credited as being a defining moment in Hindi cinema 's box office history, and the beginning of a revolution in the Indian film distribution system. When it was released, cinema was in decline in India due to improved cable television, home video, and film piracy. The film was originally released in only a small number of theatres that agreed to upgrade their facilities. Due to widespread demand for the film, many other theatres upgraded in order to get the film. Although ticket prices were raised, the upgraded theatres brought people back who had been lost to television. Also, the film 's lack of vulgarity was a sign to middle - class family patrons that they could return to the theatre. This film, in addition to the following year 's Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, contributed to an increase in Indian cinema attendance of 40 % in just two years.
The film was so successful that it literally gave the term blockbuster new meaning in India. Box Office India said, "Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! (...) took business for films released afterwards to another level. To put into perspective how business changed (...) before Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! an all India share of 10 crore for a big film was regarded as blockbuster business but after Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! the blockbuster business figure went to 20 crore. ''
Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! influenced many subsequent Hindi films. The film was also a trendsetter for glamorous family dramas and NRI - related films, and started Bollywood 's "big - fat - wedding - film '' trend. In 1998 a theatre company in London, where the film had played for a year, staged a production based on the film titled Fourteen Songs, Two Weddings and a Funeral. Planet Bollywood has noted that no wedding is complete without some songs from this film, and it has been used as a script to design wedding plans. For years afterwards, women wanted to wear a purple sari like the one worn by Madhuri Dixit in the song "Didi Tera Devar Deewana ''.
Filmmaker Karan Johar named it as the one film that changed his life. He said, "After seeing Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! I realized Indian cinema is about values, tradition, subtlety, romance. There is so much soul in it. (...) I decided to go ahead and be a filmmaker only after watching this film. '' Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! belongs to a small collection of films, including Kismet (1943), Mother India (1957), Mughal - e-Azam (1960) and Sholay (1975), which are repeatedly watched throughout India and are viewed as definitive Hindi films with cultural significance.
|
what is n and c terminus in protein | N - terminus - wikipedia
The N - terminus (also known as the amino - terminus, NH - terminus, N - terminal end or amine - terminus) is the start of a protein or polypeptide referring to the free amine group (- NH) located at the end of a polypeptide. Normally the amine group is bonded to another carboxylic group in a protein to make it a chain, but since the end of a protein has only 1 out of 2 areas chained, the free amine group is referred to the N - terminus. By convention, peptide sequences are written N - terminus to C - terminus, left to right in LTR languages. This correlates the translation direction to the text direction (because when a protein is translated from messenger RNA, it is created from N - terminus to C - terminus - amino acids are added to the carbonyl end).
Each amino acid has an amine group and a carboxylic group. Amino acids link to one another by peptide bonds which form through a dehydration reaction that joins the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amine group of the next in a head - to - tail manner to form a polypeptide chain. The chain has two ends - an amine group, the N - terminus, and an unbound carboxyl group, the C - terminus.
When a protein is translated from messenger RNA, it is created from N - terminus to C - terminus. The amino end of an amino acid (on a charged tRNA) during the elongation stage of translation, attaches to the carboxyl end of the growing chain. Since the start codon of the genetic code codes for the amino acid methionine, most protein sequences start with a methionine (or, in bacteria, mitochondria and chloroplasts, the modified version N - formylmethionine, fMet). However, some proteins are modified posttranslationally, for example, by cleavage from a protein precursor, and therefore may have different amino acids at their N - terminus.
The N - terminus is the first part of the protein that exits the ribosome during protein biosynthesis. It often contains signal peptide sequences, "intracellular postal codes '' that direct delivery of the protein to the proper organelle. The signal peptide is typically removed at the destination by a signal peptidase. The N - terminal amino acid of a protein is an important determinant of its half - life (likelihood of being degraded). This is called the N - end rule.
The N - terminal signal peptide is recognized by the signal recognition particle (SRP) and results in the targeting of the protein to the secretory pathway. In eukaryotic cells, these proteins are synthesized at the rough endoplasmic reticulum. In prokaryotic cells, the proteins are exported across the cell membrane. In chloroplasts, signal peptides target proteins to the thylakoids.
The N - terminal mitochondrial targeting peptide (mtTP) allows for the protein to be imported into the mitochondrion.
The N - terminal chloroplast targeting peptide (cpTP) allows for the protein to be imported into the chloroplast.
Protein N - termini can be modified co - or posttranslationally. Modifications include the removal of initiator methionine (iMet) by aminopeptidases, attachment of small chemical groups such as acetyl, propionyl and methyl, and the addition of membrane anchors, such as palmitoyl and myristoyl groups
N - terminal acetylation
N - terminal acetylation is a form of protein modification that can occur in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. It has been suggested that N - terminal acetylation can prevent a protein from following a secretory pathway.
The N - terminus can be modified by the addition of a myristoyl anchor. Proteins that are modified this way contain a consensus motif at their N - terminus as a modification signal.
The N - terminus can also be modified by the addition of a fatty acid anchor to form N - acylated proteins. The most common form of such modification is the addition of a palmitoyl group.
|
where is the school of visual arts located | School of Visual Arts - wikipedia
The School of Visual Arts (SVA) is a for - profit art and design college located in Manhattan, New York, founded in 1947. The college is a member of the Association of Independent Colleges of Art and Design, a consortium of 36 leading art schools in the United States.
SVA was established by co-founders Silas H. Rhodes and Burne Hogarth in 1947, as the Cartoonists and Illustrators School. The school began with three teachers and 35 students, most of whom were World War II veterans who had a large part of their tuition underwritten by U.S. government 's G.I. Bill. The college was renamed the School of Visual Arts in 1956. It offered its first degrees in 1972. In 1983, the college introduced its first graduate offering, a Master of Fine Arts in painting, drawing and sculpture.
Today the school has a faculty of more than 1,000 and a student body of over 3,000. The school offers 11 undergraduate and 22 graduate degree programs and is accredited by the Commission on Higher Education of the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools and the National Association of Schools of Art and Design.
The BFA interior design program is accredited by the Council for Interior Design Accreditation. The MPS art therapy program is approved by the American Art Therapy Association, and the MA art education program is accredited by the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation.
The college 's logo, seen on its banners, publications and merchandise, was created in 1997 by designer George Tscherny for SVA 's 50th anniversary and redesigned in 2013.
SVA also has three non-degree granting undergraduate departments: Art History, Honors Program and Humanities and Sciences.
The Division of Continuing Education at SVA offers noncredit courses from most SVA departments; ¿ Hablas Diseño?, a selection of advertising, branding, cartooning, copywriting, illustration and marketing courses taught in Spanish; professional development and corporate training courses; and summer residency programs.
SVA Arts Abroad offers short - term study abroad programs in various creative fields.
In 2014, LinkedIn named SVA # 2 in its "best schools for designers '' list. PayScale included the college in its "Top 10 Art & Design Schools by Salary Potential '' list for 2013 - 2014. SVA is ranked 18th among the art graduate schools in U.S. News & World Report, with its MFA Photography, Video and Related Media program ranked the sixth MFA photography program in the country. Since 2012,
SVA operates out of several buildings located in the Gramercy Park neighborhood, on Manhattan 's east side, and in the Chelsea neighborhood, on the city 's west side. Additionally, the college maintains a residence hall on Ludlow Street, in Manhattan 's Lower East Side. From 1994 to 1997, the college also had a branch campus in Savannah, Georgia. However, the campus was closed following a lawsuit from the Savannah College of Art and Design.
The college 's 209 East 23rd Street building, located between Second Avenue and Third Avenue, features classrooms, administrative offices, a cafeteria (Moe 's Cafe) and an amphitheater. The upper floors are mostly designated for the film, video, graphic design, advertising, illustration and cartooning classes. The building also houses the SVA Gramercy Gallery, on the ground floor.
The college operates from several floors of the building located at 380 Second Avenue: the second, where the SVA Library and some classrooms are located; the fifth, where undergraduate animation studios and the MFA Design Department are located; the seventh, where the illustration classrooms and studios are located; and the eighth, where Humanities and Sciences administrative offices and classrooms are located.
In addition to its collection of books, periodicals, audio recordings, films and other media, the SVA Library houses the Milton Glaser Design Study Center and Archives, which comprises the collections of Chermayeff & Geismar, Seymour Chwast, Heinz Edelmann, Milton Glaser, Steven Heller, Ed McCabe, James McMullan, Tony Palladino, George Tscherny and Henry Wolf; and the SVA Archives, a repository for materials pertaining to the college 's history. Both archives are available to the public via appointment.
This building is where classrooms and studios used for undergraduate and graduate photography classes are located, as well as the college 's radio station, WSVA, and some administrative offices.
The SVA building located from 133 to 141 West 21st Street, between Sixth Avenue and Seventh Avenue in Chelsea, contains most of the studios serving drawing and painting classes, particularly for freshmen. It also features classrooms and studios for classes in interior design, printmaking, computer art and art history. The building also houses the SVA Flatiron Gallery, on the ground floor, and a cafeteria (Moe 's Cafe) on the lower level.
SVA also owns the buildings located at 132 and 136 West 21st Street, which have offices, classrooms and studios for art criticism, art education, art therapy, cartooning, computer art, design, illustration and writing. The building at 132 West 21st Street houses the Visible Futures Lab, a workshop featuring traditional and emerging fabrication technology, which regularly hosts artists in residence.
Located at 335 West 16th Street, this building houses the BFA Fine Arts Department, including sculpture studios and digital lab.
The SVA Theatre is located at 333 West 23rd Street, between Eighth Avenue and Ninth Avenue, in Chelsea. It was formerly the Clearview Chelsea West Cinema. The facility was purchased in 2008, renovated and reopened in January 2009. Designer and SVA Acting Chairman Milton Glaser produced designs for the theater 's interior and exterior, including the sculpture situated atop its marquee. The 20,000 - square - foot (1,900 m) facility houses two separate auditoriums, one with 265 seats and one with 480, and hosts class meetings, lectures, screenings and other public events. The SVA Theatre has also hosted the red - carpet New York première of Ethan Hawke 's The Daybreakers and a diverse list of world premières connected to SVA 's educational mission and student interests, ranging from Lucy Liu 's 2010 feature documentary Redlight, to the 2011 Fox animated comedy Allen Gregory; and the 2012 film The Hunger Games. Community partners that have used the theater include the Tribeca and GenArt film festivals, Mayor Michael Bloomberg 's PlaNYC environmental initiative, and the Mayor 's Office of Film, Theatre & Broadcasting. The theater is also home to the Dusty Film & Animation Festival, held annually since 1990, which showcases the work of emerging filmmakers and animators from the college 's BFA Film and Video and BFA Animation programs.
SVA has three gallery spaces: SVA Chelsea Gallery, at 601 West 26th Street, 15th floor; SVA Flatiron Gallery, at 133 / 141 West 21st Street; and SVA Gramercy Gallery, at 209 East 23rd Street. The galleries show a mix of student and professional art; exhibitions are free and open to the public.
There are several residence halls available for students at SVA.
|
where did the last name whitaker come from | Whitaker (surname) - wikipedia
Whitaker is a surname of English and Scottish origin, meaning the white acre, also spelled "Whittaker '' and "Whitacre. '' Notable people with the surname include:
Fictional characters:
|
who does the voice of cake in adventure time | Adventure Time - wikipedia
Adventure Time is an American animated television series created by Pendleton Ward for Cartoon Network. It follows the adventures of a boy named Finn (voiced by Jeremy Shada) and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake (John DiMaggio) -- a dog with the magical power to change shape and size at will. Finn and Jake live in the post-apocalyptic Land of Ooo, where they interact with Princess Bubblegum (Hynden Walch), the Ice King (Tom Kenny), Marceline the Vampire Queen (Olivia Olson), BMO (Niki Yang), and others. The series is based on a 2007 short produced for Nicktoons and Frederator Studios ' animation incubator series Random! Cartoons. After the short became a viral hit on the Internet, Cartoon Network commissioned a full - length series, which previewed on March 11, 2010, and officially premiered on April 5, 2010.
The series draws inspiration from a variety of sources, including the fantasy role - playing game Dungeons & Dragons and video games. It is produced using hand - drawn animation; action and dialogue for episodes are decided by storyboarding artists. Because each episode takes roughly eight to nine months to complete, multiple episodes are worked on concurrently. The cast members record their lines in group recordings, and the series regularly employs guest actors for minor and recurring characters. Each episode runs for about eleven minutes; pairs of episodes are often telecast to fill half - hour program slots. Eight seasons of the program have aired, and a ninth and final season premiered on April 21, 2017 and is scheduled to conclude in 2018. As of October 2015, a feature - length film is in development.
Adventure Time has been a ratings success for Cartoon Network and some episodes have attracted over 3 million viewers; despite being aimed primarily at children, it has developed a following among teenagers and adults. The show has received positive reviews from critics and won awards including: seven Primetime Emmy Awards, a Peabody Award, three Annie Awards, two British Academy Children 's Awards, a Motion Picture Sound Editors Award, a Pixel Award, and a Kerrang! Award. The series has also been nominated for three Critics ' Choice Television Awards, two Annecy Festival Awards, a TCA Award, and a Sundance Film Festival Award, among others. Of the many comic book spin - offs based on the series, one received an Eisner Award and two Harvey Awards. Various forms of licensed merchandise, including books, video games and clothing, have been inspired by the series.
Adventure Time follows the adventures of a boy, Finn the Human (voiced by Jeremy Shada), and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake the Dog (John DiMaggio), who has magical powers to change shape and size at will. Pendleton Ward, the series ' creator, describes Finn as a "fiery little kid with strong morals ''. Jake, on the other hand, is based on Tripper Harrison, Bill Murray 's character in Meatballs. This means that while Jake is somewhat care - free, he will "sit (Finn) down and give him some decent advice if he really needs it ''. Finn and Jake live in the post-apocalyptic Land of Ooo, which was ravaged by a cataclysmic nuclear war a thousand years before the series ' events. Throughout the series, Finn and Jake interact with major characters, including: Princess Bubblegum (Hynden Walch), the sovereign of the Candy Kingdom; the Ice King (Tom Kenny), a menacing but largely misunderstood ice wizard; Marceline the Vampire Queen (Olivia Olson), a thousand - year - old vampire and rock music enthusiast; Lumpy Space Princess (Pendleton Ward), a melodramatic and immature princess made out of "lumps ''; BMO (Niki Yang), a sentient video game console - shaped robot that lives with Finn and Jake; and Flame Princess (Jessica DiCicco), a flame elemental and ruler of the Fire Kingdom.
According to series creator Pendleton Ward, the show 's style was influenced by his time attending the California Institute of the Arts (CalArts) and his experiences working as a writer and storyboard artist on The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack, a series which ran on Cartoon Network from 2008 until 2010. In an interview with Animation World Network, Ward said he strives to combine the series ' subversive humor with "beautiful '' moments, using Hayao Miyazaki 's film My Neighbor Totoro as inspiration. Ward has also named Home Movies and Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist as influences, largely because both shows are "relaxing '' and feature "conversational dialogue that feels natural (and is neither) over the top (nor) cartoony and shrill ''.
The series can trace its origin back a seven - minute, stand - alone animated short film of the same name (this short would later be identified as the show 's pilot post facto). Ward created the short almost entirely by himself, and concluded its production in early 2006. The film was first broadcast on Nicktoons Network on January 11, 2007, and was re-broadcast as part of Frederator Studios ' anthology show Random! Cartoons on December 7, 2008. After its initial release, the video became a viral hit on the Internet. Frederator Studios then pitched an Adventure Time series to Nicktoons Network, which rejected it twice. Eventually, Nicktoons ' rights to commission a full series expired, and Frederator -- the short 's production animation studio -- pitched it to other channels. One of the studios that Frederator approached was Cartoon Network, which said it would be willing to produce a series if Ward could prove the short could be expanded into a full series while maintaining elements of the pilot. Rob Sorcher, the chief content officer at Cartoon Network, was influential in getting the network to take a chance on the show; he recognized the series as "something that felt really indie... comic book - y (and) new ''.
Ward and his production team attempted to "keep the good things about the original short and improve on (them) '' while developing the series. His college friends Patrick McHale and Adam Muto (the latter of whom would go on to be an Adventure Time storyboard artist and creative director, as well as the eventual showrunner) helped him to produce a rough storyboard that featured Finn and Princess Bubblegum going on a spaghetti - supper date. Cartoon Network was not happy with this story and asked for another, so Ward, McHale, and Muto created a storyboard for the episode "The Enchiridion! '', which was his attempt to emulate the style of the original Nicktoons short. This tactic proved successful, and Cartoon Network approved the first season in September 2008. "The Enchiridion! '' was the first episode to enter into production.
Ward and his production team began storyboarding episodes and writing plot outlines, but Cartoon Network was still concerned about the direction of the new series. McHale later recalled that during the pitch of an episode titled "Brothers in Insomnia '' (which, for various reasons, was eventually scrapped) the room was filled with executives from Cartoon Network. The pitch went well, but the production staff was soon inundated with questions about the stylistic nature of the series. Hoping to resolve these issues, Cartoon Network management hired three veteran animators who had worked on SpongeBob SquarePants: Derek Drymon (who served as executive producer for the first season of Adventure Time), Merriwether Williams (who served as head story editor for the show 's first and second seasons), and Nick Jennings (who became the series ' long - serving art director). Thurop Van Orman, the creator of The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack, was also hired to guide Ward and his staff for the first two seasons. Eventually, the storyboard for "Prisoners of Love '' managed to assuage many of the fears that some Cartoon Network executives had expressed.
Other artists were soon brought on board. Dan "Ghostshrimp '' Bandit, a freelance illustrator who had also written and storyboarded on Flapjack, was hired as the show 's lead background designer; Ward told him to create background art that decidedly set the show "in a ' Ghostshrimp World ' ''. Ghostshrimp designed major locations, including Finn and Jake 's home, the Candy Kingdom, and the Ice Kingdom. The position of lead character designer was eventually given to Phil Rynda, who held this role for two - and - a-half seasons. The lead production crew for the show (which included Ward and McHale) were initially hesitant to bring him on board, but they were soon convinced by director Larry Leichliter, who assured them that Rynda was talented and could draw in a variety of styles. With the producers satisfied, Rynda quickly began designing characters that fell in line with "Pen 's natural aesthetic ''. At the same time, he also sought to craft simple designs "that any kid could draw and identify with ''. Additionally, Rynda and McHale began drafting artistic guidelines for the show, so that its animation style would always be somewhat consistent. With many of the lead production roles filled, Ward turned his attention to choosing storyboard artists for the first season. Eventually, he assembled a team made up largely of "younger, inexperienced people '', many of whom he discovered on the Internet.
For the first four - and - a-half seasons of the show, Ward served as the showrunner for Adventure Time. In an interview with Rolling Stone, Ward revealed that he had stepped down from this role sometime during the fifth season. As a naturally introverted person, he found dealing with people every day to be exhausting. Following Ward 's resignation from the post, Adam Muto became the series ' new showrunner. Until late 2014, Ward continued to work on the cartoon as a storyboard artist and storyline writer. After November 2014, he stopped writing episode stories and focused on producing an Adventure Time film. However, Ward still looked over stories and provided occasional input, and he continued to storyboard for the series on a limited basis.
Ward described the show as a "dark comedy '' and said he enjoys experiencing ambivalent emotions, such as the feeling of being "happy and scared at the same time ''. He has also cited the fantasy role - playing game Dungeons and Dragons -- of which many of the show 's writers are devotees -- as an inspiration for the show. Ward intends the show 's world to have a coherent physical logic, and although magic exists in the story, the show 's writers try to create an internal consistency in the characters ' interactions with the world. In the United States, the series is rated TV - PG; Ward has said he does not want to push the boundaries of the PG rating, noting, "I 've never really even thought about the rating... we do n't like stuff that 's overly gross. We like cute stuff and nice things. ''
In an interview with The A.V. Club, Ward said the show 's writing process usually begins with the writers telling each other what they had done the previous week to find something humorous to build on. He also said, "a lot of the time, if we 're really stuck, we 'll start saying everything that comes to our mind, which is usually the worst stuff, and then someone else will think that 's terrible but it 'll give him a better idea and the ball just starts rolling like that ''. Because of the busy schedule of writing and coordinating a television series, the writers no longer have time to play Dungeons and Dragons, but they still write stories they would "want to be playing D&D with ''. Sometimes, the writers and storyboard artists convene and play writing games. One game is called exquisite corpse; one writer starts a story on a sheet of paper, and another writer tries to finish it. However, Ward has said, "The ideas are usually terrible ''. Former storyboard artist and current creative director Cole Sanchez said episode scripts are either created by expanding the good ideas produced by these writing games, or are based on an idea proposed by a storyboard artist in the hope it can be developed into an episode.
After the writers pitch stories, the ideas are compiled onto a two - or - three - page outline that contains "the important beats ''. The episodes are then passed to storyboard artists (often referred to colloquially as "boarders ''). While many cartoons are based on script pitches to network executives, Cartoon Network allowed Adventure Time to "build their own teams organically '' and communicate using storyboards and animatics. Rob Sorcher said this novel approach was sanctioned because the company was dealing with "primarily visual people '', and that by using storyboards the writers and artists could learn and grow "by actually doing the work ''. The storyboard artists generally work on an episode in pairs, independent from other storyboarders, which, according to freelance writer David Perlmutter in his book America Toons In, prevents creative ennui and prevents episodes from being "alike in either content or tone ''. Many members of the series ' production staff have backgrounds in indie comics, and Pendleton Ward has called them "really smart, smartypants people '' who were responsible for inserting more idiosyncratic and spiritual ideas into the series. The storyboard artists are given a week to "thumbnail '' (roughly sketch out) a storyboard and fill in the details complete with action, dialogue, and jokes. The series ' showrunner and his creative directors then review the storyboard and make notes. The artists are then given another week to implement the notes and to clean up the episode. Storyboard writing and revising can take up to a month.
Following the writing revisions, voice acting for the episodes is recorded and an animatic is compiled to reduce the running time to the necessary eleven minutes. Prop, character, and background designers then create and clean up the designs. After this, the animation process begins. While the episodes ' design and coloring are done in Burbank, California, the animation is handled in South Korea by either Rough Draft Korea or Saerom Animation. Animating an episode can take between three and five months. During this time, retakes, music scoring, and sound design are completed. Once the animation is finished, it is sent back to the United States where it is reviewed; the staff look for mistakes in the animation or "things that did n't animate the way (the staff) intended ''. These problems are then fixed in Korea and the episode is finished. It takes between eight and nine months for each episode to be created; because of this, multiple episodes are worked on concurrently. According to former lead character designer Phil Rynda, most pre-production is done in Photoshop. The animation is hand - drawn on paper, which is then digitally composited and painted with digital ink and paint. Executive producer Fred Seibert compared the show 's animation style to that of Felix the Cat and various Max Fleischer cartoons, but said its world was equally inspired by video games.
While a great majority of the series ' episodes are animated by Korean animation studios, Adventure Time has occasionally featured guest animators. For instance, the second - season episode "Guardians of Sunshine '' was partly rendered in 3 - D to emulate the style of a video game. The fifth - season episode "A Glitch is a Glitch '' was written and directed by Irish filmmaker and writer David OReilly, and features his distinctive 3 - D animation. Animator James Baxter animated select scenes and characters in both the fifth - season episode "James Baxter the Horse '' as well as the eighth - season entry "Horse & Ball ''. The sixth - season episode "Food Chain '' was written, storyboarded, and directed by Japanese anime director Masaaki Yuasa, and was animated entirely by Yuasa 's own studio. Another sixth - season episode, "Water Park Prank '', features Flash animation by David Ferguson. A stop - motion episode titled "Bad Jubies '', directed by Kirsten Lepore, aired near the middle of the show 's seventh season. Finally, Alex and Lindsay Small - Butera, noted for their web series Baman Piderman, contributed animation for the eighth - season episode "Beyond the Grotto '' and the ninth - season installment "Ketchup ''.
The series ' voice actors include: Jeremy Shada (Finn the Human); John DiMaggio (Jake the Dog); Tom Kenny (The Ice King); Hynden Walch (Princess Bubblegum); and Olivia Olson (Marceline the Vampire Queen). Ward provides voices for several minor characters and Lumpy Space Princess. Former storyboard artist Niki Yang voices the sentient video game console BMO in English, and Jake 's girlfriend Lady Rainicorn in Korean. Polly Lou Livingston, a friend of Pendleton Ward 's mother Bettie Ward, plays the voice of the small elephant named Tree Trunks.
The Adventure Time cast members record their lines together at group recording sessions rather than individually, with the aim of recording natural - sounding dialogue. Hynden Walch has described these group recordings as being akin to "doing a play reading -- a really, really out there play ''. The series regularly employs guest actors for minor and recurring characters. Crew members cast people with whom they are interested in working. For instance, in a panel, both Adam Muto and Kent Osborne said the Adventure Time crew has attempted to cast actors from Star Trek: The Next Generation and The Office as various supporting or background characters.
The show is set in the fictional "Land of Ooo '', in a post-apocalyptic future about a thousand years after a nuclear holocaust called the "Great Mushroom War ''. According to Ward, the show takes place "after the bombs have fallen and magic has come back into the world ''. Before the series was fully developed, Ward intended the Land of Ooo to be simply "magical ''. After the production of the episode "Business Time '', in which an iceberg containing reanimated businessmen floats to the surface of a lake, the show became explicitly post-apocalyptic; Ward said the production crew "just ran with it ''. Ward later described the setting as "candyland on the surface and dark underneath '', noting he had never intended the Mushroom War and the post-apocalyptic elements to be "hit over the head in the show ''. He limited it to "cars buried underground in the background (and other elements that do not) raise any eyebrows ''. Ward has said the series ' post-apocalyptic elements were influenced by the 1979 film Mad Max. Kenny called the way the elements are worked into the plot "very fill - in - the - blanks '', and DiMaggio said, "it 's been obvious the Land of Ooo has some issues ''.
The series has a canonical mythology -- an overarching plot and backstory -- that is expanded upon in various episodes. The backstory involves mainly the Mushroom War, the origin of the series ' principal antagonist the Lich, and the backstories of several of the series ' principal and recurring characters. Ward has said the details behind the Mushroom War and the series ' dark mythology form "a story worth telling '', and that he feels the show will "save it and continue to dance around how heavy the back - history of Ooo is ''.
When Ward was developing the series ' title sequences, the rough draft version consisted of quick shots and vignettes that were "just sort of crazy (and) nonsensical '', which alluded to the show 's theme of quirky adventures. These drafts included "the characters... just punching random ghosts and monsters, jumping through anything and everything (and) there were a bunch of atomic bombs at the end of it ''. Ward later called this version "really silly ''. He sent the draft to Cartoon Network; they did not like it and wanted something more graphical like the introduction to The Brady Bunch. Inspired by the title sequences of The Simpsons and Pee - wee 's Playhouse, Ward developed a new title sequence that featured a panning sweep of the Land of Ooo while a synthesizer note rose slowly until the main theme was played. Ward 's draft for this idea was handed to layout animators, who then finalized the timing for the sequence. From there, the sequence evolved; while Ward added "silly character stuff '', Patrick McHale worked on the Ice King 's shot and gave him a "high school (year) book '' smile. The crew also struggled to get the shadows in the shot featuring Marceline correct. After the panning sweep, the sequence cuts to the theme song as shots of Finn and Jake adventuring are shown. For this part of the sequence, Ward was inspired by the "simple '' aspects of the introduction to the 2007 comedy film Superbad. When the theme mentions "Jake the Dog '' and "Finn the Human '', the characters ' names are displayed next to their heads, with a solid color in the background. The sequence was finalized immediately before the series aired.
The show 's eponymous theme song is sung by Ward, accompanied by a ukulele. It is first heard in the pilot episode; in that version Ward is accompanied by an acoustic guitar. For the version used in the series, Ward sung in a higher register to match with the higher range of the ukulele. The finalized version of the theme song was originally supposed to be a temporary version. Ward said, "I recorded the lyrics for the opening title in the animatics room where we have this little crummy microphone just so that we could add it to the titles and submit it to the network. Later, we tried re-recording it and I did n't like it... I only liked the temp one! '' Because the series ' finalized theme song was originally recorded as a temp track, ambient noises can be hard throughout. For instance, the sound of Derek Drymon typing can be heard while Jake is walking through the Ice Kingdom. According to Ward, much of the series ' music has similar "hiss and grit '' because one of the show 's original composers, Casey James Basichis, "lives in a pirate ship he 's built inside of an apartment (and) you can hear floorboards squeak and lots of other weird sounds ''. As the show progressed, Basichis 's friend Tim Kiefer joined the show as an additional composer. The two now work together on its music.
The show 's title sequence and theme song have stayed mostly consistent throughout its run, with four exceptions. During the "Fionna and Cake '' episode, the series runs a different intro sequence that mirrors the original; however, all the characters are gender - bent, and the theme is sung by former storyboard revisionist Natasha Allegri. Likewise, the intro to the series ' three miniseries are each unique: the introduction to the Marceline - centric Stakes (2015) miniseries places most of the emphasis on Marceline, and the theme song is sung by Olivia Olson; the introduction to Islands (2017) adopts a nautical theme, highlights the principal characters in the miniseries (i.e., Finn, Jake, Susan Strong (voiced by Jackie Buscarino), and BMO), and is sung by Jeremy Shada; finally, the intro to Elements (2017) features imagery reflecting the four primary elements in the Adventure Time universe (viz. fire, ice, slime, and candy) and is sung by Hynden Walch.
The series regularly features songs and musical numbers. Many of the cast members -- including Shada, Kenny, and Olson -- sing their characters ' songs. Characters often express their emotions in song; examples of this include Marceline 's song "I 'm Just Your Problem '' and Finn 's "All Gummed Up Inside ''. Although the series ' background music is composed by Basichis and Kiefer, the songs sung by characters are often written by the storyboard artists. For instance, the "Fry Song '' was written by storyboard artist Rebecca Sugar, who storyboarded its parent episode "It Came from the Nightosphere ''. Frederator, Seibert 's production company, often uploaded demos and full versions of songs sung by the characters to their official website. The show also rarely, but occasionally, refers to popular music.
Each Adventure Time episode is about eleven minutes in length; pairs of episodes are often telecast in order to fill a half - hour program time slot. Before the official debut of the first season, Cartoon Network aired both "Business Time '' and "Evicted! '' on March 11 and March 18, respectively, advertising these showings as "previews '' of the series - to - come. The show officially debuted with "Slumber Party Panic '' on April 5, 2010.
During the latter part of its run, the show began to experiment with the miniseries format. The first of these was Stakes (2015), which aired during the show 's seventh season. The following season, Islands (2016) aired. The third and final miniseries, Elements (2016), aired during the show 's ninth season.
On September 29, 2016, it was announced that the series would conclude in 2018, after the airing of its ninth season.
Since its debut, Adventure Time has been a ratings success for Cartoon Network. In March 2013, it was reported that the show averaged roughly 2 to 3 million viewers an episode. According to a 2012 report by Nielsen, the show consistently ranked first in its time slot among boys aged 2 -- 14. The show premiered on April 5, 2010, and was watched by 2.5 million viewers. The episode was a ratings success. According to a press release by Cartoon Network, the episode 's time slot saw triple - digit percentage increases from the previous year. The program was viewed by 1.661 million children aged 2 -- 11, which marked a 110 percent increase from the previous year 's figures. It was watched by 837,000 children aged 9 -- 14, a 239 percent increase on the previous year 's figures.
Between the second and sixth seasons, the show 's ratings continued to grow; the second - season premiere was watched by 2.001 million viewers, the third - season premiere by 2.686 million, the fourth - season premiere by 2.655 million, the fifth - season premiere by 3.435 million, and the sixth - season premiere by 3.321 million. The show 's seventh - season opener took a substantial ratings tumble, being watched by only 1.07 million viewers. Likewise, the eighth - and ninth - season premieres were watched by only 1.13 and 0.71 million viewers, respectively.
The show has received positive reviews from critics. The A.V. Club reviewer Zack Handlen called it "a terrific show (that) fits beautifully in that gray area between kid and adult entertainment in a way that manages to satisfy both a desire for sophisticated (i.e., weird) writing and plain old silliness ''.
Adventure Time has been complimented for its resemblance to cartoons of the past. In an article for the Los Angeles Times, television critic Robert Lloyd compared the series to "the sort of cartoons they made when cartoons themselves were young and delighted in bringing all things to rubbery life ''. Robert Mclaughlin of Den of Geek expressed a similar sentiment when he wrote that Adventure Time "is the first cartoon in a long time that is pure imagination ''. He complimented the show for "its non-reliance on continually referencing pop culture ''. Eric Kohn of IndieWire said the show "represents the progress of (cartoon) medium '' in the current decade.
A number of reviews have positively compared the series and its creators to other culturally significant works and individuals, respectively. In 2013, Entertainment Weekly reviewer Darren Franich called the series "a hybrid sci - fi / fantasy / horror / musical / fairy tale, with echoes of Calvin and Hobbes, Hayao Miyazaki, Final Fantasy, Richard Linklater, Where the Wild Things Are, and the music video you made with your high school garage band ''. Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker praised Adventure Time 's unique approach to emotion, humor, and philosophy by likening it to "World of Warcraft as recapped by Carl Jung ''. Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club concluded that the show was "basically what would happen if you asked a bunch of 12 - year - olds to make a cartoon, only it 's the best possible version of that, like if all the 12 - year - olds were super geniuses and some of them were Stan Lee and Jack Kirby and the Marx Brothers ''.
Adventure Time 's willingness to explore dark, sad, and complex issues has received praise. Kohn applauded the fact that the show "toys with an incredibly sad subtext. '' Novelist Lev Grossman, in an interview with NPR, praised the backstory of the Ice King and the exploration of his condition in the third - season episode "Holly Jolly Secrets '', the fourth - season episode "I Remember You '', and the fifth - season episode "Simon & Marcy '', noting that his origin is "psychologically plausible. '' Grossman praised the way the series was able to tackle the issues of mental illness, saying: "It 's very affecting. My dad has been going through having Alzheimer 's, and he 's forgotten so much about who he used to be. And I look at him and think this cartoon is about my father dying. '' Critics have suggested that the show has grown and matured as it has aged. In a review of season four, for instance, Mike LeChevallier of Slant magazine complimented the show for "growing up '' with its characters. He concluded that the series has "strikingly few faults '' and awarded the fourth season three - and - a-half stars out of four.
The series has been included on a number of best - of lists. Entertainment Weekly ranked it number 20 (out of 25) in a list of the "Greatest Animated TV Series ''. Similarly, The A.V. Club, in a non-ranked run - down of the "best animated series ever '', called the series "one of the most distinctive cartoons currently on the air ''.
The show has also received limited criticism from reviewers. LeChevallier, in an otherwise largely positive review of the third season for Slant magazine, wrote that "the short - form format leaves some emotional substance to be desired '', and that this was inevitable for a series with such short episodes. The independent cartoon scholar and critic David Perlmutter, who otherwise applauded the show 's voice acting and its ability to transcend its source material, argued that the show 's vacillation between high and low comedy epitomizes the fact that Cartoon Network is "unsure of what direction to pursue ''. He noted that "while some of (Adventure Time 's) episodes work well, others (are) simply confusing. '' The newspaper Metro cited the show 's frightening situations, occasional adult themes, and use of innuendo as reason why parents might not want their young children watching it.
Several former storyboard artists and production crew members who worked on Adventure Time have gone on to create their own series, including Pat McHale (Over the Garden Wall), Rebecca Sugar (Steven Universe), Ian Jones - Quartey (OK K.O.! Let 's Be Heroes), Skyler Page (Clarence), and Julia Pott (Summer Camp Island).
Heidi MacDonald of Slate has argued that the scouting of indie comic creators employed by Adventure Time (as well as several other Cartoon Network and Nickelodeon series) has led to an "animation gold rush '' in which major studios are actively seeking under - the - radar talent for their shows, with her article surmising that "your favorite brilliant indie cartoonist is probably storyboarding for Adventure Time. '' MacDonald also pointed out that Adventure Time has influenced the tone of modern comics, noting:
If anything, walking around (comic) shows like SPX, I 've noticed something of an Adventure Time track among many of the small press comics now coming out: Where once young cartoonists overwhelmingly produced gloomy masculine self - absorption and misanthropy in the tradition of Daniel Clowes or Chris Ware, these days many booths feature fantasy epics with colorful characters and invented worlds heavy on the talking animals. It should n't be surprising that up - and - coming cartoonists are absorbing the Adventure Time aesthetic. A 20 - year - old making comics now could have been watching the show since she was 15, after all.
Adventure Time has attracted academic interest for its examination of gender and gender roles. Emma A. Jane, a senior research fellow at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia, said although the two main characters are male, and that many episodes involve them engaging in violent acts to save princesses, "Finn and Jake are part of an expansive ensemble cast of characters who are anything but stereotypical and who populate a program which subverts many traditional gender - related paradigms ''. She said the show features "roughly equal numbers of female and male characters in protagonist, antagonist, and minor roles ''; includes characters with no fixed gender; uses "gendered ' design elements ' '' such as eyelashes and hair to illustrate character traits rather than gender; equally distributes traits regardless of gender; privileges found, adoptive families or extended families; frames gender in ways that suggest it is fluid; and features elements of queer and transgender sub-text. Carolyn Leslie, writing in Screen, agrees, saying, "despite having two male leads, Adventure Time is particularly strong when it comes to questioning and challenging gender stereotypes ''. She uses Princess Bubblegum, BMO, and Fionna and Cake as examples of characters who refuse to be readily categorized and genderized.
Since its debut, Adventure Time has developed a strong following among children, teenagers, and adults; according to A.V. Club critic Noel Murray, fans are drawn to Adventure Time because of "the show 's silly humor, imaginative stories, and richly populated world ''. While the show is often described as having a cult following, Eric Kohn of IndieWire said that the series has "started to look like one of the biggest television phenomenons of the decade ''. According to Alex Heigl of People magazine, "The show 's fandom is especially Internet - savvy as well, with huge communities on Reddit, Imgur and Tumblr, who swap GIFs, fan art and theories with fervent regularity. '' In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Adventure Time "is the most popular show among the young in our data -- just over two - thirds of ' likes ' come from viewers (aged) 18 -- 24 ''.
The show is popular at fan conventions, such as the San Diego Comic - Con. Reporter Emma - Lee Moss said, "This year 's (2014) Comic - Con schedule reflected Adventure Time 's growing success, with several screenings (as well as) a dramatic reading with the show 's voice talent ''. The show is also popular with cosplayers, or performance artists who wear costumes and fashion accessories to represent characters from the Adventure Time universe. Moss wrote, "Looking into the crowd, it was clear that (Finn 's) distinctive blue shirt and white hat were being mirrored by hundreds of Cosplayers, male and female. '' In an interview, Olivia Olson (who voices the character Marceline) said, "Literally, anywhere you look, anywhere in your range, you 're going to see at least two people dressed up like Finn. It 's crazy. ''
On November 19, 2011, KaBOOM! Studios announced plans for an Adventure Time comic book series written by independent web comic creator Ryan North, who wrote the series Dinosaur Comics. The series launched on February 8, 2012, with art by Shelli Paroline and Braden Lamb. In October 2014, it was revealed that North had left the comic series after three years. His duties were assumed by Christopher Hastings, the creator of The Adventures of Dr. McNinja.
After the success of the ongoing comic book line, several spin - off mini-series were launched. In April 2012, a six - issue miniseries titled Adventure Time: Marceline and the Scream Queens written by Meredith Gran -- who created the series Octopus Pie -- was announced. It was launched in July 2012 and features the characters Marceline and Princess Bubblegum touring the Land of Ooo as part of Marceline 's rock band, The Scream Queens. Another six - issue miniseries, Adventure Time with Fionna & Cake was launched in January 2013. This series, drawn by Adventure Time series character designer and storyboard revisionist Natasha Allegri, follows the gender - bent characters Fionna the Human and Cake the Cat from the episode "Fionna and Cake ''. Other spin - off comic series including Candy Capers, Flip Side, Banana Guard Academy, and Adventure Time: Ice King, have been released, each written and illustrated by different writers and artists. One - shot spin - offs have also been announced; the first, Spoooktacular # 1, was released in October 2015.
A separate line of comics, officially denoted as graphic novels, have also been released. The first of these, titled Adventure Time: Playing with Fire, was written by Danielle Corsetto and illustrated by Zack Sterling. It was released in April 2013, and focuses on Flame Princess 's "very first adventure '' with Finn and Jake. Playing with Fire was followed by several other volumes, including: Pixel Princesses (November 6, 2013), Seeing Red (May 2, 2014), Bitter Sweets (November 11, 2014), Graybles Schmaybles (May 12, 2015), Masked Mayhem (November 11, 2015), The Four Castles (May 17, 2016), President Bubblegum (September 27, 2016), Brain Robbers (March 28, 2017), and The Ooorient Express (announced for July 18, 2017).
Other Adventure Time - themed books have also been released. The Adventure Time Encyclopaedia, published on July 22, 2013, was written by comedian Martin Olson, father of Olivia Olson and the voice of recurring character Hunson Abadeer. This was followed by Adventure Time: The Enchiridion & Marcy 's Super Secret Scrapbook!!!, which was released on October 6, 2015. Written by Martin and Olivia Olson, it is presented as a combination of the Enchiridion and Marceline 's secret diary. An official Art of... book, titled The Art of Ooo was published on October 14, 2014. It contains interviews with cast and crew members, and opens with an introduction by film - maker Guillermo del Toro. Two volumes with collections of the show 's title cards have also been released, as has a cookbook with recipes inspired by the show, and a series of prose novels published under the header "Epic Tales from Adventure Time '' (which includes The Untamed Scoundrel, Queen of Rogues, The Lonesome Outlaw, and The Virtue of Ardor, all of which were published under the pseudonym "T.T. MacDangereuse '').
The series has spawned several major video game releases. The first game based on the series, Adventure Time: Hey Ice King! Why 'd You Steal Our Garbage?!!, was announced by Pendleton Ward on his Twitter account in March 2012. The game was developed by WayForward Technologies for Nintendo DS and Nintendo 3DS, and was released by D3 Publisher on November 20, 2012. A year later, the game Adventure Time: Explore the Dungeon Because I Do n't Know!, which follows Finn and Jake as they strive "to save the Candy Kingdom by exploring the mysterious Secret Royal Dungeon deep below the Land of Ooo '', was released in November 2013. On November 18, 2014, Adventure Time: The Secret of the Nameless Kingdom was released for Nintendo 3DS, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Microsoft Windows. In October 2015, the fourth major Adventure Time video game, titled Finn & Jake Investigations, was released. It is the first in the series to feature full 3D graphics.
Various other minor video games have also been released. Several, including Legends of Ooo, Fionna Fights, Beemo -- Adventure Time, and Ski Safari: Adventure Time, have been released on the iOS App Store. A game titled Finn & Jake 's Quest was released on April 11, 2014, on Steam. Cartoon Network also released a multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) game titled Adventure Time: Battle Party on Cartoon Network 's official site, on June 23, 2014. In April 2015, two downloadable content packs for LittleBigPlanet 3 on PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 were released; one contained Adventure Time costumes, while the other contained a level kit with decorations, stickers, music, objects, a background, and a bonus Fionna costume. A virtual reality (VR) game entitled Adventure Time: Magic Man 's Head Games was also released to Oculus Rift, HTC Vive, and PlayStation VR. A second VR game, entitled Adventure Time: I See Ooo, was released on September 29, 2016. In that same month, Adventure Time characters were added to the Lego Dimensions game.
A variety of officially licensed merchandise -- including action figures, role - playing toys, bedding, dishware, and various other products -- have been released. Since the dramatic increase in popularity of the series, many graphic T - shirts have been officially licensed through popular clothing retailers. Pendleton Ward hosted T - shirt designing contests on the websites of both We Love Fine and Threadless. Other shirts can be purchased directly from Cartoon Network 's store. A collectible card game called Card Wars, inspired by the fourth - season episode of the same name, has been released. On March 11, 2016, it was announced by Lego via Lego Ideas that an official Adventure Time Lego set from an idea by site user, aBetterMonkey, had met voting qualifications and was approved to be produced in cooperation with Cartoon Network. The set was released in January 2017.
In February 2015, it was reported that a theatrical Adventure Time film was being developed by Cartoon Network Studios, Frederator Films, Vertigo Entertainment, and Warner Animation Group. The film is being executive produced and written by Pendleton Ward, and produced by Roy Lee and Chris McKay. In October 2015, series producer Adam Muto confirmed that series creator Pendleton Ward is still currently "working on the premise '' for the film, but that there was "nothing official to announce yet ''.
"Leela and the Genestalk '', an episode from the seventh season of the animated Comedy Central program Futurama, features a cameo of Finn and Jake, with DiMaggio reprising his role as Jake for the appearance. Similarly, the twenty - eighth season premiere of the Fox series The Simpsons, entitled "Monty Burns ' Fleeing Circus '', includes a couch gag that parodies the title sequence to Adventure Time, complete with Pendleton Ward himself singing a spoof of the Adventure Time theme song. According to Al Jean, the executive producer of The Simpsons, "(The couch gag) was the brain child of Mike Anderson, our supervising director... It 's a really beautiful, elaborate crossover. ''
On September 27, 2011, Cartoon Network released the region 1 DVD My Two Favorite People, which features a selection of twelve episodes from the series ' first two seasons. Following this, several other region - 1 compilation DVDs have been released, including: It Came from the Nightosphere (2012), Jake vs. Me - Mow (2012), Fionna and Cake (2013), Jake the Dad (2013), The Suitor (2014), Princess Day (2014), Adventure Time and Friends (2014), Finn the Human (2014), Frost & Fire (2015), The Enchiridion (2015), Stakes (2016), Card Wars (2016), and Islands (2017). In addition, the first seven seasons have been released on DVD, and the first six have been released on Blu - ray. On March 30, 2013, the first season of Adventure Time was made available on the Netflix Instant Watch service for online streaming; the second season was made available on March 30, 2014. Both seasons were removed from Netflix on March 30, 2015, although the series was eventually made available for streaming via Hulu on May 1, 2015.
|
in which city did ireland most recently play in the world cup finals (vs spain 2002) | Republic of Ireland at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The Republic of Ireland have appeared in the finals of the FIFA World Cup on three occasions, in 1990, 1994 and 2002. They have always advanced from the first round. Ireland has the record for getting furthest in the tournament without winning a match.
Their first appearance in the finals was in Italy at the 1990 FIFA World Cup. 1990 was also their best performance in a major championship, where they reached the quarter finals.
Note: Republic of Ireland awarded second place by drawing of lots
Defender Steve Staunton has represented the Irish team in all of their 13 World Cup matches, captaining the team in 2002.
|
which wall of the uterus is made of smooth muscle | Myometrium - wikipedia
The myometrium is the middle layer of the uterine wall, consisting mainly of uterine smooth muscle cells (also called uterine myocytes), but also of supporting stromal and vascular tissue. Its main function is to induce uterine contractions.
The myometrium is located between the endometrium (the inner layer of the uterine wall), and the serosa or perimetrium (the outer uterine layer).
Myometrium has 3 layers: outer longitudinal smooth muscles, middle crisscrossing (figure of eight) muscle fibres, and inner circular fibres. Middle crisscross fibres act as living ligature during involution of the uterus and prevent blood loss.
The inner one - third of the myometrium (termed the junctional or sub-endometrial layer) appears to be derived from the Müllerian duct, while the outer, more predominant layer of the myometrium appears to originate from non-Müllerian tissue, and is the major contractile tissue during parturition and abortion. The junctional layer appears to function like a circular muscle layer, capable of peristaltic and anti-peristaltic activity, equivalent to the muscular layer of the intestines.
The molecular structure of the smooth muscle of myometrium is very similar to that of smooth muscle in other sites of the body, with myosin and actin being the predominant proteins. In uterine smooth muscle, there is approximately 6-fold more actin than myosin. A shift in the myosin expression of the uterine smooth muscle may be responsible for changes in the directions of uterine contractions during the menstrual cycle.
Uterine smooth muscle has a phasic pattern, shifting between a contractile pattern and maintenance of a resting tone with discrete, intermittent contractions of varying frequency, amplitude and duration.
As noted for the macrostructure of uterine smooth muscle, the junctional layer appears be capable of both peristaltic and anti-peristaltic activity.
The resting membrane potential (V) of uterine smooth muscle has been recorded to be between - 35 and - 80 mV. As with the resting membrane potential of other cell types, it is maintained by a Na / K pump that causes a higher concentration of Na ions in the extracellular space than in the intracellular space, and a higher concentration of K ions in the intracellular space than in the extracellular space. Subsequently, having K channels open to a higher degree than Na channels results in an overall efflux of positive ions, resulting in a negative potential.
This resting potential undergoes rhythmic oscillations, which have been termed slow waves, and reflect intrinsic activity of slow wave potentials. These slow waves are caused by changes in the distribution of Ca, Na, K and Cl ions between the intracellular and extracellular spaces, which, in turn, reflects the permeability of the plasma membrane to each of those ions. K is the major ion responsible for such changes in ion flux, reflecting changes in various K channels.
The excitation - contraction coupling of uterine smooth muscle is also very similar to that of other smooth muscle in general, with intracellular increase in calcium (Ca) leading to contraction. However, the stimulating factors for uterine smooth muscle differs from other types of.
Removal of Ca after contraction induces relaxation of the smooth muscle, and restores the molecular structure of the sarcoplasmic reticulum for the next contractile stimulus.
The myometrium stretches (the smooth muscle cells expand in both size and number) during pregnancy to allow for the uterus to become several times its non-gravid size, and contracts in a coordinated fashion, via a positive feedback effect on the "Ferguson reflex '', during the process of labor. After delivery the myometrium contracts to expel the placenta, and crisscrossing fibres of middle layer compress the blood vessels to minimize blood loss. A positive benefit to early breastfeeding is a stimulation of this reflex to reduce further blood loss and facilitate a swift return to prepregnancy uterine and abdominal muscle tone.
Lack of contraction at this stage is termed uterine atony. After pregnancy the uterus returns to its nonpregnant size by a process of myometrial involution.
Benign neoplasms of the myometrium are very common, termed uterine leiomyomata or fibroids. Their malignant version, leiomyosarcoma, is rare.
|
players released by rcb in the 2013 season | Royal Challengers Bangalore in 2013 - wikipedia
The Royal Challengers Bangalore (RCB) is a franchise cricket team based in Bangalore, India, which plays in the Indian Premier League (IPL). They were one of the nine teams that competed in the 2013 Indian Premier League. They were captained by Virat Kohli. Royal Challengers Bangalore finished fifth in the IPL and did not qualify for the Champions League T20.
Royal Challengers Bangalore finished fifth in the league stage of IPL 2013.
Failed to make it to Playoffs, Finished 5 out of 9
|
what channel is turner classic movies on verizon fios | Turner Classic Movies - wikipedia
Channel 230 (SD only)
Turner Classic Movies (TCM) is an American movie - oriented basic cable and satellite television network owned by the Turner Broadcasting System subsidiary of Time Warner. Launched in 1994, TCM is headquartered at Turner 's Techwood broadcasting campus in the Midtown business district of Atlanta, Georgia.
Historically, the channel 's programming consisted mainly of featured classic theatrically released feature films from the Turner Entertainment film library -- which comprises films from Warner Bros. Pictures (covering films released before 1950) and Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer (covering films released before May 1986). However, TCM now has licensing deals with other Hollywood film studios as well as its Time Warner sister company, Warner Bros. (which now controls the Turner Entertainment library and its own later films), and occasionally shows more recent films. The channel is available in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Malta, Latin America, France, Spain, the Nordic countries, the Middle East, Africa and Asia.
In 1986, eight years before the launch of Turner Classic Movies, Ted Turner acquired the Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer film studio for $1.5 billion. Concerns over Turner Entertainment 's corporate debt load resulted in Turner selling the studio that October back to Kirk Kerkorian, from whom Turner had purchased the studio less than a year before. As part of the deal, Turner Entertainment retained ownership of MGM 's library of films released up to May 9, 1986. Turner Broadcasting System was split into two companies; Turner Broadcasting System and Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and reincorporated as MGM / UA Communications Co.
The film library of Turner Entertainment would serve as the base form of programming for TCM upon the network 's launch. Before the creation of Turner Classic Movies, films from Turner 's library of movies aired on the Turner Broadcasting System 's advertiser - supported cable network TNT -- along with colorized versions of black - and - white classics such as The Maltese Falcon. After the library was acquired, MGM / UA signed a deal with Turner to continue distributing the pre-May 1986 MGM and to begin distributing the pre-1950 Warner Bros. film libraries for video release (the rest of the library went to Turner Home Entertainment).
Turner Classic Movies debuted on April 14, 1994, at 6: 00 p.m. Eastern Time, with Ted Turner launching the channel at a ceremony in New York City 's Times Square district. The date and time were chosen for their historical significance as "the exact centennial anniversary of the first public movie showing in New York City. '' The first movie broadcast on TCM was the 1939 film Gone with the Wind, the same film that served as the debut broadcast of its sister channel TNT six years earlier in October 1988.
At the time of its launch, TCM was available to approximately one million cable television subscribers. The network originally served as a competitor to AMC -- which at the time was known as "American Movie Classics '' and maintained a virtually identical format to TCM, as both networks largely focused on films released prior to 1970 and aired them in an uncut, uncolorized, and commercial - free format. AMC had broadened its film content to feature colorized and more recent films by 2002. In the early 2000s, AMC abandoned its commercial - free format. This led to TCM being the only movie - oriented cable channel to devote its programming entirely to classic films without commercial interruption.
In 1996, Turner Broadcasting System merged with Time Warner, which besides placing Turner Classic Movies and Warner Bros. Entertainment under the same corporate umbrella, also gave TCM access to Warner Bros. ' library of films released after 1949 (which itself includes other acquired entities such as the Lorimar, Saul Zaentz and National General Pictures libraries); incidentally, TCM had already been running select Warner Bros. film titles through a licensing agreement with the studio that was signed prior to the launch of the channel. In March 1999, MGM paid Warner Bros. and gave up the home video rights to the MGM / UA films owned by Turner to Warner Home Video.
In 2000, TCM started the annual Young Composers Film Competition, inviting aspiring composers to participate in a judged competition that offers the winner of each year 's competition the opportunity to score a restored, feature - length silent film as a grand prize, mentored by a well - known composer, with the new work subsequently premiering on the network. As of 2006, films that have been rescored include the 1921 Rudolph Valentino film Camille, two Lon Chaney films: 1921 's The Ace of Hearts and 1928 's Laugh, Clown, Laugh, and Greta Garbo 's 1926 film The Temptress.
In 2008, TCM won a Peabody Award for excellence in broadcasting. In April 2010, Turner Classic Movies held the first TCM Classic Film Festival, an event -- now held annually -- at the Grauman 's Chinese Theater and the Grauman 's Egyptian Theater in Hollywood. Hosted by Robert Osborne, the four - day long annual festival celebrates Hollywood and its movies, and features celebrity appearances, special events, and screenings of around 50 classic movies including several newly restored by The Film Foundation, an organization devoted to preserving Hollywood 's classic film legacy.
Turner Classic Movies essentially operates as a commercial - free service, with the only advertisements on the network being shown between features -- which advertise TCM products, network promotions for upcoming special programs and the original trailers for films that are scheduled to be broadcast on TCM (particularly those that will air during the primetime hours), and featurettes about classic film actors and actresses. In addition to this, extended breaks between features are filled with theatrically released movie trailers and classic short subjects -- from series such as The Passing Parade, Crime Does Not Pay, Pete Smith Specialties, and Robert Benchley -- under the banner name TCM Extras (formerly One Reel Wonders). In 2007, some of the short films featured on TCM were made available for streaming on TCM 's website. Partly to allow these interstitials, Turner Classic Movies schedules its feature films either at the top of the hour or at: 15,: 30 or: 45 minutes past the hour, instead of in timeslots of varying five - minute increments.
TCM 's film content has remained mostly uncut and uncolorized (with films natively filmed or post-produced in the format being those only ones presented in color), depending upon the original content of movies, particularly movies released after the 1968 implementation of the Motion Picture Association of America 's ratings system and the concurrent disestablishment of the Motion Picture Production Code. Because of this, TCM is formatted similarly to a premium channel with certain films -- particularly those made from the 1960s onward -- sometimes featuring nudity, sexual content, violence and / or strong profanity; the network also features rating bumpers prior to the start of a program (most programs on TCM, especially films, are rated for content using the TV Parental Guidelines, in lieu of the MPAA 's rating system).
The network 's programming season runs from February until the following March of each year when a retrospective of Oscar - winning and Oscar - nominated movies is shown, called 31 Days of Oscar. As a result of its devoted format to classic feature films, viewers who are interested in tracing the career development of actresses such as Barbara Stanwyck or Greta Garbo or actors like Cary Grant or Humphrey Bogart have the unique opportunity to see most of the films that were made during their careers, from beginning to end. Turner Classic Movies presents many of its features in their original aspect ratio (widescreen or full screen) whenever possible -- widescreen films broadcast on TCM are letterboxed on the network 's standard definition feed. TCM also regularly presents widescreen presentations of films not available in the format on any home video release.
Occasionally, TCM shows restored versions of films, particularly old silent films with newly commissioned musical soundtracks. Turner Classic Movies is also a major backer of the Descriptive Video Service (created by Boston PBS member station WGBH - TV), with many of the films aired on the network offering visual description for the blind and visually impaired, which is accessible through the second audio program option through most television sets, or a cable or satellite receiver.
TCM publishes NOW PLAYING, a monthly viewer 's guide to the entire time schedule and description of films for the month. The little magazine highlights a featured actor on the cover, essays about the "guest programmer, '' and a movie - and - actor themed crossword puzzle inside. The May 2017 issue, following the death in March 2017 of host Robert Osborne, contained "Remembering Robert Osborne '' by Ben Mankiewicz. TCM ceased print publication of NOW PLAYING with the August 2017 issue, moving it to an electronic format available via email free of charge.
During the prime time hours, an ident for the "Watch TCM '' app is shown after every movie.
TCM 's library of films spans several decades of cinema and includes thousands of film titles. Besides its deals to broadcast film releases from Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and Warner Bros. Entertainment, Turner Classic Movies also maintains movie licensing rights agreements with Universal Studios, Paramount Pictures, 20th Century Fox as FX Movie Channel, Walt Disney Studios (primarily film content from Walt Disney Pictures), as well as most of the Selznick International Pictures library, Sony Pictures Entertainment (primarily film content from Columbia Pictures), StudioCanal, and Janus Films.
Most Paramount sound releases made prior to 1950 are owned by EMKA, Ltd. / NBCUniversal Television Distribution, while Paramount (currently owned by Viacom) holds on to most of its post-1949 releases, which are distributed for television by Trifecta Entertainment & Media. Columbia 's film output is owned by Sony (through Sony Pictures Television); distribution of 20th Century Fox 's film library is handled for television by its 21st Century Fox subsidiary 20th Television, and the Walt Disney Studios (owned by The Walt Disney Company) has its library film output handled for television by Disney - ABC Domestic Television. Classic films released by 20th Century Fox, Paramount Pictures, Universal Studios, and Columbia Pictures are licensed individually for broadcast on Turner Classic Movies.
Also TCM has aired movies from the 1900s, 1910s and the 1920s. Although most movies shown on TCM are releases from the 1930s to the 1960s, some are more contemporary -- Turner Classic Movies sometimes airs films from the 1970s and 1980s, and occasionally broadcasts movies released during the 1990s and the early 2000s.
Most feature movies shown during the prime time and early overnight hours (8: 00 p.m. to 2: 30 a.m. Eastern Time) were presented by the late film historian Robert Osborne (who had been with the network since its 1994 launch until 2016, except for a five - month medical leave from July to December 2011, when guest hosts presented each night 's films) on Sunday through Wednesday evenings -- with Osborne only presenting primetime films on weekends -- and Ben Mankiewicz presenting only late evening films on Thursdays, and the "Silent Sunday Nights '' and "TCM Imports '' blocks on Sundays.
TCM regularly airs a "Star of the Month '' throughout the year on Wednesdays starting at 8: 00 p.m. Eastern Time, in which most, if not all, feature films from a classic film star are shown during that night 's schedule. February and August are the only months to not have a "Star of the Month ''. The network also marks the occurrence of a film actor 's birthday (either antemortem or posthumously) or recent death with day - or evening - long festivals showcasing several of that artist 's best, earliest or least - known pictures; by effect, marathons scheduled in honor of an actor 's passing (which are scheduled within a month after their death) pre-empt films originally scheduled to air on that date. TCM also features a monthly program block called the "TCM Guest Programmer '', in which Osborne is joined by celebrity guests responsible for choosing that evening 's films (examples of such programmers during 2012 include Jules Feiffer, Anthony Bourdain, Debra Winger, Ellen Barkin, Spike Lee, Regis Philbin and Jim Lehrer); an offshoot of this block featuring Turner Classic Movies employees aired during February 2011.
Turner Classic Movies also airs regularly scheduled weekly film blocks, which are periodically preempted for special themed month - long or seasonal scheduling events, such as the "31 Days of Oscar '' film series in the month preceding the Academy Awards and the month - long "Summer Under the Stars '' in August; all featured programming has their own distinctive feature presentation bumper for the particular scheduled presentation. The Essentials, with various hosts from 2001 through 2015, was a weekly film showcase airing on Saturday evenings (with a replay on the following Sunday at 6: 00 p.m. Eastern Time), which spotlighted a different movie and contained a special introduction and post-movie discussion.
One of the weekly blocks is "Noir Alley '', featuring film noir movies. It broadcasts on Sunday mornings and is hosted by Eddie Muller. The channel also broadcasts two movie blocks during the late evening hours each Sunday: "Silent Sunday Nights '', which features silent films from the United States and abroad, usually in the latest restored version and often with new musical scores; and "TCM Imports '' (which previously ran on Saturdays until the early 2000s), a weekly presentation of films originally released in foreign countries. TCM Underground -- which debuted in October 2006 -- is a Saturday late night block which focuses on cult films, the block was originally hosted by rocker / filmmaker Rob Zombie until December 2006 (though as of 2014, it is the only regular film presentation block on the channel that does not have a host).
Each August, Turner Classic Movies suspends its regular schedule for a special month of film marathons called "Summer Under the Stars '', which features entire daily schedules devoted to the work of a particular actor, with movies and specials that pertain to the star of the day. In the summer of 2007, the channel debuted "Funday Night at the Movies '', a block hosted by actor Tom Kenny (best known as the voice of SpongeBob SquarePants). This summer block featured classic feature films (such as The Wizard of Oz, Sounder, Bringing Up Baby, Singin ' in the Rain, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, The Adventures of Robin Hood, and 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea) aimed at introducing these movies to new generations of children, and their families.
"Funday Night at the Movies '' was replaced in 2008 by "Essentials Jr. '', a youth - oriented version of its weekly series, The Essentials (originally hosted by actors Abigail Breslin, and Chris O'Donnell, then by John Lithgow from 2009 to 2011, and then by Bill Hader, starting with the 2011 season), which included such family - themed films as National Velvet, Captains Courageous, and Yours, Mine and Ours, as well as more eclectic selections, such as Sherlock, Jr., The Music Box, Harvey, Mutiny on the Bounty, and The Man Who Knew Too Much.
In 2014, the channel debuted "Treasures from the Disney Vault '', hosted by Leonard Maltin. This block showcases a compilation of vintage Disney feature films, cartoons, documentaries, episodes of the Walt Disney anthology television series, and episodes of The Mickey Mouse Club.
In addition to films, Turner Classic Movies also airs original content, mostly documentaries about classic movie personalities, the world of filmmaking and particularly notable films. An occasional month - long series, Race and Hollywood, showcases films by and about people of non-white races, featuring discussions of how these pictures influenced white people 's image of said races, as well as how people of those races viewed themselves. Previous installments have included "Asian Images on Film '' in 2008, "Native American Images on Film '' in 2010, "Black Images on Film '' in 2006 "Latino Images on Film '' in 2009 and "Arab Images on Film '' in 2011. The network aired the film series Screened Out (which explored the history and depiction of homosexuality in film) in 2007 and Religion on Film (focusing on the role of religion in cinematic works) in 2005. In 2011, TCM debuted a new series entitled AFI 's Master Class: The Art of Collaboration.
Most of the actors appearing in most TCM films are deceased. In December 1994, TCM debuted "TCM Remembers '', a tribute to recently deceased notable film personalities (including actors, producers, composers, directors, writers and cinematographers) that occasionally airs during promotional breaks between films. The segments appear in two forms: individual tributes and a longer end - of - year compilation. Following the recent death of an especially famous classic film personality (usually an actor, producer, filmmaker or director), the segment will feature a montage of select shots of the deceased 's work.
Every December, a longer, more inclusive "TCM Remembers '' interstitial is produced that honors all of the noted film personalities who died during the past year, interspersed with scenes from settings such as an abandoned drive - in (2012) or a theatre which is closing down and is being dismantled (2013). Since 2001, the soundtracks for these clipreels have been introspective melodies by indie artists and / or singer - songwriters such as Badly Drawn Boy (2007) or Steve Earle (2009).
Turner Classic Movies operates a high definition simulcast feed, with programs broadcast in HD presented in an upconverted 1080i resolution format; the HD feed of the network was launched in June 2009. Initial programming was not available in native high definition and was instead upconverted from standard definition, but benefited from the greater bandwidth allocated to the channel. By November 2014, film masters meant for high definition presentation, along with Osborne and Mankiewicz - hosted continuity had transitioned to the format (though films meant to be presented in the Academy ratio or other anamorphic formats lower than 16: 9 are presented as intended by the director or studio with the appropriate black boxing around the frame).
The TCM Vault Collection consists of several different DVD collections of rare classic films that have been licensed, remastered and released by Turner Classic Movies (through corporate sister Warner Home Video). These boxed set releases are of films by notable actors, directors or studios that were previously unreleased on DVD or VHS. The sets often include bonus discs including documentaries and shorts from the TCM library. The initial batch of DVDs are printed in limited quantities and subsequent batches are made - on - demand (MOD).
In October 2015, TCM announced the launch of the TCM Wineclub, in which they teamed up with Laithwaite to provide a line of mail - order wines from famous vineyards such as famed writer - director - producer Francis Ford Coppola 's winery. Wines are available in 3 month subscriptions, and can be selected as reds, whites, or a mixture of both. From the wines chosen, TCM also includes recommended movies to watch with each, such as a "True Grit '' wine, to be paired with the John Wayne film of the same name.
Turner Classic Movies is available in many other countries around the world. In Canada, TCM began to be carried on Shaw Cable and satellite provider Shaw Direct in 2005. Rogers Cable started offering TCM in December 2006 as a free preview for subscribers of its digital cable tier, and was added to its analogue tier in February 2007. While the schedule for the Canadian feed is generally the same as that of the U.S. network, some films are replaced for broadcast in Canada due to rights issues and other reasons. Other versions of TCM are available in France, Middle East, Africa, Spain, Asia, Latin America, Nordic countries, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Malta. The UK version operates two channels, including a spinoff called TCM 2.
|
who starred in the original movie cape fear | Cape Fear (1962 film) - wikipedia
Cape Fear is a 1962 American psychological thriller film starring Robert Mitchum, Gregory Peck, Martin Balsam, and Polly Bergen. It was adapted by James R. Webb from the novel The Executioners by John D. MacDonald. It was initially storyboarded by Alfred Hitchcock (slated to direct but quit over a dispute), subsequently directed by J. Lee Thompson, and released on April 12, 1962. The movie concerns an attorney whose family is stalked by a criminal he helped to send to jail.
Cape Fear was remade in 1991 by Martin Scorsese. Peck, Mitchum, and Balsam all appeared in the remake.
After spending eight years in prison for rape, Max Cady (Robert Mitchum) is released. He promptly tracks down Sam Bowden (Gregory Peck), a lawyer whom he holds personally responsible for his conviction because Sam interrupted his attack and testified against him. Cady begins to stalk and subtly threaten Bowden 's family. He kills the Bowden family dog, though Sam can not prove Cady did it. A friend of Bowden 's, police chief Mark Dutton (Martin Balsam), attempts to intervene on Bowden 's behalf, but he can not prove Cady guilty of any crime.
Bowden hires private detective Charlie Sievers (Telly Savalas). Cady brutally attacks a promiscuous young woman named Diane Taylor (Barrie Chase) when she brings him home, but neither the private eye nor Bowden can persuade her to testify. Bowden hires three thugs to beat up Cady and persuade him to leave town, but the plan backfires when Cady gets the better of all three. Cady 's lawyer vows to have Bowden disbarred.
Afraid for his wife Peggy (Polly Bergen) and 14 - year - old daughter Nancy (Lori Martin), Bowden takes them to their houseboat in Cape Fear. In an attempt to trick Cady, Bowden makes it seem as though he has gone to a completely different location. He fully expects Cady to follow his wife and daughter, and he plans on killing Cady to end the battle. Bowden and a local deputy hide nearby, but Cady realizes the deputy is there and kills him. Eluding Bowden, Cady first attacks Mrs. Bowden on the boat, causing Bowden to go to her rescue. Meanwhile, Cady swims back to shore to attack Nancy. Bowden realizes what has happened, and also swims ashore.
The two men engage in a final violent fight on the riverbank. Bowden overpowers Cady, but decides not to kill him, preferring to let him spend the rest of his life in jail. The film ends with the Bowden family sitting together on a boat the next morning.
Rod Steiger wanted to play Max Cady, but he backed off when he heard Mitchum was considering the role. Telly Savalas was screentested for the role, but later played private eye Charlie Sievers.
Charles Bronson, James Coburn, Charlton Heston, Jack Palance, and John Wayne, were all considered for the role of the attorney, Sam Bowden. Peck was a last - minute replacement for Heston, who was originally cast.
Jim Backus was set to play attorney Dave Grafton.
Thompson had always envisioned the film in black and white prior to production. As an Alfred Hitchcock fan, he wanted to have Hitchcockian elements in the film, such as unusual lighting angles, an eerie musical score, closeups, and subtle hints rather than graphic depictions of the violence Cady has in mind for the family.
The outdoor scenes were filmed on location in Savannah, Georgia, Stockton, California, and the Universal Studios backlot at Universal City, California. The indoor scenes were done at Universal Studios Soundstage. Mitchum had a real - life aversion to Savannah, where as a teenager, he had been charged with vagrancy and put on a chain gang. This resulted in a number of the outdoor scenes ' being shot at Ladd 's Marina in Stockton, including the culminating conflict on the houseboat at the end of the movie.
This scene where Mitchum attacks Polly Bergen 's character on the houseboat was almost completely improvised. Before the scene was filmed, Thompson suddenly told a crew member: "Bring me a dish of eggs! '' Mitchum 's rubbing the eggs on Bergen was not scripted and Bergen 's reactions were real. She also suffered back injuries from being knocked around so much. She felt the impact of the "attack '' for days. While filming the scene, Mitchum cut open his hand, leading Bergen to recall: "his hand was covered in blood, my back was covered in blood. We just kept going, caught up in the scene. They came over and physically stopped us. ''
In the source novel The Executioners, by John D. MacDonald, Cady was a soldier court - martialed and convicted on then Lieutenant Bowden 's testimony for the brutal rape of a 14 - year - old girl. The censors stepped in, banned the use of the word "rape '', and stated that depicting Cady as a soldier reflected adversely on U.S. military personnel.
Bernard Herrmann, as often in his scores, uses a reduced version of the symphony orchestra. Here, other than a 46 - piece string section (slightly larger than usual for film scores), he adds four flutes (doubling on two piccolos, two alto flutes in G, and two bass flutes in C) and eight French horns. No use is made of further wind instruments or percussion.
In his 2002 book A Heart at Fire 's Center: The Life and Music of Bernard Herrmann, Stephen C. Smith writes:
"Yet Herrmann was perfect for Cape Fear... Herrmann 's score reinforces Cape Fear 's savagery. Mainly a synthesis of past devices, its power comes from their imaginative application and another ingenious orchestration... a rehearsal for his similar orchestration on Hitchcock 's Torn Curtain in 1966. Like similar "psychological '' Herrmann scores, dissonant string combinations suggest the workings of a killer 's mind (most startlingly in a queasy device for cello and bass viols as Cadey prepares to attack the prostitute). Hermann 's prelude searingly establishes the dramatic conflict: descending and ascending chromatic voices move slowly towards each other from their opposite registers, finally crossing -- just as Bodens and Cadey 's game of cat - and - mouse will end in deadly confrontation. ''
Although the word "rape '' was entirely removed from the script before shooting, the film still enraged the censors, who worried that "there was a continuous threat of sexual assault on a child. '' To accept the film, British censors required extensive editing and deleting of specific scenes. After making around 6 minutes of cuts, the film still nearly garnered a British X rating (meaning at the time, "Suitable for those aged 18 and older '', not necessarily meaning there was sexually explicit or violent content).
Cape Fear was first made available on VHS on March 1, 1992. It was later re-released on VHS, as well as DVD, on September 18, 2001. The film was released onto Blu - ray on January 8, 2013. It contains production photos and a "making - of '' featurette.
Upon its release, the film received positive but cautious feedback from critics due to the film 's content. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 95 % of 20 critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 7.6 out of 10.
Bosley Crowther of the New York Times praised the "tough, tight script '', as well as the film 's "steady and starkly sinister style. '' He went on to conclude his review by saying, "this is really one of those shockers that provokes disgust and regret. '' The entertainment - trade magazine Variety reviewed the film as "competent and visually polished '', while commenting on Mitchum 's performance as a "menacing omnipresence. ''
Although it makes no acknowledgement of Cape Fear, the episode "The Force of Evil '' from the 1977 NBC television series Quinn Martin 's Tales of the Unexpected uses virtually the same plot, merely introducing an additional supernatural element to the released prisoner.
The film and its remake serve as the basis for the 1993 The Simpsons episode "Cape Feare '' in which Sideshow Bob, recently released from prison, stalks the Simpson family in an attempt to kill Bart.
In April 2007, Newsweek selected Cady as one of the 10 best villains in cinema history. Specifically, the scene where Cady attacks Sam 's family was ranked number 36 on Bravo 's 100 Scariest Movie Moments in 2004.
A consumer poll on the Internet Movie Database rates Cape Fear as the 65th - best trial film, although the trial scenes are merely incidental to the plot.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
|
2010 pro bowl qb ever started in college | 2010 Pro Bowl - wikipedia
The 2010 Pro Bowl was the National Football League 's all - star game for the 2009 season. It took place at 8: 00 PM EST on Sunday, January 31, 2010, at Sun Life Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida, the home stadium of the Miami Dolphins and host site of Super Bowl XLIV. The television broadcasters were Mike Tirico, Ron Jaworski and Jon Gruden.
The AFC won the game 41 -- 34.
The 2010 Pro Bowl was held on the weekend before the Super Bowl, the first time ever that the Pro Bowl was held before the championship game, and the first time that the Pro Bowl was held somewhere other than Aloha Stadium in Honolulu since 1980 (1979 season). NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell said the move was made after looking at alternatives to strengthen the Pro Bowl.
The game was moved up in order to prevent a conflict that would have taken place if the game had taken place on February 13 or 14, with the game facing against the NBA All - Star Game, Winter Olympics, and Daytona 500. Due to the change, players from the conference championship teams, who were going to play in the Super Bowl the following week -- the Indianapolis Colts and New Orleans Saints -- did not participate. As a result, for the first time in Pro Bowl history, rosters for the AFC and NFC teams were not allowed to include any players from the teams that would be playing in the Super Bowl to avoid major injuries to members of either team. However, these players were still required to be on site for the Pro Bowl to collect a bonus payment from the NFL.
Several NFL players spoke out against the decision regarding timing of the game; ten - time Pro Bowl quarterback Peyton Manning raised issue with the possibility that if the concept of rotating the location of the game were to continue, the 2012 game could be held in a cold - weather city (Indianapolis) not seen as a winter vacation destination. NBC sportscaster Al Michaels was skeptical of the changes, telling the Honolulu Star - Bulletin that "the (NFL) thinks playing it before the Super Bowl will add to the buzz. It wo n't. '' Indianapolis Colts president Bill Polian also came out against the change, explaining that it seemed disruptive and "stupid '' to have players voted to the Pro Bowl, only to have to sit out because they 're playing in the Super Bowl, but still have to show up to the game to collect a bonus payment.
ESPN aired the game instead of CBS, which aired the 52nd Grammy Awards that evening.
The game was the first Pro Bowl to be legally broadcast on internet radio. As part of a catch in the league 's broadcast contracts, the Pro Bowl has, to this point, never been broadcast on the NFL 's FieldPass system due to it being broadcast exclusively by Westwood One. The NFL had negotiated internet broadcast rights with all 32 of its teams, but never did so with Westwood One (since it was seen as redundant); since none of the 32 teams actually play in the Pro Bowl, FieldPass did not hold rights. When contracts were renegotiated in 2009, Westwood One 's broadcasts were added to FieldPass, and along with it, play - by - play of the Pro Bowl. The Sports USA Radio Network provided the commentary for Westwood One, with SUSA 's Larry Kahn on play - by - play and Dan Fouts sharing color commentary with Westwood One 's Boomer Esiason.
Notes:
|
take my hand im a stranger in paradise | Stranger in Paradise (song) - wikipedia
"Stranger in Paradise '' is a popular song from the musical Kismet (1953), and is credited to Robert Wright and George Forrest. Like almost all the music in that show, the melody was taken from music composed by Alexander Borodin (1833 -- 1887), in this case, the "Gliding Dance of the Maidens '', from the Polovtsian Dances in the opera Prince Igor (1890). The song in the musical is a lovers ' duet and describes the transcendent feelings that love brings to their surroundings. Later versions were mostly edited to be sung by male solo artists.
In Act 1 of the musical Kismet, the beautiful Marsinah is viewing the garden of a house her father wishes to buy. The young Caliph, who is dressed in disguise, has already been struck by her beauty from afar and enters the garden pretending to be a gardener, so that he might speak to her. She begins to sing about how the garden has been strangely transformed before her eyes. He takes over the song and sings about how he, too, strangely feels he has entered paradise when he stands beside an angel such as she. In the song he asks for an indication that she feels the same way about him. Though she feels a strong draw to him she breaks from the song and asks him a mundane question about what flowers to plant. He asks her to meet him again in the garden at moonrise, and she instantly agrees. He asks her to promise she 'll keep her rendezvous, and she now takes up the song, singing that it was his face that had made her feel in paradise. They now sing together that they are in bliss in each other 's company and how much they need to know the other cares.
Richard Kiley and Doretta Morrow performed the song in the original cast of Kismet (1953). Vic Damone and Ann Blyth performed the song in the 1955 film.
The most popular version was sung by Tony Bennett (1953), but other versions by The Four Aces (backed by the Jack Pleis Orchestra) and Tony Martin also received popular favor in 1954. Bennett 's version reached number one in the UK Singles Chart in May 1955. It was not until 1955 that Kismet, and thus the songs from the show, came to London. It was Bennett 's debut hit record in the United Kingdom.
The huge popularity of "Stranger in Paradise '' in the UK is reflected by the fact that no fewer than six versions charted in 1955: besides the chart topper by Tony Bennett, others include the versions by the Four Aces (No. 6), Tony Martin (No. 6), Bing Crosby (No. 17), Don Cornell (No. 19), as well as an instrumental version by Eddie Calvert (No. 14) in the UK chart listings.
Billy Eckstine with the Hal Mooney Orchestra, Mose Allison, Peter Bernstein (guitarist), Sarah Brightman, Sammy Davis, Jr., Percy Faith, Al Hirt, Engelbert Humperdinck, Gordon MacRae, Johnny Mathis, Keely Smith, Ray Conniff, Curtis Counce, Isaac Hayes, the Ink Spots, Jack Jones, Mantovani, Martin Denny, Wes Montgomery, André Rieu, Saint Etienne, Alexander Armstrong, George Shearing, Sun Ra, the Supremes and Toots Thielemans are among the other artists who have recorded cover versions of this standard. Neil Young has performed the song live.
In 1965, the Ventures released their version of the song, renamed "The Stranger '' and "Ten Seconds To Heaven ''.
An instrumental arrangement of the song is used in the 1979 Russ Meyer movie Beneath the Valley of the Ultra-Vixens.
In the film Breakfast of Champions (1999), based on the book of the same name by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., the song is used as a recurring motif.
In the 2001 anime series RahXephon the song is used as a recurring motif.
In 2011, Tony Bennett rerecorded the song as a duet with Andrea Bocelli for Bennett 's album Duets II. Also in 2011, the anime Appleseed XIII used instrumental versions of the song for both its starting and ending themes.
|
how do scientists describe the apsheron peninsula of azerbaijan and why | Absheron Peninsula - wikipedia
The Absheron Peninsula (Azerbaijani: Abşeron yarımadası) is a peninsula in Azerbaijan. It is the location of Baku, the biggest and the most populous city of the country, and also the Baku metropolitan area, with its satellite cities Sumqayit and Khyrdalan.
There are three districts, of which two are urban (Baku and Sumqayit), and one, (Absheron Rayon), is suburban district in Absheron region.
It extends 60 km (37 mi) eastward into the Caspian Sea, and reaches a maximum width of 30 km (19 mi). Though technically the easternmost extension of the Caucasus Mountains, the landscape is only mildly hilly, a gently undulating plain that ends in a long spit of sand dunes known as Shah Dili, and now declared the Absheron National Park. In this part the peninsula is dissected by ravines and characterized by frequent salt lakes.
The name "Absheron '' comes from Persian āb šur (salty water) and the Persian suffix - ān, which means the place. This also gave its name to the city of Apsheronsk in Russia.
According to Conrad Malte - Brun in 1810, an alternative name for the peninsula was Okoressa.
The Absheron Peninsula is nearly the metropolitan area of Baku because the Baku metropolitan area consists of Baku city, Sumgayit and Khyrdalan whereas the Absheron Peninsula consists of Baku city, Sumgayit and Absheron rayon whose center is Khyrdalan.
The Absheron Peninsula has a temperate semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSk) with warm and dry summers, cool and occasionally wet winters, and strong winds all year long. The peninsula is the most arid part of Azerbaijan (precipitation here is around or less than 200 mm (8 in) a year). The majority of the light annual precipitation occurs in seasons other than summer, but none of these seasons are particularly wet. The natural vegetation of the Absheron Peninsula is dry steppe and semi-desert. Due to the semi-arid climate, local agriculture requires irrigation.
Beginning in the 1870s, the Absheron Peninsula was the site of some of the world 's earliest petroleum production. Much of the landscape remains scarred with rusting oil derricks. Despite serious problems with environmental damage and pollution, the Absheron is known for its flowers, horticulture, mulberries and figs. The northern coast has wide though less - than - pristine beaches which are popular local tourist attractions.
Wealthy people have settled in the Absheron Peninsula, including Robert Nobel and Zeynalabdin Taghiyev.
There are natural resources such as oil, lime, sand and salt in the peninsula. The peninsula has famous lakes like Masazir, Khojahasan and Boyuk Shor. Several ancient oil wells of the world are located in the Absheron Peninsula. Azerbaijan is in the first place for the variety of mud volcanoes in Absheron. 400 out of 800 mud volcanoes in the world are located within the Southern Caspian oil - gas basin as well as in the dry areas of Azerbaaijan and other islands in the water area of the Caspian Sea.
The main highways of the country are in Baku and the Absheron Peninsula. These are the highways of Heydar Aliyev International Airport, Sea port, Baku Railway Station and others which connect the capital to other regions of the country. Major oil and gas pipelines go through here. Baku TRACECA (Transport Corridor Europe -- the Caucasus -- Asia) is the major point of the international traffic corridor. Within this project, Azerbaijan participates in the re-establishment of the historic Silk Road.
Coordinates: 40 ° 27 ′ 49.20 '' N 49 ° 57 ′ 27.29 '' E / 40.4636667 ° N 49.9575806 ° E / 40.4636667; 49.9575806
|
2 5 5 1 9 meaning in hindi | Mental calculation - wikipedia
Mental calculation comprises arithmetical calculations using only the human brain, with no help from any supplies (such as pencil and paper) or devices such as a calculator. People use mental calculation when computing tools are not available, when it is faster than other means of calculation (such as conventional educational institution methods), or even in a competitive context. Mental calculation often involves the use of specific techniques devised for specific types of problems.
Many of these techniques take advantage of or rely on the decimal numeral system. Usually, the choice of radix is what determines which method or methods to use.
After applying an arithmetic operation to two operands and getting a result, you can use this procedure to improve your confidence that the result is correct.
Example
You can use the same procedure with multiple operations just repeat steps 1 and 2 for each operation.
While checking the mental calculation, it is useful to think of it in terms of scaling. For example, when dealing with large numbers, say 1531 × 19625, estimation instructs you to be aware of the number of digits expected for the final value. A useful way of checking is to estimate. 1531 is around 1500, and 19625 is around 20000, so a result of around 20000 × 1500 (30000000) would be a good estimate for the actual answer (30045875). So if the answer has too many digits, you know you 've made a mistake.
When multiplying, a useful thing to remember is that the factors of the operands still remain. For example, to say that 14 × 15 was 211 would be unreasonable. Since 15 is a multiple of 5, the product should be as well. Likewise, 14 is a multiple of 2, so the product should be even. Furthermore, any number which is a multiple of both 5 and 2 is necessarily a multiple of 10, and in the decimal system would end with a 0. The correct answer is 210. It is a multiple of 10, 7 (the other prime factor of 14) and 3 (the other prime factor of 15).
When the digits of b are all smaller than the corresponding digits of a, the calculation can be done digit by digit. For example, evaluate 872 − 41 simply by subtracting 1 from 2 in the units place, and 4 from 7 in the tens place: 831.
When the above situation does not apply, the problem can sometimes be modified:
You may guess what is needed, and accumulate your guesses. Your guess is good as long as you have n't gone beyond the "target '' number. 8192 − 732, mentally, you want to add 8000 but that would be too much, so we add 7000, then 700 to 1100, is 400 (so far we have 7400), and 32 to 92 can easily be recognized as 60. The result is 7460.
This method can be used to subtract numbers left to right, and if all that is required is to read the result aloud, it requires little of the user 's memory even to subtract numbers of arbitrary size.
One place at a time is handled, left to right.
Hence the result is 2231
Many of these methods work because of the distributive property.
Discovered by Artem Cheprasov, there is a method of multiplication that allows the user to utilize 3 steps to quickly multiply numbers of any size to one another via three unique ways.
First, the method allows the user to attach numbers to one another, as opposed to adding or subtracting them, during intermediate steps in order to quicken the rate of multiplication. For instance, instead of adding or subtracting intermediary results such as 357 and 84, the user could simply attach the numbers together (35784) in order to simplify and expedite the multiplication problem. Attaching numbers to one another helps to bypass unnecessary steps found in traditional multiplication techniques.
Secondly, this method uses negative numbers as necessary, even when multiplying two positive integers, in order to quicken the rate of multiplication via subtraction. This means two positive integers can be multiplied together to get negative intermediate steps, yet still the correct positive answer in the end. These negative numbers are actually automatically derived from the multiplication steps themselves and are thus unique to a particular problem. Again, such negative intermediate steps are designed to help hasten the mental math.
Finally, another unique aspect of using this method is that the user is able to choose one of several different "routes of multiplication '' to the specific multiplication problem at hand based on their subjective preferences or strengths and weaknesses with particular integers.
Despite the same starting integers, the different multiplication routes give off different intermediate numbers that are automatically derived for the user as they multiply. Some of these intermediaries may be easier than others (e.g. some users may find a route that uses a negative 7, while another route uses a 5 or a 0, which are typically easier to work with mentally for most people, but not in all instances).
If one "route '' seems to be harder for one student vs. another route and its intermediate numbers, that student can simply choose another simpler route of multiplication for themselves even though it 's the same original problem.
For any 2 digit by 2 digit multiplication problem, if both numbers end in five, the following algorithm can be used to quickly multiply them together:
E x: 35 × 75 (\ displaystyle Ex: 35 \ times 75)
As a preliminary step simply round the smaller number down and the larger up to the nearest multiple of ten. In this case:
35 − 5 = 30 = X (\ textstyle 35 - 5 = 30 = X)
75 + 5 = 80 = Y (\ displaystyle 75 + 5 = 80 = Y)
The algorithm reads as follows:
(X × Y) + 50 (t 1 − t 2) + 25 (\ displaystyle (X \ times Y) + 50 (t_ (1) - t_ (2)) + 25)
Where t is the tens unit of the original larger number (75) and t is the tens unit of the original smaller number (35).
= 30 × 80 + 50 (7 − 3) + 25 = 2625 (\ displaystyle = 30 \ times 80 + 50 (7 - 3) + 25 = 2625)
The author also outlines another similar algorithm if you want to round the original larger number down and the original smaller number up instead.
If two numbers are equidistant from the nearest multiple of 100, then a simple algorithm can be used to find the product.
As a simple example:
33 × 67 (\ displaystyle 33 \ times 67)
Both numbers are equidistant (33 away) from their nearest multiple of 100 (0 and 100, respectively).
As a preliminary step simply round the smaller number down and the larger up to the nearest multiple of ten. In this case:
33 − 3 = 30 = X (\ textstyle 33 - 3 = 30 = X)
67 + 3 = 70 = Y (\ displaystyle 67 + 3 = 70 = Y)
The algorithm reads as follows:
(X × Y) + u 1 × u 2 + u 2 (T 1 − T 2) (\ displaystyle (X \ times Y) + u_ (1) \ times u_ (2) + u_ (2) (T_ (1) - T_ (2)))
Where u is the original larger number 's (67) units digit and u is the original smaller number 's (33) units digit. T is the original larger number 's tens digit and T is the original larger number 's tens digit multiplied by their respective power (in this case by 10, for a tens digit).
And so:
(30 × 70) + 7 × 3 + 3 (60 − 30) = 2100 + 21 + 90 = 2211 (\ displaystyle (30 \ times 70) + 7 \ times 3 + 3 (60 - 30) = 2100 + 21 + 90 = 2211)
To easily multiply any 2 - digit numbers together a simple algorithm is as follows (where a is the tens digit of the first number, b is the ones digit of the first number, c is the tens digit of the second number and d is the ones digit of the second number):
For example,
Note that this is the same thing as the conventional sum of partial products, just restated with brevity. To minimize the number of elements being retained in one 's memory, it may be convenient to perform the sum of the "cross '' multiplication product first, and then add the other two elements:
i.e., in this example
to which is it is easy to add 21: 281 and then 800: 1081
An easy mnemonic to remember for this would be FOIL. F meaning first, O meaning outer, I meaning inner and L meaning last. For example:
and
where 7 is a, 5 is b, 2 is c and 3 is d.
Consider
this expression is analogous to any number in base 10 with a hundreds, tens and ones place. FOIL can also be looked at as a number with F being the hundreds, OI being the tens and L being the ones.
a ⋅ c (\ displaystyle a \ cdot c) is the product of the first digit of each of the two numbers; F.
(a ⋅ d + b ⋅ c) (\ displaystyle (a \ cdot d + b \ cdot c)) is the addition of the product of the outer digits and the inner digits; OI.
b ⋅ d (\ displaystyle b \ cdot d) is the product of the last digit of each of the two numbers; L.
Where one number being multiplied is sufficiently small to be multiplied with ease by any single digit, the product can be calculated easily digit by digit from right to left. This is particularly easy for multiplication by 2 since the carry digit can not be more than 1.
For example, to calculate 2 × 167: 2 × 7 = 14, so the final digit is 4, with a 1 carried and added to the 2 × 6 = 12 to give 13, so the next digit is 3 with a 1 carried and added to the 2 × 1 = 2 to give 3. Thus, the product is 334.
To multiply a number by 5,
1. First multiply that number by 10, then divide it by 2. The two steps are interchangeable i.e. you can halve the number and then multiply it.
The following algorithm is a quick way to produce this result:
2. Add a zero to right side of the desired number. (A.) 3. Next, starting from the leftmost numeral, divide by 2 (B.) and append each result in the respective order to form a new number; (fraction answers should be rounded down to the nearest whole number).
The resulting number is 0330. (This is not the final answer, but a first approximation which will be adjusted in the following step:)
EXAMPLE: 176 (IN FIRST, SECOND THIRD PLACES):
EXAMPLE: Multiply 288 by 5.
A. Divide 288 by 2. We can divide each digit individually to get 144. (Dividing smaller number is easier.)
B. Multiply by 10. Add a zero to yield the result 1440.
Since 9 = 10 − 1, to multiply a number by nine, multiply it by 10 and then subtract the original number from the result. For example, 9 × 27 = 270 − 27 = 243.
This method can be adjusted to multiply by eight instead of nine, by doubling the number being subtracted; 8 × 27 = 270 − (2 × 27) = 270 − 54 = 216.
Similarly, by adding instead of subtracting, the same methods can be used to multiply by 11 and 12, respectively (although simpler methods to multiply by 11 exist).
Hold hands in front of you, palms facing you. Assign the left thumb to be 1, the left index to be 2, and so on all the way to right thumb is ten. Each "'' symbolizes a raised finger and a "− '' represents a bent finger.
Bend the finger which represents the number to be multiplied by nine down.
Ex: 6 × 9 would be
The right little finger is down. Take the number of fingers still raised to the left of the bent finger and prepend it to the number of fingers to the right.
Ex: There are five fingers left of the right little finger and four to the right of the right little finger. So 6 × 9 = 54.
To multiply an integer by 10, simply add an extra 0 to the end of the number. To multiply a non-integer by 10, move the decimal point to the right one digit.
In general for base ten, to multiply by 10 (where n is an integer), move the decimal point n digits to the right. If n is negative, move the decimal n digits to the left.
For single digit numbers simply duplicate the number into the tens digit, for example: 1 × 11 = 11, 2 × 11 = 22, up to 9 × 11 = 99.
The product for any larger non-zero integer can be found by a series of additions to each of its digits from right to left, two at a time.
First take the ones digit and copy that to the temporary result. Next, starting with the ones digit of the multiplier, add each digit to the digit to its left. Each sum is then added to the left of the result, in front of all others. If a number sums to 10 or higher take the tens digit, which will always be 1, and carry it over to the next addition. Finally copy the multipliers left-most (highest valued) digit to the front of the result, adding in the carried 1 if necessary, to get the final product.
In the case of a negative 11, multiplier, or both apply the sign to the final product as per normal multiplication of the two numbers.
A step - by - step example of 759 × 11:
Further examples:
Another method is to simply multiply the number by 10, and add the original number to the result.
For example:
17 × 11
170 + 17 = 187
17 × 11 = 187
One last easy way:
If you have a two - digit number, take it and add the two numbers together and put that sum in the middle, and you can get the answer.
For example: 24 x 11 = 264 because 2 + 4 = 6 and the 6 is placed in between the 2 and the 4.
Second example: 87 x 11 = 957 because 8 + 7 = 15 so the 5 goes in between the 8 and the 7 and the 1 is carried to the 8. So it is basically 857 + 100 = 957.
Or if 43 x 11 is equal to first 4 + 3 = 7 (For the tens digit) Then 4 is for the hundreds and 3 is for the tens. And the answer is 473
To easily multiply 2 digit numbers together between 11 and 19 a simple algorithm is as follows (where a is the ones digit of the first number and b is the ones digit of the second number):
This technique allows a number from 6 to 10 to be multiplied by another number from 6 to 10.
Assign 6 to the little finger, 7 to the ring finger, 8 to the middle finger, 9 to the index finger, and 10 to the thumb. Touch the two desired numbers together. The point of contact and below is considered the "bottom '' section and everything above the two fingers that are touching are part of the "top '' section. The answer is formed by adding ten times the total number of "bottom '' fingers to the product of the number of left - and right - hand "top '' fingers.
For example, 9 × 6 would look like this, with the left index finger touching the right little finger:
In this example, there are 5 "bottom '' fingers (the left index, middle, ring, and little fingers, plus the right little finger), 1 left "top '' finger (the left thumb), and 4 right "top '' fingers (the right thumb, index finger, middle finger, and ring finger). So the computation goes as follows: 9 × 6 = (10 × 5) + (1 × 4) = 54.
Consider another example, 8 × 7:
Five bottom fingers make 5 tens, or 50. Two top left fingers and three top right fingers make the product 6. Summing these produces the answer, 56.
Another example, this time using 6 × 8:
Four tens (bottom), plus two times four (top) gives 40 + 2 × 4 = 48.
Here 's how it works: each finger represents a number between 6 and 10. When you join fingers representing x and y, there will be 10 - x "top '' fingers and x - 5 "bottom '' fingers on the left hand; the right hand will have 10 - y "top '' fingers and y - 5 "bottom '' fingers.
Let
Then following the above instructions produces
which is the product we seek.
This technique allows easy multiplication of numbers close and below 100. (90 - 99) The variables will be the two numbers you multiply.
The product of two variables ranging from 90 - 99 will result in a 4 - digit number. The first step is to find the ones - digit and the tens digit.
Subtract both variables from 100 which will result in 2 one - digit number. The product of the 2 one - digit numbers will be the last two digits of your final product.
Next, subtract one of the two variables from 100. Then subtract the difference from the other variable. That difference will be the first two digits of your final product. And the resulting 4 digit number will be the final product.
Example:
The products of small numbers may be calculated by using the squares of integers; for example, to calculate 13 × 17, you can remark 15 is the mean of the two factors, and think of it as (15 − 2) × (15 + 2), i.e. 152 − 22. Knowing that 152 is 225 and 22 is 4, simple subtraction shows that 225 − 4 = 221, which is the desired product.
This method requires knowing by heart a certain number of squares:
It may be useful to be aware that the difference between two successive square numbers is the sum of their respective square roots. Hence if you know that 12 × 12 = 144 and wish to know 13 × 13, calculate 144 + 12 + 13 = 169.
This is because (x + 1) − x = x + 2x + 1 − x = x + (x + 1)
x = (x − 1) + (2x − 1)
Take a given number, and add and subtract a certain value to it that will make it easier to multiply. For example:
492 is close to 500, which is easy to multiply by. Add and subtract 8 (the difference between 500 and 492) to get
Multiply these numbers together to get 242,000 (This can be done efficiently by dividing 484 by 2 = 242 and multiplying by 1000). Finally, add the difference (8) squared (8 = 64) to the result:
The proof follows:
This method requires memorization of the squares of the one - digit numbers 1 to 9.
The square of mn, mn being a two - digit integer, can be calculated as
Meaning the square of mn can be found by adding n to mn, multiplied by m, adding 0 to the end and finally adding the square of n.
For example, we have 23:
So 23 = 529.
Suppose we need to square a number x near 50. This number may be expressed as x = 50 − n, and hence the answer x is (50 − n), which is 50 − 100n + n. We know that 50 is 2500. So we subtract 100n from 2500, and then add n. Example, say we want to square 48, which is 50 − 2. We subtract 200 from 2500 and add 4, and get x = 2304. For numbers larger than 50 (x = 50 + n), add n a hundred times instead of subtracting it.
This method requires the memorization of squares from 1 to 25.
The square of n (most easily calculated when n is between 26 and 75 inclusive) is
In other words, the square of a number is the square of its difference from fifty added to one hundred times the difference of the number and twenty five. For example, to square 62, we have:
This method requires the memorization of squares from 1 to 25.
The square of n (most easily calculated when n is between 76 and 125 inclusive) is
In other words, the square of a number is the square of its difference from one hundred added to the product of one hundred and the difference of one hundred and the product of two and the difference of one hundred and the number. For example, to square 93, we have:
Another way to look at it would be like this:
Another example:
An easy way to approximate the square root of a number is to use the following equation:
The closer the known square is to the unknown, the more accurate the approximation. For instance, to estimate the square root of 15, we could start with the knowledge that the nearest perfect square is 16 (4).
So the estimated square root of 15 is 3.875. The actual square root of 15 is 3.872983... One thing to note is that, no matter what the original guess was, the estimated answer will always be larger than the actual answer due to the inequality of arithmetic and geometric means. Thus, one should try rounding the estimated answer down.
Note that if n is the closest perfect square to the desired square x and d = x - n is their difference, it is more convenient to express this approximation in the form of mixed fraction as n d 2 n (\ displaystyle n (\ tfrac (d) (2n))). Thus, in the previous example, the square root of 15 is 4 − 1 8. (\ displaystyle 4 (\ tfrac (- 1) (8)).) As another example, square root of 41 is 6 5 12 = 6.416 (\ displaystyle 6 (\ tfrac (5) (12)) = 6.416) while the actual value is 6.4031...
Derivation
By definition, if r is the square root of x, then
We then redefine the root
where a is a known root (4 from the above example) and b is the difference between the known root and the answer we seek.
Expanding yields
If ' a ' is close to the target, ' b ' will be a small enough number to render the + b 2 (\ displaystyle () + b ^ (2) \,) element of the equation negligible. Thus, we can drop + b 2 (\ displaystyle () + b ^ (2) \,) out and rearrange the equation to
and therefore
that can be reduced to
Extracting roots of perfect powers is often practiced. The difficulty of the task does not depend on the number of digits of the perfect power but on the precision, i.e. the number of digits of the root. In addition, it also depends on the order of the root; finding perfect roots, where the order of the root is coprime with 10 are somewhat easier since the digits are scrambled in consistent ways, as we shall see in the next section.
An easy task for the beginner is extracting cube roots from the cubes of 2 digit numbers. For example, given 74088, determine what two digit number, when multiplied by itself once and then multiplied by the number again, yields 74088. One who knows the method will quickly know the answer is 42, as 42 = 74088.
Before learning the procedure, it is required that the performer memorize the cubes of the numbers 1 - 10:
Observe that there is a pattern in the rightmost digit: adding and subtracting with 1 or 3. Starting from zero:
There are two steps to extracting the cube root from the cube of a two digit number. Say you are asked to extract the cube root of 29791. Begin by determining the one 's place (units) of the two digit number. You know it must be one, since the cube ends in 1, as seen above.
Note that every digit corresponds to itself except for 2, 3, 7 and 8, which are just subtracted from ten to obtain the corresponding digit.
The second step is to determine the first digit of the two digit cube root by looking at the magnitude of the given cube. To do this, remove the last three digits of the given cube (29791 → 29) and find the greatest cube it is greater than (this is where knowing the cubes of numbers 1 - 10 is needed). Here, 29 is greater than 1 cubed, greater than 2 cubed, greater than 3 cubed, but not greater than 4 cubed. The greatest cube it is greater than is 3, so the first digit of the two digit cube must be 3.
Therefore, the cube root of 29791 is 31.
Another example:
This process can be extended to find cube roots that are 3 digits long, by using arithmetic modulo 11.
These types of tricks can be used in any root where the order of the root is coprime with 10; thus it fails to work in square root, since the power, 2, divides into 10. 3 does not divide 10, thus cube roots work.
To approximate a common log (to at least one decimal point accuracy), a few log rules, and the memorization of a few logs is required. One must know:
From this information, one can find the log of any number 1 - 9.
The first step in approximating the common log is to put the number given in scientific notation. For example, the number 45 in scientific notation is 4.5 x 10 ^ 1, but we will call it ax 10 ^ b. Next, find the log of a, which is between 1 and 10. Start by finding the log of 4, which is. 60, and then the log of 5, which is. 70 because 4.5 is between these two. Next, and skill at this comes with practice, place a 5 on a logarithmic scale between. 6 and. 7, somewhere around. 653 (NOTE: the actual value of the extra places will always be greater than if it were placed on a regular scale. i.e., you would expect it to go at. 650 because it is halfway, but instead it will be a little larger, in this case. 653) Once you have obtained the log of a, simply add b to it to get the approximation of the common log. In this case, a + b =. 653 + 1 = 1.653. The actual value of log (45) ~ 1.65321.
The same process applies for numbers between 0 and 1. For example, 0.045 would be written as 4.5 × 10. The only difference is that b is now negative, so when adding you are really subtracting. This would yield the result 0.653 − 2, or − 1.347.
Natural exponents are used in many important expressions in modern science and engineering, with applications not limited to quantum mechanics, thermodynamics and signal communications. Using the laws of Natural exponents, memorization of the approximations below, and combination with other mental calculation methods, create a powerful and elegant means for changing complicated problems in the physical sciences into simple sums and products. The laws of Natural exponents (Exponentiation) are:
Where possible, single digit numbers, followed by zeros, are used for ease of memorization, accuracy and to eliminate redundancy: (e) = e, e xe = e, and e are used instead of (e).
This table presents optimized suggestions derived from the above table.
The + / - superscript after the error represents if the actual number value is higher or lower than the approximation; for example the approximation of ln (400) is less than 6. The + / - symbols after errors may also be used to make the approximations more accurate by compensation, for example;
Physical exertion of the proper level can lead to an increase in performance of a mental task, like doing mental calculations, performed afterward. It has been shown that during high levels of physical activity there is a negative effect on mental task performance. This means that too much physical work can decrease accuracy and output of mental math calculations. Physiological measures, specifically EEG, have been shown to be useful in indicating mental workload. Using an EEG as a measure of mental workload after different levels of physical activity can help determine the level of physical exertion that will be the most beneficial to mental performance. Previous work done at Michigan Technological University by Ranjana Mehta includes a recent study that involved participants engaging in concurrent mental and physical tasks. This study investigated the effects of mental demands on physical performance at different levels of physical exertion and ultimately found a decrease in physical performance when mental tasks were completed concurrently, with a more significant effect at the higher level of physical workload. The Brown - Peterson procedure is a widely known task using mental arithmetic. This procedure, mostly used in cognitive experiments, suggests mental subtraction is useful in testing the effects maintenance rehearsal can have on how long short - term memory lasts.
The first Mental Calculations World Championship took place in 1997. This event repeats every year. It consists of a range of different tasks such as: addition of ten ten - digit numbers, multiplication of two eight - digit numbers, calculation of square roots, and calculation of weekdays for given dates, calculation of cube roots plus some surprise miscellaneous tasks.
The first World Mental Calculation Championships (Mental Calculation World Cup) took place in 2004. They are repeated every second year. It consists of six different tasks: addition of ten ten - digit numbers, multiplication of two eight - digit numbers, calculation of square roots, and calculation of weekdays for given dates, calculation of cube roots plus some surprise miscellaneous tasks.
Memoriad is the first platform combining "mental calculation '', "memory '' and "photographic reading '' competitions. Games and competitions are held in the year of the Olympic games, every four years. The first Memoriad was held in Istanbul, Turkey, in 2008. The second Memoriad took place in Antalya, Turkey on 24 -- 25 November 2012. 89 competitors from 20 countries participated. Awards and money prizes were given for 10 categories in total; of which 5 categories had to do about Mental Calculation (Mental addition, Mental Multiplication, Mental Square Roots (non-integer), Mental Calendar Dates calculation and Flash Anzan).
|
who holds the record for most test wickets | List of bowlers who have taken 300 or more wickets in Test cricket - wikipedia
Taking 300 or more wickets across a playing career is considered a significant achievement in Test cricket. The feat, first accomplished by Englishman Fred Trueman in 1964, has only been achieved by thirty - three players in the history of the game as of October 2018. Six players from Australia, five each from India, England and South Africa; four from the West Indies; three each from Pakistan and Sri Lanka; and two from New Zealand have crossed the 300 - wicket mark in Tests. Bangladesh and Zimbabwe are yet to see a Test player reach the 300 mark.
As of October 2018, former Sri Lankan cricketer Muttiah Muralitharan has the highest aggregate with 800 wickets. He also holds the record for the most five - wicket hauls (67) and ten - wicket hauls in a match (22); his 16 wickets for 220 runs against England in 1998 is the fifth - best bowling performance by a player in a match. Indian spinner Ravichandran Ashwin is the fastest to cross the 300 - wicket mark (54 Tests), while the late West Indian player Malcolm Marshall has the best bowling average (20.94) among those who have achieved the milestone. Fellow West Indian Lance Gibbs is the most economical player with 1.98 runs per over, while South African fast bowler Dale Steyn has the best strike rate of 42.0 balls per wicket. India 's Anil Kumble has the best bowling figures in an innings (10 wickets for 74 runs against Pakistan in 1999); they are the second - best in the history of Test cricket after English cricketer Jim Laker 's 10 for 53 (against Australia in 1956).
Last updated: 20 October 2018
|
when was the silver claret jug first presented at the open | Claret Jug - wikipedia
The Golf Champion Trophy, commonly known as the Claret Jug, is the trophy presented to the winner of The Open Championship (often called the "British Open ''), one of the four major championships in golf.
The awarding of the Claret Jug dates from 1872, when a new trophy was needed after Young Tom Morris had won the original Challenge Belt (presented by Prestwick Golf Club) outright in 1870 by winning the Championship three years in a row. Prestwick had both hosted and organised the Championship from 1860 to 1870.
By the time that Prestwick had reached agreement with the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews and the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers (based at Musselburgh) for the championship to rotate at these three venues, more than a year had passed. So, there was no event in 1871.
Each club contributed £ 10 to the cost of the new trophy, which is inscribed ' The Golf Champion Trophy ', and was made by Mackay Cunningham & Company of Edinburgh.
When the 1872 event was played, the trophy still was n't ready in time to be presented to Morris (who had won his fourth in a row) although his name was the first to be engraved on it. In 1872, Morris was presented with a medal as have all subsequent winners.
In 1873 Tom Kidd became the first winner to be actually presented with the Claret Jug after winning the Championship.
The original Claret Jug has been on permanent display at the clubhouse of The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews since 1928. The original Challenge Belt is also on display at the same site, having been donated in 1908 by the Morris family.
The current Claret Jug was first awarded to Walter Hagen for winning the 1928 Open. The winner must return the trophy before the next year 's Open, and receives a replica to keep permanently. Three other replicas exist: one in the British Museum of Golf at St Andrews, and two used for travelling exhibitions.
Every year, the winner 's name is engraved on the Claret Jug before it is presented to him. The BBC always shows the engraver poised to start work, and the commentators like to speculate about when he will be sure enough of the outcome to begin. Despite some suggestions, at the 1999 Open Championship, Jean van de Velde 's name was not engraved on the trophy before he famously choked with a triple - bogey on the 18th hole and Paul Lawrie subsequently won the playoff - engraver Alex Harvey stated "No, I did n't start engraving the Jug with his name. I 've got to wait until the secretary hands me a slip of paper with the winner 's name on it, and they always wait until the last putt is dropped. ''. Upon being awarded the Jug in 1989, Mark Calcavecchia said, "How 's my name going to fit on that thing? ''
The Claret Jug has twice appeared on commemorative £ 5 Scottish banknotes issued by the Royal Bank of Scotland: first in 2004, for the 250th Anniversary of The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews, then in 2005, the jug is shown held by Jack Nicklaus to mark his retirement.
|
what is a homologous series explain with an example | Homologous series - wikipedia
In organic chemistry, a homologous series is a series of compounds with the same functional group and similar chemical properties. This can be the length of a carbon chain, for example in the straight - chained alkanes (paraffins), or it could be the number of monomers in a homopolymer such as amylose.
Compounds within a homologous series typically have a fixed set of functional groups that gives them similar chemical and physical properties. (For example, the series of primary straight - chained alcohols has an hydroxyl at the end of the carbon chain.) These properties typically change gradually along the series, and the changes can often be explained by mere differences in molecular size and mass. The name "homologous series '' is also often used for any collection of compounds that have similar structures or include the same functional group, such as the general alkanes (straight and branched), the alkenes (olefins), the carbohydrates, etc. However, if the members can not be arranged in a linear order by a single parameter, the collection may be better called a "chemical family '' or "class of homologous compounds '' than a "series ''.
The concept of homologous series was proposed in 1843 by the French chemist Charles Gerhardt. A homologation reaction is a chemical process that converts one member of a homologous series to the next member.
The homologous series of straight - chained alkanes begins methane (CH), ethane (C H), propane (C H), butane (C H), and pentane (C H). In that series, successive members differ in mass by an extra methylene bridge (- CH - unit) inserted in the chain. Thus the molecular mass of each member differs by 14 atomic mass units. Adjacent members in such a series, such as methane and ethane, are known as "adjacent homologues. ''
Within that series, many physical properties such as boiling point gradually increase with increasing mass. For example, ethane (C H), has a higher boiling point than methane (CH). This is because an ethane molecule experiences greater dipole moments, as in a large molecule, the electron cloud tends to distort at random to a greater extent. Thus, the London dispersion forces between ethane molecules are higher than that between methane molecules, resulting in stronger forces of intermolecular attraction, raising the boiling point.
Some important classes of organic molecules are derivatives of alkanes, such as the primary alcohols, aldehydes, and (mono) carboxylic acids form analogous series to the alkanes. The corresponding homologous series of primary straight - chained alcohols comprises methanol (CH O), ethanol (C H O), 1 - propanol (C H O), 1 - butanol, and so on. The single - ring cycloalkanes form another such series, starting with cyclopropane.
Biopolymers also form homologous series, for example the polymers of glucose such as cellulose oligomers starting with cellobiose, or the series of amylose oligomers starting with maltose, which are sometimes called maltooligomers. Homooligopeptides, oligopeptides made up of repetitions of only one amino acid can also be studied as homologous series.
Homologous series are not unique to organic chemistry. Titanium, vanadium, and molybdenum oxides all form homologous series (e.g. V O for 2 < n < 10), as do the silanes, Si H (with n up to 8) that are analogous to the alkanes, C H.
|
van der waals equation meaning of each term | Van der Waals equation - wikipedia
The van der Waals equation (or van der Waals equation of state; named after Johannes Diderik van der Waals) is based on plausible reasons that real gases do not follow the ideal gas law. The ideal gas law treats gas molecules as point particles that do not interact except in elastic collisions. In other words, they do not take up any space, and are not attracted or repelled by other gas molecules.
To account for the volume that a real gas molecule takes up, the van der Waals equation replaces V in the ideal gas law with (V-b), where b is the volume per mole that is occupied by the molecules. This leads to;
The second modification made to the ideal gas law accounts for the fact that gas molecules do in fact attract each other and that real gases are therefore more compressible than ideal gases. Van der Waals provided for intermolecular attraction by adding to the observed pressure P in the equation of state a term a / V m 2 (\ displaystyle a / V_ (m) ^ (2)), where a is a constant whose value depends on the gas. The van der Waals equation is therefore written as;
and can also be written as
where V is the molar volume of the gas, R is the universal gas constant, T is temperature, P is pressure, and V is volume. When the molar volume V is large, b becomes negligible in comparison with V, a / V becomes negligible with respect to P, and the van der Waals equation reduces to the ideal gas law, PV = RT.
It is available via its traditional derivation (a mechanical equation of state), or via a derivation based in statistical thermodynamics, the latter of which provides the partition function of the system and allows thermodynamic functions to be specified. It successfully approximates the behavior of real fluids above their critical temperatures and is qualitatively reasonable for their liquid and low - pressure gaseous states at low temperatures. However, near the transitions between gas and liquid, in the range of p, V, and T where the liquid phase and the gas phase are in equilibrium, the van der Waals equation fails to accurately model observed experimental behaviour, in particular that p is a constant function of V at given temperatures. As such, the van der Waals model is not useful only for calculations intended to predict real behavior in regions near the critical point. Empirical corrections to address these predictive deficiencies have been inserted into the van der Waals model, e.g., by James Clerk Maxwell in his equal area rule, and related but distinct theoretical models, e.g., based on the principle of corresponding states, have been developed to achieve better fits to real fluid behaviour in equations of comparable complexity.
The van der Waals equation is a thermodynamic equation of state based on the theory that fluids are composed of particles with non-zero volumes, and subject to a (not necessarily pairwise) inter-particle attractive force. It was based on work in theoretical physical chemistry performed in the late 19th century by Johannes Diderik van der Waals, who did related work on the attractive force that also bears his name. The equation is known to be based on a traditional set of derivations deriving from van der Waals ' and related efforts, as well as a set of derivation based in statistical thermodynamics, see below.
Van der Waals ' early, primary interests were in the field of thermodynamics, where a first influence was the published work by Rudolf Clausius on heat, in 1857; other significant influences were the writings by James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, and Willard Gibbs. After initial pursuit of teaching credentials, Clausius ' undergraduate coursework in mathematics and physics at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands led, with significant hurdles, to his acceptance for doctoral studies at Leiden under Pieter Rijke. His dissertation was guided by a desire to explain the late - career experimental observation, in 1869 by Irish professor of chemistry Thomas Andrews (Queen 's University Belfast), of the existence of critical temperatures in fluids. van der Waals doctoral research culminated in an 1873 dissertation that provided a semi-quantitative theory describing the gas - liquid change of state and the origin of a critical temperature, Over de Continuïteit van den Gas - en Vloeistof (-) toestand (Dutch; in English, On the Continuity of the Gas - and Liquid - State); it was in this dissertation that the first derivations of what we now refer to as the van der Waals equation appeared. James Clerk Maxwell reviewed and lauded its published content in the British science journal Nature, and van der Waals began independent work that would result in his receipt of the Nobel Prize in 1910, which emphasized the contribution of his formulation of this "equation of state for gases and liquids. ''
The equation relates four state variables: the pressure of the fluid p, the total volume of the fluid 's container V, the number of particles N, and the absolute temperature of the system T.
The intensive, microscopic form of the equation is:
where
is the volume of the container occupied by each particle (not the velocity of a particle), and k is the Boltzmann constant. It introduces two new parameters: a ', a measure of the average attraction between particles, and b ', the volume excluded from v by one particle.
The equation can be also written in extensive, molar form:
where
is a measure of the average attraction between particles,
is the volume excluded by a mole of particles,
is the number of moles,
is the universal gas constant, k is Boltzmann 's constant, and N is Avogadro 's constant.
A careful distinction must be drawn between the volume available to a particle and the volume of a particle. In the intensive equation, v equals the total space available to each particle, while the parameter b ' is proportional to the proper volume of a single particle - the volume bounded by the atomic radius. This is subtracted from v because of the space taken up by one particle. In van der Waals ' original derivation, given below, b ' is four times the proper volume of the particle. Observe further that the pressure p goes to infinity when the container is completely filled with particles so that there is no void space left for the particles to move; this occurs when V = nb.
The van der Waals equation can also be expressed in terms of reduced properties:
This yields a critical compressibility factor of 3 / 8.
The van der Waals equation is mathematically simple, but it nevertheless predicts the experimentally observed transition between vapor and liquid, and predicts critical behaviour.
Above the critical temperature, T, the van der Waals equation is an improvement over the ideal gas law, and for lower temperatures, i.e., T < T, the equation is also qualitatively reasonable for the liquid and low - pressure gaseous states; however, with respect to the first - order phase transition, i.e., the range of (p, V, T) where a liquid phase and a gas phase would be in equilibrium, the equation appears to fail to predict observed experimental behaviour, in the sense that p is typically observed to be constant as a function of V for a given temperature in the two - phase region. This apparent discrepancy is resolved in the context of vapour -- liquid equilibrium: at a particular temperature, there exist two points on the van der Waals isotherm that have the same chemical potential, and thus a system in thermodynamic equilibrium will appear to traverse a straight line on the p -- V diagram as the ratio of vapour to liquid changes. However, in such a system, there are really only two points present (the liquid and the vapour) rather than a series of states connected by a line, so connecting the locus of points is incorrect: it is not an equation of multiple states, but an equation of (a single) state. It is indeed possible to compress a gas beyond the point at which it would typically condense, given the right conditions, and it is also possible to expand a liquid beyond the point at which it would usually boil. Such states are called "metastable '' states. Such behaviour is qualitatively (though perhaps not quantitatively) predicted by the van der Waals equation of state.
However, the values of physical quantities as predicted with the van der Waals equation of state "are in very poor agreement with experiment, '' so the model 's utility is limited to qualitative rather than quantitative purposes. Empirically - based corrections can easily be inserted into the van der Waals model (see Maxwell 's correction, below), but in so doing, the modified expression is no longer as simple an analytical model; in this regard, other models, such as those based on the principle of corresponding states, achieve a better fit with roughly the same work. Even with its acknowledged shortcomings, the pervasive use of the van der Waals equation in standard university physical chemistry textbooks makes clear its importance as a pedagogic tool to aid understanding fundamental physical chemistry ideas involved in developing theories of vapour -- liquid behavior and equations of state. In addition, other (more accurate) equations of state such as the Redlich -- Kwong and Peng -- Robinson equation of state are essentially modifications of the van der Waals equation of state.
Textbooks in physical chemistry generally give two derivations of the title equation. One is the conventional derivation that goes back to van der Waals, a mechanical equation of state that can not be used to specify all thermodynamic functions; the other is a statistical mechanics derivation that makes explicit the intermolecular potential neglected in the first derivation. A particular advantage of the statistical mechanical derivation is that it yields the partition function for the system, and allows all thermodynamic functions to be specified (including the mechanical equation of state).
Consider one mole of gas composed of non-interacting point particles that satisfy the ideal gas law: (see any standard Physical Chemistry text, op. cit.)
Next assume that all particles are hard spheres of the same finite radius r (the van der Waals radius). The effect of the finite volume of the particles is to decrease the available void space in which the particles are free to move. We must replace V by V − b, where b is called the excluded volume or "co-volume ''. The corrected equation becomes
The excluded volume b (\ displaystyle b) is not just equal to the volume occupied by the solid, finite - sized particles, but actually four times that volume. To see this, we must realize that a particle is surrounded by a sphere of radius 2r (two times the original radius) that is forbidden for the centers of the other particles. If the distance between two particle centers were to be smaller than 2r, it would mean that the two particles penetrate each other, which, by definition, hard spheres are unable to do.
The excluded volume for the two particles (of average diameter d or radius r) is
which divided by two (the number of colliding particles) gives the excluded volume per particle:
So b ′ is four times the proper volume of the particle. It was a point of concern to van der Waals that the factor four yields an upper bound; empirical values for b ′ are usually lower. Of course, molecules are not infinitely hard, as van der Waals thought, and are often fairly soft.
Next, we introduce a (not necessarily pairwise) attractive force between the particles. van der Waals assumed that, notwithstanding the existence of this force, the density of the fluid is homogeneous; furthermore, he assumed that the range of the attractive force is so small that the great majority of the particles do not feel that the container is of finite size. Given the homogeneity of the fluid, the bulk of the particles do not experience a net force pulling them to the right or to the left. This is different for the particles in surface layers directly adjacent to the walls. They feel a net force from the bulk particles pulling them into the container, because this force is not compensated by particles on the side where the wall is (another assumption here is that there is no interaction between walls and particles, which is not true as can be seen from the phenomenon of droplet formation; most types of liquid show adhesion). This net force decreases the force exerted onto the wall by the particles in the surface layer. The net force on a surface particle, pulling it into the container, is proportional to the number density
The number of particles in the surface layers is, again by assuming homogeneity, also proportional to the density. In total, the force on the walls is decreased by a factor proportional to the square of the density, and the pressure (force per unit surface) is decreased by
so that
Upon writing n for the number of moles and nV = V, the equation obtains the second form given above,
It is of some historical interest to point out that van der Waals, in his Nobel prize lecture, gave credit to Laplace for the argument that pressure is reduced proportional to the square of the density.
The canonical partition function Z of an ideal gas consisting of N = nN identical (non-interacting) particles, is:
where Λ (\ displaystyle \ Lambda) is the thermal de Broglie wavelength,
with the usual definitions: h is Planck 's constant, m the mass of a particle, k Boltzmann 's constant and T the absolute temperature. In an ideal gas z is the partition function of a single particle in a container of volume V. In order to derive the van der Waals equation we assume now that each particle moves independently in an average potential field offered by the other particles. The averaging over the particles is easy because we will assume that the particle density of the van der Waals fluid is homogeneous. The interaction between a pair of particles, which are hard spheres, is taken to be
r is the distance between the centers of the spheres and d is the distance where the hard spheres touch each other (twice the van der Waals radius). The depth of the van der Waals well is ε (\ displaystyle \ epsilon).
Because the particles are not coupled under the mean field Hamiltonian, the mean field approximation of the total partition function still factorizes,
but the intermolecular potential necessitates two modifications to z. First, because of the finite size of the particles, not all of V is available, but only V − Nb ', where (just as in the conventional derivation above)
Second, we insert a Boltzmann factor exp (- φ / 2kT) to take care of the average intermolecular potential. We divide here the potential by two because this interaction energy is shared between two particles. Thus
The total attraction felt by a single particle is
where we assumed that in a shell of thickness dr there are N / V 4π r dr particles. This is a mean field approximation; the position of the particles is averaged. In reality the density close to the particle is different than far away as can be described by a pair correlation function. Furthermore, it is neglected that the fluid is enclosed between walls. Performing the integral we get
Hence, we obtain,
From statistical thermodynamics we know that
so that we only have to differentiate the terms containing V. We get
Below the critical temperature, the van der Waals equation seems to predict qualitatively incorrect relationships. Unlike for ideal gases, the p-V isotherms oscillate with a relative minimum (d) and a relative maximum (e). Any pressure between p and p appears to have 3 stable volumes, contradicting the experimental observation that two state variables completely determine a one - component system 's state. Moreover, the isothermal compressibility is negative between d and e (equivalently (∂ P / ∂ V) T, N > 0 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ left (((\ partial P) / (\ partial V)) \ right) _ (T, N) > 0)), which can not describe a system at equilibrium.
To address these problems, James Clerk Maxwell replaced the isotherm between points a and c with a horizontal line positioned so that the areas of the two shaded regions would be equal (replacing the a-d - b - e-c curve with a straight line from a to c); this portion of the isotherm corresponds to the liquid - vapor equilibrium. The regions of the isotherm from a -- d and from c -- e are interpreted as metastable states of super-heated liquid and super-cooled vapor, respectively. The equal area rule can be expressed as:
where p is the vapor pressure (flat portion of the curve), V is the volume of the pure liquid phase at point a on the diagram, and V is the volume of the pure gas phase at point c on the diagram. A two - phase mixture at p will occupy a total volume between V and V, as determined by Maxwell 's lever rule.
Maxwell justified the rule based on the fact that the area on a pV diagram corresponds to mechanical work, saying that work done on the system in going from c to b should equal work released on going from a to b. This is because the change in free energy A (T, V) equals the work done during a reversible process, and, as a state variable, the free energy must be path - independent. In particular, the value of A at point b should be the same regardless of whether the path taken is from left or right across the horizontal isobar, or follows the original van der Waals isotherm.
This derivation is not entirely rigorous, since it requires a reversible path through a region of thermodynamic instability, while b is unstable. Nevertheless, modern derivations from chemical potential reach the same conclusion, and it remains a necessary modification to the van der Waals and to any other analytic equation of state.
The Maxwell equal area rule can also be derived from an assumption of equal chemical potential μ of coexisting liquid and vapour phases. On the isotherm shown in the above plot, points a and c are the only pair of points which fulfill the equilibrium condition of having equal pressure, temperature and chemical potential. It follows that systems with volumes intermediate between these two points will consist of a mixture of the pure liquid and gas with specific volumes equal to the pure liquid and gas phases at points a and c.
The van der Waals equation may be solved for V and V as functions of the temperature and the vapor pressure p. Since:
where A is the Helmholtz free energy, it follows that the equal area rule can be expressed as:
Since the gas and liquid volumes are functions of p and T only, this equation is then solved numerically to obtain p as a function of temperature (and number of particles N), which may then be used to determine the gas and liquid volumes.
A pseudo-3D plot of the locus of liquid and vapor volumes versus temperature and pressure is shown in the accompanying figure. One sees that the two locii meet at the critical point (1, 1, 1) smoothly. An isotherm of the van der Waals fluid taken at T = 0.90 is also shown where the intersections of the isotherm with the loci illustrate the construct 's requirement that the two areas (red and blue, shown) are equal.
We reiterate that the extensive volume V is related to the volume per particle v = V / N where N = nN is the number of particles in the system. The equation of state does not give us all the thermodynamic parameters of the system. We can take the equation for the Helmholtz energy A
From the equation derived above for lnQ, we find
Where Φ is an undetermined constant, which may be taken from the Sackur -- Tetrode equation for an ideal gas to be:
This equation expresses A in terms of its natural variables V and T, and therefore gives us all thermodynamic information about the system. The mechanical equation of state was already derived above
The entropy equation of state yields the entropy (S)
from which we can calculate the internal energy
Similar equations can be written for the other thermodynamic potential and the chemical potential, but expressing any potential as a function of pressure p will require the solution of a third - order polynomial, which yields a complicated expression. Therefore, expressing the enthalpy and the Gibbs energy as functions of their natural variables will be complicated.
Although the material constant a and b in the usual form of the van der Waals equation differs for every single fluid considered, the equation can be recast into an invariant form applicable to all fluids.
Defining the following reduced variables (f, f are the reduced and critical variable versions of f, respectively),
where
as shown by Salzman.
The first form of the van der Waals equation of state given above can be recast in the following reduced form:
This equation is invariant for all fluids; that is, the same reduced form equation of state applies, no matter what a and b may be for the particular fluid.
This invariance may also be understood in terms of the principle of corresponding states. If two fluids have the same reduced pressure, reduced volume, and reduced temperature, we say that their states are corresponding. The states of two fluids may be corresponding even if their measured pressure, volume, and temperature are very different. If the two fluids ' states are corresponding, they exist in the same regime of the reduced form equation of state. Therefore, they will respond to changes in roughly the same way, even though their measurable physical characteristics may differ significantly.
The van der Waals equation is a cubic equation of state; in the reduced formulation the cubic equation is:
At the critical temperature, where T R = p R = 1 (\ displaystyle T_ (R) = p_ (R) = 1) we get as expected
For T < 1, there are 3 values for v. For T > 1, there is 1 real value for v.
The solution of this equation for the case where there are three separate roots may be found at Maxwell construction
The equation is also usable as a PVT equation for compressible fluids (e.g. polymers). In this case specific volume changes are small and it can be written in a simplified form:
where p is the pressure, V is specific volume, T is the temperature and A, B, C are parameters.
|
the legend of snow white episode 1 in hindi | The Legend of Snow White - wikipedia
The Legend of Snow White (白雪姫 の 伝説, Shirayuki Hime no Densetsu, lit. ' The Legend of Princess Snow White) is a Japanese anime series produced by Tatsunoko Production and based on the European fairy tale. Directed by Tsuneo Ninomiya and using a screenplay written by Jinzō Toriumi, the series premiered on NHK on 6 April 1994 and ran for 52 - episodes until its conclusion on 29 March 1995. All episodes of this series were dubbed to Arabic and released on Spacetoon for the first time in the Arab world.
The series uses two pieces of theme music: one opening theme, "Heart no mori e tsuretette '' by Miki Sakai with Red Dolphins, and one ending theme, "Folk Dance '' (フォーク ダンス, Foku Dansu) by Mebae Miyahara.
The story starts with the birth of a beautiful princess whose skin was as white as snow, hair like ebony and lips like the red color of the roses. Her parents, King and Queen of the Emerald Valley, name her Snow White. The little girl grows happy and healthy, and when her fourth birthday arrives, her parents give her three delightful pets for her presents: a puppy, a cat and a dove.
Soon, Queen Isabelle falls ill and dies, after which Lady Chrystal takes her place, who turns out to be not only an evil, selfish, ambitious woman, she also indulges in the black art of sorcery.
After the king 's departure, she makes life difficult for Snow White, although Prince Richard did a bit to liven up the life of the young princess. Later, when the evil Queen makes an attempt to kill Snow White due to her famed beauty, the little girl ends up in a cosy little cottage, house to seven dwarfs who eventually befriend her and conjure to protect her from all harms inflicted by her stepmother.
Queen Chrystal tried to take the life of Snow White several times: once by a poisoned ribbon, another time with an enchanted comb, times at which the dwarfs saved her with help from their Book of Knowledge. But during the Queen 's last attempt, she finally succeeds to put her in an enchanted sleep - by means of a poisoned apple - in order to take over her body, for hers is aging rapidly due to use of sorcery against a pure soul.
King of the Emerald Valley, he is heart - broken when his beloved queen passes away, but agrees to fulfill her last wish so that his young daughter, Snow White, can be brought up and educated by a mother.
First Queen consort of Emerald Valley and wife to King Conrad, she dies when her daughter, Snow White, is only four years old. Her dying wish is for her little girl to be raised up by a new mother.
Queen Isabelle 's personal maid and head over all castle staff, Molly takes care of Snow White until an unfortunate event occurs and she is banished from the castle forever.
A young and beautiful girl, Snow White lives happy until war breaks out in the kingdom and her father is forced to leave her in the care of her then - loving stepmother. Not long time would come to pass until her stepmother would force her away from the castle.
Ruling over a small neighbouring kingdom, she comes to the Emerald Valley in order to marry King Conrad and to raise his daughter, the young Snow White. She is famed for her beauty, which she desperately worships above anything else and she would stop at nothing to rest the fairest woman in the land
His origins are unknown at the beginning, just as those of the object inside which he resides, reflecting the truth. Through enchantments he is able to respond to whoever calls him from the mortal world and is obliged to answer truthfully.
The son of King of Albertville, a close ally of Conrad, he falls in love with princess Snow White, but is soon called to join his father in battle. Torn from his beloved not only by his unknowing father but also by the jealous Queen, he fights to find the whereabouts of the princess and to restore her rank.
The court huntsman and direct subject to the sovereign and, that is, the Queen, he is obliged to take the heart of the young princess back to Chrystal, but, before he could decide not to do the deed, he saves Snow White from a ravaging black bear and tells her what her stepmothers ' plans are and advises her to go into hiding. Afterwards he himself retires to the countryside and occasionally comes across Snow White and her friends and helps them with their matters at hand.
The chief of the dwarf coven and the eldest and wisest of them all, he bears the staff which shows his rank. He is meditative but when necessary he can be harsh and speak in accordance with his function. He consults the Book of Knowledge when needed, as in the case of the young princess ' arrival to their cottage.
The dwarf who is at all times responsible with the food, he takes Snow White in right away and when she fails to take over his responsibilities, he is willing to teach her how to cook and clean the house.
The one who takes care of the hardcore chores, he is a fine wood chopper and is the most reluctant to take Snow White in. Sensible on the inside though, he is the last to agree with her staying, but the first one to give her a gift and, by doing so, setting the other dwarfs off to do the same.
Although his strength and wish for labor might make him look rough around the edges, Goldie is a caring and loving dwarf, who at one point even desires to exchange his life for Snow White 's.
Clam and shy, this dwarf is the coven 's expert in herbs, mushrooms or any other sort of plant, being able to prepare powerful sleeping draughts or transformation potions, so that one can disguise and venture for a few hours into the world of humans.
Vet is a very caring dwarf, but also very fearful, and is quiet, as he takes great care of animals. Beneath this particular trait, however, lies another, bravery, which comes to the surface when one of his most precious friends is in grave danger. He mans every activity around the house which involves the pets, two goats, one lamb and a chicken.
Even though he is 50 years old, Jolly is the youngest of the dwarfs and is considered to be the most inexperienced. But beneath his stubbornness and childlike appearance lies a true heart, capable of doing anything to defend Snow White (as he likes him from the first time he sees her) even argue with his co-inhabitants to let her stay and is accompanying her almost all the time.
Poppie is born out of the egg Jolly finds and is brought up by the latter, helped by Snow White. He helps the little dwarf community when the Evil Queen Chrystal turns her wrath onto the forest.
Gobby, Prince over the Goblin Kingdom, develops an affection towards Snow White 's beauty and desires to take her as his wife by force. That is, of course, until Jolly decides to confront him.
Close friend and advisor to Gobby, Memole is secretly in love with him and decides to help Snow White escape from the unwanted marriage.
A little fairy that Snow White and Jolly encounter along the way, Mylfee can control the wind... or not. Everything she tries to do ends up with a catastrophe until a small being helps her overcome this.
Little is known of the past of Mylarka, except the fact that a disaster occurred which tore her from her realm alongside her beloved and in the mortal world they were separated by an Evil Witch. The two were imprisoned in a mirror and a sword respectively, none of them knowing the location of the other so that they can not communicate. That was until the step - daughter of the Evil Witch makes her way to the cave in which Mylarka 's Sword lies in stone.
A "mocking boy '' as he is referenced to, Jack is a young man who at first dislikes Snow White and mocks her appearance, but he ends up falling in love with her. We find out very late in the series that he is a Genie of the Forests, when the Queen summons him and asks him to do her bidding.
|
who set sail from the mayflower steps in 1620 | Mayflower Steps - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 50 ° 21 ′ 57.82 '' N 4 ° 8 ′ 2.40 '' W / 50.3660611 ° N 4.1340000 ° W / 50.3660611; - 4.1340000
The Mayflower Steps are close to the site in the Barbican area of Plymouth, south - west England, from which the Pilgrim Fathers are believed to have finally left England aboard the Mayflower, before crossing the Atlantic Ocean to settle in North America on 6 September 1620. The traditional site of their disembarkation in North America is Plymouth Rock.
The passengers who came predominantly from East Anglia sought religious and other freedoms. They had no links with Plymouth, but because of bad weather in the English Channel they were forced to put in at Plymouth seeking shelter and essential repairs. Several surviving local buildings including what is now the Plymouth Gin Distillery in Southside Street and the Island House on the Quay are claimed to have accommodated some of them for one or more nights.
The ' Steps ' today consist of a commemorative portico with Doric columns of Portland stone that was built in 1934, and a small platform over the water with a brushed steel rail and a shelf with some nautical bronze artwork and historical information. It is on a small pier that was built about a century ago when some very old houses that were blocking construction of a road around the seaward side of the Citadel leading to the Hoe were cleared together with the significant Watch House. Today, boat trips leave the Mayflower Steps for trips around the Sound and up the Tamar for sight of the ' Dockyard and Warships '.
The best effort by local historians to place the actual site of the Mayflower finally casting off is roughly where a Victorian public house, the Admiral MacBride, now stands.
|
who has been in the most final fours | NCAA Division I Men 's Final Four appearances by school - wikipedia
This is a list of NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament Final Four appearances by school. Several teams have vacated Final Four appearances and are marked with an * with explanations listed below. The listed Final Four totals for those teams do not include the vacated appearances. Schools in italics no longer compete in NCAA Division I.
Minnesota, Saint Joseph 's, Massachusetts and Western Kentucky had their only appearances in the Final Four vacated.
* - Indicates one vacated appearance not included in total. * * - Indicates two vacated appearances not included in total.
* - Indicates one vacated Final Four appearance.
|
use the information about marginal cost (mc) and marginal revenue (mr) | Profit maximization - wikipedia
In economics, profit maximization is the short run or long run process by which a firm determines the price and output level that returns the greatest profit. There are several approaches to this problem. The total revenue -- total cost perspective relies on the fact that profit equals revenue minus cost and focuses on maximizing this difference, and the marginal revenue -- marginal cost perspective is based on the fact that total profit reaches its maximum point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost.
Any costs incurred by a firm may be classed into two groups: fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed costs, which occur only in the short run, are incurred by the business at any level of output, including zero output. These may include equipment maintenance, rent, wages of employees whose numbers can not be increased or decreased in the short run, and general upkeep. Variable costs change with the level of output, increasing as more product is generated. Materials consumed during production often have the largest impact on this category, which also includes the wages of employees who can be hired and laid off in the span of time (long run or short run) under consideration. Fixed cost and variable cost, combined, equal total cost.
Revenue is the amount of money that a company receives from its normal business activities, usually from the sale of goods and services (as opposed to monies from security sales such as equity shares or debt issuances).
Marginal cost and revenue, depending on whether the calculus approach is taken or not, are defined as either the change in cost or revenue as each additional unit is produced, or the derivative of cost or revenue with respect to the quantity of output. For instance, taking the first definition, if it costs a firm 400 USD to produce 5 units and 480 USD to produce 6, the marginal cost of the sixth unit is 80 dollars.
To obtain the profit maximizing output quantity, we start by recognizing that profit is equal to total revenue (TR) minus total cost (TC). Given a table of costs and revenues at each quantity, we can either compute equations or plot the data directly on a graph. The profit - maximizing output is the one at which this difference reaches its maximum.
In the accompanying diagram, the linear total revenue curve represents the case in which the firm is a perfect competitor in the goods market, and thus can not set its own selling price. The profit - maximizing output level is represented as the one at which total revenue is the height of C and total cost is the height of B; the maximal profit is measured as CB. This output level is also the one at which the total profit curve is at its maximum.
If, contrary to what is assumed in the graph, the firm is not a perfect competitor in the output market, the price to sell the product at can be read off the demand curve at the firm 's optimal quantity of output.
An equivalent perspective relies on the relationship that, for each unit sold, marginal profit (Mπ) equals marginal revenue (MR) minus marginal cost (MC). Then, if marginal revenue is greater than marginal cost at some level of output, marginal profit is positive and thus a greater quantity should be produced, and if marginal revenue is less than marginal cost, marginal profit is negative and a lesser quantity should be produced. At the output level at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost, marginal profit is zero and this quantity is the one that maximizes profit. Since total profit increases when marginal profit is positive and total profit decreases when marginal profit is negative, it must reach a maximum where marginal profit is zero -- or where marginal cost equals marginal revenue -- and where lower or higher output levels give lower profit levels. In calculus terms, the correct intersection of MC and MR will occur when:
The intersection of MR and MC is shown in the next diagram as point A. If the industry is perfectly competitive (as is assumed in the diagram), the firm faces a demand curve (D) that is identical to its marginal revenue curve (MR), and this is a horizontal line at a price determined by industry supply and demand. Average total costs are represented by curve ATC. Total economic profit is represented by the area of the rectangle PABC. The optimum quantity (Q) is the same as the optimum quantity in the first diagram.
If the firm is operating in a non-competitive market, changes would have to be made to the diagrams. For example, the marginal revenue curve would have a negative gradient, due to the overall market demand curve. In a competitive environment, more complicated profit maximization solutions involve the use of game theory.
In some cases a firm 's demand and cost conditions are such that marginal profits are greater than zero for all levels of production up to a certain maximum. In this case marginal profit plunges to zero immediately after that maximum is reached; hence the Mπ = 0 rule implies that output should be produced at the maximum level, which also happens to be the level that maximizes revenue. In other words, the profit maximizing quantity and price can be determined by setting marginal revenue equal to zero, which occurs at the maximal level of output. Marginal revenue equals zero when the total revenue curve has reached its maximum value. An example would be a scheduled airline flight. The marginal costs of flying one more passenger on the flight are negligible until all the seats are filled. The airline would maximize profit by filling all the seats.
A firm maximizes profit by operating where marginal revenue equal marginal costs. A change in fixed costs has no effect on the profit maximizing output or price. The firm merely treats short term fixed costs as sunk costs and continues to operate as before. This can be confirmed graphically. Using the diagram illustrating the total cost -- total revenue perspective, the firm maximizes profit at the point where the slopes of the total cost line and total revenue line are equal. An increase in fixed cost would cause the total cost curve to shift up by the amount of the change. There would be no effect on the total revenue curve or the shape of the total cost curve. Consequently, the profit maximizing point would remain the same. This point can also be illustrated using the diagram for the marginal revenue -- marginal cost perspective. A change in fixed cost would have no effect on the position or shape of these curves.
In addition to using methods to determine a firm 's optimal level of output, a firm that is not perfectly competitive can equivalently set price to maximize profit (since setting price along a given demand curve involves picking a preferred point on that curve, which is equivalent to picking a preferred quantity to produce and sell). The profit maximization conditions can be expressed in a "more easily applicable '' form or rule of thumb than the above perspectives use. The first step is to rewrite the expression for marginal revenue as MR = ∆ TR / ∆ Q = (P ∆ Q + Q ∆ P) / ∆ Q = P + Q ∆ P / ∆ Q, where P and Q refer to the midpoints between the old and new values of price and quantity respectively. The marginal revenue from an "incremental unit of quantity '' has two parts: first, the revenue the firm gains from selling the additional units or P ∆ Q. The additional units are called the marginal units. Producing one extra unit and selling it at price P brings in revenue of P. Moreover, one must consider "the revenue the firm loses on the units it could have sold at the higher price '' -- that is, if the price of all units had not been pulled down by the effort to sell more units. These units that have lost revenue are called the infra - marginal units. That is, selling the extra unit results in a small drop in price which reduces the revenue for all units sold by the amount Q (∆ P / ∆ Q). Thus MR = P + Q (∆ P / ∆ Q) = P + P (Q / P) (∆ P / ∆ Q) = P + P / (PED), where PED is the price elasticity of demand characterizing the demand curve of the firms ' customers, which is negative. Then setting MC = MR gives MC = P + P / PED so (P − MC) / P = − 1 / PED and P = MC / (1 + (1 / PED)). Thus the optimal markup rule is:
In words, the rule is that the size of the markup is inversely related to the price elasticity of demand for the good.
The optimal markup rule also implies that a non-competitive firm will produce on the elastic region of its market demand curve. Marginal cost is positive. The term PED / (1 + PED) would be positive so P > 0 only if PED is between − 1 and − ∞ (that is, if demand is elastic at that level of output). The intuition behind this result is that, if demand is inelastic at some value Q then a decrease in Q would increase P more than proportionately, thereby increasing revenue PQ; since lower Q would also lead to lower total cost, profit would go up due to the combination of increased revenue and decreased cost. Thus Q does not give the highest possible profit.
The general rule is that firm maximizes profit by producing that quantity of output where marginal revenue equals marginal costs. The profit maximization issue can also be approached from the input side. That is, what is the profit maximizing usage of the variable input? To maximize profit the firm should increase usage of the input "up to the point where the input 's marginal revenue product equals its marginal costs ''. So mathematically the profit maximizing rule is MRP = MC, where the subscript L refers to the commonly assumed variable input, labor. The marginal revenue product is the change in total revenue per unit change in the variable input. That is MRP = ∆ TR / ∆ L. MRP is the product of marginal revenue and the marginal product of labor or MRP = MR x MP.
|
what's the difference between a martin and a fisher | Fisher (animal) - wikipedia
The fisher (Pekania pennanti) is a small, carnivorous mammal native to North America. It is a member of the mustelid family (commonly referred to as the weasel family), and is in the monospecific genus Pekania. The fisher is closely related to, but larger than the American marten (Martes americana). The fisher is a forest - dwelling creature whose range covers much of the boreal forest in Canada to the northern United States. Names derived from aboriginal languages include pekan, pequam, wejack, and woolang. It is sometimes referred to as a fisher cat, although it is not a feline.
Males and females look similar. Adult males are 90 to 120 cm (35 -- 47 in) long and weigh 3.5 to 6.0 kilograms (8 -- 13 lb). Adult females are 75 to 95 cm (30 -- 37 in) long and weigh 2.0 to 2.5 kg (4 -- 6 lb). The fur of the fisher varies seasonally, being denser and glossier in the winter. During the summer, the color becomes more mottled, as the fur goes through a moulting cycle. The fisher prefers to hunt in full forest. Though an agile climber, it spends most of its time on the forest floor, where it prefers to forage around fallen trees. An omnivore, the fisher feeds on a wide variety of small animals and occasionally on fruits and mushrooms. It prefers the snowshoe hare and is one of the few animals able to prey successfully on porcupines. Despite its common name, the fisher rarely eats fish.
The reproductive cycle of the fisher lasts almost a year. Female fishers give birth to a litter of three or four kits in the spring. They nurse and care for their kits until late summer, when they are old enough to set out on their own. Females enter estrus shortly after giving birth and leave the den to find a mate. Implantation of the blastocyst is delayed until the following spring, when they give birth and the cycle is renewed.
Fishers have few predators besides humans. They have been trapped since the 18th century for their fur. Their pelts were in such demand that they were extirpated from several parts of the United States in the early part of the 20th century. Conservation and protection measures have allowed the species to rebound, but their current range is still reduced from its historic limits. In the 1920s, when pelt prices were high, some fur farmers attempted to raise fishers. However, their unusual delayed reproduction made breeding difficult. When pelt prices fell in the late 1940s, most fisher farming ended. While fishers usually avoid human contact, encroachments into forest habitats have resulted in some conflicts.
Despite the name "fisher '', the animal is not known to eat fish. The name is instead related to the word "fitch '', meaning a European polecat (Mustela putorius) or pelt thereof, due to the resemblance to that animal. The name comes from colonial Dutch equivalent fisse or visse. In the French language, the pelt of a polecat is also called fiche or fichet.
In some regions, the fisher is known as a pekan, derived from its name in the Abenaki language. Wejack is an Algonquian word (cf. Cree wuchak, otchock, Ojibwa ojiig) borrowed by fur traders. Other American Indian names for the fisher are Chipewyan thacho and Carrier chunihcho, both meaning "big marten '', and Wabanaki uskool.
The Latin specific name pennanti honors Thomas Pennant, who described the fisher in 1771. Buffon had first described the creature in 1765, calling it a pekan. Pennant examined the same specimen, but called it a fisher, unaware of Buffon 's earlier description. Other 18th - century scientists gave it similar names, such as Schreber, who named it Mustela canadensis, and Boddaert, who named it Mustela melanorhyncha. The fisher was eventually placed in the genus Martes by Smith in 1843. In 2008, advances in DNA analysis allowed a more detailed study of the fisher 's evolutionary history. The fisher and the Martes genera were determined to have descended from a common ancestor, but the fisher was distinct enough to put it in its own genera. It was decided to create the genus Pekania and reclassify the fisher as Pekania pennanti.
Members of the genus Pekania are distinguished by their four premolar teeth on the upper and lower jaws. Its close relative Mustela has just three. The fisher has 38 teeth. The dentition formula is: 3.1. 4.1 2.1. 4.2
Some evidence shows that ancestors of the fisher migrated to North America during the Pliocene era between 2.5 and 5.0 million years ago. Two extinct mustelids, M. palaeosinensis and M. anderssoni, have been found in eastern Asia. The first true fisher, M. divuliana, has only been found in North America. M. divuliana is strongly indicated to be related to the Asian finds, which suggests a migration. M. pennanti has been found as early as the Late Pleistocene era, about 125,000 years ago. No major differences are seen between the Pleistocene fisher and the modern fisher. Fossil evidence indicates that the fisher 's range extended farther south than it does today.
Three subspecies were identified by Goldman in 1935, M. p. columbiana, M. p. pacifica, and M. p. pennanti. Later research has debated whether these subspecies could be positively identified. In 1959, E.M. Hagmeier concluded that the subspecies are not separable based on either fur or skull characteristics. Although some debate still exists, in general, the fisher is recognized to be a monotypic species with no extant subspecies.
Fishers are a medium - sized mammal, comparable in size to the domestic cat. Their bodies are long, thin, and low to the ground. The sexes have similar physical features, but they are sexually dimorphic in size, with the male being much larger than the female. Males are 90 to 120 cm (35 -- 47 in) in length and weigh 3.5 to 6.0 kg (8 -- 13 lb). Females measure 75 to 95 cm (30 -- 37 in) and weigh 2.0 to 2.5 kg (4 -- 6 lb). The largest male fisher ever recorded weighed 9 kg (20 lb).
The fisher 's fur changes with the season and differs slightly between sexes. Males have coarser coats than females. In the early winter, the coats are dense and glossy, ranging from 30 mm (1 in) on the chest to 70 mm (3 in) on the back. The color ranges from deep brown to black, although it appears to be much blacker in the winter when contrasted with white snow. From the face to the shoulders, fur can be hoary - gold or silver due to tricolored guard hairs. The underside of a fisher is almost completely brown except for randomly placed patches of white or cream - colored fur. In the summer, the fur color is more variable and may lighten considerably. Fishers undergo moulting starting in late summer and finishing by November or December.
Fishers have five toes on each foot, with unsheathed, retractable claws. Their feet are large, making it easier for them to move on top of snow packs. In addition to the toes, four central pads are on each foot. On the hind paws are coarse hairs that grow between the pads and the toes, giving them added traction when walking on slippery surfaces. Fishers have highly mobile ankle joints that can rotate their hind paws almost 180 °, allowing them to maneuver well in trees and climb down head - first. The fisher is one of relatively few mammalian species with the ability to descend trees head - first.
A circular patch of hair on the central pad of their hind paws marks plantar glands that give off a distinctive odor. Since these patches become enlarged during breeding season, they are likely used to make a scent trail to allow fishers to find each other so they can mate.
Fishers are generalist predators. Although their primary prey is snowshoe hares and porcupines, they are also known to supplement their diet with insects, nuts, berries, and mushrooms. Since they are solitary hunters, their choice of prey is limited by their size. Analyses of stomach contents and scat have found evidence of birds, small mammals, and even moose and deer -- the latter two indicating that they are not averse to eating carrion. Fishers have been seen to feed on deer carcasses. While the behavior is not common, fishers have been known to kill larger animals, such as wild turkey, bobcat, and lynx.
Fishers are one of the few predators that seek out and kill porcupines. Stories in popular literature indicate that fishers can flip a porcupine onto its back and "scoop out its belly like a ripe melon ''. This was identified as an exaggerated misconception as early as 1966. Observational studies show that fishers make repeated biting attacks on the face of a porcupine and kill it after about 25 -- 30 minutes.
The female fisher begins to breed at about one year of age and her reproductive cycle is an almost year - long event. Mating takes place in late March to early April. Blastocyst implantation is then delayed for 10 months until mid-February of the following year when active pregnancy begins. After gestating for about 50 days, the female gives birth to one to four kits. The female then enters estrus 7 -- 10 days later and the breeding cycle begins again.
Females den in hollow trees. Kits are born blind and helpless. They are partially covered with fine hair. Kits begin to crawl after about 3 weeks. After about 7 weeks, they open their eyes. They start to climb after 8 weeks. Kits are completely dependent on their mother 's milk for the first 8 -- 10 weeks, after which they begin to switch to a solid diet. After 4 months, kits become intolerant of their litter mates, and at 5 months, the mother pushes them out on their own. After one year, juveniles will have established their own range.
Fishers are generally crepuscular, being most active at dawn and dusk. They are active year - round, and are solitary, associating with other fishers only for mating. Males become more active during mating season. Females are least active during pregnancy and gradually increase activity after birth of their kits.
A fisher 's hunting range varies from 6.6 km (3 sq mi) in the summer to 14.1 km (5 sq mi) in the winter. Ranges up to 20.0 km (8 sq mi) in the winter are possible depending on the quality of the habitat. Male and female fishers have overlapping territories. This behavior is imposed on females by males due to dominance in size and a male 's desire to increase mating success.
Parasites of fishers include Baylisascaris devosi, Taenia sibirica, nematode Physaloptera sp., Alaria mustelae, trematode Metorchis conjunctus, nematode Trichinella spiralis, and Molineus sp.
Although fishers are competent tree climbers, they spend most of their time on the forest floor and prefer continuous forest to other habitats. They have been found in extensive conifer forests typical of the boreal forest, but are also common in mixed - hardwood and conifer forests. Fishers prefer areas with continuous overhead cover with greater than 80 % coverage and avoid areas with less than 50 % coverage. Fishers are more likely to be found in old - growth forests. Since female fishers require moderately large trees for denning, forests that have been heavily logged and have extensive second growth appears to be unsuitable for their needs.
Fishers also select for forest floors with large amounts of coarse woody debris. In western forests, where fire regularly removes understory debris, fishers show a preference for riparian woodland habitat. Fishers tend to avoid areas with deep snow. Habitat is also affected by snow compaction and moisture content.
Fishers are widespread throughout the northern forests of North America. They are found from Nova Scotia in the east to the Pacific shore of British Columbia and Alaska. They can be found as far north as Great Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories and as far south as the mountains of Oregon. Isolated populations occur in the Sierra Nevada of California and the Appalachian Mountains of Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Virginia, and Virginia.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, fishers were virtually eliminated from the southern and eastern parts of their range, including most American states and eastern Canada including Nova Scotia. Overtrapping and loss of forest habitat were the reasons for the decline.
Most states had placed restrictions on fisher trapping by the 1930s, coincidental with the end of the logging boom. A combination of forest regrowth in abandoned farmlands and improved forest management practices increased available habitat and allowed remnant populations to recover. Populations have since recovered sufficiently that the species is no longer endangered. Increasing forest cover in eastern North America means that fisher populations will remain sufficiently robust for the near future. Between 1955 and 1985, some states had allowed limited trapping to resume. In areas where fishers were eliminated, porcupine populations subsequently increased. Areas with a high density of porcupines were found to have extensive damage to timber crops. In these cases, fishers were reintroduced by releasing adults relocated from other places into the forest. Once the fisher populations became re-established, porcupine numbers returned to natural levels. In Washington, fisher sightings were reported into the 1980s, but an extensive survey in the 1990s did not locate any.
Scattered fisher populations now exist in the Pacific Northwest. In 1961, fishers from British Columbia and Minnesota were reintroduced in Oregon to the southern Cascades near Klamath Falls and to the Wallowa Mountains near La Grande. From 1977 -- 1980, fishers were introduced to the region around Crater Lake. Starting in January 2008, fishers were reintroduced into Washington State. The initial reintroduction was on the Olympic peninsula (90 animals), with subsequent reintroductions into the south Cascade Mountains. The reintroduced animals are monitored by radio collars and remote cameras, and have been shown to be reproducing. From 2008 to 2011, about 40 fishers were reintroduced in the northern Sierra Nevada near Stirling City, complementing fisher populations in Yosemite National Park and along California 's northern boundary between the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Klamath Mountains. Fishers are a protected species in Oregon, Washington, and Wyoming. In Idaho and California, fishers are protected through a closed trapping season, but they are not afforded any specific protection; however, in California the fisher has been granted threatened status under the Endangered Species Act. In June 2011, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service recommended that fishers be removed from the endangered list in Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming.
Recent studies, as well as anecdotal evidence, show that fishers have begun making inroads into suburban backyards, farmland, and periurban areas in several US states and eastern Canada, as far south as most of northern Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, Minnesota and Iowa, and even rural New Jersey. Having virtually disappeared after the construction of the Cape Cod Canal in the early 1900s, some reports have shown that populations have become re-established on Cape Cod, although the populations are likely smaller than the populations in the western part of New England.
Fishers have had a long history of contact with humans, but most of it has been to the detriment of fisher populations. Unprovoked attacks on humans are extremely rare, but fishers will attack if they feel threatened or cornered. In one case, a fisher was blamed for an attack on a 6 - year - old boy. In another case, a fisher is believed to be responsible for an attack on a 12 - year - old boy.
Fishers have been trapped since the 18th century. They have been popular with trappers due to the value of their fur, which has been used for scarves and neck pieces. The best pelts are from winter trapping, with secondary - quality pelts from spring trapping. The lowest - quality furs come from out - of - season trapping when fishers are moulting. They are easily trapped, and the value of their fur was a particular incentive for catching this species.
Prices for pelts have varied considerably over the past 100 years. They were highest in the 1920s and 1930s, when average prices were about US $100. In 1936, pelts were being offered for sale in New York City for $450 -- 750 per pelt. Prices declined through the 1960s, but picked up again in the late 1970s. In 1979, the Hudson 's Bay Company paid $410 for one female pelt. In 1999, 16,638 pelts were sold in Canada for C $449,307 at an average price of $27.
Between 1900 and 1940, fishers were threatened with near extinction in the southern part of their range due to overtrapping and alterations to their habitat. In New England, fishers, along with most other furbearers, were nearly exterminated due to unregulated trapping. Fishers became extirpated in many northern U.S. states after 1930, but were still abundant enough in Canada to maintain a harvest over 3,000 fishers per year. Limited protection was afforded in the early 20th century, but total protection was not given to the few remaining fishers until 1934. Closed seasons, habitat recovery, and reintroductions have restored fishers to much of their original range.
Trapping resumed in the U.S. after 1962, once numbers had recovered sufficiently. During the early 1970s, the value of fisher pelts soared, leading to another population crash in 1976. After a few years of closed seasons, fisher trapping reopened in 1979 with a shortened season and restricted bag limits. The population has steadily increased since then, with steadily increasing numbers of trapped animals, despite a much lower pelt value.
Fishers have been captured live for fur farming, zoo specimens, and scientific research. From 1920 -- 1946, pelt prices averaged about C $137. Since pelts were relatively valuable, attempts were made to raise fishers on farms. Fur farming was popular with other species such as mink and ermine, so the same techniques were thought to be applicable to fishers. However, farmers found it difficult to raise fishers due to their unusual reproductive cycle. In general, knowledge of delayed implantation in fishers was unknown at the time. Farmers noted that females mated in the spring but did not give birth. Due to declining pelt prices, most fisher farms closed operations by the late 1940s.
Fishers have also been captured and bred by zoos, but they are not a common zoo species. Fishers are poor animals to exhibit because, in general, they hide from visitors all day. Some zoos have had difficulty keeping fishers alive since they are susceptible to many diseases in captivity. Yet at least one example shows a fisher kept in captivity that lived to be 10 years old, and another living to be about 14 years old, well beyond its natural lifespan of 7 years.
In 1974, R.A. Powell raised two fisher kits for the purpose of performing scientific research. His primary interest was an attempt to measure the activity of fishers to determine how much food the animals required to function. He did this by running them through treadmill exercises that simulated activity in the wild. He compared this to their food intake and used the data to estimate daily food requirements. The research lasted for two years. After one year, one of the fishers died due to unknown causes. The second was released back into the wilderness of Michigan 's Upper Peninsula.
In some areas, fishers can become pests to farmers when they raid chicken coops. A few instances of fishers preying on cats and small dogs have been reported; but in general, the evidence suggests these attacks are rare. A 1979 study examined the stomach contents of all fishers trapped in the state of New Hampshire; cat hairs were found in only one of over 1,000 stomachs. More recent studies in suburban upstate New York and Massachusetts found no cat remains in 24 and 226 fisher diet samples (scat and stomach contents), respectively. While a popular belief exists for more frequent attacks on pets, zoologists suggest bobcats or coyotes are more likely to prey upon domestic cats and chickens.
In 2012, a study conducted by Integral Ecology Research Center, UC Davis, U.S. Forest Service, and the Hoopa tribe showed that fishers in California were exposed to and killed by anticoagulant rodenticides associated with marijuana cultivation. In this study, 79 % of fishers that were tested in California were exposed to an average of 1.61 different anticoagulant rodenticides and four fishers died directly attributed to these toxicants. A 2015 follow - up study building on these data determined that the trend of exposure and mortality from these toxicants increased to 85 %, that California fishers were now exposed to an average of 1.73 different anticoagulant rodenticides, and that 9 more fishers died, bringing the total to 13. The extent of marijuana cultivation within fishers ' home ranges was highlighted in a 2013 study focusing on fisher survival and impacts from marijuana cultivation within the Sierra National Forest. Fishers had an average of 5.3 individual grow sites within their home range. One fisher had 16 individual grow sites within its territory.
One of the first mentions of fishers in literature occurred in The Audubon Book of True Nature Stories. Robert Snyder relates a tale of his encounter with fishers in the woods of the Adirondack Mountains of New York. He recounts three sightings, including one where he witnessed a fisher attacking a porcupine.
In Winter of the Fisher, Cameron Langford relates a fictional encounter between a fisher and an aging recluse living in the forest. The recluse frees the fisher from a trap and nurses it back to health. The fisher tolerates the attention, but being a wild animal, returns to the forest when well enough. Langford uses the ecology and known habits of the fisher to weave a tale of survival and tolerance in the northern woods of Canada.
Fishers are mentioned in several other books, including The Blood Jaguar (an animal shaman), Ereth 's Birthday (a porcupine hunter) and in The Sign of the Beaver, where a fisher is thought to have been caught in a trap.
|
what happened to emma's parents in skins rise | Skins Rise - Wikipedia
Skins Rise is a feature - length episode of the E4 television series Skins. Airing in two parts in 2013, the episode was the third and final episode of the specially - commissioned seventh season intended to bring the series to a close, and the final episode of the series. While in its initial six - year run Skins was a teen drama about the lives of Bristolian teenagers, Skins Rise like the two previous episodes, Skins Fire and Skins Pure, is a filmically and tonally distinct drama which revisits one of the show 's characters as they face adulthood.
Rise focuses on the character of James Cook (Jack O'Connell). A womaniser, regular drug user and troublemaker in third and fourth series of Skins, Cook was last seen attacking his friend 's killer. In the present, Cook is noticeably more subdued and serious, and clearly harrowed by the events of his past as he makes his living peddling drugs in Manchester 's criminal underworld.
Cook, now aged 21, is living in Manchester, and works as a drug peddler for Louie, a wealthy nightclub owner and drug baron, along with Louie 's other employee, Jason, and his bodyguard, Rob. Having spent years on the run after killing John Foster, his friend Freddie 's murderer, Cook sleeps in his car, and routinely has sex with Emma, his friend - with - benefits. He is called to Louie 's flat where Louie asks him to drive his girlfriend, Charlie, house hunting. Charlie jumps into the swimming pool of a house they inspect, but Cook refuses to join. Charlie frustratedly questions his behaviour. As he continues to drive Charlie around, however, she flirts with him more, and continues to press him to reveal more details of his past to her, but he refuses. She later requests him to drop her off at a housing develop and not disclose this to Louie. He discusses this with Jason, who appears likewise confused.
Louie throws a party and Cook attends with Emma. After consuming a pill given to Emma by Jason, Cook spots Charlie dancing in the crowd. Perplexed, he breaks away from Emma and walks away from the scene. Cook exits the venue throwing up and comes across Jason having sex with Charlie. Jason violently beats Cook up, and threatens him to keep quiet. Emma finds Cook in a state, and takes him back to her flat to clean him up. While there, they discuss the possibility of packing up and leaving Manchester for good. Cook receives a call for Charlie and subsequently leaves to meet her. Charlie demands he tell her what has happened to him, and he admits that he has killed someone. They then proceeding to have sex but are interrupted by Louie calling Cook, telling him to bring Charlie to their new house for a house warming party. As Cook, Rob, Jason, Charlie and Louie talk at the house, Louie reveals that he knows that Charlie has been cheating on him. He states he is planning to "streamline '' his operation and Rob brutally drowns Jason in the swimming pool. Charlie watches in horrified silence and is then led to another room by Louie. Horrified, Cook goes to Emma 's and tells her to pack. As they are driving out of Manchester, Cook gets a call from a traumatised Charlie, who begs him to pick her up from the nearby bus station. He turns his car around against Emma 's wishes.
Cook, Emma and Charlie flee Manchester, to a country manor owned by Emma 's parents in the Midlands. They get in with the spare key, but are confronted by Emma 's parents who have not seen her in two years. They are allowed to stay. Emma realising Charlie has had sex with Cook, and confronts him. Cook apologises and initiates sex with her but she leaves. The next day, Cook causes a scene at their local pub. Louie is at the manor when they return, having tracked Cook 's car electronically. He tries to persuade Charlie to come home with him, but she coldly refuses. Seemingly dejected, he leaves, as do Emma 's parents. Cook instructs the girls to pack up and they leave by foot.
Cook, Emma and Charlie find Emma 's parent 's car pushed off the road. It is empty of Emma 's parents and her father 's shotgun. Cook realises that Louie has taken it, and they run into the woods, Emma hysterical. Cook explores the woods and hears two gun shots near Louie 's car. He flees and the three find an abandoned wooden bunker for shelter. Charlie gives Emma sedatives to calm her. As they wait for morning, Charlie resolves to kill Louie but Cook refuses. Charlie urges him to choose her over Emma, and they kiss. Unbeknownst to them, Emma wakes up and sees them.
Cook wakes up and discovers that Emma has left. Cook and Charlie 's search leads them to an empty field where Louie is waiting for them with a gun, with Emma 's dead body hanging by a noose from a nearby tree. Charlie remains in the woods while Cook confronts Louie. Cook provokes Louie by revealing he had sex with Charlie and they attack each other. Cook knocks Louie unconscious. He picks the gun up and fires into the air.
Later, Cook rouses Louie and informs him that the police are on their way. Charlie is in Louie 's car and Cook tells her to disappear. He says they will never see each other again and she drives away. Cook crouches over Emma 's body mournfully, then walks off into the distance.
Part 1 received favourable reviews, with Caroline Preece of Den of Geek commenting that "those who loved the character are still going to find Rise a compelling watch. It 's grim, but in an entirely different way to Effy or Cassie 's stories, and it somehow makes perfect sense to find him in this heightened world a million miles away from the ordinary world of Skins. '' Morgan Jeffrey of Digital Spy, meanwhile, noted that the episode "thrills in a way that its predecessors did n't - it 's plenty dark in places, but also engaging and outlandish in all the ways that classic Skins was. '' And James T. Cornish of WhatCulture! praised Liam Boyle 's performance, describing him as "a decent villain '' and that Boyle "really helps to flesh out the character and make him feel like a potent threat. ''
|
who is he (and what is he to you) | Who Is He (And What Is He to You)? - Wikipedia
"Who Is He (And What Is He to You)? '' is a track from Bill Withers ' 1972 album, Still Bill. The music was written by Withers along with Stan McKenny, who wrote the lyrics.
In 1996, Meshell Ndegeocello recorded the song for her Peace Beyond Passion CD. Her version was her only number one on the US dance charts as a solo artist. Her version also peaked at # 34 on the soul chart.
|
who gives the reader the first description of mr. rochester | Jane Eyre - Wikipedia
Jane Eyre / ɛər / (originally published as Jane Eyre: An Autobiography) is a novel by English writer Charlotte Brontë, published under the pen name "Currer Bell '', on 16 October 1847, by Smith, Elder & Co. of London, England. The first American edition was published the following year by Harper & Brothers of New York. Primarily a bildungsroman, Jane Eyre follows the experiences of its eponymous heroine, including her growth to adulthood and her love for Mr. Rochester, the brooding master of Thornfield Hall. The novel revolutionized prose fiction in that the focus on Jane 's moral and spiritual development is told through an intimate, first - person narrative, where actions and events are coloured by a psychological intensity. Charlotte Brontë has been called the ' first historian of the private consciousness ' and the literary ancestor of writers like Proust and Joyce. The book contains elements of social criticism, with a strong sense of Christian morality at its core, and is considered by many to be ahead of its time because of Jane 's individualistic character and how the novel approaches the topics of class, sexuality, religion, and feminism.
Jane Eyre is divided into 38 chapters. It was originally published in three volumes, as was common in the 19th century, comprising chapters 1 to 15, 16 to 27, and 28 to 38.
The second edition was dedicated to William Makepeace Thackeray.
The novel is a first - person narrative from the perspective of the title character. The novel 's setting is somewhere in the north of England, late in the reign of George III (1760 -- 1820). It goes through five distinct stages: Jane 's childhood at Gateshead Hall, where she is emotionally and physically abused by her aunt and cousins; her education at Lowood School, where she gains friends and role models but suffers privations and oppression; her time as governess at Thornfield Hall, where she falls in love with her mysterious employer, Edward Rochester; her time with the Rivers family, during which her earnest but cold clergyman cousin, St. John Rivers, proposes to her; and ultimately her reunion with, and marriage to, her beloved Rochester. Throughout these sections, the novel provides perspectives on a number of important social issues and ideas, many of which are critical of the status quo.
The novel begins with the title character, Jane Eyre, aged 10, living with her maternal uncle 's family, the Reeds, as a result of her uncle 's dying wish. It is several years after her parents died of typhus. Mr. Reed, Jane 's uncle, was the only member of the Reed family who was ever kind to Jane. Jane 's aunt, Sarah Reed, dislikes her, treats her as a burden, and discourages her children from associating with Jane. Mrs. Reed and her three children are abusive to Jane, physically, emotionally, and spiritually. The nursemaid Bessie proves to be Jane 's only ally in the household, even though Bessie sometimes scolds Jane, rather harshly. Excluded from the family activities, Jane leads a very unhappy childhood, with only a doll and books with which to entertain herself.
One day, as punishment for defending herself against her cousin John Reed, after the latter knocks her down, Jane is relegated to the red room in which her late uncle had died; there, she faints from panic after she thinks she has seen his ghost. She is subsequently attended to by the kindly apothecary Mr. Lloyd to whom Jane reveals how unhappy she is living at Gateshead Hall. He recommends to Mrs. Reed that Jane should be sent to school, an idea Mrs. Reed happily supports. Mrs. Reed then enlists the aid of the harsh Mr. Brocklehurst, director of Lowood Institution, a charity school for girls. Mrs. Reed cautions Mr. Brocklehurst that Jane has a "tendency for deceit '', which he interprets as her being a "liar ''. Before Jane leaves, however, she confronts Mrs. Reed and declares that she 'll never call her "aunt '' again, that Mrs. Reed and her daughters, Georgiana and Eliza, are the ones who are deceitful, and that she will tell everyone at Lowood how cruelly Mrs. Reed treated her.
At Lowood Institution, a school for poor and orphaned girls, Jane soon finds that life is harsh, but she attempts to fit in and befriends an older girl, Helen Burns, who is able to accept her punishment philosophically. During a school inspection by Mr. Brocklehurst, Jane accidentally breaks her slate, thereby drawing attention to herself. He then stands her on a stool, brands her a liar, and shames her before the entire assembly. Jane is later comforted by Helen. Miss Temple, the caring superintendent, facilitates Jane 's self - defence and writes to Mr. Lloyd, whose reply agrees with Jane 's. Jane is then publicly cleared of Mr. Brocklehurst 's accusations. Helen and Miss Temple are the two main role models that positively guide Jane 's development, despite the harsh treatment she has received from many others.
The 80 pupils at Lowood are subjected to cold rooms, poor meals, and thin clothing. Many students fall ill when a typhus epidemic strikes, and Jane 's friend Helen dies of consumption in her arms. When Mr. Brocklehurst 's maltreatment of the students is discovered, several benefactors erect a new building and install a sympathetic management committee to moderate Mr. Brocklehurst 's harsh rule. Conditions at the school then improve dramatically.
The name Lowood symbolizes the "low '' point in Jane 's life where she was maltreated. Helen Burns is a representation of Charlotte 's elder sister Maria, who died of tuberculosis after spending time at a school where the children were mistreated.
After six years as a student and two as a teacher at Lowood, Jane decides to leave, like her friend and confidante Miss Temple, who recently married. She advertises her services as a governess and receives one reply, from Alice Fairfax, housekeeper at Thornfield Hall. Jane takes the position, teaching Adèle Varens, a young French girl.
One night, while Jane is walking to a nearby town, a horseman passes her. The horse slips on ice and throws the rider. Despite the rider 's surliness, Jane helps him to get back onto his horse. Later, back at Thornfield, she learns that this man is Edward Rochester, master of the house. Adèle is his ward, left in his care when her mother abandoned her. It is not immediately clear whether Adèle is Rochester 's daughter or not.
At Jane 's first meeting with him within Thornfield, Mr. Rochester teases her, accusing her of bewitching his horse to make him fall. He also talks strangely in other ways, but Jane is able to stand up to his initially arrogant manner. Mr. Rochester and Jane soon come to enjoy each other 's company, and spend many evenings together.
Odd things start to happen at the house, such as a strange laugh, a mysterious fire in Mr. Rochester 's room (from which Jane saves Rochester by rousing him and throwing water on him and the fire), and an attack on a house guest named Mr. Mason.
After Jane saved Mr. Rochester from the fire, he thanked her tenderly and emotionly, and that night Jane felt strange emotions of her own, towards him. Next day, however, he left unexpectedly for a distant party gathering, and several days later returned with the whole party, including the beautiful and talented Blanche Ingram. Jane sees that Blanche and Mr. Rochester favour each other, and starts to feel jealous, particularly because she also sees that Blanche is snobbish and heartless, and unworthy of "her '' Mr. Rochester.
Jane then receives word that her aunt Mrs. Reed is calling for her, because she suffered a stroke after her son John died. Jane returns to Gateshead and remains there for a month, attending to her dying aunt. Mrs. Reed confesses to Jane that she wronged her, giving Jane a letter from Jane 's paternal uncle, Mr. John Eyre, in which he asks for her to live with him and be his heir. Mrs. Reed admits to telling Mr. Eyre that Jane had died of fever at Lowood. Soon afterward, Mrs. Reed dies, and Jane helps her cousins after the funeral before returning to Thornfield.
Back at Thornfield, Jane broods over Mr. Rochester 's rumoured impending marriage to Blanche Ingram. However, one midsummer evening, Rochester baits Jane by saying how much he will miss her after getting married, but how she will soon forget him. The normally self - controlled Jane reveals her feelings for him. Rochester is then sure that Jane is sincerely in love with him, and he proposes marriage. Jane is at first sceptical of his sincerity, before accepting his proposal. She then writes to her Uncle John, telling him of her happy news.
As she prepares for her wedding, Jane 's forebodings arise when a strange woman sneaks into her room one night and rips her wedding veil in two. As with the previous mysterious events, Mr. Rochester attributes the incident to Grace Poole, one of his servants. During the wedding ceremony, Mr. Mason and a lawyer declare that Mr. Rochester can not marry because he is already married to Mr. Mason 's sister, Bertha. Mr. Rochester admits this is true but explains that his father tricked him into the marriage for her money. Once they were united, he discovered that she was rapidly descending into congenital madness, and so he eventually locked her away in Thornfield, hiring Grace Poole as a nurse to look after her. When Grace gets drunk, Rochester 's wife escapes and causes the strange happenings at Thornfield.
It turns out that Jane 's uncle, Mr. John Eyre, is a friend of Mr. Mason 's and was visited by him soon after Mr. Eyre received Jane 's letter about her impending marriage. After the marriage ceremony is broken off, Mr. Rochester asks Jane to go with him to the south of France, and live with him as husband and wife, even though they can not be married. Refusing to go against her principles, and despite her love for him, Jane leaves Thornfield in the middle of the night.
Jane travels as far from Thornfield as she can using the little money she had previously saved. She accidentally leaves her bundle of possessions on the coach and is forced to sleep on the moor, and unsuccessfully attempts to trade her handkerchief and gloves for food. Exhausted and starving, she eventually makes her way to the home of Diana and Mary Rivers, but is turned away by the housekeeper. She collapses on the doorstep, preparing for her death. St. John Rivers, Diana and Mary 's brother and a clergyman, rescues her. After she regains her health, St. John finds Jane a teaching position at a nearby village school. Jane becomes good friends with the sisters, but St. John remains aloof.
The sisters leave for governess jobs, and St. John becomes somewhat closer to Jane. St. John learns Jane 's true identity and astounds her by telling her that her uncle, John Eyre, has died and left her his entire fortune of 20,000 pounds (equivalent to just under $1.7 million in 2018). When Jane questions him further, St. John reveals that John Eyre is also his and his sisters ' uncle. They had once hoped for a share of the inheritance but were left virtually nothing. Jane, overjoyed by finding that she has living and friendly family members, insists on sharing the money equally with her cousins, and Diana and Mary come back to live at Moor House.
Thinking that the pious Jane will make a suitable missionary 's wife, St. John asks her to marry him and to go with him to India, not out of love, but out of duty. Jane initially accepts going to India but rejects the marriage proposal, suggesting they travel as brother and sister. As soon as Jane 's resolve against marriage to St. John begins to weaken, she mystically hears Mr. Rochester 's voice calling her name. Jane then returns to Thornfield to find only blackened ruins. She learns that Mr. Rochester 's wife set the house on fire and committed suicide by jumping from the roof. In his rescue attempts, Mr. Rochester lost a hand and his eyesight. Jane reunites with him, but he fears that she will be repulsed by his condition. "Am I hideous, Jane? '', he asks. "Very, sir; you always were, you know '', she replies. When Jane assures him of her love and tells him that she will never leave him, Mr. Rochester proposes again, and they are married. He eventually recovers sight enough to see their newborn son.
In order of first line of dialogue:
Chapter 1
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Chapter 21
Chapter 26
Chapter 28
Chapter 32
The early sequences, in which Jane is sent to Lowood, a harsh boarding school, are derived from the author 's own experiences. Helen Burns 's death from tuberculosis (referred to as consumption) recalls the deaths of Charlotte Brontë 's sisters, Elizabeth and Maria, who died of the disease in childhood as a result of the conditions at their school, the Clergy Daughters School at Cowan Bridge, near Tunstall, Lancashire. Mr. Brocklehurst is based on Rev. William Carus Wilson (1791 -- 1859), the Evangelical minister who ran the school. Additionally, John Reed 's decline into alcoholism and dissolution recalls the life of Charlotte 's brother Branwell, who became an opium and alcohol addict in the years preceding his death. Finally, like Jane, Charlotte became a governess. These facts were revealed to the public in The Life of Charlotte Brontë (1857) by Charlotte 's friend and fellow novelist Elizabeth Gaskell.
The Gothic manor of Thornfield Hall was probably inspired by North Lees Hall, near Hathersage in the Peak District. This was visited by Charlotte Brontë and her friend Ellen Nussey in the summer of 1845, and is described by the latter in a letter dated 22 July 1845. It was the residence of the Eyre family, and its first owner, Agnes Ashurst, was reputedly confined as a lunatic in a padded second floor room.
It has been suggested that the Wycoller Hall in Lancashire, close to Haworth, provided the setting for Ferndean Manor to which Mr. Rochester retreats after the fire at Thornfield: there are similarities between the owner of Ferndean, Mr. Rochester 's father, and Henry Cunliffe who inherited Wycoller in the 1770s and lived there until his death in 1818; one of Cunliffe 's relatives was named Elizabeth Eyre (née Cunliffe).
The sequence in which Mr. Rochester 's wife sets fire to the bed curtains was prepared in an August 1830 homemade publication of Brontë 's The Young Men 's Magazine, Number 2.
Charlotte Brontë began composing Jane Eyre in Manchester, and she likely envisioned Manchester Cathedral churchyard as the burial place for Jane 's parents and the birthplace of Jane herself.
The novel has been adapted into a number of other forms, including theatre, film, television - and at least two full - length operas, by John Joubert (1987 -- 97) and Michael Berkeley (2000). The novel has also been the subject of a number of significant rewritings and reinterpretations, notably Jean Rhys 's seminal novel Wide Sargasso Sea.
Jane Eyre 's initial reception was in stark contrast to its reputation today. In 1848, Elizabeth Rigby (later Elizabeth Eastlake), reviewing Jane Eyre in The Quarterly Review, found it "pre-eminently an anti-Christian composition, '' declaring: "We do not hesitate to say that the tone of mind and thought which has overthrown authority and violated every code human and divine abroad, and fostered Chartism and rebellion at home, is the same which has also written Jane Eyre. ''
Literary critic Jerome Beaty felt that the close first person perspective leaves the reader "too uncritically accepting of her worldview '', and often leads reading and conversation about the novel towards supporting Jane, regardless of how irregular her ideas or perspectives are.
In 2003, the novel was ranked number 10 in the BBC 's survey The Big Read.
|
where was the center of the mycenaean civilization located | Mycenaean Greece - wikipedia
Mycenaean Greece (or Mycenaean civilization) was the last phase of the Bronze Age in Ancient Greece (c. 1600 -- 1100 BC). It represents the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece, with its palatial states, urban organization, works of art and writing system. Among the centers of power that emerged, the most notable were those of Pylos, Tiryns, Midea in the Peloponnese, Orchomenos, Thebes, Athens in Central Greece and Iolcos in Thessaly. The most prominent site was Mycenae, in Argolid, to which the culture of this era owes its name. Mycenaean and Mycenaean - influenced settlements also appeared in Epirus, Macedonia, on islands in the Aegean Sea, on the coast of Asia Minor, the Levant, Cyprus and Italy.
The Mycenaean Greeks introduced several innovations in the fields of engineering, architecture and military infrastructure, while trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the Mycenaean economy. Their syllabic script, the Linear B, offers the first written records of the Greek language and their religion already included several deities that can also be found in the Olympic Pantheon. Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of palace states that developed rigid hierarchical, political, social and economic systems. At the head of this society was the king, known as wanax.
Mycenaean Greece perished with the collapse of Bronze Age culture in the eastern Mediterranean, to be followed by the so - called Greek Dark Ages, a recordless transitional period leading to Archaic Greece where significant shifts occurred from palace - centralized to de-centralized forms of socio - economic organization (including the extensive use of iron). Various theories have been proposed for the end of this civilization, among them the Dorian invasion or activities connected to the "Sea Peoples ''. Additional theories such as natural disasters and climatic changes have been also suggested. The Mycenaean period became the historical setting of much ancient Greek literature and mythology, including the Trojan Epic Cycle.
The Bronze Age in mainland Greece is generally termed as the "Helladic period '' by modern archaeologists, after Hellas, the Greek name for Greece. This period is divided into three subperiods: The Early Helladic (EH) period (c. 2900 -- 2000 BC) was a time of prosperity with the use of metals and a growth in technology, economy and social organization. The Middle Helladic (MH) period (ca. 2000 -- 1650 BC) faced a slower pace of development, as well as the evolution of megaron - type dwellings and cist grave burials. Finally, the Late Helladic (LH) period (c. 1650 -- 1050 BC) roughly coincides with Mycenaean Greece.
The Late Helladic period is further divided into LHI and LHII, both of which coincide with the early period of Mycenaean Greece (c. 1650 -- 1425 BC), and LHIII (c. 1425 -- 1050 BC), the period of expansion, decline and collapse of the Mycenaean civilization. The transition period from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in Greece is known as Sub-Mycenaean (c. 1050 -- 1000 BC).
The decipherment of the Mycenaean Linear B script, a writing system adapted for the use of the Greek language of the Late Bronze Age, demonstrated the continuity of Greek speech from the second millennium BC into the eighth century BC when a new script emerged. Moreover, it revealed that the bearers of Mycenaean culture were ethnically connected with the populations that resided in the Greek peninsula after the end of this cultural period. Various collective terms for the inhabitants of Mycenaean Greece were used by Homer in his 8th century BC epic, the Iliad, in reference to the Trojan War. The latter was supposed to have happened in the late 13th -- early 12th century BC, when a coalition of small Greek states under the king of Mycenae, besieged the walled city of Troy. Homer used the ethnonyms Achaeans, Danaans and Argives, to refer to the besiegers. These names appear to have passed down from the time they were in use to the time when Homer applied them as collective terms in his Iliad. There is an isolated reference to a-ka - wi - ja - de in the Linear B records in Knossos, Crete dated to c. 1400 BC, which most probably refers to a Mycenaean (Achaean) state on the Greek mainland.
Egyptian records mention a T (D) - n-j or Danaya (Tanaju) land for the first time in circa 1437 BC, during the reign of Pharaoh Thutmoses III (r. 1479 -- 1425 BC). This land is geographically defined in an inscription from the reign of Amenhotep III (r. circa 1390 -- 1352 BC), where a number of Danaya cities are mentioned, which cover the largest part of southern mainland Greece. Among them, cities such as Mycenae, Nauplion and Thebes have been identified with certainty. Danaya has been equated with the ethnonym Danaoi (Greek: Δαναοί), the name of the mythical dynasty that ruled in the region of Argos, also used as an ethnonym for the Greek people by Homer.
In the official records of another Bronze Age empire, that of the Hittites in Anatolia, various references from c. 1400 BC to 1220 BC mention a country named Ahhiyawa. Recent scholarship, based on textual evidence, new interpretations of the Hittite inscriptions, as well as on recent surveys of archaeological evidence about Mycenaean - Anatolian contacts during this period, concludes that the term Ahhiyawa must have been used in reference to the Mycenaean world (land of the Achaeans), or at least to a part of it. This term may have also had broader connotations in some texts, possibly referring to all regions settled by Mycenaeans or regions under direct Mycenaean political control. Another similar ethnonym Ekwesh in twelfth century BC Egyptian inscriptions, has been commonly identified with the Ahhiyawans. These Ekwesh were mentioned as a group of the Sea People.
Mycenaean civilization originated and evolved from the society and culture of the Early and Middle Helladic period in mainland Greece under influences from Minoan Crete. Towards the end of the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1600 BC) a significant increase in the population and the number of settlements occurred. A number of centers of power emerged in southern mainland Greece dominated by a warrior elite society, while the typical dwellings of that era were an early type of megaron buildings. Some more complex structures are classified as forerunners of the later palaces. In a number of sites, defensive walls were also erected.
Meanwhile, new types of burials and more imposing ones have been unearthed, which display a great variety of luxurious objects. Among the various burial types, the shaft grave became the most common form of elite burial, a feature that gave the name to the early period of Mycenaean Greece. Among the Mycenaean elite, deceased men were usually laid to rest in gold masks and funerary armor, and women in gold crowns and clothes gleaming with gold ornaments. The royal shaft graves next to the acropolis of Mycenae, in particular the Grave Circles A and B signified the elevation of a native Greek - speaking royal dynasty whose economic power depended on long - distance sea trade.
During this period, the Mycenaean centers witnessed increased contacts with the outside world and especially with the Cyclades and the Minoan centers in the island of Crete. Mycenaean presence appears to be also depicted in a fresco at Akrotiri, on Thera island, which possibly displays many warriors in Boar 's tusk helmets, a feature typical of Mycenaean warfare. In the early 15th century, commerce intensified with Mycenaean pottery reaching the western coast of Asia Minor, including Miletus and Troy, Cyprus, Lebanon, Palestine and Egypt.
At the end of the Shaft Grave era, a new and more imposing type of elite burial emerged, the Tholos: large circular burial chambers with high vaulted roofs and a straight entry passage lined with stone.
The eruption of Thera, which according to archaeological data occurred in c. 1500 BC, resulted in the decline of the Minoan civilization of Crete. This turn of events gave the opportunity to the Mycenaeans to spread their influence throughout the Aegean. Around c. 1450 BC, they were in control of Crete itself, including Knossos, and colonized several other Aegean islands, reaching as far as Rhodes. Thus the Mycenaeans became the dominant power of the region, marking the beginning of the Mycenaean ' Koine ' era (from Greek: Κοινή, common), a highly uniform culture that spread in mainland Greece and the Aegean.
From the early 14th century BC, Mycenaean trade began to take advantage of the new trading opportunities in the Mediterranean after the Minoan collapse. The trade routes were expanded further reaching Cyprus, Amman in the Near East, Apulia in Italy and Spain. At that time (c. 1400 BC), the palace of Knossos yielded the earliest records of the Greek Linear B script, based on the previous Linear A of the Minoans. The use of the new script spread in mainland Greece and offers valuable insight of the administrative network of the palatial centers. However, the unearthed records are too fragmentary for a political reconstruction of Bronze Age Greece.
Excavations at Miletus, southwest Asia Minor, indicate the existence of a Mycenaean settlement there already from c. 1450 BC, replacing the previous Minoan installations. This site became a sizable and prosperous Mycenaean center until the 12th century BC. Apart from the archaeological evidence, this is also attested in Hittite records, which indicate that Miletos (Milawata in Hittite) was the most important base for Mycenaean activity in Asia Minor. Mycenaean presence also reached the adjacent sites of Iasus and Ephesus.
Meanwhile, imposing palaces were built in the main Mycenaean centers of the mainland. The earliest palace structures were megaron - type buildings, such as the Menelaion in Sparta, Lakonia. Palaces proper are datable from c. 1400 BC, when Cyclopean fortifications were erected at Mycenae and nearby Tiryns. Additional palaces were built in Midea and Pylos in Peloponnese, Athens, Eleusis, Thebes and Orchomenos in Central Greece and Iolcos, in Thessaly, the latter being the northernmost Mycenaean center. Knossos in Crete became also a Mycenaean center, where the former Minoan complex underwent a number of adjustments, including the addition of a throne room. These centers were based on a rigid network of bureaucracy where administrative competencies were classified into various sections and offices according to specialization of work and trades. At the head of this society was the king, known as wanax (Linear B: wa - na - ka) in Mycenaean Greek terms. All powers were vested in him, as the main landlord and spiritual and military leader. At the same time he was an entrepreneur and trader and was aided by a network of high officials.
The presence of Ahhiyawa in western Anatolia is mentioned in various Hittite accounts from c. 1400 to c. 1220 BC. Ahhiyawa is generally accepted as a Hittite translation of Mycenaean Greece (Achaeans in Homeric Greek), but a precise geographical definition of the term can not be drawn from the texts. During this time, the kings of Ahhiyawa were evidently capable of dealing with their Hittite counterparts both on a diplomatic and military level. Moreover, Ahhiyawan activity was to interfere in Anatolian affairs, with the support of anti-Hittite uprisings or through local vassal rulers, which the Ahhiyawan king used as agents for the extension of his influence.
In c. 1400 BC, Hittite records mention the military activities of an Ahhiyawan warlord, Attarsiya, a possible Hittite way of writing the Greek name Atreus, who attacked Hittite vassals in western Anatolia. Later, in c. 1315 BC, an anti-Hittite rebellion headed by Arzawa, a Hittite vassal state, received support from Ahhiyawa. Meanwhile, Ahhiyawa appears to be in control of a number of islands in the Aegean, an impression also supported by archaeological evidence. During the reign of the Hittite king Hattusili III (c. 1267 -- 1237 BC), the king of Ahhiyawa is recognized as a "Great King '' and of equal status with the other contemporary great Bronze Age rulers: the kings of Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria. At that time, another anti-Hittite movement, led by Piyama - Radu, broke out and was supported by the king of Ahhiyawa. Piyama - Radu caused major unrest in the region of Wilusa and later invaded the island of Lesbos, which then passed into Ahhiyawan control.
The Hittite - Ahhiyawan confrontation in Wilusa, the Hittite name for Troy, may provide the historical foundation for the Trojan War tradition. As a result of this instability, the Hittite king initiated correspondence in order to convince his Ahhiyawan counterpart to restore peace in the region. The Hittite record mentions a certain Tawagalawa, a possible Hittite translation for Greek Eteocles, as brother of the king of Ahhiyawa.
In c. 1250 BC, the first wave of destruction apparently occurred in various centers of mainland Greece for reasons that can not be identified by archaeologists. In Boeotia, Thebes was burned to the ground, around that year or slightly later. Nearby Orchomenos shared the same fate, while the Boeotian fortifications of Gla were deserted. In the Peloponnese, a number of buildings surrounding the citadel of Mycenae were attacked and burned.
These incidents appear to have prompted the massive strengthening and expansion of the fortifications in various sites. In some cases, arrangements were also made for the creation of subterranean passages which led to underground cisterns. Tiryns, Midea and Athens expanded their defences with new cyclopean - style walls. The extension program in Mycenae almost doubled the fortified area of the citadel. To this phase of extension belongs the impressive Lion Gate, the main entrance into the Mycenaean acropolis.
It appears that after this first wave of destruction a short - lived revival of Mycenaean culture followed. Mycenaean Greece continues to be mentioned in international affairs, particularly in Hittite records. In c. 1220 BC, the king of Ahhiyawa is again reported to have been involved in an anti-Hittite uprising in western Anatolia. Another contemporary Hittite account reports that Ahhiyawan ships should avoid Assyrian - controlled harbors, as part of a trade embargo imposed on Assyria. In general, in the second half of 13th century BC, trade was in decline in the Eastern Mediterranean, most probably due to the unstable political environment there.
None of the defence measures appear to have prevented the final destruction and collapse of the Mycenaean states. A second destruction struck Mycenae in ca. 1190 BC or shortly thereafter. This event marked the end of Mycenae as a major power. The site was then reoccupied, but on a smaller scale. The palace of Pylos, in the southwestern Peloponnese, faced destruction in c. 1180 BC. The Linear B archives found there, preserved by the heat of the fire that destroyed the palace, mention hasty defence preparations due to an imminent attack without giving any detail about the attacking force.
As a result of this turmoil, specific regions in mainland Greece witnessed a dramatic population decrease, especially Boeotia, Argolis and Messenia. Mycenaean refugees migrated to Cyprus and the Levantine coast. Nevertheless, other regions on the edge of the Mycenaean world prospered, such as the Ionian islands, the northwestern Peloponnese, parts of Attica and a number of Aegean islands. The acropolis of Athens, oddly, appears to have avoided destruction.
The reasons for the end of the Mycenaean culture have been hotly debated among scholars. At present, there is no satisfactory explanation for the collapse of the Mycenaean palace systems. The two most common theories are population movement and internal conflict. The first attributes the destruction of Mycenaean sites to invaders.
The hypothesis of a Dorian invasion, known as such in Ancient Greek tradition, that led to the end of Mycenaean Greece, is supported by sporadic archaeological evidence such as new types of burials, in particular cist graves, and the use of a new dialect of Greek, the Doric one. It appears that the Dorians moved southward gradually over a number of years and devastated the territory, until they managed to establish themselves in the Mycenaean centers. A new type of ceramic also appeared, called "Barbarian Ware '' because it was attributed to invaders from the north. On the other hand, the collapse of Mycenaean Greece coincides with the activity of the Sea Peoples in the Eastern Mediterranean. They caused widespread destruction in Anatolia and the Levant and were finally defeated by Pharaoh Ramesses III in c. 1175 BC. One of the ethnic groups that comprised these people were the Eqwesh, a name that appears to be linked with the Ahhiyawa of the Hittite inscriptions.
Alternative scenarios propose that the fall of Mycenaean Greece was a result of internal disturbances which led to internecine warfare among the Mycenaean states or civil unrest in a number of states, as a result of the strict hierarchical social system and the ideology of the wanax. In general, due to the obscure archaeological picture in 12th - 11th century BC Greece, there is a continuing controversy among scholars over whether the impoverished societies that succeeded the Mycenaean palatial states were newcomers or populations that already resided in Mycenaean Greece. Recent archaeological findings tend to favor the latter scenario. Additional theories, concerning natural factors, such as climate change, droughts or earthquakes have also been proposed. The period following the end of Mycenaean Greece, c. 1100 - 800 BC, is generally termed the "Greek Dark Ages ''.
Mycenaean palatial states, or centrally organized palace - operating polities, are recorded in ancient Greek literature and mythology (e.g., Iliad, Catalogue of Ships) and confirmed by discoveries made by modern archaeologists such as Heinrich Schliemann. Each Mycenaean kingdom was governed from the palace, which exercised control over most, if not all, industries within its realm. The palatial territory was divided into several sub-regions, each headed by its provincial center. Each province was further divided in smaller districts, the da - mo. A number of palaces and fortifications appear to be part of a wider kingdom. For instance, Gla, located in the region of Boeotia, belonged to the state of nearby Orchomenos. Moreover, the palace of Mycenae appeared to have ruled over a territory two to three times the size of the other palatial states in Bronze Age Greece. Its territory would have also included adjacent centers, including Tiryns and Nauplion, which could plausibly be ruled by a member of Mycenae 's ruling dynasty.
The unearthed Linear B texts are too fragmentary for the reconstruction of the political landscape in Mycenaean Greece and they do not support the existence of a larger Mycenaean state. On the other hand, contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records suggest the presence of a single state under a "Great King ''. Alternatively, based on archaeological data, some sort of confederation among a number of palatial states appears to be possible. If some kind of united political entity existed, the dominant center was probably located in Thebes or in Mycenae, with the latter state being the most probable center of power.
The Neolithic agrarian village (6000 BC) constituted the foundation of Bronze Age political culture in Greece. The vast majority of the preserved Linear B records deal with administrative issues and give the impression that Mycenaean palatial administration was highly uniform with the use of the same language, terminology, system of taxation and distribution. Considering this sense of uniformity, the Pylos archive, which is the best preserved one in the Mycenaean world, is generally taken as a representative one.
The state was ruled by a king, the wanax (ϝάναξ), whose role was religious and perhaps also military and judicial. The wanax oversaw virtually all aspects of palatial life, from religious feasting and offerings to the distribution of goods, craftsmen and troops. Under him was the lāwāgetas ("the leader of the people ''), whose role appears mainly religious. His activities possibly overlap with the wanax and is usually seen as the second - in - command. Both wanax and lāwāgetas were at the head of a military aristocracy known as the eqeta ("companions '' or "followers ''). The land possessed by the wanax is usually the témenos (te - me - no). There is also at least one instance of a person, Enkhelyawon, at Pylos, who appears titleless in the written record but whom modern scholars regard as probably a king.
A number of local officials positioned by the wanax appear to be in charge of the districts, such as ko - re-te (koreter, ' "governor ''), po - ro - ko - re-te (prokoreter, "deputy '') and the da - mo - ko - ro (damokoros, "one who takes care of a damos ''), the latter probably being appointed to take charge of the commune. A council of elders was chaired, the ke - ro - si - ja (cf. γερουσία, gerousía). The basileus, who in latter Greek society was the name of the king, refers to communal officials.
In general, Mycenaean society appears to have been divided into two groups of free men: the king 's entourage, who conducted administrative duties at the palace, and the people, da - mo These last were watched over by royal agents and were obliged to perform duties for and pay taxes to the palace. Among those who could be found in the palace were well - to - do high officials, who probably lived in the vast residences found in proximity to Mycenaean palaces, but also others, tied by their work to the palace and not necessarily better off than the members of the da - mo, such as craftsmen, farmers, and perhaps merchants. Occupying a lower rung of the social ladder were the slaves, do - e-ro, (cf. δοῦλος, doúlos). These are recorded in the texts as working either for the palace or for specific deities.
The Mycenaean economy, given its pre-monetary nature, was focused on the redistribution of goods, commodities and labor by a central administration. The preserved Linear B records in Pylos and Knossos indicate that the palaces were closely monitoring a variety of industries and commodities, the organization of land management and the rations given to the dependent personnel. The Mycenaean palaces maintained extensive control of the nondomestic areas of production through careful control and acquisition and distribution in the palace industries, and the tallying of produced goods. For instance, the Knossos tablets record c. 80,000 - 100,000 sheep grazing in central Crete, and the quantity of the expected wool from these sheep and their offspring, as well as how this wool was allocated. The archives of Pylos display a specialized workforce, where each worker belonged to a precise category and was assigned to a specific task in the stages of production, notably in textiles.
Nevertheless, palatial control over resources appears to have been highly selective in spatial terms and in terms of how different industries were managed. Thus, sectors like the production of perfumed oil and bronze materials were directly monitored from the palace, but the production of ceramics was only indirectly monitored. Regional transactions between the palaces are also recorded on a few occasions.
The palatial centers organized their workforce and resources for the construction of large scale projects in the fields of agriculture and industry. The magnitude of some projects indicates that this was the result of combined efforts from multiple palatial centers. Most notable of them are the drainage system of the Kopais basin in Boeotia, the building of a large dam outside Tiryns, and the drainage of the swamp in the Nemea valley. Also noticeable is the construction of harbors, such as the harbor of Pylos, that were capable of accommodating large Bronze Age era vessels like the one found at Uluburun. The Mycenaean economy also featured large - scale manufacturing as testified by the extent of workshop complexes that have been discovered, the largest known to date being the recent ceramic and hydraulic installations found in Euonymeia, next to Athens, that produced tableware, textiles, sails, and ropes for export and shipbuilding.
The most famous project of the Mycenaean era was the network of roads in the Peloponnese. This appears to have facilitated the speedy deployment of troops -- for example, the remnants of a Mycenaean road, along with what appears to have been a Mycenaean defensive wall on the Isthmus of Corinth. The Mycenaean era saw the zenith of infrastructure engineering in Greece, and this appears not to have been limited to the Argive plain.
Trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the economy of Mycenaean Greece. The Mycenaean palaces imported raw materials, such as metals, ivory and glass, and exported processed commodities and objects made from these materials, in addition to local products: oil, perfume, wine, wool and pottery. International trade of that time was not only conducted by palatial emissaries but also by independent merchants.
Based on archaeological findings in the Middle East, in particular physical artifacts, textual references, inscriptions and wall paintings, it appears that Mycenaean Greeks achieved strong commercial and cultural interaction with most of the Bronze Age people living in this region: Canaanites, Kassites, Mitanni, Assyrians, and Egyptians. The 14th century Uluburun shipwreck, off the coast of southern Anatolia, displays the established trade routes that supplied the Mycenaeans with all the raw materials and items that the economy of Mycenaean Greece needed, such as copper and tin for the production of bronze products. A chief export of the Mycenaeans was olive oil, which was a multi-purpose product.
Cyprus appears to be the principal intermediary station between Mycenaean Greece and the Middle East, based on the considerable greater quantities of Mycenaean goods found there. On the other hand, trade with the Hittite lands in central Anatolia appears to have been limited. Trade with Troy is also well attested, while Mycenaean trade routes expanded further to the Bosphorus and the shores of the Black Sea. Mycenaean swords have been found as far away as Georgia in the eastern Black Sea coast.
Commercial interaction was also intense with the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean. Mycenaean products, especially pottery, were exported to southern Italy, Sicily and the Aeolian islands. Mycenaean products also penetrated further into Sardinia, as well as southern Spain.
Sporadic objects of Mycenaean manufacture were found in various distant locations, like in Central Europe, such as in Bavaria, Germany, where an amber object inscribed with Linear B symbols has been unearthed. Mycenaean bronze double axes and other objects dating from the 13th century BC have been found in Ireland and in Wessex and Cornwall in England.
Temples and shrines are strangely rare in the Mycenaean archaeological sites. Monumental cultic structures are absent at all the palatial centres, with the exception of Mycenae. However, the cultic center of Mycenae seems to have been a later (13th century BC) development. Small shrines have been identified in Asine, Berbati, Malthi and Pylos, while a number of sacred enclosures have been located near Mycenae, Delphi and Amyklae. Linear B records mention a number of sanctuaries dedicated to a variety of deities, at least in Pylos and Knossos. They also indicate that there were various religious festivities including offerings. Written Mycenaean records mention various priests and priestesses who were responsible for specific shrines and temples. The latter were prominent figures in society, and the role of Mycenaean women in religious festivities was also important, just as in Minoan Crete.
The Mycenaean pantheon already included many divinities that were subsequently encountered in Classical Greece, although it is difficult to determine whether these deities had the characteristics and responsibilities that would be attributed to them in later periods. In general, the same divinities were worshipped throughout the Mycenaean palatial world. There may be some indications for local deities at various sites, in particular in Crete. The uniformity of Mycenaean religion is also reflected in archaeological evidence with the phi - and psi - figurines that have been found all over Late Bronze Age Greece.
Poseidon (Linear B: Po - se - da - o) seems to have occupied a place of privilege. He was a chthonic deity, connected with earthquakes (E-ne - si - da - o - ne: Earth - shaker), but it seems that he also represented the river spirit of the underworld. Paean (Pa - ja - wo) is probably the precursor of the Greek physician of the gods in Homer 's Iliad. He was the personification of the magic - song which was supposed to "heal '' the patient. A number of divinities have been identified in the Mycenaean scripts only by their epithets used during later antiquity. For example, Qo - wi - ja ("cow - eyed '') is a standard Homeric ephithet of Hera. Ares appeared under the name Enyalios (assuming that Enyalios is not a separate god). Additional divinities that can be also found in later periods include Hephaestus, Erinya, Artemis (a-te - mi - to and a-ti - mi - te) and Dionysos (Di - wo - nu - so). Zeus also appears in the Mycenaean pantheon, but he was certainly not the chief deity.
A collection of "ladies '' or "mistresses '', Po - ti - ni - ja (Potnia) are named in the Mycenaean scripts. As such, Athena (A-ta - na) appears in an inscription at Knossos as mistress Athena, similar to a later Homeric expression, but in the Pylos tablets she is mentioned without any accompanying word. Si - to po - ti - ni - ja appears to be an agricultural goddess, possibly related to Demeter of later antiquity, while in Knossos there is the "mistress of the Labyrinth ''. The "two queens and the king '' (wa - na - ssoi, wa - na - ka - te) are mentioned in Pylos. Goddess Pe - re-swa mentioned may be related to Persephone. A number of Mycenaean divinities seem to have no later equivalents, such as Marineus, Diwia and Komawenteia.
The palatial structures at Mycenae, Tiryns and Pylos were erected on the summits of hills or rocky outcrops, dominating the immediate surroundings. The best preserved are found in Pylos and Tiryns, while Mycenae and the Menelaion are only partially preserved. In Central Greece, Thebes and Orchomenos have been only partially exposed. On the other hand, the palace built at the acropolis of Athens has been almost completely destroyed. A substantial building at Dimini in Thessaly, possibly ancient Iolcos, is believed by a number of archaeologists to be a palace. A Mycenaean palace has been also unearthed in Laconia, near the modern village of Xirokambi.
The palatial structures of mainland Greece share a number of common features. The focal point of the socio - political aspect of a Mycenaean palace was the megaron, the throne room. It was laid out around a circular hearth surrounded by four columns. The throne was generally found on the right - hand side upon entering the room, while the interior of the megaron was lavishly decorated, flaunting images designed intentionally to demonstrate the political and religious power of the ruler. Access to the megaron was provided through a court, which was reached from a propylon. The iconography of the palatial chambers is remarkably uniform throughout Greece. For instance, in Pylos and Tiryns the paintings are focused on marine motifs, providing depictions of octopi, fish and dolphins. Around the megaron a group of courtyards each opened upon several rooms of different dimensions, such as storerooms and workshops, as well as reception halls and living quarters. In general Mycenaean palaces have yielded a wealth of artifacts and fragmentary frescoes.
Additional common features are shared by the palaces of Pylos, Mycenae and Tiryns; a large court with colonnades lies directly in front of the central megaron, while a second, but smaller, megaron is also found inside these structures. The staircases in the palace of Pylos indicate that the palaces had two stories. The private quarters of the members of the royal family were presumably located on the second floor.
The construction of defensive structures was closely linked to the establishment of the palaces in mainland Greece. The principal Mycenaean centers were well - fortified and usually situated on an elevated terrain, like on the acropolis of Athens, Tiryns and Mycenae or on coastal plains, in the case of Gla. Mycenaean Greeks in general appreciated the symbolism of war as expressed in defensive architecture, reflected by the visual impressiveness of their fortifications.
Cyclopean is the term normally applied to the masonry characteristics of Mycenaean fortification systems and describes walls built of large, unworked boulders more than 8 m (26 ft) thick and weighing several metric tonnes. They were roughly fitted together without the use of mortar or clay to bind them, though smaller hunks of limestone fill the interstices. Their placement formed a polygonal pattern giving the curtain wall an irregular but imposing appearance. At the top it would have been wide enough for a walkway with a narrow protective parapet on the outer edge and with hoop - like crenellations. The term Cyclopean was derived by the latter Greeks of the Classical era who believed that only the mythical giants, the Cyclopes, could have constructed such megalithic structures. On the other hand, cut stone masonry is used only in and around gateways. Another typical feature of Mycenaean megalithic construction was the use of a relieving triangle above a lintel block -- an opening, often triangular, designed to reduce the weight over the lintel. The space was filled with some lighter stone.
Cyclopean fortifications were typical of Mycenaean walls, especially at the citadels of Mycenae, Tiryns, Argos, Crisa and Athens, while smaller boulders are found in Midea and large limestone slabs are found at Gla. In the Mycenaean settlements found in Epirus and Cyprus, Cyclopean - style walls are also present, as well as in western Anatolia. Besides the citadels, isolated forts were also erected on various strategic locations. The fortification systems also incorporated technical refinements such as secret cisterns, galleries, sally ports and projecting bastions for the protection of gateways. On the other hand, the palace of Pylos, although a major center of power, paradoxically appears to have been left without any defensive walls.
Mycenaean domestic architecture originates mainly from earlier Middle Helladic traditions (c. 2000 -- 1650 BC) both in shape, as well as in location of settlement. The observed uniformity in domestic architecture came probably as a result of a shared past among the communities of the Greek mainland rather than as a consequence of cultural expansion of the Mycenaean Koine. Moreover, varying sizes of mudbricks were used in the construction of buildings.
Contrary to popular belief, some Mycenaean representative buildings already featured roofs made of fired tiles, as in Gla and Midea.
The military nature of the Mycenaean Greeks is evident from the numerous weapons unearthed, the use of warrior and combat representations in contemporary art, and the preserved Greek Linear B records. The Mycenaeans invested in the development of military infrastructure, with military production and logistics being supervised directly from the palatial centers. According to the Linear B records in the palace of Pylos, every rural community (the damos) was obliged to supply a certain number of men who had to serve in the army. Similar service was also performed by the aristocracy.
Mycenaean armies were initially based on heavy infantry, equipped with spears, large shields and in some occasion armor. Later in the 13th century BC, Mycenaean warfare underwent major changes both in tactics and weaponry and armed units became more uniform and flexible, while weapons became smaller and lighter. The spear remained the main weapon among Mycenaean warriors, while the sword played a secondary role in combat. Other offensive weapons used were bows, maces, axes, slings and javelins. The precise role and contribution of chariots on the battlefield is a matter of dispute due to the lack of sufficient evidence. It appears that chariots were initially used as fighting vehicles during the 16th to 14th centuries BC, while later, in the 13th century BC, their role was limited to battlefield transport.
The boar 's tusk helmet was the most identifiable piece of Mycenaean armor in use from the beginning to the collapse of Mycenaean culture. It is also known from several depictions in contemporary art in Greece and the Mediterranean. A representative piece of Mycenaean armor is the Dendra panoply (c. 1450 -- 1400 BC) which consisted of a cuirass of a complete set of armor made up of several elements of bronze. In general, most features of the later hoplite panoply of classical Greek antiquity, were already known to Mycenaean Greece. "Figure - of - eight '' shields were the most common type of Mycenaean shields. During the Late Mycenaean period, smaller types of shields were adopted, either of completely circular shape, or almost circular with a part cut out from their lower edge.
During the Late Mycenaean period (1400 -- 1200 BC), Mycenaean vessels / pottery exhibited similarities spanning a significant area of the Eastern Mediterranean (i.e., from the Levant to Sicily) and possibly reflecting a form of economic and political union centered at Mycenae. However, the pottery of Crete during this time remained distinct indicating a degree of autonomy on the island. The Mycenaean Greeks produced in large quantities a variety of diversely - styled vessels such as stirrup jars, large bowls, alabastron, krater and stemmed cups (or kylikes) resembling champagne glasses.
Stirrup jars (Linear B: ka - ra - re-u, khlareus; "oil vessel ''), specifically, were first invented on the island of Crete during the 16th century BC and used widely by the Mycenaeans from 1400 BC onward for transporting and storing wine and oil; the jars were usually pear - shaped or globular. As for stemmed cups (or kylikes), they evolved from Ephyraean goblets and a large quantity was discovered at a site called the "Potter 's Shop '' located in Zygouries. Mycenaean drinking vessels such as the stemmed cups contained single decorative motifs such as a shell, an octopus or a flower painted on the side facing away from the drinker. The Mycenaean Greeks also painted entire scenes (called "Pictorial Style '') on their vessels depicting warriors, chariots, horses and deities reminiscent of events described in Homer 's Iliad. Other items developed by the Mycenaeans include clay lamps, as well as metallic vessels such as bronze tripod cauldrons (or basins). A few examples of vessels in faience and ivory are also known.
The Mycenaean period has not yielded sculpture of any great size. The statuary of the period consists for the most part of small terracotta figurines found at almost every Mycenaean site in mainland Greece -- in tombs, in settlement debris, and occasionally in cult contexts (Tiryns, Agios Konstantinos on Methana). The majority of these figurines are female and anthropomorphic or zoomorphic. The female figurines can be subdivided into three groups which were popular at different periods: the earliest are the Phi - type, which look like the Greek letter phi and their arms give the upper body of the figurine a rounded shape. The Psi - type looks like the letter Greek psi: these have outstretched upraised arms. The latest (12th century BC) are the Tau - type: these figurines look like the Greek letter tau with folded (?) arms at right angles to the body. Most figurines wear a large ' polos ' hat. They are painted with stripes or zigzags in the same manner as the contemporary pottery and presumably made by the same potters. Their purpose is uncertain, but they may have served as both votive objects and toys: some are found in children 's graves but the vast majority of fragments are from domestic rubbish deposits. The presence of many of these figurines on sites where worship took place in the Archaic and Classical periods (approximately 200 below the sanctuary of Athena at Delphi, others at the temple of Aphaea on Aegina, at the sanctuary of Apollo Maleatas above Epidauros and at Amyklae near Sparta), suggests both that many were indeed religious in nature, perhaps as votives, but also that later places of worship may well have first been used in the Mycenaean period.
Larger male, female or bovine terracotta wheelmade figures are much rarer. An important group was found in the Temple at Mycenae together with coiled clay snakes, while others have been found at Tiryns and in the East and West Shrines at Phylakopi on the island of Melos.
The painting of the Mycenaean age was much influenced by that of the Minoan age. Fragments of wall paintings have been found in or around the palaces (Pylos, Mycenae, Tiryns) and in domestic contexts (Zygouries). The largest complete wall painting depicting three female figures, probably goddesses, was found in the so - called "cult center '' at Mycenae. Various themes are represented: hunting, bull leaping (tauromachy), battle scenes, processions, etc. Some scenes may be part of mythological narratives, but if so their meaning eludes us. Other frescoes include geometric or stylised motifs, also used on painted pottery (see above).
The usual form of burial during this period was inhumation. The earliest Mycenaean burials were mostly in individual graves in the form of a pit or a stone - lined cist and offerings were limited to pottery and occasional items of jewellery. Groups of pit or cist graves containing elite members of the community were sometimes covered by a tumulus (mound) in the manner established since the Middle Helladic. It has been argued that this form dates back to the Kurgan culture; however, Mycenaean burials are in actuality an indigenous development of mainland Greece with the Shaft Graves housing native rulers. Pit and cist graves remained in use for single burials throughout the Mycenaean period alongside more elaborate family graves. The shaft graves at Mycenae within Grave Circles A and B belonging to the same period represent an alternative manner of grouping elite burials. Next to the deceased were found full sets of weapons, ornate staffs as well as gold and silver cups and other valuable objects which point to their social rank.
Beginning also in the Late Helladic period are to be seen communal tombs of rectangular form. Nevertheless, it is difficult to establish whether the different forms of burial represent a social hierarchization, as was formerly thought, with the "tholos '' being the tombs of the elite rulers, the individual tombs those of the leisure class, and the communal tombs those of the people. Cremations increased in number over the course of the period, becoming quite numerous in the last phase of the Mycenaean era. The tholos was introduced during the early 15th century as the new and more imposing form of elite burial. The most impressive tombs of the Mycenaean era are the monumental royal tombs of Mycenae, undoubtedly intended for the royal family of the city. The most famous is the Treasury of Atreus, a tholos. A total of nine of such tholos tombs are found in the region of Mycenae, while six of them belong to a single period (Late Helladic IIa, c. 1400 - 1300 BC). It has been argued that different dynasties or factions may have competed through conspicuous burial.
In circa 1600 BC, the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from the Minoan civilization its syllabic writing system (i.e., Linear A) and developed their own syllabic script known as Linear B. The Linear B script was utilized by the Mycenaean palaces in Greece for administrative purposes where economic transactions were recorded on clay tablets and some pottery in the Mycenaean dialect of the Greek language. The Linear B tablets were first discovered in Crete by English archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans c. 1900 and later deciphered by English architect and cryptographer Michael Ventris in 1952. Ventris 's discovery of an archaic Greek dialect in the Linear B tablets demonstrated that Mycenaean Greek was "the oldest known Greek dialect, elements of which survived in Homer 's language as a result of a long oral tradition of epic poetry. ''
In the 8th century BC, after the end of the so - called Greek Dark Ages, Greece emerged with a network of myths and legends, the greatest of all being that of the Trojan Epic Cycle. In general, the Greeks of classical antiquity idealized the Mycenaean period as a glorious period of heroes, closeness of the gods and material wealth. The legends of Homer 's Epics were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the 19th century that scholars began to question Homer 's historicity. At this time, German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann undertook the first modern archaeological excavations in Greece at the site of Mycenae in 1876. Thus, Schliemann set out to prove the historical accuracy of the Iliad by identifying the places described by Homer.
As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived, the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece became major figures of the Olympian Pantheon of later antiquity. Moreover, the language of the Mycenaeans offers the first written evidence of Greek, while a significant part of the Mycenaean vocabulary can also be found in modern English.
The Mycenaean Greeks were also pioneers in the field of engineering, launching large - scale projects unmatched in Europe until the Roman period, such as fortifications, bridges, culverts, aqueducts, dams and roads suitable for wheeled traffic. They also made several architectural innovations, such as the relieving triangle. They were also responsible for transmitting a wide range of arts and crafts, especially of Minoan origin. The Mycenaean civilization was in general more advanced compared to the Late Bronze Age cultures of the rest of Europe. Several Mycenaean attributes and achievements were borrowed or held in high regard in later periods; so, it would be no exaggeration to consider Mycenaean Greece as a cradle of civilization.
|
what did chris bosh average in the finals | Chris Bosh - wikipedia
Christopher Wesson Bosh (born March 24, 1984) is an American professional basketball player who is currently a free agent. A high school "Mr. Basketball '' in Texas, Bosh left Georgia Tech after one season to enter the 2003 NBA draft. He was selected fourth overall by the Toronto Raptors in a draft class that included multiple future NBA superstars such as LeBron James, Dwyane Wade and Carmelo Anthony. While at Toronto, Bosh emerged as one of the young stars in the league; he became a five - time NBA All - Star, was named to the All - NBA Second Team once, appeared for the U.S. national team (with whom he won a gold medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics), and supplanted former fan - favorite Vince Carter as the face and leader of the Raptors franchise.
In the 2006 -- 07 season, Bosh led the Raptors to their first playoff appearance in five years, and their first ever division title. He left Toronto for the Heat in 2010 as its all - time leader in points, rebounds, blocks, double doubles, free throws made and attempted and minutes played. Bosh won his first NBA title after Miami defeated the Oklahoma City Thunder 4 -- 1 in the 2012 NBA Finals. He won his second title in 2013 as the Heat defeated the San Antonio Spurs in the 2013 NBA Finals.
Bosh was nicknamed "CB4 '' by then - Toronto Raptors play - by - play commentator Chuck Swirsky, a combination of Bosh 's initials and then jersey number. Seeking to promote sports and education amongst youths in Dallas and Toronto, Bosh set up the Chris Bosh Foundation and regularly speaks to youths about the benefits of reading.
Born in Dallas, Texas, to Noel and Freida Bosh, Chris Bosh grew up in Hutchins, Texas. A family - oriented person, Bosh often played basketball in the house with his younger brother, Joel. By four years of age, he began learning how to dribble a basketball in the gym, where his dad played pick - up games. Although Bosh was always tall since youth and this allowed him to out - rebound others in basketball games, he only started learning the game around fourth grade at a playground near his grandmother 's house. Apart from basketball, Bosh also played baseball up until high school, preferring to play as a first baseman. Growing up, Bosh names his parents as the biggest influences on his personality and considered NBA superstar Kevin Garnett as his favorite athlete, modeling his play after him. Academically, Bosh always did well in school, but he began to garner significant attention from college recruiters when he led Lincoln High School in Dallas to the number one ranking in the country and the USA Today National Championship with a perfect 40 -- 0 season.
The teenager went on to lead Lincoln High to win the Class 4A state title as he racked up 23 points, 17 rebounds and nine blocks. Bosh was subsequently named High School Player of the Year by Basketball America; Powerade Player of the Year in Texas; a first - team All - American by Parade, McDonald 's and EA Sports; a second - team all - American by USA Today and SLAM Magazine; a first - team all - state player; and "Mr. Basketball '' in Texas by the Texas Association of Basketball Coaches. With his combination of grades and basketball skills, Bosh was on a number of college recruiting lists. The University of Florida and the University of Memphis made serious attempts, but it was Paul Hewitt, coach of Georgia Tech, who made the best impression. Bosh felt Hewitt would look out for his best interests and respect his aspirations to play professional basketball; moreover, Georgia Tech 's transition offense impressed the teenager.
Bosh eventually chose to follow the footsteps of his cousin and aunt and attended Georgia Tech to study graphic design and computer imaging, and subsequently, management. There, he led the Yellow Jackets in averaging 15.6 points, 9.0 rebounds and 2.2 blocks in 31 games, and led the Atlantic Coast Conference in field goal percentage (. 560), joining Antawn Jamison as the only freshmen ever to do so. Bosh originally intended to complete his degree, but by the end of the 2002 -- 03 season, his strong performances convinced him that he was ready for the NBA. He left Georgia Tech after his freshman season and entered the 2003 NBA draft. Bosh said in future interviews that although he misses his college days, he believes he made the right decision to pursue a professional career. He said he intends to obtain a college degree in the future, to fulfill a promise made to his mother.
In a strong draft class including future All - Stars LeBron James, Carmelo Anthony, and Dwyane Wade, Bosh was selected fourth overall by the Toronto Raptors in the 2003 NBA draft and was signed on July 8, 2003. Prior to his signing, however, other NBA teams made offers for Bosh as they knew Toronto needed a veteran scorer, and Raptors star Vince Carter himself pressed for a trade. General Manager Glen Grunwald turned everyone down.
In his rookie season, Bosh was forced to play out of position as the Raptors ' starting center after Antonio Davis was traded to the Chicago Bulls. Night after night, the teenager with the "slim frame '' battled against opponents who had a significant size and strength advantage over him. Bosh -- who cited teammate Michael Curry as his mentor -- was often praised by his coaches for his heart, and willingness to play through pain and injuries resulting from his lack of body strength compared to some of the league 's strong forwards and centers. Bosh 's contributions were not unnoticed by teammates either, as he averaged 11.5 points, 7.4 rebounds, 1.4 blocks, and 33.5 minutes in 75 games, leading all rookies in rebounding and blocks, and setting a franchise record for most rebounds in a rookie season with 557. Bosh was rewarded by being selected to the NBA All - Rookie First Team for the 2003 -- 04 season.
With the departure of the disenchanted franchise face of the team, Vince Carter, in December 2004, Bosh was simultaneously anointed as the new leader around whom Toronto would build. In the remaining games following Carter 's departure, the power forward averaged 18.4 points, 9.5 rebounds, 1.6 blocks, and 38.1 minutes per game, improving in every major statistical category. He was awarded his first ever NBA Eastern Conference Player of the Week for games played between 3 and 9 January 2005. As the season drew to a close, analysts predicted that Bosh would become an All - Star one day. Bosh ended the 2004 -- 05 season as the leading scorer and leading rebounder for the team on 21 and 46 occasions respectively.
Prior to the 2005 -- 06 season, Bosh was named as one of Toronto 's team captains. Bosh continued to work on his game as he consistently chalked up double doubles, leading the team in scoring, rebounding, and field goal percentage for the first half of the season. On February 9, 2006, for the first time in his career, Bosh was selected to play in the 2006 NBA All - Star Game in Houston, Texas as a reserve forward for the Eastern Conference. He was only the third Raptor to make an All - Star game, after Carter and Antonio Davis. Bosh 's selection was just three days after he was named NBA Eastern Conference Player of the Week for the second time in his career. In March 2006, following a season - ending injury to Bosh, the Raptors hit a 1 -- 10 skid. This highlighted Bosh 's importance as the centerpiece of the offense, as well as the leader of the team. The Raptors finished the season 27 -- 55 and Bosh averaged 22.5 points, 9.2 rebounds, and 2.6 assists per game.
Despite a major off - season revamp of the Raptors roster -- including the departure of good friends Mike James and Charlie Villanueva -- Bosh officially signed a three - year contract extension with a player option for a fourth year on July 14, 2006. The deal was reportedly worth US $65 million over four years. Upon signing the contract, Bosh said "I think the future is very positive for the franchise... change was needed... we have a lot of guys who just want to win and are willing to work hard. '' During the same press conference, Bosh also announced a donation of $1,000,000 to a Toronto charity, known as Community Legacy Programs.
After a shaky start to the Raptors ' 2006 -- 07 campaign, the Raptors managed to surpass the. 500 mark as the All - Star break approached. Bosh 's play and leadership were pivotal to this run and as an increasing recognition of his abilities, on January 25, 2007, he was named an All - Star starter for the East in the 2007 NBA All - Star Game. Bosh received the second highest number of votes among all Eastern Conference forwards. This was his first All - Star start and second overall All - Star appearance, having averaged over 22 points and 11 rebounds in the first half of the season. On January 31, 2007, in a game against the Washington Wizards, Bosh scored a 65 - foot (20 m) buzzer - beating shot to end the third quarter of the game. He shot 15 - of - 15 after missing his first four shots. Bosh 's in - form streak enabled him to be selected Eastern Conference Player of the Month for January 2007. He had averaged 25.4 points and 9.1 rebounds while leading the Raptors to a 10 -- 5 record in that month. On February 7, 2007, Bosh 's career - high 41 points prompted the home fans to chant "MVP '' -- an unprecedented event in the Air Canada Centre. Two days later, Bosh collected 29 points and 11 rebounds against the Los Angeles Lakers, shooting 10 - of - 10 in the second half.
On March 28, 2007, Bosh became the new franchise record holder for double doubles in a home win against the Miami Heat. He was named Eastern Conference Player of the Week for the third time in his career shortly after, having led Toronto to clinch a playoff berth for the first time in five years. Toronto went on to win its first ever division title, and concluded the regular season with a 47 -- 35 record, including a 30 -- 11 home record, both franchise records. As third seed, the Raptors played sixth seed New Jersey Nets in the first round of the 2007 NBA Playoffs. The series drew much media attention as Carter, who left had Toronto under acrimonious circumstances, was back at the ACC as a Net. Toronto 's inexperience was evident as they struggled offensively throughout the game, to eventually lose 96 -- 91. The Raptors won Game 2 at the ACC to tie the series 1 -- 1, as Bosh recorded 25 points and a game - high 13 rebounds. The Nets won Games 3 and 4 to lead 3 -- 1, but Toronto forced Game 6 when they narrowly won 98 -- 96 in Game 5. The Nets went on to clinch the series with a win in Game 6. Bosh averaged a double - double with 22.6 ppg and 10.7 rpg for the regular season, both career - highs, and posted 17.5 ppg and 9.0 rpg for the playoffs. He was named to the All - NBA Second Team at the end of the 2006 -- 07 campaign.
Before the 2007 -- 08 season began, Andrea Bargnani, the number one pick in the 2006 NBA draft, was slated to start at center and Bosh at power forward to form a strong Toronto frontcourt and Jason Kapono, a three - point specialist, was acquired via free agency from the Miami Heat to add offensive firepower; however, as the season unfolded, neither plans materialized as hoped. Bosh himself had a slow start to the season, but as mid-season approached, his form picked up and he was named Player of the Week for the second week of January. On January 31, 2008, he was selected to be on the Eastern Conference team for the 2008 NBA All - Star Game. Bosh missed 15 games throughout the season, but the Raptors still managed to conclude the regular season with a 41 -- 41 record, thus clinching the sixth seed in the Eastern Conference for the 2008 NBA Playoffs. However, they were defeated by the Orlando Magic in the first round, losing 4 -- 1.
The first - round series against the Magic was touted as the matchup between two of the league 's best young big men in Bosh and Dwight Howard. Howard dominated throughout the series, while Bosh had a serires - best effort in Game 4 with 39 points and 15 rebounds. General Manager Bryan Colangelo said at a press conference after the series, "Whether it 's protecting (Bosh) inside the paint, getting a little bit more of a presence in there, to just getting him another scorer that 's going to shoulder some of that burden, it 's something that 's clear we have to get better '', hinting that the roster was in need of an overhaul. Bosh said after the loss, "They played a great series, they executed on offence and defense better than we did and when it came to the small things, they did a better job... I ca n't sit here and bark in protest that the better team did n't win. That 's pretty obvious. They beat us pretty good. '' Unlike the previous campaign, Bosh was not named to any of the All - NBA teams.
To provide Bosh with an experienced frontcourt partner, the Raptors pulled a blockbuster trade prior to the 2008 -- 09 campaign: six - time All - Star Jermaine O'Neal was acquired from the Indiana Pacers. Bosh -- who had won an Olympic gold medal with the national team at Beijing 2008 -- started the season strong. He averaged 26 points, 10 rebounds and 3.7 assists in his first three games and was named Eastern Conference Player of the Week for the fifth time in his career. A week later, he became Toronto 's all - time leader in offensive rebounds, surpassing Antonio Davis 's record. While Bosh and O'Neal formed a formidable partnership in the frontcourt, the Raptors struggled to surpass the. 500 mark. The principal deficiency of previous campaigns -- wing players -- continued to upend Toronto 's progress. With the Raptors at 8 -- 9, head coach Sam Mitchell was sacked and replaced by Jay Triano. Despite the move, injuries and weaknesses in the roster meant that the Raptors entered the All - Star break 13 games under. 500. On January 29, 2009, Bosh was named an All - Star reserve, but an injury ruled him out of the game. Two weeks later, in a bid to bring in a wing player and create greater salary flexibility, O'Neal and Jamario Moon were traded to Miami for Shawn Marion and Marcus Banks. The trade did not improve the team 's win -- loss record, however, and the Raptors were eliminated from contention with seven games of the regular season remaining. The bright spark in Bosh 's campaign was his career - high 22.7 points per game, as well as his being one of two players in the league that season (the other being Dwight Howard) to average a 20 / 10 in points and rebounds. On April 20, 2009, Colangelo announced that he would offer Bosh a contract extension during the summer, which Bosh later refused to sign.
To prepare for the 2009 -- 10 season, Bosh worked out under Ken Roberson, looking to add 20 pounds and bring his weight up to 250. Following the failure of the 2008 -- 09 campaign, Colangelo knew that he had to shake up the roster to persuade Bosh to stay, and the Raptors were one of the busiest teams in the pre-season market. They opened their season with a win against the heavily favored Cleveland Cavaliers, in which Bosh scored 21 points and pulled down 16 rebounds. Bosh went on a tear, averaging 25.4 points and 11.9 rebounds in the first 16 games, but the Raptors were only able to win seven of those games. The Raptors crossed into 2010 with a 16 -- 17 record, and on January 3, 2010, Bosh overtook Vince Carter as Toronto 's all - time leader in total points scored. After pulling together a string of wins, Toronto were. 500 after 40 games. Bosh was the league leader in double doubles at the time, being only one of two players in the league who averaged at least 20 points and 10 rebounds a game. On January 20, 2010, he scored a career - high 44 points in a loss against the Milwaukee Bucks, while collecting his 220th career double double. That same month, Bosh was named a reserve for the Eastern Conference All - Star team, and was Eastern Conference Player of the Week. After the All - Star break, the Raptors went on several losing streaks and an injury to Bosh exacerbated the situation. As the regular season came to a close, the Raptors went from being the fifth seed before the All - Star break to fighting for the eighth and final playoff spot with the Chicago Bulls. After recording his 44th double double on March 22, 2010, Bosh became the Raptors ' all - time leader in number of double doubles in a season. On April 5, 2010, he was named the Eastern Conference Player of the Week, winning the honor for the seventh time in his career (tying Carter for the most in franchise history). However, Bosh was unable to play in a pivotal match against the Bulls on April 11, 2010. The blowout loss cost Toronto their tie - breaker and ultimately the eighth seed, as the Bulls finished with 41 wins to Toronto 's 40.
After the 2009 -- 10 season was over, there was much speculation over whether coveted free agents such as LeBron James, Dwyane Wade, and Bosh would sign with new teams for the 2010 -- 11 season. Bosh was active on the social media front, posting his thoughts on Twitter and having a documentary crew record his meetings with the teams interested in signing him. On July 10, 2010, Bosh officially completed a sign - and - trade deal with the Miami Heat, teaming up with Wade and James. Bosh 's parting message to the Raptors on his website said, "(K) now that this was my toughest decision, mostly because Toronto has been so great to me. I 've loved every minute here and I just wanted to thank you from the bottom of my heart... '' Not only did Bosh leave Toronto as its all - time leader in virtually all major statistical categories, he was one of only three players in the league who accrued 10,000 points, 4,500 rebounds, and 600 blocks in his seven seasons with the Raptors.
Despite being widely tipped as contenders, the Heat got off to a tentative 9 -- 8 start. The Heat managed to go on to compile a 21 -- 1 record, however, and were jostling with the Boston Celtics and Chicago Bulls for pole position in the Eastern Conference as mid-season approached. Miami finished the regular season with 58 wins and faced Philadelphia in the first round of the playoffs. Miami won the series in five games, and also prevailed in five games in the semi-finals against Boston. In the Conference Finals against Chicago, Bosh was particularly instrumental, averaging 23.2 points in the 4 -- 1 series win. He was slow off the blocks in the Finals against Dallas, shooting below. 300 in the first two games, but scored the winning shot in Game 3 to give Miami a 2 -- 1 lead. That was the last game Miami won, as Dallas won the next three to win its first ever championship. Bosh was seen sobbing as he walked to the locker room following the loss.
On January 5, 2012, Bosh led the Heat to a 116 -- 109 triple overtime win against the Atlanta Hawks, highlighted by a three - point shot he made to force the game into overtime with 0.06 seconds left to play in the fourth quarter. Bosh finished the game with 33 points, 14 rebounds, 5 assists, 2 steals, and 2 blocked shots. By season 's end, the Heat had embraced a small ball strategy that featured Bosh at the center position. In the playoffs, Bosh started at center and averaged 14.0 points and 7.8 rebounds a game. In Game 1 of the Conference Semifinals against the Indiana Pacers, he suffered a lower abdominal strain that forced him to miss the rest of the series and the first four games of the Eastern Conference Finals against Boston. Boston pushed Miami to seven games, and in the final game, Bosh scored 19 points, including 3 of 4 shooting from three point range, to help the Heat advance to their second straight NBA Finals, this time against the Oklahoma City Thunder. The Thunder won the first game of the series before Miami rolled to a 4 - 1 victory, giving Bosh his first NBA Championship. Bosh scored 24 points in the deciding Game 5 and averaged 14.6 points and 9.4 rebounds in the Finals.
Bosh remained the Heat 's starting center during the 2012 -- 13 season. On February 15, 2013, Bosh was picked as an All - Star starter over the injured Rajon Rondo by coach Erik Spoelstra. The Heat achieved the league 's best record and swept through the first round of the playoffs against the Milwaukee Bucks before defeating the Chicago Bulls in five games, with Bosh scoring 20 points to go with 19 rebounds in a crucial Game 3 win in Chicago. Bosh averaged 12.1 points per game throughout the playoffs, as the Heat advanced to the NBA Finals to face the San Antonio Spurs following a grueling seven - game series against Indiana. The Heat and Spurs split the first two games before the Spurs blew out Miami in Game 3 to take a 2 -- 1 series lead. In Game 4, Bosh scored 20 points and grabbed 13 rebounds to complement Wade 's 32 points and James ' 33 points to bolster the Heat 's win, tying the series. San Antonio would bounce back in Game 5 to force the Heat to win the final two games at home. In the final seconds of Game 6, James missed a three - pointer, and Bosh grabbed the offensive rebound and found a wide open Ray Allen in the corner. Allen hit the shot to tie the game, and in overtime the Heat had a three - point lead with seconds left. San Antonio inbounded the ball to Danny Green, who attempted a corner three, but Green 's shot was blocked by Bosh to secure the Heat 's victory. Bosh was held scoreless in Game 7 by Tim Duncan, but the Heat still won the game and the series to claim their second consecutive NBA Championship.
In the 2013 -- 14 season, Bosh played and started in 79 games, averaging 16.2 points and 6.6 rebounds per game. He also hit a career - high 74 three point shots on 33 percent shooting from beyond the arc. In the playoffs, Bosh helped the Heat return to the NBA Finals, where they faced the San Antonio Spurs once again. This time, however, the Heat were outclassed by the Spurs, as they lost the series in five games.
On July 30, 2014, Bosh re-signed with the Heat after LeBron James announced he was leaving Miami to return to the Cleveland Cavaliers. After averaging 21.6 points, 8.2 rebounds, 2.1 assists and 1.1 steals over the first 23 games of the 2014 -- 15 season, Bosh was ruled out indefinitely on December 15 with a strained calf. He went on to miss eight games before returning on December 29 against the Orlando Magic. After playing in the 2015 All - Star Game, Bosh was admitted to a Miami hospital for lung tests during the All - Star break. On February 21, 2015, he was ruled out for the remainder of the season due to a blood clot in one of his lungs.
On October 28, 2015, Bosh made his return to the court in the Heat 's season opener against the Charlotte Hornets, recording 21 points and 10 rebounds in a 104 -- 94 win. On November 10, 2015, he scored a then season - high 30 points in a 101 -- 88 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. On December 28, 2015, he recorded 24 points and 12 rebounds against the Brooklyn Nets, and hit a career - best 5 - of - 5 from three - point range. On January 4, 2016, he recorded a season - high 31 points and 11 rebounds in a 103 -- 100 overtime win over the Indiana Pacers. Though he was voted to play in the 2016 NBA All - Star Game, and selected to compete in the Three - Point Contest, due to a calf injury, Bosh was forced to withdraw from both. A blood clot in his leg again forced Bosh to miss time following the All - Star break. He faced increasing pressure from physicians and the Heat organization to sit out the rest of the season because of the potential dangers of the recurring medical condition.
In September 2016, Bosh failed his physical exam with the Heat and was not cleared by the team to participate in training camp. Bosh was initially optimistic in a return to the Heat for the 2016 -- 17 season, and the organization had become increasingly hopeful that he would be cleared for camp. That quickly changed, however, due to numerous setbacks accredited to continued blood clotting. On September 26, 2016, Heat president Pat Riley said that the team viewed Bosh 's career with the team as over, and noted that the team was no longer working toward his return. On May 24, 2017, Bosh and the Heat reportedly reached a unique parting agreement in which he would leave the Heat without taking up their salary cap for the 2017 -- 18 season. On June 2, 2017, the NBA ruled that Bosh 's blood clotting issues were a career - ending illness, meaning the Miami Heat were able to remove his contract from their salary cap once they officially release him. On July 4, 2017, the Heat announced that they had waived Bosh, ending a seven - year stint with the organization. Out of respect, Heat president Pat Riley said following Bosh 's release, "The number ' 1 ' will never be worn by another player and we ca n't wait to someday hang his jersey in the rafters ''.
In November 2017, Bosh noted that he planned to "keep (his) options open as a player '', and in February 2018, he declared himself on the comeback trail, having refused to rule out a return to the NBA.
Bosh 's national team career began in 2002 when he was selected as a member of the 2002 USA Basketball Junior World Championship Qualifying Team that finished with a 4 -- 1 record and the bronze medal.
After his NBA career began, Bosh was named in March 2006 to the 2006 -- 2008 United States men 's national basketball team program, and helped lead the team to a 5 -- 0 record during its pre-World Championship tour. In August 2006, Bosh was named as a member of the 2006 USA World Championship Team. Together with fellow 2003 draftees Dwyane Wade, LeBron James, Carmelo Anthony, and Kirk Hinrich, this team competed in the 2006 FIBA World Championship. The team won the bronze medal, defeating former 2004 Olympic champion Argentina. Bosh was ranked sixth in field goal percentage.
Following the 2006 -- 07 season, Bosh was named to the team that would compete in the 2007 FIBA Americas Championship. However, he sustained a foot injury and withdrew from the squad. On June 23, 2008, he was named to the team that would compete in the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing. During the tournament itself, Bosh operated as the main backup to center Dwight Howard as Team USA went unbeaten in all eight games en route to the gold medal, defeating Spain in the final. He averaged 9.1 points per game, and led the team in rebounds with 6.1 a game.
In June 2012, Bosh withdrew his name from consideration for the 2012 Olympics in London to recover from a lower abdominal strain that kept him out of some playoff games.
Anthony Parker on Bosh 's leadership
Bosh has traditionally played the power forward position, including during his first season with the Miami Heat. However, starting in the 2011 -- 12 season, he began to start at center and played the position during the team 's consecutive championships. Listed at 6 ft 11 in (2.11 m) and 235 pounds (107 kg), Bosh possesses excellent speed, athleticism, and ball handling for a player of his size. He is particularly noted for his ability to drive to the basket and finish strong or get to the free throw line -- where he is also proficient -- but he is also known for his well - developed jump shot. Indiana Pacers coach Jim O'Brien once commented on the match - up problems Bosh posed for opposing defenders: "We 've tried over the years to put big guys on him. It does n't work. We 've tried to put small guys on him. It does n't seem to work either. I do n't know if we have somebody to play Bosh, to tell you the truth. '' When he was the centerpiece of the Raptors ' offense, Bosh was often double teamed, and he was noted to unselfishly pass the ball to teammates who were in better shooting positions. He improved his shooting range when he worked on his three - point shooting during the summer of 2006 and showed improvement in the 2006 -- 07 season. On November 8, 2006, against the Philadelphia 76ers, he hit a game - winning three - point shot with 6.1 seconds left. It was reminiscent of the shot that marked his "arrival '' to the NBA in his first season, when he hit a game - tying three - pointer against Houston to send the game to overtime. When the 2006 -- 07 season concluded, Bosh had shot. 343 from the three point arc for the season; he improved to. 400 the following season. Despite his ability to hit three - pointers, it was during his tenure with the Miami Heat that he began to be relied upon as one of the team 's outside shooters, taking multiple three - pointers throughout the 2012 and 2013 championship runs. During the 2013 -- 14 season, Bosh shot and made more three - pointers than at any point during his career, and continued to make crucial shots during the playoffs.
Bosh is noted for his leadership. When he was the leader of the Raptors, he was not known for being vocal on the court, preferring to maintain his quiet and humble demeanor but expecting his teammates to match his work ethic. However, Bosh was also known to deliver stern rebukes to teammates who make bad calls on the court. Throughout his career, comparisons have been made between him and Kevin Garnett due to their similar style of play and physique.
Besides his on - the - court exploits, Bosh was a National Honor Society member and graduated with honors from Lincoln. He is also a member of the National Society of Black Engineers and the Dallas Association of Minority Engineers. Following his success in the NBA, Bosh soon had his own YouTube channel, and has since made various TV appearances. In December 2009, First Ink, a DVD featuring comedic digital shorts and a documentary about Bosh, was released. The DVD was filmed during the summer of 2009. A fan of the X-Men cartoon as a child, Bosh voiced the Marvel character Heimdall in an episode of Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. in 2014. He has also made appearances of episodes of Entourage and Parks and Recreation.
In the field of philanthropy, Bosh established the Chris Bosh Foundation in 2004. Remembering the challenges he faced as a youth, Bosh founded the organization to help younger people in academics and athletics. The Foundation, with programs in Toronto and Dallas, has worked closely with organizations such as the Toronto Special Olympics to raise important funding for community projects. Bosh 's mother, Freida, has served as CEO of the Foundation. As an avid reader, Bosh also regularly speaks to groups of children about the benefits of reading, and has received the NBA Community Assist Award for his active contributions for the Raptors community development program in Toronto and Dallas during the course of the NBA campaign. In November 2008, Bosh pledged to donate $75,000 to the Boys and Girls Clubs of Canada. He is also an advocate for increased computer literacy in schools, supporting the non-profit code.org.
In July 2011, Bosh married Adrienne Williams. The couple have four children, three sons and one daughter.
Bosh has dabbled in hip - hop production. In 2017, alongside record producer, songwriter, and singer Rico Love, Bosh co-produced a song titled "Miss My Woe '' by Gucci Mane. The song is featured on Gucci 's eleventh studio album titled, Mr. Davis.
On March 24, 2009, it was reported that Bosh 's former girlfriend, Allison Mathis, was seeking child support and sole custody of their daughter, Trinity (born November 2, 2008). Mathis alleged that when she was seven months pregnant, Bosh stopped supporting her financially and tried to remove her from their home. Three days later, it was reported that the dispute was only over the amount Bosh paid. Mathis ' lawyer also told the press, "My client very much wanted this dispute to remain private. Certainly this thing did not get started by anything on our side... She is very distressed that somehow this thing got into the newspapers. She wants Trinity to have a good relationship with her dad, Chris Bosh, and adverse publicity makes that more difficult. ''
|
in the roman republican system the chief co-executives of the government are called | Newark, New Jersey - wikipedia
Newark (/ ˈnuː. ər k / or also locally / nʊərk /) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of New Jersey and the seat of Essex County. As one of the nation 's major air, shipping, and rail hubs, the city had a population of 277,140 in 2010, making it the nation 's 67th most - populous municipality, after being ranked 63rd in the nation in 2000. For 2015, the Census Bureau 's Population Estimates Program calculated a population of 281,944, an increase of 1.7 % from the 2010 enumeration, ranking the city the 70th largest in the nation. Newark is the second largest city in the New York metropolitan area, located approximately 8 miles (13 km) west of lower Manhattan.
Settled in 1666 by Puritans from New Haven Colony, Newark is one of the oldest European cities in the United States. Its location at the mouth of the Passaic River (where it flows into Newark Bay), has made the city 's waterfront an integral part of the Port of New York and New Jersey. Today, Port Newark - Elizabeth is the primary container shipping terminal of the busiest seaport on the American East Coast. In addition, Newark Liberty International Airport was the first municipal commercial airport in the United States, and today is one of its busiest.
Several leading companies have their headquarters in Newark, including Prudential, PSEG, Panasonic Corporation of North America, Audible.com, IDT Corporation, and Manischewitz. A number of important higher education institutions are also located in the city, including the Newark campus of Rutgers University (which includes law and medical schools and the Rutgers Institute of Jazz Studies); the New Jersey Institute of Technology; and Seton Hall University 's law school. The U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey sits in the city as well. Local cultural venues include the New Jersey Performing Arts Center, Newark Symphony Hall, The Prudential Center and the Newark Museum.
Newark is divided into five political wards; the East, West, South, North and Central wards and contains neighborhoods ranging in character from bustling urban districts to quiet suburban enclaves. Newark 's Branch Brook Park is the oldest county park in the United States and is home to the nation 's largest collection of cherry blossom trees, numbering over 5,000.
Newark was settled in 1666 by Connecticut Puritans led by Robert Treat from the New Haven Colony. It was conceived as a theocratic assembly of the faithful, though this did not last for long as new settlers came with different ideas. On October 31, 1693 it was organized as a New Jersey township based on the Newark Tract, which was first purchased on July 11, 1667. Newark was granted a Royal charter on April 27, 1713. It was incorporated on February 21, 1798 by the New Jersey Legislature 's Township Act of 1798, as one of New Jersey 's initial group of 104 townships. During its time as a township, portions were taken to form Springfield Township (April 14, 1794), Caldwell Township (February 16, 1798; now known as Fairfield Township), Orange Township (November 27, 1806), Bloomfield Township (March 23, 1812) and Clinton Township (April 14, 1834, remainder reabsorbed by Newark on March 5, 1902). Newark was reincorporated as a city on April 11, 1836, replacing Newark Township, based on the results of a referendum passed on March 18, 1836. The previously independent Vailsburg borough was annexed by Newark on January 1, 1905. In 1926, South Orange Township changed its name to Maplewood. As a result of this, a portion of Maplewood known as Ivy Hill was re-annexed to Newark 's Vailsburg.
The name of the city is thought to derive from Newark - on - Trent, England, because of the influence by the original pastor, Abraham Pierson, who came from Yorkshire but may have ministered in Newark, Nottinghamshire. But Pierson is also supposed to have said that the community reflecting the new task at hand should be named "New Ark '' for "New Ark of the Covenant and some of the colonists saw it as "New - Work '', the settlers ' new work with God. Whatever the origins, the name was shortened to Newark, although references to the name "New Ark '' are found in preserved letters written by historical figures such as David Ogden in his claim for compensation, and James McHenry, as late as 1787.
During the American Revolutionary War British troops made several raids into the town.
The city saw tremendous industrial and population growth during the 19th century and early 20th century, and experienced racial tension and urban decline in the second half of the 20th century, culminating in the 1967 Newark riots. The city has experienced revitalization since the 1990s.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had a total area of 26.107 square miles (67.617 km), including 24.187 square miles (62.644 km) of land and 1.920 square miles (4.973 km) of water (7.35 %) was water. It has the third - smallest land area among the 100 most populous cities in the U.S., behind neighboring Jersey City and Hialeah, Florida. The city 's altitude ranges from 0 (sea level) in the east to approximately 230 feet (70 m) above sea level in the western section of the city. Newark is essentially a large basin sloping towards the Passaic River, with a few valleys formed by meandering streams. Historically, Newark 's high places have been its wealthier neighborhoods. In the 19th century and early 20th century, the wealthy congregated on the ridges of Forest Hill, High Street, and Weequahic.
Until the 20th century, the marshes on Newark Bay were difficult to develop, as the marshes were essentially wilderness, with a few dumps, warehouses, and cemeteries on their edges. During the 20th century, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was able to reclaim 68 acres (28 ha) of the marshland for the further expansion of Newark Airport, as well as the growth of the port lands.
Newark is surrounded by residential suburbs to the west (on the slope of the Watchung Mountains), the Passaic River and Newark Bay to the east, dense urban areas to the south and southwest, and middle - class residential suburbs and industrial areas to the north. The city is the largest in New Jersey 's Gateway Region, which is said to have received its name from Newark 's nickname as the "Gateway City ''.
Newark is New Jersey 's largest and second-most racially diverse city (after neighboring Jersey City). It is divided into five political wards, which are often used by residents to identify their place of habitation. In recent years, residents have begun to identify with specific neighborhood names instead of the larger ward appellations. Nevertheless, the wards remain relatively distinct. Industrial uses, coupled with the airport and seaport lands, are concentrated in the East and South Wards, while residential neighborhoods exist primarily in the North, Central, and West Wards.
State law requires that wards be compact and contiguous and that the largest ward may not exceed the population of the smallest by more than 10 % of the average ward size. Ward boundaries are redrawn, as needed, by a board of ward commissioners consisting of two Democrats and two Republicans appointed at the county level and the municipal clerk. Redrawing of ward lines in previous decades have shifted traditional boundaries, so that downtown currently occupies portions of the East and Central Wards. The boundaries of the wards are altered for various political and demographic reasons and sometimes gerrymandered, especially the northeastern portion of the West Ward.
Newark 's Central Ward, formerly known as the old Third Ward, contains much of the city 's history including the original squares Lincoln Park, Military Park and Washington Park. The Ward contains the University Heights, The Coast / Lincoln Park, Government Center, Springfield / Belmont and Seventh Avenue neighborhoods. Of these neighborhood designations only University Heights, a more recent designation for the area that was the subject of the 1968 novel Howard Street by Nathan Heard, is still in common usage. The Central Ward extends at one point as far north as 2nd Avenue.
In the 19th century, the Central Ward was inhabited by Germans and other white Catholic and Christian groups. The German inhabitants were later replaced by Jews, who were then replaced by Blacks. The increased academic footprint in the University Heights neighborhood has produced gentrification, with landmark buildings undergoing renovation. Located in the Central Ward is the largest health sciences university in the nation, UMDNJ - New Jersey Medical School. It is also home to three other universities -- New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Rutgers University -- Newark, and Essex County College. The Central Ward forms the present - day heart of Newark, and includes 26 public schools, two police precincts, including headquarters, four firehouses, and one branch library.
The North Ward is surrounded by Branch Brook Park. Its neighborhoods include Broadway, Mount Pleasant, Upper Roseville and the affluent Forest Hill section. Forest Hill contains the Forest Hill Historic District, which is registered on state and national historic registers, and contains many older mansions and colonial homes. A row of residential towers with security guards and secure parking line Mt. Prospect Avenue in the Forest Hill neighborhood. The North Ward has lost geographic area in recent times; its southern boundary is now significantly further north than the traditional boundary near Interstate 280. The North Ward historically had a large Italian population; demographics have transitioned to Latino in recent decades, though the ward as a whole remains ethnically diverse.
The West Ward comprises the neighborhoods of Vailsburg, Ivy Hill, West Side, Fairmount and Lower Roseville. It is home to the historic Fairmount Cemetery. The West Ward, once a predominately Irish - American, Polish, and Ukrainian neighborhood, is now home to neighborhoods composed primarily of Latinos, African Americans, and Caribbean Americans. The West Ward has struggled in recent years with elevated rates of crime, particularly violent crime.
The South Ward comprises the Weequahic, Clinton Hill, Dayton, and South Broad Valley neighborhoods. The South Ward, once home to residents of predominately Jewish descent, now has ethnic neighborhoods made up primarily of African Americans and Hispanics. The South Ward is represented by Council Member John Sharpe James. The city 's second - largest hospital, Newark Beth Israel Medical Center, can be found in the South Ward, as can 17 public schools, five daycare centers, three branch libraries, one police precinct, a mini precinct, and three fire houses.
The East Ward consists of much of Newark 's Downtown commercial district, as well as the Ironbound neighborhood, where much of Newark 's industry was located in the 19th century. Today, due to the enterprise of its immigrant population, the Ironbound (also known as "Down Neck '' and "The Neck '') is a destination for shopping, dining, and nightlife. A historically immigrant - dominated section of the city, the Ironbound in recent decades has been termed "Little Portugal '' and "Little Brazil '' due to its heavily Portuguese and Brazilian population; Newark being home to one of the largest Portuguese speaking communities in the United States. In addition, the East Ward has become home to various Latin Americans, African Americans, and commuters to Manhattan. Public education in the East Ward consists of East Side High School and six elementary schools. The ward is largely composed of densely packed housing, primarily large apartment buildings and rowhouses.
Newark lies in the humid subtropical (Köppen Cfa / Dfa), with mild, damp winters and hot, humid summers. The January daily mean is 32.6 ° F (0.3 ° C), and although temperatures below 10 ° F (− 12 ° C) are to be expected in most years, sub-0 ° F (− 18 ° C) readings are rare; conversely, some days may warm up to 50 ° F (10 ° C). The average seasonal snowfall is 29.5 inches (75 cm), though variations in weather patterns may bring sparse snowfall in some years and several major Nor'easters in others, with the heaviest 24 - hour fall of 25.9 inches (66 cm) occurring on December 26, 1947. Spring and autumn in the area are generally unstable yet mild. The July daily mean is 77.4 ° F (25.2 ° C), and highs exceed 90 ° F (32 ° C) on an average 27 days per year, not factoring in the oft - higher heat index.
The city receives precipitation ranging from 2.9 to 4.8 inches (74 to 122 mm) per month, usually falling on 8 to 12 days per month. Extreme temperatures have ranged from − 14 ° F (− 26 ° C) on February 9, 1934 to 108 ° F (42 ° C) on July 22, 2011.
The city had a population of 277,140 as of the 2010 Census, retaining its position as the largest city in the state and making it the nation 's 67th most - populous municipality. After reaching a peak of 442,337 residents counted in the 1930 Census, the city 's population saw a decline of nearly 40 % as residents moved to surrounding suburbs, with the increase in 2010 of 3,594 (+ 1.3 %) from the 273,546 counted in the 2000 Census marking the second census in 70 years in which the city 's population had grown from the previous enumeration.
"White flight '' from Newark to the suburbs, which started in the 1940s accelerated in the 1960s. The 1967 riots resulted in a significant population loss of the city 's middle class, many of them Jewish, which continued from the 1970s through to the 1990s. The city lost about 130,000 residents between 1960 and 1990.
From the 1950s to 1967, white population shrank from 363,000 to 158,000, its black population grew from 70,000 to 220,000. The percentage of Non-Hispanic whites declined from 82.8 % in 1950 to 11.6 % by 2010. The percentage of Latinos in Newark grew between 1980 and 2010, from 18.6 % to 33.8 % while that of Blacks decreased from 58.2 % to 52.4 %.
Poverty remains a consistent problem in Newark, despite its revitalization in recent years. As of 2010, roughly one - third of the city 's population was impoverished.
In advance of the 2000 United States Census, city officials made a push to get residents to respond and participate in the enumeration, citing calculations by city officials that as many as 30,000 people were not reflected in estimates from the Census Bureau, which resulted in the loss of government aid and political representation. It is believed that heavily immigrant areas of Newark were significantly undercounted in the 2010 Census, especially in the East Ward. Many households refused to participate in the census, with immigrants often reluctant to submit census forms because they believed that the information could be used to justify their deportation.
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 277,140 people, 94,542 households, and 61,641 families residing in the city. The population density was 11,458.3 per square mile (4,424.1 / km). There were 109,520 housing units at an average density of 4,528.1 per square mile (1,748.3 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 26.31 % (72,914) White, 52.35 % (145,085) Black or African American, 0.61 % (1,697) Native American, 1.62 % (4,485) Asian, 0.04 % (118) Pacific Islander, 15.22 % (42,181) from other races, and 3.85 % (10,660) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 33.83 % (93,746) of the population.
There were 94,542 households out of which 33.7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.0 % were married couples living together, 28.9 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.8 % were non-families. 27.9 % of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.2 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.76 and the average family size was 3.36.
In the city, the population was spread out with 25.6 % under the age of 18, 11.9 % from 18 to 24, 31.9 % from 25 to 44, 22.1 % from 45 to 64, and 8.6 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32.3 years. For every 100 females there were 97.9 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 96.3 males.
The Census Bureau 's 2006 -- 2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation - adjusted dollars) median household income was $35,659 (with a margin of error of + / − $1,009) and the median family income was $41,684 (+ / − $1,116). Males had a median income of $34,350 (+ / − $1,015) versus $32,865 (+ / − $973) for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,367 (+ / − $364). About 22.0 % of families and 25.0 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 34.9 % of those under age 18 and 22.4 % of those age 65 or over.
Newark was the 64th-most - populous city as of the 2000 Census.
As of the 2000 United States Census there were 273,546 people, 91,382 households, and 61,956 families residing in the city. The population density was 11,495.0 per square mile (4,437.7 / km2). There were 100,141 housing units at an average density of 4,208.1 per square mile (1,624.6 / / km2). The racial makeup of the city as of the 2000 Census was 53.46 % (146,250) African American, 26.52 % (72,537) White, 1.19 % (3,263) Asian, 0.37 % (1,005) Native American, 0.05 % (135) Pacific Islander, 14.05 % (38,430) from other races, and 4.36 % (11,926) from two or more races. 29.47 % (80,622) of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
As of the 2000 Census, 49.2 % of the city 's 80,622 residents who identified themselves as Hispanic or Latino were from Puerto Rico, while 9.4 % were from Ecuador and 7.8 % from the Dominican Republic. There is a significant Portuguese - speaking community concentrated in the Ironbound district. 2000 Census data showed that Newark had 15,801 residents of Portuguese ancestry (5.8 % of the population), while an additional 5,805 (2.1 % of the total) were of Brazilian ancestry.
There were 91,382 households out of which 35.2 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.0 % were married couples living together, 29.3 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.2 % were non-families. 26.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 8.8 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.8 and the average family size was 3.40.
In the city the age distribution of the population shows 27.9 % under the age of 18, 12.1 % from 18 to 24, 32.0 % from 25 to 44, 18.7 % from 45 to 64, and 9.3 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.2 males. For every 100 females of age 18 and over, there were 91.1 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $26,913, and the median income for a family was $30,781. Males had a median income of $29,748 versus $25,734 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,009. 28.4 % of the population and 25.5 % of families were below the poverty line. 36.6 % of those under the age of 18 and 24.1 % of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line. The city 's unemployment rate was 8.5 %.
More than 100,000 people commute to Newark each workday, making it the state 's largest employment center with many white - collar jobs in insurance, finance, import - export, health - care, and government. As a major courthouse venue including federal, state, and county facilities, it is home to more than 1,000 law firms. The city is also a "college town '', with nearly 50,000 students attending the city 's universities and medical and law schools. Its airport, maritime port, rail facilities, and highway network make Newark the busiest transshipment hub on the East Coast in terms of volume.
Though Newark is not the industrial colossus of the past, the city does have a considerable amount of industry and light manufacturing. The southern portion of the Ironbound, also known as the Industrial Meadowlands, has seen many factories built since World War II, including a large Anheuser - Busch brewery that opened in 1951 and distributed 7.5 million barrels of beer in 2007. The service industry is also growing rapidly, replacing those in the manufacturing industry, which was once Newark 's primary economy. In addition, transportation has become a large business in Newark, accounting for more than 17,000 jobs in 2011.
Newark is one of nine cities in New Jersey designated as eligible for Urban Transit Hub Tax Credits by the state 's Economic Development Authority. Developers who invest a minimum of $50 million within 0.5 miles of a train station are eligible for pro-rated tax credit. After the election of Cory Booker, millions of dollars of public - private partnership investment were made in Downtown development but persistent underemployment continue to characterize many of the city 's neighborhoods. Poverty remains a consistent problem in Newark. As of 2010, roughly one - third of the city 's population was impoverished.
Newark is the third - largest insurance center in the United States, after New York City and Hartford. The Prudential Financial, Mutual Benefit Life, Fireman 's Insurance, and American Insurance Company all originated in the city. The first, one of the largest insurance companies in the world, has its "home office in Newark. Many other companies are headquartered in the city, including IDT Corporation, NJ Transit, Public Service Enterprise Group (PSEG), Manischewitz, Horizon Blue Cross and Blue Shield of New Jersey. and Audible.com. In 2013 Panasonic moved its North American headquarters to a new 250,000 - square - foot (23,000 m) office building.
Portions of Newark are part of an Urban Enterprise Zone. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the Zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 31⁄2 % sales tax rate (versus the 7 % rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants.
While for years Newark was a food desert with a dearth of supermarkets, several new ones have opened or are planning to open since 2000, including a ShopRite supermarket and the upscale Whole Foods.
Port Newark is the part of Port Newark - Elizabeth Marine Terminal and the largest cargo facility in the Port of New York and New Jersey. Located on Newark Bay, it is run by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and serves as the principal container ship facility for goods entering and leaving the New York metropolitan region and the northeastern quadrant of North America. The Port moved over $100 billion in goods in 2003, making it the 15th busiest in the world at the time, but was the number one container port as recently as 1985. Plans are underway for billions of dollars of improvements -- larger cranes, bigger railyard facilities, deeper channels, and expanded wharves.
There are several notable Beaux - Arts buildings, such as the Veterans ' Administration building, the Newark Museum, the Newark Public Library, and the Cass Gilbert - designed Essex County Courthouse. Notable Art Deco buildings include several 1930s era skyscrapers, such as the National Newark Building and Eleven 80, the restored Newark Penn Station, and Arts High School. Gothic architecture can be found at the Cathedral of the Sacred Heart by Branch Brook Park, which is one of the largest gothic cathedrals in the United States. It is rumored to have as much stained glass as the Cathedral of Chartres. Newark also has two public sculpture works by Gutzon Borglum -- Wars of America in Military Park and Seated Lincoln in front of the Essex County Courthouse. Moorish Revival buildings include Newark Symphony Hall and the Prince Street Synagogue, one of the oldest synagogue buildings in New Jersey.
The New Jersey Performing Arts Center, located near Military Park opened in 1997, is the home of the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra and the New Jersey State Opera, The center 's programs of national and international music, dance, and theater make it the nation 's sixth - largest performing arts center, attracting over 400,000 visitors each year.
Prior to the opening of the performing arts center, Newark Symphony Hall was home to the New Jersey Symphony, the New Jersey State Opera, and the Garden State Ballet, which stills maintains an academy there. The 1925 neo-classic building, originally built by the Shriners, has three performance spaces, including the main concert named in honor of famous Newarker Sarah Vaughan, offering rhythm and blues, rap, hip - hop, and gospel music concerts, and is part of the modern - day Chitlin ' Circuit.
The Newark Boys Chorus, founded in 1966, performs regularly in the city. The African Globe Theater Works presents a new works seasonally. The biennial Geraldine R. Dodge Poetry Festival took place in Newark for the first time in 2010.
Venues at the universities in the city are also used to present professional and semi-professional theater, dance, and music. Since its opening, the Prudential Center in 2007 has presented Diana Ross, Katy Perry, Lady Gaga, Britney Spears, The Eagles, Hannah Montana / Miley Cyrus, Spice Girls, Jonas Brothers, Metro Station, Metallica, Alicia Keys, Demi Lovato, David Archuleta, Taylor Swift and American Idol Live!, among others. Bon Jovi performed a series of ten concerts to mark the venue 's opening.
The Newark Museum is the largest in New Jersey. Highlights of its collection include American and Tibetan art. The museum also contains science galleries, a planetarium, a gallery for children 's exhibits, a fire museum, a sculpture garden and an 18th - century schoolhouse. Also part of the museum is the historic John Ballantine House, a restored Victorian mansion which is a National Historic Landmark. The museum co-sponsors the Newark Black Film Festival, which has premiered numerous films since its founding in 1974.
The city is also home to the New Jersey Historical Society, which has rotating exhibits on New Jersey and Newark. The Newark Public Library, the state 's largest system with 11 locations, also produces a series of historical exhibits. The library houses more than a million volumes and has frequent exhibits on a variety of topics, many featuring items from its Fine Print and Special Collections.
Since 1962, Newark has been home to the Institute of Jazz Studies, the world 's foremost jazz archives and research libraries. Located in the John Cotton Dana Library at Rutgers - Newark, the Institute houses more than 200,000 jazz recordings in all commercially available formats, more than 6,000 monograph titles, including discographies, biographies, history and criticism, published music, film and video; over 600 periodicals and serials, dating back to the early 20th century; and one of the country 's most comprehensive jazz oral history collections, featuring more than 150 jazz oral histories, most with typed transcripts.
In February 2004, plans were announced for a new Smithsonian Institution - affiliated Museum of African American Music to be built in the city 's Coast / Lincoln Park neighborhood. The museum will be dedicated to black musical styles, from gospel to rap. The new museum will incorporate the façade of the old South Park Presbyterian Church, where Abraham Lincoln once spoke.
On December 9, 2007, the Jewish Museum of New Jersey, located at 145 Broadway in the Broadway neighborhood, held its grand opening. The museum is dedicated to the cultural heritage of New Jersey 's Jewish people. The museum is housed at Ahavas Sholom, the last continually operating synagogue in Newark. By the 1950s there were 50 synagogues in Newark serving a Jewish population of 70,000 to 80,000, once the sixth - largest Jewish community in the United States.
Newark is also home to numerous art galleries including the Paul Robeson Galleries at Rutgers University -- Newark, as well as Aljira, a Center for Contemporary Art, City Without Walls, Gallery Aferro and Sumei Arts Center.
In April 2010, plans were announced for a new Children 's Museum of New Jersey to be created across from Newark Penn Station. These plans have yet to be realized. According to planners, due to a reported lack of funding and a poor economy, "the project went to sleep ''.
Since 2009, the Newark Planning Office, in collaboration with local arts organizations, has sponsored Newark Murals, and seen the creation of 21 outdoor murals about significant people, places, and events in the city. New initiatives through private sponsorship were announced in 2014.
Festivals and parades held annually or bi-annually include the Cherry Blossom Festival (April) in Branch Brook Park, the Portugal Day Festival (June) in The Ironbound, the McDonald 's Gospelfest (June) at Prudential Center, the Lincoln Park Music Festival (July) at Lincoln Park, the Newark Black Film Festival (Summer) and Paul Robeson Awards (biennial), the Geraldine R. Dodge Poetry Festival (October, biennial) at various venues and the citywide Open Doors (October).
Newark is within the metro New York media market.
The state 's leading newspaper, The Star - Ledger, owned by Advance Publications, is based in Newark. The newspaper sold its headquarters in July 2014, with the offices of the publisher, the editorial board, columnists, and magazine relocating to the Gateway Center.
Pioneer radio station WOR was started by Bamberger Broadcasting Service in 1922 and broadcast from studios at its retailer 's downtown department store. Today the building serves telecom, colocation, and computer support industries.
Radio station WJZ (now WABC) made its first broadcast in 1921 from the Westinghouse plant near Broad Street Station. It moved to New York City in the 1920s. Radio station WNEW - AM (now WBBR) was founded in Newark in 1934 and later moved to New York City. WBGO, a National Public Radio affiliate with a format of standard and contemporary jazz, is at 54 Park Place in downtown Newark. WNSW AM - 1430 (formerly WNJR) and WQXR (which was formerly WHBI and later WCAA) 105.9 FM are also licensed to Newark.
In 1915, the Bell System under ownership of American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) tested newly developed panel switching technology in Newark when they cutover the telephone exchanges Mulberry and Waverly to semi-mechanical operation on January 16 and June 12, respectively. The Panel system was the Bell System solution to the big city problem, where an exchange had to serve large numbers of subscribers on both manual as well as automatically switched central offices without impacting negatively established user convenience and reliability. As originally introduced in these exchanges, subscribers telephones had no dials and customers continued to make calls by asking an operator to ring their called party, at which point the operator keyed the telephone number into the panel equipment, instead of making cord connections manually.
Most Panel installations across the country were replaced by modern systems during the 1970s and the last Panel switch was decommissioned in the BIgelow central office in Newark in 1983.
New Jersey 's first television station, WATV Channel 13, signed - on May 15, 1948, from studios at the Mosque Theater known as the "Television Center Newark. '' The studios were home to WNTA - 13 beginning in 1958 and WNJU - 47 until 1989.
WNET, a flagship station of the Public Broadcasting Service now on channel 13, and Spanish - language WFUT - TV, a UniMás owned - and - operated station, are licensed to Newark. Tempo Networks, producing for the pan-Caribbean television market, is based in the city. NwkTV has been the city 's government access channel since 2009 and broadcast on as Channel 78 on Optimum. The company has a high - tech call center in Newark, employing over 500 people. PBS network NJTV 's main broadcasting studios (NJTV is also a sister station of the Newark - licensed WNET) are also located in the Gateway Center Office Complex.
Numerous movies, television programs, and music videos have been shot in Newark, its period architecture and its streetscape seen as an ideal "urban setting ''. The Jersey Motion Picture and Television Commission is located in the city. In 2011, the city created the Newark Office of Film and Television in order to promote the making of media productions. Some months earlier the Ironbound Film & Television Studios, the only, "stay and shoot '' facility in the metro area opened, its first production being Bar Karma. In 2012 the city hosted the seventh season of the reality show competition America 's Got Talent.
There have been several film and TV productions depicting life in Newark. Life of Crime, was originally produced in 1988 and was followed by a 1998 sequel. New Jersey Drive, a 1995 film about the city when it was considered the "car theft capital of the world ''. Street Fight is an Academy Award - nominated documentary film which covered the 2002 mayoral election between incumbent Sharpe James and challenger Cory Booker. In 2009, the Sundance Channel aired Brick City, a five - part television documentary about Newark, focusing on the community 's attempt to become a better and safer place to live, against a history of nearly a half century of violence, poverty and official corruption. The second season premiered January 30, 2011. Revolution ' 67 is an award - winning documentary which examines the causes and events of the 1967 Newark riots. The HBO television series The Sopranos filmed many of its scenes in Newark, and is partially based on the life of Newark mobster Richard Boiardo. The Once and Future Newark (2006) is documentary travelogue about places of cultural, social and historical significance by Rutgers History Professor Clement Price.
Newark has hosted many teams, though much of the time without an MLB, NBA, NHL, or NFL team in the city proper. Currently, the city is home to just one, the NHL 's New Jersey Devils. As the second largest city in New York metropolitan area Newark is part the regional professional sports and media markets.
Two venues in the northeastern New Jersey metro region are in Downtown Newark: Prudential Center, a multi-purpose indoor arena designed by HOK Sport that opened in October 2007 with a Bon Jovi concert and a hockey game. Known as "The Rock '', the arena is the home of the National Hockey League 's New Jersey Devils and the NCAA 's Seton Hall Pirates men 's basketball team, seating 18,711 for basketball and 16,514 for hockey. Riverfront Stadium was a 6,200 - seat baseball park that was home to the baseball teams of the Rutgers - Newark Scarlet Raiders, who play in the New Jersey Athletic Conference as part of NCAA Division III, and the NJIT Highlanders, who play in the Atlantic Sun Conference as part of NCAA Division I. The stadium opened in July 1999 as the home of the Newark Bears, who played in the stadium until the team folded in 2014. The site of the stadium was sold in March 2016 to a developer who plans a mixed - use residential high rise project.
Red Bull Arena, home of the New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer, opened in 2010 just across the Passaic River in Harrison. The home of NFL football teams Giants and Jets MetLife Stadium is less than 10 miles (16 km) from Downtown and can be reached with the Meadowlands Rail Line via Newark Penn Station or Broad Street Station.
The New Jersey Nets played two seasons (2010 -- 2012) at the Prudential Center until moving to the Barclays Center. The New York Liberty of the Women 's National Basketball Association (WNBA) also played there for three seasons (2011 -- 2013) during renovations of Madison Square Garden. The center has hosted 2012 Stanley Cup Finals, the 2011 NBA draft, the 2011 NBA draft, the 2013 NHL Entry Draft. EliteXC: Primetime, a mixed martial arts (MMA) event which took place on May 31, 2008, was the first MMA event aired in primetime on major American network television.
Newark was a host city and its airport a gateway for Super Bowl XLVIII which was played on February 2, 2014. The game took place at MetLife Stadium, home of the hosting teams New York Giants and New York Jets. Media Day, the first event leading up to the game, took place on January 28 at the Prudential Center. The original Vince Lombardi Trophy, produced by Tiffany & Co. in Newark in 1967 and borrowed from the Green Bay Packers, was being displayed at the Newark Museum from January 8 until March 30, 2014. Ultimate Fighting Championship 's annual Super Bowl weekend mixed martial arts event, UFC 169: Cruz vs. Barao, took place on February 1 at the Prudential Center.
The city is governed within the Faulkner Act, formally known as the Optional Municipal Charter Law, under the Mayor - Council Plan C form of local government, which became effective as of July 1, 1954, after the voters of the city of Newark passed a referendum held on November 3, 1953. There are nine council members elected on a nonpartisan basis at the regular municipal election or at the general election for terms of four years: one council member from each of five wards and four council members on an at - large basis. The mayor is also elected for a term of four years.
The Mayor of Newark is Ras Baraka, who is serving a term of office ending on June 30, 2018. After becoming acting mayor on October 31, 2013, Luis A. Quintana, born in Añasco, Puerto Rico, was sworn in as Newark 's first Latino mayor on November 4, 2013, assuming the unexpired term of Cory Booker, who vacated the position to become the junior U.S. Senator from New Jersey. Quintana 's term ended on June 30, 2014. He was selected unanimously at a council meeting to replace the previously elected Booker, who resigned and was sworn in on October 31, 2013 after winning the October 16 special election for U.S. Senator to replace the seat held by Frank Lautenberg until his death. The Newark mayoral election took place on May 13, 2014, and was won by Baraka, who was sworn in as Newark 's 40th Mayor on July 1, 2014.
As of 2017, Newark 's Municipal Council consists of the following members, all serving concurrent terms of office ending June 30, 2018:
Newark is split between the 8th and 10th Congressional Districts and is part of New Jersey 's 28th and 29th state legislative districts. Prior to the 2011 reapportionment following the 2010 Census, Newark had been split between the 27th, 28th and 29th state legislative districts. Prior to the 2010 Census, Newark had been split between the 10th Congressional District and the 13th Congressional District, a change made by the New Jersey Redistricting Commission that took effect in January 2013, based on the results of the November 2012 general elections. As part of the split that took effect in 2013, 123,763 residents in two non-contiguous sections in the city 's north and northeast were placed in the 8th District and 153,377 in the southern and western portions of the city were placed in the 10th District.
New Jersey 's Eighth Congressional District is represented by Albio Sires (D, West New York). New Jersey 's Tenth Congressional District is represented by Donald Payne Jr. (D, Newark). New Jersey is represented in the United States Senate by Democrats Cory Booker (Newark, term ends 2021) and Bob Menendez (Paramus, 2019).
For the 2016 -- 2017 session (Senate, General Assembly), the 28th Legislative District of the New Jersey Legislature is represented in the State Senate by Ronald Rice (D, Newark) and in the General Assembly by Ralph R. Caputo (D, Nutley) and Cleopatra Tucker (D, Newark). For the 2016 -- 2017 session (Senate, General Assembly), the 29th Legislative District of the New Jersey Legislature is represented in the State Senate by Teresa Ruiz (D, Newark) and in the General Assembly by Eliana Pintor Marin (D, Newark) and Blonnie R. Watson (D, Newark). Watson was sworn into office on July 21, 2016, to fill the seat of L. Grace Spencer, who had resigned from office on June 30, 2016, to become a judge of the New Jersey Superior Court. The Governor of New Jersey is Chris Christie (R, Mendham Township). The Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey is Kim Guadagno (R, Monmouth Beach).
Essex County is governed by a directly - elected County Executive, with legislative functions performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders. As of 2016, the County Executive is Joseph N. DiVincenzo, Jr. The county 's Board of Chosen Freeholders consists of nine members, four elected on an at - large basis and one from each of five wards, who serve three - year terms of office on a concurrent basis, all of which end December 31, 2018. Essex County 's Freeholders are Freeholder President Britnee N. Timberlake (District 3 -- East Orange, Newark 's West and Central Wards, Orange and South Orange; East Orange) Freeholder Vice President Brendan W. Gill (at large; Montclair), Rufus I. Johnson (at large; Newark), Lebby C. Jones (at large; Irvington), Patricia Sebold (at large; Livingston), Rolando Bobadilla (District 1 -- Newark 's North and East Wards, parts of Central and West Wards; Newark), Wayne L. Richardson (District 2 -- Irvington, Maplewood and Newark 's South Ward and parts of West Ward; Newark), Leonard M. Luciano (District 4 -- Caldwell, Cedar Grove, Essex Fells, Fairfield, Livingston, Millburn, North Caldwell, Roseland, Verona, West Caldwell and West Orange; West Caldwell), and Cynthia D. Toro (District 5 -- Belleville, Bloomfield, Glen Ridge, Montclair and Nutley; Bloomfield). Constitutional elected countywide are County Clerk Christopher J. Durkin (West Caldwell, 2020), Sheriff Armando B. Fontoura (Fairfield, 2018) and Surrogate Theodore N. Stephens II (2016).
On the national level, Newark leans strongly toward the Democratic Party. As of March 23, 2011, out of a 2010 Census population of 277,140 in Newark, there were 136,785 registered voters (66.3 % of the 2010 population ages 18 and over of 206,253, vs. 77.7 % in all of Essex County of the 589,051 ages 18 and up) of which, 68,393 (50.0 % vs. 45.9 % countywide) were registered as Democrats, 3,548 (2.6 % vs. 9.9 % countywide) were registered as Republicans, 64,812 (47.4 % vs. 44.1 % countywide) were registered as Unaffiliated and there were 30 voters registered to other parties.
In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 95.0 % of the vote (78,352 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 4.7 % (3,852 votes), and other candidates with 0.4 % (298 votes), among the 82,030 ballots cast by the city 's 145,059 registered voters for a turnout of 56.5 %. In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 90.8 % of the vote (77,112 ballots cast), ahead of Republican John McCain who received 7.0 % of the vote (5,957 votes), with 84,901 of the city 's 140,946 registered voters participating, for a turnout of 60.2 % of registered voters. In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 85.9 % of the vote (62,700 ballots), outpolling Republican George W. Bush, who received 12.8 % (9,344), with 72,977 of 127,049 registered voters participating, for a turnout percentage of 57.4 %.
In the 2016 presidential election, Democrat Hillary Clinton received 90.7 % of the vote (69,042 cast); Republican, Donald Trump received 6.7 % of the vote (5,094 cast); and other candidates received 1.5 % of the vote (1,139 cast).
In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Democrat Barbara Buono received 80.8 % of the vote (29,039 cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 17.9 % (6,443 votes), and other candidates with 1.2 % (437 votes), among the 37,114 ballots cast by the city 's 149,778 registered voters (1,195 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 24.8 %. In the 2009 Gubernatorial Election, Democrat Jon Corzine received 90.2 % of the vote (36,637 ballots cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie who received 8.3 % of the vote (3,355 votes), with 40,613 of the city 's 134,195 registered voters (30.3 %) participating.
Newark has been marred with episodes of political corruption throughout the years. Five of the previous seven mayors of Newark have been indicted on criminal charges, including the three mayors before Cory Booker: Hugh Addonizio, Kenneth Gibson and Sharpe James. As reported by Newsweek: "... every mayor since 1962 (except one, Cory Booker) has been indicted for crimes committed while in office ''.
Addonizio was mayor of Newark from 1962 to 1970. A son of Italian immigrants, a tailor and World War II veteran, he ran on a reform platform, defeating the incumbent, Leo Carlin, whom, ironically, Addonizio characterized as corrupt and a part of the political machine of the era. In December 1969, Addonizio and nine present or former officials of the municipal administration in Newark were indicted by a Federal grand jury; five other persons were also indicted. In July 1970, the former mayor, and four other defendants, were found guilty by a Federal jury on 64 counts each, one of conspiracy and 63 of extortion. In September 1970, Addonizio was sentenced to ten years in federal prison and fined $25,000 by Federal Judge George Herbert Barlow for his role in a plot that involved the extortion of $1.5 million in kickbacks, a crime that the judge said "tore at the very heart of our civilized society and our form of representative government ''.
His successor was Kenneth Gibson, the city 's first African American mayor, elected in 1970. He pleaded guilty to federal tax evasion in 2002 as part of a plea agreement on fraud and bribery charges. During his tenure as mayor in 1980, Gibson was tried and acquitted of giving out no - show jobs by an Essex County jury.
Sharpe James, who defeated Gibson in 1986 and declined to run for a sixth term in 2006, was indicted on 33 counts of conspiracy, mail fraud, and wire fraud by a federal grand jury sitting in Newark. The grand jury charged James with spending $58,000 on city - owned credit cards for personal gain and orchestrating a scheme to sell city - owned land at below - market prices to his companion, who immediately re-sold the land to developers and gained a profit of over $500,000. James pleaded not guilty on 25 counts at his initial court appearance on July 12, 2007. On April 17, 2008, James was found guilty for his role in the conspiring to rig land sales at nine city - owned properties for personal gain. The former mayor was sentenced to serve up to 27 months in prison, and was released on April 6, 2010, for good behavior.
Newark is the home of the multiple institutions of higher education, including: a Berkeley College campus, the main campus of Essex County College, New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), the Newark Campus of Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences (formerly University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey), Rutgers University -- Newark and Seton Hall University School of Law. Most of Newark 's academic institutions are located in the city 's University Heights district. The colleges and universities have worked together to help revitalize the area, which serves more than 60,000 students and faculty.
As of the 2006 -- 2010 American Community Survey, 16.0 % of Newark residents ages 25 and over had never attended high school and 15.9 % did n't graduate, while 68.1 % had at least graduated from high school, including the 12.3 % who had earned a bachelor 's degree or higher. The total school enrollment in Newark city was 75,025 in the 2006 -- 2010 ACS, with pre-primary school enrollment of 10,560, elementary or high school enrollment of 46,691 and college enrollment of 17,774.
The Newark Public Schools, a state - operated school district, is the largest school system in New Jersey. The district is one of 31 former Abbott districts statewide, which are now referred to as "SDA Districts '' based on the requirement that the state cover all costs for school building and renovation projects in these districts under the supervision of the New Jersey Schools Development Authority. As of the 2014 - 15 school year, the district and its 76 schools had an enrollment of 34,861 students and 2,815.0 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student -- teacher ratio of 12.4: 1.
Science Park High School, which was the 69th - ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 322 schools statewide, in New Jersey Monthly magazine 's September 2010 cover story on the state 's "Top Public High Schools '', after being ranked 50th in 2008 out of 316 schools. Technology High School has a GreatSchools rating of 9 / 10 was ranked 165th in New Jersey Monthly 's 2010 rankings. Newark high schools ranked in the bottom 10 % of the New Jersey Monthly 2010 list include Central (274th), East Side (293rd), Newark Vocational (304th), Weequahic (310th), Barringer (311th), Malcolm X Shabazz (314th) and West Side (319th). Facebook co-founder Mark Zuckerberg donated a challenge grant of $100 million to the district in 2010, choosing Newark because he stated he believed in Mayor Cory Booker and Governor Chris Christie 's abilities.
Charter schools in Newark include the Robert Treat Academy Charter School, a National Blue Ribbon School drawing students from all over Newark. It remains one of the top performing K - 8 schools in New Jersey based on standardized test scores. University Heights Charter School is another charter school, serving children in grades K - 5, recognized as a 2011 Epic Silver Gain School. Gray Charter School, like Robert Treat, also won a Blue Ribbon Award. Also, Newark Collegiate Academy (NCA) opened in August 2007 and currently serves 420 students in grades 9 -- 12. It will ultimately serve over 570 students, mostly matriculating from other charter schools in the area.
The city hosts three high schools as part of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark: the coeducational Christ The King Prep, founded in 2007, is part of the Cristo Rey Community; Saint Benedict 's Preparatory School is an all - boys Roman Catholic high school founded in 1868 and conducted by the Benedictine monks of Newark Abbey, whose campus has grown to encompass both sides of MLK Jr. Blvd. near Market Street and includes a dormitory for boarding students; and Saint Vincent Academy, is an all - girls Roman Catholic high school founded and sponsored by the Sisters of Charity of Saint Elizabeth and operated continuously since 1869.
Link Community School is a non-denominational coeducational day school located serving approximately 128 students in seventh and eighth grades. The Newark Boys Chorus School was founded in the 1960s. University Heights Charter School, which opened in 2006, taught 614 students in grades PK - 8 in 2014 -- 2015.
Newark is a hub of air, road, rail, and ship traffic, making it a significant gateway into the New York metropolitan area and the mid-Atlantic United States. Newark Liberty International Airport is the second - busiest airport in the New York region and the 15th - busiest in the United States (in terms of passenger traffic). Newark Airport was the New York City area 's first commercial airport, opened in 1928 on land reclaimed by the Port Authority.
Just east of the airport lies Port Newark, the fifteenth - busiest port in the world and the largest container port on the East Coast of the United States. In 2003, the port moved over $100 billion in goods.
The Morris Canal, stretching 102 miles (164 km) to Newark from Phillipsburg on the Delaware River, was completed in 1831 and allowed coal and other industrial and agricultural products from Pennsylvania to be transported cheaply and efficiently to the New York metropolitan area. The canal 's completion led to increased settlement in Newark, vastly increasing the population for years to come. After the canal was decommissioned, its right of way was converted into the Newark City Subway, now known as the Newark Light Rail. Many of the subway stations still portray the canal in its original state, in the form of mosaic works.
As the city became increasingly congested further means of transportation were sought, eventually leading to horse - drawn trolleys. These, in turn, were replaced by electric trolleys that traveled down the main streets of downtown Newark, including Broad Street, and up Market Street near the courthouse The trolley cars did not last long as the personal motor vehicle quickly gained popularity and slowly made the trolley system seem like a burden.
As of May 2010, the city had a total of 368.21 miles (592.58 km) of roadways, of which 318.77 miles (513.01 km) were maintained by the municipality, 17.61 miles (28.34 km) by Essex County and 22.66 miles (36.47 km) by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and 9.17 miles (14.76 km) by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority.
Newark is served by numerous highways including the New Jersey Turnpike (Interstate 95), Interstate 280, Interstate 78, the Garden State Parkway, U.S. Route 1 / 9, U.S. Route 22, and Route 21. Newark is connected to the Holland Tunnel and Lower Manhattan by the Pulaski Skyway, spanning both the Passaic and Hackensack Rivers, which was first constructed in 1938 and will be undergoing a $900 million renovation project.
Local streets in Newark conform to a quasi-grid form, with major streets radiating outward (like spokes on a wheel) from the downtown area. Some major roads in the city are named after the towns to which they lead, including South Orange Avenue, Springfield Avenue, and Bloomfield Avenue, as well as Broadway, which had been renamed from Belleville Avenue.
In a city extensively served by mass transit, 44.2 % of Newark residents did not have a car as of the 2000 Census, ranked second in the U.S. to New York City in the proportion of households without an automobile among cities with more than 250,000 people.
Newark Penn Station, situated just east of downtown, is the city 's major train station. It is served by the interurban PATH train (which links Newark to Jersey City and Manhattan), three NJ Transit (NJT) commuter rail lines, and Amtrak service. It was designed by McKim, Mead & White and completed in 1935. One mile north, the Newark Broad Street Station is served by two NJT commuter rail lines. The two train stations are linked by the Newark Light Rail system, which also provides services from Newark Penn Station to Newark 's northern communities and into the neighboring towns of Belleville and Bloomfield. Built in the bed of the Morris Canal, the light rail cars run underground in Newark 's downtown area. The city 's third train station, Newark Liberty International Airport, connects the Northeast Corridor to the airport via AirTrain Newark. Bus service in Newark is provided by New Jersey Transit, CoachUSA contract operators and DeCamp in North Newark.
Newark is served by NJ Transit bus routes 1, 5, 11, 13, 21, 25, 27, 28, 29, 34, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 59, 62, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 90, 92, 93, 94, 96, 99, 107, and 108. Bus route 308 is an express bus route to Six Flags Great Adventure from Newark Penn Station while 319 is an express service to Atlantic City.
The go bus 25 and go bus 28 are bus rapid transit lines through the city to Irvington, Bloomfield and Newark Liberty International Airport.
Newark is home to five hospitals. University Hospital, an independent institution that is a teaching hospital of Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, has been the busiest Level I trauma center in the state. Newark Beth Israel Medical Center is the largest hospital in the city and is a part of Barnabas Health, the state 's largest system of hospital and health care facilities. Beth Israel is also one of the oldest hospitals in the city, dating back to 1901. This 669 - bed regional facility is also home to the Children 's Hospital of New Jersey. Catholic Health East operates Saint Michael 's Medical Center. Columbus Hospital LTACH is a longterm acute care hospital designed to focus on patients with serious and complex medical conditions that require intense specialized treatment for an extended period of recovery time. Hospitals which have been closed in recent years include the Saint James Hospital, Mount Carmel Guild Hospital and the United Hospitals Medical Center.
University Hospital EMS (UH - EMS) operates the EMS system for the city. The department operates a fleet of eight BLS units staffed with two EMTs 24 / 7, four 12 - hour power trucks, five ALS units staffed with two paramedics (one of which is stationed at Newark Airport and covers the airport and Port Newark - Elizabeth, and frequently responds into the City of Elizabeth), and a critical care unit staffed by a paramedic and an RN. With distinction they also staff the only hospital based heavy rescue truck in the country. The EMS system is the busiest system per unit in the nation. On average, a BLS unit may be sent to 20 - 25 dispatches in a 12 - hour shift. They also provide the medical staffing for Northstar, with one of the two NJ State Police medevac helicopters, staffing one flight nurse and a flight medic around the clock. The EMS system in Newark handles upwards of 125,000 requests for service annually.
The city is protected by more than 700 full - time, paid firefighters of the Newark Fire Department (NFD). Founded in 1863, the NFD operates out of 16 firehouses, located throughout the city, organized into 3 battalions, under the command of a deputy chief. There is also a Safety Battalion, Battalion2, and a Special Operations Battalion, Battalion 6, on duty 24 / 7. The NFD operates 16 engine companies, 8 ladder companies, 1 rescue company, an Urban search and rescue (USAR) Collapse Rescue Unit, 2 fire boats, a scuba diving unit, an air cascade unit, a foam unit, a mobile command unit, a HazMat unit, and numerous special, support, and reserve units. The NFD responds to approximately 45,000 emergency calls annually. In 2006, the NFD responded to 2,681 fire and hazardous condition calls.
The Newark Police Department is a city - operated law enforcement agency. As of January 2014, the force had 1,006 officers in its ranks.
The Essex County Sheriff 's Office, New Jersey Transit Police Department (headquartered in Penn Plaza East) and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department are also within their jurisdiction in the city, as are the New Jersey State Police. In April 2014, it was announced that the State Police would play a more prominent role in patrolling the streets of the city under the "TIDE - TAG '' program. The Essex County College Police Department, New Jersey Institute of Technology Police Department and Rutgers University Police Department patrol their respective college campuses in the city.
In 1996, Money magazine ranked Newark "The Most Dangerous City in the Nation. '' By 2007, the city recorded a total of 99 homicides for the year, representing a significant drop from the record of 161 murders set in 1981. The number of murders in 2008 dropped to 65, a decline of 30 % from the previous year and the lowest in the city since 2002 when there were also 65 murders.
In 2010, Newark recorded 90 homicides. March 2010 was the first calendar month since 1966 in which the city did not record a homicide. Overall, there was a 6 % increase in crime numbers over the previous year, including a rise in carjackings for the third straight year, with the 337 incidents raising concerns that the city was returning to its status as the "car theft capital of the world ''. Along with the increase in crime, the Newark Police Department increased its recovery of illegally owned guns in 2011 to 696, up from 278 in 2010. The Federal Bureau of Investigation recorded 94 homicides in 2011 and 95 in 2012. In 2012 CNNMoney ranked Newark as the 6th most dangerous city in the United States based on numbers by FBI Crime in the United States 2011 report. The city had 10 murders in 10 days during the period ending September 6, 2013, a statistic largely attributed to the reduction of the police force. In 2013 Newark recorded 111 homicides, the first year ending in triple digits in seven years and the highest tally since 1990, accounting for 27 % of all murders statewide. In 2014, the total number of homicides in Newark was 93, while Essex County as a whole had 117 murders. The Star - Ledger reported that there were 105 homicides in the city in 2015. Preliminary statistics as reported through December 25, 2016 showed the murders in the city totaled 93.
The Consulate - General of Ecuador in New Jersey is located at 400 Market Street. The Consulate - General of Portugal in Newark is located at the main floor of the Newark Legal Center at One Riverfront Plaza. The Consulate - General of Colombia is located at 550 Broad Street. The Vice Consulate of Italy, was located at 1 Gateway Center, until it was closed in 2014 for economic reasons.
Pope John Paul II visited the city in 1995 at which time he elevated the city 's cathedral to a basilica to become the Cathedral Basilica of the Sacred Heart. In 2011, the Dalai Lama was guest of honor at the Newark Peace Education Summit.
Newark has 15 sister cities, as listed by Sister Cities International:
|
super bowl 2016 halftime show coldplay beyonce bruno mars | Super Bowl 50 halftime show - wikipedia
The Super Bowl 50 Halftime Show took place on February 7, 2016, at Levi 's Stadium in Santa Clara, California as part of Super Bowl 50. It was headlined by the British rock group Coldplay with special guest performers Beyoncé and Bruno Mars, who previously had headlined the Super Bowl XLVII and Super Bowl XLVIII halftime shows, respectively.
Coldplay, Rihanna, and Katy Perry were considered as potential acts for the Super Bowl XLIX halftime show in 2015. Perry was soon confirmed as the headliner of the halftime show in October 2014. In late November, 2015, reports surfaced stating that multiple acts would perform during the halftime show. Coldplay was confirmed as the lead half time performer for Super Bowl 50 on December 3, 2015, one day before the release of their seventh studio album A Head Full of Dreams. It was confirmed that Beyoncé and Bruno Mars would join Coldplay as special guests. Chris Martin called Mars to ask him to perform with Coldplay; however, Mars declined the offer. Nevertheless, the singer of Coldplay invited Mars to his studio in Malibu where he was working. There, Martin revealed to Mars that he wanted for him to perform "Uptown Funk '' with Beyonce. Despite this, Mars still did n't think it was a good idea and asked the former to talk to Beyonce to see what was her opinion on that. Martin videotaped him and Mars, while the former sang a song to Beyoncé so that she would come to do the Super Bowl with both of them. Beyonce response was receptive to the idea.
At that time, Mars and Beyoncé were both doing a diet and stressing out. One day before the performance they were "watching playback backstage '', while Beyonce ate a bag of Cheetos. Mars asked her "That 's what you 're doing? '', to which she replied "There 's nothing more we can do these last two days. It 's gon na be what it 's gon na be. So I 'm gon na enjoy this bag of Cheetos. '' Mars strongly believes that Beyoncé is "coming for you every single time. So you better bring your A-game every time. ''
The show opened with Chris Martin singing the opening chorus from "Yellow ''. He was then joined by the remaining band members of Coldplay to perform "Viva la Vida '', "Paradise '', and "Adventure of a Lifetime '' with the Youth Orchestra Los Angeles conducted by Gustavo Dudamel and the University of California Marching Band. Bruno Mars, Mark Ronson, and a troupe of backing dancers (dressed in the style of Michael Jackson) then performed "Uptown Funk ''. Beyoncé, also in a Jackson - inspired outfit and appearing with a set of backing dancers dressed as Black Panthers, then performed her new single "Formation '' in a mass choreographed dance number before joining Mars onstage for a verse of "Uptown Funk ''. Coldplay played a snippet of "Clocks '' during a video montage of past Super Bowl halftime and national anthem performances, including those by Bruce Springsteen, Missy Elliott, Katy Perry, The Rolling Stones, Paul McCartney, Stevie Wonder, Diana Ross, James Brown, Whitney Houston, Michael Jackson, The Black Eyed Peas, U2, Prince, Beyoncé and Mars. The show concluded with the band performing "Fix You '' and "Up&Up '' with Beyoncé, Mars and everyone taking part in the show. At the end of the performance, the audience participated in a card - stunt creating a rainbow and the phrase, "Believe in love '', the closing lyrics to Coldplay 's A Head Full of Dreams.
The performance received generally mixed review from critics, who complimented Beyoncé and Mars ' part of the performance but were critical of Coldplay. Jon Caramanica of The New York Times stated that Coldplay "acted more as a stagehand than an actual performer '' while Beyoncé 's section of the performance was "the night 's true event ''. Caramanica also noted that Beyoncé and Mars "outsang '' Martin during the closing part of the performance. Andrew Barker of Variety similarly noted that "Coldplay seemed resigned to politely allowing themselves to be played right off their own stage '' by the "far flashier '' Mars and Beyoncé. In a review for Fox Sports, Chris Chase panned Coldplay 's performance, calling it "inexplicable, indecipherable, and unnecessary '' and a "musical snooze ''. Chase complimented Beyoncé 's and Mars ' appearances but described the performance as "boring ''. Alex Needham of The Guardian gave the performance four stars, saying that "Queen Bey at the height of her powers effortlessly overwhelmed Coldplay 's widescreen anthems in a show that seemed lightweight until she showed up ''.
Robert Bianco of USA Today stated that Martin "seemed overwhelmed '' by the size of the event, and that despite being a "personable and energetic performer '', an "awful lot '' of Martin 's energy "went into jumping ''. Bianco praised Beyoncé 's appearance and stated that she "stole the show ''. Wendy Geller of Yahoo! also complimented Beyoncé 's and Mars ' appearances, but criticized the montage of previous halftime performances, describing it as "confusing rather than touching '' and stating that the performance was "definitely a cold play ''.
Following the performance, Beyoncé was criticized for performing a song that they considered to be "anti-police '' during the halftime show and for appearing to align herself with the Black Lives Matter movement. Former New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani accused the performance of being anti-police and also criticized Beyoncé 's use of Black Power and Black Panther Party symbolism in her dance routine. "This is football, not Hollywood, and I thought it was really outrageous that she used it as a platform to attack police officers who are the people who protect her and protect us, and keep us alive, '' he said. The controversy caused a "# BoycottBeyonce '' hashtag on Twitter and protesters announced plans for an "anti-Beyoncé '' rally on the morning of February 16 outside of the NFL 's headquarters in New York City, but no one showed up for such a rally. CNN political commentator Sally Kohn stated that "too many police continue to show themselves to be far more interested in reactionary defensiveness and preserving the abusive status quo. '' Black Lives Matter activist Melina Abdullah praised Beyoncé and other artists who "are willing to raise social consciousness and use their artistry to advance social justice. ''
The halftime show became the fourth highest ever watched show in the United States, with total viewership of 115.5 million.
Setlist obtained from Billboard.
|
who made it to semifinals on america's got talent 2017 | America 's Got Talent (Season 12) - wikipedia
Season twelve of the reality competition series America 's Got Talent was ordered on August 2, 2016 and premiered on NBC on Tuesday, May 30, 2017. Howie Mandel, Mel B, Heidi Klum and Simon Cowell returned as judges for their respective eighth, fifth, fifth and second seasons. Supermodel and businesswoman Tyra Banks replaced Nick Cannon, who hosted the show for eight seasons, making her the first female host of the show. The live shows returned to the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles beginning August 15, 2017.
The format of the show was the same as in season eleven, and Dunkin Donuts sponsors the show for a third consecutive season. A guest judge joined the panel for each episode of the Judge Cuts round: Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox and Seal.
Darci Lynne Farmer was named the winner on the season finale, September 20, 2017. She was the third ventriloquist, third child and third female to win a season of America 's Got Talent. 10 - year - old singer Angelica Hale placed second, and glow light dance troupe Light Balance came in third. Farmer won the show 's prize of $1 million and a headlining performance in Las Vegas.
On October 4, 2016, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through 2019.
Long - time host Nick Cannon announced, on February 13, 2017, that he would not return as host for the twelfth season, soon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his 2017 Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. Cannon was still under contract to host, and NBC executives did not initially accept his resignation, but they ultimately searched for a new host.
On March 12, 2017, NBC announced supermodel and host Tyra Banks as the host for Season 12.
The season had preliminary open call auditions in Chicago, Austin, Cleveland, Jacksonville, Philadelphia, Las Vegas, San Diego, New York City, Charleston, Memphis, and Los Angeles. As in years past, prospective contestants could also submit online auditions.
Judges ' auditions were taped in March at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles. The premiere aired May 30, 2017.
The Golden Buzzer returned for its fourth consecutive season. Any act that received a golden buzzer during the preliminary auditions was sent directly to the live shows and did not compete in the Judge Cuts round. In the first episode of preliminary auditions, Mel B pressed the golden buzzer for 12 - year - old singing ventriloquist Darci Lynne Farmer. In subsequent episodes, Simon Cowell pressed it for 29 - year - old deaf singer Mandy Harvey, Howie Mandel chose 16 - year - old former blind singer Christian Guardino, Tyra Banks pressed it for Light Balance dance crew, and Heidi Klum chose 13 - year - old singer Angelina Green.
Each Judge Cuts act that received a golden buzzer advanced to the live shows without any voting by the judges. During the Judge Cuts round, guest judges Chris Hardwick pressed his golden buzzer for 9 - year old singer Angelica Hale, DJ Khaled pressed it for 21 - year old singer - songwriter and guitarist Chase Goehring, Laverne Cox pressed it for 9 - year old singer Celine Tam, and Seal pressed it for soul singer Johnny Manuel.
On June 11, 2017, contestant Brandon Rogers died in an automobile accident. Rogers was an American physician who specialized in family medicine. Earlier in 2017, after seeing YouTube videos of Rogers singing, Boyz II Men invited him to sing with them as a guest in three of their Las Vegas shows. His successful AGT audition aired on July 11, 2017, in his memory. He competed in the Judge Cuts round, but his performance in that round was not televised.
The Judge Cuts round began on Tuesday, July 18, 2017. Like the previous season, one guest judge joined the judges ' panel each show and was given one golden buzzer opportunity to send an act straight to the live shows. Twenty acts were shown each week and seven advanced, including the guest judge 's golden buzzer choice. Guest judges were not given a red buzzer to use. Any act that received all four red buzzers was immediately eliminated from the competition. The four guest judges were Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox, and Seal.
After the Judge Cuts, three wildcards were chosen from eliminated acts to perform in the live shows: Final Draft, Bello Nock and Oskar and Gaspar (who did not perform in the Judge Cuts round). All three of these acts were eliminated in the Quarterfinals.
Guest judge: Chris Hardwick
Date: July 18, 2017
Guest judge: DJ Khaled
Date: July 25, 2017
As of 2017, this is the only Judge Cuts episode in the show 's history in which an act with at least one "X '' buzzer was nevertheless promoted to the live shows. This was also the only Judge Cuts episode of the season in which an act received 4 red buzzers.
Guest judge: Laverne Cox
Date: August 1, 2017
This was the first Judge Cuts episode in which no acts received a red buzzer from any of the judges.
Guest judge: Seal
Date: August 8, 2017
The quarterfinals were broadcast live from the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles starting on August 15, 2017. They featured the nine golden buzzer acts, the 24 other acts promoted during the Judge Cuts round, and three wildcard acts chosen by the producers and judges. Twelve acts performed each week, with results announced the on following nights; each week seven acts were sent through to the semifinals. Puddles Pity Party and Mirror Image received an "X '' in the Quarterfinals. Demian Aditya received "X 's '' by Brown and Cowell in the second Quarterfinals.
Guests: Grace VanderWaal, August 16
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Yoli Mayor was announced to have received more of America 's votes than Just Jerk, and she advanced to the semi-finals.
Guests: Circus 1903, August 23
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Eric Jones was announced to have received more of America 's votes than The Masqueraders, and he advanced to the semi-finals.
^ 2 Due to a technical issue, Light Balance 's performance was based on their dress rehearsal.
^ 3 Another technical issue occurred when the sealed box Aditya was in did n't fall as planned.
Guests: Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, and Jon Dorenbos, August 30
^ 1 Sara added another dog named Loki in her act. Loki performed throughout the rest of the competition.
The live semifinals started on September 5, 2017. They featured the 21 acts voted to the semifinals, plus the judges ' semifinal wildcard pick. Each week, eleven acts performed; five went through to the finals, and six were eliminated. No acts were buzzed.
Guests: The Clairvoyants
^ 1 Chase Goehring, DaNell Daymon & Greater Works, and Mike Yung were not initially announced as performing on week one of semifinals.
^ 1 Merrick Hanna and Mandy Harvey were switched to perform on Week 2 although they were on the Week 1 promo.
^ 2 Klum 's voting intention was not revealed.
The final performances took place on September 19, followed by the final results show on September 20, 2017. No acts were buzzed.
Guest performers in the finale included Kelly Clarkson, Shania Twain, James Arthur, Derek Hough and Terry Fator. Other celebrity appearances included Marlee Matlin.
The following chart describes the acts, appearances and segments presented during the finale.
|
what tv show did rainman have to watch | Rain Man - wikipedia
Rain Man is a 1988 American comedy - drama road movie directed by Barry Levinson and written by Barry Morrow and Ronald Bass. It tells the story of an abrasive, selfish young wheeler - dealer Charlie Babbitt (Tom Cruise), who discovers that his estranged father has died and bequeathed all of his multimillion - dollar estate to his other son, Raymond (Dustin Hoffman), an autistic savant, of whose existence Charlie was unaware. Charlie is left with only his father 's car and collection of rose bushes. In addition to the two leads, Valeria Golino stars as Charlie 's girlfriend, Susanna.
Morrow created the character of Raymond after meeting Kim Peek, a real - life savant; his characterization was based on both Peek and Bill Sackter, a good friend of Morrow who was the subject of Bill, an earlier film that Morrow wrote.
Rain Man received overwhelmingly positive reviews, praising Hoffman 's performance and the wit and sophistication of the screenplay, and was the highest - grossing film of 1988. The film won four Oscars at the 61st Academy Awards (March 1989), including Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay, Best Director, and Best Actor in a Leading Role for Hoffman. Its crew received an additional four nominations. The film also won the Golden Bear at the 39th Berlin International Film Festival.
Charlie Babbitt is in the middle of importing four Lamborghinis to Los Angeles for resale. He needs to deliver the vehicles to impatient buyers who have already made down payments in order to repay the loan he took out to buy the cars, but the EPA is holding the cars at the port due to the cars failing emissions regulations. Charlie directs an employee to lie to the buyers while he stalls his creditor.
When Charlie learns that his estranged father has died, he and his girlfriend Susanna travel to Cincinnati, Ohio, in order to settle the estate. He learns he is receiving the classic 1949 Buick Roadmaster convertible which he and his father fought over, but the bulk of the $3 million estate is going to an unnamed trustee. Through social engineering, he learns the money is being directed to a mental institution, where he meets his older brother, Raymond Babbitt, of whom he was previously unaware.
Raymond has savant syndrome and adheres to strict routines. He has superb recall, but he shows little emotional expression except when in distress. Charlie spirits Raymond out of the mental institution and into a hotel for the night. Susanna becomes upset with the way Charlie treats his brother and leaves. Charlie asks Raymond 's doctor, Dr. Gerald R. Bruner, for half the estate in exchange for Raymond 's return, but he refuses. Charlie decides to attempt to gain custody of his brother in order to get control of the money.
After Raymond refuses to fly back to Los Angeles, they set out on a cross-country road trip together. During the course of the journey, Charlie learns more about Raymond, including that he is a mental calculator with the ability to instantly count hundreds of objects at once, far beyond the normal range of human subitizing abilities. He also learns that Raymond actually lived with the family when Charlie was young and he realizes that the comforting figure from his childhood, whom he falsely remembered as an imaginary friend named "Rain Man '', was actually Raymond.
They make slow progress because Raymond insists on sticking to his routines, which include watching Judge Wapner on television every day and getting to bed by 11: 00 PM. He also objects to traveling on the interstate after they pass a bad accident.
After the Lamborghinis are seized by his creditor, Charlie finds himself $80,000 in the hole and hatches a plan to return to Las Vegas, which they passed the night before, and win money at blackjack by counting cards. Though the casino bosses are skeptical that anyone can count cards with a six deck shoe, after reviewing security footage they ask Charlie and Raymond to leave. Charlie has made enough to cover his debts and has reconciled with Susanna who rejoined them in Las Vegas.
Back in Los Angeles, Charlie meets with Dr. Bruner, who offers him $250,000 to walk away from Raymond. Charlie refuses and says that he is no longer upset about what his father left him, but he wants to have a relationship with his brother. At a meeting with a court - appointed psychiatrist Raymond is shown to be unable to decide for himself what he wants. Charlie stops the questioning and tells Raymond he is happy to have him as his brother.
Charlie takes Raymond to the train station where he boards an Amtrak train with Dr. Bruner to return to the mental institution. Charlie promises Raymond that he will visit in two weeks.
Roger Birnbaum was the first studio executive to give the film a green light; he did so immediately after Barry Morrow pitched the story. Birnbaum received "special thanks '' in the film 's credits.
Agents at CAA sent the script to Hoffman and Bill Murray, envisioning Murray in the title role and Hoffman in the role eventually portrayed by Cruise. Martin Brest, Steven Spielberg, and Sydney Pollack were directors also involved in the film. Mickey Rourke was also offered a role but he turned it down.
Principal photography included nine weeks of filming on location. Other portions were shot in the desert near Palm Springs, California.
Almost all of the principal photography occurred during the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike; one key scene that was affected by the lack of writers was the film 's final scene. Bass delivered his last rough cut of the script only hours before the strike started and spent no time on the set.
The film has an approval rating of 89 % on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 7.9 / 10, based on 73 reviews. The website 's critical consensus states: "This road - trip movie about an autistic savant and his callow brother is far from seamless, but Barry Levinson 's direction is impressive, and strong performances from Tom Cruise and Dustin Hoffman add to its appeal. '' Metacritic gave the film a score of 65 out of 100 based on 18 critical reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Vincent Canby of The New York Times called Rain Man a "becomingly modest, decently thought - out, sometimes funny film ''; Hoffman 's performance was a "display of sustained virtuosity... (which) makes no lasting connections with the emotions. Its end effect depends largely on one 's susceptibility to the sight of an actor acting nonstop and extremely well, but to no particularly urgent dramatic purpose. '' Canby considered the "film 's true central character '' to be "the confused, economically and emotionally desperate Charlie, beautifully played by Mr. Cruise. ''
Amy Dawes of Variety wrote that "one of the year 's most intriguing film premises... is given uneven, slightly off - target treatment ''; she called the road scenes "hastily, loosely written, with much extraneous screen time, '' but admired the last third of the film, calling it a depiction of "two very isolated beings '' who "discover a common history and deep attachment. ''
One of the film 's harshest reviews came from New Yorker magazine critic Pauline Kael, who said, "Everything in this movie is fudged ever so humanistically, in a perfunctory, low - pressure way. And the picture has its effectiveness: people are crying at it. Of course they 're crying at it -- it 's a piece of wet kitsch.
Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half stars out of four.
Rain Man debuted on December 16, 1988, and was the second highest - grossing film at the weekend box office (behind Twins), with $7 million. It reached the first spot on the December 30 -- January 2 weekend, finishing 1988 with $42 million. The film would end up as the highest - grossing U.S. film of 1988 by earning over $172 million. The film grossed over $354 million worldwide.
Rain Man won Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Actor in a Leading Role (Dustin Hoffman), Best Director and Best Writing, Original Screenplay. It was nominated for Best Art Direction (Art Direction: Ida Random; Set Decoration: Linda DeScenna), Best Cinematography (John Seale), Best Film Editing, and Best Original Score (Hans Zimmer).
The film was nominated for twenty - four other ceremonies, including the Golden Globes, in which it won Best Motion Picture in the drama genre and Best Actor (Dustin Hoffman), and was nominated for Best Director (Barry Levinson) and Best Screenplay (Ronald Bass and Barry Morrow). Valeria Golino received a nomination for Best Supporting Actress at the Silver Ribbon.
Rain Man 's portrayal of the main character 's condition has been seen as inaugurating a common but mistaken media stereotype that people on the autism spectrum typically have savant skills, and references to Rain Man, in particular Dustin Hoffman 's performance, have become a popular shorthand for autism and savantism. Conversely, Rain Man has also been seen as dispelling a number of other misconceptions about autism, and improving public awareness of the failure of many agencies to accommodate autistic people and make use of the abilities they do have, regardless of whether they have savant skills or not.
The film is also known for popularizing the misconception that card counting is illegal in the United States.
During June 1989, at least fifteen major airlines showed edited versions of Rain Man that omitted a scene involving Raymond 's refusal to fly, except on Australia - based Qantas. Those criticizing this move included film director Barry Levinson, co-screenwriter Ronald Bass, and George Kirgo (at the time the President of the Writers Guild of America, West). "I think it 's a key scene to the entire movie, '' Levinson said in a telephone interview. "That 's why it 's in there. It launches their entire odyssey across country -- because they could n't fly. '' While some of those airlines cited as justification avoiding having airplane passengers feel uncomfortable in sympathy with Raymond during the in - flight entertainment, the scene was shown intact on flights of Qantas, and commentators noted that Raymond mentions it as the only airline whose planes have "never crashed ''. The film is in fact credited with introducing Qantas ' safety record to U.S. consumers.
|
what year did cotton eyed joe come out | Cotton - eyed Joe - wikipedia
"Cotton - Eyed Joe '' (also known as "Cotton - Eye Joe '') is a traditional American country folk song popular at various times throughout the United States and Canada, although today it is most commonly associated with the American South. In the Roud index of folksongs it is No. 942.
"Cotton - Eyed Joe '' has inspired both a partner dance and more than one line dance that is often danced at country dance venues in the U.S. and around the world. The 1980 film Urban Cowboy sparked a renewed interest in the dance. In 1985, The Moody Brothers ' version of the song received a Grammy Award nomination for "Best Country Instrumental Performance ''. Irish group The Chieftains received a Grammy nomination for "Best Country Vocal Collaboration '' for their version of the song with lead vocals by Ricky Skaggs on their 1992 album, Another Country. In 1994, a version of the song recorded by the Swedish band Rednex as "Cotton Eye Joe '' became popular worldwide.
The origins of this song are unclear, although it pre-dates the 1861 -- 1865 American Civil War. American folklorist Dorothy Scarborough (1878 -- 1935) noted in her 1925 book On the Trail of Negro Folk - songs, that several people remember hearing the song before the war. Scarborough 's account of the song came from her sister, Mrs. George Scarborough, who learned the song from "the Negroes on a plantation in Texas, and other parts from a man in Louisiana. '' The man in Louisiana knew the song from his earliest childhood and heard slaves singing it on plantations. Both the dance and the song had many variants. American publishing house Harper and Brothers published a version in 1882, heard by author Louise Clarke Pyrnelle (born 1850) on the Alabama plantation of her father when she was a child, that was later republished in 1910:
"Cotton - eyed Joe, Cotton - eyed Joe,
What did make you sarve me so, Fur ter take my gal erway fum me, An ' cyar her plum ter Tennessee? Ef it had n't ben fur Cotton - eyed Joe, I 'd er been married long ergo. "His eyes wuz crossed, an ' his nose wuz flat, An ' his teef wuz out, but wat uv dat? Fur he wuz tall, an ' he wuz slim, An ' so my gal she follered him. Ef it had n't ben fur Cotton - eyed Joe, I 'd er been married long ergo. "No gal so hansum could be foun ', Not in all dis country roun ', Wid her kinky head, an ' her eyes so bright, Wid her lips so red an ' her teef so white. Ef it had n't ben fur Cotton - eyed Joe, I 'd been married long ergo. "An ' I loved dat gal wid all my heart, An ' she swo ' fum me she 'd never part; But den wid Joe she runned away, An ' lef ' me hyear fur ter weep all day. O Cotton - eyed Joe, O Cotton - eyed Joe, What did make you sarve me so? O Joe, ef it had n't er ben fur you, I 'd er married dat gal fur true. ''
By 1884, the same year Mark Twain 's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was published, the fiddle - based song was referred to as "an old, familiar air. '' In 1925, another version was recorded by folklorist Dorothy Scarborough and published.
Do n't you remember, do n't you know,
Do n't you remember Cotton - eyed Joe? Cotton - eyed Joe, Cotton - eyed Joe, What did make you treat me so? I 'd ' a ' been married forty year ago Ef it had n't a-been for Cotton - eyed Joe! Cotton - eyed Joe, Cotton - eyed Joe, He was de nig dat sarved me so, -- Tuck my gal away fum me, Carried her off to Tennessee. I 'd ' a ' been married forty year ago If it had n't a-been for Cotton - eyed Joe. Hi 's teeth was out an ' his nose was flat, His eyes was crossed, -- but she did n't mind dat. Kase he was tall, and berry slim, An ' so my gal she follered him. I 'd ' a ' been married forty year ago Ef it had n't a-been for Cotton - eyed Joe. She was de prettiest gal to be found Anywhar in de country round; Her lips was red an ' her eyes was bright, Her skin was black but her teeth was white. I 'd ' a ' been married forty year ago Ef it had n't a-been for Cotton - eyed Joe. Dat gal, she sho ' had all my love, An swore fum ne she 'd never move, But Joe hoodooed her, do n't you see, An ' she run off wid him to Tennessee, I 'd ' a ' been married forty years ago, Ef it had n't a-been for Cotton - eyed Joe. ''
Scarborough noted that the song seemed to be well known in the South prior to the Civil War, and parts of it had been sent in by various persons.
Over the years, many different versions of the song have been performed and / or recorded with many different versions of the lyrics (and many without lyrics). "Cotton - Eyed Joe '', on occasion referred to as "The South Texas National Anthem '', was played for minstrel - type jigs, and it has long been popular as a square dance hoedown and a couple dance polka.
A resident of Central Texas who learned the dance in Williamson County in the early 1880s described it as nothing but a heel and toe "poker '' with fringes added. These fringes added to the heel and toe polka were clog steps which required skill and extraversion on the part of the dancer.
During the first half of the twentieth century the song was a widely known folk song all over English - speaking North America.
One discography lists 134 recorded versions released since 1950. In more recent decades, the song has waned in popularity in most regions except some parts of the American South where it is still a popular folk song.
A list of the possible meanings of the term "cotton - eyed '' that have been proposed includes: to be drunk on moonshine, or to have been blinded by drinking wood alcohol, turning the eyes milky white; a black person with very light blue eyes; someone whose eyes were milky white from bacterial infections of Trachoma or syphilis, cataracts or glaucoma; the contrast of dark skin tone around white eyeballs in black people; and possibly pterygium, a reddish - white corneal overgrowth associated with chronic sun exposure.
Bob Wills and Adolph Hofner and His San Antonians both recorded the song, and Hofner 's version (Columbia 37658), issued in 1941, apparently being the one that did the most to popularize the song.
A 1967 instrumental version of the song (KIKR k202) by Al Dean, who recalled the song called "The Gingerbread Man '' in South Texas, inspired a new round dance polka for couples. This dance was adapted into a simplified version as a nonpartner waist - hold, spoke line routine. Heel and toe polka steps were replaced with a cross-lift followed by a kick with two - steps. The lift and kick are sometimes accompanied by shouts of "whoops, whoops, '' or the barn yard term "bull shit '', mimicking the act of kicking off barnyard muck. The practice continues to this day. The Kickin ′ album included "Cotton - Eyed Joe '' by Dean. (KIK - R: 10012)
One version of a dance called "Cotton - Eyed Joe '' can be found in the 1975 edition of Encyclopedia of Social Dance. This version has the men on the inside of a circle facing out, and the women on the outside facing in. The dance consists of eight kick steps, side, close left together, right together, and a series of struts.
The spoke line version gained popularity not only in Texas, but across the US and overseas in the 1980s.
Ray Benson of the Western Swing band Asleep at the Wheel talks about playing the Bob Wills version of "Cotton - Eyed Joe '' in Texas in the 1970s when the dance was very much alive.
A Western "Craze '' followed the 1980 release of Urban Cowboy.
"Cotton - Eyed Joe '', and its continued popularity in Texas, was referred to in the lyrics to Alabama 's song "If You 're Gonna Play in Texas. '' "I remember down in Houston we were puttin ' on a show when a cowboy in the back stood up and yelled, ' Cotton - Eyed Joe '! ''
In Merle Haggard 's "Texas Fiddle Song '', the final verse makes reference to the "Cotton - Eyed Joe '' and features the melody of both the Bob Wills and Al Dean versions.
The song has become a staple song played at many professional and college baseball games during the seventh - inning stretch with the preference going to the Rednex version.
In August 1994, Swedish recording group Rednex covered the song as "Cotton Eye Joe '' for their album Sex & Violins, combining their style with traditional American instruments, such as banjos, and fiddles. In 2002, "Cotton Eye Joe '' was remixed in a dance version, and was released from Rednex 's greatest hits album, The Best of the West.
The Rednex version of the song (using "Eye '' instead of "Eyed ''), along with a dance - mix version, was very successful in Europe, where it remained at number one in Norway for 15 weeks, Switzerland for 13 weeks, Germany for 10 weeks, Sweden for 8 weeks, Austria for 7 weeks, 3 weeks on the UK Singles Chart and 2 weeks on the Dutch Top 40. In Oceania, it topped the New Zealand Singles Chart for 6 consecutive weeks. In Australia it peaked at number 8 in April 1995. In the US, it peaked at number 25 in March 1995.
The Country and Irish singer Lee Matthews released his version of the song with new added lyrics. The single on his own independent label topped the Irish Country Singles Download Chart in January 2015.
|
when did kevin durant sign with the golden state warriors | Kevin Durant - wikipedia
Kevin Wayne Durant (born September 29, 1988) is an American professional basketball player for the Golden State Warriors of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He has won an NBA championship, an NBA Most Valuable Player Award, the Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award, the NBA All - Star Game Most Valuable Player Award, four NBA scoring titles, the NBA Rookie of the Year Award, and two Olympic gold medals. Durant has also been selected to seven All - NBA teams and eight NBA All - Star teams.
Durant was a heavily recruited high school prospect who was widely regarded as the second - best player in his class. He played one season of college basketball for the University of Texas, where he won numerous year - end awards and became the first freshman to be named Naismith College Player of the Year. In 2007, he was selected as the second overall pick by the Seattle SuperSonics in the NBA draft. After his rookie season, the team relocated to Oklahoma City and became the Thunder. Behind Durant 's leadership and his pairing with All - Star guard Russell Westbrook, the Thunder emerged as a perennial title contender, advancing as far as the NBA Finals in 2012, where they were ousted by the Miami Heat. He played nine seasons in Oklahoma City before signing with the Warriors in 2016, winning the championship in his debut season with the team.
Off the court, Durant often ranks as one of the highest - earning basketball players in the world, due in part to endorsement deals with companies such as Foot Locker and Nike. He has developed a reputation for his philanthropy and regularly leads the league in All - Star votes and jersey sales. In recent years, he has contributed to The Players ' Tribune as both a photographer and writer. In 2012, he tried his hand at acting, appearing in the film Thunderstruck.
Durant was born on September 29, 1988, in Washington, D.C., to Wanda (née Durant) and Wayne Pratt. When Durant was an infant, his father deserted the family; Wanda and Wayne eventually divorced, and Durant 's grandmother Barbara Davis helped raise him. By age 13, his father re-entered his life and traveled the country with him to basketball tournaments. Durant has one sister, Brianna, and two brothers, Tony and Rayvonne.
Durant and his siblings grew up in Prince George 's County, Maryland, on the eastern outskirts of Washington, D.C. He was unusually tall from a young age, and reached 6 ft 0 in (1.83 m) in height while still in middle school (age 13 -- 14). Growing up, Durant wanted to play for his favorite team, the Toronto Raptors, which included his favorite player, Vince Carter. He played Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) basketball for several teams in the Maryland area and was teammates with future National Basketball Association (NBA) players Michael Beasley, Greivis Vásquez, and Ty Lawson, the former of whom Durant remains friends with to this day. During this time, he began wearing # 35 as his jersey number in honor of his AAU coach, Charles Craig, who was murdered at the age of 35.
After playing two years of high school basketball at National Christian Academy and one year at Oak Hill Academy, Durant transferred to Montrose Christian School for his senior year, growing 5 inches (13 cm) before the start of the season and beginning the year at a height of 6 ft 7 in (2.01 m). Prior to the start of the season, he committed to the University of Texas. At the conclusion of the year, he was named the Washington Post All - Met Basketball Player of the Year, as well as the Most Valuable Player of the 2006 McDonald 's All - American Game. He was widely regarded as the second - best high school prospect of 2006.
For the 2006 -- 07 college season, Durant -- who had grown to 6 ft 9 in (2.06 m) -- averaged 25.8 points, 11.1 rebounds, and 1.3 assists per game for the Texas Longhorns as a student at the University of Texas. The Longhorns finished the year with a 25 -- 10 record overall and a 12 -- 4 record in conference. Awarded a fourth seed in the NCAA Tournament, Texas won their first round match - up against New Mexico State but were upset in the second round by USC despite a 30 - point and 9 - rebound performance from Durant. For his outstanding play, Durant was recognized as the unanimous national player of the year, winning the John R. Wooden Award, the Naismith College Player of the Year Award, and all eight other widely recognized honors and awards. This made Durant the first freshman to win any of the national player of the year awards. On April 11, he officially declared for the NBA draft. His # 35 jersey was later retired by the Longhorns.
Durant was selected as the second overall pick in the 2007 NBA draft by the Seattle SuperSonics. In his first regular season game, the 19 - year - old Durant registered 18 points, 5 rebounds, and 3 steals against the Denver Nuggets. On November 16, he made the first game - winning shot of his career in a game against the Atlanta Hawks. At the conclusion of the season, he was named the NBA Rookie of the Year behind averages of 20.3 points, 4.4 rebounds, and 2.4 assists per game. He joined Carmelo Anthony and LeBron James as the only teenagers in league history to average at least 20 points per game over an entire season.
Following Durant 's debut season, the SuperSonics relocated from Seattle to Oklahoma City, becoming the Thunder and switching to new colors blue, orange, and yellow. The team also drafted UCLA guard Russell Westbrook, who would form an All - Star combination with Durant in later years. At the 2009 NBA All - Star Weekend, Durant set a Rookie Challenge record with 46 points. By the conclusion of the year, he had raised his scoring average by five points from the prior season to 25.3 points per game, and was considered a strong candidate for the Most Improved Player Award, eventually finishing third in the voting. Durant continued to grow during his first few years in the NBA, finally reaching a height of 6 ft 11 in (2.11 m).
During the 2009 -- 10 season, Durant was selected to his first NBA All - Star Game. Behind his play, the Thunder improved their record by 27 wins from the previous year and defied expectations to make the playoffs. With a scoring average of 30.1 points per game, he became the youngest NBA scoring champion and was selected to his first All - NBA team. In his playoff debut, he scored 24 points in a Game 1 loss against the Los Angeles Lakers. Oklahoma City would go on to lose the series in six games, but the team 's performance led many analysts to label them as an upcoming title contender.
Prior to the start of the 2010 -- 11 season, Durant announced via Twitter that he had signed a five - year contract extension with the Thunder worth approximately $86 million. For the second consecutive year, he led the NBA in scoring, averaging 27.7 points a game. Behind his leadership, the Thunder won 55 games and earned the fourth seed in the Western Conference. In the playoffs, Oklahoma City defeated the Denver Nuggets and Memphis Grizzlies en route to a Conference Finals match - up versus the Dallas Mavericks, losing in five games.
On February 19 of the lockout - shortened 2011 -- 12 season, Durant recorded his first career 50 - point game, scoring 51 points against the Denver Nuggets. At the All - Star Game, he scored 36 points and was awarded the NBA All - Star Game Most Valuable Player Award. He finished the year with a scoring average of 28 points per game, representing his third straight scoring title. Behind his play, the Thunder won 47 games and entered the playoffs as the Western Conference 's second seed. In Game 1 of the first round against the Mavericks, Durant hit a game - winner with 1.5 seconds remaining. Oklahoma City would go on to defeat Dallas, the Lakers, and the San Antonio Spurs before losing to the Miami Heat in the Finals. For the championship round, Durant led all players with 30.6 points per game, doing so on a 54.8 shooting rate.
With a scoring average of 28.1 points per game to finish the 2012 -- 13 season, Durant failed to defend his scoring title; however, with a 51 percent shooting rate, a 41.6 percent three point shooting rate, and a 90.5 free throw shooting rate, he became the youngest player in NBA history to join the 50 -- 40 -- 90 club. Finishing the year with a 60 -- 22 record, Oklahoma City earned the first seed in the Western Conference. In the first round of the playoffs against the Houston Rockets, Russell Westbrook tore his meniscus, forcing him to miss the remainder of the postseason. Without Westbrook, Durant was given more responsibility, averaging a career - high 30.8 points per game throughout the playoffs, but Oklahoma City were eventually eliminated in the second round by the Memphis Grizzlies in five games.
In January of the 2013 -- 14 season, Durant averaged 35.9 points per game while scoring 30 or more points in 12 straight games, including a career - high 54 points against the Golden State Warriors. In April, he surpassed Michael Jordan 's record for consecutive games scoring 25 points or more at 41. The Thunder finished the year with 59 wins and Durant was voted the NBA Most Valuable Player behind averages of 32 points, 7.4 rebounds, and 5.5 assists per game. To begin the first round of the playoffs, he struggled against the physical play of the Grizzlies, converting on only 24 percent of his field goals in Game 4. Through six games, the Thunder trailed the series 3 -- 2, prompting The Oklahoman to dub Durant "Mr. Unreliable ''. He responded by scoring 36 points in a Game 6 victory. Oklahoma City eventually eliminated Memphis and the Los Angeles Clippers before losing to the Spurs in the Conference Finals in six games
Prior to the start of the 2014 -- 15 season, Durant was diagnosed with a Jones fracture in his right foot and was ruled out for six to eight weeks. He subsequently missed the first 17 games of the year, making his season debut for the Thunder on December 2 against the New Orleans Pelicans. On December 18, he injured his ankle against the Golden State Warriors, returning to action on December 31 against the Phoenix Suns to score a season - high 44 points. He then sprained his left big toe in late January. On February 22, he was sidelined again after undergoing a minor procedure to help reduce pain and discomfort in his surgically repaired right foot, and on March 27, he was officially ruled out for the rest of the season after deciding to undergo foot surgery. In just 27 games, he averaged 25.4 points, 6.6 rebounds, and 4.1 assists per game.
To begin the 2015 -- 16 season, Durant and Russell Westbrook reached several historical milestones together, including becoming the first pair of teammates to each score at least 40 points in a single game since 1996, doing so in a win over the Orlando Magic on October 30. On April 11, Durant scored 34 points against the Lakers, setting an NBA record for consecutive games scoring 20 or more points with 64. For the year, Durant averaged 28.2 points, 8.2 rebounds, 5 assists, and 1.2 blocks per game, leading the Thunder to 55 wins and the third seed in the West. In Game 2 of the first round of the playoffs against the Mavericks, he scored 21 points but made just 7 - of - 33 shots in the worst postseason shooting performance, both by percentage and number of misses, of his career. After defeating Dallas, Oklahoma City moved on to face the Spurs in the second round, falling behind 2 -- 1 to start the series. In Game 4, Durant tied his playoff career high with 41 points in a Thunder win. Oklahoma City eventually defeated the Spurs in six games, drawing a matchup with the record - setting 73 - win Golden State Warriors in the Conference Finals. Despite going up 3 -- 1, the Thunder were ousted in seven games, with Durant providing 27 points in Game 7.
On July 4, 2016, Durant announced his intentions to sign with the Golden State Warriors in a Players ' Tribune piece titled "My Next Chapter. '' The move was received negatively by the public and NBA analysts, with many comparing the move to LeBron James 's 2010 off - season departure from the Cleveland Cavaliers to join the Miami Heat. On July 7, he officially signed with the Warriors on a two - year, $54.3 million contract with a player option after the first year.
On October 25, Durant made his debut for the Warriors in their season opener against the San Antonio Spurs. In 36 minutes of action, he recorded a team - high 27 points and 10 rebounds in a 129 -- 100 loss. Three days later, he recorded 30 points and 17 rebounds (one shy of his career high) in a 122 -- 114 win over the New Orleans Pelicans. In his third game for Golden State on October 30, he had a 37 - point outing in a 106 -- 100 win over the Phoenix Suns. On November 3, he matched his career high with seven three - pointers and scored 39 points in a 122 -- 96 win over his former team, the Thunder. With 22 points against the Pelicans on November 7, Durant had at least 20 points for his 71st straight game, matching Kareem Abdul - Jabbar for the fifth - longest streak in NBA history. He increased that streak to 72 games with at least 20 points on November 9 against the Mavericks, tying Michael Jordan for the fourth - longest streak ever. The streak ended the following day when he scored 18 points in a win against the Denver Nuggets.
On November 26, he recorded 28 points, 10 rebounds, five assists and a career - high six blocked shots in a 115 -- 102 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. It was the Warriors ' first time ever having someone finish with at least 25 points, 10 rebounds, five assists and five blocks. Two days later, he was named Western Conference Player of the Week for games played Monday, November 21 through Sunday, November 27. Durant helped Golden State to a 4 -- 0 week behind averages of 24.8 points, 8.3 rebounds, 6.3 assists, and 2.75 blocked shots per game. On December 1, he matched his season high with 39 points to go with 13 rebounds, three steals, and three blocks in a 132 -- 127 double overtime loss to the Houston Rockets. On December 28, he had 22 points, matched his season best with 17 rebounds, and added seven assists and five blocks in a 121 -- 111 win over the Toronto Raptors. Two days later, he recorded his eighth career triple - double (his first since joining the Warriors) with 19 points, 11 rebounds and 10 assists in a 108 -- 99 win over the Mavericks.
On January 18, 2017, he set a new season high with 40 points in a 121 -- 100 win over the Thunder. On February 2, 2017, he was named Co-Western Conference Player of the Month for January alongside teammate Stephen Curry. On February 11, in his first game back in Oklahoma City, Durant scored 34 points while being booed throughout the night, as he helped the Warriors defeat the Thunder for the third time in 2016 -- 17 with a 130 -- 114 win. The Thunder crowd jeered him loudly during pregame warmups, starter introductions, and whenever he touched the ball.
On March 1, he was ruled out indefinitely after suffering a Grade 2 MCL sprain and a tibial bone bruise the previous night against the Washington Wizards. On April 8, after missing 19 games with the knee injury, Durant returned to action and had 16 points, 10 rebounds and six assists in a 123 -- 101 win over the Pelicans. The Warriors finished the regular season with a 67 -- 15 record and entered the playoffs as the No. 1 seed. Over the 62 games in which he played, Durant averaged career highs in field goal percentage (. 537), rebounds (8.3) and blocks per game (1.6), and a career low in turnovers per game (2.2).
Durant 's 29 points and 12 rebounds in Game 4 of the Western Conference Finals against the Spurs led to a 129 -- 115 victory that saw the Warriors advance to the NBA Finals for a third straight year while becoming the first team in league history to start the playoffs 12 -- 0. In Game 1 of the 2017 NBA Finals, Durant had 38 points, eight rebounds and eight assists to lead Golden State past LeBron James and the defending champion Cleveland Cavaliers, 113 -- 91. He helped the Warriors go up 3 -- 0 in the series with a 31 - point effort in Game 3, including the go - ahead 3 - pointer with 45.3 seconds left in the game. In Game 5 of the series, he scored 39 points to go with seven rebounds and five assists in the series - clinching 129 -- 120 win at Oracle Arena to wrap up a 4 -- 1 series win over the Cavaliers. He was the Warriors ' top scorer in every game of the Finals, averaging 35.2 points, 8.4 rebounds and 5.4 assists while shooting 55.5 percent from the field, 47.4 percent from three - point range, and 92.7 percent from the free throw line. He was subsequently named the winner of the Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award, receiving all 11 votes from the panel of voters for the award.
After the NBA Finals, Durant declined his $27.7 million player option for the 2017 -- 18 season and became an unrestricted free agent with the intention of re-signing with the Warriors for less money, helping the franchise create enough salary cap space to keep their core roster intact and add free agents. On July 25, 2017, he re-signed with the Warriors.
In February 2007, Durant received an invitation to the United States national team training camp. Despite a strong performance, he was cut from the team when its roster was trimmed to its twelve - player limit. Coach Mike Krzyzewski cited the experience of the remaining players as the deciding factor in making the cut. Durant was finally selected to the national team at the 2010 FIBA World Championship and became their leader as other All - Stars were unavailable, a role he downplayed. At the tournament, he led Team USA to its first FIBA World Championship since 1994, earning MVP honors in the process. His final averages for the competition were 22.8 points, 6.1 rebounds, 3.1 assists, and 1.4 steals per game in nine games.
At the 2012 Olympics, Durant set the record for total points scored in an Olympic basketball tournament. With averages of 19.5 points, 5.8 rebounds, 2.6 assists, and 1.6 steals per game, he helped the national team go undefeated en route to a gold medal. In the tournament 's final game, he led all scorers with 30 points.
Less than a month before the start of the 2014 FIBA Basketball World Cup, Durant announced that he would be dropping out of the competition, citing mental and physical exhaustion as reasons for his departure. He rejoined Team USA in 2016 for the Olympics, where he led them to a gold medal. In recognition of his performances, Durant was named the 2016 co-USA Basketball Male Athlete of the Year, along with Carmelo Anthony, for the second time in his career.
Though Durant 's height is officially listed as 6 ft 9 in (2.06 m), he has stated that he actually stands 6 ft 10 ⁄ in (2.10 m) barefoot and 7 ft 0 in (2.13 m) with shoes. He plays mostly at the small forward position, and his career averages are 27.2 points, 7.2 rebounds, and 3.8 assists per game. Durant has earned All - NBA honors seven times (2009 -- 14, 2016 -- 17) and was voted Rookie of the Year in his debut season. He has won an MVP Award and finished second in the voting three times, a trend he has expressed frustration over.
Described as a "scoring prodigy '' by John Hollinger, Durant regularly finishes as one of the NBA 's points leaders and has won the scoring title four times. A strong outside shooter, he is one of only seven members of the 50 -- 40 -- 90 club, and his 2013 campaign was called "one of the greatest shooting seasons in league history '' by Grantland 's Zach Lowe. One of the primary reasons for Durant 's shooting prowess is his 7 ft 4 in (2.24 m) wingspan, which helps him get his shot off cleanly over most defenders. He is also a strong finisher at the rim, converting on 72.2 percent of shots in the paint in 2012. Early in his career, he was criticized for his slim build, defense, and passing. Over time, he grew as a playmaker, increasing his assist numbers every year from 2010 to 2014. He also showed defensive improvement, with opponents averaging just. 62 points per isolation play against him in 2014, the best success rate for defensive players who faced at least 100 isolations that season.
Durant describes himself as a "high school kid '' and enjoys playing video games in his spare time. He is very close with his mother, Wanda, a relationship that was detailed in the Lifetime movie The Real MVP: The Wanda Pratt Story. A Christian, Durant goes to chapel before every game and has religious tattoos on his stomach, wrist, and back. He owns several properties in the Oklahoma City area and listed his primary residence, located in the affluent Club Villa neighborhood, for sale for $1.95 million in 2013. That same year, he opened a restaurant, KD 's Southern Cuisine, in the Bricktown neighborhood and briefly became engaged to Monica Wright, a WNBA player. In 2016, he was a credentialed photographer for The Players ' Tribune at Super Bowl 50.
Durant was formerly represented by agents Aaron Goodwin and Rob Pelinka. He left Pelinka in 2013 and signed with the Roc Nation group, headed by Jay - Z. Durant has endorsement deals with Nike, Sprint, Gatorade, Panini, General Electric, and 2K Sports. In 2012, he tried his hand at acting, appearing in the children 's film Thunderstruck. In 2013, he earned $35 million, making him the fourth - highest - earning basketball player that year. In an interview with Sports Illustrated, Durant claimed that, despite his high earnings potential, "global marketing and all that stuff '' does not interest him.
One of the most popular players in the league, Durant 's jersey regularly ranks as one of the NBA 's best - selling and he is consistently one of the top All - Star vote - getters. He has developed a reputation for his kind demeanor; in 2013, Foot Locker released a series of commercials calling him the "nicest guy in the NBA '', and he has become a beloved figure in Oklahoma City, known for his "nice escapades '' toward the Thunder 's staff. In 2014, he partnered with KIND snacks and launched StrongAndKind.com to show "being kind is not a sign of weakness. ''
Throughout his career, Durant has participated in philanthropic causes. In 2013, he pledged $1 million to the American Red Cross for the victims of the 2013 Moore tornado. His generosity inspired the Thunder and Nike to match his donation. He is also a spokesperson for the Washington, D.C. branch of P'Tones Records, a nationwide non-profit after - school music program.
In 2017, Durant became involved with YouTube. In February, he visited YouTube 's headquarters for a speaking engagement. On April 7, 2017, he created a YouTube account and soon began to upload live stream vlogs onto it. In his first vlog, he detailed, "I 'm so excited because I got off social media. I got off the Instagram, Twitter, all that stuff, just to distance myself a bit. But somebody talked me into getting on the YouTube. '' As of April 26, 2017, Durant 's YouTube channel has received over 100,000 subscribers and 1 million video views.
|
why do you have to push the clutch in to start a car | Push start - wikipedia
Push starting, also known as bump starting, clutch starting, popping the clutch or crash starting, is a method of starting a motor vehicle with an internal combustion engine by engaging the manual transmission while the vehicle is in motion. The technique is most commonly employed when other starting methods (automobile self starter, kick start, jump start etc.) are unavailable.
The most common way to push start a vehicle is to put the manual transmission in second gear typically, switching the ignition to on / run, depressing the clutch, and pushing the vehicle until it is at a speed of 5 to 10 mph (8 to 16 km / h) or more, then quickly releasing the clutch to make the engine rotate and fire, then quickly depressing the clutch so it does not stall. This is done by one person pushing a lightweight automobile, pulling or being pushed by another vehicle or even rolling down a hill.
Push starting is most successful when the automobile is using a gasoline engine, uses a carburetor, and uses a capacitor discharge ignition (CDI) or an inductive discharge ignition system. Automobiles with other types of engine, ignition, and fuel delivery configurations may work, but may be more difficult to start. Some engines must have a battery providing some electricity since fuel injection systems must have power to operate.
A vehicle equipped with an automatic transmission (including semi automatic) is difficult to push start since selection of transmission gears is possible only when the internals of such a gearbox are rotating. However, automatics with both front and rear hydraulic pumps can be push - started with no problems. The last American automobile with this type of transmission was the 1969 Chevrolet Corvair with a Powerglide automatic.
A diesel engine uses heat and high compression (compression ratios commonly 22: 1 versus 9: 1 for gasoline) to ignite the fuel. When normally starting a modern diesel engine, it typically uses glowplugs to preheat the cylinder (s). If a battery is completely discharged then it may not provide the necessary electrical power to ' glow ' the glowplugs, making the push starting of a diesel vehicle with a dead battery almost impossible.
Fuel injection is most common for modern gasoline and diesel engines. Fuel injection needs electrical power to open and close the fuel injectors. If a battery is of a sufficiently discharged state that it can not provide the power to turn an automobile self starter then it may also not be possible to activate the injectors. The most common method to start such a vehicle engine is to jump start it.
A fuel pump is used for fuel injection. It can be mechanically driven or is electrically driven. If electrical then the same problem may arise which the battery can not turn the pump because it is heavily discharged. A carburetor only needs suction from the internal combustion engine to work best when push starting. Once the engine is running, a fuel pump (mechanical or electrical) will continue to supply fuel to the carburettor.
A modern gasoline engine contains an electronic ignition system which precisely times the electrical pulse to the spark plug. The advantage of such a device is that it can deliver a full power electrical pulse to the spark plugs even when the alternator is turning very slowly (as in push starting a motor). The outdated method of a mechanically timed ignition system is that is can not deliver a full electrical pulse at very low engine revolutions per minute (RPM). This may affect the ease of push starting an engine to life.
In the early 20th century, many motorcycles could only be push started; the 1908 Scott was distinguished by introducing a kick starter feature. Excelsior Motor Company 's Welbike, intended to be carried by paratroopers in World War II, was designed to be started only by push starting.
|
akhil the power of jua movie in hindi dubbed | Akhil (film) - wikipedia
Akhil - The Power Of Jua is 2015 Telugu fantasy drama film directed by V.V. Vinayak. The film, produced jointly by actor Nithin and his father Sudhakar Reddy on Sresht Movies banner, features Akkineni Akhil and Sayesha Saigal in their debut Telugu cinema. Anup Rubens and S. Thaman composed the film 's songs while veteran music director Mani Sharma composed the background score. The film 's story was written by Veligonda Srinivas and Kona Venkat wrote the film 's dialogues. Production began on 17 December 2014 and the film released on 11 November 2015.
The story begins at thousands of years ago with a voice narrating how the Earth would face destruction in future due to the powerful UV rays of the Sun. Few Saints in India foresee this destruction, make a sphere with most powerful and strong metals which possess an immense power that absorbs the harmful UV rays hence it protects the Earth. Since it has to be placed at the Earth 's equator they give the sphere to a tribe in Congolia, Africa. They leave from there by warning them that it should be kept at the Earth 's equator during every Solar eclipse if they miss even one of the eclipse then the earth should face major destruction. The African tribe name the Sphere as Jua (Name of the Sun in Africa). Now the story moves to present day where a Russian don is plotting to capture the Jua, so that he will have the solution when the world is in destruction and thinks he can rule the world. For this he seeks the help of an Indian don. The Indian don sends his henchmen to the tribe to get the Jua but Bodo, a young graduate of the tribe takes it and escapes. Now the story moves to Hyderabad where a young and carefree orphan named Akhil (Akhil Akkineni) fights in streets for earning and celebrates with friends. One day, Akhil meets a girl, Divya (Sayesha) and immediately falls in love with her. He impresses her in a couple of meetings by operating her rabit which needs a heart surgery with the help of K.V. Rajendra Prasad (Rajendra Prasad), Divya 's college principal. Later Divya invites Akhil and his friends to her marriage. Akhil plots to break the marriage but finds out that Kishore (Vennela Kishore), Fiance of Divya is in love with some other girl and unites Kishore with his lover making Divya 's dad (Mahesh Manjrekar) furious, who is a Don in India as shown in the beginning of the movie. Disheartened Divya leaves for Europe finding Kishore. Akhil gets to know Divya is in Europe and follows her. After reaching her in Europe, Divya asks Akhil to act him as her lover thinking that she can make Kishore envy. Meanwhile, Mambo, thug of Indian don searches for Bodo to get the Jua and shoots him in a chase. Bodo falls at Divya 's apartment and she treats him as she is a Medico. The very next day Akhil tells Divya that he was the one who united Kishore and his lover breaking Divya 's marriage. She gets mad at him and tries to leave but is kidnapped by Mambo who saw Divya while treating Bodo. Akhil gets injured while chasing them and got hit by Divya 's dad who came to know that he loves Divya. He falls unconscious under a tree where a chain with a sun shaped locket falls over his neck. Divya 's father catches Akhil and through him he gets to know Mambo kidnapped his daughter. He calls Mambo and orders him to release his daughter, but Mambo refuses. Akhil finds out Mambo 's place and leaves for Africa with Kishore to rescue Divya.
After reaching Africa, at airport a church father asks Akhil to hold his bible, cross and white coat while he goes to the restroom. Johnson and Johnson (Brahmanandam), a cab driver who came there to pick up the Priest mistakes Akhil as the Priest and drives him in his car. Akhil asks him to drive to Congolia, Johnson resists to take him there as it is a dangerous place but due to Akhil 's insistence takes him to the Place. Akhil along with Kishore and Johnson reach Mambo 's place and fights with his men and takes Mambo 's brother while holding him hostage rescues Divya, who still hates him. In the meantime Divya 's father comes to rescue her from Mambo but gets trapped there. Mambo calls Divya and warns her if they do n't return to his place he will kill her father. They all return to Mambo 's place to rescue Divya 's father. Mambo asks Divya about where was Jua kept, she misguides him telling the wrong place. Mambo after reaching the place finds out he was fooled by Divya and goes back to her. By then they all manage to escape and hide in a forest where Akhil fights with a tiger to save Divya which makes Divya forgive him and her father likes and accepts him as his son - in - law. The next day they go to Congolia village where the African tribe guarding the Jua live. At the same time Russian don and Mambo with his men reach there and shoots Akhil but a young man of the tribe guards him by giving his ' life. Akhil asks him why he sacrificed his life for him then the young man points towards the sun shaped locket in Akhil 's neck. He learns that he has some connection with this Jua and he only should find it. Mambo again tries to shoot Akhil then Divya tells the exact place where Jua was hidden. She tells them that Bodo dropped the Jua in a river full of Piranhas and Killer Fish while he was escaping from Mambo. Akhil owes that he will bring the Jua back to the tribe. After getting the Jua by fighting the pirahnas in the river, Akhil kills Mambo and his men. Meanwhile, the Russian don escapes in a helicopter with Jua. Akhil jumps onto the helicopter when it is about to take off and kills the Russian don and gets the Jua, while the pilot causing the helicopter to hit a volcano. Before the explosion Akhil jumps out with a parachute and handover the Jua to the tribal head, who places it back at the Earth 's equator and rescues the world from destruction. The movie ends on a happy note finally Divya uniting with Akhil.
Akkineni made his debut with a cameo appearance in the climax of Manam (2014). Either Vikram Kumar or Deva Katta were expected to direct Akhil 's debut as a lead actor. While Nagarjuna reportedly confirmed Vikram Kumar to direct Akhil 's second film, Deva Katta was confirmed to direct Manchu Vishnu in the Telugu remake of Arima Nambi (2014). On 21 September 2014, Akhil said "I know that a lot of people are curious to know details about my debut film. However, I would like to clarify that I have n't made up my mind yet. I want to start my career with a blockbuster film and I 'm not going to settle for anything less than that. If all goes well, I will announce details about my debut film in near future after Oka Laila Kosam releases. Till then, all I can say is, I 'm still working hard on what my debut film should be '', at an event celebrating Akkineni Nageswara Rao 's birth anniversary and the success of Manam. Later V.V. Vinayak was approached to direct this film after the release of Alludu Seenu (2014).
Veligonda Srinivas, who penned the script for Akkineni Nagarjuna 's Dhamarukam (2012), wrote the film 's story. Kona Venkat and Gopimohan were working on the film 's screenplay. The film 's principal photography was expected to begin on 15 November 2014. Anup Rubens & S. Thaman were selected as the music directors. Nithiin was reported to be a part of the film in late November 2014 which was supposed to be a romantic film with adventurous backdrop. He was also reported to produce the film while the story discussions slowed down as Vinayak 's mother fell ill. Vinayak 's mother died in early December 2014 because of which the film 's launch was postponed by a week. The film was officially launched on 17 December 2014 in Hyderabad. Nithiin along with his father Sudhakar Reddy was confirmed to bankroll the film under the banner Sresht Movies.
Amol Rathod and Gautham Raju were confirmed as the cinematographer and editor, respectively. Kona Venkat was confirmed to pen the film 's dialogues while screenplay was announced to be handled by Vinayak himself. Nithiin said that they are searching for a new actress as the female lead and the regular shoot would begin in early January 2015. Akhil said in an interview to Sanchita Dash that the film is an action movie with few stunts and would be shot in a new style of filming. He also confirmed that a new actress would be selected and screen tests are being held. He added that they opted for a new actress as he himself is a debutante and to minimize the burden and expectations on the film. Sayesha Saigal was reported to be the female lead later marking her Telugu debut.
The film was originally slated to release on 22 October however it got postponed many times. Visual effects was said to be the reason behind the delay. The makers have confirmed that film will be releasing on 11 November.
On 29 August 2015, Salman Khan released 55 - second first look teaser. The teaser received mixed response from viewers.
The soundtrack was jointly composed by Anup Rubens and S. Thaman. The film 's audio launch was held on 20 September 2015.
The film has collected ₹ 13 crore at the AP / Telangana box office on the first day and ₹ 44.8 crore at worldwide box office making the biggest opener for a debutant hero.
|
what kind of bird is the aflac mascot | Aflac - wikipedia
Aflac Inc. / ˈæflæk / (American Family Life Assurance Company) is an American insurance company and is the largest provider of supplemental insurance in the United States. The company was founded in 1955 and is based in Columbus, Georgia. In the U.S., Aflac underwrites a wide range of insurance policies, but is perhaps more known for its payroll deduction insurance coverage, which pays cash benefits when a policyholder has a covered accident or illness. The company states it "provides financial protection to more than 50 million people worldwide ''.
In 2009, Aflac acquired Continental American Insurance Company for $100 million; this enabled Aflac to sell supplemental insurance on both the individual and group platform. As of June 30, 2012, Aflac was represented by approximately 19,300 sales agencies in Japan, and 76,900 licensed sales associates in the U.S.
The company was founded by brothers John, Paul (died 2014), and William Amos in Columbus, Georgia, in 1955, as American Family Life Insurance Company of Columbus. In 1964, the company name was changed to American Family Life Assurance Company of Columbus. The company, in 1990, adopted the Aflac acronym, although the official name of the underwriting subsidiary remains American Family Life Assurance Company of Columbus. Aflac announced the appointment of Frederick J. Crawford as Chief Financial Officer, as well as Executive Vice President in June 2015.
The company signed 6,426 policyholders in its first year. Aflac pioneered cancer insurance in 1958. Beginning in 1964, the company decided to focus sales on worksite settings, eventually through policies sponsored by employers and funded through payroll deductions. By 2003, more than 98 % of Aflac policies in the United States were issued on a payroll deduction basis, making the company a leader in that approach to policy distribution.
Aflac operates in the United States and Japan, and has its worldwide headquarters and corporate offices in an eighteen - story tower just east of Downtown Columbus, Georgia, in an area known as MidTown. The Aflac tower is the tallest building in the city. As of June 30, 2015, the corporation 's total assets were more than $103 billion, and the company insured more than 50 million people worldwide.
Aflac is the largest provider of guaranteed - renewable insurance in the United States and the largest insurance company overall in Japan, when measured by individual insurance policies in force.
The company now offers several types of insurance policies in the United States, including the following:
Aflac also offers un-reimbursed medical, dependent day - care, and transportation flexible spending accounts. The company also offers human resources services for HIPAA and COBRA. From 1979 to 1997, the company owned several television stations, most of them in small and medium markets. It sold the broadcasting division (including flagship station WTVM) to what became Raycom Media in 1997.
Consumer groups and some government officials say that cancer insurance returns fewer premium dollars to policyholders than standard insurance. A United States General Accounting Office study found that the policies paid back as little as 35 % of premiums (Aflac said its cancer insurance paid back 62.4 %). In comparison, New York State requires most major - medical policies to pay back 82 % and group policies to pay back 75 %. New York State does not allow stand - alone cancer policies. In 1997, AFLAC spent $175,000 on lobbyists and campaign contributions to change the law. New York State lifted its ban in 1998, for purchasers who already have basic coverage. Consumer Reports recommended that policyholders use the money instead to buy lower - deductible insurance. Insurance claims by line appear on the Annual Statement filed with each state. Loss claims are a percent of total premium before commissions.
Since December 1999, the company 's identity and brand has become more widely recognized in the United States as the result of TV commercials featuring the Aflac Duck, who frustratedly quacks the company 's name to unsuspecting prospective policy holders. The duck concept and all of the commercials to date have been created by Kaplan Thaler Group, an advertising agency based in New York City. Metzer Farms, a Gonzales, California goose, duck, and gamebird hatchery, supplied them with the initial ducklings that each grew into the famous duck. Struggling to come up with a concept to make the big but relatively obscure insurance company 's name memorable, one of the agency 's art directors stumbled upon the duck idea while walking around Central Park at lunchtime uttering, "Aflac, Aflac. '' He soon realized how much the company 's name sounded like a duck 's quack. The Aflac Duck character has now starred in more than 30 commercials. In many of these commercials, character actor Earl Billings also appears. The Aflac Duck is enshrined on Madison Avenue 's Walk of Fame as one of America 's Favorite Advertising Icons.
In April 2009, Aflac introduced a new marketing campaign called "Get the Aflacts '', designed to educate consumers about the specific benefits of the insurance products the company sells. The Aflacts campaign gave the Aflac Duck "a more prominent role '', designed to "help potential customers learn the Aflacts, er, facts about policies and other products '', according to The New York Times.
Celebrities have starred in the Aflac ads, including Chevy Chase (2003); Yogi Berra; Yao Ming; Donald Trump 's wife and future First Lady, Melania Trump (2005); NASCAR Cup Series driver Carl Edwards (2008 -- 2014); the United States Olympic synchronized swimming team (2004); and Wayne Newton playing at Stardust Hotel and Casino for the 2003 commercial. The duck also appeared with Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Wile E. Coyote and The Road Runner, and Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer. In 2005, the company logo was changed to incorporate the duck. The first commercial using the new logo featured Gilbert Gottfried at a pet store because the duck kept saying, "Aflac! '' and he had to trade in the duck for a parrot, saying, "If you 're hurt and ca n't work ''.
The duck was originally voiced by comedian Gilbert Gottfried, who also voiced Digit on the PBS Kids series Cyberchase and Iago in the Disney film Aladdin. After 11 years as the voice of the Aflac duck, Gottfried was dismissed on March 14, 2011, due to jokes on Gottfried 's Twitter account referencing the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. The company 's chief marketing officer stated that "Gilbert 's recent comments about the crisis in Japan were lacking in humor, and certainly do not represent the thoughts and feelings of anyone at Aflac. ''
On March 23, 2011, Aflac announced that the company was taking applications for the new voice of the Aflac Duck through QuackAflac.com until April 1. Commercials requesting the submissions, first aired in 2006 but updated, resemble a silent movie. On April 26, 2011, it was announced that Daniel McKeague, a television advertising sales manager from Hugo, Minnesota, would be the new voice of the Aflac duck. The first Aflac commercial featuring the duck 's new voice aired May 1, 2011. In 2017 an Aflac ad inserted an animated Aflac duck into the opening credits of the DuckTales reboot.
The company states that through a partnership with Children 's Healthcare of Atlanta, Aflac has contributed more than $100 million to childhood cancer research and treatment.
Aflac employees are formally involved in an array of charitable organizations such as Habitat for Humanity International, the Easter Seals, and the United Way.
Aflac 's stated objectives include the decrease of its environmental impact, for which the company is into a partnership with the Clean Air Campaign to encourage employees to engage with greater frequency in alternate commuting methods.
Aflac and Macy 's have partnered since 2001 to sell the annual Aflac holiday plush duck in select Macy 's stores nationwide. Net proceeds from each duck sold are donated to the participating children 's cancer facility nearest to where it is purchased. Since 2001, more than $3 million has been raised from the sale of the ducks.
Aflac has participated in the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade for the past six years. A new balloonicle was unveiled in 2014, featuring the Aflac Duck wearing ice skates.
Aflac National High School Baseball Player of the Year (first presented in 2004).
The Jackie Robinson Award is given to the high - school player who is entering his senior year and who best displays character, leadership, and the values of being a student athlete in academics and community affairs. The award is presented at an annual All - American Awards banquet, which was first held in 2003. The banquet follows the annual All - American Baseball Classic, an East - West all - star game featuring the 38 best players from around the nation who are entering their senior year of high school. First held in 2003, the game is played at Petco Park, San Diego, California. Proceeds from the game and banquet are donated to Rady Children 's Hospital in San Diego and its fight against childhood cancer.
In 2011, the name of the all - star game was changed to the Perfect Game All - American Classic.
Aflac has been the recipient of several awards:
|
what are the differences in windows 10 versions | Windows 10 editions - Wikipedia
Windows 10 has twelve editions, all with varying feature sets, use cases, or intended devices. Certain editions are distributed only on devices directly from a device manufacturer, while editions such as Enterprise and Education are only available through volume licensing channels. Microsoft also makes editions of Windows 10 available to device manufacturers for use on specific classes of devices, including smartphones (Windows 10 Mobile) and IoT devices.
Baseline editions are the only editions available as standalone purchases in the retail outlets.
Pro for Workstations
These editions add features to facilitate centralized control of many installations of the OS within an organization. The main avenue of acquiring them is a volume licensing contract with Microsoft.
These editions are licensed to device manufacturers only. The main avenue of purchasing these editions is through buying specific devices (e.g. smartphones) that have them pre-installed.
The following editions of Windows 10 are discontinued, i.e. were not part of Windows 10 version 1803.
As with previous versions of Windows since XP, all Windows 10 editions for PC hardware have "N '' and "KN '' variations in Europe and South Korea that exclude certain bundled multimedia functionality, including media players and related components, in order to comply with antitrust rulings. The "Media Feature Pack '' can be installed to restore these features.
As with Windows 8.1, a reduced - price "Windows 10 with Bing '' SKU is available to OEMs; it is subsidized by having Microsoft 's Bing search engine set as default, which can not be changed to a different search engine by OEMs. It is intended primarily for low - cost devices, and is otherwise identical to Windows 10 Home.
In May 2017, it was reported that Microsoft had, as part of its partnership with China Electronics Technology Group, created a specially - modified version of Windows 10 Enterprise designed for use within branches of the Chinese government. This version is pre-configured to "remove features that are not needed by Chinese government employees '', and allow the use of its internal encryption algorithms.
Microsoft OEM licensing formula takes display size, RAM capacity and storage capacity into account. In mid-2015, devices with 4 GB RAM were expected to be $20 more expensive than devices with 2 GB RAM.
At the time of launch, Microsoft deemed Windows 7 (with Service Pack 1), Windows 8 and Windows 8.1 users eligible to upgrade to Windows 10 free of charge, so long as the upgrade takes place within one year of Windows 10 's initial release date. Windows RT and the respective Enterprise editions of Windows 7, 8, and 8.1 were excluded from this offer.
The following table summarizes possible upgrade paths that can be taken, provided that proper licenses are purchased.
New releases of Windows 10, called feature updates, are released twice a year as a free update for existing Windows 10 users. Each feature update contains new features and other changes to the operating system. The pace at which a system receives feature updates is dependent on the release branch from which the system downloads its updates. Windows 10 Pro, Enterprise and Education can optionally use a branch that receives updates at a slower pace. These modes can be managed through system settings, Windows Server Update Services (WSUS), Windows Update for Business, Group Policy or through mobile device management systems such as Microsoft Intune.
|
fox searchlight pictures indian paintbrush isle of dogs | Isle of Dogs (film) - wikipedia
Isle of Dogs (犬 ヶ 島, Inugashima) is a 2018 stop - motion animated film written, produced and directed by Wes Anderson. Set in a dystopian near - future Japan, the film follows a group of dogs who helps a young boy searching for his dog after the whole species is banished to an island after a canine - flu outbreak. The ensemble voice cast includes Bryan Cranston, Edward Norton, Bill Murray, Jeff Goldblum, Bob Balaban, Greta Gerwig, Frances McDormand, Courtney B. Vance, Fisher Stevens, Harvey Keitel, Liev Schreiber, Scarlett Johansson, Tilda Swinton, F. Murray Abraham, Frank Wood, Kunichi Nomura and Yoko Ono.
A US - German co-production, Isle of Dogs was produced by Indian Paintbrush and Anderson 's own production company, American Empirical Pictures. The film opened the 68th Berlin International Film Festival, where Anderson was awarded the Silver Bear for Best Director. It was given a limited release in the United States on March 23, 2018, by Fox Searchlight Pictures, and went on wide release on April 13. It has grossed $61 million worldwide, and received praise for its animation, story, and deadpan humor; some critics, however, have accused it of cultural appropriation.
In a dystopian near - future Japan, a dog - flu virus spreads throughout the canine population. Though one scientist, Professor Watanabe, is close to finding a cure, the authoritarian mayor of Megasaki City, Kobayashi, signs a decree banishing all dogs to Trash Island. The first exile is Spots, who belonged to Atari Kobayashi, the orphaned nephew and ward of the mayor.
Six months later, Atari steals a plane and flies to Trash Island to search for Spots. After a crash - landing, he is rescued by a pack of dogs led by a black dog, Chief. They decide to help Atari locate Spots, although Chief, a former stray, is reluctant to fraternize with humans. They fend off a rescue team sent by Kobayashi to retrieve Atari. At the insistence of a female purebreed named Nutmeg, Chief reluctantly decides to accompany the group on their search. They seek advice from two sage dogs, Jupiter and Oracle, who warn them of cannibal dogs on an isolated part of the island.
Professor Watanabe finds a cure, but is poisoned by Kobayashi. American exchange student Tracy Walker suspects a conspiracy and begins to investigate. She confronts Watanabe 's former colleague Yoko Ono, who confirms Tracy 's suspicions and gives her the last dose of the cure.
During the journey, Atari and Chief are separated from the others. Atari bathes Chief, revealing that his coat is actually white. Noticing the similarity between Chief and Spots, Atari realizes that Chief is of Spots ' breed, which is extremely rare. Chief recalls being part of a litter where all but one of his siblings died. He begins to bond with Atari as they continue their journey. They rejoin the group and locate the cannibal tribe, but are ambushed by Kobayashi 's men. Spots arrives with an army of dogs who fend off the assailants. He reveals that he was rescued by the cannibal tribe and became their leader. Spots also confirms that Chief is his brother and asks to transfer his protection duties for Atari to Chief, to which both agree.
An owl brings word that Kobayashi plans to order total extermination of all dogs on Trash Island. At Kobayashi 's election ceremony, Kobayashi prepares to give the order, but Tracy presents her evidence of his corruption. Atari and the dogs also arrive and confirm the cure works. Kobayashi has a change of heart, but his right - hand man Major Domo insists on triggering the extermination. A fight ensues in which the "execute '' button is pressed, but the poison backfires on the captors due to Tracy 's hacker friend.
During the fight, Atari and Spots are gravely injured. Atari 's only remaining kidney fails, but Kobayashi, admitting his mistakes, donates his own to save him. By election law, mayorship of the city falls to Atari and he decrees that dogs be allowed to reintegrate into society. Tracy and Atari become a couple, and Chief reunites with Nutmeg and takes up the role of bodyguard for Atari. Presumed dead, Spots recovers and secretly raises his litter under the Kobayashi Manor.
In October 2015, Anderson, who had previously directed the animated film Fantastic Mr. Fox, announced he would be returning to the genre with "a film about dogs '' starring Edward Norton, Bryan Cranston and Bob Balaban. Anderson has said that he was inspired by seeing a road sign for the Isle of Dogs in England while Fantastic Mr. Fox was in development. Anderson said that the film was strongly influenced by the films of Akira Kurosawa, as well as the stop - motion animated holiday specials made by Rankin / Bass Productions.
Production began in October 2016 at the 3 Mills Studios in East London.
On December 23, 2016, Fox Searchlight Pictures acquired worldwide distribution rights to the film, with plans for a 2018 release. A trailer was released on September 21, 2017.
The film premiered as the opening film of the 68th Berlin International Film Festival on February 11, 2018, and had its North American premiere as the closing film of the SXSW Film Festival in Austin, Texas, on March 17, 2018. Isle of Dogs began a limited release in the U.S. on March 23, 2018. It was released nationwide in the United States on April 13, 2018.
As of June 12, 2018, Isle of Dogs has grossed $31.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $29.8 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $61.4 million.
In its first weekend of limited release, the film made $1.57 million from 27 theaters (an average of $58,148 per venue), which is the highest screen average of 2018 thus far. 60 % of its audience was under the age of 30. In its second weekend the film made $2.8 million from 165 theaters (an increase of 74 %), finishing 11th. The film entered the top 10 in its third weekend, making $4.6 million from 554 theaters. The film expanded to 1,939 theaters the following week and made $5 million, finishing 7th at the box office.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 89 % based on 264, reviews, and an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "The beautifully stop - motion animated Isle of Dogs finds Wes Anderson at his detail - oriented best while telling one of the director 's most winsomely charming stories. '' On Metacritic, which assigns normalized ratings to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 82 out of 100, based on 54 critics, indicating "universal acclaim. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an overall positive score of 88 %.
Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, praising it for taking risks, and saying: "It 's smart and different and sometimes deliberately odd and really funny -- rarely in a laugh - out - loud way, more in a smile - and - nod - I - get - the - joke kind of way. '' Exclaim! gave the film 7 out of 10, saying it "has all the hallmarks of another Wes Anderson classic. ''
Some critics have argued that the film is an example of racial stereotyping and cultural appropriation, and that one of its characters aligns with the trope of the "white savior ''. The Japanese characters speak unsubtitled Japanese, with their dialogue instead being translated by an interpreter or a machine. Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times wrote "It 's in the director 's handling of the story 's human factor that his sensitivity falters, and the weakness for racial stereotyping that has sometimes marred his work comes to the fore... Much of the Japanese dialogue has been pared down to simple statements that non-speakers can figure out based on context and facial expressions ''. Angie Han, writing in Mashable, calls the American exchange student character Tracy a "classic example of the ' white savior ' archetype -- the well - meaning white hero who arrives in a foreign land and saves its people from themselves ''.
While this critique has created some furore on the film 's release, Chang has said that his review had been taken out of context and turned into a "battle cry '' on Twitter, adding, "I was n't offended; nor was I looking to be offended ''. Another Japanese - American perspective was provided by Emily Yoshida, writing in New York magazine, that these concerns had been "seen before in debates about Asian culture as reflected by Western culture -- perspectives can vary wildly between Asian - Americans and immigrated Asians, and what feels like tribute to some feels like opportunism to others ''.
Writing for BuzzFeed, Alison Willmore found "no overt malicious intent to Isle of Dogs ' cultural tourism, but it 's marked by a hodgepodge of references that an American like Anderson might cough up if pressed to free associate about Japan -- taiko drummers, anime, Hokusai, sumo, kabuki, haiku, cherry blossoms, and a mushroom cloud (!). (...) This all has more to do with the... insides of Anderson 's brain than it does any actual place. It 's Japan purely as an aesthetic -- and another piece of art that treats the East not as a living, breathing half of the planet but as a mirror for the Western imagination ''. She continued, "in the wake of Isle of Dogs ' opening weekend, there were multiple headlines wondering whether the film was an act of appropriation or homage. But the question is rhetorical -- the two are n't mutually exclusive, and the former is not automatically off the table just because the creator 's intent was the latter ''.
Conversely, Moeko Fujii wrote a favorable review for The New Yorker, complimenting the film 's depiction of the Japanese and their culture, as well as pointing out that language is the key theme of the movie. Fujii wrote,
Anderson 's decision not to subtitle the Japanese speakers struck me as a carefully considered artistic choice. Isle of Dogs is profoundly interested in the humor and fallibility of translation... This is the beating heart of the film: there is no such thing as "true '' translation. Everything is interpreted. Translation is malleable and implicated, always, by systems of power... (the film) shows the seams of translation, and demarcates a space that is accessible -- and funny -- only to Japanese viewers.
Fujii also deconstructed the criticisms of the character of Tracy Walker being a "white savior, '' and how this relates to the film 's language theme, writing,
At a climactic moment, the movie rejects the notion of universal legibility, placing the onus of interpretation solely upon the American audience... This is a sly subversion, in which the Japanese evince an agency independent of foreign validation. Indeed, to say that the scene dehumanizes the Japanese is to assume the primacy of an English - speaking audience. Such logic replicates the very tyranny of language that Isle of Dogs attempts to erode.
The film 's score was composed by Alexandre Desplat, who had previously worked with Anderson on Fantastic Mr. Fox, Moonrise Kingdom, and The Grand Budapest Hotel. The soundtrack also features various original and selected songs from a variety of musicians, mainly from Japan. Some songs had origins in classic Japanese cinema such as the Akira Kurosawa films Drunken Angel (1948) and Seven Samurai (1954). The soundtrack comprises 22 tracks in total, 15 of which were composed by Desplat.
All tracks written and performed by Alexandre Desplat, except where noted.
|
who wrote the moving finger writes and having writ moves on | The Moving Finger - wikipedia
The Moving Finger is a detective fiction novel by British writer Agatha Christie, first published in the US by Dodd, Mead and Company in July 1942 and in UK by the Collins Crime Club in June 1943 The US edition retailed at $2.00 and the UK edition at seven shillings and sixpence (7 / 6).
The Burtons, brother and sister, arrive in a small village, soon receiving an anonymous letter accusing them of being lovers, not siblings. They are not the only ones in the village to receive such vile letters. A prominent resident is found dead with one such letter found next to her. This novel features the elderly detective Miss Marple in a relatively minor role, "a little old lady sleuth who does n't seem to do much ''. She enters the story after the police have failed to solve the crime in the final quarter of the book, and in a handful of scenes.
The novel was well - received when it was published: "Agatha Christie is at it again, lifting the lid off delphiniums and weaving the scarlet warp all over the pastel pouffe... '' One reviewer noted that Miss Marple "sets the stage for the final exposure of the murderer. '' Another said this was "One of the few times Christie gives short measure, and none the worse for that. '' The male narrator was both praised and panned.
The book takes its name from verse 51 of Edward FitzGerald 's translation of the Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám:
The poem, in turn, refers to Belshazzar 's feast as related in the Book of Daniel, where the expression the writing on the wall originated.
The title shows in the story figuratively and literally. The anonymous letters point blame from one town resident to another. The Scotland Yard agent determines the envelopes were all "typed by someone using one finger '' to avoid a recognisable ' touch '.
Jerry and Joanna Burton, a brother and sister from London, take residence in Miss Barton 's country house in the quiet town of Lymstock, for the last phase of Jerry 's recovery after suffering injuries in a plane crash. Shortly after moving in and meeting their neighbours, they receive an anonymous letter that makes the false accusation that the pair are lovers, not siblings. The Burtons quickly learn that such poison pen letters have been received by many in town. Despite the letters containing false accusations, many in town are quite upset by them and fear something worse to happen. Mrs Symmington, the wife of the local solicitor, is found dead after receiving a letter, stating that her husband, Mr Dick Symmington, was not the father of their second son. Her body is discovered with the letter, a glass containing potassium cyanide, and a torn scrap of paper which reads "I ca n't go on ''. While the inquest rules that her death was suicide, the police begin a hunt for the anonymous letter writer. Her daughter, Megan Hunter, an awkward, frumpy 20 - year - old, stays with the Burtons for a while after the loss of her mother.
The Burtons ' housekeeper, Partridge, receives a call from Agnes, the Symmingtons ' maidservant, who is distraught and seeks advice. Agnes fails to arrive for the planned meeting, nor is she found at Symmington 's when Jerry calls in the evening to check on Agnes. The following day, her body is discovered in the under - stairs cupboard by Megan Hunter. An investigator arrives from Scotland Yard to investigate the murder. He concludes that the letter - writer / murderer is a middle - aged woman among the prominent citizens of Lymstock. Progress in the murder investigation is slow, until the vicar 's wife calls up an expert of her own -- Miss Marple. Jerry conveys many clues to her from his observations, as well as telling her some of his ideas on the reasons why Agnes was killed. Elsie Holland, governess for the Symmington boys, receives a letter. The police observed Aimée Griffith, the doctor 's sister, typing the address on the same typewriter used for all the previous letters, and arrest her for the letter.
Heading to London to see his doctor, Jerry impulsively takes Megan along with him, and brings her to Joanna 's dressmaker for a complete makeover. He realises he has fallen in love with her. When they return to Lymstock, Jerry asks Megan to marry him; she turns him down. He asks Mr Symmington for his permission to pursue Megan. Miss Marple advises Jerry to let Megan alone for a day, as she has a task. Megan blackmails her stepfather later that evening, by implying that she has proof of her stepfather 's guilt in the murder of her mother. Mr Symmington coolly pays her off while not admitting his guilt. Later in the night, after giving Megan a sleeping drug, he attempts to murder her by putting her head in the gas oven. Jerry and the police are lying in wait for him at Miss Marple 's recommendation. Jerry rescues Megan and Symmington confesses. The police arrest him for murdering Agnes and his wife.
Miss Marple reasons that the letters were a diversion, not written by a local woman, because none contained true accusations. One person benefited from Mrs Symmington 's death, her husband. He is in love with the beautiful Elsie Holland, wanting her and his sons in his life. Planning his wife 's murder, he modelled the letters on those in a case known to him from his legal practice. The police 's theory about who wrote them was completely wrong. The one letter that Symmington did not write was the one to Elsie. Aimée Griffith, who was in love with Symmington for years, wrote that one. Knowing that it would be hard to prove his guilt, Miss Marple concocted a scheme to expose him, enlisting Megan to provoke him with the certain result that he would then attempt to kill her.
Following the successful conclusion of the investigation, Megan realises that she does love Jerry. Jerry buys Miss Barton 's house for them. His sister Joanna marries the local doctor, and stays in Lymstock. Meanwhile Emily Barton and Aimée Griffith go on a cruise together.
Maurice Willson Disher in The Times Literary Supplement of 19 June 1943 was mostly positive, starting, "Beyond all doubt the puzzle in The Moving Finger is fit for experts '' and continuing, "The author is generous with her clues. Anyone ought to be able to read her secret with half an eye -- if the other one - and - a-half did not get in the way. There has rarely been a detective story so likely to create an epidemic of self indulgent kicks. '' However, some reservations were expressed: "Having expended so much energy on her riddle, the author can not altogether be blamed for neglecting the other side of her story. It would grip more if Jerry Burton, who tells it, was more credible. He is an airman who has crashed and walks with the aid of two sticks. That he should make a lightning recovery is all to the good, but why, in between dashing downstairs two at a time and lugging a girl into a railway carriage by main force, should he complain that it hurts to drive a car? And why, since he is as masculine in sex as the sons of King Gama does he think in this style, "The tea was china and delicious and there were plates of sandwiches and thin bread and butter and a quantity of little cakes ''? Nor does it help verisimilitude that a bawling young female gawk should become an elegant beauty in less than a day. ''
Maurice Richardson in The Observer wrote: "An atmosphere of perpetual, after - breakfast well - being; sherry parties in a country town where nobody is quite what he seems; difficult slouching daughters with carefully concealed coltish charm; crazy spinsters, of course; and adulterous solicitors. Agatha Christie is at it again, lifting the lid off delphiniums and weaving the scarlet warp all over the pastel pouffe. '' And he concluded, "Probably you will call Mrs Christie 's double bluff, but this will only increase your pleasure. ''
An unnamed reviewer in the Toronto Daily Star of 7 November 1942 said, "The Moving Finger has for a jacket design a picture of a finger pointing out one suspect after another and that 's the way it is with the reader as chapter after chapter of the mystery story unfolds. It is not one of (Christie 's) stories about her famous French (sic) detective, Hercule Poirot, having instead Miss Marple, a little old lady sleuth who does n't seem to do much but who sets the stage for the final exposure of the murderer. ''
The writer and critic Robert Barnard wrote "Poison pen in Mayhem Parva, inevitably leading to murder. A good and varied cast list, some humour, and stronger than usual romantic interest of an ugly - duckling - into - swan type. One of the few times Christie gives short measure, and none the worse for that. ''
In the "Binge! '' article of Entertainment Weekly of December 2014 -- January 2015, the writers picked The Moving Finger as a Christie favourite on the list of the "Nine Great Christie Novels ''.
The Moving Finger was first adapted for television by the BBC with Joan Hickson in the series Miss Marple. It first aired on 21 -- 22 February 1985.
A second television adaptation was made with Geraldine McEwan as Marple in the TV series, Agatha Christie 's Marple and was filmed in Chilham, Kent. It first aired on 12 February 2006. This adaptation changes the personality of Jerry a bit from the novel and sets the story a little later than the novel is set, per a review of the episode: "Miss Marple, observing the tragic effects of these missives on relationships and reputations, is practically in the background in this story, watching closely as a nihilistic young man (James D'Arcy) comes out of his cynical, alcohol - laced haze to investigate the source of so much misery. '' and is "set shortly after World War II. ''
A radio adaptation was broadcast in BBC Radio 4 on May 2001 in the Saturday Play slot, starring June Whitfield as Miss Marple.
The novel 's first true publication was the US serialisation in Collier 's Weekly in eight instalments from 28 March (Volume 109, Number 13) to 16 May 1942 (Volume 109, Number 20) with illustrations by Mario Cooper.
The UK serialisation was as an abridged version in six parts in Woman 's Pictorial from 17 October (Volume 44, Number 1136) to 21 November 1942 (Volume 44, Number 1141) under the slightly shorter title of Moving Finger. All six instalments were illustrated by Alfred Sindall.
This novel is one of two to differ significantly in American editions (the other being Three Act Tragedy), both hardcover and paperback. Most American editions of The Moving Finger have been abridged by about 9000 words to remove sections of chapters, and strongly resemble the Collier 's serialisation which, mindful of the need to bring the magazine reader into the story quickly, begins without the leisurely introduction to the narrator 's back - story that is present in the British edition, and lacks much of the characterisation throughout.
Christie admitted that this book was one of her favourites, stating, "I find that another (book) I am really pleased with is The Moving Finger. It is a great test to re-read what one has written some seventeen or eighteen years before. One 's view changes. Some do not stand the test of time, others do. ''
|
when is henry danger coming back on tv | List of Henry Danger episodes - Wikipedia
Henry Danger is an American sitcom created by Dan Schneider and Dana Olsen that premiered on Nickelodeon on July 26, 2014. The series stars Jace Norman, Cooper Barnes, Riele Downs, Sean Ryan Fox, and Ella Anderson.
When Coach Bix says his team is a team of losers, Henry believes that he was replaced on the Swellview Honey Badgers basketball team by a 14 year old boy named Shawn Corbit, who has been recruited by Coach Bix. After losing a one - on - one match that determines who will be point guard, Shawn reveals to Henry that he 's really 26 years old & Coach Bix is forcing Shawn to pretend he 's 14 years old because Coach Bix kidnaped Shawn 's Cockapoo hostage in order to get the team to win. Meanwhile, Ray is reluctant to call his former worker Schwoz when the Man Cave is on the fritz. Later, Henry tells Ray the bad news. So, Ray turns into Captain Man & goes to Coach Bix 's apartment with Shawn & gives his puppy back to him and the Man Cave becomes fixed by Schwoz & Ray befriends Schwoz again.
A device in the Man Cave meant to make men stronger, more powerful, and "manlier '' strikes Henry when he accidentally pushes a button on the machine. The effect makes him grow facial hair and increases his adrenaline, making him angry and eventually turning him "beastly ''. Captain Man, Schwoz, and Charlotte rush to find Henry before his crazy behavior ruins his date with Chloe Hartman.
Henry and Ray must deal with The Spoiler, an annoying new teenage super-villain that finds out the endings of TV shows and movies and tells people about it before they see it. Meanwhile, Piper tries to get into the Man Fans, a Captain Man fan club led by Paula Marikto, and goes through the initiation process with the latest one involving getting a selfie with Captain Man.
While Captain Man and Kid Danger pursue the Van Del, the leader of a graffiti group known as the Wall Dogs, Kid Danger falls for Wall Dogs member Veronika. Meanwhile, Jasper, Sydney, Oliver, and Oliver 's cousin Krish work with Piper in order to get $10,000 rewarded to whoever finds the Wall Dogs so that Jasper can pay for foot - reduction surgery.
Following the fight against Captain Man near the Swellview sign, Veronika brings Kid Danger to her fellow Wall Dogs members Beyonspray, Spray - Z, Two Canz, and T Paint so that Van Del will welcome Henry into the Wall Dogs. At the same time, Captain Man searches for Kid Danger, while Piper, Jasper, Sydney, Oliver, and Krish continue looking for the Wall Dogs.
Courtney Sham, Jasper 's girlfriend from summer camp, arrives from Fibberton and becomes jealous of Charlotte when she thinks she is dating Jasper. Meanwhile, Henry and Ray make a bet revolving around the loser of a ping - pong game having to clean the tube in ducky pajamas after Mexican food splattered over it following a visit from Schwoz ' sister.
Special guest star: Benjamin Flores, Jr. as Li'l Biggie
Two weeks after Captain Man and Kid Danger captured the Time Jerker, Henry receives a gift basket. Henry finds a gift card to Swellview 's most exclusive steakhouse, Montego 's, inside. When his friends, family, neighbors, and Herb from Sam & Cat, who came to Swellview from Venice, Los Angeles as part of his vacation, want Henry to invite them as his guest, Henry decides to bring Ray, who has not yet been invited to Montego 's as Captain Man. Henry soon finds himself conflicted when he also invites Bianca as part of their one year "Lockerversary ''. Ray and Schwoz try to pose as Henry and Bianca, but Henry and Bianca appear and catch them in the act. A dispute then ensures on who 's who, but it eventually ends with Bianca leaving since she is not into beef, but chicken instead. After having their steak, Henry and Ray notice petty criminals Ert and Bernie leaving the restaurant and end up fighting them, causing damage to the dining area. Following Ert and Bernie 's arrest, Captain Man and Kid Danger are told by the manager that they are n't on the reservation list and have the food confiscated. Upon returning to the Man Cave, Captain Man finds out that some of the steak fell into Kid Danger 's outfit and the two of them split it. Afterward, they head to Back Out Steakhouse.
Guest stars: Jeffrey Nichols Brown as Mr. Hart, Kelly Sullivan as Mrs. Hart, Michael D. Cohen as Schwoz, Carrie Barrett as Mary Gaperman, Jill Benjamin as Miss Shapen, Rob Locke as Turk, Joey Richter as The Time Jerker, Winston Story as Trent Overunder, Maeve Tomalty as Bianca
When Jasper stops a thief and becomes a big news hit, Henry becomes jealous because nobody gives him any credit as Henry. In an attempt to prove himself, he tries to stop an angry customer who 's taken hostages at an animal store as himself; however, Captain Man shows up, causing Henry to become distracted and taken hostage. When the angry customer threatens to drop a poisonous spider on Henry 's face, Captain Man is forced to lock himself in a cage. Meanwhile, Jasper shows up at Henry 's house looking for Henry, where Mr. and Mrs. Hart are getting massages. When he discovers Henry is in danger, he runs off to rescue him. Jasper then shows up at the animal store and lets Captain Man out of his cage. The angry customer becomes aware and comes back out demanding answers, but Captain Man punches him and puts a stop to him. When Henry and the rest of the hostages are freed, Jasper mentions how Henry does n't need to thank him because they are best friends, causing Henry to feel bad for being jealous. To make up for it, Henry purchases the same poisonous spider that the angry customer threatened to drop onto Henry as an apology because Jasper saw it at the store and really wanted, but he could not afford it as it cost $150.
Guest stars: Jeffrey Nichols Brown as Mr. Hart, Kelly Sullivan as Mrs. Hart, Carrie Barrett as Mary Gaperman, Jill Benjamin as Miss Shapen, Zach Callison as Chet, Joe Kaprielian as Sidney, Matthew Zhang as Oliver, Winston Story as Trent Overunder, Toby Wilson as Dirk
After Kid Danger is nearly injured trying to help Captain Man stop a clock store from exploding, he decides to go through Dr. Carl Manchester 's trans - molecular densitizer that made Ray indestructable, located in the Man Cave 's storage room. Meanwhile, Piper wants to be on the TV show "Junior Chefs '' much to the dismay of Mr. Hart after the last two times Piper had cooked for the family. Ray is hesitant to use the trans - molecular densitizer on Henry after some incidents that Dr. Manchester and his fellow scientists did on Dave McCallen who gained a face on his stomach, John Walker whose hands became feet, and Glenn Levit who gained arms that emerge from his ears. Schwoz theorizes that it worked well with Ray when he was a young boy and uses it on Henry. The experiment appears to work, but the next morning, Henry discovers that the densitizer gave him a side effect.
As a side effect of going through the trans - molecular densitizer, Henry breathes fire whenever he laughs. Upon examining Henry, Schwoz tells Ray and Charlotte that the machine mutated his throat muscles. Meanwhile, Piper has another attempt at making her parents dinner after the dogs that Jasper walked ate it. Jasper brings his comedian cousin Dex Dunlop to dinner as Henry tries not to laugh at his jokes. Piper eventually catches on to the family 's plan to avoid saying that her cooking is awful. Thanks to Piper declaring that dinner is over, Henry returns to the Man Cave, where Ray is used to conduct the two components of the trans - molecular densitizer in order to reverse the mutation to Henry 's throat muscles.
Henry and Ray want a video made to see what they would look like when they blow their bubbles and transform into their superhero personas. However, Henry accidentally sends the video to Piper. Henry must now get Piper 's phone and delete the video before Piper can see it. When Jasper brings the phone to Henry with Piper on his tail, it turns out that Jasper accidentally grabbed Mrs. Hart 's phone by mistake, and Henry then races home to get to Piper 's phone before Piper does. After much difficulty, Henry deletes the video from the phone and brings it to Junk ' n ' Stuff. Henry stalls Piper as Charlotte deletes the video from the Cloud. Piper then reclaims her phone and storms off. At the end, Henry and Ray discover that Charlotte videoed herself instead of them.
Henry and Charlotte get caught in an electrical disturbance in the transport tubes during a thunderstorm and end up in an alternate dimension where Ray / Captain Man and Schwoz are evil and are planning to force the tickets for The Halkings ' concert from that reality 's version of Piper. To keep the alternate Piper from being eliminated, Henry and Charlotte must prevent the alternate Captain Man from succeeding. Meanwhile, Ray and Schowz deal with the alternate Henry and Charlotte that ended up in their universe. After Henry tells the alternate Captain Man the truth, a truce is held to get both versions of Henry and Charlotte back to their respectful dimensions.
When strange things have been happening to Ray, Charlotte and Schwoz find out that Ray 's old friend, Invisible Brad, survived being hit by a bus. While investigating his grave at the Swellview cemetery, Kid Danger and Captain Man exam Invisible Brad 's casket. However, they end up being ambushed by Invisible Brad, who traps them in the casket and buries them alive. Meanwhile, Jasper gets a pair of petite walkie - talkies and tries using different code names for Henry. At the same time, Piper gets a driver 's license from Swellview 's DMV. Invisible Brad then proceeds to enter the Man Cave and uses Ray 's power gum to become Captain Brad. With help from Piper, Jasper rescues Captain Man and Kid Danger from the casket. Back at the Man Cave, Invisible Brad reveals that he faked his death so that he could take over as Swellview 's hero, but when Henry and Ray return, they find him, and Henry uses bear spray to defeat him.
Piper comes down with an illness called Ox Pox after unknowingly consuming one of the cookies that Schwoz made with comodium acetate due to him mistaking it for sugar. In order to get the feathers of the extinct Chica - Willow, Captain Man uses the Time Jerker 's confiscated time machine to go back to Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, in 1709 in order to obtain the Chica - Willow feathers so that he can make a cure for Piper. Meanwhile, Jasper wants Henry to play ultimate hide and seek with him by giving him clues. When Captain Man obtains the Chica - Willow, Scwhoz accidentally brings an elderly Ray from 50 years in the future by mistake. Henry, Charlotte, and Schwoz then work together to bring Captain Man back to the present and send the elderly Ray back to his own time, before Henry makes the cure for Piper.
A crime wave has hit Swellview and Dr. Minyak has escaped from prison. In Hiddenville, Phoebe Thunderman sees the news and plans to help Captain Man and Kid Danger. After an unsuccessful robbery by the Three Muchachos, they learn from the Three Muchachos that Dr. Minyak has called a meeting with Swellview 's villains to discuss how to destroy Captain Man and Kid Danger. Meanwhile, Piper 's neck gets stiff, causing Jasper and Mr. Hart to work to unstiffen her neck. As Captain Man and Kid Danger work to pose as two of the Three Muchachos, Phoebe mistakes them for the real Three Muchachos and goes on the attack until Captain Man and Kid Danger clear things up. Meanwhile, Piper 's doctor diagnoses her condition as "Text Neck '' and she must wear a cone until her neck recuperates. Phoebe joins Captain Man and Kid Danger and goes undercover where Dr. Minyak, Nurse Cohort, Drill Finger, Jeff, Van Del, and Time Jerker are assembled at the bottom of an underwater base beneath Lake Swellview by Toddler, who has Phoebe 's brother Max Thunderman working for them.
Toddler explains to the assembled villains that he survived the bottomless ball pit by being blasted 100 feet beneath the Earth and had to dig himself out where he ended up emerging from the public sandbox. Toddler proposes to the assembled villains that if they combine their powers, they can destroy Captain Man and Kid Danger. When Phoebe makes herself known to Max, she learns that Max came to steal Dr. Minyak 's Heliometer. Meanwhile, Jasper helps Piper and ends up accidentally texting the wrong guy to sushi party causing Piper 's friends to get angry at her. As the villains work to come up with a plan to destroy Captain Man and Kid Danger, Max ends up giving Captain Man and Kid Danger away, causing Phoebe to come to their defense. Captain Man has Kid Danger get Phoebe away from the villains as he works to buy them some time until Toddler uses the Heliometer on Captain Man. With Captain Man trapped in a cement block on the train, Toddler and his henchmen state that the train will go over the Jandy Bridge and be thrown into the Jandy River as Max attempts to take the Heliometer. With help from Charlotte and Schwoz, Kid Danger and Phoebe locate Captain Man. Meanwhile, Piper 's friends show up at her house to express their anger toward Piper as her admits to the mistake, and the group takes their anger out on Jasper. Kid Danger and Phoebe catch up and face off against Toddler, Dr. Minyak, Van Del, and their henchmen as Charlotte unleashes the man - grenades to free Captain Man. With Captain Man free, the heroes fight the villains who are thrown off the train. Max is forgiven by Captain Man and Kid Danger, but is given a ride home dangling from Schwoz 's helicopter.
Also starring: Jack Griffo, Kira Kosarin
Guest stars: Jeffrey Nichols Brown as Mr. Hart, Michael D. Cohen as Schwoz, Josh Fingerhut as Van Del, Ben Giroux as The Toddler, Ryan Grassmeyer as Jeff, Joey Richter as The Time Jerker, Amber Bela Muse as Nurse Cohort, Mike Ostroski as Dr. Minyak
Henry receives a note in his locker from an unknown person that they are aware of what he did on Wednesday and know his secret, and Henry immediately assumes that the person who sent the note knows he 's Kid Danger. He takes the note back to the Man Cave, where Schwoz tries to identify any DNA that could find the creator of the note; however, nothing is found. Meanwhile, Piper tries to send back a spray tan gun when she believes she was sent the wrong item and later decides to operate a tanning salon from home. When Henry and Charlotte arrive home, Henry heads to his room where he finds Jasper waiting for him. Shocked, Henry tries to explain, but is unable to speak, assuming that Jasper knows he 's Kid Danger. Downstairs, Piper tells Charlotte that Jasper told her his secret. Charlotte asks what he told her and Piper says that Henry had promised to see Galaxy Wars 10 on Saturday with Jasper, but his mom wanted to see it on opening night, which was Wednesday, so Henry had gone with her. Meanwhile, Henry 's father is arrested on the misunderstanding that he was running an illegal tanning operation. Frazzled by the misunderstanding, Charlotte rushes to Henry 's room to tell him that Jasper does n't know his secret identity; however, it 's too late as Henry has revealed to Jasper that he 's Kid Danger. Jasper faints in excitement, and Henry contacts Captain Man and asks him to come to his house. When Captain Man gets there, they get into an argument about Henry 's oath to never tell anyone he 's Kid Danger. Afterward, Captain Man decides they have to erase Jasper 's memory -- including memories of his best friend -- to prevent any more exposure. Henry contemplates and asks if he can spend a few minutes with Jasper before his memory is wiped. He and Jasper relapse on their past, with Jasper saying he is proud of Henry. Emotional by this and not willing to lose his best friend, Henry eventually resists wiping Jasper 's memory and begs Captain Man not to. He relents, but finally agrees and takes Jasper under his wing.
When Jasper accidentally gives away a piñata full of killer bees to Piper for her friend 's birthday party, Henry and Ray must find a way to sneak in and remove it before harm can be done. They eventually dress up as clowns to infiltrate the house, but things do n't exactly go as planned, and the fiñata eventually breaks when Henry finally manages to get it down from the tree.
A female criminal named Gwen uses special muffins to make Captain Man fall in love with her so that she can access the Man Cave. When Henry, Charlotte, and Schowz catch onto the plan, they must work to keep Captain Man from marrying her.
Guest stars: Jill Benjamin as Miss Shapen, Andrew Caldwell as Mitch Bilsky, Henry Dittman as Mr. Sugarman, Matthew Zhang as Oliver
Drex, a former sidekick of Captain Man - turned - supervillain, has escaped from prison when the daughter of the parole board 's chairman tampers with the prison computers during "Take Your Daughter to Work Day '' which allowed Drex to get paroled. As part of his revenge, Drex traps Captain Man in an unbreakable box. After failing to free Captain Man, and subsequently being embarrassed by Drex, Henry turns to Schowz for help where he gains superspeed as a new superpower.
Guest stars: Michael D. Cohen as Schwoz, Carrie Barrett as Mary Gaperman, Danielle Morrow as Kooschtello, Jeremy Rowley as Schwahbbit, Winston Story as Trent Overunder, Tommy Walker as Drex
Miss Shapen persuades Henry to let her niece Noelle stay at his house since she is allergic to the cats at her house. When wanting to date someone, Noelle chooses Jasper over Henry where they end up on a double date with Piper and Kale. Henry does n't know it yet, but Noelle is secretly working for Drill Finger in his plot to target people 's teeth where Jasper, Piper, and Kale end up being one of Drill Finger 's captives.
When two astronauts are held hostage aboard a space station, Kid Danger and Captain Man must travel to space in order to rescue them. Upon reaching the space station, they shockingly discover who the person holding the astronauts captive is. Meanwhile, Piper is eager to see her own commercial premiere on television.
On the space station, Captain Man and Kid Danger discover the reason why the two astronauts were taken hostage by the little girl, who is revealed to be Jim 's daughter Kelsey. She reveals that the astronauts are taking bunnies to the Moon for experiments. In the process of transporting the bunnies back, however, problems soon arise. Eventually, they all travel back to Earth on the Love Shuttle, with Captain Man having to cling onto the side of the shuttle, much to his dismay. Meanwhile, Piper is getting impatient from the multiple interruptions to her commercial, much to the dismay of her friends and father.
When a gas pipe bursts below Swellview 's nuclear plant, Henry and Ray must go fix it before the gas reaches the surface. However, Henry is stuck in school because of Achievement Test Day and is not allowed to leave. Eventually, Captain Man and Schwoz are able to devise a plan to sneak Henry out of school and into the shaft where they both successfully seal the pipe and eliminate the threat to Swellview.
Guest stars: Michael D. Cohen as Schwoz, Carrie Barrett as Mary Gaperman, Jill Benjamin as Miss Shapen, Winston Story as Trent Overunder, Matthew Zhang as Oliver
After Kid Danger and Captain Man are invited to a party that will be hosted by a huge webstar named Frankini, it is revealed that Frankini is using Kid Danger and Captain Man to break the world record for the most people watching a live stream. Meanwhile, Charlotte babysits Piper and both end up watching pimple popping videos.
Charlotte, Jasper, Piper, and Schwoz must stop Kid Danger and Captain Man before they reveal their true identities to the world. With the help of Sydney and Oliver, Piper tries to take away viewers from Frankini 's live stream so that people can watch Piper popping Jasper 's big pimple. Meanwhile, Charlotte and Schwoz are back at the Man Cave and Schwoz comes up with the idea of turning off the power in all of Swellview. As Kid Danger and Captain Man are about to take off their masks, the power goes out and they return to their old selves. Later, Piper pops Jasper 's pimple which gets all over Frankini.
Piper is about to start a man fan meeting when Dr. Minyak and Nurse Cohort take her and the man fans hostage; Henry and Ray must now find a way to rescue them. Schwoz comes up with the idea of using a background board so it looks like Henry and Ray are in the Man Cave so they can sneak out without Dr. Minyak being aware of their plan. If they are detected, Dr. Minyak will launch Piper into space. Later, Henry and Ray are able to rescue Piper and the man fans and send Dr. Minyak into space instead.
Kid Danger and Captain Man are judges on the show "Swellview 's Got Talent '', which Piper and her friend, Carl (William Simmons), are performing in. After the first performance goes awry due to Harry Hoagie (Jay Tapaoan) acting strangely and then passing out, it is Piper and Carl 's turn to perform their dance. Unfortunately, they too start to act strangely before passing out. Later in the backstage area, Jasper notices that champion Steven Sharp is making a big deal about having performers pet his ferret for good luck. Jasper searches on his phone and discovers that it is a Norwegian ferret and that it is dangerous and contact should be avoided because it secretes powerful oils that are capable of causing strange reactions, tongue - chewing, and loss of consciousness. Steven Sharp was having performers do this so he could win.
|
which layers of the osi model are host to host layers | OSI model - wikipedia
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard to their underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse communication systems with standard protocols. The model partitions a communication system into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined seven layers.
A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error - free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that comprise the contents of that path. Two instances at the same layer are visualized as connected by a horizontal connection in that layer.
The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identification ISO / IEC 7498 - 1.
In the late 1970s, one project was administered by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), while another was undertaken by the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, from French: Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique). These two international standards bodies each developed a document that defined similar networking models.
In 1983, these two documents were merged to form a standard called The Basic Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection. The standard is usually referred to as the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model, the OSI Reference Model, or simply the OSI model. It was published in 1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the renamed CCITT (now called the Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the International Telecommunication Union or ITU - T) as standard X. 200.
OSI had two major components, an abstract model of networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven - layer model, and a set of specific protocols.
The concept of a seven - layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman at Honeywell Information Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the ARPANET, NPLNET, EIN, CYCLADES network and the work in IFIP WG6. 1. The new design was documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system was divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacted directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provided facilities for use by the layer above it.
Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in another host. Service definitions abstractly described the functionality provided to an (N) - layer by an (N - 1) layer, where N was one of the seven layers of protocols operating in the local host.
The OSI standards documents are available from the ITU - T as the X. 200 - series of recommendations. Some of the protocol specifications were also available as part of the ITU - T X series. The equivalent ISO and ISO / IEC standards for the OSI model were available from ISO. Not all are free of charge.
The recommendation X. 200 describes seven layers, labeled 1 to 7. Layer 1 is the lowest layer in this model.
At each level N, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs) by means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a payload, called the service data unit (SDU), along with protocol - related headers or footers.
Data processing by two communicating OSI - compatible devices is done as such:
Some orthogonal aspects, such as management and security, involve all of the layers (See ITU - T X. 800 Recommendation). These services are aimed at improving the CIA triad - confidentiality, integrity, and availability - of the transmitted data. In practice, the availability of a communication service is determined by the interaction between network design and network management protocols. Appropriate choices for both of these are needed to protect against denial of service.
The physical layer defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It defines the relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium (for example, an electrical cable, an optical fiber cable, or a radio frequency link). This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance, cable specifications, signal timing and similar characteristics for connected devices and frequency (5 GHz or 2.4 GHz etc.) for wireless devices. It is responsible for transmission and reception of unstructured raw data in a physical medium. Bit rate control is done at the physical layer. It may define transmission mode as simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. It defines the network topology as bus, mesh, or ring being some of the most common.
The physical layer is the layer of low - level networking equipment, such as some hubs, cabling, and repeaters. The physical layer is never concerned with protocols or other such higher - layer items. Examples of hardware in this layer are network adapters, repeaters, network hubs, modems, and fiber media converters.
The data link layer provides node - to - node data transfer -- a link between two directly connected nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the physical layer. It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically connected devices. It also defines the protocol for flow control between them.
IEEE 802 divides the data link layer into two sublayers:
The MAC and LLC layers of IEEE 802 networks such as 802.3 Ethernet, 802.11 Wi - Fi, and 802.15. 4 ZigBee operate at the data link layer.
The Point - to - Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that can operate over several different physical layers, such as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.
The ITU - T G.hn standard, which provides high - speed local area networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer that provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective - repeat sliding - window protocol.
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences (called datagrams) from one node to another connected in "different networks ''. A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on which every node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver the message to the destination node, possibly routing it through intermediate nodes. If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another on the data link layer between those nodes, the network may implement message delivery by splitting the message into several fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but does not need to, report delivery errors.
Message delivery at the network layer is not necessarily guaranteed to be reliable; a network layer protocol may provide reliable message delivery, but it need not do so.
A number of layer - management protocols, a function defined in the management annex, ISO 7498 / 4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group management, network - layer information and error, and network - layer address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that carries them.
The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable - length data sequences from a source to a destination host via one or more networks, while maintaining the quality of service functions.
An example of a transport - layer protocol in the standard Internet stack is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), usually built on top of the Internet Protocol (IP).
The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation / desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state - and connection - oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and re-transmit those that fail. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The transport layer creates packets out of the message received from the application layer. Packetizing is a process of dividing the long message into smaller messages.
OSI defines five classes of connection - mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is also known as TP0 and provides the fewest features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error - free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection - mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of TP0 - 4 classes are shown in the following table:
An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a post office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. Do remember, however, that a post office manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM 's SNA or Novell 's IPX over an IP network, or end - to - end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network - layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to deliver to an endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport packet.
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer - 4 protocols within OSI.
The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for full - duplex, half - duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.
The presentation layer establishes context between application - layer entities, in which the application - layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units and passed down the protocol stack.
This layer provides independence from data representation by translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats data to be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer. The presentation layer can include compression functions. The Presentation Layer negotiates the Transfer Syntax.
The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN. 1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC - coded text file to an ASCII - coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML. ASN. 1 effectively makes an application protocol invariant with respect to syntax.
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application - layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit. The most important distinction in the application layer is the distinction between the application - entity and the application. For example, a reservation website might have two application - entities: one using HTTP to communicate with its users, and one for a remote database protocol to record reservations. Neither of these protocols have anything to do with reservations. That logic is in the application itself. The application layer per se has no means to determine the availability of resources in the network.
Cross-layer functions are services that are not tied to a given layer, but may affect more than one layer. Examples include the following:
Neither the OSI Reference Model nor OSI protocols specify any programming interfaces, other than deliberately abstract service specifications. Protocol specifications precisely define the interfaces between different computers, but the software interfaces inside computers, known as network sockets are implementation - specific.
For example, Microsoft Windows ' Winsock, and Unix 's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layer 5 and above) and the transport (layer 4). NDIS and ODI are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3).
Interface standards, except for the physical layer to media, are approximate implementations of OSI service specifications.
The design of protocols in the TCP / IP model of the Internet does not concern itself with strict hierarchical encapsulation and layering. RFC 3439 contains a section entitled "Layering considered harmful ''. TCP / IP does recognize four broad layers of functionality which are derived from the operating scope of their contained protocols: the scope of the software application; the end - to - end transport connection; the internetworking range; and the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network.
Despite using a different concept for layering than the OSI model, these layers are often compared with the OSI layering scheme in the following way:
These comparisons are based on the original seven - layer protocol model as defined in ISO 7498, rather than refinements in such things as the internal organization of the network layer document.
The presumably strict layering of the OSI model as it is usually described does not present contradictions in TCP / IP, as it is permissible that protocol usage does not follow the hierarchy implied in a layered model. Such examples exist in some routing protocols (for example OSPF), or in the description of tunneling protocols, which provide a link layer for an application, although the tunnel host protocol might well be a transport or even an application - layer protocol in its own right.
|
jani dushman hindi dubbed full movie with songs ravi teja | Balupu - wikipedia
Balupu (English: Arrogance) is a 2013 Telugu action comedy film directed by Gopichand Malineni. The film is produced by Prasad Vara Potluri under his PVP cinema banner and stars Ravi Teja, Shruti Haasan and Anjali in lead roles, along with Prakash Raj, Adivi Sesh, Ashutosh Rana, and Brahmanandam in supporting roles. The film soundtrack is composed by S. Thaman. The film released on 28 June 2013 in Telugu and Tamil. The movie was entirely shot in Bangalore and Visakhapatnam. The film opened to positive reception from critics as well as audience and was declared a ' super hit ' at both the Indian and overseas box office. It was dubbed into Hindi as Jani Dushmann. It was remade in Bengali as Herogiri starring Dev, Koel Mallick, Sayantika Banerjee and Mithun Chakrabarty. It was dubbed in Tamil as Evanda and was released in Chennai on 18 March 2016.
Ravi (Ravi Teja) works as a collection agent of ICICI bank in Bangalore and leads a happy life along with his friends and his father Mohan Rao (Prakash Raj). Mohan Rao wishes to see Ravi married to a girl soon although Ravi is against it. One day, Ravi is informed that one of his friends, (' Satyam ' Rajesh) has been admitted in the hospital as he tried to commit suicide by drinking nail polish solution. Upon inquiring, Ravi finds out that his friend fell in love with a girl named Shruti (Shruti Haasan). Shruti and her uncle Crazy Mohan (Brahmanandam), have a habit of cheating gullible young men in the name of love - one among whom is Ravi 's friend. Ravi decides to teach them a lesson.
Ravi enters their life as a gullible youngster after Shruti "falls in love with him '', starts torturing them. Crazy Mohan 's plans and attempts to let loose off Ravi always go in vain before him. Crazy Mohan, hatching upon a plan, tells Shruti to ask Ravi to marry her, thinking that Ravi will get cold feet and they would be rid of him. As fate would have it, Ravi, guessing their next move, also comes with a marriage proposal to Shruti. The pair, then, approach Mohan Rao and tell him that Ravi is in love with Shruti and that he proposed to her. They assume that this would enrage Mohan Rao, but Mohan Rao, happy that his son has finally fallen in love and wishes to marry a girl, accepts the proposal heartily. However, Shruti was already engaged to Rohit (Adivi Sesh) by her father (Nassar) sometime in the past. Their entire act of "cheating gullible young men '' was just so that Shruti can have fun spending the last few days before getting married while Crazy Mohan can profit from it. Ravi one day saves Shruti from some goons and finally comes off clean to Shruti as he believes that things have gone too far. He advises her not to play with people 's feelings in future. Shruti finds herself falling in love with Ravi and informs Ravi 's father Mohan Rao.
Mohan Rao leaves the final decision to Shruti 's father and guarantees that they would not face any problem in the future from Ravi, if Shruti 's Father decides against the Proposal. On the other hand, Rohit 's mother (Sana), in a fit of anger after hearing all the events that have transpired, warns Shruti that she would torture her after her marriage. After listening to both of them, Shruti 's father, realizes his mistake and fixes Shruti 's marriage with Ravi. Rohit 's mother gets humiliated by this and calls her brother Poorna (Ashutosh Rana), a dreaded don in Vizag. Poorna, after arriving at the wedding venue with his henchmen, recognises that Ravi & Mohan Rao were his former enemies Shankar and Nanaji. While Ravi is fighting with the goons, Poorna stabs Mohan Rao, kidnaps Shruti and flees away to Vizag. After admitting Mohan Rao into the hospital, Ravi starts narrating his past.
In the past in Vizag, Nanaji was a dreaded Don with an established crime empire while Poorna was still trying to establish his own regime. Poorna, in view to destroy Nanaji 's empire, takes the help of Shankar, a young upstart, and makes him a partner in crime. Shankar, with his aggressiveness and cleverness, starts destroying the empire of Nanaji. Meanwhile, he falls in love with Dr. Anjali (Anjali), without knowing the fact that she was Nanaji 's daughter. As Anjali is a person who believes in non-violence and hates rowdies, Shankar lies to her that he is only a struggling Musician. Anjali, soon reciprocates his love. Knowing this, Poorna 's elder son Babji (Ajay), who always had a grudge against Shankar, tries to injure Anjali by throwing Acid on her, only to be killed by Nanaji. At this point she comes to know that Shankar is a criminal and her father 's enemy. She pleads to both Shankar and Nanaji to leave rowdyism, and Shankar agrees. Poorna, angered by his son 's death, instructs Shankar to kill Nanaji and Anjali. However Shankar refuses and informs him that he has decided to quit. Kaasi (Shafi), Poorna 's younger son, advises Poorna to inform Nanaji that Shankar has kidnapped Anjali and will kill her. Nanaji, angered by this news, gathers his men and rushes to kill Shankar. Meanwhile, Shankar, having truly given up crime and wishing to marry Anjali, decides to approach Nanaji along with Anjali to seek his blessings. Nanaji on spotting them both, rushes to meet them head on. Kaasi too arrives at the same spot with his own men and attacks Nanaji 's men. Thinking that they are all in league with Shankar, Nanaji retaliates and soon a feud takes place. Shankar, however tries to stop the feud. In the ensuing chaos Kaasi shoots Anjali, fatally wounding her. Enraged, Shankar promptly kills Kaasi and rushes to the hospital with Anjali. Anjali with a few moments left, reveals the truth to her father and requests him to leave the life of crime. Nanaji and Shankar, overcome with grief at the loss of Anjali 's death, decide to leave Vizag for Bangalore to lead a normal life under their present aliases Ravi and Mohan Rao.
Meanwhile, Shruti 's father rushes to the hospital and tells Ravi / Shankar that Shruti is being married to Rohit forcibly. Ravi reaches Vizag and upon entering the household of Poorna acts as if though Kaasi 's soul is in his body and it wants to kill Shankar and Nanaji. Poorna, a superstitious man believes this despite everybody else 's misgivings. With the help of Shruti, Mohan Rao / Nanaji, Dr. Savitri (Ali) and his friends, Ravi manages to kidnap Rohit. Poorna along with Shruti, reaches the spot where they are to make an exchange of Rohit for Shruti. However, after the exchange, Poorna reveals that he never believed in Ravi 's act and he just went along with his story so as to trap both Ravi and Mohan Rao once and for all. A final fight ensues and Ravi finally defeats Poorna and marries Shruti in the end.
Gopichand Malineni and Ravi Teja together announced that their collaboration is set for a new movie whose name was revealed later. In August 2012, it was announced that the filming would begin from October 2012. The film 's muhurtam was held on 26 October 2012 in a quiet ceremony held at producer Potluri 's office. Few of the movie 's songs were canned in Lisbon of Portugal thus making the first Telugu film being filmed in Portugal. In an interview to the Portugal media, Ravi Teja, Shruti Haasan and Gopichand Malineni thanked the Portugal tourism board and the local crew for their support. In May, Gopichand Malineni responded about the delay in the movie 's shooting, stating "Balupu has been delayed due to fight masters and fighters union problems. Now Ram - Laxman masters have got Hyderabad union card and we are on the way. '' For the first time in his career, Ravi Teja sung a song thus making this film his Debut as a Singer, adding yet another feather in his cap. As on 4 June, The post-production works were reported to be running in full - swing at a neck break speed.
Ravi Teja was signed in to play the protagonist and his role was said to be a Highly Energetic one with a rugged look sporting a beard, similar to his look in his previous film Venky. This film was the next film of Ravi Teja with PVP Cinemas after the 2003 film Veede. Shruti Haasan has been recruited to play one of the female lead opposite Ravi Teja. She told IndiaGlitz that she would be playing a comedy role in the movie and this will be her first attempt at comedy. For the first time in her career in Tollywood, she will be seen in a glamorous role. S. Thaman, who previously worked with Gopichand Malineni for Bodyguard, was recruited as the music director for this project. Kona Venkat penned the script for the film. In October, Anjali was recruited as the Second female lead, after signing Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu. After impressing everyone as a spoilt - brat in Panjaa, Adivi Sesh was recruited for a pivotal role in this film. Apparently, It was reported that Anjali is playing the role of a medical student in this film. Ashutosh Rana, who previously worked with Ravi Teja for Venky, was recruited to play one of the antagonists. Brahmaji was also recruited to play a vital role in the film. Meanwhile, Brahmanandam 's character name was revealed to be "Crazy Mohan '' and his role was said to be one of the biggest assets of the movie. In May, it was reported that Lakshmi Rai would make a special appearance in the film. In June, it was reported that prominent Telugu comedian Ali would essay the role of Dr. Savitri, a Male / Female Doctor which was said to be one of the highlights of the film.
The movie shooting started on 13 November 2012 and had a silent shoot and in December, the film has competed its first schedule in which the scenes between Ravi Teja, Bramhanandam and Sruthi Hassan were shot. In End of December, it was reported that shooting is currently progressing near Simhachalam and it was reported that the film is reportedly set in the backdrop of Vizag and some important scenes are being shot right now on Ravi Teja and Anjali. Later, it was told that the film has completed about 50 % of the shoot and the work is going on a good pace. The next schedule started in Hyderabad in January 2013 where scenes featuring Ravi Teja and Shruti Haasan were shot, which was confirmed by the actress in her Twitter. The film 's shooting was put on hold temporarily due to Gopichand Malineni 's wedding and after a brief gap, the film 's next schedule began in End of February at Hyderabad where some important scenes were canned between Ravi Teja and Shruti Haasan. In March, the song "Patikella Chinnadi '' was shot on Ravi Teja and Shruti Haasan in Ramoji Film City and sources reported that Shruti Haasan will be seen in a Glamorous attire in that song. After the song 's completion, the unit had its shoot at Appa Junction in Hyderabad for some crucial scenes at a very fast pace. After the completion of the major schedules, The movie unit proceeded for the shooting of the remaining songs. Later it was known that few songs would be canned in Lisbon, the capital city of Portugal. After a shoot of 10 Days in Lisbon, the unit moved to Algarve region in Southern part of Portugal to shoot couple of songs on Ravi Teja and Shruti Haasan. After completing 2 songs under the choreography of Raju Sundaram, The unit returned from Portugal nearly on 20 April 2013. The final schedule began at Hyderabad in the month of May. On 18 May, Some scenes were canned at Lingampally Railway Station in Hyderabad. After completion of the schedule nearly on 18 May, the unit proceeded to Bangkok for canning some crucial scenes. After completing a long schedule in Bangkok, the unit resumed its shooting in Nanakramguda where some crucial scenes on Ravi Teja and Shruti Haasan were shot. The film unit then canned the song "Lucky Lucky Rai '' on Ravi Teja and Lakshmi Rai at Bangkok. It was informed that Sekhar master is choreographing that song and shooting will go on till 15 June, with which the shooting of the film will be complete. Finally Shooting Came To An End On 15 June.
The music is composed by S. Thaman. This film marks Thaman 's second venture with Gopichand Malineni after Bodyguard and also sixth venture with Ravi Teja. Sirivennela Sitaramasastri and Bhaskarabhatla penned the lyrics for the songs. Ravi Teja also sung a song in this film. The film had its audio launch in Hyderabad International Convention Centre at Hyderabad on 1 June 2013.
The audio got positive response. 123telugu.com gave a review stating "Balupu is one of the most commercially promising audio albums that Ravi Teja has had in recent times. The songs are peppy and are easy to like. '' APHerald.com gave a review stating "Over all Balupu audio sounded as mix of new and old track from Thaman 's pervious movies. '' Telugucinema.com gave a review stating "All in all, Balupu is different in Thaman 's repertoire and has songs that are easy to like. Thaman has come up with songs that would help the film. Has mass numbers as well as a melody number. Right mix of songs. Best album in Ravi Teja 's career in the recent times. '' Cineoutlook.com gave a review stating "Overall Balupu Audio is a combination of Class and Mass Masala songs. It 's a S.S. Thaman Brand Music. ''
Initially the movie was slated for a worldwide released in 302 screens on 21 June 2013. But due to delay in Post-Production of the film, the release date was shifted to 28 June 2013. The film would have a premiere on 27 June 2013 in all the overseas countries. Though it was rumoured that the film would be delayed further, the unit confirmed its release on 28 June 2013. The film was submitted to the Central Board of Film Certification on 24 June 2013. The film was awarded an A certificate by the Board after the objectionable dialogue was removed. The film released in 70 screens across USA, making it the biggest release of Ravi Teja there. With a massive release in AP, the film was also released in and around Chennai in 16 Screens.
It was reported in the first week of January that the first look posters and stills would be released on 26 January 2013 thus coinciding with Ravi Teja 's Birthday but the logo and teaser of Balupu was launched at a function organized in Marigold Hotel at Greenlands, Hyderabad on 25 January 2013. Ravi Teja launched the teaser while PVP 's executive director Rajeev Kamineni launched the logo. The audio launch was held on 1 June 2013 at HICC Novotel in Hyderabad. It was organised by Shreyas Media, a popular event organizing company. The cost of organizing was ₹ 3.5 million, which was well received, both in terms of TRP 's and Public Response, making it one of the successful events organized by them. For the first time ever, Ravi Teja and Shruti Hassan performed live on stage along with S. Thaman, which elevated the event to Bollywood and Hollywood standards. The Theatrical trailer, which was released on the same day generated Unusually positive response from the public. From 18 June 2013 the character sketches of Ali, Srinivasa Reddy, Satyam Rajesh, Pradeep, Thagubothu Ramesh, Ashutosh Rana, Lakshmi Rai, Adivi Sesh, Anjali, Prakash Raj, Shruti Haasan, Brahmanandam, Ravi Teja were displayed at idlebrain.com, the official web partners of the film in images with a countdown till 28 June 2013 which was told as a unique promotion. Moreover, the posters of the film were decorated to 3 Trains covering all the parts of Andhra Pradesh nearly on 26 June 2013 which was also a unique promotion activity.
Noted Producer and Distributor Dil Raju bought the Nizam Area Rights of the film for a Reported Fancy Prize. The Overseas rights were secured by BlueSky for a fancy price. Zee Telugu bought the satellite rights of the film. The Australian Distribution rights of this film, along with Sahasam, were secured by Sai Manali and Lorgan Entertainment. The movie had a great pre-release business in USA, with 33 centers in USA were closed within 48 to 72 hours of press note and remaining in final stages of closing, with all Non USA centers closed as on 21 June 2013.
On 20 June 2013 Mr. Dronamraju Ravikumar, representative of the A.P. Brahmana Seva Sangha Samakhya, alleged that the trailer of the film contained derogatory remarks against Brahmins. The representatives of Brahmin organizations demanded the removal of trailers from all TV channels, thus submitting a formal complaint to the Censor Board and the Film Chamber with an intention of necessary action by the Censor Board since the film was not censored by that time. On the other hand, Gopichand Malineni stated that his intention was not to hurt anyone 's feelings but just to conclude the controversy in a positive manner in this movie and concluded saying that the Brahmin organizations are invited to watch the film before it gets censored. After showing the film to the irked community, the producer of the film sent a letter to Regional Censor Board Officer stating that he is going to delete the entire scene from the film to avoid controversies.
Jeevi of idlebrain.com gave a review of rating 3.25 / 5 stating "Ravi Teja whose previous hit was released in January 2011 did n't find success at box office despite having seven films in a span of 2 and half years. Balupu will provide oxygen to his career. Balupu has all ingredients with a dominating portion of entertainment to become a decent hit. You can watch it. '' The Times of India gave a review stating "The first half of the film looks pretty entertaining with good comedy, emotions and interval bang. Kona Venkat 's comic drama style coupled with Gopichand Malineni 's well - shot action sequences hogged the limelight in the second half, where the story gets into the flash back. Powerful dialogues, emotions and nice comedy might engage the audience. '' Postnoon.com gave a review of rating 3.5 / 5 stating "Balupu is a good concoction of action and entertainment which hits all the right notes. Ravi Teja has finally managed to hit the ball out of the park, after almost two years. '' Mahesh S Koneru of 123telugu.com gave a rating of 3.25 / 5 stating "With Balupu, we can perhaps say that Ravi Teja is back! His mass look and powerful punch dialogues work well. It ends up being a mass masala entertainer that is definitely worth a watch. '' Oneindia Entertainment gave a review stating "Ravi Teja is back with a bang this time. With repeated failures till now, it is refreshing to watch Ravi Teja at his best. '' IndiaGlitz gave a review of rating 3.25 / 5 stating "Balupu is a mix of action plus entertainment. Ravi Teja will win a battle for the first time since Mirapakay. '' APHerald gave a review of rating 2.25 / 5 stating "Balupu is Not a complete Action Entertainer, but watchable once for Ravi Teja - Brahmi comedy. '' SuperGoodMovies gave a review of rating 3 / 5 stating "Raviteja 's Balupu is a movie with entertainment and action sequences. But it is just one time watch. ''
The film was aired for the first time on 12 January 2014 as Sankranti special on Zee Telugu Channel which generated Huge TRP 's for the channel.
The film made a business ₹ 23.4 crore (US $3.6 million) (Share) in AP / Nizam and ₹ 5.3 crore (US $830,000) (Share) in Overseas, Karnataka and Rest of India. The film has collected ₹ 28.7 crore (US $4.5 million) (WW Share) at the box office. The film become a Highest grossing film of Ravi Teja 's career. The film declared "Superhit '' in both Overseas and India.
The film had a good start at the domestic box office collecting ₹ 38.9 million (US $610,000) on its first day. The film collected a share of ₹ 93.1 million (US $1.5 million) in 3 days, with a collection of ₹ 26 million (US $410,000) on the second day and ₹ 28 million (US $440,000) on the third day in Andhra Pradesh. The film collected ₹ 4025, 000 in 3 days in Tamil Nadu, which is the highest collection for a Ravi Teja 's film in Tamil Nadu till date, hence being declared a Super Hit at both Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Box offices respectively, breaking Ravi Teja 's previous records held by Kick, Don Seenu and Mirapakay. The film continued its pace by collecting ₹ 150 million (US $2.3 million) at the end of the first week and with staedy collections in the second week even after finding a stiff competition from Singam, the successful dubbed version of Suriya 's Singam II. The film completed a successful 50 Day run in 85 Direct Centers, collecting a gross of nearly ₹ 550 million (US $8.6 million) all over the state.
At the US box office the film collected ₹ 05.6 million (US $87,000) in three days, entering the list of the top 20 grossers in the US at 18th position, minting more than Ghanchakkar, which was released on more screens and collected ₹ 03.1 million (US $48,000). The film collected ₹ 17.6 million (US $270,000) in its first weekend which was more than the closing businesses of his previous hits Kick (with ₹ 11.9 million (US $190,000)), Don Seenu (with ₹ 12.6 million (US $200,000)) and Mirapakay (with ₹ 14.8 million (US $230,000)) respectively. The film continued its pace in spite of heavy competition from other big releases by collecting ₹ 26 million (US $410,000) at the end of the second week, however failing to beat the record set by Baadshah which collected ₹ 40 million (US $620,000) at that point of time, however subjected to the number of screens it was released. The film collected a total of ₹ 26.9 million (US $420,000) at the end of its third week.
It was remade as Herogiri in Bengali starring Dev, Koel Mallick, Sayantika and Mithun Chakraborty. This film will also be remade in Tamil.
|
who won the great railroad strike of 1877 | Great Railroad strike of 1877 - Wikipedia
The Great Railroad Strike of 1877, sometimes referred to as the Great Upheaval, began on July 14 in Martinsburg, West Virginia, United States after the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) cut wages for the third time in a year. This strike finally ended some 45 days later, after it was put down by local and state militias, and federal troops. Because of economic problems and pressure on wages by the railroads, workers in numerous other cities, in New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland, into Illinois and Missouri, also went out on strike. An estimated 100 people were killed in the unrest across the country. In Martinsburg, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia and other cities, workers burned down and destroyed both physical facilities and the rolling stock of the railroads -- engines and railroad cars. Local populations feared that workers were rising in revolution such as the Paris Commune of 1871.
At the time, the workers were not represented by trade unions. The city and state governments organized armed militias, aided by national guard, federal troops and private militias organized by the railroads, who fought against the workers. Disruption was widespread and at its height, the strikes were supported by about 100,000 workers. With the intervention of federal troops in several locations, most of the strikes were suppressed by early August. Labor continued to work to organize into unions to work for better wages and conditions. Fearing the social disruption, many cities built armories to support their militias; these defensive buildings still stand as symbols of the effort to suppress the labor unrest of this period.
With public attention on workers ' wages and conditions, the B&O in 1880 founded an Employee Relief Association to provide death benefits and some health care. In 1884 it established a worker pension plan. Other improvements generally had to await further economic growth and associated wage increases.
The Long Depression, beginning in the United States with the financial Panic of 1873 and lasting 65 months, became the longest economic contraction in American history, including the later more famous, 45 - month - long Great Depression of the 1930s. The failure of the Jay Cooke bank in New York, was followed quickly by that of Henry Clews, and set off a chain reaction of bank failures, temporarily closing the New York stock market.
Unemployment rose dramatically, reaching 14 percent by 1876, many more were severely underemployed, and wages overall dropped to 45 % of their previous level. Thousands of American businesses failed, defaulting on more than a billion dollars of debt. One in four laborers in New York were out of work in the winter of 1873 - 1874. National construction of new rail lines dropped from 7,500 miles of track in 1872 to just 1,600 miles in 1875, and production in iron and steel alone dropped as much as 45 %.
When the Civil War ended, a boom in railroad construction ensued, with roughly 55,000 kilometers (35,000 miles) of new track being laid from coast - to - coast between 1866 and 1873. The railroads, then the second largest employer outside of agriculture, required large amounts of capital investment, and thus entailed massive financial risk. Speculators fed large amounts of money into the industry, causing abnormal growth and over-expansion. Jay Cooke 's firm, like many other banking firms, invested a disproportionate share of depositors ' funds in the railroads, thus paving the way for the ensuing collapse.
In addition to Cooke 's direct infusion of capital in the railroads, the firm had become a federal agent for the government in the government 's direct financing of railroad construction. As building new track in areas where land had not yet been cleared or settled required land grants and loans that only the government could provide, the use of Jay Cooke 's firm as a conduit for federal funding worsened the effects that Cooke 's bankruptcy had on the nation 's economy.
In the wake of the Panic of 1873, a bitter antagonism between workers and the leaders of industry developed. Immigration from Europe was underway, as was migration of rural workers into the cities, increasing competition for jobs and enabling companies to drive down wages and easily lay off workers. By 1877, 10 percent wage cuts, distrust of capitalists and poor working conditions led to workers conducting numerous railroad strikes that prevented the trains from moving, with spiraling effects in other parts of the economy. Suppressed by violence, workers continued to organize to try to improve their conditions. Management worked to break up such movements, and mainstream society and the Catholic Church feared labor organizing as signs of revolutionary socialism. Tensions lingered well after the depression ended in 1878 -- 79.
Many of the new immigrant workers were Catholics, and their church had forbidden participation in secret societies since 1743, partially as a reaction against the anti-Catholicism of Freemasonry. But by the late 19th century, the Knights of Labor, a national and predominately Catholic organization, had 700,000 members seeking to represent all workers. In 1888 Archbishop James Cardinal Gibbons of Baltimore sympathized with the workers and collaborated with other bishops to lift the prohibition against workers joining the KOL. Other workers also took actions, and unrest marked the following decades. In 1886 Samuel Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor for the skilled craft trades, attracting skilled workers from other groups. Other labor organizing followed.
The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 started on July 14 in Martinsburg, West Virginia, in response to the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (B&O) cutting wages of workers for the third time in a year. Striking workers would not allow any of the trains, mainly freight trains, to roll until this third wage cut was revoked. West Virginia Governor Henry M. Mathews sent in state militia units to restore train service but the soldiers refused to fire on the strikers. The governor in Charleston, West Virginia then appealed for federal troops.
Meanwhile, the Strike also spread into western Maryland to the major railroad hub of Cumberland, county seat of Allegany County where railway workers stopped freight and passenger traffic.
In Baltimore with the famous Fifth ("Dandy Fifth '') and Sixth Regiments of the former state militia, now reorganized since the war as the Maryland National Guard were also called up by 37th Maryland Governor John Lee Carroll, (1830 - 1911), in Annapolis at the request of powerful B. & O. President John Work Garrett, (1820 - 1884). The Fifth marched down North Howard Street from their armory above the old Richmond Market (at present North Howard and West Read Streets) in the Mount Vernon - Belvedere neighborhood and were generally unopposed heading south for the B. & O. 's general headquarters and main depot at the Camden Street Station to board the waiting westward trains to Hagerstown and Cumberland. But the unfortunate Sixth assembled at their armory at East Fayette and North Front Streets (by the old Phoenix Shot Tower) in the Old Town / Jonestown area and had to fight their way west through regular sympathetic Baltimore citizens, rioters and striking workers which erupted into bloodshed along main downtown commercial thoroughfare of Baltimore Street to get to Camden. It was a horrible scene reminiscent of the worst of the bloody "Pratt Street Riots '' of the Civil War era disturbances of April 1861, over 15 years earlier of the "first bloodshed '' of the war. When the outnumbered troops of the 6th Regiment finally fired volleys on an attacking crowd on Baltimore Street, they killed 10 civilians and wounded 25. The rioters injured several members of the militia, damaged B. & O. engines and train cars, and burned portions of the train station at South Howard and West Camden Streets. The militia remained trapped in the surrounding Camden Yards, besieged by armed rioters until July 21 -- 22, when the 19th President Rutherford B. Hayes sent federal troops and the U.S. Marines to Baltimore to restore order.
There were strike actions also further north in Albany, Syracuse and Buffalo, New York on other railroad lines. Workers in the cities in industries other than railroads still attacked them because of how they cut through the cities and dominated city life. Their resentment of the railroads ' economic power was expressed in physical attacks against them at a time when many workers ' wages were lowered. Protestors "included cross-class elements from other work sites, small businesses, and commercial establishments. Some protestors acted out of solidarity with the strikers, but many more vented militant displeasure against dangerous railroad traffic that crisscrossed urban centers in that area. ''
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania became the site of the worst violence of related strikes. Thomas Alexander Scott of the Pennsylvania Railroad, described as one of the first robber barons, suggested that the strikers should be given "a rifle diet for a few days and see how they like that kind of bread. '' As in some other cities and towns, local law enforcement officers such as sheriffs, deputies and police refused to fire on the strikers. Several state militia units were ordered into service by Governor John Hartranft, including the 3rd Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment under the command of Colonel George R. Snowden.
On July 21, militiamen bayoneted and fired on rock - throwing strikers, killing 20 people and wounding 29. Rather than quell the uprising, these actions infuriated the strikers, who retaliated and forced the militia to take refuge in a railroad roundhouse. Strikers set fires that razed 39 buildings and destroyed rolling stock: 104 locomotives and 1,245 freight and passenger cars. On July 22, the militia mounted an assault on the strikers, shooting their way out of the roundhouse and killing 20 more people on their way out of the city. After more than a month of rioting and bloodshed in Pittsburgh, President Rutherford B. Hayes sent in federal troops as in West Virginia and Maryland to end the strikes and strife.
Three hundred miles to the east, Philadelphia strikers battled local militia and set fire to much of Center City before Pennsylvania Governor John Hartranft gained assistance and federal troops from President Hayes to put down the uprising.
Workers in Reading, Pennsylvania 's third - largest industrial city at the time, also broke out into a strike. This city was home of the engine works and shops of the Reading Railroad, against which engineers had struck since April 1877. State militia shot 16 citizens. Preludes to the massacre included: fresh work stoppage by all classes of the railroad 's local workforce; mass marches; blocking of rail traffic; and trainyard arson. Workers burned down the only railroad bridge offering connections to the west, in order to prevent local militia from being mustered to actions in the state capital of Harrisburg or Pittsburgh. Authorities used state militia, local police and the Pennsylvania Pinkerton National Detective Agency in an attempt to break the strike. Reading Railroad management mobilized a private militia, which members committed the shootings in the city. This militia was not mobilized by local public officials.
On July 25, 1000 men and boys, many of them coal miners, marched to the Reading Railroad Depot in Shamokin, east of Sunbury along the Susquehanna River valley. They looted the depot when the town announced it would pay them only $1 / day for emergency public employment. The mayor, who owned coal mines, organized a city militia. It committed 14 civilian shooting casualties, resulting in the deaths of two persons.
On August 1, 1877, in Scranton in northeast Pennsylvania, one day after railroad workers conceded a strike, a city posse of 51 men armed with new rifles and under the command of William Walker Scranton, general manager of the Lackawanna Iron & Coal Company, returned fire at a group of rioters, strikers, and, most likely, bystanders. The posse killed or fatally wounded four and wounded an undetermined number of others, estimated at 20 to 50, according to different sources.
Pennsylvania Governor Hartranft declared Scranton to be under martial law; it was occupied by state and federal troops armed with Gatling guns. Later the posse leader and about 20 of his men were charged with assault and murder. They were all acquitted. Under the effects of the shootings and military occupation, the miners ended their strike without gaining any of their demands.
On July 24, rail traffic in Chicago was paralyzed when angry mobs of unemployed citizens wreaked havoc in the rail yards, shutting down both the Baltimore and Ohio and the Illinois Central railroads. Soon, other railroads throughout the state were brought to a standstill, with demonstrators shutting down railroad traffic in Bloomington, Aurora, Peoria, Decatur, Urbana and other rail centers throughout Illinois. In sympathy, coal miners in the pits at Braidwood, LaSalle, Springfield, and Carbondale went on strike as well. In Chicago, the Workingmen 's Party organized demonstrations that drew crowds of 20,000 people.
Judge Thomas Drummond of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, who was overseeing numerous railroads that had declared bankruptcy in the wake of the earlier financial Panic of 1873, ruled that "A strike or other unlawful interference with the trains will be a violation of the United States law, and the court will be bound to take notice of it and enforce the penalty. '' Drummond told the U.S. Marshals to protect the railroads, and asked for federal troops to enforce his decision: he subsequently had strikers arrested and tried them for contempt of court.
The Mayor of Chicago, Monroe Heath, recruited 5,000 men as volunteer militia, asking for help in restoring order. They were partially successful, and shortly thereafter were reinforced by the arrival of the Illinois National Guard and U.S. Army troops, mobilized by the governor. On July 25, violence between police and the mob erupted, with events reaching a peak the following day. These blood - soaked confrontations between police and enraged mobs are known as the Battle of the Viaduct as they took place near the Halsted Street viaduct, although confrontations also took place at nearby 16th Street, on 12th, and on Canal Street. The headline of the Chicago Times screamed, "Terrors Reign, The Streets of Chicago Given Over to Howling Mobs of Thieves and Cutthroats. '' Order was finally restored. An estimated 20 men and boys died, none of whom were law enforcement or troops; scores more were wounded; and the loss of property was valued in the millions of dollars.
On July 21, disgruntled workers in the industrial rail hub of East St. Louis, Illinois, halted all freight traffic, with the city remaining in the control of the strikers for almost a week. The St. Louis Workingman 's Party led a group of approximately 500 men across the Missouri River in an act of solidarity with the nearly 1,000 workers on strike. It was a catalyst for labor unrest spreading, with thousands of workers in several industries striking for the eight - hour day and a ban on child labor. This was the first such general strike in the United States.
The strike on both sides of the river was ended after the governor appealed for help and gained the intervention of some 3,000 federal troops and 5,000 deputized special police. These armed forces killed at least eighteen people in skirmishes around the city. On July 28, 1877, they took control of the Relay Depot, the Commune 's command center, and arrested some seventy strikers.
The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 began to lose momentum when President Hayes sent federal troops from city to city. These troops suppressed strike after strike, until at last, approximately 45 days after it had started, the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 was over.
Strikers in Pittsburgh burned in total 39 buildings, 104 engines, 46 -- 66 passenger cars, and 1,200 -- 1,383 freight cars. Damage estimates ranged from five to 10 million dollars.
After the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, union organizers planned for their next battles while politicians and business leaders took steps to prevent a repetition of this chaos. Many states enacted conspiracy statutes. States formed new militia units and constructed National Guard armories in numerous industrial cities. For workers and employers alike, the strikes had shown the power of workers in combination to challenge the status quo. A state militiaman in Pittsburgh, ordered to break the 1877 strike, pointed out that the workers were driven by "one spirit and one purpose among them - -- that they were justified in resorting to any means to break down the power of the corporations. ''
Unions became better organized as well as more competent, and the number of strikes increased. The Knights of Labor grew to be a national organization of predominately Catholic workers, numbering 700,000 by the early 1880s. In the 1880s nearly 10,000 strike actions and lockouts took place. In 1886 nearly 700,000 workers went on strike. Business leaders strengthened their opposition to the unions, often firing men who tried to organize or join them. Nonetheless, the labor movement continued to grow.
One result of the strike was increased public awareness of the grievances of railroad workers. On May 1, 1880, the B&O Railroad, which had the lowest wage rate of any major railroad, established the Baltimore and Ohio Employees ' Relief Association, which provided coverage for sickness, injury from accidents, and a death benefit. In 1884, the B&O became the first major employer to offer a pension plan.
Attempts to utilize local militia to quell violent outbreaks in 1877 highlighted their ineffectiveness, and in some cases their propensity to outright side with strikers and rioters. In response, as earlier riots in the mid 1800s had prompted the modernization of police forces, the violence of 1877 provided the impetus for the formation of the modern National Guard, "to aid the civil officers, to suppress or prevent riot or insurrections. ''
In 2003 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Martinsburg Shops, where the strike began, were declared a National Historic Landmark.
In 2013 a historical marker commemorating the event was placed in Baltimore, MD, by the Maryland Historical Trust and Maryland State Highway Administration. Its inscription reads:
The first national strike began July 16, 1877, with Baltimore and Ohio Railroad workers in Martinsburg, West Virginia, and Baltimore, Maryland. It spread across the nation halting rail traffic and closing factories in reaction to widespread worker discontent over wage cuts and conditions during a national depression. Broken by Federal troops in early August, the strike energized the labor movement and was precursor to labor unrest in the 1880s and 1890s.
Another was placed in 1978 in Martinsburg, WV by the West Virginia Department of Culture and History.
|
when is battle red day for the texans 2017 | Battle red day - wikipedia
Battle Red Day is an annual tradition of the Houston Texans franchise of the National Football League that was started in 2003.
In 2003, the Texans unveiled a red alternate jersey that the team could wear up to twice a year at home games, as per the NFL 's rule on alternate uniform use. The team decided to designate these games where the team would wear the red jerseys as "battle red days '' in order to drum up extra fan support and interest. The Texans Cheerleaders, Toro the mascot and the Bull Pen Pep Band all dress in red and fans are also strongly encouraged to come dressed in red as well.
There are one or two battle red days scheduled a year. Since 2010 there has been only one scheduled. Battle red days are usually scheduled towards the latter half of the season or in the middle of the season. Sometimes they are designated for games where they play divisional rivals. The Texans have experienced great success during battle red day games, having won the majority of the contests since the creation of the day.
On Thursday, December 13, 2007, they wore their red jersey with red pants for the first time in their franchise history.
On Sunday, October 30, 2011, they returned to the red jersey with white pants.
On Sunday, December 18, 2016, they wore their red jersey with blue pants for the first time in their franchise history.
Houston - based energy company Halliburton became the first corporate sponsor of Battle Red Day in 2006.
2006 also marked the first - annual Battle Red Run, which took place on Saturday, October 21 to benefit the Methodist DeBakey Heart Center, one of the busiest and most experienced cardiac centers in the country. The event featured special appearances by Toro and the Texans Cheerleaders and encouraged participants to wear red and participate in either a 5K Race, 5K Run / Walk, or Toro 's Kids K.
All - time Battle Red Day record: 10 -- 8
|
oakland a's all you can eat tickets | All - you - can - eat seats - wikipedia
All - you - can - eat seats, also called all - inclusive sections, are blocks of seats in a Major League Baseball or Minor League Baseball park in which seat holders are entitled to unlimited hot dogs, nachos, popcorn, peanuts, soft drinks, and bottled water before and during a game. Typically located in less desirable areas of the ballpark, such as the bleachers and upper decks, all - you - can - eat (AYCE) seats are priced approximately 50 % higher than seats in the same section, but are viewed by patrons as a bargain considering the added cost of ballpark food. The first AYCE section was introduced at Dodger Stadium in 2007. The trend spread to 19 of the 30 major league parks by 2010 and numerous minor league parks by 2012. In 2008 AYCE seats were also inaugurated in numerous NBA and NHL arenas and at several NASCAR tracks.
The Los Angeles Dodgers introduced the first Major League Baseball AYCE section in April 2007 after conducting three pilots during the 2006 season. Soon after, the Atlanta Braves, Baltimore Orioles, Kansas City Royals, and Texas Rangers converted their under - utilized seats to AYCE seats. The concept spread to 13 Major League Baseball parks in 2008 and 19 parks in 2010.
Major League Baseball teams offering all - you - can - eat seats include the Arizona Diamondbacks, Atlanta Braves, Baltimore Orioles, Cincinnati Reds, Detroit Tigers, Houston Astros, Kansas City Royals, Los Angeles Dodgers, Miami Marlins, Minnesota Twins, Pittsburgh Pirates, San Diego Padres, Tampa Bay Rays, Texas Rangers, and Toronto Blue Jays.
USA Today, March 7, 2008
All - you - can - eat seats are typically located in "distant bleacher or upper - deck sections ''. Seat prices are marked up approximately 50 % over the regular price of seats in that section.
The AYCE buffet generally operates from the time the stadium gates open until the beginning or end of the seventh inning. Some parks put an hourly limit on it -- for example, food service is open for two hours after the first pitch at San Diego Padres games and until 9 p.m. at Minnesota Twins games. The basic menu includes traditional ballpark food such as hot dogs, nachos, peanuts, popcorn, and soft drinks. Some ballparks add other options, such as "veggie dogs '' at Petco Park, green salad, ice cream, and kosher and veggie dogs (by advance request) at Oriole Park at Camden Yards, and "burgers, salads, peanut butter - filled pretzels and ice cream '' at PNC Park.
Some ballparks limit the amount of food an AYCE patron can take on each trip to the buffet. At Dodger Stadium, AYCE patrons are limited to four hot dogs per visit, but can take as many soft drinks and bottles of water as they wish. At Camden Yards, patrons may take up to two of each food item on each visit. The lines move quickly, as no cash transactions are involved.
At Dodger Stadium, AYCE ticket - holders enter and exit through a different gate than other ticket - holders and can access only the AYCE buffet and a set of restrooms. At other ballparks, ticket - holders wear colored wristbands to identify themselves as AYCE patrons. At Camden Yards, AYCE ticket - holders have their hand stamped.
All - you - can - eat seats have successfully boosted attendance in ballparks experiencing low turnouts, as well as increased occupancy of stadium sections that were previously under - used. At Dodger Stadium, for example, before 2007 the right - field bleachers were opened only when the left - field bleachers sold out, or for group sales. Following the conversion of the right - field bleachers into an AYCE section of 3,300 seats, occupancy zoomed to 85 %. The Arizona Diamondbacks boosted ticket sales by 70 % when it created a left - field AYCE section in 2009, while the Houston Astros averaged 95 % capacity in its AYCE section.
From the patrons ' point of view, AYCE seats are viewed as a bargain considering the added cost of ballpark food. After a few orders of hot dogs, nachos, and soft drinks, the AYCE seat pays for itself. The Atlanta Braves estimated that a typical AYCE patron in 2007 consumed 3.35 hot dogs, 20 ounces of soda, 7.9 ounces of peanuts; 3 ounces of nachos; and 32 ounces of popcorn. AYCE seats have been described as a way to indulge in junk food "with baseball as a nominal backdrop '', an opportunity to eat a cheap dinner with a baseball game thrown in, and a way to feed a family on a budget. AYCE patrons have been known to engage in eating contests and to sneak food home with them.
|
paul simon - you can call me a | You Can Call Me Al - wikipedia
4: 40
"You Can Call Me Al '' is a song by the American singer - songwriter Paul Simon. It was the lead single from his seventh studio album, Graceland (1986), released on Warner Bros. Records. Written by Simon, its lyrics follow an individual seemingly experiencing a midlife crisis. Its lyrics were partially inspired by Simon 's trip to South Africa and experience with its culture.
Released in September 1986, "You Can Call Me Al '' became one of Simon 's biggest solo hits, reaching the top five in seven countries.
The names in the song came from an incident at a party that Simon went to with his then - wife Peggy Harper. French composer and conductor Pierre Boulez, who was attending the same party, mistakenly referred to Paul as "Al '' and to Peggy as "Betty '', inspiring Simon to write a song.
"You Can Call Me Al '' was recorded entirely at The Hit Factory in New York City in April 1986; it differs from much of Graceland in this regard, as most songs on the record were recorded in numerous locales worldwide.
After the song 's completion, it was mixed at The Hit Factory alongside the rest of Graceland, at an average of two days per song. Simon 's vocals on the song are rather quick - paced, which made them difficult to mix over the numerous instruments in the backing track. After much work on the track, Simon 's long - time engineer Roy Halee used tape delays feeding separately into the two audio channels, which made the vocals clear.
The lyrics can be interpreted as describing a man experiencing a midlife crisis ("Where 's my wife and family? What if I die here? Who 'll be my role model? ''). However, as Paul Simon himself explained during the Graceland episode of the Classic Albums documentary series, by the third verse the lyrics move from a generic portrait - like perspective to a personal and autobiographical one, as he describes his journey to South Africa which inspired the entire album.
The song opens simply, with its protagonist wondering aloud why his life is difficult, amid other questions. Simon structured the song 's lyrics in a way that listeners would be given the simplest information first, before getting abstract with his imagery in the song 's third verse: "Because there 's been a structure, (...) those abstract images, they will come down and fall into one of the slots that the mind has already made up about the structure of the song. ''
Synthesizer player Rob Mounsey contributed heavily to the track 's arrangement and groove. The song features a bass run performed by Bakithi Kumalo; the solo is palindromic as only the first half was recorded, and was then played backwards for the second half. The decision to reverse the recording was made by Halee, who noted in a later interview that this type of experimentation was common in order to make the songs more interesting. The penny whistle solo was performed by jazz musician Morris Goldberg.
Paul Simon did not like the original music video that was made, which was a performance of the song Simon gave during the monologue when he hosted Saturday Night Live in the perspective of a video monitor. A replacement video was conceived partly by Lorne Michaels and directed by Gary Weis, wherein Chevy Chase lip - synced Simon 's vocals, with gestures punctuating the lyrics.
"You Can Call Me Al '' became Simon 's biggest hit single as a solo act. In the United States, however, it initially fared poorly, reaching number 44 on the Billboard Hot 100 in September 1986. As sales and acclaim for Graceland grew, culminating in a win for Album of the Year at the 29th Annual Grammy Awards in February 1987, the single began to re-enter the charts. After making a second entry in March, the song rose to a peak of number 23 in May 1987.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
References
Sources
|
what is the dallas cowboys thanksgiving day record | NFL on Thanksgiving Day - wikipedia
The National Football League (NFL) on Thanksgiving Day is a traditional series of games played during the Thanksgiving holiday in the United States. It has been a regular occurrence since the league 's inception in 1920. Currently, three NFL games are played every Thanksgiving. The first two are hosted by the Detroit Lions and the Dallas Cowboys; a third game, with no fixed opponents, has been played annually since 2006.
The concept of American football games being played on Thanksgiving Day dates back to 1876, shortly after the game had been invented, as it was a day that most people had off from work. In that year, the college football teams at Yale and Princeton began an annual tradition of playing each other on Thanksgiving Day. The University of Michigan also made it a tradition to play annual Thanksgiving games, holding 19 such games from 1885 to 1905. The Thanksgiving Day games between Michigan and the Chicago Maroons in the 1890s have been cited as "The Beginning of Thanksgiving Day Football. '' In some areas, high - school teams play on Thanksgiving, usually to wrap - up the regular - season.
By the time football had become a professional event, playing on Thanksgiving had already become an institution. Records of pro football being played on Thanksgiving date back to as early as the 1890s, with the first pro -- am team, the Allegheny Athletic Association of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In 1902, the "National '' Football League, a Major League Baseball - backed organization based entirely in Pennsylvania and unrelated to the current NFL, attempted to settle its championship over Thanksgiving weekend; after the game ended in a tie, eventually all three teams in the league claimed to have won the title. Members of the Ohio League, during its early years, usually placed their marquee matchups on Thanksgiving Day. For instance, in 1905 and 1906 the Latrobe Athletic Association and Canton Bulldogs, considered at the time to be two of the best teams in professional football (along with the Massillon Tigers), played on Thanksgiving. A rigging scandal with the Tigers leading up to the 1906 game led to severe drops in attendance for the Bulldogs and ultimately led to their suspension of operations. During the 1910s, the Ohio League stopped holding Thanksgiving games because many of its players coached high school teams and were unavailable. This was not the case in other regional circuits: in 1919, the New York Pro Football League featured a Thanksgiving matchup between the Buffalo Prospects and the Rochester Jeffersons. The game ended in a scoreless tie, leading to a rematch the next Sunday for the league championship.
Several other NFL teams played regularly on Thanksgiving in the first eighteen years of the league, including the Chicago Bears and Chicago Cardinals (1922 -- 33; the Bears played the Lions from 1934 to 1938 while the Cardinals switched to the Green Bay Packers for 1934 and 1935), Frankford Yellow Jackets, Pottsville Maroons, Buffalo All - Americans, Canton Bulldogs (even after the team moved to Cleveland they played the 1924 Thanksgiving game in Canton), and the New York Giants (1929 -- 38, who always played a crosstown rival). The first owner of the Lions, George A. Richards, started the tradition of the Thanksgiving Day game as a gimmick to get people to go to Lions football games, and to continue a tradition begun by the city 's previous NFL teams. What differentiated the Lions ' efforts from other teams that played on the holiday was that Richards owned radio station WJR, a major affiliate of the NBC Blue Network; he was able to negotiate an agreement with NBC to carry his Thanksgiving games live across the network.
During the Franksgiving controversy in 1939 and 1940, the only two teams to play the game were the Pittsburgh Steelers and Philadelphia Eagles, as both teams were in the same state (Pennsylvania). (At the time, then - president Franklin Roosevelt wanted to move the holiday for economic reasons and many states were resistant to the move; half the states recognized the move and the other half did not. This complicated scheduling for Thanksgiving games. Incidentally, the two teams were also exploring the possibility of a merger at the time.) Because of the looming World War II and the resulting shorter seasons, the NFL did not schedule any Thanksgiving games in 1941, nor did it schedule any in the subsequent years until the war ended in 1945. When the Thanksgiving games resumed in 1945, only the Lions ' annual home game would remain on the Thanksgiving holiday. In 1951, the Packers began a thirteen - season run as the perpetual opponent to the Lions each year through 1963.
The All - America Football Conference and American Football League, both of which would later be absorbed into the NFL, also held Thanksgiving contests, although neither of those leagues had permanent hosts. Likewise, the AFL of 1926 also played two Thanksgiving games in its lone season of existence, while the AFL of 1936 hosted one in its first season, which featured the Cleveland Rams, a future NFL team, and the 1940 -- 41 incarnation of the American Football League played two games in 1940 on the earlier "Franksgiving '' date.
In 1966, the Dallas Cowboys, who had been founded six years earlier, adopted the practice of hosting Thanksgiving games. It is widely rumored that the Cowboys sought a guarantee that they would regularly host Thanksgiving games as a condition of their very first one (since games on days other than Sunday were uncommon at the time and thus high attendance was not a certainty). This is only partly true; Dallas had in fact decided to host games on Thanksgiving by their own decision because there was nothing else to do or watch on that day. In 1975 and 1977, at the behest of then - Commissioner Pete Rozelle, the St. Louis Cardinals replaced Dallas as a host team (Dallas then hosted St. Louis in 1976). Although the Cardinals, at the time known as the "Cardiac Cards '' due to their propensity for winning very close games, were a modest success at the time, they were nowhere near as popular nationwide as the Cowboys, who were regular Super Bowl contenders during this era. This, combined with St. Louis 's consistently weak attendance, a series of ugly Cardinals losses in the three - game stretch, and opposition from the Kirkwood -- Webster Groves Turkey Day Game (a local high school football contest) led to Dallas resuming regular hosting duties in 1978; it was then, after Rozelle asked Dallas to resume hosting Thanksgiving games, that the Cowboys requested (and received) an agreement guaranteeing the Cowboys a spot on Thanksgiving Day forever.
Notwithstanding the aforementioned St. Louis - hosted games in 1975 and 1977, the two "traditional '' Thanksgiving Day pro football games since the 1970 AFL -- NFL merger have then been in Detroit and Dallas. Because of TV network commitments in place through the 2013 season, to make sure that both the AFC - carrying network (NBC from the 1970 merger to 1997, and CBS since 1998) and the NFC - carrying network (CBS from the 1970 merger to 1993, and Fox since 1994) got at least one game each, one of these games was between NFC opponents, and one featured AFC - NFC opponents. Thus, the AFC could showcase only one team on Thanksgiving, and the AFC team was always the visiting team.
Since 2006, a third NFL game on Thanksgiving has been played at night. It originally aired on the NFL Network as part of its Thursday Night Football package until 2011; NBC began carrying the night game in 2012. The Thanksgiving night game has no fixed opponents or conferences, enabling the league to freely choose whatever marquee match - up to feature on that night. The 2012 changes also allowed both Dallas and Detroit in the future to offer NFC games (one would be played at night), and CBS can offer a game with two AFC teams. In 2014, the NFL added the cross-flex rule, allowing CBS to televise NFC away games, and Fox to broadcast AFC away games, under select circumstances on Sunday afternoons; however, this did not cover the Thanksgiving contests. CBS also signed a separate contract to carry Thursday Night Football from the 2014 season onward, which allowed that network to carry games from either conference on Thursdays; from that year through 2016, CBS carried all - NFC contests every year on Thanksgiving, and in 2014 and 2015, no AFC teams played in any of the Thanksgiving games.
The NFL 's flexible scheduling rule currently does not apply for Thanksgiving games; however, the NFL in theory could in the future apply the rule to change start times and networks for the three games.
Since 2001 teams playing on Thanksgiving have worn throwback uniforms on numerous occasions. In some years (namely 2002), it extended to nearly all games of the weekend, and in some cases also involved classic field logos at the respective stadiums.
In 2001 -- 2004, and again in 2008, 2010, and 2017 the Detroit Lions have worn throwback uniforms based on their very early years.
From 2001 to 2003, Dallas chose to represent the 1990s Cowboys dynasty by wearing the navy "Double - Star '' jersey not seen since 1995. In 2004, the team wore uniforms not seen since 1963. In 2009, to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the AFL, both Dallas and Oakland played in a "AFL Legacy Game. '' In 2013, the Cowboys intended to wear their 1960s throwbacks, but chose not to do so after the NFL adopted a new policy requiring players and teams to utilize only one helmet a season to address the league 's new concussion protocol; rather than sport an incomplete throwback look, the Cowboys instead wore their standard blue jerseys at home for the first time since 1963. In 2015, the Cowboys resurrected their 1994 white "Double - Star '' jerseys only this time wore them with white pants as part of the league 's "Color Rush '', a trial run of specially - designed, monochromatic jerseys to be worn during Thursday games.
It has remained a tradition for Dallas and Detroit to host the afternoon games dating back several decades. However, in recent years, other teams have expressed interest in hosting Thanksgiving games. Lamar Hunt, the former owner of the Chiefs (who had hosted Thanksgiving games from 1967 -- 69 as an AFL team prior to the merger), lobbied heavily in favor of his team hosting a game on the holiday. When the NFL adopted a third, prime time game, the Chiefs were selected as the first team to host such a contest, but the team was not made a permanent host, and Hunt 's death shortly after the 2006 contest ended the lobbying on behalf of that team.
The host issue came to a head in 2008, focusing particularly on the winless Lions. Going into the game, Detroit had lost their last four Thanksgiving games, and opinions amongst the media had suggested removing Detroit and replacing them with a more attractive matchup. The team also required an extension to prevent a local television blackout. The Lions were routed by Tennessee 47 -- 10, en route to the team 's 0 -- 16 season. NFL commissioner Roger Goodell confirmed that the Lions would stay on Thanksgiving for the 2009 season, but kept the issue open to revisit in the future.
Conversely, the Dallas Cowboys, who typically represent a larger television draw, have had much fewer public calls to be replaced on Thanksgiving. One issue that has been debated is a perceived unfair advantage of playing at home on Thanksgiving. The advantage is given in the form of an extra day of practice for the home team while the road team has to travel to the game site. This is true for most Thursday games, but with the night games, the visitor can travel to the game site after practice and hold the final walk - thru the following morning.
With the introduction of the prime time game, which effectively allows all teams in the league an opportunity to play on Thanksgiving, along with the introduction of year - long Thursday Night Football ensuring all teams have one Thursday game during the regular season (thus negating any on - field advantages or disadvantages to being selected for Thanksgiving), the calls for Detroit and Dallas to be removed have curtailed.
(Winning teams are denoted by boldface type; tie games are italicized.)
Of current NFL franchises. This includes American Football League (AFL) games; however, it does not include All - America Football Conference (AAFC) games.
The last currently active franchise to have never played on Thanksgiving through 2017 is the Jacksonville Jaguars, who joined the league in 1995.
An idiosyncrasy in the NFL 's current scheduling formula, which has been in effect since 2002 and revised in 2010, effectively prevents teams from the AFC North from playing the Lions or Cowboys on Thanksgiving, as the formula has the AFC North playing in Dallas or Detroit in years when the other team is slated to play the AFC game on Thanksgiving. These teams can, under the 2014 television contracts, play only in the third (night) game; should cross-flex be expanded to Thursdays or Fox win the Thursday Night contract in 2018 (either scenario would allow both Fox and CBS to carry AFC games), this idiosyncrasy will be eliminated.
The Los Angeles Rams have the longest active appearance drought of any team, with their last appearance coming in 1975. Among current NFL markets, Cleveland has had the longest wait to have a team from its city play on Thanksgiving; the Browns last appeared in 1989, several years before being suspended in the Cleveland Browns relocation controversy, and have not appeared in the game since rejoining the league as an expansion team.
Since 2010, the league has made efforts to end the longest droughts. New Orleans, Cincinnati, Baltimore, Houston, and Carolina all played their first Thanksgiving games during this time frame. San Francisco likewise played their first Thanksgiving game since 1972 in 2011, and the Los Angeles Chargers, who last played on the holiday in 1969 (while the team was still an AFL franchise in San Diego) before actually joining the league, appeared for the first time as an NFL member in 2017.
* All - America Football Conference team.
Since 1989, informal and sometimes lighthearted Man of the Match awards have been issued by the networks broadcasting the respective games. Running back Emmitt Smith holds the record for most Thanksgiving MVPs with five (1990, 1992, 1994, 1996 and 2002). Voting on the respective awards is typically done informally by the announcing crew themselves, and criteria are loose. Noteworthy statistical accomplishments weigh heavily, and "group '' awards are common. The announcement of the winner (s), and the presentation of the award is normally done immediately following the game, during post-game network coverage.
In 1989, John Madden of CBS awarded the first "Turkey Leg Award '', for the game 's most valuable player. Pursuant to its name, it was an actual cooked turkey leg, and players typically took a celebratory bite out of the leg for the cameras during post-game interviews. Reggie White of the Eagles was the first recipient. The gesture was seen mostly as a humorous gimmick relating to Madden 's famous multi-legged turkey, cooked and delivered by local restaurant owner Joe Pat Fieseler of Harvey 's Barbecue (located less than a mile from Texas Stadium). Since then, however, the award has gained subtle notoriety. Madden brought the award to FOX in 1994, and it continued through 2001.
Because of the loose and informal nature of the award, at times it has been awarded to multiple players. On one occasion in 1994, it was given to players of both teams.
When John Madden left FOX after 2001, the network introduced a new award starting in 2002, named the "Galloping Gobbler. '' It was represented by a small figurine of a silver turkey wearing a football helmet striking a Heisman - like pose. Much like Cleatus and Digger, the original Galloping Gobbler trophy reflected Fox 's irreverent mascots, and went through several iterations. Unimpressed by its tackiness, 2002 winner Emmitt Smith (who holds the record for most Thanksgiving MVP awards and had won the Turkey Leg Award four previous times) famously threw his in a trash can.
In 2007, the kitschy statuette was replaced with a bronze - colored statue of a nondescript turkey holding a football. In 2011, the trophies were discarded altogether and replaced by an attractive plaque. Unlike the aforementioned "Turkey Leg Award '', the "Galloping Gobbler '' is normally awarded to only one player annually, however in 2016, co-winners were honored.
For 2017, the Galloping Gobbler was permanently retired, and replaced with the "Game Ball, '' an stylish, ornate football - shaped trophy, reminiscent of the tradition where game - used balls are typically awarded to players of the game. No one at Fox seemed to notice the first ball awarded has the stripe markings of a college ball.
When the NFL returned to CBS in 1998, they introduced their own award, the "All - Iron Award '', which is, suitably enough, a small silver iron, a reference to Phil Simms ' All - Iron team for toughness. The All - Iron winner also receives a skillet of blackberry cobbler made by Simms ' mother.
Through 2006, the trophy was only awarded to one player annually. Occasionally, it has been issued as a "group award '' in addition to a single player award. In 2008, Simms stated it was "too close to call '' and named four players to the trophy; he then gave the award to several people every year until 2013, after which he reverted to a single MVP in 2014.
Simms was removed from the broadcast booth for the 2017 season and no player of the game was chosen that year.
During the time when NFL Network held the broadcast rights the prime time game, from 2007 to 2011 they gave out the "Pudding Pie Award '' for MVPs. The award was an actual pie. In 2009, NFL Network gave Brandon Marshall a pumpkin pie rather than the chocolate pudding pie of the previous two years.
NBC, which carried Thanksgiving afternoon games through 1997, did not issue an MVP award during that time. NBC began broadcasting the Thanksgiving prime time game in 2012, at which point the MVP award was added. The award is currently called the Sunday Night Football on Thanksgiving Night Player of the Game, and is typically awarded to multiple players on the winning team. From 2012 to 2015, the NBC award was referred to as the "Madden Thanksgiving Player - of - the - Game '', honoring John Madden (who announced NBC games from 2006 to 2008). In the first few years, the award specifically went to players on both offense and defense, but in recent years, defensive players have not necessarily been recognized. The winning players are presented with ceremonial game balls and, as a gesture to Madden, a cooked turkey leg.
DuMont was the first network to televise Thanksgiving games in 1953; CBS took over in 1956, and in 1965, the first ever color television broadcast of an NFL game was the Thanksgiving match between the Lions and the Baltimore Colts.
Starting in 2012, all three broadcast networks with NFL rights will carry one game apiece. The first two games are split between CBS and Fox. These games are rotated annually, with CBS getting the 12: 30 p.m. (EST) "early '' game, and Fox getting the 4: 25 p.m. "late '' game in even - numbered years, while Fox likewise gets the "early '' game and CBS the "late '' game in odd - numbered years. The third game, with a prime time 8: 30 p.m. start, is carried by NBC. The NFL may involve the Flexible Scheduling rule in the future to reassign games if the night game has less importance than the Dallas or Detroit game.
Westwood One holds national radio broadcast rights to all three games, with Compass Media Networks sharing rights to the Cowboys contest. (Under league rules, only radio stations that carry at least 12 Cowboys games in a season are allowed to carry the Compass broadcast.) The participating teams also air the games on their local flagship stations and regional radio networks.
The Cowboys Thanksgiving game has regularly been the most watched NFL regular season telecast each year, with the Lions Thanksgiving game usually in the top five.
|
when was accounting standard board established in india | Indian Accounting Standards - Wikipedia
Indian Accounting Standard (abbreviated as Ind - AS) is the Accounting standard adopted by companies in India and issued under the supervison of Accounting Standards Board (ASB) which was constituted as a body in the year 1977. ASB is a committee under Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) which consists of representatives from government department, academicians, other professional bodies viz. ICAI, representatives from ASSOCHAM, CII, FICCI, etc.
The Ind AS are named and numbered in the same way as the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). National Advisory Committee on Accounting Standards (NACAS) recommend these standards to the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA). MCA has to spell out the accounting standards applicable for companies in India. As on date MCA has notified 41 Ind AS. This shall be applied to the companies of financial year 2015 - 16 voluntarily and from 2016 - 17 on a mandatory basis.
Based on the international consensus, the regulators will separately notify the date of implementation of Ind - AS for the banks, insurance companies etc. Standards for the computation of Tax has been notified as ICDS in February 2015.
India followed accounting standards from Indian Generally Acceptable Accounting Principle (IGAAP) prior to adoption of the Ind - AS.
Companies shall follow Ind AS either Voluntarily or Mandatorily. Once a company follows Indian AS, either mandatorily or voluntarily, it ca n't revert to old method of Accounting.
= = = Mandatory Applicability (1 April 16)
Net worth shall be checked for the previous four Financial Years (2013 - 14, 2014 - 15, 2015 - 16, and 2016 - 17)
Ind - AS is in line with the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS).
Ind - AS 107 deals with disclosures related to financial instruments and related risks and the policies for managing such risks.
|
which state has more it companies in india | Information technology in India - Wikipedia
Information technology in India is an industry consisting of two major components: IT services and business process outsourcing (BPO). The sector has increased its contribution to India 's GDP from 1.2 % in 1998 to 7.5 % in 2012. According to NASSCOM, the sector aggregated revenues of US $ 160 billion in 2017, with export revenue standing at US $ 99 billion and domestic revenue at US $ 48 billion, growing by over 13 %. USA accounts for more than 60 per cent of Indian IT exports.
India 's IT Services industry was born in Mumbai in 1967 with the establishment of the Tata Group in partnership with Burroughs. The first software export zone, SEEPZ -- the precursor to the modern - day IT park -- was established in Mumbai in 1973. More than 80 percent of the country 's software exports were from SEEPZ in the 1980s.
The Indian economy underwent major economic reforms in 1991, leading to a new era of globalization and international economic integration, and annual economic growth of over 6 % from 1993 -- 2002. The new administration under Atal Bihari Vajpayee (who was Prime Minister from 1998 -- 2004) placed the development of Information Technology among its top five priorities and formed the Indian National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development.
Wolcott & Goodman (2003) report on the role of the Indian National Task Force on Information Technology and Software Development:
Within 90 days of its establishment, the Task Force produced an extensive background report on the state of technology in India and an IT Action Plan with 108 recommendations. The Task Force could act quickly because it built upon the experience and frustrations of state governments, central government agencies, universities, and the software industry. Much of what it proposed was also consistent with the thinking and recommendanotions of international bodies like the World Trade Organization (WTO), International Telecommunications Union (ITU), and World Bank. In addition, the Task Force incorporated the experiences of Singapore and other nations, which implemented similar programs. It was less a task of invention than of sparking action on a consensus that had already evolved within the networking community and government.
Regulated VSAT links became visible in 1994. Desai (2006) describes the steps taken to relax regulations on linking in 1991:
In 1991 the Department of Electronics broke this impasse, creating a corporation called Software Technology Parks of India (STPI) that, being owned by the government, could provide VSAT communications without breaching its monopoly. STPI set up software technology parks in different cities, each of which provided satellite links to be used by firms; the local link was a wireless radio link. In 1993 the government began to allow individual companies their own dedicated links, which allowed work done in India to be transmitted abroad directly. Indian firms soon convinced their American customers that a satellite link was as reliable as a team of programmers working in the clients ' office.
Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited (VSNL) introduced Gateway Electronic Mail Service in 1991, the 64 kbit / s leased line service in 1992, and commercial Internet access on a visible scale in 1992. Election results were displayed via National Informatics Centre 's NICNET.
"The New Telecommunications Policy, 1999 '' (NTP 1999) helped further liberalise India 's telecommunications sector. The Information Technology Act, 2000 created legal procedures for electronic transactions and e-commerce.
A joint EU - India group of scholars was formed on 23 November 2001 to further promote joint research and development. On 25 June 2002, India and the European Union agreed to bilateral cooperation in the field of science and technology. India holds observer status at CERN, while a joint India - EU Software Education and Development Center will be located in Bangalore.
In the contemporary world economy India is the second - largest exporter of IT. Exports dominate the Indian IT industry and constitute about 77 % of the industry 's total revenue. However, the domestic market is also significant, with robust revenue growth. The industry 's share of total Indian exports (merchandise plus services) increased from less than 4 % in FY1998 to about 25 % in FY2012. The technologically - inclined services sector in India accounts for 40 % of the country 's GDP and 30 % of export earnings as of 2006, while employing only 25 % of its workforce, according to Sharma (2006). According to Gartner, the "Top Five Indian IT Services Providers '' are Tata Consultancy Services, Infosys, Cognizant, Wipro, and HCL Technologies.
The Indian IT market currently focuses on providing low - cost solutions in the services business of global IT. The presence of Indian companies in the product development business of global IT is very meager, however, this number is slowly on the rise. The other prominent trend is that IT jobs, once confined to Bangalore, are slowly starting to experience a geographical diffusion into other cities like Chennai, Hyderabad and Pune. According to Google estimates, the Indian community of developers will be the largest in the world by 2018.
Research in the industry was earlier concentrated in Programming languages like Java, but in the recent times the research focus has changed towards technologies like Mobile computing, Cloud computing and Software as a Service. This shift is attributed to the preference of clients for ubiquitous computing over standalone computing.
Sharma (2006) states: "Today, Bangalore is known as the Silicon Platuea of India and contributes 38 % of Indian IT Exports. India 's second and third largest software companies are headquartered in Bangalore, as are many of the global Companies. Cities like Hyderabad, Chennai, Pune and Gurgaon are also emerging as technology hubs, with many global IT companies establishing headquarters there. Numerous IT companies are also based in Mumbai.
Gujarat which includes Ahmedabad and Vadodara,
Tamil Nadu which includes Coimbatore and Madurai.
Kerala where 55 % of the exports come from its capital city Trivandrum and the majority of the rest from Kochi. Calicut is also another contributor from the state. Trivandrum houses technology giants like Oracle Corporation, TCS, Infosys, UST Global, Ernst & Young etc. Kochi also houses TCS, Cognizant, Wipro, KPMG, Ernst & Young, EXL, Etisalat, UST Global, Xerox etc.
Andhra Pradesh which includes Vijayawada, Kakinada, Visakhapatnam, and Tirupati.
Kolkata and Durgapur of West Bengal
The IT sector has also led to massive employment generation in India. The industry continues to be a net employment generator -- expected to add 230,000 jobs in fiscal year 2012, thus directly employing about 2.8 million people and indirectly employing 8.9 million, making it a dominant player in the global outsourcing sector. However, it continues to face challenges of competitiveness in the globalised and modern world, particularly from countries like China and Philippines.
India 's growing stature in the Information Age enabled it to form close ties with both the United States and the European Union. However, the recent global financial crises have deeply impacted Indian IT companies as well as global companies. As a result, hiring has dropped sharply, and employees are looking at different sectors like financial services, telecommunications, and manufacturing, which have been growing phenomenally over the last few years.
With fundamental structural changes visible everywhere in the IT services due to Cloud computing, proliferation of Social media, Big data, Analytics all leading to digital services and digital economy, many of the leading companies in India 's IT sector reported lower headcounts in their financial results.
20. http://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Hans/2017-01-04/IT-hub-taking-shape-in-Khammam-125-cr-tower-being-planned/271982 thehansindia.com.
|
what is trade war between china and usa | 2018 China -- United States trade war - Wikipedia
Paramount leader of China
China and the United States are locked in an ongoing trade war as each country has introduced tariffs on goods traded with the other. US President Donald Trump had promised in his campaign to fix China 's "longtime abuse of the broken international system and unfair practices ''. Starting in January 2018 the U.S imposed a tariff on solar panel imports, most of which are manufactured in China. On July 6, the U.S. specifically targeted China by imposing 25 % tariffs on $34 billion of imported Chinese goods as part of Trump 's tariffs policy, which then led China to respond with similarly sized tariffs on U.S. products. A tariff on an additional $16 billion of Chinese imports was added in mid August, with China responding proportionately. A further tariff on $200 billion of Chinese goods went into effect on September 24, to which China responded with tariffs on $60 billion of US goods. The Trump administration said the tariffs were necessary to protect intellectual property of U.S. businesses, and to help reduce the U.S. trade deficit with China.
The U.S. administration is relying partly on Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974 to prevent what it claims are unfair trade practices and theft of intellectual property. This gives the president the authority to unilaterally impose fines or other penalties on a trading partner if it is deemed to be unfairly harming U.S. business interests. Trump had already, in August 2017, opened a formal investigation into attacks on the intellectual property of the U.S. and its allies, the theft of which cost the U.S. alone an estimated $225 -- 600 billion a year.
The United States International Trade Commission publishes all tariffs in the document "Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States ''
Generally, tariffs depends on exporting countries which are treated in one of three different groups:
The tariffs are typically given as a percentage of value, but it can also be given per Kg weight or per unit.
President Trump placed a 30 % tariff on foreign solar panels on January 23, 2018, to be reduced to 15 % after four years. China, the world leader in solar panel manufacture, decried the tariffs. That same day, tariffs of 20 % were placed on washing machines for the first 1.2 million units imported during the year. In 2016, China exported $425 million worth of washers to the United States.
President Trump asked the United States Trade Representative (USTR) investigate applying tariffs on US $50 - 60 billion worth of Chinese goods, on March 22. He relied on Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974 for doing so, stating that the proposed tariffs were "a response to the unfair trade practices of China over the years '', including theft of U.S. intellectual property. Over 1,300 categories of Chinese imports were listed for tariffs, including aircraft parts, batteries, flat - panel televisions, medical devices, satellites, and various weapons.
China responded on April 2 by imposing tariffs on 128 products it imports from America, including aluminum, airplanes, cars, pork, and soybeans (which have a 25 % tariff), as well as fruit, nuts, and steel piping (15 %). On April 5, Trump responded saying that he was considering another round of tariffs on an additional $100 billion of Chinese imports as Beijing retaliates. The next day the World Trade Organization received request from China for consultations on new U.S. tariffs.
Vice Premier Liu He, top economic adviser to Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping, visited Washington from May 15 to 19 for further trade talks. It was reported on May 20 that Chinese officials had agreed to "substantially reduce '' America 's trade deficit with China by committing to "significantly increase '' its purchases of American goods. As a result, Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin announced that "We are putting the trade war on hold ''. White House National Trade Council Director Peter Navarro, however, said that there was no "trade war, '' but that it was a "trade dispute, fair and simple. We lost the trade war long ago. ''
The White House announced on May 29 that it would impose a 25 % tariff on $50 billion of Chinese goods with "industrially significant technology; '' the full list of products affected to be announced by June 15. It also planned to impose investment restrictions and enhanced export controls on certain Chinese individuals and organizations to prevent them from acquiring U.S. technology. China said it would discontinue trade talks with Washington if it imposed trade sanctions. ''
On June 15, Trump declared in a short White House statement that the United States would impose a 25 % tariff on $50 billion of Chinese exports. $34 billion would start July 6, with a further $16 billion to begin at a later date. China 's Commerce Ministry accused the United States of launching a trade war and said China would respond in kind with similar tariffs for US imports, starting on July 6. Three days later, the White House declared that the United States would impose additional 10 % tariffs on another $200 billion worth of Chinese imports if China retaliated against these U.S. tariffs. The list of products included in this round of tariffs was released on July 11 and was set to be implemented within 60 days.
China retaliated almost immediately, threatening its own tariffs on $50 billion of U.S. goods, and claimed the United States had "launched a trade war. '' Import and export markets in a number of nations feared the tariffs would disrupt supply chains which could "ripple around the globe. ''
American tariffs on $34 billion of Chinese goods came into effect on July 6, 2018. China imposed retaliatory tariffs on US goods of a similar value. The tariffs accounted for 0.1 % of the global gross domestic product. On July 10, U.S. released an initial list of the additional $200 billion of Chinese goods that would be subject to a 10 % tariff. China vowed to retaliate with additional tariffs on American goods worth $60 billion annually two days later.
On August 8 the Office of the United States Trade Representative published it 's finalized list of 279 Chinese goods, worth $16 Billion, to be subject to a 25 % tariff from August 23. China responded with its own tariffs of equal value when the American tariffs were implemented on August 23.
On August 14 China filed a complaint with the World Trade Organization (WTO), claiming that US tariffs on foreign solar panels clash with WTO ruling and have destabilised the international market for solar PV products. China claimed the resulting impact directly harmed China 's legitimate trade interests.
US Treasury Under Secretary David Malpass and Chinese Commerce Vice Minister Wang Shouwen met on August 22 in Washington DC in a bid to open up dialogue in response to the intensifying trade war, yet discussions ended with no resolution. By August 23, US implemented a further 25 % of tariffs on $16 billion of goods as promised, which was reciprocated by China. China filed a new WTO complaint against the US as a result of this tariff escalation.
On September 17 the US announced its 10 % tariff on $200 billion worth of Chinese goods would begin on September 24, increasing to 25 % by the end of the year. They also threatened tariffs on an additional $267 billion worth of imports if China retaliates, which China promptly did on September 18 with 10 % tariffs on $60 billion of US imports. So far, China has either imposed or proposed tariffs on $110 billion of U.S. goods, representing most of its imports of American products.
During a campaign speech in June 2016, President Trump vowed to cancel international trade deals and go on an offensive against Chinese economic practices, describing his promise as a reaction against "a leadership class that worships globalism. '' In April 2018, Trump denied that the dispute was actually a trade war, saying "that war was lost many years ago by the foolish, or incompetent, people who represented the U.S. '' He added: "Now we have a trade deficit of $500 billion a year, with intellectual property (IP) theft of another $300 billion. We can not let this continue. ''
In January 2018, Trump said he wanted the United States to have a good relationship with China, but insisted that it treat the United States fairly. In his State of the Union Address a few weeks later, he stated:
America has also finally turned the page on decades of unfair trade deals that sacrificed our prosperity and shipped away our companies, our jobs, and our Nation 's wealth. The era of economic surrender is over. From now on, we expect trading relationships to be fair and to be reciprocal. We will work to fix bad trade deals and negotiate new ones. And we will protect American workers and American intellectual property, through strong enforcement of our trade rules.
A number of government and industry experts have offered their own rationales about why the tariffs are, or are not, appropriate:
John Ferriola, the CEO and President of Nucor, America 's largest steel producer and its largest metal recycler, claimed that tariffs were not unfair, but were "simply leveling the playing field. '' He explained to TV host Jim Cramer, that not only the "European Union, but most countries in the world, have a 25 percent or greater VAT, value - added tax, on products going into their countries from the United States. So if we impose a 25 percent tariff, all we are doing is treating them exactly as they treat us. '' VAT (value added tax) is a sales tax which is charged regardless of origin.
Analyst Zachary Karabell claimed that the administration 's desire to reject long - standing trade consensus in favor of a more nationalist approach will not succeed: "A set of very public and punitive tariffs will not reverse what has already been transferred and will not do much to address the challenge of China today, which is no longer a manufacturing neophyte. ''
Peter Navarro, White House Office of Trade and Manufacturing Policy Director, gave a number of the administration 's explanations for the tariffs, among them are that they are "purely defensive measures. '' He claims that the cumulative trillions of dollars Americans transfer overseas as a result of yearly deficits, are then used by those countries to buy America 's assets, as opposed to investing that money in the U.S. "If we do as we 're doing... those trillions of dollars are in the hands of foreigners that they can then use to buy up America. ''
Richard Trumka, president of the AFL - CIO, which represents over 12 million active and retired workers, said that China has stolen U.S. intellectual property and "bullied its way into acquiring critical U.S. advances in technology. '' He stated in March 2018 that "Tariffs are n't an end goal, but an important tool to end trade practices that kill American jobs and drive down American pay. ''
A number of experts have focused on what they consider China 's "theft '' of intellectual property, and that it forces U.S. firms that want to do business there into transferring its confidential technology and trade secrets before having access to their market. Although that kind of transfer is disallowed by the WTO, the negotiations are usually conducted in secret to avoid penalties. In 2018 the American Chamber of Commerce in China learned that over half its members thought that "leakage of intellectual property '' was an important concern when doing business there. Similarly, the EU Chamber of Commerce has also complained that European companies wanting access to the Chinese market often had to agree to transfer vital technology.
U.S. Trade Representative Robert Lighthizer, after a seven - month investigation into China and intellectual property, explained that the value of the tariffs imposed was based on U.S. estimates of the actual economic damage caused by China 's alleged IP theft and the forced transfer of technology to Chinese companies. In response, Chinese Premier Li Keqiang promised in March 2018 to henceforth protect the rights of foreigners investing in its economy, followed in April by an announcement by China that it would eliminate laws that required global automakers and shipbuilders to work through state - owned partners.
Chinese paramount leader Xi Jinping reiterated those pledges, affirming a desire to increase imports, lower foreign - ownership limits on manufacturing and expand protection to intellectual property, all central issues in Trump 's complaints about their trade imbalance. Trump thanked Xi for his "kind words on tariffs and automobile barriers '' and "his enlightenment '' on intellectual property and technology transfers. "We will make great progress together! '' the president added.
National security experts say Chinese hackers have consistently stolen trade secrets from U.S. defense contractors. This prompted former National Security Agency head Keith Alexander to describe Beijing 's practices as "the greatest transfer of wealth in history. '' He states:
Chinese spies have gone after private defense contractors and subcontractors, national laboratories, public research universities, think tanks and the American government itself. Chinese agents have gone after the United States ' most significant weapons, such as the F - 35 Lightning, the Aegis Combat System and the Patriot missile system; illegally exported unmanned underwater vehicles and thermal - imaging cameras; and stolen documents related to the B - 52 bomber, the Delta IV rocket, the F - 15 fighter and even the Space Shuttle. President Trump 's action on Monday acknowledges the broad scope of the challenge.
In August 2018, U.S. Secretary of Commerce Wilbur Ross said that "at the end of the day, we have many more bullets than they do. They know it. ''
On October 17, 2018, the United States announced their withdrawal from the Universal Postal Union, in order to renegotiate international shipping rates for mail and small postal packages. China had been paying lower rates because it was considered a developing nation; the United States seek to charge the same rates for all countries. The withdrawal can be rescinded if an agreement is found within one year.
U.S. commerce secretary Wilbur Ross said that the planned Chinese tariffs only reflected 0.3 % of U.S. gross domestic product, and press secretary Sarah Huckabee Sanders stated that the moves would have "short - term pain '' but bring "long - term success ''. Nucor 's John Ferriola said that even with the tariffs on steel, the cost of an average $36,000 car would go up about $160, less than 1 / 2 of 1 %, while a can of beer would only cost an extra penny more.
After president Trump imposed tariffs against a number of allies, including Mexico, Canada and countries in the EU, G7 finance leaders strongly condemned the tariffs and planned retaliating with tariffs of their own.
By early July 2018, there were negative and positive results already showing up in the economy as a result of the tariffs, with a number of industries showing employment growth while others were planning on layoffs.
In anticipation of tariffs going into effect, stock prices in the U.S. and China sustained significant losses for four to six weeks prior. Trade war fears had led to a bear market in China where by late June the total value of the country 's stock markets was 20 % lower than it had been at the beginning of 2018 when it reached record levels. The Japanese Nikkei also suffered a "three - week pullback ''. On July 6, when the tariffs went into effect, markets rebounded and rallied due to positive jobs report in the U.S. Asian markets similarly rebounded, ending the day in a high note. According to the Associated Press, the positive reaction to the tariffs in U.S. and Asian markets was because of an end to uncertainty and, according to Investor 's Business Daily, because "markets had largely priced in the impact ''.
Following announcements of escalation of tariffs by the U.S. and China, representatives of several major U.S. industries expressed their fears of the effects on their businesses. Organizations critical of the intensifying trade war included National Pork Producers Council, American Soybean Association, and Retail Industry Leaders Association. Several mayors representing towns with a heavy reliance on the manufacturing sector also expressed their concerns. In September, a business coalition announced a lobbying campaign called "Tariffs Hurt the Heartland '' to protest the proposed tariffs.
Proponents of the increased U.S. tariffs included Scott Paul, president of the Alliance for American Manufacturing.
|
katy perry chained to the rhythm mp3 song | Chained to the Rhythm - wikipedia
"Chained to the Rhythm '' is a song by American singer Katy Perry as the lead single from her fifth studio album, Witness. It features vocals from Jamaican singer Skip Marley. The artists co-wrote the track with its producers Max Martin and Ali Payami, with additional writing from Sia. Capitol Records released the track on February 10, 2017, as a digital download. "Chained to the Rhythm '' is a dancehall and disco song, with lyrics about societal awareness.
The track topped the charts in Croatia, Hungary, Latvia, Poland, and Serbia, while reaching the top 5 in Australia, Brazil, Canada, France, Israel, Lebanon, Romania, Spain, Slovakia, Slovenia, the United Kingdom, and the United States as well as the top 10 in Argentina, Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland.
Mathew Cullen directed the song 's music video, which was released February 21, 2017. It features Perry in an amusement park called "Oblivia ''. It was nominated for three awards at the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards. Perry and Marley have promoted the song with live performances at the 59th Annual Grammy Awards, the 2017 Brit Awards, and the 2017 iHeartRadio Music Awards.
Perry described her fifth album Witness as a "360 - degree liberation '' record, with "Chained to the Rhythm '' representing a "political liberation ''. The singer felt "kind of depressed '' after Donald Trump was elected President of the United States in November 2016, and "definitely did n't want to write a club banger '' when the world was "on fire ''. She "channeled her frustration into new music '' and said creating the track "was a nice exercise of like writing a song that at first listen is a really fun song, but I guess the more you dive into it, it has a different sub-text ''. Skip Marley told Billboard he and Perry made the song together after she heard his track "Lions '' and wanted to collaborate with him. After the two spoke in January 2017, he "delivered the message that I had to deliver '' while recording the track, describing it as "one of unification and love ''.
On February 8, 2017, in a promotional campaign for "Chained to the Rhythm, '' disco balls playing the song were left in various international cities. Capitol Records released the song for download two days later as the album 's lead single and onto American radio stations on February 14. The song earned over three million streams within twenty - four hours of its Spotify release, breaking the record for the highest first - day streaming for a single track by a female artist. Aya Tanimura directed an accompanying lyric video. It features a hamster inside a doll house while a pair of human hands prepares miniature food for the hamster. Erin Jansen from USA Today wrote "we 're shown footage of a hamster running tirelessly on a hamster wheel, a visualization of the popular idiom meaning to perform activities repetitiously without progress. '' She also mentioned that, "Paired with Perry 's lyrics, there 's definitely a message to be absorbed. ''
"Chained to the Rhythm '' is a dancehall and disco song that contains a midtempo beat. Perry co-wrote the track with Marley, Sia Furler, and its producers Max Martin and Ali Payami. It has a length of three minutes and fifty - seven seconds. The song contains "slap bass '' with elements of electric guitar and synths. It features a guest appearance from Marley and background vocals from Furler. According to the sheet music published by Kobalt Music Publishing America, Inc on Musicnotes.com, "Chained to the Rhythm '' is in A minor set in a 4 4 time signature at a moderate tempo of 95 beats per minute. Perry 's vocal range spans from the low note B to the high note G, while the music follows the chord progression of Am -- G / A -- Dm -- F. In the chorus, Perry sings "Turn it up, it 's your favorite song / Dance, dance, dance to the distortion / Come on, turn it up, keep it on repeat / Stumbling around like a wasted zombie / Yeah, we think we 're free / Drink, this one is on me / We 're all chained to the rhythm, to the rhythm, to the rhythm. ''
Jason Newman from Rolling Stone wrote, "Perry injects a subversive element underneath the ostensibly frothy song, lacing her lyrics with ideas of selfish comfortability and complacency. '' Mike Wass of Idolator describes the song as "(a) curious disco / dancehall hybrid. '' Slant Magazine states, "Despite the lightweight vibe '' the track is a "decidedly political statement ''. Lars Brandie from Billboard wrote the track "is built on a bed of warm, slightly - tweaked ' 80s keys and has its energies tuned to the dancefloor. '' Nick Levine of NME also observed political criticism in the lyrics, stating they "appear to be a rallying cry for society to become more politically involved and less complacent. ''
In a positive review, E! 's Samantha Scnurr wrote the song "sounds like a soon - to - be party classic with its easy pulse and disco elements, layered underneath the upbeat veneer, Perry delivers a strong message about awareness and activism -- and, according to her, how it 's lacking. '' NME reviewer Jordan Bassett praised the track as "like Daft Punk, but fun '', and felt the production was "crisp - as - fuck ''. Writing for Vulture.com, Karen Brill was less favorable, questioning if the track was "pretty much just dance, without much subtext? '' Another positive review came from Jason Lipshutz of Billboard, who felt it amplified "Perry 's new musical agenda at a time when she needed one '' with its political themes. According to him, "the single is built around lyrics chastising us for being ' happily numb ' and ' tone deaf, ' and tries to gently puncture the bubble that we create when we drown out the world 's issues. ''
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine praised "Chained to the Rhythm '', writing, "a track with a hook that implores listeners to ' Come on, turn it up / Keep it on repeat ' had better deliver the goods, and this one most definitely does. '' Josh Duboff from Vanity Fair considered the song "a departure from straight - forward firework metaphors and nostalgic teenage romance anthems. '' He noted, "the idea of the song is that we are chained to the ' rhythm, ' perhaps not questioning our daily lives and existences as much as we should be. '' MTV 's Anne T. Donahue gave a positive review for the song, calling it a "hardly new terrain for Perry. '' She described it as a "totally fine song that 's easy to listen and dance to, and one that does justice to her career in pop. ''
NME ranked "Chained to the Rhythm '' as their 17th best song of 2017, praising its "catchy - as - chlamydia '' rhythm and "fine message ''.
In the United States, "Chained to the Rhythm '' debuted and peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100. It was the highest debuting song by a female artist since Adele 's "Hello '' entered at number one on November 14, 2015. It debuted at number three on Digital Songs chart with 108,000 downloads sold in its first week, number 15 on Streaming Songs with 14.7 million US streams, and rose from 35 to 20 on Radio Songs with fifty million in audience after its first full week of tracking. "Chained to the Rhythm '' became Perry 's 14th Hot 100 top 10, and the third - highest - debut of her 25 Hot 100 entries, only behind "Part of Me '' (which debuted at number one in 2012) and "California Gurls '' featuring Snoop Dogg (which debuted at number two in 2010). The track is Perry 's first top 10 since "Dark Horse '' featuring Juicy J. It also became Marley 's first top 10 entry in the nation. The song debuted at number 20 on the Adult Pop Songs chart, where it peaked at number seven. In its fourth week, the song reached 62 million audience impressions and became her 16th top 10 entry on the Pop Songs chart, tying with Maroon 5 and Usher for the most top 10 on the chart, and her first top 10 since "Birthday '' in 2014. It since reached number eight on the Pop Songs chart and number nine on the Radio Songs chart with 65 million audience impressions. As a result, "Chained to the Rhythm '' became her 15th top 10 Radio Songs entry where it became her first to reach the top 10 since "Dark Horse '' topped the chart in 2014. On the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart, it became her 17th consecutive number - one song in the magazine 's April 22, 2017 issue, tying with Mariah Carey for the fifth most number - one entries on the chart and extending her record for most consecutive tracks to top the chart. On May 2, 2017, "Chained to the Rhythm '' was certified plantinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of one million units.
In Canada, the song debuted and peaked at number three on the Canadian Hot 100. On November 7, 2017, Music Canada certified the track Double Platinum for shipments of 160,000 units. In Latvia, the track debuted at number 32 on Latvijas Radio 5, and rose to number five a week later. It ascended to number two the following week, and at the top position during its fourth week on the chart. In Mexico, "Chained to the Rhythm '' debuted at number four on the Mexico Ingles Airplay chart. It rose to number two a week later, and topped the chart during its third week on the chart.
"Chained to the Rhythm '' also became Perry 's 14th top 10 entry in the United Kingdom, where it debuted at number seven on the UK Singles Chart. The following week, it rose to number five in the nation after her performance at the 2017 Brit Awards. The track remained at number five during its third week before descending to number 17 a week later. On April 28, 2017, the British Phonographic Industry certified the song Gold for shipments of 400,000 units.
In Australia, the song reached number four on the ARIA Charts, and certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments of 70,000 units. It also reached number three in France and number eight in New Zealand.
In Russia, "Chained to the Rhythm '' debuted at number 4 on Top Hit Weekly General. It peaked at number two with overall 360,000 plays, became Perry 's only third song to reach it.
On February 18, 2017, Perry released a preview of the music video on her alter ego Kathy Beth Terry 's Twitter account. On February 21, 2017, she released the official music video on Vevo, with Mathew Cullen as director. The video was mostly shot at the Six Flags Magic Mountain theme park in Valencia, Santa Clarita, California, where Perry rides a stylised version of the Full Throttle roller coaster.
The video is set in a futuristic theme park called "Oblivia. '' BBC 's Mark Savage noted the theme is a metaphor for the infinite distractions of modern society. Billboard writer Gil Kaufman wrote that the video has "a number of not - so - subtle hints at Perry 's feelings about the current political climate in the nation. '' The video opens with Perry walking through the gates of the theme park, where she stares at her surroundings in fascination. In the video, the guests are all taking selfies, eating sticks of candy floss in the shape of a nuclear mushroom cloud and crowding around a sign for "the greatest ride in the universe. '' Perry is awestruck until she pricks her finger on a rose stem made of barbed wire. The atomium, which is the Belgian national symbol, can be seen in the first two seconds of the music video. Some of the attractions contain references to the Brighton Palace Pier in the United Kingdom. The giant concrete dome in the park is supposedly a reference to the San Onofre nuclear power plant located on the Pacific coast.
The next scene shows Perry riding a roller coaster. Savage says that actual coaster is called Full Throttle, which has the tallest loop in North America. The scene changes to "The Great American Dream Drop, '' where a young couple snuggles in a tiny house that 's flung high into the air, which then plunges into the ground.
The next scene is a gas station, where men in sailor costumes whisk Perry off her feet. The scene shows people drinking large beakers of flaming "Inferno H O, '' a bright blue, tainted liquid that makes patrons belch. Then a hamster wheel attraction appears, with signs guiding guests to it. Near the end, as she watches a 3D movie, Perry notices a disturbing homogeneity among the guests. Perry finds herself in a giant dance number after Skip Marley emerges from a 3D movie for his cameo. Afterward, Perry sings a panicked final chorus, trapped in the middle of a mindless dance routine. This leads to the final shot of the video, where Perry 's worried face stares into the camera.. At the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards, "Chained to the Rhythm '' was nominated for "Best Pop '', "Best Direction '', and "Best Visual Effects ''.
The music video on YouTube has more than 440 million views as of December 2017.
Perry first sang the track live at the 59th Annual Grammy Awards on February 12, 2017, where she finished by standing in front of the United States Constitution alongside Skip Marley and closed with the message "No hate ''. Ralsa Bruner from Time felt she made "a bold political statement '' with her performance. Billboard editor Jenna Romaine also observed political elements, writing that "it was impossible not to notice its heavily symbolic nature ''. Perry and Marley performed the track again at the 2017 Brit Awards on February 22, alongside two giant puppet skeletons. Writing for The Hollywood Reporter, Meena Jang observed that viewers believed the skeletons resembled Donald Trump and Theresa May, and called the performance "politically charged ''. Adam Boult of The Daily Telegraph also suspected the skeletons resembled Trump and May, though wrote that "The point of the stage dressing might not have been entirely clear -- and Perry refrained from saying anything overtly political ''. Perry and Marley also sang it at the 2017 iHeartRadio Music Awards on March 5, where children surrounded her during the performance and she placed herself in a giant hamster wheel. Teen Vogue contributor Sophie Hirsh surmised it contained "a metaphor for breaking free from the hamster wheel -- esque grind ''. Lexy Perez of The Hollywood Reporter observed that Perry "appeared to make another political statement '' with the performance. Perry herself joked afterwards that it had "a giant orange hamster on the wheel of life ''.
Recording
Management
Personnel
Credits and personnel adapted from Witness album liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
|
dragon ball super black goku saga full episodes | List of Dragon Ball Super episodes - wikipedia
Dragon Ball Super is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation that began airing on July 5, 2015 on Fuji TV. It is the first Dragon Ball television series featuring a new storyline in 18 years. Storywise, the series retells the events of the last two Dragon Ball Z films, Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ', which themselves follow the events of Dragon Ball Z. Afterward, the series proceeds to tell an original story about the exploration of other universes, the reemergence of Future Trunks, and new threats to the Future Earth known as Goku Black and a Supreme Kai from Universe 10 named Zamasu. Later on, Goku, Vegeta, Gohan, Krillin, Android 17, Android 18, Piccolo, Tien, Master Roshi, and a temporarily revived Frieza participate in a universal tournament held by Present Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō to decide the fate of multiple universes. If they lose in the universal tournament then Universe Seven will be erased by Present Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō.
Thirteen pieces of theme music are used: two opening themes and eleven ending themes. The first opening theme song for episodes 1 to 76 is "Chōzetsu Dynamic! '' (超絶 ☆ ダイナミック!, Chōzetsu Dainamikku, "Excellent Dynamic! '') performed by Kazuya Yoshii of The Yellow Monkey. The lyrics were penned by Yukinojo Mori who has written numerous songs for the Dragon Ball series. The second opening theme song for episodes 77 to 131 is "Limit - Break x Survivor '' (限界 突破 × サバイバー, Genkai Toppa x Sabaibā) by Kiyoshi Hikawa. Mori wrote the lyrics for the rock number "Genkai Toppa x Survivor ''. Takafumi Iwasaki composed the music. The first ending theme song for episodes 1 to 12 is "Hello Hello Hello '' (ハロー ハロー ハロー, Harō Harō Harō) by Japanese rock band Good Morning America. The second ending theme song for episodes 13 to 25 is "Starring Star '' (スターリング スター, Sutāringu Sutā) by Key Talk. The third ending theme song for episodes 26 to 36 is "Usubeni '' (薄 紅, "Light Pink '') by Lacco Tower. The fourth ending theme song for episodes 37 to 49 is "Forever Dreaming '' (フォーエバー ドリーミング, Fōebā Dorīmingu) by Czecho No Republic. The fifth ending theme song for episodes 50 to 59 is "Yokayoka Dance '' (よかよか ダンス, Yokayoka Dansu, "It 's Fine Dance '') by idol group Batten Showjo Tai. The sixth ending theme for episodes 60 to 72 is "Chao Han Music '' (炒飯 MUSIC, Chāhan Myūjikku) by Arukara. The seventh ending theme song for episodes 73 to 83 is "Aku no Tenshi to Seigi no Akuma '' (悪 の 天使 と 正義 の 悪魔, An Evil Angel and the Righteous Devil) by THE COLLECTORS. The eighth ending theme song for episodes 84 to 96 is "Boogie Back '' by Miyu Innoue. The ninth ending theme song for episodes 97 to 108 is "Haruka '' by Lacco Tower. The tenth ending theme song for episodes 109 to 121 is "By A 70cm Square Window '' by RottenGraffty. The eleventh ending theme song for episodes 122 to 131 is "Lagrima '' by OnePixcel.
The first series set was released on Japanese Blu - ray and DVD sets that contain twelve episodes each. The first set was released on December 2, 2015. The second set was released on March 2, 2016. The third set was released on July 2, 2016. The fourth set was released on October 10, 2016.
Dragon Ball Super received an English - language dub that premiered on the Toonami channel in Southeast Asia in January 2017. The series has been aired in Israel on Nickelodeon and in Portugal on SIC. Toei Animation Europe announced that Dragon Ball Super would be broadcast in France, Italy, Spain, and English - speaking Africa in Fall 2016. An official English sub of the series would be simulcasted legally on Crunchyroll, Daisuki.net, and Anime Lab beginning October 22, 2016. Funimation announced the company acquired the rights to the series and will be producing an English dub. As well as officially announcing the dub, it was also announced they will be simulcasting the series on their streaming platform, FunimationNow. Funimation 's English dub of Dragon Ball Super began airing on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting on January 7, 2017. ABC Me will begin airing the anime in Australia on November 2, 2018.
The Supreme Kais are surprised that the universe is still intact following the battle, but they fear the worst is still to come. On Earth, Vegeta, Whis, and the others are still standing by while watching the battle. Whis is surprised by the Super Saiyan God 's power and its ability to keep up with his trainee. In space, Goku struggles to keep up with Beerus ' attack, which ultimately ends up in a massive explosion that blinds everyone on Earth. Shortly after, the light clears out, which reveals everything to be as it was prior to the explosion. Beerus explains that he used his full power to negate the explosion, which saved the universe. Seeing it as a perfect opportunity to boast, Mr. Satan arranges to have himself be falsely credited with saving the planet yet again. Despite being at his limit, Goku remains calm, which annoys the God of Destruction. Beerus thinks Goku might have a strategy that he has been hiding, which Goku promptly denies. Goku says that everything he had been doing was improvised as they fought. The Gods quickly power up and continue fighting, but this time both are at their limit. As soon as they start, Goku loses his Super Saiyan God aura and reverts to the ordinary Super Saiyan form. Upon noticing that, Beerus decides to quit. He thinks it is pointless to fight an ordinary Super Saiyan. However, Goku does not notice and keeps going at it. Whis is able to sense Goku 's mortal energy. Whis assumes that the battle has concluded and that Goku has lost. However, Piccolo begs to differ. Surprised that Goku is still able to hit him even after losing his Super Saiyan God form, Beerus surmises that Goku 's body has adjusted to the Super Saiyan God power. This made him stronger in his ordinary form. With or without the Super Saiyan God form, Goku proclaims that it is still him that Beerus is up against. Beerus and Goku resume their battle of Gods.
To counter Goku 's increase in power, Kefla powers up to Super Saiyan 2, and the two of them face off. Goku still easily dodges Kefla 's attacks, but his own attacks are not strong enough to take her down. Whis explains that when Goku launches his attacks, it interferes with his concentration and prevents him from using Ultra Instinct to its full potential. Jiren senses the energy from the battle, which prompts him to awaken from his meditation and rejoin Top and Dyspo. Vegeta realizes that Ultra Instinct is the level of skill that Whis was training him and Goku to attain, and decides that he must reach it too. Goku begins running low on stamina, so he declares that he will end the fight with his next attack. Kefla panics and unleashes a multitude of deadly energy beams. Her ultimate attack devastates the ring, but Goku easily dodges her blasts while charging a Kamehameha. Goku jumps into the air, so Kefla focuses all of her power into a single blast and launches it at him, taking advantage of his apparent inability to dodge. However, he backflips and uses the charged - up energy to slide over her attack, and launches his Kamehameha at point - blank range, blasting Kefla out of the ring and eliminating her. Her Potara earrings shatter, and she splits back into Kale and Caulifla. With both of them eliminated, Saonel and Pirina are the only remaining warriors from Team Universe 6.
|
what happened in the last episode of hey arnold | List of Hey Arnold! Episodes - wikipedia
Hey Arnold! is an American animated television series created by Craig Bartlett that aired on Nickelodeon from October 7, 1996 to June 8, 2004. The show centers on a fourth grader named Arnold, who lives with his grandparents in an inner - city boarding house. A total of 100 episodes aired over the course of 5 seasons. Hey Arnold!: The Movie, a feature - length film based on the series, was released theatrically on June 28, 2002. Hey Arnold!: The Jungle Movie, a television film based on the series, premiered on November 24, 2017 on Nickelodeon.
Arnold accidentally knocks out a bully named Harold during a baseball game, and Harold gives Arnold 24 hours to live before he beats him to a pulp.
Save the Tree: Arnold and the gang must stop Big Bob from chopping down the oldest tree in town. New Teacher: When the kids make their new teacher, Mr. Simmons, quit his job, the replacement makes them realize what they lost.
Longest Monday: Schoolyard tradition has it that on the first Monday of June each year, the fifth graders throw the fourth graders into trash cans. So, Arnold and Gerald try to make a run for it. As more people are thrown into trash cans and the fifth graders know all the routes, Arnold and Gerald find out eluding the fifth graders is harder that they thought. Eugene 's Pet: After Arnold accidentally kills Eugene 's fish with a yo - yo, he must do something to make up for it.
Casa Paradiso: When an irritated Grandpa Phil decides to sell the boarding house to go live in a condo, Arnold and the boarders try to get him to change his mind. Gerald 's Tonsils: Gerald 's voice is deepened after having his tonsils out, just a few days before the school recital.
Phoebe Takes the Fall: Helga demands that Phoebe lose a quiz competition to impress her competitive father. The Pig War: Arnold, Grandpa, and friends reenact the Pig War.
Crabby Author: Arnold does his school report on an author he likes, only to find out that she 's a grumpy, old hag. Rich Kid: Lorenzo, a neurotic rich kid, comes to P.S. 118. All the kids try to help him become an average kid.
Full Moon: Harold, Sid and Stinky all moon Principal Wartz, but Arnold is blamed, even though he was just an innocent bystander. Student Teacher: Helga 's sister Olga comes home for spring break and becomes a classroom aid in Helga 's class, much to Helga 's chagrin.
The last ten episodes of this season first aired in 2002 on Ketnet in Belgium, in English with Dutch subtitles.
Parents ' Day: It is time for the school 's annual "Parents ' Day '', a weekend of competition with teams of a kid and their parents. Arnold feels odd about bringing his grandparents, as they are his parents, who he has not seen since he was a baby. After Big Bob calls Arnold an "orphan boy '', Arnold asks Grandpa Phil what really happened with his parents, and he finds out that they disappeared after they left the country on a plane, delivering medicine, although they might still be alive. Arnold continues on with Parent 's Day, with Phil and Gertie. He realizes even though they are not his parents, they raised him and made him who he is, which is what parents do.
Gerald 's Game: Gerald is involved with his new favorite game, which Arnold dislikes. Fishing Trip: Arnold, Gerald, Harold, Sid and Eugene go on a fishing trip with their fathers and Phil.
The Journal: Arnold finds a journal describing the adventures of his parents in the jungle, their marriage, Arnold 's birth, and other details of their life. On the final page, it contains a map showing where they had to go after they left him to deliver medicine to the people of the jungle. Note: This is copyrighted 2001. Last episode produced; originally designed as a cliffhanger as a lead - in to "The Jungle Movie '', a theatrical feature that was cancelled and years later revived as a two - part television movie.
Ghost Bride: Gerald tells the story of the Ghost Bride, Cynthia Snell, and how she brutally murdered her fiance after he left her waiting at the altar and married her sister, who she also murdered. When the police came to the scene, she was still there, sitting in a rocking chair, in her wedding gown, tossing rice on the bodies as she hummed the ' Wedding March '. She also happens to be buried in the cemetery near the gang 's neighborhood, and supposedly comes back from the dead every anniversary of the murders. Arnold, Gerald, Eugene, Harold, Sid, and Stinky are scared twice by Helga and Curly, each pretending to be the Ghost Bride (Helga because she wanted to get back at the boys for not inviting her, and Curly because he was jealous he did not get to tell a ghost story). At the end, the real Cynthia Snell finally appears. Gerald vs. Jamie O: Gerald gets jealous because he thinks Jamie O. is trying to steal the girl he likes, when, actually, the girl likes Jamie O, and using Gerald to get close to him.
|
can you buy beer on sunday in ok | Alcohol laws of Oklahoma - wikipedia
The alcohol laws of Oklahoma comprehensively limit and regulate the sale of alcohol in Oklahoma. Much like its neighboring state of Kansas (see Alcohol laws of Kansas), Oklahoma 's approach to alcohol is quite strict. Oklahoma 's approach contrasts sharply with that of another neighboring state, Missouri (see Alcohol laws of Missouri), which has some of the nation 's least restrictive alcohol control laws.
Any beverage containing more than 3.2 % ethanol by weight or 4 % alcohol by volume, that is, most liquors, wines, and typical beer, may only be sold in licensed liquor stores at room temperature. However, pending the ballot results for Oklahoma Question 792 on Election Day in November 2016 may allow any establishment with an alcohol license to sell full strength beer as well as wine under refrigeration.
To circumvent the alcohol content restrictions, beer distributors in Oklahoma primarily sell low - point beer. This allows the beer to be sold not only in convenience stores and supermarkets, but in refrigerated form. The law defines low - point beer as any beverage containing between 0.5 % and 3.2 % ethanol by weight.
Minors under the age of 21 are not permitted to possess or purchase alcohol; however, consumption in a "private setting '' is not prohibited by Oklahoma law. Minors may not have a blood alcohol level of more than. 02 %.
Under Oklahoma law, it is a felony to provide alcoholic beverages to the "mentally deficient, '' the intoxicated, and persons under 21 years of age. Although low - point beer may not be sold where unclothed persons or persons with exposed private parts are present on the same premises, alcohol sales are available by the glass if permitted by the county. Conviction of this crime is a misdemeanor punishable by a fine of up to $500 for each offense.
It is illegal to sell packaged liquor (off - premises sales) on Sundays. Sales also are prohibited on Memorial Day, Independence Day, Labor Day, Thanksgiving Day, and Christmas Day. Low - point beer for consumption off - premises may not be sold between 2: 00 a.m. and 6: 00 a.m.
People who have been convicted of a felony or any alcohol - related crime may not obtain a license to sell packaged alcohol.
In Oklahoma, each county decides for itself whether it will permit the sale of alcohol by the glass. Low - point beer may not be sold for consumption on - premises or allowed to be consumed in places licensed to sell alcohol between 2: 00 a.m. and 7: 00 a.m. This crime is punishable by a fine of up to $500 and up to 6 months imprisonment.
Licensed vendors may not advertise happy hours, serve more than two beverages at a time to a customer, give a discount to a person or group of persons, or permit the play of games that involve drinking.
It is illegal to consume or inhale intoxicating beverages in public in Oklahoma. It also is illegal to be drunk or intoxicated in any public place. These crimes are punishable by a fine of between $10 and $100 and between 5 and 30 days of imprisonment. These crimes may cost more as fines to individual cities rather than the state (e.g. Stillwater and Oklahoma City).
Opened bottles or any alcoholic beverage with a broken seal may not be stored in an area of the vehicle accessible to the driver. As a result, Oklahoma meets the provisions of the federal Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century for prohibitions of open containers in vehicles.
Like every other state in the United States, driving under the influence is a crime in Oklahoma, and is subject to a great number of regulations. It is illegal to drive with a blood or breath alcohol content of 0.08 % or more, or while under the influence of alcohol or any other intoxicating substance. For any person under 21 years of age, Oklahoma has a zero tolerance policy. The breath alcohol limit for such a person is 0.02 %, and any measurable level of alcohol by a breathalyzer is an automatic DUI and driver 's license revocation. This crime is punishable by a fine of up $1,000 US dollars and up to 1 year imprisonment after being evaluated by a person certified by the Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse.
It is a misdemeanor for persons under 21 years of age to give the impression that they are older for the purpose of obtaining alcoholic beverages. Punishment for this crime is a fine of up to $300 and up to 30 days of community service. Furthermore, the driving license of the convicted individual will be revoked for 6 months for the first offense, 1 year for the second offense, and 2 years for all subsequent offenses, alternatively for any offense they can have their license revoked until they reach 21 years of age at the discretion of the judge.
Landowners can not lawfully permit a person under 21 years of age to consume alcohol on their property. Punishment for this crime is a fine between $2,500 and $5,000 and up to 5 years of imprisonment.
If a minor is pulled over and charged by an officer to be in violation of any alcohol law, a copy of the violation will be mailed to the legal guardian (s) of the child within three days.
|
who was allowed to participate in the colonial government of pennsylvania | Province of Pennsylvania - wikipedia
Welsh, Unami, Susquehannock, Munsee
The Province of Pennsylvania, also known as the Pennsylvania Colony, was founded in English North America by William Penn on March 4, 1681 as dictated in a royal charter granted by King Charles II. The name Pennsylvania, which translates roughly as "Penn 's Woods '', was created by combining the Penn surname (in honor of William 's father, Admiral Sir William Penn) with the Latin word sylvania, meaning "forest land. '' The Province of Pennsylvania was one of the two major Restoration colonies, the other being the Province of Carolina. The proprietary colony 's charter remained in the hands of the Penn family until the American Revolution, when the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was created and became one of the original thirteen states.
The colonial government, established in 1682 by Penn 's Frame of Government, consisted of an appointed Governor, the proprietor (William Penn), a 72 - member Provincial Council, and a larger General Assembly. The General Assembly, also known as the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly, was the largest and most representative branch of government, but had little power.
Succeeding Frames of Government, also known as the Charter of Privileges, were produced in 1683, 1696 and 1701. The fourth Frame (Charter of Privileges) remained in effect until the American Revolution. At that time, the Provincial Assembly was deemed too moderate by the revolutionaries, who ignored the Assembly and held a convention which produced the Constitution of 1776 for the newly established Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, creating a new General Assembly in the process.
William Penn (14 October 1644 -- 30 July 1718) was an English real estate entrepreneur, philosopher, early Quaker and founder of the Province of Pennsylvania, the English North American colony and the future Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. He was an early advocate of democracy and religious freedom, notable for his good relations and successful treaties with the Lenape Indians. Under his direction, the city of Philadelphia was planned and developed.
The province was divided first into 5 counties, plus the three "lower counties on Delaware Bay. '' The easternmost, Bucks County, extended northwest from Bensalem all the way to what is currently Bradford County, and included not only present - day Bucks County, but also the Poconos, the Lehigh Valley, and Carbon and part of Schuylkill County. Philadelphia County is present - day Philadelphia City (which also happens to be its own county). Montgomery County was west of Bucks and northwest of Philadelphia, and extended along the Schuylkill River to the area presently known as Minersville, in Schuylkill County. Chester County extended along the southern border of Pennsylvania (the Mason -- Dixon line) from Marcus Hook to the western border of the province. The remainder of the province, which is now North Central and Northwestern Pennsylvania, was part of an enlarged Northumberland County (Northumberland County presently sits between Harrisburg and Wilkes - Barre along the Susquehanna River).
"The lower counties on Delaware, '' a separate colony within the province, constituted the same three counties that constitute the present State of Delaware: New Castle, the northernmost, Sussex, the southernmost, and Kent, which fell between New Castle and Sussex County. Their borders remain unchanged to this day.
William Penn and his fellow Quakers heavily imprinted their religious values on the early Pennsylvanian government. The Charter of Privileges extended religious freedom to everyone monotheists and government was initially open to all Christians. Until the French and Indian War Pennsylvania had no military, few taxes and no public debt. It also encouraged the rapid growth of Philadelphia into America 's most important city, and of the Pennsylvania Dutch Country hinterlands, where German (or "Deutsch '') religions and political refugees prospered on the fertile soil and spirit of cultural creativeness. Among the first groups were the Mennonites, who founded Germantown in 1683; and the Amish, who established the Northkill Amish Settlement in 1740. 1751 was an auspicious year for the colony. Pennsylvania Hospital, the first hospital in the British American colonies, and The Academy and College of Philadelphia, the predecessor to the private University of Pennsylvania, both opened. Benjamin Franklin founded both of these institutions along with Philadelphia 's Union Fire Company fifteen years earlier in 1736. Likewise in 1751, the Pennsylvania State House ordered a new bell which would become known as the Liberty Bell for the new bell tower being built in the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia. They all were Quakers Quakers mean they are peaceful and had religious freedom so they could chose any religion.
William Penn had mandated fair dealings with Native Americans. This led to significantly better relations with the local Native tribes (mainly the Lenape and Susquehanna) than most other colonies had. The Quakers had previously treated Indians with respect, bought land from them voluntarily, and had even representation of Indians and Whites on juries. According to Voltaire, the Shackamaxon Treaty was "the only treaty between Indians and Christians that was never sworn to and that was never broken. '' The Quakers also refused to provide any assistance to New England 's Indian wars.
In 1737, the Colony exchanged a great deal of its political goodwill with the native Lenape for more land. The colonial administrators claimed that they had a deed dating to the 1680s in which the Lenape - Delaware had promised to sell a portion of land beginning between the junction of the Delaware River and Lehigh River (present Easton, Pennsylvania) "as far west as a man could walk in a day and a half. '' This purchase has become known as the Walking Purchase. Although the document was most likely a forgery, the Lenape did not realize that. Provincial Secretary James Logan set in motion a plan that would grab as much land as they could possibly get and hired the three fastest runners in the colony to run out the purchase on a trail which had been cleared by other members of the colony beforehand. The pace was so intense that only one runner actually completed the "walk, '' covering an astonishing 70 miles (110 km). This netted the Penns 1,200,000 acres (4,900 km) of land in what is now northeastern Pennsylvania, an area roughly equivalent to the size of the state of Rhode Island in the purchase. The area of the purchase covers all or part of what are now Pike, Monroe, Carbon, Schuylkill, Northampton, Lehigh and Bucks counties. The Lenape tribe fought for the next 19 years to have the treaty annulled, but to no avail. The Lenape - Delaware were forced into the Shamokin and Wyoming Valleys, which were already overcrowded with other displaced tribes.
As the colony grew, colonists and British military forces came into confrontation with Natives in the Western half of the state. Britain fought for control of the neighboring Ohio Country with France during the French and Indian War, and following the British victory the territory was formally ceded to them in 1763 and became part of the British Empire.
With the war just over and Pontiac 's War beginning, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 banned colonization beyond the Appalachian Mountains in an effort to prevent settlers settling lands which the Native Americans considered their own. This proclamation affected Pennsylvanians and Virginians the most, as they had been racing towards the lands surrounding Fort Pitt (modern - day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania).
The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, consisting of the Chief Justice and at least one other judge, was founded in 1722 and sat in Philadelphia twice a year.
Coordinates: 40 ° 17 ′ 46 '' N 75 ° 30 ′ 32 '' W / 40.296 ° N 75.509 ° W / 40.296; - 75.509
|
where did the name trail of tears come from | Trail of Tears - wikipedia
Cherokee (4,000) Creek Seminole (3,000 in Second Seminole War - 1835 - 1842) Chickasaw (3,500)
The Trail of Tears was a series of forced removals of Native American nations from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States to an area west of the Mississippi River that had been designated as Indian Territory. The forced relocations were carried out by various government authorities following the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830. The relocated people suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while en route, and more than four thousand died before reaching their various destinations. The removal included members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations. The phrase "Trail of Tears '' originated from a description of the removal of the Cherokee Nation in 1838.
Between 1830 and 1850, the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, and Cherokee people (including mixed - race and black freedmen and slaves who lived among them) were forcibly removed from their traditional lands in the Southeastern United States, and relocated farther west. Those Native Americans that were relocated were forced to march to their destinations by state and local militias.
The Cherokee removal in 1838 (the last forced removal east of the Mississippi) was brought on by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia in 1828, resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush. Approximately 2,000 - 6,000 of the 16,543 relocated Cherokee perished along the way.
In 1830, a group of Indians collectively referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes, the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee, and Seminole, were living as autonomous nations in what would be later called the American Deep South. The process of cultural transformation, as proposed by George Washington and Henry Knox, was gaining momentum, especially among the Cherokee and Choctaw.
American settlers had been pressuring the federal government to remove Indians from the Southeast; many settlers were encroaching on Indian lands, while others wanted more land made available to white settlers. Although the effort was vehemently opposed by many, including U.S. Congressman Davy Crockett of Tennessee, President Andrew Jackson was able to gain Congressional passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the government to extinguish Indian title to lands in the Southeast.
In 1831, the Choctaw became the first Nation to be removed, and their removal served as the model for all future relocations. After two wars, many Seminoles were removed in 1832. The Creek removal followed in 1834, the Chickasaw in 1837, and lastly the Cherokee in 1838. Many Indians remained in their ancestral homelands; some Choctaw are found in Mississippi, Creek in Alabama and Florida, Cherokee in North Carolina, and Seminole in Florida; a small group had moved to the Everglades and were never defeated by the United States government. A limited number of non-Indians, including some of African descent (some as slaves, and others as spouses or freedmen), also accompanied the Indians on the trek westward. By 1837, 46,000 Indians from the southeastern states had been removed from their homelands, thereby opening 25 million acres (100,000 km) for predominantly white settlement.
Prior to 1830, the fixed boundaries of these autonomous tribal nations, comprising large areas of the United States, were subject to continual cession and annexation, in part due to pressure from squatters and the threat of military force in the newly declared U.S. territories -- federally administered regions whose boundaries supervened upon the Native treaty claims. As these territories became U.S. states, state governments sought to dissolve the boundaries of the Indian nations within their borders, which were independent of state jurisdiction, and to expropriate the land therein. These pressures were exacerbated by U.S. population growth and the expansion of slavery in the South, with the rapid development of cotton cultivation in the uplands following the invention of the cotton gin.
The removals, conducted under Presidents Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren, followed the Indian Removal Act of 1830. The Act provided the President with powers to exchange land with Native tribes and provide infrastructure improvements on the existing lands. The law also gave the president power to pay for transportation costs to the West, should tribes choose to relocate. The law did not, however, allow the President to force tribes to move West without a mutually agreed - upon treaty.
In the years following the Act, the Cherokee filed several lawsuits regarding conflicts with the state of Georgia. Some of these cases reached the Supreme Court, the most influential being Worcester v. Georgia (1832). Samuel Worcester and other non-Indians were convicted by Georgia law for residing in Cherokee territory in the state of Georgia, without a license. Worcester was sentenced to prison for four years and appealed the ruling, arguing that this sentence violated treaties made between Indian nations and the United States federal government by imposing state laws on Cherokee lands. The Court ruled in Worcester 's favor, declaring that the Cherokee Nation was subject only to federal law and that the Supremacy Clause barred legislative interference by the state of Georgia. Chief Justice Marshall argued, "The Cherokee nation, then, is a distinct community occupying its own territory in which the laws of Georgia can have no force. The whole intercourse between the United States and this Nation, is, by our constitution and laws, vested in the government of the United States. ''
Andrew Jackson did not listen to the Supreme Court mandate barring Georgia from intruding on Cherokee lands. He feared that enforcement would lead to open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia, which would compound the ongoing crisis in South Carolina and lead to a broader civil war. Instead, he vigorously negotiated a land exchange treaty with the Cherokee. Political opponents Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams, who supported the Worcester decision, were outraged by Jackson 's refusal to uphold Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia. Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote an account of Cherokee assimilation into the American culture, declaring his support of the Worcester decision.
Jackson chose to continue with Indian removal, and negotiated The Treaty of New Echota, on December 29, 1835, which granted Cherokee Indians two years to move to Indian Territory (modern Oklahoma). Only a fraction of the Cherokees left voluntarily. The U.S. government, with assistance from state militias, forced most of the remaining Cherokees west in 1838. The Cherokees were temporarily remanded in camps in eastern Tennessee. In November, the Cherokee were broken into groups of around 1,000 each and began the journey west. They endured heavy rains, snow, and freezing temperatures.
When the Cherokee negotiated the Treaty of New Echota, they exchanged all their land east of the Mississippi for land in modern Oklahoma and a $5 million payment from the federal government. Many Cherokee felt betrayed that their leadership accepted the deal, and over 16,000 Cherokee signed a petition to prevent the passage of the treaty. By the end of the decade in 1840, tens of thousands of Cherokee and other tribes had been removed from their land east of the Mississippi River. The Creek, Choctaw, Seminole, and Chicksaw were also relocated under the Indian Removal Act of 1830. One Choctaw leader portrayed the removal as "A Trail of Tears and Deaths '', a devastating event that removed most of the Native population of the southeastern United States from their traditional homelands.
The latter forced relocations have sometimes been referred to as "death marches '', in particular with reference to the Cherokee march across the Midwest in 1838, which occurred on a predominantly land route.
Indians who had the means initially provided for their own removal. Contingents that were led by conductors from the U.S. Army included those led by Edward Deas, who was claimed to be a sympathizer for the Cherokee plight. The largest death toll from the Cherokee forced relocation comes from the period after the May 23, 1838 deadline. This was at the point when the remaining Cherokee were rounded into camps and pressed into oversized detachments, often over 700 in size (larger than the populations of Little Rock or Memphis at that time). Communicable diseases spread quickly through these closely quartered groups, killing many. These contingents were among the last to move, but following the same routes the others had taken; the areas they were going through had been depleted of supplies due to the vast numbers that had gone before them. The marchers were subject to extortion and violence along the route. In addition, these final contingents were forced to set out during the hottest and coldest months of the year, killing many. Exposure to the elements, disease and starvation, harassment by local frontiersmen, and insufficient rations similarly killed up to one - third of the Choctaw and other nations on the march.
There exists some debate among historians and the affected tribes as to whether the term "Trail of Tears '' should be used to refer to the entire history of forced relocations from the United States east of the Mississippi into Indian Territory (as was the stated U.S. policy), or to the Five Tribes described above, to the route of the land march specifically, or to specific marches in which the remaining holdouts from each area were rounded up.
The territorial boundaries claimed as sovereign and controlled by the Indian nations living in what were then known as the Indian Territories -- the portion of the early United States west of the Mississippi River not yet claimed or allotted to become Oklahoma -- were fixed and determined by national treaties with the United States federal government. These recognized the tribal governments as dependent but internally sovereign, or autonomous nations under the sole jurisdiction of the federal government.
While retaining their tribal governance, which included a constitution or official council in tribes such as the Iroquois and Cherokee, many portions of the southeastern Indian nations had become partially or completely economically integrated into the economy of the region. This included the plantation economy in states such as Georgia, and the possession of slaves. These slaves were also forcibly relocated during the process of removal. A similar process had occurred earlier in the territories controlled by the Confederacy of the Six Nations in what is now upstate New York prior to the British invasion and subsequent U.S. annexation of the Iroquois nation.
Under the history of U.S. treaty law, the territorial boundaries claimed by federally recognized tribes received the same status under which the Southeastern tribal claims were recognized; until the following establishment of reservations of land, determined by the federal government, which were ceded to the remaining tribes by de jure treaty, in a process that often entailed forced relocation. The establishment of the Indian Territory and the extinguishment of Indian land claims east of the Mississippi anticipated the establishment of the U.S. Indian reservation system. It was imposed on remaining Indian lands later in the 19th century.
The statutory argument for Indian sovereignty persisted until the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), that (e.g.) the Cherokee were not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore not entitled to a hearing before the court. However, in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the court re-established limited internal sovereignty under the sole jurisdiction of the federal government, in a ruling that both opposed the subsequent forced relocation and set the basis for modern U.S. case law.
While the latter ruling was defied by Jackson, the actions of the Jackson administration were not isolated because state and federal officials had violated treaties without consequence, often attributed to military exigency, as the members of individual Indian nations were not automatically United States citizens and were rarely given standing in any U.S. court.
Jackson 's involvement in what became known as the Trail of Tears can not be ignored. In a speech regarding Indian removal, Jackson said, "It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites; free them from the power of the States; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way and under their own rude institutions; will retard the progress of decay, which is lessening their numbers, and perhaps cause them gradually, under the protection of the Government and through the influence of good counsels, to cast off their savage habits and become an interesting, civilized, and Christian community. '' According to Jackson, the move would be nothing but beneficial for all parties. His point of view garnered support from many Americans, many of whom would benefit economically from the removal.
This was compounded by the fact that while citizenship tests existed for Indians living in newly annexed areas before and after forced relocation, individual U.S. states did not recognize tribal land claims, only individual title under State law, and distinguished between the rights of white and non-white citizens, who often had limited standing in court; and Indian removal was carried out under U.S. military jurisdiction, often by state militias. As a result, individual Indians who could prove U.S. citizenship were nevertheless displaced from newly annexed areas. The military actions and subsequent treaties enacted by Jackson 's and Martin Van Buren 's administrations pursuant to the 1830 law, which Tennessee Congressman Davy Crockett had unsuccessfully voted against, are widely considered to have directly caused the expulsion or death of a substantial part of the Indian population then living in the southeastern United States.
The Choctaw nation occupied large portions of what are now the U.S. states of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. After a series of treaties starting in 1801, the Choctaw nation was reduced to 11,000,000 acres (45,000 km). The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek ceded the remaining country to the United States and was ratified in early 1831. The removals were only agreed to after a provision in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek allowed some Choctaw to remain. George W. Harkins wrote to the citizens of the United States before the removals were to commence:
It is with considerable diffidence that I attempt to address the American people, knowing and feeling sensibly my incompetency; and believing that your highly and well improved minds would not be well entertained by the address of a Choctaw. But having determined to emigrate west of the Mississippi river this fall, I have thought proper in bidding you farewell to make a few remarks expressive of my views, and the feelings that actuate me on the subject of our removal... We as Choctaws rather chose to suffer and be free, than live under the degrading influence of laws, which our voice could not be heard in their formation.
United States Secretary of War Lewis Cass appointed George Gaines to manage the removals. Gaines decided to remove Choctaws in three phases starting in 1831 and ending in 1833. The first was to begin on November 1, 1831 with groups meeting at Memphis and Vicksburg. A harsh winter would batter the emigrants with flash floods, sleet, and snow. Initially the Choctaws were to be transported by wagon but floods halted them. With food running out, the residents of Vicksburg and Memphis were concerned. Five steamboats (the Walter Scott, the Brandywine, the Reindeer, the Talma, and the Cleopatra) would ferry Choctaws to their river - based destinations. The Memphis group traveled up the Arkansas for about 60 miles (100 km) to Arkansas Post. There the temperature stayed below freezing for almost a week with the rivers clogged with ice, so there could be no travel for weeks. Food rationing consisted of a handful of boiled corn, one turnip, and two cups of heated water per day. Forty government wagons were sent to Arkansas Post to transport them to Little Rock. When they reached Little Rock, a Choctaw chief referred to their trek as a "trail of tears and death. '' The Vicksburg group was led by an incompetent guide and was lost in the Lake Providence swamps.
Alexis de Tocqueville, the French philosopher, witnessed the Choctaw removals while in Memphis, Tennessee in 1831,
In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and destruction, something which betrayed a final and irrevocable adieu; one could n't watch without feeling one 's heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil, but sombre and taciturn. There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be free, '' he answered, could never get any other reason out of him. We... watch the expulsion... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples.
Nearly 17,000 Choctaws made the move to what would be called Indian Territory and then later Oklahoma. About 2,500 -- 6,000 died along the trail of tears. Approximately 5,000 -- 6,000 Choctaws remained in Mississippi in 1831 after the initial removal efforts. The Choctaws who chose to remain in newly formed Mississippi were subject to legal conflict, harassment, and intimidation. The Choctaws "have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died. '' The Choctaws in Mississippi were later reformed as the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians and the removed Choctaws became the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. The Choctaws were the first to sign a removal treaty presented by the federal government. President Andrew Jackson wanted strong negotiations with the Choctaws in Mississippi, and the Choctaws seemed much more cooperative than Andrew Jackson had imagined. When commissioners and Choctaws came to negotiation agreements it was said the United States would bear the expense of moving their homes and that they had to be removed within two and a half years of the signed treaty.
The U.S. acquired Florida from Spain via the Adams -- Onís Treaty and took possession in 1821. In 1832 the Seminoles were called to a meeting at Payne 's Landing on the Ocklawaha River. The treaty negotiated called for the Seminoles to move west, if the land were found to be suitable. They were to be settled on the Creek reservation and become part of the Creek tribe, who considered them deserters; some of the Seminoles had been derived from Creek bands but also from other tribes. Those among the tribe who once were members of Creek bands did not wish to move west to where they were certain that they would meet death for leaving the main band of Creek Indians. The delegation of seven chiefs who were to inspect the new reservation did not leave Florida until October 1832. After touring the area for several months and conferring with the Creeks who had already settled there, the seven chiefs signed a statement on March 28, 1833 that the new land was acceptable. Upon their return to Florida, however, most of the chiefs renounced the statement, claiming that they had not signed it, or that they had been forced to sign it, and in any case, that they did not have the power to decide for all the tribes and bands that resided on the reservation. The villages in the area of the Apalachicola River were more easily persuaded, however, and went west in 1834. On December 28, 1835 a group of Seminoles and blacks ambushed a U.S. Army company marching from Fort Brooke in Tampa to Fort King in Ocala, killing all but three of the 110 army troops. This came to be known as the Dade Massacre.
As the realization that the Seminoles would resist relocation sank in, Florida began preparing for war. The St. Augustine Militia asked the War Department for the loan of 500 muskets. Five hundred volunteers were mobilized under Brig. Gen. Richard K. Call. Indian war parties raided farms and settlements, and families fled to forts, large towns, or out of the territory altogether. A war party led by Osceola captured a Florida militia supply train, killing eight of its guards and wounding six others. Most of the goods taken were recovered by the militia in another fight a few days later. Sugar plantations along the Atlantic coast south of St. Augustine were destroyed, with many of the slaves on the plantations joining the Seminoles.
Other warchiefs such as Halleck Tustenuggee, Jumper, and Black Seminoles Abraham and John Horse continued the Seminole resistance against the army. The war ended, after a full decade of fighting, in 1842. The U.S. government is estimated to have spent about $20,000,000 on the war, at the time an astronomical sum, and equal to $496,344,828 today. Many Indians were forcibly exiled to Creek lands west of the Mississippi; others retreated into the Everglades. In the end, the government gave up trying to subjugate the Seminole in their Everglades redoubts and left fewer than 100 Seminoles in peace. However, other scholars state that at least several hundred Seminoles remained in the Everglades after the Seminole Wars.
As a result of the Seminole Wars, the surviving Seminole band of the Everglades claims to be the only federally recognized tribe which never relinquished sovereignty or signed a peace treaty with the United States.
In general the American people tended to view the Indian resistance as unwarranted. An article published by the Virginia Enquirer on January 26, 1836, called the "Hostilities of the Seminoles '', assigned all the blame for the violence that came from the Seminole 's resistance to the Seminoles themselves. The article accuses the Indians of not staying true to their word -- the promises they supposedly made in the treaties and negotiations from the Indian Removal Act.
After the War of 1812, some Muscogee leaders such as William McIntosh signed treaties that ceded more land to Georgia. The 1814 signing of the Treaty of Fort Jackson signaled the end for the Creek Nation and for all Indians in the South. Friendly Creek leaders, like Selocta and Big Warrior, addressed Sharp Knife (the Indian nickname for Andrew Jackson) and reminded him that they keep the peace. Nevertheless, Jackson retorted that they did not "cut (Tecumseh 's) throat '' when they had the chance, so they must now cede Creek lands. Jackson also ignored Article 9 of the Treaty of Ghent that restored sovereignty to Indians and their nations.
Jackson opened this first peace session by faintly acknowledging the help of the friendly Creeks. That done, he turned to the Red Sticks and admonished them for listening to evil counsel. For their crime, he said, the entire Creek Nation must pay. He demanded the equivalent of all expenses incurred by the United States in prosecuting the war, which by his calculation came to 23,000,000 acres (93,000 km) of land. - Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson
Eventually, the Creek Confederacy enacted a law that made further land cessions a capital offense. Nevertheless, on February 12, 1825, McIntosh and other chiefs signed the Treaty of Indian Springs, which gave up most of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia. After the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, McIntosh was assassinated on May 13, 1825, by Creeks led by Menawa.
The Creek National Council, led by Opothle Yohola, protested to the United States that the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent. President John Quincy Adams was sympathetic, and eventually the treaty was nullified in a new agreement, the Treaty of Washington (1826). The historian R. Douglas Hurt wrote: "The Creeks had accomplished what no Indian nation had ever done or would do again -- achieve the annulment of a ratified treaty. '' However, Governor Troup of Georgia ignored the new treaty and began to forcibly remove the Indians under the terms of the earlier treaty. At first, President Adams attempted to intervene with federal troops, but Troup called out the militia, and Adams, fearful of a civil war, conceded. As he explained to his intimates, "The Indians are not worth going to war over. ''
Although the Creeks had been forced from Georgia, with many Lower Creeks moving to the Indian Territory, there were still about 20,000 Upper Creeks living in Alabama. However, the state moved to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks. Opothle Yohola appealed to the administration of President Andrew Jackson for protection from Alabama; when none was forthcoming, the Treaty of Cusseta was signed on March 24, 1832, which divided up Creek lands into individual allotments. Creeks could either sell their allotments and receive funds to remove to the west, or stay in Alabama and submit to state laws. The Creeks were never given a fair chance to comply with the terms of the treaty, however. Rampant illegal settlement of their lands by Americans continued unabated with federal and state authorities unable or unwilling to do much to halt it. Further, as recently detailed by historian Billy Winn in his thorough chronicle of the events leading to removal, a variety of fraudulent schemes designed to cheat the Creeks out of their allotments, many of them organized by speculators operating out of Columbus, Georgia and Montgomery, Alabama, were perpetrated after the signing of the Treaty of Cusseta. A portion of the beleaguered Creeks, many desperately poor and feeling abused and oppressed by their American neighbors, struck back by carrying out occasional raids on area farms and committing other isolated acts of violence. Escalating tensions erupted into open war with the United States following the destruction of the village of Roanoke, Georgia, located along the Chattahoochee River on the boundary between Creek and American territory, in May 1836. During the so - called "Creek War of 1836 '' Secretary of War Lewis Cass dispatched General Winfield Scott to end the violence by forcibly removing the Creeks to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. With the Indian Removal Act of 1830 it continued into 1835 and after as in 1836 over 15,000 Creeks were driven from their land for the last time. 3,500 of those 15,000 Creeks did not survive the trip to Oklahoma where they eventually settled.
The Chickasaw received financial compensation from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River. In 1836, the Chickasaws had reached an agreement to purchase land from the previously removed Choctaws after a bitter five - year debate. They paid the Choctaws $530,000 (equal to $11,558,818 today) for the westernmost part of the Choctaw land. The first group of Chickasaws moved in 1836 and was led by John M. Millard. The Chickasaws gathered at Memphis on July 4, 1836, with all of their assets -- belongings, livestock, and slaves. Once across the Mississippi River, they followed routes previously established by the Choctaws and the Creeks. Once in Indian Territory, the Chickasaws merged with the Choctaw nation.
By 1838, about 2,000 Cherokee had voluntarily relocated from Georgia to Indian Territory (present day Oklahoma). Forcible removals began in May 1838 when General Winfield Scott received a final order from President Martin Van Buren to relocate the remaining Cherokees. Approximately 4,000 Cherokees died in the ensuing trek to Oklahoma. In the Cherokee language, the event is called nu na da ul tsun yi ("the place where they cried '') or nu na hi du na tlo hi lu i (the trail where they cried). The Cherokee Trail of Tears resulted from the enforcement of the Treaty of New Echota, an agreement signed under the provisions of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which exchanged Indian land in the East for lands west of the Mississippi River, but which was never accepted by the elected tribal leadership or a majority of the Cherokee people.
The sparsely inhabited Cherokee lands were highly attractive to Georgian farmers experiencing population pressure, and illegal settlements resulted. Long - simmering tensions between Georgia and the Cherokee Nation were brought to a crisis by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia, in 1829, resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush, the second gold rush in U.S. history. Hopeful gold speculators began trespassing on Cherokee lands, and pressure mounted to fulfill the Compact of 1802 in which the US Government promised to extinguish Indian land claims in the state of Georgia.
When Georgia moved to extend state laws over Cherokee lands in 1830, the matter went to the U.S. Supreme Court. In Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), the Marshall court ruled that the Cherokee Nation was not a sovereign and independent nation, and therefore refused to hear the case. However, in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the Court ruled that Georgia could not impose laws in Cherokee territory, since only the national government -- not state governments -- had authority in Indian affairs. Worcester v Georgia is associated with Andrew Jackson 's famous, though apocryphal, quote "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it! '' In reality, this quote did not appear until 30 years after the incident and was first printed in a textbook authored by Jackson critic Horace Greeley.
Fearing open warfare between federal troops and the Georgia militia, Jackson decided not to enforce Cherokee claims against the state of Georgia. He was already embroiled in a constitutional crisis with South Carolina (i.e. the nullification crisis) and favored Cherokee relocation over civil war. With the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the U.S. Congress had given Jackson authority to negotiate removal treaties, exchanging Indian land in the East for land west of the Mississippi River. Jackson used the dispute with Georgia to put pressure on the Cherokees to sign a removal treaty.
The final treaty, passed in Congress by a single vote, and signed by President Andrew Jackson, was imposed by his successor President Martin Van Buren. Van Buren allowed Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Alabama an armed force of 7,000 militiamen, army regulars, and volunteers under General Winfield Scott to relocate about 13,000 Cherokees to Cleveland, Tennessee. After the initial roundup, the U.S. military oversaw the emigration to Oklahoma. Former Cherokee lands were immediately opened to settlement. Most of the deaths during the journey were caused by disease, malnutrition, and exposure during an unusually cold winter.
In the winter of 1838 the Cherokee began the 1,000 - mile (1,600 km) march with scant clothing and most on foot without shoes or moccasins. The march began in Red Clay, Tennessee, the location of the last Eastern capital of the Cherokee Nation. Because of the diseases, the Indians were not allowed to go into any towns or villages along the way; many times this meant traveling much farther to go around them. After crossing Tennessee and Kentucky, they arrived at the Ohio River across from Golconda in southern Illinois about the 3rd of December 1838. Here the starving Indians were charged a dollar a head (equal to $22.49 today) to cross the river on "Berry 's Ferry '' which typically charged twelve cents, equal to $2.70 today. They were not allowed passage until the ferry had serviced all others wishing to cross and were forced to take shelter under "Mantle Rock, '' a shelter bluff on the Kentucky side, until "Berry had nothing better to do ''. Many died huddled together at Mantle Rock waiting to cross. Several Cherokee were murdered by locals. The Cherokee filed a lawsuit against the U.S. Government through the courthouse in Vienna, suing the government for $35 a head (equal to $787.17 today) to bury the murdered Cherokee.
As they crossed southern Illinois, on December 26, Martin Davis, Commissary Agent for Moses Daniel 's detachment, wrote:
"There is the coldest weather in Illinois I ever experienced anywhere. The streams are all frozen over something like 8 or 12 inches (20 or 30 cm) thick. We are compelled to cut through the ice to get water for ourselves and animals. It snows here every two or three days at the fartherest. We are now camped in Mississippi (River) swamp 4 miles (6 km) from the river, and there is no possible chance of crossing the river for the numerous quantity of ice that comes floating down the river every day. We have only traveled 65 miles (105 km) on the last month, including the time spent at this place, which has been about three weeks. It is unknown when we shall cross the river... ''
A soldiers from Georgia said:
I fought through the War Between the States and have seen many men shot, but the Cherokee Removal was the cruelest work I ever knew.
It eventually took almost three months to cross the 60 miles (97 kilometres) on land between the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. The trek through southern Illinois is where the Cherokee suffered most of their deaths. However a few years before forced removal, some Cherokee who opted to leave their homes voluntarily chose a water - based route through the Tennessee, Ohio and Mississippi rivers. It took only 21 days, but the Cherokee who were forcibly relocated were weary of water travel.
Removed Cherokees initially settled near Tahlequah, Oklahoma. When signing the Treaty of New Echota in 1835 Major Ridge said "I have signed my death warrant. '' The resulting political turmoil led to the killings of Major Ridge, John Ridge, and Elias Boudinot; of the leaders of the Treaty Party, only Stand Watie escaped death. The population of the Cherokee Nation eventually rebounded, and today the Cherokees are the largest American Indian group in the United States.
There were some exceptions to removal. Approximately 100 Cherokees evaded the U.S. soldiers and lived off the land in Georgia and other states. Those Cherokees who lived on private, individually owned lands (rather than communally owned tribal land) were not subject to removal. In North Carolina, about 400 Cherokees, known as the Oconaluftee Cherokee, lived on land in the Great Smoky Mountains owned by a white man named William Holland Thomas (who had been adopted by Cherokees as a boy), and were thus not subject to removal. Added to this were some 200 Cherokee from the Nantahala area allowed to stay in the Qualla Boundary after assisting the U.S. Army in hunting down and capturing the family of the old prophet, Tsali (who faced a firing squad after capture). These North Carolina Cherokees became the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Nation.
The United States Court of Claims ruled in favor of the Eastern Cherokee Tribe 's claim against the U.S. on May 18, 1905. This resulted in the appropriation of $1 million (equal to $27,438,023.04 today) to the Tribe 's eligible individuals and families. Interior Department employee Guion Miller created a list using several rolls and applications to verify tribal enrollment for the distribution of funds, known as the Guion Miller Roll. The applications received documented over 125,000 individuals; the court approved more than 30,000 individuals to share in the funds.
In 1987, about 2,200 miles (3,500 km) of trails were authorized by federal law to mark the removal of 17 detachments of the Cherokee people. Called the "Trail of Tears National Historic Trail, '' it traverses portions of nine states and includes land and water routes.
A historical drama based on the Trail of Tears, Unto These Hills written by Kermit Hunter, has sold over five million tickets for its performances since its opening on July 1, 1950, both touring and at the outdoor Mountainside Theater of the Cherokee Historical Association in Cherokee, North Carolina.
Cherokee artist Troy Anderson was commissioned to design the Cherokee Trail of Tears Sesquicentennial Commemorative Medallion. The falling - tear medallion shows a seven - pointed star, the symbol of the seven clans of the Cherokees.
|
what ships make up a carrier strike group | Carrier strike Group - Wikipedia
A carrier strike group (CSG) is an operational formation of the United States Navy. It is composed of roughly 7,500 personnel, an aircraft carrier, at least one cruiser, a destroyer squadron of at least two destroyers or frigates, and a carrier air wing of 65 to 70 aircraft. A carrier strike group also, on occasion, includes submarines, attached logistics ships and a supply ship. The carrier strike group commander operationally reports to the commander of the numbered fleet, who is operationally responsible for the area of waters in which the carrier strike group is operating.
Carrier strike groups comprise a principal element of U.S. power projection capability. Previously referred to as Carrier Battle Groups (a term still used by other nations), they are often referred to by the carrier they are associated with (e.g., Enterprise Strike Group). As of March 2016 there were 10 carrier strike groups.
The carrier strike group is a flexible naval force that can operate in confined waters or in the open ocean, during day and night, in all weather conditions. The principal role of the carrier and its air wing within the carrier strike group is to provide the primary offensive firepower, while the other ships provide defense and support. These roles are not exclusive, however. Other ships in the strike group sometimes undertake offensive operations (launching cruise missiles, for instance) and the carrier 's air wing contributes to the strike group 's defense (through combat air patrols and airborne anti-submarine efforts). Thus, from a command and control perspective, carrier strike groups are combat organized by mission rather than by platform.
The Royal Navy is in the process of rebuilding its aircraft carrier fleet. This will consist of two Queen Elizabeth - class aircraft carriers each equipped with a air wing of around 30 (50 full load) (F - 35) plus early warning aircraft and numerous helicopters. The group will consist of at least one Type 45 destroyer, two Type 23 frigates, one Astute class attack submarine plus a number of support vessels.
The development of the U.S. Navy carrier battle group can be traced to the 1920s and was initially based on previous experience grouping battleships and other major surface combatants. In World War II, administratively, aircraft carriers were assigned to carrier divisions (CARDIVs). Operationally they were assigned to Task Forces, of which Task Force 11, Task Force 16 and Task Force 17 perhaps gained the most fame for their roles in the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway. The single - carrier battle group was born with the military draw down that followed World War II. Carrier Division 1 was redesignated Carrier Group 1 on 30 June 1973, and seemingly all Carrier Divisions were redesignated Carrier Groups on that date.
Throughout the 1990s, the U.S. Navy 's aircraft carrier groups were officially referred to as Carrier Battle Groups (CVBGs), and were commanded by either flag officers called Cruiser - Destroyer Group (CRUDESGRU) or Carrier Group (CARGRU) commanders.
In the summer of 1992, the U.S. Navy instituted a concept that mandated greater task group integration of naval air and surface warfare assets into a more permanent carrier battle group structure. Each of the Navy 's 12 existing carrier battle groups consisted of an aircraft carrier; an embarked carrier air wing; cruisers, destroyer, and frigate units; and two nuclear - powered attack submarines.
On 1 October 2004, carrier groups and cruiser - destroyer groups were redesignated carrier strike groups. The change in nomenclature from ' Battle ' to ' Strike ' appears to have been connected with an increasing emphasis on projecting air power ashore; the change acknowledged that battles at sea on the Battle of Midway model were becoming more unlikely.
Carrier strike groups are tasked to accomplish a variety of wartime missions, as well as a wide variety of functions in situations short of war. The peacetime mission is to conduct forward presence operations, to help shape the strategic environment, deter conflict, build interoperability with allies, and respond to crises when necessary. The U.S. Navy provides a regular rotation of strike groups overseas, typically for six - eight months, based on the needs of Unified Combatant Commands that request strike group capabilities in their respective area of responsibility (AOR). The ships in the group often "disaggregate '' from the carrier, performing missions hundreds or even thousands of miles away. The missions of the carrier strike groups include:
CSGs are not restricted to a specific composition and can be modified depending on expected threats, roles, or missions expected during a deployment, and one may be different from another. The Navy states that "there really is no real definition of a strike group. Strike groups are formed and disestablished on an as needed basis, and one may be different from another. However, they all are comprised of similar types of ships. '' A U.S. Navy carrier strike group typically includes:
While the carrier strike group is the various components ' operational superior, administratively the ships and the carrier air wing are assigned to different U.S. Navy type commands (TYCOMs). Aircraft carriers and Carrier Air Wings are under the administrative control of Commander, Naval Air Force U.S. Atlantic Fleet, or Commander, Naval Air Forces, Pacific. Escorts, including guided - missile cruisers and a CSG 's destroyer squadron are under the administrative control of Commander, Naval Surface Forces Atlantic or Commander, Naval Surface Forces Pacific.
The Strike Group comprises several commands, all of which reside under the authority of the Commander of the CSG (CCSG or COMCARSTRKGRU). The CCSG is typically a 1 - star rear admiral (lower half), who often promotes to 2 - stars while in the job. He is the Immediate Superior in Command (ISIC) to the carrier, air wing, destroyer squadron, and cruiser commanding officers assigned to the strike group. As such, he is responsible for unit - level training, integrated training, and readiness for assigned ships and units, as well as maintaining administrative functions and material readiness tracking for ships and squadrons assigned to the group.
In battle, the CCSG is also known as the Composite Warfare Commander (CWC) who acts as the central command authority for the entire strike group. The CWC designates subordinate warfare commanders for various missions:
SUWC and USWC responsibilities are often combined into Sea Combat Commander (SCC), usually delegated to the DESRON commander. He performs these duties from aboard the carrier due to its superior Command - Control - Communications - Computers and Intelligence (C4I) capabilities. Supporting the CWC and his warfare commanders are coordinators who manage force sensors and assets within the strike group.
The Navy maintains 11 carrier strike groups, 10 of which are based in the United States and one that is forward deployed to Japan. They were all redesignations of former Carrier Groups (CarGrus) and Cruiser - Destroyer Groups (CCDGs). The Fleet Response Plan requires that six CSGs be deployed or ready for deployment within 30 days at any given time, while two additional groups must be ready for deployment within 90 days. The Navy typically maintains at least one CSG in the U.S. Fifth Fleet in Southwest Asia on rotation basis and one on permanent basis in the U.S. Seventh Fleet in the Western Pacific at all times. CSGs operate in the U.S. Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean, and U.S. Fourth Fleet around the South American continent as they transit to and from other areas. CSG Commanders report to their respective numbered - fleet commander, depending on where they are operating. When not deployed overseas west coast CSGs report to U.S. Third Fleet.
USS Theodore Roosevelt did not have an embarked CSG while the carrier was going through its four - year - long Refueling and Complex Overhaul (RCOH) which was expected to be completed by August 2013. Theodore Roosevelt was assigned to Carrier Strike Group Twelve subsequent to USS Enterprise (CVN - 65) deactivation on 1 December 2012.
USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN - 72) was shifted to Newport News, Virginia, for its Refueling and Complex Overhaul, in August 2012 which was delayed until March 2013.
On 14 January 2014, the U.S. Navy announced that the USS Ronald Reagan (CVN - 76) would replace the USS George Washington (CVN - 73) as the flagship of Carrier Strike Group Five, the only forward - based carrier strike group home - ported at Yokosuka, Japan, as part of the U.S. Seventh Fleet. George Washington is scheduled to shift to Newport News for its mid-life Refueling and Complex Overhaul.
On 14 January 2014, the U.S. Navy announced that the USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN - 71) will shift its home - port to Naval Base San Diego, California, becoming part of the U.S. Third Fleet. As such, the Theodore Roosevelt and its as - yet assigned carrier strike group will also deploy to the U.S. Seventh Fleet 's operating area in the western Pacific.
As of January 2012 the U.S. Navy was committed to maintaining 11 Carrier Strike Groups, but only had 10 active until USS Gerald R. Ford went into service in 2017.
On 1 August 2011, the Navy announced that Carrier Strike Group Nine would change its permanent duty station from Naval Station Everett to Naval Base San Diego effective 14 December 2012.
Carrier Strike Group Four was redesignated alongside the other groups in 2004, but has since been redesignated Commander Strike Force Training Atlantic.
Carrier Strike Group Six was established from Carrier Group Six with USS John F. Kennedy (CV - 67) at Naval Station Mayport in 2004, but seems to have since been disestablished.
Carrier Strike Group Fifteen has been disestablished, and its flagship, the carrier Ronald Reagan, was reassigned to Carrier Strike Group Seven.
The deactivation of Carrier Strike Group Seven effective 30 December 2011 reflects the U.S. Navy 's future budgetary reductions and the reduced availability of its operational carrier fleet and carrier air wings.
|
where does the last name dumas come from | Dumas (surname) - wikipedia
Dumas is a Southern French topographic surname, with fused preposition and definite article du, for someone who lived in an isolated dwelling in the country rather than in a village, from Occitan mas ' farmstead ' (Late Latin mansum, mansus).
People surnamed Dumas include:
|
where did the term lean manufacturing come from | Lean manufacturing - wikipedia
Lean manufacturing or lean production, often simply "lean '', is a systematic method for waste minimization ("Muda '') within a manufacturing system without sacrificing productivity, which can cause problems. Lean also takes into account waste created through overburden ("Muri '') and waste created through unevenness in work loads ("Mura ''). Working from the perspective of the client who consumes a product or service, "value '' is any action or process that a customer would be willing to pay for.
Lean manufacturing makes obvious what adds value, by reducing everything else (which is not adding value). This management philosophy is derived mostly from the Toyota Production System (TPS) and identified as "lean '' only in the 1990s. TPS is renowned for its focus on reduction of the original Toyota seven wastes to improve overall customer value, but there are varying perspectives on how this is best achieved. The steady growth of Toyota, from a small company to the world 's largest automaker, has focused attention on how it has achieved this success.
Lean principles are derived from the Japanese manufacturing industry. The term was first coined by John Krafcik in his 1988 article, "Triumph of the Lean Production System '', based on his master 's thesis at the MIT Sloan School of Management. Krafcik had been a quality engineer in the Toyota - GM NUMMI joint venture in California before joining MIT for MBA studies. Krafcik 's research was continued by the International Motor Vehicle Program (IMVP) at MIT, which produced the international best - selling book co-authored by James P. Womack, Daniel Jones, and Daniel Roos called The Machine That Changed the World. A complete historical account of the IMVP and how the term "lean '' was coined is given by Holweg (2007).
For many, lean is the set of "tools '' that assist in the identification and steady elimination of waste. As waste is eliminated quality improves while production time and cost are reduced. A non exhaustive list of such tools would include: SMED, value stream mapping, Five S, Kanban (pull systems), poka - yoke (error - proofing), total productive maintenance, elimination of time batching, mixed model processing, rank order clustering, single point scheduling, redesigning working cells, multi-process handling and control charts (for checking mura).
There is a second approach to lean manufacturing, which is promoted by Toyota, called The Toyota Way, in which the focus is upon improving the "flow '' or smoothness of work, thereby steadily eliminating mura ("unevenness '') through the system and not upon ' waste reduction ' per se. Techniques to improve flow include production leveling, "pull '' production (by means of kanban) and the Heijunka box. This is a fundamentally different approach from most improvement methodologies, and requires considerably more persistence than basic application of the tools, which may partially account for its lack of popularity.
The difference between these two approaches is not the goal itself, but rather the prime approach to achieving it. The implementation of smooth flow exposes quality problems that already existed, and thus waste reduction naturally happens as a consequence. The advantage claimed for this approach is that it naturally takes a system - wide perspective, whereas a waste focus sometimes wrongly assumes this perspective.
Both lean and TPS can be seen as a loosely connected set of potentially competing principles whose goal is cost reduction by the elimination of waste. These principles include: pull processing, perfect first - time quality, waste minimization, continuous improvement, flexibility, building and maintaining a long term relationship with suppliers, autonomation, load leveling and production flow and visual control. The disconnected nature of some of these principles perhaps springs from the fact that the TPS has grown pragmatically since 1948 as it responded to the problems it saw within its own production facilities. Thus what one sees today is the result of a ' need ' driven learning to improve where each step has built on previous ideas and not something based upon a theoretical framework.
Toyota 's view is that the main method of lean is not the tools, but the reduction of three types of waste: muda (non-value - adding work), muri (overburden), and mura (unevenness), to expose problems systematically and to use the tools where the ideal can not be achieved. From this perspective, the tools are workarounds adapted to different situations, which explains any apparent incoherence of the principles above.
Lean implementation emphasizes the importance of optimizing work flow through strategic operational procedures while minimizing waste and being adaptable. Flexibility is required to allow production leveling (Heijunka) using tools such as SMED, but have their analogues in other processes such as research and development (R&D). However, adaptability is often constrained, and therefore may not require significant investment. More importantly, all of these concepts have to be acknowledged by employees who develop the products and initiate processes that deliver value. The cultural and managerial aspects of lean are arguably more important than the actual tools or methodologies of production itself. There are many examples of lean tool implementation without sustained benefit, and these are often blamed on weak understanding of lean throughout the whole organization.
Lean aims to enhance productivity by simplifying the operational structure enough to understand, perform and manage the work environment. To achieve these three goals simultaneously, one of Toyota 's mentoring methodologies (loosely called Senpai and Kohai which is Japanese for senior and junior), can be used to foster lean thinking throughout the organizational structure from the ground up. The closest equivalent to Toyota 's mentoring process is the concept of "Lean Sensei, '' which encourages companies, organizations, and teams to seek third - party experts that can provide advice and coaching.
In 1999, Spear and Bowen identified four rules which characterize the "Toyota DNA '':
Most of the basic goals of lean manufacturing and waste reduction were derived from Benjamin Franklin through documented examples. Poor Richard 's Almanack says of wasted time, "He that idly loses 5 s. worth of time, loses 5s., and might as prudently throw 5s. into the river. '' He added that avoiding unnecessary costs could be more profitable than increasing sales: "A penny saved is two pence clear. A pin a-day is a groat a-year. Save and have. ''
Again Franklin 's The Way to Wealth says the following about carrying unnecessary inventory. "You call them goods; but, if you do not take care, they will prove evils to some of you. You expect they will be sold cheap, and, perhaps, they may (be bought) for less than they cost; but, if you have no occasion for them, they must be dear to you. Remember what Poor Richard says, ' Buy what thou hast no need of, and ere long thou shalt sell thy necessaries. ' In another place, he says, ' Many have been ruined by buying good penny worths '. '' Henry Ford cited Franklin as a major influence on his own business practices, which included Just - in - time manufacturing.
The accumulation of waste and energy within the work environment was noticed by motion efficiency expert Frank Gilbreth, who witnessed the inefficient practices of masons who often bend over to gather bricks from the ground. The introduction of a non-stooping scaffold, which delivered the bricks at waist level, allowed masons to work about three times as quickly, and with the least amount of effort.
Frederick Winslow Taylor, the father of scientific management, introduced what are now called standardization and best practice deployment. In Principles of Scientific Management, (1911), Taylor said: "And whenever a workman proposes an improvement, it should be the policy of the management to make a careful analysis of the new method, and if necessary conduct a series of experiments to determine accurately the relative merit of the new suggestion and of the old standard. And whenever the new method is found to be markedly superior to the old, it should be adopted as the standard for the whole establishment. ''
Taylor also warned explicitly against cutting piece rates (or, by implication, cutting wages or discharging workers) when efficiency improvements reduce the need for raw labor: "... after a workman has had the price per piece of the work he is doing lowered two or three times as a result of his having worked harder and increased his output, he is likely entirely to lose sight of his employer 's side of the case and become imbued with a grim determination to have no more cuts if soldiering (marking time, just doing what he is told) can prevent it. ''
Shigeo Shingo, the best - known exponent of single minute exchange of die and error - proofing or poka - yoke, cites Principles of Scientific Management as his inspiration.
American industrialists recognized the threat of cheap offshore labor to American workers during the 1910s, and explicitly stated the goal of what is now called lean manufacturing as a countermeasure. Henry Towne, past President of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, wrote in the Foreword to Frederick Winslow Taylor 's Shop Management (1911), "We are justly proud of the high wage rates which prevail throughout our country, and jealous of any interference with them by the products of the cheaper labor of other countries. To maintain this condition, to strengthen our control of home markets, and, above all, to broaden our opportunities in foreign markets where we must compete with the products of other industrial nations, we should welcome and encourage every influence tending to increase the efficiency of our productive processes. ''
Henry Ford initially ignored the impact of waste accumulation while developing his mass assembly manufacturing system. Charles Buxton Going wrote in 1915:
Ford, in My Life and Work (1922), provided a single - paragraph description that encompasses the entire concept of waste:
Poor arrangement of the workplace -- a major focus of the modern kaizen -- and doing a job inefficiently out of habit -- are major forms of waste even in modern workplaces.
Ford also pointed out how easy it was to overlook material waste. A former employee, Harry Bennett, wrote:
In other words, Ford saw the rust and realized that the steel plant was not recovering all of the iron.
Ford 's early success, however, was not sustainable. As James P. Womack and Daniel Jones pointed out in "Lean Thinking '', what Ford accomplished represented the "special case '' rather than a robust lean solution. The major challenge that Ford faced was that his methods were built for a steady - state environment, rather than for the dynamic conditions firms increasingly face today. Although his rigid, top - down controls made it possible to hold variation in work activities down to very low levels, his approach did not respond well to uncertain, dynamic business conditions; they responded particularly badly to the need for new product innovation. This was made clear by Ford 's precipitous decline when the company was forced to finally introduce a follow - on to the Model T.
Design for Manufacture (DFM) is a concept derived from Ford which emphasizes the importance of standardizing individual parts as well as eliminating redundant components in My Life and Work. This standardization was central to Ford 's concept of mass production, and the manufacturing "tolerances '', or upper and lower dimensional limits that ensured interchangeability of parts became widely applied across manufacturing. Decades later, the renowned Japanese quality guru, Genichi Taguchi, demonstrated that this "goal post '' method of measuring was inadequate. He showed that "loss '' in capabilities did not begin only after exceeding these tolerances, but increased as described by the Taguchi Loss Function at any condition exceeding the nominal condition. This became an important part of W. Edwards Deming 's quality movement of the 1980s, later helping to develop improved understanding of key areas of focus such as cycle time variation in improving manufacturing quality and efficiencies in aerospace and other industries.
While Ford is renowned for his production line, it is often not recognized how much effort he put into removing the fitters ' work to make the production line possible. Previous to the use, Ford 's car 's components were fitted and reshaped by a skilled engineer at the point of use, so that they would connect properly. By enforcing very strict specification and quality criteria on component manufacture, he eliminated this work almost entirely, reducing manufacturing effort by between 60 - 90 %. However, Ford 's mass production system failed to incorporate the notion of "pull production '' and thus often suffered from overproduction.
Toyota 's development of ideas that later became lean may have started at the turn of the 20th century with Sakichi Toyoda, in a textile factory with looms that stopped themselves when a thread broke. This became the seed of autonomation and Jidoka. Toyota 's journey with just - in - time (JIT) may have started back in 1934 when it moved from textiles to produce its first car. Kiichiro Toyoda, founder of Toyota Motor Corporation, directed the engine casting work and discovered many problems in their manufacturing. He decided he must stop the repairing of poor quality by intense study of each stage of the process. In 1936, when Toyota won its first truck contract with the Japanese government, his processes hit new problems and he developed the "Kaizen '' improvement teams.
Levels of demand in the Post War economy of Japan were low and the focus of mass production on lowest cost per item via economies of scale therefore had little application. Having visited and seen supermarkets in the USA, Taiichi Ohno recognised the scheduling of work should not be driven by sales or production targets but by actual sales. Given the financial situation during this period, over-production had to be avoided and thus the notion of Pull (build to order rather than target driven Push) came to underpin production scheduling.
It was with Taiichi Ohno at Toyota that these themes came together. He built on the already existing internal schools of thought and spread their breadth and use into what has now become the Toyota Production System (TPS). It is principally from the TPS (which was widely referred to in the 1980s as just - in - time manufacturing), but now including many other sources, that lean production is developing. Norman Bodek wrote the following in his foreword to a reprint of Ford 's Today and Tomorrow:
I was first introduced to the concepts of just - in - time (JIT) and the Toyota production system in 1980. Subsequently I had the opportunity to witness its actual application at Toyota on one of our numerous Japanese study missions. There I met Mr. Taiichi Ohno, the system 's creator. When bombarded with questions from our group on what inspired his thinking, he just laughed and said he learned it all from Henry Ford 's book. '' The scale, rigor and continuous learning aspects of TPS have made it a core concept of lean.
Although the elimination of waste may seem like a simple and clear subject, it is noticeable that waste is often very conservatively identified. This then hugely reduces the potential of such an aim. The elimination of waste is the goal of lean, and Toyota defined three broad types of waste: muda, muri and mura; for many lean implementations this list shrinks to the first waste type only with reduced corresponding benefits.
To illustrate the state of this thinking Shigeo Shingo observed that only the last turn of a bolt tightens it -- the rest is just movement. This ever finer clarification of waste is key to establishing distinctions between value - adding activity, waste and non-value - adding work. Non-value adding work is waste that must be done under the present work conditions. One key is to measure, or estimate, the size of these wastes, to demonstrate the effect of the changes achieved and therefore the movement toward the goal.
The "flow '' (or smoothness) based approach aims to achieve JIT, by removing the variation caused by work scheduling and thereby provide a driver, rationale or target and priorities for implementation, using a variety of techniques. The effort to achieve JIT exposes many quality problems that are hidden by buffer stocks; by forcing smooth flow of only value - adding steps, these problems become visible and must be dealt with explicitly.
Muri is all the unreasonable work that management imposes on workers and machines because of poor organization, such as carrying heavy weights, moving things around, dangerous tasks, even working significantly faster than usual. It is pushing a person or a machine beyond its natural limits. This may simply be asking a greater level of performance from a process than it can handle without taking shortcuts and informally modifying decision criteria. Unreasonable work is almost always a cause of multiple variations.
To link these three concepts is simple in TPS and thus lean. Firstly, muri focuses on the preparation and planning of the process, or what work can be avoided proactively by design. Next, mura then focuses on how the work design is implemented and the elimination of fluctuation at the scheduling or operations level, such as quality and volume. Muda is then discovered after the process is in place and is dealt with reactively. It is seen through variation in output. It is the role of management to examine the muda, in the processes and eliminate the deeper causes by considering the connections to the muri and mura of the system. The muda and mura inconsistencies must be fed back to the muri, or planning, stage for the next project.
A typical example of the interplay of these wastes is the corporate behaviour of "making the numbers '' as the end of a reporting period approaches. Demand is raised to ' make plan, ' increasing (mura), when the "numbers '' are low, which causes production to try to squeeze extra capacity from the process, which causes routines and standards to be modified or stretched. This stretch and improvisation leads to muri - style waste, which leads to downtime, mistakes and back flows, and waiting, thus the muda of waiting, correction and movement.
The original seven mudas are:
Eventually, an eighth "muda '' was defined by Womack et al. (2003); it was described as manufacturing goods or services that do not meet customer demand or specifications. Many others have added the "waste of unused human talent '' to the original seven wastes. For example, Six Sigma includes the waste of Skills, referred to as "under - utilizing capabilities and delegating tasks with inadequate training ''. Other additional wastes added were for example "space ''. These wastes were not originally a part of the seven deadly wastes defined by Taiichi Ohno in TPS, but were found to be useful additions in practice. In 1999 Geoffrey Mika in his book, "Kaizen Event Implementation Manual '' added three more forms of waste that are now universally accepted; The waste associated with working to the wrong metrics or no metrics, the waste associated with not utilizing a complete worker by not allowing them to contribute ideas and suggestions and be part of Participative Management, and lastly the waste attributable to improper use of computers; not having the proper software, training on use and time spent surfing, playing games or just wasting time. For a complete listing of the "old '' and "new '' wastes see Bicheno and Holweg (2009)
The identification of non-value - adding work, as distinct from wasted work, is critical to identifying the assumptions behind the current work process and to challenging them in due course. Breakthroughs in SMED and other process changing techniques rely upon clear identification of where untapped opportunities may lie if the processing assumptions are challenged.
The role of the leaders within the organization is the fundamental element of sustaining the progress of lean thinking. Experienced kaizen members at Toyota, for example, often bring up the concepts of Senpai, Kohai, and Sensei, because they strongly feel that transferring of Toyota culture down and across Toyota can only happen when more experienced Toyota Sensei continuously coach and guide the less experienced lean champions.
One of the dislocative effects of lean is in the area of key performance indicators (KPI). The KPIs by which a plant / facility are judged will often be driving behaviour, because the KPIs themselves assume a particular approach to the work being done. This can be an issue where, for example a truly lean, Fixed Repeating Schedule (FRS) and JIT approach is adopted, because these KPIs will no longer reflect performance, as the assumptions on which they are based become invalid. It is a key leadership challenge to manage the impact of this KPI chaos within the organization.
Similarly, commonly used accounting systems developed to support mass production are no longer appropriate for companies pursuing lean. Lean accounting provides truly lean approaches to business management and financial reporting.
After formulating the guiding principles of its lean manufacturing approach in the Toyota Production System (TPS), Toyota formalized in 2001 the basis of its lean management: the key managerial values and attitudes needed to sustain continuous improvement in the long run. These core management principles are articulated around the twin pillars of Continuous Improvement (relentless elimination of waste) and Respect for People (engagement in long term relationships based on continuous improvement and mutual trust).
This formalization stems from problem solving. As Toyota expanded beyond its home base for the past 20 years, it hit the same problems in getting TPS properly applied that other western companies have had in copying TPS. Like any other problem, it has been working on trying a series of countermeasures to solve this particular concern. These countermeasures have focused on culture: how people behave, which is the most difficult challenge of all. Without the proper behavioral principles and values, TPS can be totally misapplied and fail to deliver results. As with TPS, the values had originally been passed down in a master - disciple manner, from boss to subordinate, without any written statement on the way. Just as with TPS, it was internally argued that formalizing the values would stifle them and lead to further misunderstanding. However, as Toyota veterans eventually wrote down the basic principles of TPS, Toyota set to put the Toyota Way into writing to educate new joiners.
Continuous Improvement breaks down into three basic principles:
Respect For People is less known outside of Toyota, and essentially involves two defining principles:
While lean is seen by many as a generalization of the Toyota Production System into other industries and contexts, there are some acknowledged differences that seem to have developed in implementation:
Lean principles have been successfully applied to various sectors and services, such as call centers and healthcare. In the former, lean 's waste reduction practices have been used to reduce handle time, within and between agent variation, accent barriers, as well as attain near perfect process adherence. In the latter, several hospitals have adopted the idea of lean hospital, a concept that priorizes the patient, thus increasing the employee commitment and motivation, as well as boosting medical quality and cost effectiveness.
Lean principles also have applications to software development and maintenance as well as other sectors of information technology (IT). More generally, the use of lean in information technology has become known as Lean IT. Lean methods are also applicable to the public sector, but most results have been achieved using a much more restricted range of techniques than lean provides.
The challenge in moving lean to services is the lack of widely available reference implementations to allow people to see how directly applying lean manufacturing tools and practices can work and the impact it does have. This makes it more difficult to build the level of belief seen as necessary for strong implementation. However, some research does relate widely recognized examples of success in retail and even airlines to the underlying principles of lean. Despite this, it remains the case that the direct manufacturing examples of ' techniques ' or ' tools ' need to be better ' translated ' into a service context to support the more prominent approaches of implementation, which has not yet received the level of work or publicity that would give starting points for implementors. The upshot of this is that each implementation often ' feels its way ' along as must the early industrial engineering practices of Toyota. This places huge importance upon sponsorship to encourage and protect these experimental developments.
Lean management is nowadays implemented also in non-manufacturing processes and administrative processes. In non-manufacturing processes is still huge potential for optimization and efficiency increase.
The espoused goals of lean manufacturing systems differ between various authors. While some maintain an internal focus, e.g. to increase profit for the organization, others claim that improvements should be done for the sake of the customer.
Some commonly mentioned goals are:
The strategic elements of lean can be quite complex, and comprise multiple elements. Four different notions of lean have been identified:
Lean production has been adopted into other industries to promote productivity and efficiency in an ever changing market. In global supply chain and outsource scale, Information Technology is necessary and can deal with most of hard lean practices to synchronise pull system in supply chains and value system. The manufacturing industry can renew and change strategy of production just in time.
The supply chains take changes in deploying second factory or warehouse near their major markets in order to react consumers ' need promptly instead of investing manufacturing factories on the lost - cost countries. For instance, Dell sells computers directly from their website, cutting franchised dealers out of their supply chains. Then, the firm use outsourced partners to produce its components, deliver components to their assembly plants on these main markets around the world, like America and China.
Zara made decision of speeding their fashion to the consumers market by fast - producing cloths within five weeks with their local partners in Spain and never involved in mass production to pursue new styles and keep products fresh.
The other way to avoid market risk and control the supply efficiently is to cut down in stock. P&G has done the goal to co-operate with Walmart and other wholesales companies by building the response system of stocks directly to the suppliers companies.
With the improvement of global scale supply chains, firms apply lean practices (JIT, supplier partnership, and customer involvement) built between global firms and suppliers intensively to connect with consumers markets efficiently.
After years of success of Toyota 's Lean Production, the consolidation of supply chain networks has brought Toyota to the position of being the world 's biggest carmaker in the rapid expansion. In 2010, the crisis of safety - related problems in Toyota made other carmakers that duplicated Toyota 's supply chain system wary that the same recall issue might happen to them.
James Womack had warned Toyota that cooperating with single outsourced suppliers might bring unexpected problems. Indeed, the crisis cost a great fortune and left Toyota thinking whether the JIT practice has problems about outsourced suppliers without enough experience and senior engineers could not achieve the monitoring job close to their suppliers out of Japan. That is proven as the economy of scale becomes global, the soft - learn practices become more important in their outsourced suppliers, if they could keep good Sensei relationship with their partners and constantly modify production process to perfection. Otherwise, Toyota begins to consider whether to have more choices of suppliers of producing the same component, it might bring more safety on risk - control and reduce the huge cost that might happen in the future.
The appliance of JIT in supply chain system is the key issue of Lean implementation in global scale. How do the supply partners avoid causing production flow? Global firms should make more suppliers who can compete with each other in order to get the best quality and lower the risk of production flow at the same time.
The following steps should be implemented to create the ideal lean manufacturing system:
A fundamental principle of lean manufacturing is demand - based flow manufacturing. In this type of production setting, inventory is only pulled through each production center when it is needed to meet a customer 's order. The benefits of this goal include:
A continuous improvement mindset is essential to reach the company 's goals. The term "continuous improvement '' means incremental improvement of products, processes, or services over time, with the goal of reducing waste to improve workplace functionality, customer service, or product performance. Lean is founded on the concept of continuous and incremental improvements on product and process while eliminating redundant activities. "The value of adding activities are simply only those things the customer is willing to pay for, everything else is waste, and should be eliminated, simplified, reduced, or integrated '' (Rizzardo, 2003). Improving the flow of material through new ideal system layouts at the customer 's required rate would reduce waste in material movement and inventory.
Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) is a set of performance metrics that fit well in a lean environment. Also, PMTS, methods - time measurement, cost analysis and perhaps time study can be used to evaluate the wastes and IT effectiveness in the operational processes. For example, Jun - Ing Ker and Yichuan Wang analyze two prescribing technologies, namely no carbon required (NCR) and digital scanning technologies to quantify the advantages of the medication ordering, transcribing, and dispensing process in a multi-hospital health system. With comparison between these two technologies, the statistical analysis results show a significant reduction on process times by adopting digital scanning technology. The results indicated a reduction of 54.5 % in queue time, 32.4 % in order entry time, 76.9 % in outgoing delay time, and 67.7 % in outgoing transit time with the use of digital scanning technology.
One criticism of lean is that its practitioners may focus on tools and methodologies rather than on the philosophy and culture of lean. Consequently, adequate management is needed in order to avoid failed implementation of lean methodologies. Another pitfall is that management decides what solution to use without understanding the true problem and without consulting shop floor personnel. As a result, lean implementations often look good to the manager but fail to improve the situation.
In addition, many of the popular lean initiatives, coming from the TPS, are solutions to specific problems that Toyota was facing. Toyota, having an undesired current condition, determined what the end state would look like. Through much study, the gap was closed, which resulted in many of the tools in place today. Often, when a tool is implemented outside of TPS, a company believes that the solution lay specifically within one of the popular lean initiatives. The tools which were the solution to a specific problem for a specific company may not be able to be applied in exactly the same manner as designed. Thus, the solution does not fit the problem and a temporary solution is created vs. the actual root cause.
The lean philosophy aims to reduce costs while optimizing and improving performance. Value stream mapping (VSM) and 5S are the most common approaches companies take on their first steps towards making their organisation leaner. Lean actions can be focused on the specific logistics processes, or cover the entire supply chain. For example, you might start from analysis of SKUs (stock keeping units), using several days to identify and draw each SKUs path, evaluating all the participants from material suppliers to the consumer. Conducting a gap analysis determines the company 's ' must take ' steps to improve the value stream and achieve the objective. Based on that evaluation, the improvement group conducts the failure mode effects analysis (FMEA), in order to identify and prevent risk factors. It is crucial for front - line workers to be involved in VSM activities since they understood the process and can directly increase the efficiency. Although the impact may be small and limited for each lean activity, implementing a series small improvements incrementally along the supply chain can bring forth enhanced productivity.
After adopting the lean approach, both managers and employees experience change. Therefore, decisive leaders are needed when starting on a lean journey. There are several requirements to control the lean journey. First and most importantly, experts recommend that the organization have its own lean plan, developed by the lean Leadership. In other words, the lean team provides suggestions for the leader who then makes the actual decisions about what to implement. Second, coaching is recommended when the organization starts off on its lean journey. They will impart their knowledge and skills to shopfloor staff and the lean implementation will be much more efficient. Third, the metrics or measurements used for measuring lean and improvements are extremely important. It will enable collection of the data required for informed decision - making by a leader. One can not successfully implement lean without sufficient aptitude at measuring the process and outputs. To control and improve results going forward, one must see and measure, i.e. map, what is happening now.
Lean manufacturing is different from lean enterprise. Recent research reports the existence of several lean manufacturing processes but of few lean enterprises. One distinguishing feature opposes lean accounting and standard cost accounting. For standard cost accounting, SKUs are difficult to grasp. SKUs include too much hypothesis and variance, i.e., SKUs hold too much indeterminacy. Manufacturing may want to consider moving away from traditional accounting and adopting lean accounting. In using lean accounting, one expected gain is activity - based cost visibility, i.e., measuring the direct and indirect costs at each step of an activity rather than traditional cost accounting that limits itself to labor and supplies.
|
who sang the song i m not lisa | I 'm Not Lisa - wikipedia
"I 'm Not Lisa '' is a country music song written and recorded by American country artist Jessi Colter. It was released as a single on January 16, 1975, by Capitol Records. "I 'm Not Lisa '' would become Colter 's first major hit as a solo artist.
"I 'm Not Lisa '' was written by Colter and describes the pain that comes with dating someone who has not gotten over a previous lover. Specifically, the song is about a woman named Julie who laments the fact that her boyfriend keeps mentioning his previous girlfriend, named Lisa.
While singing on the recording of the original version of the song, Colter also played the song 's piano accompaniment on the keyboards. The song was produced by Ken Mansfield and Colter 's husband, Waylon Jennings. Both men would also produce Colter 's 1975 album, as well as her further releases for Capitol records.
"I 'm Not Lisa '' was released on Capitol Records on January 16, 1975, making its debut on the country chart February 15, 1975. The song became Colter 's commercial breakthrough as a solo artist, peaking at # 1 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart. It also was a major crossover Pop hit, peaking at # 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 and subsequently ranking as the 40th most popular song on Billboard 's Year - End chart for 1975. In addition, the song also reached # 16 on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart, and was released on Colter 's debut Capitol album, I 'm Jessi Colter. The song earned Colter a Grammy award nomination in the category of Best Female Country Vocal Performance and a Country Music Association Awards nomination.
Colter 's follow - up single "What 's Happened to Blue Eyes '' became a Top 10 country hit. However, none of her subsequent releases for Capitol in the 1970s came close to the success of "I 'm Not Lisa '', which became Colter 's signature tune and her only # 1 single.
The song has since been covered by many artists, including Rosemary Clooney, Marianne Faithfull, Tanya Tucker, Faith Hill and Nana Mouskouri in a French version. Elizabeth Cook recorded a version for her 2002 album Hey, Y'all. In 2005, Erika Jo recorded a version for her self - titled debut album, and also released it as single to country radio, but it failed to chart. Deana Carter performed a cover of the song with Colter for her 2007 album, The Chain. The rock band Killdozer also covered "I 'm Not Lisa '' on their 1986 release Burl.
|
when does it snow in the rocky mountains | Rocky Mountains - wikipedia
The Rocky Mountains, commonly known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range in western North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles (4,800 km) from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States. Within the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are somewhat distinct from the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada, which all lie further to the west.
The Rocky Mountains were initially formed from 80 million to 55 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny, in which a number of plates began to slide underneath the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a broad belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks and valleys. At the end of the last ice age, humans started to inhabit the mountain range. After Europeans, such as Sir Alexander Mackenzie, and Americans, such as the Lewis and Clark expedition, started to explore the range, minerals and furs drove the initial economic exploitation of the mountains, although the range itself never became densely populated.
Much of the mountain range is protected by public parks and forest lands and is a popular tourist destination, especially for hiking, camping, mountaineering, fishing, hunting, mountain biking, skiing, and snowboarding.
The name of the mountains is a translation of an Amerindian name that is closely related to Algonquian; the Cree name "as - sin - wati '', is given as, when seen from across the prairies, they looked like a rocky mass. The first mention of their present name by a European was in the journal of Jacques Legardeur de Saint - Pierre in 1752, where they were called "Montagnes de Roche ''.
The Rocky Mountains are commonly defined as stretching from the Liard River in British Columbia south to the Rio Grande in New Mexico. Other mountain ranges continue beyond those two rivers, including the Selwyn Mountains in Yukon, the Brooks Range in Alaska, and the Sierra Madre in Mexico, but those are not part of the Rockies, though they are part of the American Cordillera. The United States definition of the Rockies includes the Cabinet and Salish Mountains of Idaho and Montana. Their counterparts north of the Kootenai River, the Columbia Mountains, are considered a separate system in Canada, lying to the west of the huge Rocky Mountain Trench. This runs the length of British Columbia from its beginnings in the middle Flathead River valley in western Montana to the south bank of the Liard River. The Rockies vary in width from 70 to 300 miles (110 to 480 kilometers). Also west of the Rocky Mountain Trench, farther north and facing the Muskwa Range across the trench, are the Stikine Ranges and Omineca Mountains of the Interior Mountains system of British Columbia. A small area east of Prince George, British Columbia on the eastern side of the Trench, the McGregor Plateau, resembles the Rockies but is considered part of the Interior Plateau.
The eastern edge of the Rockies rises dramatically above the Interior Plains of central North America, including the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of New Mexico and Colorado, the Front Range of Colorado, the Wind River Range and Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming, the Absaroka - Beartooth ranges and Rocky Mountain Front of Montana and the Clark Range of Alberta. In Canada geographers define three main groups of ranges: the Continental Ranges, Hart Ranges and Muskwa Ranges (the latter two flank the Peace River, the only river to pierce the Rockies, and are collectively referred to as the Northern Rockies). The Muskwa and Hart Ranges together comprise what is known as the Northern Rockies (the Mackenzie Mountains north of the Liard River are sometimes referred to as being part of the Rocky Mountains but this is an unofficial designation).
The western edge of the Rockies includes ranges such as the Wasatch near Salt Lake City and the Bitterroots along the Idaho - Montana border. The Great Basin and Columbia River Plateau separate these sub-ranges from distinct ranges further to the west, most prominent among which are the Sierra Nevada, Cascade Range and Coast Mountains. The Rockies do not extend into the Yukon or Alaska, or into central British Columbia, where the Rocky Mountain System (but not the Rocky Mountains) includes the Columbia Mountains, the southward extension of which is considered part of the Rockies in the United States. The Rocky Mountain System within the United States is a United States physiographic region; the Rocky Mountain System is known in Canada as the Eastern System.
The Rocky Mountains are notable for containing the highest peaks in central North America. The range 's highest peak is Mount Elbert located in Colorado at 14,440 feet (4,401 m) above sea level. Mount Robson in British Columbia, at 12,972 feet (3,954 m), is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies.
The Continental Divide of the Americas is located in the Rocky Mountains and designates the line at which waters flow either to the Atlantic or Pacific Oceans. Triple Divide Peak (8,020 feet (2,440 m)) in Glacier National Park is so named because water that falls on the mountain reaches not only the Atlantic and Pacific, but Hudson Bay as well. Farther north in Alberta, the Athabasca and other rivers feed the basin of the Mackenzie River, which has its outlet on the Beaufort Sea of the Arctic Ocean. See Rivers of the Rocky Mountains for a list of rivers.
Human population is not very dense in the Rocky Mountains, with an average of four people per square kilometer and few cities with over 50,000 people. However, the human population grew rapidly in the Rocky Mountain states between 1950 and 1990. The 40 - year statewide increases in population range from 35 % in Montana to about 150 % in Utah and Colorado. The populations of several mountain towns and communities have doubled in the last 40 years. Jackson Hole, Wyoming, increased 260 %, from 1,244 to 4,472 residents, in 40 years.
The rocks in the Rocky Mountains were formed before the mountains were raised by tectonic forces. The oldest rock is Precambrian metamorphic rock that forms the core of the North American continent. There is also Precambrian sedimentary argillite, dating back to 1.7 billion years ago. During the Paleozoic, western North America lay underneath a shallow sea, which deposited many kilometers of limestone and dolomite.
In the southern Rocky Mountains, near present - day Colorado, these ancestral rocks were disturbed by mountain building approximately 300 Ma, during the Pennsylvanian. This mountain building produced the Ancestral Rocky Mountains. They consisted largely of Precambrian metamorphic rock forced upward through layers of the limestone laid down in the shallow sea. The mountains eroded throughout the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic, leaving extensive deposits of sedimentary rock.
Terranes started to collide with the western edge of North America in the Mississippian (approximately 350 million years ago), causing the Antler orogeny. For 270 million years, the effects of plate collisions were focused very near the edge of the North American plate boundary, far to the west of the Rocky Mountain region. It was not until 80 Ma that these effects began to reach the Rockies.
The current Rocky Mountains were raised in the Laramide orogeny from between 80 and 55 Ma. For the Canadian Rockies, the mountain building is analogous to a rug being pushed on a hardwood floor: the rug bunches up and forms wrinkles (mountains). In Canada, the terranes and subduction are the foot pushing the rug, the ancestral rocks are the rug, and the Canadian Shield in the middle of the continent is the hardwood floor.
Further south, the growth of the Rocky Mountains in the United States was probably caused by an unusual subduction, where the Farallon plate dove at a shallow angle below the North American plate. This low angle moved the focus of melting and mountain building much farther inland than the normal 200 to 300 miles (300 to 500 km). It is postulated that the shallow angle of the subducting plate greatly increased the friction and other interactions with the thick continental mass above it. Tremendous thrusts piled sheets of crust on top of each other, building the extraordinarily broad, high Rocky Mountain range.
The current southern Rockies were forced upwards through the layers of Pennsylvanian and Permian sedimentary remnants of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains. Such sedimentary remnants were often tilted at steep angles along the flanks of the modern range; they are now visible in many places throughout the Rockies, and are prominently shown along the Dakota Hogback, an early Cretaceous sandstone formation that runs along the eastern flank of the modern Rockies.
Immediately after the Laramide orogeny, the Rockies were like Tibet: a high plateau, probably 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) above sea level. In the last 60 million years, erosion stripped away the high rocks, revealing the ancestral rocks beneath, and forming the current landscape of the Rockies.
Periods of glaciation occurred from the Pleistocene Epoch (1.8 million -- 70,000 years ago) to the Holocene Epoch (fewer than 11,000 years ago). These ice ages left their mark on the Rockies, forming extensive glacial landforms, such as U-shaped valleys and cirques. Recent glacial episodes included the Bull Lake Glaciation that began about 150,000 years ago and the Pinedale Glaciation that probably remained at full glaciation until 15,000 -- 20,000 years ago.
All of the geological processes, above, have left a complex set of rocks exposed at the surface. For example, volcanic rock from the Paleogene and Neogene periods (66 million -- 2.6 million years ago) occurs in the San Juan Mountains and in other areas. Millennia of severe erosion in the Wyoming Basin transformed intermountain basins into a relatively flat terrain. The Tetons and other north - central ranges contain folded and faulted rocks of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age draped above cores of Proterozoic and Archean igneous and metamorphic rocks ranging in age from 1.2 billion (e.g., Tetons) to more than 3.3 billion years (Beartooth Mountains).
There are a wide range of environmental factors in the Rocky Mountains. The Rockies range in latitude between the Liard River in British Columbia (at 59 ° N) and the Rio Grande in New Mexico (at 35 ° N). Prairie occurs at or below 1,800 feet (550 m), while the highest peak in the range is Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,400 m). Precipitation ranges from 10 inches (250 mm) per year in the southern valleys to 60 inches (1,500 mm) per year locally in the northern peaks. Average January temperatures can range from 20 ° F (− 7 ° C) in Prince George, British Columbia, to 43 ° F (6 ° C) in Trinidad, Colorado. Therefore, there is not a single monolithic ecosystem for the entire Rocky Mountain Range.
Instead, ecologists divide the Rocky Mountain into a number of biotic zones. Each zone is defined by whether it can support trees, and the presence of one or more indicator species. Two zones that do not support trees are the Plains and the Alpine tundra. The Great Plains lie to the east of the Rockies, and is characterized by prairie grasses (below roughly 1,800 feet (550 m)). Alpine tundra occurs in regions above the treeline for the Rocky Mountains, which varies from 12,000 feet (3,700 m) in New Mexico to 2,500 feet (760 m) at the northern end of the Rocky Mountains (near the Yukon).
The USGS defines ten forested zones in the Rocky Mountains. Zones in more southern, warmer, or drier areas are defined by the presence of pinyon pines / junipers, ponderosa pines, or oaks mixed with pines. In more northern, colder, or wetter areas, zones are defined by Douglas - firs, Cascadian species (such as western hemlock), lodgepole pines / quaking aspens, or firs mixed with spruce. Near treeline, zones can consist of white pines (such as whitebark pine or bristlecone pine); or a mixture of white pine, fir, and spruce that appear as shrub - like krummholz. Finally, rivers and canyons can create a unique forest zone in more arid parts of the mountain range.
The Rocky Mountains are an important habitat for a great deal of well - known wildlife, such as elk, moose, mule and white - tailed deer, pronghorn, mountain goats, bighorn sheep, badgers, black bears, grizzly bears, coyotes, lynxes, and wolverines. For example, North America 's largest herds of moose is in the Alberta - British Columbia foothills forests.
The status of most species in the Rocky Mountains is unknown, due to incomplete information. European - American settlement of the mountains has adversely impacted native species. Examples of some species that have declined include western toads, greenback cutthroat trout, white sturgeon, white - tailed ptarmigan, trumpeter swan, and bighorn sheep. In the United States portion of the mountain range, apex predators such as grizzly bears and gray wolves had been extirpated from their original ranges, but have partially recovered due to conservation measures and reintroduction. Other recovering species include the bald eagle and the peregrine falcon.
Since the last great ice age, the Rocky Mountains were home first to indigenous peoples including the Apache, Arapaho, Bannock, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Coeur d'Alene, Kalispel, Crow Nation, Flathead, Shoshone, Sioux, Ute, Kutenai (Ktunaxa in Canada), Sekani, Dunne - za, and others. Paleo - Indians hunted the now - extinct mammoth and ancient bison (an animal 20 % larger than modern bison) in the foothills and valleys of the mountains. Like the modern tribes that followed them, Paleo - Indians probably migrated to the plains in fall and winter for bison and to the mountains in spring and summer for fish, deer, elk, roots, and berries. In Colorado, along the crest of the Continental Divide, rock walls that Native Americans built for driving game date back 5,400 -- 5,800 years. A growing body of scientific evidence indicates that indigenous people had significant effects on mammal populations by hunting and on vegetation patterns through deliberate burning.
Recent human history of the Rocky Mountains is one of more rapid change. The Spanish explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado -- with a group of soldiers, missionaries, and African slaves -- marched into the Rocky Mountain region from the south in 1540. The introduction of the horse, metal tools, rifles, new diseases, and different cultures profoundly changed the Native American cultures. Native American populations were extirpated from most of their historical ranges by disease, warfare, habitat loss (eradication of the bison), and continued assaults on their culture.
In 1739, French fur traders Pierre and Paul Mallet, while journeying through the Great Plains, discovered a range of mountains at the headwaters of the Platte River, which local American Indian tribes called the "Rockies '', becoming the first Europeans to report on this uncharted mountain range.
Sir Alexander MacKenzie (1764 -- March 11, 1820) became the first European to cross the Rocky Mountains in 1793. He found the upper reaches of the Fraser River and reached the Pacific coast of what is now Canada on July 20 of that year, completing the first recorded transcontinental crossing of North America north of Mexico. He arrived at Bella Coola, British Columbia, where he first reached saltwater at South Bentinck Arm, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean.
The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804 -- 1806) was the first scientific reconnaissance of the Rocky Mountains. Specimens were collected for contemporary botanists, zoologists, and geologists. The expedition was said to have paved the way to (and through) the Rocky Mountains for European - Americans from the East, although Lewis and Clark met at least 11 European - American mountain men during their travels.
Mountain men, primarily French, Spanish, and British, roamed the Rocky Mountains from 1720 to 1800 seeking mineral deposits and furs. The fur - trading North West Company established Rocky Mountain House as a trading post in what is now the Rocky Mountain Foothills of present - day Alberta in 1799, and their business rivals the Hudson 's Bay Company established Acton House nearby. These posts served as bases for most European activity in the Canadian Rockies in the early 19th century. Among the most notable are the expeditions of David Thompson (explorer), who followed the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. On his 1811 expedition, he camped at the junction of the Columbia River and the Snake River and erected a pole and notice claiming the area for the United Kingdom and stating the intention of the North West Company to build a fort at the site.
By the Anglo - American Convention of 1818, which established the 49th parallel north as the international boundary west from Lake of the Woods to the "Stony Mountains ''; the UK and the USA agreed to what has since been described as "joint occupancy '' of lands further west to the Pacific Ocean. Resolution of the territorial and treaty issues, the Oregon dispute, was deferred until a later time.
In 1819, Spain ceded their rights north of the 42nd Parallel to the United States, though these rights did not include possession and also included obligations to Britain and Russia concerning their claims in the same region.
After 1802, American fur traders and explorers ushered in the first widespread Caucasian presence in the Rockies south of the 49th parallel. The more famous of these include Americans William Henry Ashley, Jim Bridger, Kit Carson, John Colter, Thomas Fitzpatrick, Andrew Henry, and Jedediah Smith. On July 24, 1832, Benjamin Bonneville led the first wagon train across the Rocky Mountains by using South Pass in the present State of Wyoming. Similarly, in the wake of Mackenzie 's 1793 expedition, fur trading posts were established west of the Northern Rockies in a region of the northern Interior Plateau of British Columbia which came to be known as New Caledonia, beginning with Fort McLeod (today 's community of McLeod Lake) and Fort Fraser, but ultimately focused on Stuart Lake Post (today 's Fort St. James).
Negotiations between the United Kingdom and the United States over the next few decades failed to settle upon a compromise boundary and the Oregon Dispute became important in geopolitical diplomacy between the British Empire and the new American Republic. In 1841 James Sinclair, Chief Factor of the Hudson 's Bay Company, guided some 200 settlers from the Red River Colony west to bolster settlement around Fort Vancouver in an attempt to retain the Columbia District for Britain. The party crossed the Rockies into the Columbia Valley, a region of the Rocky Mountain Trench near present - day Radium Hot Springs, British Columbia, then traveled south. Despite such efforts, in 1846, Britain ceded all claim to Columbia District lands south of the 49th parallel to the United States; as resolution to the Oregon boundary dispute by the Oregon Treaty.
Thousands passed through the Rocky Mountains on the Oregon Trail beginning in the 1840s. The Mormons began to settle near the Great Salt Lake in 1847. From 1859 to 1864, gold was discovered in Colorado, Idaho, Montana, and British Columbia, sparking several gold rushes bringing thousands of prospectors and miners to explore every mountain and canyon and to create the Rocky Mountains ' first major industry. The Idaho gold rush alone produced more gold than the California and Alaska gold rushes combined and was important in the financing of the Union Army during the American Civil War. The transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, and Yellowstone National Park was established as the world 's first national park in 1872. Meanwhile, a transcontinental railroad in Canada was originally promised in 1871. Though political complications pushed its completion to 1885, the Canadian Pacific Railway eventually followed the Kicking Horse and Rogers Passes to the Pacific Ocean. Canadian railway officials also convinced Parliament to set aside vast areas of the Canadian Rockies as Jasper, Banff, Yoho, and Waterton Lakes National Parks, laying the foundation for a tourism industry which thrives to this day. Glacier National Park (MT) was established with a similar relationship to tourism promotions by the Great Northern Railway. While settlers filled the valleys and mining towns, conservation and preservation ethics began to take hold. U.S. President Harrison established several forest reserves in the Rocky Mountains in 1891 -- 92. In 1905, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt extended the Medicine Bow Forest Reserve to include the area now managed as Rocky Mountain National Park. Economic development began to center on mining, forestry, agriculture, and recreation, as well as on the service industries that support them. Tents and camps became ranches and farms, forts and train stations became towns, and some towns became cities.
Economic resources of the Rocky Mountains are varied and abundant. Minerals found in the Rocky Mountains include significant deposits of copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, silver, tungsten, and zinc. The Wyoming Basin and several smaller areas contain significant reserves of coal, natural gas, oil shale, and petroleum. For example, the Climax mine, located near Leadville, Colorado, was the largest producer of molybdenum in the world. Molybdenum is used in heat - resistant steel in such things as cars and planes. The Climax mine employed over 3,000 workers. The Coeur d'Alene mine of northern Idaho produces silver, lead, and zinc. Canada 's largest coal mines are near Fernie, British Columbia and Sparwood, British Columbia; additional coal mines exist near Hinton, Alberta, and in the Northern Rockies surrounding Tumbler Ridge, British Columbia.
Abandoned mines with their wakes of mine tailings and toxic wastes dot the Rocky Mountain landscape. In one major example, eighty years of zinc mining profoundly polluted the river and bank near Eagle River in north - central Colorado. High concentrations of the metal carried by spring runoff harmed algae, moss, and trout populations. An economic analysis of mining effects at this site revealed declining property values, degraded water quality, and the loss of recreational opportunities. The analysis also revealed that cleanup of the river could yield $2.3 million in additional revenue from recreation. In 1983, the former owner of the zinc mine was sued by the Colorado Attorney General for the $4.8 million cleanup costs; five years later, ecological recovery was considerable.
The Rocky Mountains contain several sedimentary basins that are rich in coalbed methane. Coalbed methane is natural gas that arises from coal, either through bacterial action, or through exposure to high temperature. Coalbed methane supplies 7 percent of the natural gas used in the United States. The largest coalbed methane sources in the Rocky Mountains are in the San Juan Basin in New Mexico and Colorado and the Powder River Basin in Wyoming. These two basins are estimated to contain 38 trillion cubic feet of gas. Coalbed methane can be recovered by dewatering the coal bed, and separating the gas from the water; or injecting water to fracture the coal to release the gas (so - called hydraulic fracturing).
Agriculture and forestry are major industries. Agriculture includes dryland and irrigated farming and livestock grazing. Livestock are frequently moved between high - elevation summer pastures and low - elevation winter pastures, a practice known as transhumance.
See also: List of U.S. Rocky Mountain ski resorts, List of Alberta ski resorts, List of B.C. ski resorts
Every year the scenic areas and recreational opportunities of the Rocky Mountains draw millions of tourists. The main language of the Rocky Mountains is English. But there are also linguistic pockets of Spanish and indigenous languages.
People from all over the world visit the sites to hike, camp, or engage in mountain sports. In the summer season, examples of tourist attractions are:
In the United States:
In Canada, the mountain range contains these national parks:
Glacier National Park in Montana and Waterton Lakes National Park in Alberta border each other and collectively are known as Waterton - Glacier International Peace Park. (See also International Peace Park.)
In the winter, skiing is the main attraction. A list of the major ski resorts can be found at List of U.S. Rocky Mountain ski resorts.
The adjacent Columbia Mountains in British Columbia contain major resorts such as Panorama and Kicking Horse, as well as Mount Revelstoke National Park and Glacier National Park.
There are numerous provincial parks in the British Columbia Rockies, the largest and most notable being Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park, Mount Robson Provincial Park, Northern Rocky Mountains Provincial Park, Kwadacha Wilderness Provincial Park, Stone Mountain Provincial Park and Muncho Lake Provincial Park.
|
who ran the fastest 40 yard dash in history | 40 - yard dash - wikipedia
The 40 - yard dash is a sprint covering 40 yards (36.58 m). It is primarily run to evaluate the speed and acceleration of American football players by scouts, particularly for the NFL Draft but also for collegiate recruiting. A player 's recorded time can have a heavy impact on his prospects in college or professional football. This was traditionally only true for the "skill '' positions such as running back, wide receiver, and defensive back, although now a fast 40 - yard dash time is considered important for almost every position. The 40 - yard dash is not an official race in track and field athletics and is not an IAAF - recognized event.
The origin of timing football players for 40 yards comes from the average distance of a punt and the time it takes to reach that distance. Punts average around 40 yards in distance from the line of scrimmage, and the hangtime (time of flight) averages approximately 4.5 seconds. Therefore, if a coach knows that a player runs 40 yards in 4.5 seconds, he will be able to leave the line of scrimmage when a punt is kicked, and reach the point where the ball comes down just as it arrives.
In terms of judging a person 's speed, the best method of timing is through lasers which start and stop the times when passed through. A laser start (from a stationary position) is more accurate for measuring pure speed as it does not register a runner 's reaction time. However, the method of timing a 40 - yard dash can affect the accuracy by as much 0.5 seconds (with the manual stopwatch method). The National Football League (NFL) did not begin using partial electronic timing (started by hand, stopped electronically) at the NFL Scouting Combine until 1990. For purposes of measurement at the Combine, the run is made along the lower sideline from the 40 yard - line to the end zone, which has built - in rundown space.
In track and field races, the runner must react to the starting gun, which takes approximately 0.24 seconds, based on FAT timing. A runner with a reaction time less than. 100 is subject to disqualification as that is deemed too fast of a reaction time. For electronically timed 40 - yard dashes, the runner is allowed to start when he wishes, and a timer hand - starts the clock. This aspect means that comparisons with track times are impossible given that a reaction time is not factored in. Furthermore, the use of hand - timing in the 40 - yard dash can considerably alter a runner 's time; the methods are not comparable to the rigorous electronic timing used in track and field.
Jacoby Ford, who ran a 4.28 s in the 2010 NFL Combine, had a collegiate best of 6.51 s in the 60 - meter dash (outside the top - 40 of the all - time lists). This highlights the difficulties in comparing track running times to football 40 - yard times due to the different timing methods.
Auburn 's Bo Jackson claims to have run a 40 - yard dash with a time of 4.12 s. A time of 4.18 run by Jackson within the same week added some support to the legitimacy of the times. Texas Tech 's Jakeem Grant was hand - timed by a New Orleans Saints scout as running a 4.10 in 2016, potentially beating Jackson 's record. Deion Sanders ran a 4.27 - second 40 - yard dash in 1989.
In 2013, Carlin Isles recorded a time of 4.22 at a Detroit Lions facility during a workout.
In 2017 Olympic sprinter Christian Coleman ran a time of 4.12 seconds on turf in response to claims that NFL players are as fast as Usain Bolt.
This is a list of the official 40 - yard dash results of 4.30 seconds or better recorded at the NFL Scouting combine since 1999, the first year electronic timing was implemented at the NFL Scouting Combine.
According to a five - year NFL combine report, wide receivers and cornerbacks had the fastest average times at 4.55, followed by running backs at 4.59. The following average times were measured between 2008 and 2012 at the NFL combine.
|
a flip flop is a binary cell capable of storing information of | Memory cell (computing) - wikipedia
The memory cell is the fundamental building block of computer memory. The memory cell is an electronic circuit that stores one bit of binary information and it must be set to store a logic 1 (high voltage level) and reset to store a logic 0 (low voltage level). Its value is maintained / stored until it is changed by the set / reset process. The value in the memory cell can be accessed by reading it.
Over the history of computing many different memory cell architectures have been used including core memory and bubble memory, but the most common ones used are flip - flops and capacitors.
The SRAM, static ram memory cell is a type of flip - flop circuit, usually implemented using FETs. These require very low power to keep the stored value when not being accessed.
A second type, DRAM is based around a capacitor. Charging and discharging this capacitor can store a ' 1 ' or a ' 0 ' in the cell. However, the charge in this capacitor will slowly leak away, and must be refreshed periodically. Because of this refresh process, DRAM uses more power, but can achieve greater storage densities.
The memory cell is the fundamental building block of memory. It can be implemented using different technologies, such as bipolar, MOS, and other semiconductor devices. It can also be built from magnetic material such as ferrite cores or magnetic bubbles. Regardless of the implementation technology used, the purpose of the binary memory cell is always the same. It stores one bit of binary information that can be accessed by reading the cell and it must be set to store a 1 and reset to store a 0.
Logic circuits without memory cells or feedback paths are called combinational, their outputs values depend only on the current value of their input values. They do not have memory. But memory is a key element of digital systems. In computers, it allows to store both programs and data and memory cells are also used for temporary storage of the output of combinational circuits to be used later by digital systems. Logic circuits that use memory cells are called sequential circuits. Its output depends not only on the present value of its inputs, but also on the circuits previous state, as determined by the values stored on is memory cells. These circuits require a timing generator or clock for their operation.
Computer memory used in most contemporary computer systems is built mainly out of DRAM cells, since the layout is much smaller than SRAM, it can be more densely packed yielding cheaper memory with greater capacity. Since the DRAM memory cell stores its value as the charge of a capacitor, and there are current leakage issues, its value must be constantly rewriten. this is one of the reasons that make DRAM cells slower than the larger SRAM (Static RAM) cells, which has its value always available. That is the reason why SRAM memory is used for on - chip cache included in modern microprocessor chips.
On December 11, 1946 Freddie Williams applied for a patent on his cathode - ray tube (CRT) storing device (Williams tube) with 128 40 - bit words. It was operational in 1947 and is considered the first practical implementation of random - access memory. In that year, the first patent applications for magnetic - core memory were filed by Frederick Viehe. An Wang, Ken Olsen and Jay Forrester also contributed to its development. The first modern memory cells were introduced in 1965, when John Schmidt designed the first 64 - bit MOS p - channel SRAM. The first bipolar 64 - bit SRAM was released by Intel in 1969 with the 3101 Schottky TTL. One year later it released the first DRAM chip, the Intel 1103 that by 1972 beat all worldwide records in semiconductor memory sales.
The following schematics detail the three most used implementations for memory cells:
The flip - flop has many different implementations, its storage element is usually a Latch consisting of a NAND gate loop or a NOR gate loop with additional gates used to implement clocking. Its value is always available for reading as an output. The value remains stored until it is changed through the set or reset process.
|
when was the book the case for christ written | Lee Strobel - wikipedia
University of Missouri
Lee Patrick Strobel (born January 25, 1952) is an American Christian author and a former investigative journalist. He has written several books, including four which received ECPA Christian Book Awards (1994, 1999, 2001, 2005) and a series which addresses challenges to a Biblically inerrant view of Christianity. Strobel also hosted a television program called Faith Under Fire on PAX TV, and runs a video apologetics web site. Strobel has been interviewed on numerous national television programs, including ABC 's 20 / 20, Fox News, and CNN.
Strobel received a journalism degree from University of Missouri and a Master of Studies in Law degree from Yale Law School, becoming a journalist for the Chicago Tribune and other newspapers for 14 years. In 1980, the UPI Illinois Editors Association newspaper award program gave him a first place for public service (the Len H. Small Memorial award) for his coverage of the Pinto crash trial of Ford Motor in Winamac, Indiana.
Strobel was an atheist when he began investigating the Biblical claims about Christ after his wife 's conversion. Prompted by the results of his investigation, he became a Christian on November 8, 1981.
Strobel was a teaching pastor of Willow Creek Community Church in South Barrington, Illinois, from 1987 to 2000, before shifting his focus to writing and producing his TV show. He continues to speak periodically at churches and has been a board member of the Willow Creek Association. In 2007, Strobel was awarded an honorary doctoral degree by Southern Evangelical Seminary in recognition of his contributions to Christian apologetics.
Strobel is married to Leslie, and they have two children and several grandchildren. His daughter Alison is a novelist, and his son Kyle is an Assistant Professor of Spiritual Theology and Formation at the Talbot School of Theology.
The Case for Christ retraces and expands his journey toward becoming a Christian. The book summarizes his interviews with thirteen evangelical Christian scholars -- Craig Blomberg, Bruce Metzger, Edwin Yamauchi, John McRay, Gregory Boyd, Ben Witherington III, Gary Collins, D.A. Carson, Louis Lapides, Alexander Metherell, William Lane Craig, Gary Habermas, and J.P. Moreland -- in which they defend their views regarding the historical reliability of the New Testament. The Case for Christ, September 1, 1998, Zondervan, ISBN 0 - 310 - 22605 - 8 Strobel 's personal experience while encountering these scholars and their beliefs was portrayed in the 2017 drama film of the same name.
The book is divided into three parts, preceded by a Preface: Introduction: Reopening the Investigation of a Lifetime
In his book The Case for Faith: A Journalist Investigates the Toughest Objections to Christianity, Strobel replies to doubts about Christianity, including the problem of evil, the contradiction between miracles and science, whether God is worthy of worship if he kills innocent children, whether Jesus is the only way to God, and the church 's history of oppression and violence.
The book is divided into 8 Objections:
The Case for a Creator consists of interviews with intelligent design advocates and Christian apologists who argue for the existence of a creator.
The advocates interviewed in the chapters and their topic (s) of discussion are as follows:
The Case for the Real Jesus: A Journalist Investigates Current Attacks on the Identity of Christ presents a number of counter-arguments to challenges to the evangelical Christian view. Strobel addresses differences between the portrayal of Jesus in the non-canonical gospels versus the four canonical gospels, whether the church has changed this depiction over time, new explanations that challenge Jesus ' resurrection, the proposed origins of the Jesus story in pagan religions, whether Jesus fulfills messianic prophecies, and whether contemporary people should have the freedom to believe what they want about Jesus.
The book is divided into 6 Challenges:
The Case for Christianity Answer Book uses a question - and - answer format to address typical questions concerning Christianity, including the internal consistency of the Bible, intersections between religion and science, the Problem of evil and the Resurrection of Jesus.
The book is divided into six parts:
Strobel says that he wrote Inside the Mind of Unchurched Harry and Mary to help advance lay people 's understanding of Christianity and to increase the effectiveness of evangelistic efforts, and says the book includes insights drawn from his own experiences as a former atheist as to why people avoid Christianity.
Experiencing the Passion of Jesus was co-written with Garry Poole as a discussion guide for Mel Gibson 's film The Passion of the Christ. Strobel and Poole also co-authored Exploring the Da Vinci Code.
Strobel appeared in the 2016 film God 's Not Dead 2.
A film entitled The Case for Christ, based on Strobel 's eponymous best - seller, had its theatrical release in April 2017. The film is directed by Jonathan M. Gunn and is about an atheist reporter who tries to prove Christianity to be a cult. The film was produced by Triple Horse Studios and distributed by Pure Flix Entertainment.
|
describe where the center of mass of a hammer is | Mass - wikipedia
Mass is both a property of a physical body and a measure of its resistance to acceleration (a change in its state of motion) when a net force is applied. It also determines the strength of its mutual gravitational attraction to other bodies. The basic SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). In physics, mass is not the same as weight, even though mass is often determined by measuring the object 's weight using a spring scale, rather than balance scale comparing it directly with known masses. An object on the Moon would weigh less than it does on Earth because of the lower gravity, but it would still have the same mass. This is because weight is a force, while mass is the property that (along with gravity) determines the strength of this force.
In Newtonian physics, mass can be generalized as the amount of matter in an object. However, at very high speeds, special relativity states that the kinetic energy of its motion becomes a significant additional source of mass. Thus, any stationary body having mass has an equivalent amount of energy, and all forms of energy resist acceleration by a force and have gravitational attraction. In modern physics, matter is not a fundamental concept because its definition has proven elusive.
There are several distinct phenomena which can be used to measure mass. Although some theorists have speculated that some of these phenomena could be independent of each other, current experiments have found no difference in results regardless of how it is measured:
The mass of an object determines its acceleration in the presence of an applied force. The inertia and the inertial mass describe the same properties of physical bodies at the qualitative and quantitative level respectively, by other words, the mass quantitatively describes the inertia. According to Newton 's second law of motion, if a body of fixed mass m is subjected to a single force F, its acceleration a is given by F / m. A body 's mass also determines the degree to which it generates or is affected by a gravitational field. If a first body of mass m is placed at a distance r (center of mass to center of mass) from a second body of mass m, each body is subject to an attractive force F = Gm m / r, where G = 6989667000000000000 ♠ 6.67 × 10 N kg m is the "universal gravitational constant ''. This is sometimes referred to as gravitational mass. Repeated experiments since the 17th century have demonstrated that inertial and gravitational mass are identical; since 1915, this observation has been entailed a priori in the equivalence principle of general relativity.
The standard International System of Units (SI) unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). The kilogram is 1000 grams (g), first defined in 1795 as one cubic decimeter of water at the melting point of ice. Then in 1889, the kilogram was redefined as the mass of the international prototype kilogram, and as such is independent of the meter, or the properties of water. However, the mass of the international prototype and its identical national copies have been found to be drifting over time. It is expected that the re-definition of the kilogram and several other units will change on May 20, 2019, following a final vote by the CGPM in November 2018. The new definition will use only invariant quantities of nature: the speed of light, the caesium hyperfine frequency, and the Planck constant.
Other units are accepted for use in SI:
Outside the SI system, other units of mass include:
In physical science, one may distinguish conceptually between at least seven different aspects of mass, or seven physical notions that involve the concept of mass. Every experiment to date has shown these seven values to be proportional, and in some cases equal, and this proportionality gives rise to the abstract concept of mass. There are a number of ways mass can be measured or operationally defined:
In everyday usage, mass and "weight '' are often used interchangeably. For instance, a person 's weight may be stated as 75 kg. In a constant gravitational field, the weight of an object is proportional to its mass, and it is unproblematic to use the same unit for both concepts. But because of slight differences in the strength of the Earth 's gravitational field at different places, the distinction becomes important for measurements with a precision better than a few percent, and for places far from the surface of the Earth, such as in space or on other planets. Conceptually, "mass '' (measured in kilograms) refers to an intrinsic property of an object, whereas "weight '' (measured in newtons) measures an object 's resistance to deviating from its natural course of free fall, which can be influenced by the nearby gravitational field. No matter how strong the gravitational field, objects in free fall are weightless, though they still have mass.
The force known as "weight '' is proportional to mass and acceleration in all situations where the mass is accelerated away from free fall. For example, when a body is at rest in a gravitational field (rather than in free fall), it must be accelerated by a force from a scale or the surface of a planetary body such as the Earth or the Moon. This force keeps the object from going into free fall. Weight is the opposing force in such circumstances, and is thus determined by the acceleration of free fall. On the surface of the Earth, for example, an object with a mass of 50 kilograms weighs 491 newtons, which means that 491 newtons is being applied to keep the object from going into free fall. By contrast, on the surface of the Moon, the same object still has a mass of 50 kilograms but weighs only 81.5 newtons, because only 81.5 newtons is required to keep this object from going into a free fall on the moon. Restated in mathematical terms, on the surface of the Earth, the weight W of an object is related to its mass m by W = mg, where g = 7000980665000000000 ♠ 9.80665 m / s is the acceleration due to Earth 's gravitational field, (expressed as the acceleration experienced by a free - falling object).
For other situations, such as when objects are subjected to mechanical accelerations from forces other than the resistance of a planetary surface, the weight force is proportional to the mass of an object multiplied by the total acceleration away from free fall, which is called the proper acceleration. Through such mechanisms, objects in elevators, vehicles, centrifuges, and the like, may experience weight forces many times those caused by resistance to the effects of gravity on objects, resulting from planetary surfaces. In such cases, the generalized equation for weight W of an object is related to its mass m by the equation W = -- ma, where a is the proper acceleration of the object caused by all influences other than gravity. (Again, if gravity is the only influence, such as occurs when an object falls freely, its weight will be zero).
Macroscopically, mass is associated with matter, although matter is not, ultimately, as clearly defined a concept as mass. On the subatomic scale, not only fermions, the particles often associated with matter, but also some bosons, the particles that act as force carriers, have rest mass. Another problem for easy definition is that much of the rest mass of ordinary matter derives from the binding energy (potential energy) holding their quarks together and other forms of energy rather than the sum of the rest masses of the individual particle constituents. For example, only 1 % of the rest mass of matter is accounted for by the rest mass of its elementary quarks and electrons. From a fundamental physics perspective, mass is the number describing under which the representation of the little group of the Poincaré group a particle transforms. In the Standard Model of particle physics, this symmetry is described as arising as a consequence of a coupling of particles with rest mass to a postulated additional field, known as the Higgs field.
The total mass of the observable universe is estimated at 10 kg, corresponding to the rest mass of between 10 and 10 protons.
Although inertial mass, passive gravitational mass and active gravitational mass are conceptually distinct, no experiment has ever unambiguously demonstrated any difference between them. In classical mechanics, Newton 's third law implies that active and passive gravitational mass must always be identical (or at least proportional), but the classical theory offers no compelling reason why the gravitational mass has to equal the inertial mass. That it does is merely an empirical fact.
Albert Einstein developed his general theory of relativity starting with the assumption of the intentionality of correspondence between inertial and passive gravitational mass, and that no experiment will ever detect a difference between them, in essence the equivalence principle.
This particular equivalence often referred to as the "Galilean equivalence principle '' or the "weak equivalence principle '' has the most important consequence for freely falling objects. Suppose an object with inertial and gravitational masses m and M, respectively. If the only force acting on the object comes from a gravitational field g, combining Newton 's second law and the gravitational law yields the acceleration
This says that the ratio of gravitational to inertial mass of any object is equal to some constant K if and only if all objects fall at the same rate in a given gravitational field. This phenomenon is referred to as the "universality of free - fall ''. In addition, the constant K can be taken as 1 by defining our units appropriately.
The first experiments demonstrating the universality of free - fall were -- according to scientific ' folklore ' -- conducted by Galileo obtained by dropping objects from the Leaning Tower of Pisa. This is most likely apocryphal: he is more likely to have performed his experiments with balls rolling down nearly frictionless inclined planes to slow the motion and increase the timing accuracy. Increasingly precise experiments have been performed, such as those performed by Loránd Eötvös, using the torsion balance pendulum, in 1889. As of 2008, no deviation from universality, and thus from Galilean equivalence, has ever been found, at least to the precision 10. More precise experimental efforts are still being carried out.
The universality of free - fall only applies to systems in which gravity is the only acting force. All other forces, especially friction and air resistance, must be absent or at least negligible. For example, if a hammer and a feather are dropped from the same height through the air on Earth, the feather will take much longer to reach the ground; the feather is not really in free - fall because the force of air resistance upwards against the feather is comparable to the downward force of gravity. On the other hand, if the experiment is performed in a vacuum, in which there is no air resistance, the hammer and the feather should hit the ground at exactly the same time (assuming the acceleration of both objects towards each other, and of the ground towards both objects, for its own part, is negligible). This can easily be done in a high school laboratory by dropping the objects in transparent tubes that have the air removed with a vacuum pump. It is even more dramatic when done in an environment that naturally has a vacuum, as David Scott did on the surface of the Moon during Apollo 15.
A stronger version of the equivalence principle, known as the Einstein equivalence principle or the strong equivalence principle, lies at the heart of the general theory of relativity. Einstein 's equivalence principle states that within sufficiently small regions of space - time, it is impossible to distinguish between a uniform acceleration and a uniform gravitational field. Thus, the theory postulates that the force acting on a massive object caused by a gravitational field is a result of the object 's tendency to move in a straight line (in other words its inertia) and should therefore be a function of its inertial mass and the strength of the gravitational field.
In theoretical physics, a mass generation mechanism is a theory which attempts to explain the origin of mass from the most fundamental laws of physics. To date, a number of different models have been proposed which advocate different views of the origin of mass. The problem is complicated by the fact that the notion of mass is strongly related to the gravitational interaction but a theory of the latter has not been yet reconciled with the currently popular model of particle physics, known as the Standard Model.
The concept of amount is very old and predates recorded history. Humans, at some early era, realized that the weight of a collection of similar objects was directly proportional to the number of objects in the collection:
where W is the weight of the collection of similar objects and n is the number of objects in the collection. Proportionality, by definition, implies that two values have a constant ratio:
An early use of this relationship is a balance scale, which balances the force of one object 's weight against the force of another object 's weight. The two sides of a balance scale are close enough that the objects experience similar gravitational fields. Hence, if they have similar masses then their weights will also be similar. This allows the scale, by comparing weights, to also compare masses.
Consequently, historical weight standards were often defined in terms of amounts. The Romans, for example, used the carob seed (carat or siliqua) as a measurement standard. If an object 's weight was equivalent to 1728 carob seeds, then the object was said to weigh one Roman pound. If, on the other hand, the object 's weight was equivalent to 144 carob seeds then the object was said to weigh one Roman ounce (uncia). The Roman pound and ounce were both defined in terms of different sized collections of the same common mass standard, the carob seed. The ratio of a Roman ounce (144 carob seeds) to a Roman pound (1728 carob seeds) was:
In 1600 AD, Johannes Kepler sought employment with Tycho Brahe, who had some of the most precise astronomical data available. Using Brahe 's precise observations of the planet Mars, Kepler spent the next five years developing his own method for characterizing planetary motion. In 1609, Johannes Kepler published his three laws of planetary motion, explaining how the planets orbit the Sun. In Kepler 's final planetary model, he described planetary orbits as following elliptical paths with the Sun at a focal point of the ellipse. Kepler discovered that the square of the orbital period of each planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit, or equivalently, that the ratio of these two values is constant for all planets in the Solar System.
On 25 August 1609, Galileo Galilei demonstrated his first telescope to a group of Venetian merchants, and in early January 1610, Galileo observed four dim objects near Jupiter, which he mistook for stars. However, after a few days of observation, Galileo realized that these "stars '' were in fact orbiting Jupiter. These four objects (later named the Galilean moons in honor of their discoverer) were the first celestial bodies observed to orbit something other than the Earth or Sun. Galileo continued to observe these moons over the next eighteen months, and by the middle of 1611 he had obtained remarkably accurate estimates for their periods.
Sometime prior to 1638, Galileo turned his attention to the phenomenon of objects in free fall, attempting to characterize these motions. Galileo was not the first to investigate Earth 's gravitational field, nor was he the first to accurately describe its fundamental characteristics. However, Galileo 's reliance on scientific experimentation to establish physical principles would have a profound effect on future generations of scientists. It is unclear if these were just hypothetical experiments used to illustrate a concept, or if they were real experiments performed by Galileo, but the results obtained from these experiments were both realistic and compelling. A biography by Galileo 's pupil Vincenzo Viviani stated that Galileo had dropped balls of the same material, but different masses, from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass. In support of this conclusion, Galileo had advanced the following theoretical argument: He asked if two bodies of different masses and different rates of fall are tied by a string, does the combined system fall faster because it is now more massive, or does the lighter body in its slower fall hold back the heavier body? The only convincing resolution to this question is that all bodies must fall at the same rate.
A later experiment was described in Galileo 's Two New Sciences published in 1638. One of Galileo 's fictional characters, Salviati, describes an experiment using a bronze ball and a wooden ramp. The wooden ramp was "12 cubits long, half a cubit wide and three finger - breadths thick '' with a straight, smooth, polished groove. The groove was lined with "parchment, also smooth and polished as possible ''. And into this groove was placed "a hard, smooth and very round bronze ball ''. The ramp was inclined at various angles to slow the acceleration enough so that the elapsed time could be measured. The ball was allowed to roll a known distance down the ramp, and the time taken for the ball to move the known distance was measured. The time was measured using a water clock described as follows:
Galileo found that for an object in free fall, the distance that the object has fallen is always proportional to the square of the elapsed time:
Galileo had shown that objects in free fall under the influence of the Earth 's gravitational field have a constant acceleration, and Galileo 's contemporary, Johannes Kepler, had shown that the planets follow elliptical paths under the influence of the Sun 's gravitational mass. However, Galileo 's free fall motions and Kepler 's planetary motions remained distinct during Galileo 's lifetime.
Robert Hooke had published his concept of gravitational forces in 1674, stating that all celestial bodies have an attraction or gravitating power towards their own centers, and also attract all the other celestial bodies that are within the sphere of their activity. He further stated that gravitational attraction increases by how much nearer the body wrought upon is to their own center. In correspondence with Isaac Newton from 1679 and 1680, Hooke conjectured that gravitational forces might decrease according to the double of the distance between the two bodies. Hooke urged Newton, who was a pioneer in the development of calculus, to work through the mathematical details of Keplerian orbits to determine if Hooke 's hypothesis was correct. Newton 's own investigations verified that Hooke was correct, but due to personal differences between the two men, Newton chose not to reveal this to Hooke. Isaac Newton kept quiet about his discoveries until 1684, at which time he told a friend, Edmond Halley, that he had solved the problem of gravitational orbits, but had misplaced the solution in his office. After being encouraged by Halley, Newton decided to develop his ideas about gravity and publish all of his findings. In November 1684, Isaac Newton sent a document to Edmund Halley, now lost but presumed to have been titled De motu corporum in gyrum (Latin for "On the motion of bodies in an orbit ''). Halley presented Newton 's findings to the Royal Society of London, with a promise that a fuller presentation would follow. Newton later recorded his ideas in a three book set, entitled Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Latin: "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy ''). The first was received by the Royal Society on 28 April 1685 -- 6; the second on 2 March 1686 -- 7; and the third on 6 April 1686 -- 7. The Royal Society published Newton 's entire collection at their own expense in May 1686 -- 7.
Isaac Newton had bridged the gap between Kepler 's gravitational mass and Galileo 's gravitational acceleration, resulting in the discovery of the following relationship which governed both of these:
where g is the apparent acceleration of a body as it passes through a region of space where gravitational fields exist, μ is the gravitational mass (standard gravitational parameter) of the body causing gravitational fields, and R is the radial coordinate (the distance between the centers of the two bodies).
By finding the exact relationship between a body 's gravitational mass and its gravitational field, Newton provided a second method for measuring gravitational mass. The mass of the Earth can be determined using Kepler 's method (from the orbit of Earth 's Moon), or it can be determined by measuring the gravitational acceleration on the Earth 's surface, and multiplying that by the square of the Earth 's radius. The mass of the Earth is approximately three millionths of the mass of the Sun. To date, no other accurate method for measuring gravitational mass has been discovered.
Newton 's cannonball was a thought experiment used to bridge the gap between Galileo 's gravitational acceleration and Kepler 's elliptical orbits. It appeared in Newton 's 1728 book A Treatise of the System of the World. According to Galileo 's concept of gravitation, a dropped stone falls with constant acceleration down towards the Earth. However, Newton explains that when a stone is thrown horizontally (meaning sideways or perpendicular to Earth 's gravity) it follows a curved path. "For a stone projected is by the pressure of its own weight forced out of the rectilinear path, which by the projection alone it should have pursued, and made to describe a curve line in the air; and through that crooked way is at last brought down to the ground. And the greater the velocity is with which it is projected, the farther it goes before it falls to the Earth. '' Newton further reasons that if an object were "projected in an horizontal direction from the top of a high mountain '' with sufficient velocity, "it would reach at last quite beyond the circumference of the Earth, and return to the mountain from which it was projected. ''
In contrast to earlier theories (e.g. celestial spheres) which stated that the heavens were made of entirely different material, Newton 's theory of mass was groundbreaking partly because it introduced universal gravitational mass: every object has gravitational mass, and therefore, every object generates a gravitational field. Newton further assumed that the strength of each object 's gravitational field would decrease according to the square of the distance to that object. If a large collection of small objects were formed into a giant spherical body such as the Earth or Sun, Newton calculated the collection would create a gravitational field proportional to the total mass of the body, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance to the body 's center.
For example, according to Newton 's theory of universal gravitation, each carob seed produces a gravitational field. Therefore, if one were to gather an immense number of carob seeds and form them into an enormous sphere, then the gravitational field of the sphere would be proportional to the number of carob seeds in the sphere. Hence, it should be theoretically possible to determine the exact number of carob seeds that would be required to produce a gravitational field similar to that of the Earth or Sun. In fact, by unit conversion it is a simple matter of abstraction to realize that any traditional mass unit can theoretically be used to measure gravitational mass.
Measuring gravitational mass in terms of traditional mass units is simple in principle, but extremely difficult in practice. According to Newton 's theory all objects produce gravitational fields and it is theoretically possible to collect an immense number of small objects and form them into an enormous gravitating sphere. However, from a practical standpoint, the gravitational fields of small objects are extremely weak and difficult to measure. Newton 's books on universal gravitation were published in the 1680s, but the first successful measurement of the Earth 's mass in terms of traditional mass units, the Cavendish experiment, did not occur until 1797, over a hundred years later. Cavendish found that the Earth 's density was 5.448 ± 0.033 times that of water. As of 2009, the Earth 's mass in kilograms is only known to around five digits of accuracy, whereas its gravitational mass is known to over nine significant figures.
Given two objects A and B, of masses M and M, separated by a displacement R, Newton 's law of gravitation states that each object exerts a gravitational force on the other, of magnitude
where G is the universal gravitational constant. The above statement may be reformulated in the following way: if g is the magnitude at a given location in a gravitational field, then the gravitational force on an object with gravitational mass M is
This is the basis by which masses are determined by weighing. In simple spring scales, for example, the force F is proportional to the displacement of the spring beneath the weighing pan, as per Hooke 's law, and the scales are calibrated to take g into account, allowing the mass M to be read off. Assuming the gravitational field is equivalent on both sides of the balance, a balance measures relative weight, giving the relative gravitation mass of each object.
Inertial mass is the mass of an object measured by its resistance to acceleration. This definition has been championed by Ernst Mach and has since been developed into the notion of operationalism by Percy W. Bridgman. The simple classical mechanics definition of mass is slightly different than the definition in the theory of special relativity, but the essential meaning is the same.
In classical mechanics, according to Newton 's second law, we say that a body has a mass m if, at any instant of time, it obeys the equation of motion
where F is the resultant force acting on the body and a is the acceleration of the body 's centre of mass. For the moment, we will put aside the question of what "force acting on the body '' actually means.
This equation illustrates how mass relates to the inertia of a body. Consider two objects with different masses. If we apply an identical force to each, the object with a bigger mass will experience a smaller acceleration, and the object with a smaller mass will experience a bigger acceleration. We might say that the larger mass exerts a greater "resistance '' to changing its state of motion in response to the force.
However, this notion of applying "identical '' forces to different objects brings us back to the fact that we have not really defined what a force is. We can sidestep this difficulty with the help of Newton 's third law, which states that if one object exerts a force on a second object, it will experience an equal and opposite force. To be precise, suppose we have two objects of constant inertial masses m and m. We isolate the two objects from all other physical influences, so that the only forces present are the force exerted on m by m, which we denote F, and the force exerted on m by m, which we denote F. Newton 's second law states that
where a and a are the accelerations of m and m, respectively. Suppose that these accelerations are non-zero, so that the forces between the two objects are non-zero. This occurs, for example, if the two objects are in the process of colliding with one another. Newton 's third law then states that
and thus
If a is non-zero, the fraction is well - defined, which allows us to measure the inertial mass of m. In this case, m is our "reference '' object, and we can define its mass m as (say) 1 kilogram. Then we can measure the mass of any other object in the universe by colliding it with the reference object and measuring the accelerations.
Additionally, mass relates a body 's momentum p to its linear velocity v:
and the body 's kinetic energy K to its velocity:
The primary difficulty with Mach 's definition of mass is that it fails to take into account the potential energy (or binding energy) needed to bring two masses sufficiently close to one another to perform the measurement of mass. This is most vividly demonstrated by comparing the mass of the proton in the nucleus of deuterium, to the mass of the proton in free space (which is greater by about 0.239 % - this is due to the binding energy of deuterium.). Thus, for example, if the reference weight m is taken to be the mass of the neutron in free space, and the relative accelerations for the proton and neutron in deuterium are computed, then the above formula over-estimates the mass m (by 0.239 %) for the proton in deuterium. At best, Mach 's formula can only be used to obtain ratios of masses, that is, as m / m = a / a. An additional difficulty was pointed out by Henri Poincaré, which is that the measurement of instantaneous acceleration is impossible: unlike the measurement of time or distance, there is no way to measure acceleration with a single measurement; one must make multiple measurements (of position, time, etc.) and perform a computation to obtain the acceleration. Poincaré termed this to be an "insurmountable flaw '' in the Mach definition of mass.
Typically, the mass of objects is measured in relation to that of the kilogram, which is defined as the mass of the international prototype kilogram (IPK), a platinum alloy cylinder stored in an environmentally - monitored safe secured in a vault at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. However, the IPK is not convenient for measuring the masses of atoms and particles of similar scale, as it contains trillions of trillions of atoms, and has most certainly lost or gained a little mass over time despite the best efforts to prevent this. It is much easier to precisely compare an atom 's mass to that of another atom, thus scientists developed the atomic mass unit (or Dalton). By definition, 1 u is exactly one twelfth of the mass of a carbon - 12 atom, and by extension a carbon - 12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 u. This definition, however, might be changed by the proposed redefinition of SI base units, which will leave the Dalton very close to one, but no longer exactly equal to it.
In special relativity, there are two kinds of mass: rest mass (invariant mass), and relativistic mass (which increases with velocity). Rest mass is the Newtonian mass as measured by an observer moving along with the object. Relativistic mass is the total quantity of energy in a body or system divided by c. The two are related by the following equation:
where γ (\ displaystyle \ gamma) is the Lorentz factor:
The invariant mass of systems is the same for observers in all inertial frames, while the relativistic mass depends on the observer 's frame of reference. In order to formulate the equations of physics such that mass values do not change between observers, it is convenient to use rest mass. The rest mass of a body is also related to its energy E and the magnitude of its momentum p by the relativistic energy - momentum equation:
So long as the system is closed with respect to mass and energy, both kinds of mass are conserved in any given frame of reference. The conservation of mass holds even as some types of particles are converted to others. Matter particles (such as atoms) may be converted to non-matter particles (such as photons of light), but this does not affect the total amount of mass or energy. Although things like heat may not be matter, all types of energy still continue to exhibit mass. Thus, mass and energy do not change into one another in relativity; rather, both are names for the same thing, and neither mass nor energy appear without the other.
Both rest and relativistic mass can be expressed as an energy by applying the well - known relationship E = mc, yielding rest energy and "relativistic energy '' (total system energy) respectively:
The "relativistic '' mass and energy concepts are related to their "rest '' counterparts, but they do not have the same value as their rest counterparts in systems where there is a net momentum. Because the relativistic mass is proportional to the energy, it has gradually fallen into disuse among physicists. There is disagreement over whether the concept remains useful pedagogically.
In bound systems, the binding energy must often be subtracted from the mass of the unbound system, because binding energy commonly leaves the system at the time it is bound. The mass of the system changes in this process merely because the system was not closed during the binding process, so the energy escaped. For example, the binding energy of atomic nuclei is often lost in the form of gamma rays when the nuclei are formed, leaving nuclides which have less mass than the free particles (nucleons) of which they are composed.
Mass -- energy equivalence also holds in macroscopic systems. For example, if one takes exactly one kilogram of ice, and applies heat, the mass of the resulting melt - water will be more than a kilogram: it will include the mass from the thermal energy (latent heat) used to melt the ice; this follows from the conservation of energy. This number is small but not negligible: about 3.7 nanograms. It is given by the latent heat of melting ice (334 kJ / kg) divided by the speed of light squared (c = 9 × 10 m / s).
In general relativity, the equivalence principle is any of several related concepts dealing with the equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass. At the core of this assertion is Albert Einstein 's idea that the gravitational force as experienced locally while standing on a massive body (such as the Earth) is the same as the pseudo-force experienced by an observer in a non-inertial (i.e. accelerated) frame of reference.
However, it turns out that it is impossible to find an objective general definition for the concept of invariant mass in general relativity. At the core of the problem is the non-linearity of the Einstein field equations, making it impossible to write the gravitational field energy as part of the stress -- energy tensor in a way that is invariant for all observers. For a given observer, this can be achieved by the stress -- energy -- momentum pseudotensor.
In classical mechanics, the inert mass of a particle appears in the Euler -- Lagrange equation as a parameter m:
After quantization, replacing the position vector x with a wave function, the parameter m appears in the kinetic energy operator:
In the ostensibly covariant (relativistically invariant) Dirac equation, and in natural units, this becomes:
where the "mass '' parameter m is now simply a constant associated with the quantum described by the wave function ψ.
In the Standard Model of particle physics as developed in the 1960s, this term arises from the coupling of the field ψ to an additional field Φ, the Higgs field. In the case of fermions, the Higgs mechanism results in the replacement of the term mψ in the Lagrangian with G ψ ψ _̄ φ ψ (\ displaystyle G_ (\ psi) (\ overline (\ psi)) \ phi \ psi). This shifts the explanandum of the value for the mass of each elementary particle to the value of the unknown couplings G.
A tachyonic field, or simply tachyon, is a quantum field with an imaginary mass. Although tachyons (particles that move faster than light) are a purely hypothetical concept not generally believed to exist, fields with imaginary mass have come to play an important role in modern physics and are discussed in popular books on physics. Under no circumstances do any excitations ever propagate faster than light in such theories -- the presence or absence of a tachyonic mass has no effect whatsoever on the maximum velocity of signals (there is no violation of causality). While the field may have imaginary mass, any physical particles do not; the "imaginary mass '' shows that the system becomes unstable, and sheds the instability by undergoing a type of phase transition called tachyon condensation (closely related to second order phase transitions) that results in symmetry breaking in current models of particle physics.
The term "tachyon '' was coined by Gerald Feinberg in a 1967 paper, but it was soon realized that Feinberg 's model in fact did not allow for superluminal speeds. Instead, the imaginary mass creates an instability in the configuration: - any configuration in which one or more field excitations are tachyonic will spontaneously decay, and the resulting configuration contains no physical tachyons. This process is known as tachyon condensation. Well known examples include the condensation of the Higgs boson in particle physics, and ferromagnetism in condensed matter physics.
Although the notion of a tachyonic imaginary mass might seem troubling because there is no classical interpretation of an imaginary mass, the mass is not quantized. Rather, the scalar field is; even for tachyonic quantum fields, the field operators at spacelike separated points still commute (or anticommute), thus preserving causality. Therefore, information still does not propagate faster than light, and solutions grow exponentially, but not superluminally (there is no violation of causality). Tachyon condensation drives a physical system that has reached a local limit and might naively be expected to produce physical tachyons, to an alternate stable state where no physical tachyons exist. Once the tachyonic field reaches the minimum of the potential, its quanta are not tachyons any more but rather are ordinary particles with a positive mass - squared.
This is a special case of the general rule, where unstable massive particles are formally described as having a complex mass, with the real part being their mass in the usual sense, and the imaginary part being the decay rate in natural units. However, in quantum field theory, a particle (a "one - particle state '') is roughly defined as a state which is constant over time; i.e., an eigenvalue of the Hamiltonian. An unstable particle is a state which is only approximately constant over time; If it exists long enough to be measured, it can be formally described as having a complex mass, with the real part of the mass greater than its imaginary part. If both parts are of the same magnitude, this is interpreted as a resonance appearing in a scattering process rather than a particle, as it is considered not to exist long enough to be measured independently of the scattering process. In the case of a tachyon the real part of the mass is zero, and hence no concept of a particle can be attributed to it.
In a Lorentz invariant theory, the same formulas that apply to ordinary slower - than - light particles (sometimes called "bradyons '' in discussions of tachyons) must also apply to tachyons. In particular the energy -- momentum relation:
(where p is the relativistic momentum of the bradyon and m is its rest mass) should still apply, along with the formula for the total energy of a particle:
This equation shows that the total energy of a particle (bradyon or tachyon) contains a contribution from its rest mass (the "rest mass -- energy '') and a contribution from its motion, the kinetic energy. When v is larger than c, the denominator in the equation for the energy is "imaginary '', as the value under the radical is negative. Because the total energy must be real, the numerator must also be imaginary: i.e. the rest mass m must be imaginary, as a pure imaginary number divided by another pure imaginary number is a real number.
The negative mass exists in the model to describe dark energy (phantom energy) and radiation in negative - index metamaterial in a unified way. In this way, the negative mass is associated with negative momentum, negative pressure, negative kinetic energy and FTL (faster - than - light).
|
who did the voice of optimus prime in the cartoon | Peter Cullen - wikipedia
Peter Claver Cullen (born July 28, 1941) is a Canadian voice actor. He is best known as the voice of Optimus Prime (as well as Ironhide) in the original 1980s Transformers animated series, and most other incarnations of the character, as well, and Eeyore in the Winnie the Pooh franchise. He also voiced Monterey Jack in Chip ' n Dale Rescue Rangers from season one through some of season two. In 2007, Cullen returned to the role of Optimus Prime in various Transformers media, starting with the first live - action film.
Cullen was born on July 28, 1941 in Montreal, Quebec, to Henry L. and Muriel (née McCann) Cullen. He has three siblings: Michaela, Sonny, and Larry. Cullen attended Regiopolis - Notre Dame Catholic Secondary School. He is a member of the first graduating class of the National Theatre School of Canada, which graduated in 1963. His brother, Larry Cullen, was a retired Captain in the United States Marine Corps, and helped inspire the voice of Optimus Prime.
In 1968, he and Joan Stuart appeared as "Giles '' and "Penelope '' in L'Anglaise, a recurring segment about a French - Canadian man with an English - Canadian wife, on the CBC Radio comedy series, Funny You Should Say That.
Cullen played a French - Canadian astronaut character named Commander Bi Bi Latuque alongside Ted Zeigler for the 1969 children 's show, The Buddies on CFCF - TV in Montreal. He honed his voice skills by working as a radio announcer, notably in his home town of Montreal on (then) MOR station CKGM doing the overnight and weekend swing shifts. From 1967 - 69, he was the announcer for Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour.
From 1971 - 74, he, Zeigler and Billy Van were series regulars on The Sonny and Cher Comedy Hour. In 1974, Cullen was the announcer and a series regular (with Ted Zeigler and Billy Van) on The Hudson Brothers Razzle Dazzle Show. He lent his voice to a character in the album "The Story of Halloween Horror '' in 1977.
Cullen recalls auditioning for the role of the robot superhero Optimus Prime at a casting house in Burbank, California, explaining that as he read Prime 's character breakdown, he saw that it was "the opportunity of the year '', and heeded his brother Larry 's advice: "Peter, do n't be a Hollywood superhero, be a real superhero. Real superheroes do n't yell and act tough; they are tough enough to be gentle, so control yourself. '' Cullen later learned from his agent, Steve Tisherman, that he not only won the part of Prime, but also, to his surprise, the role of Ironhide as well, which he saw as a "home run ''.
He has stated that Optimus is his favorite voice role, and that he based the voice of the Autobot leader on his older brother Larry, who served in Vietnam. "When he came home, I could see a change. He was quieter and he was a man and a superhero to me, '' says the actor. "I watched him and listened to him. I 'd never had an opportunity to do a superhero, and when that came, (that voice) just came right out of me and I sounded like Optimus. ''
He has also stated that he had no idea of Prime 's popularity until the character 's controversial death in the 1986 animated film, as the studio had never given him fan letters from children addressed to Optimus. The public backlash over Optimus ' death surprised producers greatly. Children were leaving the theaters because of the character 's death. The writers temporarily revived the character for a single episode in Season 3 called "Dark Awakening ''. Initially, this was intended to be his final appearance, but after fan requests continued, "The Return of Optimus Prime '', a two - part episode was produced. The original ending of "Dark Awakening '' was altered in reruns to include a teaser about the return of the character.
Cullen reprised the role of Optimus Prime in the 2007 Transformers live - action film, and its sequels Revenge of the Fallen, Dark of the Moon, Age of Extinction, and The Last Knight, as well as the video games based on them. Cullen will also voice Optimus in the spin - off Bumblebee film, set to be released in 2018. He is contractually obligated to voice Optimus in at least one more sequel.
Cullen again reprised his role as Optimus Prime in the video games Transformers: War for Cybertron, Transformers: Fall of Cybertron and Transformers: Devastation, and in the recent television series Transformers: Rescue Bots, Transformers Prime and Transformers: Robots in Disguise. His performance in the premiere season of Transformers: Prime earned him a nomination for a 2011 Daytime Emmy Award in the Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program category.
In the 1980s and the 1990s, Cullen appeared on a number of television shows. He has played Coran, Stride the Tiger Fighter, and King Alfor in the Lion Voltron series, the transforming spaceship / robot Ramrod in the 1980s anime series Saber Rider and the Star Sheriffs, Commander James Hawkins in the Vehicle Voltron series, Eeyore in the Winnie the Pooh franchise, KARR in Knight Rider, Antor and Bomba, and Gunner, in Dino - Riders, Airbourne, Nemesis Enforcer and Zandar in G.I. Joe, He played "Mantor / Mantys '' in Coleco 's 5 episode mini-series Sectaurs in 1986; Red Skull in the 1981 cartoon series of Spider - Man, Klaar and Zanzoar in Megas XLR and Mantus in The Pirates of Dark Water. He also had a voice part in the 1984 motion picture Gremlins, as a gremlin, and the first season of the 2008 Knight Rider series as KARR. He also did voicework in The Greatest Adventure: Stories from the Bible series, notably as Japheth, one of Noah 's sons in the "Noah 's Ark '' episode, and the King of Nineveh in the "Jonah '' episode. He was well known by some as the main villain Venger in the animated series of Dungeons and Dragons. He played the evil sorcerer Renwick in the lesser known series Little Wizards and played Cindarr in the short - lived series Visionaries: Knights of the Magical Light.
Among many other television series and films, he has also lent his basso voice to many film trailers and television commercials, including announcing for the Toonami and You Are Here blocks on the Cartoon Network. Cullen spent some of his early professional years in Montreal as a radio announcer / DJ on CKGM; and as a character in a then - popular local television kids show. He acted the role of a French - Canadian astronaut, along with writer and his partner on the show, Ted Ziegler. Both Ziegler and Cullen were in the supporting cast of The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour, as well as other network comedies of the era.
He voiced Nintendo 's mascot Mario in the Donkey Kong segments on Saturday Supercade, making him the first person to ever provide a voice for the character.
Cullen has done voicework on drum and bass DJ Dieselboy 's 2004 album, The Dungeonmaster 's Guide, and narration on the 2013 album Tetragrammaton by the Dutch extreme metal band The Monolith Deathcult. Tetragrammaton also featured Cullen on bass in "God 's Among Insects. '' Additionally, he did voicework for the unreleased Blizzard Entertainment game Warcraft Adventures: Lord of the Clans, and provided narration for the Star Wars fan film series I.M.P.S.: The Relentless.
Cullen is a voice announcer on Police Story 4: First Strike in advertisements for New Line Cinema, lending his experience as an ex-cop for the Santa Monica division to the cast.
Cullen has four children: Clay, Angus, Claire, Pilar and three grandchildren. He is a good friend of his Transformers co-star and fellow voice actor Frank Welker.
At BotCon 2010, Hasbro named Cullen as one of the first four human inductees in the Transformers Hall of Fame for his role as the voice of Optimus Prime.
|
who is the only bowler to have taken a hattrick in both meaning of a test match | List of Test cricket hat - tricks - wikipedia
In the sport of cricket, a hat - trick is an occasion where a bowler takes three wickets in consecutive deliveries. As of 31 July 2017, this feat has only been achieved 43 times in more than two thousand Test matches, the form of the sport in which national representative teams compete in matches of up to five days ' duration. The first Test hat - trick was recorded on 2 January 1879, in only the third Test match to take place, by the Australian pace bowler Fred Spofforth, nicknamed "The Demon Bowler '', who dismissed three English batsmen with consecutive deliveries at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. The most recent bowler to achieve the feat was English spin bowler Moeen Ali against South Africa on 31 July 2017. At least one bowler from each of the ten nations that have played Test cricket have taken a Test hat - trick.
A player has taken two hat - tricks in the same Test match only once. Playing for Australia against South Africa in the first match of the 1912 Triangular Tournament at Old Trafford, Manchester, England, leg spinner Jimmy Matthews took a hat - trick in South Africa 's first and second innings, both taken on 28 May 1912. He completed both hat - tricks by dismissing South Africa 's Tommy Ward. Only three other cricketers have taken more than one Test hat - trick: Australian off spinner Hugh Trumble (two years apart, between the same teams at the same ground), Pakistani fast bowler Wasim Akram (just over a week apart, in consecutive matches between the same teams) and English fast bowler Stuart Broad. Three players have taken a hat - trick on their Test debut: English medium pace bowler Maurice Allom in 1930, New Zealand off - spinner Peter Petherick in 1976, and Australian pace bowler Damien Fleming in 1994. Geoff Griffin took the fewest total Test wickets of any player who recorded a hat - trick, taking only eight wickets in his entire Test career. During the match in which he took his hat - trick, Griffin was repeatedly called for throwing by the umpires and never bowled again in a Test match. Australian Peter Siddle is the only bowler to take a hat - trick on his birthday, and Bangladeshi off spinner Sohag Gazi is the only player to score a century and take a hat - trick in the same Test match.
Australian Merv Hughes is the only bowler to take a hat - trick where the wickets fell over three overs. He took a wicket with the final ball of an over. With the first ball of the next over he took the final wicket of the West Indies innings. He then removed the opener Gordon Greenidge with the first ball of the West Indies second innings.
In the five - match series between a Rest of the World XI and England in 1970, a hat - trick was taken by South African Eddie Barlow in the fourth match, at Headingley (the last three of four wickets in five balls). These matches were considered to be Tests at the time, but that status was later removed.
England and Australia combined have taken over half of all Test match hat - tricks to date, 25 of 43 (58.14 %).
|
where does the human chemical digestion of carbohydrates end | Digestion - wikipedia
Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water - soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream. Digestion is a form of catabolism that is often divided into two processes based on how food is broken down: mechanical and chemical digestion. The term mechanical digestion refers to the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces which can subsequently be accessed by digestive enzymes. In chemical digestion, enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use.
In the human digestive system, food enters the mouth and mechanical digestion of the food starts by the action of mastication (chewing), a form of mechanical digestion, and the wetting contact of saliva. Saliva, a liquid secreted by the salivary glands, contains salivary amylase, an enzyme which starts the digestion of starch in the food; the saliva also contains mucus, which lubricates the food, and hydrogen carbonate, which provides the ideal conditions of pH (alkaline) for amylase to work. After undergoing mastication and starch digestion, the food will be in the form of a small, round slurry mass called a bolus. It will then travel down the esophagus and into the stomach by the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice in the stomach starts protein digestion. Gastric juice mainly contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin. As these two chemicals may damage the stomach wall, mucus is secreted by the stomach, providing a slimy layer that acts as a shield against the damaging effects of the chemicals. At the same time protein digestion is occurring, mechanical mixing occurs by peristalsis, which is waves of muscular contractions that move along the stomach wall. This allows the mass of food to further mix with the digestive enzymes.
After some time (typically 1 -- 2 hours in humans, 4 -- 6 hours in dogs, 3 -- 4 hours in house cats), the resulting thick liquid is called chyme. When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95 % of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine. Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9. Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (K MK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum during defecation.
Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.
Some organisms, including nearly all spiders, simply secrete biotoxins and digestive chemicals (e.g., enzymes) into the extracellular environment prior to ingestion of the consequent "soup ''. In others, once potential nutrients or food is inside the organism, digestion can be conducted to a vesicle or a sac - like structure, through a tube, or through several specialized organs aimed at making the absorption of nutrients more efficient.
Bacteria use several systems to obtain nutrients from other organisms in the environments.
In a channel transupport system, several proteins form a contiguous channel traversing the inner and outer membranes of the bacteria. It is a simple system, which consists of only three protein subunits: the ABC protein, membrane fusion protein (MFP), and outer membrane protein (OMP). This secretion system transports various molecules, from ions, drugs, to proteins of various sizes (20 -- 900 kDa). The molecules secreted vary in size from the small Escherichia coli peptide colicin V, (10 kDa) to the Pseudomonas fluorescens cell adhesion protein LapA of 900 kDa.
A type III secretion system means that a molecular syringe is used through which a bacterium (e.g. certain types of Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia) can inject nutrients into protist cells. One such mechanism was first discovered in Y. pestis and showed that toxins could be injected directly from the bacterial cytoplasm into the cytoplasm of its host 's cells rather than simply be secreted into the extracellular medium.
The conjugation machinery of some bacteria (and archaeal flagella) is capable of transporting both DNA and proteins. It was discovered in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which uses this system to introduce the Ti plasmid and proteins into the host, which develops the crown gall (tumor). The VirB complex of Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the prototypic system.
The nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case, wherein conjugative elements naturally engage in inter-kingdom conjugation. Such elements as the Agrobacterium Ti or Ri plasmids contain elements that can transfer to plant cells. Transferred genes enter the plant cell nucleus and effectively transform the plant cells into factories for the production of opines, which the bacteria use as carbon and energy sources. Infected plant cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.
The Ti and Ri plasmids are themselves conjugative. Ti and Ri transfer between bacteria uses an independent system (the tra, or transfer, operon) from that for inter-kingdom transfer (the vir, or virulence, operon). Such transfer creates virulent strains from previously avirulent Agrobacteria.
In addition to the use of the multiprotein complexes listed above, Gram - negative bacteria possess another method for release of material: the formation of outer membrane vesicles. Portions of the outer membrane pinch off, forming spherical structures made of a lipid bilayer enclosing periplasmic materials. Vesicles from a number of bacterial species have been found to contain virulence factors, some have immunomodulatory effects, and some can directly adhere to and intoxicate host cells. While release of vesicles has been demonstrated as a general response to stress conditions, the process of loading cargo proteins seems to be selective.
The gastrovascular cavity functions as a stomach in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients to all parts of the body. Extracellular digestion takes place within this central cavity, which is lined with the gastrodermis, the internal layer of epithelium. This cavity has only one opening to the outside that functions as both a mouth and an anus: waste and undigested matter is excreted through the mouth / anus, which can be described as an incomplete gut.
In a plant such as the Venus Flytrap that can make its own food through photosynthesis, it does not eat and digest its prey for the traditional objectives of harvesting energy and carbon, but mines prey primarily for essential nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus in particular) that are in short supply in its boggy, acidic habitat.
A phagosome is a vacuole formed around a particle absorbed by phagocytosis. The vacuole is formed by the fusion of the cell membrane around the particle. A phagosome is a cellular compartment in which pathogenic microorganisms can be killed and digested. Phagosomes fuse with lysosomes in their maturation process, forming phagolysosomes. In humans, Entamoeba histolytica can phagocytose red blood cells.
To aid in the digestion of their food animals evolved organs such as beaks, tongues, teeth, a crop, gizzard, and others.
Birds have bony beaks that are specialised according to the bird 's ecological niche. For example, macaws primarily eat seeds, nuts, and fruit, using their impressive beaks to open even the toughest seed. First they scratch a thin line with the sharp point of the beak, then they shear the seed open with the sides of the beak.
The mouth of the squid is equipped with a sharp horny beak mainly made of cross-linked proteins. It is used to kill and tear prey into manageable pieces. The beak is very robust, but does not contain any minerals, unlike the teeth and jaws of many other organisms, including marine species. The beak is the only indigestible part of the squid.
The tongue is skeletal muscle on the floor of the mouth that manipulates food for chewing (mastication) and swallowing (deglutition). It is sensitive and kept moist by saliva. The underside of the tongue is covered with a smooth mucous membrane. The tongue also has a touch sense for locating and positioning food particles that require further chewing. The tongue is utilized to roll food particles into a bolus before being transported down the esophagus through peristalsis.
The sublingual region underneath the front of the tongue is a location where the oral mucosa is very thin, and underlain by a plexus of veins. This is an ideal location for introducing certain medications to the body. The sublingual route takes advantage of the highly vascular quality of the oral cavity, and allows for the speedy application of medication into the cardiovascular system, bypassing the gastrointestinal tract.
Teeth (singular tooth) are small whitish structures found in the jaws (or mouths) of many vertebrates that are used to tear, scrape, milk and chew food. Teeth are not made of bone, but rather of tissues of varying density and hardness, such as enamel, dentine and cementum. Human teeth have a blood and nerve supply which enables proprioception. This is the ability of sensation when chewing, for example if we were to bite into something too hard for our teeth, such as a chipped plate mixed in food, our teeth send a message to our brain and we realise that it can not be chewed, so we stop trying.
The shapes, sizes and numbers of types of animals ' teeth are related to their diets. For example, herbivores have a number of molars which are used to grind plant matter, which is difficult to digest. Carnivores have canine teeth which are used to kill and tear meat.
A crop, or croup, is a thin - walled expanded portion of the alimentary tract used for the storage of food prior to digestion. In some birds it is an expanded, muscular pouch near the gullet or throat. In adult doves and pigeons, the crop can produce crop milk to feed newly hatched birds.
Certain insects may have a crop or enlarged esophagus.
Herbivores have evolved cecums (or an abomasum in the case of ruminants). Ruminants have a fore - stomach with four chambers. These are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. In the first two chambers, the rumen and the reticulum, the food is mixed with saliva and separates into layers of solid and liquid material. Solids clump together to form the cud (or bolus). The cud is then regurgitated, chewed slowly to completely mix it with saliva and to break down the particle size.
Fibre, especially cellulose and hemi - cellulose, is primarily broken down into the volatile fatty acids, acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid in these chambers (the reticulo - rumen) by microbes: (bacteria, protozoa, and fungi). In the omasum, water and many of the inorganic mineral elements are absorbed into the blood stream.
The abomasum is the fourth and final stomach compartment in ruminants. It is a close equivalent of a monogastric stomach (e.g., those in humans or pigs), and digesta is processed here in much the same way. It serves primarily as a site for acid hydrolysis of microbial and dietary protein, preparing these protein sources for further digestion and absorption in the small intestine. Digesta is finally moved into the small intestine, where the digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs. Microbes produced in the reticulo - rumen are also digested in the small intestine.
Regurgitation has been mentioned above under abomasum and crop, referring to crop milk, a secretion from the lining of the crop of pigeons and doves with which the parents feed their young by regurgitation.
Many sharks have the ability to turn their stomachs inside out and evert it out of their mouths in order to get rid of unwanted contents (perhaps developed as a way to reduce exposure to toxins).
Other animals, such as rabbits and rodents, practise coprophagia behaviours -- eating specialised faeces in order to re-digest food, especially in the case of roughage. Capybara, rabbits, hamsters and other related species do not have a complex digestive system as do, for example, ruminants. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft faecal pellets of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not eaten.
Young elephants, pandas, koalas, and hippos eat the faeces of their mother, probably to obtain the bacteria required to properly digest vegetation. When they are born, their intestines do not contain these bacteria (they are completely sterile). Without them, they would be unable to get any nutritional value from many plant components.
An earthworm 's digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine. The mouth is surrounded by strong lips, which act like a hand to grab pieces of dead grass, leaves, and weeds, with bits of soil to help chew. The lips break the food down into smaller pieces. In the pharynx, the food is lubricated by mucus secretions for easier passage. The esophagus adds calcium carbonate to neutralize the acids formed by food matter decay. Temporary storage occurs in the crop where food and calcium carbonate are mixed. The powerful muscles of the gizzard churn and mix the mass of food and dirt. When the churning is complete, the glands in the walls of the gizzard add enzymes to the thick paste, which helps chemically breakdown the organic matter. By peristalsis, the mixture is sent to the intestine where friendly bacteria continue chemical breakdown. This releases carbohydrates, protein, fat, and various vitamins and minerals for absorption into the body.
In most vertebrates, digestion is a multistage process in the digestive system, starting from ingestion of raw materials, most often other organisms. Ingestion usually involves some type of mechanical and chemical processing. Digestion is separated into four steps:
Underlying the process is muscle movement throughout the system through swallowing and peristalsis. Each step in digestion requires energy, and thus imposes an "overhead charge '' on the energy made available from absorbed substances. Differences in that overhead cost are important influences on lifestyle, behavior, and even physical structures. Examples may be seen in humans, who differ considerably from other hominids (lack of hair, smaller jaws and musculature, different dentition, length of intestines, cooking, etc.).
The major part of digestion takes place in the small intestine. The large intestine primarily serves as a site for fermentation of indigestible matter by gut bacteria and for resorption of water from digests before excretion.
In mammals, preparation for digestion begins with the cephalic phase in which saliva is produced in the mouth and digestive enzymes are produced in the stomach. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth where food is chewed, and mixed with saliva to begin enzymatic processing of starches. The stomach continues to break food down mechanically and chemically through churning and mixing with both acids and enzymes. Absorption occurs in the stomach and gastrointestinal tract, and the process finishes with defecation.
The human gastrointestinal tract is around 9 meters long. Food digestion physiology varies between individuals and upon other factors such as the characteristics of the food and size of the meal, and the process of digestion normally takes between 24 and 72 hours.
Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice. The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine.
In the large intestine the passage of food is slower to enable fermentation by the gut flora to take place. Here water is absorbed and waste material stored as feces to be removed by defecation via the anal canal and anus.
Different phases of digestion take place including: the cephalic phase, gastric phase, and intestinal phase.
The cephalic phase occurs at the sight, thought and smell of food, which stimulate the cerebral cortex. Taste and smell stimuli are sent to the hypothalamus and medulla oblongata. After this it is routed through the vagus nerve and release of acetylcholine. Gastric secretion at this phase rises to 40 % of maximum rate. Acidity in the stomach is not buffered by food at this point and thus acts to inhibit parietal (secretes acid) and G cell (secretes gastrin) activity via D cell secretion of somatostatin.
The gastric phase takes 3 to 4 hours. It is stimulated by distension of the stomach, presence of food in stomach and decrease in pH. Distention activates long and myenteric reflexes. This activates the release of acetylcholine, which stimulates the release of more gastric juices. As protein enters the stomach, it binds to hydrogen ions, which raises the pH of the stomach. Inhibition of gastrin and gastric acid secretion is lifted. This triggers G cells to release gastrin, which in turn stimulates parietal cells to secrete gastric acid. Gastric acid is about 0.5 % hydrochloric acid (HCl), which lowers the pH to the desired pH of 1 - 3. Acid release is also triggered by acetylcholine and histamine.
The intestinal phase has two parts, the excitatory and the inhibitory. Partially digested food fills the duodenum. This triggers intestinal gastrin to be released. Enterogastric reflex inhibits vagal nuclei, activating sympathetic fibers causing the pyloric sphincter to tighten to prevent more food from entering, and inhibits local reflexes.
Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and duodenum in which 3 main enzymes, pepsin secreted by the stomach and trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted by the pancreas, break down food proteins into polypeptides that are then broken down by various exopeptidases and dipeptidases into amino acids. The digestive enzymes however are mostly secreted as their inactive precursors, the zymogens. For example, trypsin is secreted by pancreas in the form of trypsinogen, which is activated in the duodenum by enterokinase to form trypsin. Trypsin then cleaves proteins to smaller polypeptides.
Digestion of some fats can begin in the mouth where lingual lipase breaks down some short chain lipids into diglycerides. However fats are mainly digested in the small intestine. The presence of fat in the small intestine produces hormones that stimulate the release of pancreatic lipase from the pancreas and bile from the liver which helps in the emulsification of fats for absorption of fatty acids. Complete digestion of one molecule of fat (a triglyceride) results a mixture of fatty acids, mono - and di - glycerides, as well as some undigested triglycerides, but no free glycerol molecules.
In humans, dietary starches are composed of glucose units arranged in long chains called amylose, a polysaccharide. During digestion, bonds between glucose molecules are broken by salivary and pancreatic amylase, resulting in progressively smaller chains of glucose. This results in simple sugars glucose and maltose (2 glucose molecules) that can be absorbed by the small intestine.
Lactase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide lactose to its component parts, glucose and galactose. Glucose and galactose can be absorbed by the small intestine. Approximately 65 percent of the adult population produce only small amounts of lactase and are unable to eat unfermented milk - based foods. This is commonly known as lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerance varies widely by ethnic heritage; more than 90 percent of peoples of east Asian descent are lactose intolerant, in contrast to about 5 percent of people of northern European descent.
Sucrase is an enzyme that breaks down the disaccharide sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, cane sugar, or beet sugar. Sucrose digestion yields the sugars fructose and glucose which are readily absorbed by the small intestine.
DNA and RNA are broken down into mononucleotides by the nucleases deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease (DNase and RNase) from the pancreas.
Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example vitamin B) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their functional groups. To digest vitamin B non-destructively, haptocorrin in saliva strongly binds and protects the B molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are cleaved from their protein complexes.
After the B - haptocorrin complexes pass from the stomach via the pylorus to the duodenum, pancreatic proteases cleave haptocorrin from the B molecules which rebind to intrinsic factor (IF). These B - IF complexes travel to the ileum portion of the small intestine where cubilin receptors enable assimilation and circulation of B - IF complexes in the blood.
There are at least five hormones that aid and regulate the digestive system in mammals. There are variations across the vertebrates, as for instance in birds. Arrangements are complex and additional details are regularly discovered. For instance, more connections to metabolic control (largely the glucose - insulin system) have been uncovered in recent years.
Digestion is a complex process controlled by several factors. pH plays a crucial role in a normally functioning digestive tract. In the mouth, pharynx and esophagus, pH is typically about 6.8, very weakly acidic. Saliva controls pH in this region of the digestive tract. Salivary amylase is contained in saliva and starts the breakdown of carbohydrates into monosaccharides. Most digestive enzymes are sensitive to pH and will denature in a high or low pH environment.
The stomach 's high acidity inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrates within it. This acidity confers two benefits: it denatures proteins for further digestion in the small intestines, and provides non-specific immunity, damaging or eliminating various pathogens.
In the small intestines, the duodenum provides critical pH balancing to activate digestive enzymes. The liver secretes bile into the duodenum to neutralize the acidic conditions from the stomach, and the pancreatic duct empties into the duodenum, adding bicarbonate to neutralize the acidic chyme, thus creating a neutral environment. The mucosal tissue of the small intestines is alkaline with a pH of about 8.5.
|
when did mamma mia the movie come out | Mamma Mia! (Film) - wikipedia
Mamma Mia! (promoted as Mamma Mia! The Movie) is a 2008 American musical romantic comedy film based on the 1999 musical of the same name, based on the songs of successful pop group ABBA, with additional music composed by ABBA member Benny Andersson. The film was directed by Phyllida Lloyd and distributed by Universal Pictures in partnership with Tom Hanks and Rita Wilson 's Playtone and Littlestar, and the title originates from ABBA 's 1975 chart - topper "Mamma Mia ''. Meryl Streep heads the cast, playing the role of single mother Donna Sheridan. Pierce Brosnan (Sam Carmichael), Colin Firth (Harry Bright), and Stellan Skarsgård (Bill Anderson) play the three possible fathers to Donna 's daughter, Sophie (Amanda Seyfried). Mamma Mia! received mixed reviews from critics and earned $615 million on a $52 million budget, becoming the 5th highest - grossing film of 2008.
A sequel, titled Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again, is scheduled for a July 20, 2018 release in the United States with most of the cast returning to reprise their roles.
On the Greek island of Kalokairi, 20 - year - old bride - to - be Sophie Sheridan reveals to her bridesmaids that she has secretly invited three men to her wedding without telling her mother, Donna. They are the men that her mother 's diary reveals could have been her father: Irish - American architect Sam Carmichael, Swedish adventurer and writer Bill Anderson, and British banker Harry Bright. She dreams of being given away by her father at her wedding, and believes that after she spends time with them she will know which is her father.
Sophie 's mother Donna, who owns a villa, is ecstatic to reunite with her former Dynamos bandmates, wisecracking author Rosie Mulligan and wealthy multiple divorcée Tanya Chesham - Leigh, and reveals her bafflement at her daughter 's desire to get married. Donna shows off the villa to Rosie and Tanya. The three men arrive and Sophie smuggles them to their room. She does not reveal that she believes one of them is her father, but does explain that she and not her mother sent the invitations. She begs them to hide so Donna will be surprised by the old friends of whom she "so often '' favourably speaks. They overhear Donna working and swear not to reveal Sophie 's secret.
Donna spies them and is dumbfounded to find herself facing former lovers, demanding they leave. She confides in Tanya and Rosie that she truly does not know which of the three fathered Sophie. Tanya and Rosie rally her spirits by getting her to dance with an all female ensemble of staff and islanders. Sophie finds the men aboard Bill 's yacht, and they sail around Kalokairi, telling stories of Donna 's carefree youth. Sophie plans to tell her fiancé Sky about her ploy, but loses her nerve. Sky and Sophie sing to each other, but Sky is abducted for his bachelor party.
At Sophie 's bachelorette party, Donna, Tanya, and Rosie perform. When Sam, Bill, and Harry arrive, Sophie decides to talk with each of them alone. While her girlfriends dance with the men, Sophie learns from Bill that Donna received the money for her villa from his great - aunt Sofia. Sophie guesses she must be Sofia 's namesake. She asks him to give her away and keep their secret until the wedding. Sophie 's happiness is short - lived as Sam and Harry each pull her aside to tell her they are her father and will give her away. Sophie, overwhelmed by the consequences of raising the hopes of all three "fathers '', faints.
In the morning, Rosie and Tanya assure Donna they will take care of the men. Bill and Harry intend to tell each other what they learned the previous night, but Rosie interrupts them. Donna confronts Sophie, believing Sophie wants the wedding stopped. Sophie says that all she wants is to avoid her mother 's mistakes. Sam accosts Donna, concerned about Sophie getting married so young. Donna confronts him and they realize they still have feelings for each other. Tanya and young Pepper continue flirtations from the previous night. Sophie confesses to Sky and asks for his help. He reacts angrily to Sophie 's deception and she turns to her mother for support. As Donna helps her daughter dress for the wedding, their rift is healed and Donna reminisces about Sophie 's childhood. Donna admits her mother disowned her when she became pregnant. Sophie asks Donna to give her away. As the bridal party walks to the chapel, Sam intercepts Donna, who reveals the pain she felt over losing him.
Sophie and Donna walk down the aisle as the band plays. Donna tells Sophie and all gathered that her father could be any of the three men. Sam reveals that while he left Donna to get married, he did not go through with it, but returned to find Donna with another man. The men do not want paternity confirmed, agreeing to be one - third of a father for Sophie. She tells Sky they should postpone their wedding and travel the world. Sam proposes to Donna. She accepts and they are married. At the reception, Sam sings to Donna, Rosie makes a play for Bill and Harry openly admits he is gay. The couples proclaim their love. Sophie and Sky sail away.
The following songs are included in the film, of which 18 (including a hidden track) are on the soundtrack album, and 3 are excluded:
The Musical Director of the film was Grammy - Award winner Martin Lowe, a graduate of the University of Hull.
Most of the outdoor scenes were filmed on location at the small Greek island of Skopelos (during August / September 2007), and the seaside hamlet of Damouchari in the Pelion area of Greece. On Skopelos, Kastani beach on the south west coast was the film 's main location site. The producers built a beach bar and jetty along the beach, but removed both set pieces after production wrapped. A complete set for Donna 's Greek villa was built at the 007 stage at Pinewood Studios and most of the film was shot there. Real trees were utilised for the set, watered daily through an automated watering system and given access to daylight in order to keep them growing.
The part of the film where Brosnan 's character, Sam, leaves his New York office to go to the Greek Island was actually filmed at the Lloyd 's Building on Lime Street in the City of London. He dashes down the escalators and through the porte - cochere, where yellow cabs and actors representing New York mounted police were used for authenticity.
The Fernando, Bill Anderson 's yacht (actually a ketch) in the film was the Tai - Mo - Shan built in 1934 by H.S. Rouse at the Hong Kong and Whampoa dockyards.
Meryl Streep took opera singing lessons as a child, and as an adult, she previously sang in several films, including Postcards from the Edge, Silkwood, Death Becomes Her, and A Prairie Home Companion. She was a fan of the stage show Mamma Mia! after seeing it on Broadway in September 2001, when she found the show to be an affirmation of life in the midst of the destruction of 9 / 11.
Though the world premiere of the film occurred elsewhere, most of the media attention was focused on the Swedish premiere, where Anni - Frid Lyngstad and Agnetha Fältskog joined Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson with the cast at the Rival Theatre in Mariatorget, Stockholm, owned by Andersson, on July 4, 2008. It was the first time all four members of ABBA had been photographed together since 1986.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 54 % based on 174 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "This jukebox musical is full of fluffy fun but rough singing voices and a campy tone might not make you feel like ' You Can Dance ' the whole 90 minutes. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
The Times gave it four stars out of five, as did Channel 4 (Britain) which said it had "all the swing and sparkle of sequined bell - bottoms. '' BBC Radio 5 Live 's film critic Mark Kermode admitted to enjoying the film, despite describing the experience as ' the closest you get to see A-List actors doing drunken karaoke '. The Guardian was more negative, giving it one star, stating that the film gave the reviewer a "need to vomit '', while Bob Chipman of Escape to the Movies said it was "so base, so shallow and so hinged on meaningless spectacle, it 's amazing it was n't made for men ''. The Daily Telegraph stated that it was enjoyable but poorly put together ("Finding the film a total shambles was sort of a shame, but I have a sneaking suspicion I 'll go to see it again anyway. ''), whereas Empire said it was "cute, clean, camp fun, full of sunshine and toe tappers. ''
The casting of actors not known for their singing abilities led to some mixed reviews. Variety stated that "some stars, especially the bouncy and rejuvenated Streep, seem better suited for musical comedy than others, including Brosnan and Skarsgård. '' Brosnan, especially, was savaged by many critics: his singing was compared to "a water buffalo '' (New York Magazine), "a donkey braying '' (The Philadelphia Inquirer) and "a wounded raccoon '' (The Miami Herald), and Matt Brunson of Creative Loafing Charlotte said he "looks physically pained choking out the lyrics, as if he 's being subjected to a prostate exam just outside of the camera 's eye. ''
Mamma Mia! grossed $144.1 million in the United States and $471.6 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $615.7 million, against a production budget of $52 million. It became the highest grossing live - action musical of all time, until it was surpassed by Bill Condon 's Beauty and the Beast in 2017. It was also the highest - grossing movie directed by a woman, until it was surpassed by Patty Jenkins ' Wonder Woman in 2017. It is the third highest - grossing film of 2008 internationally (i.e., outside North America) with an international total of $458.4 million and the thirteenth highest gross of 2008 in North America (the US and Canada) with $144.1 million.
In the United Kingdom, Mamma Mia! has grossed £ 69.2 million as of January 23, 2009, and is the ninth highest - grossing film of all time at the UK box office. The film opened at # 1 in the U.K, taking £ 6.6 million on 496 screens. It managed to hold onto the top spot for 2 weeks, narrowly keeping Pixar 's WALL - E from reaching # 1 in its second week.
When released on July 3 in Greece, the film grossed $1.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking # 1 at the Greek box office.
The film made $9.6 million in its opening day in the United States and Canada, and $27.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking # 2 at the box office, behind The Dark Knight. At the time, it made Mamma Mia! the record - holder for the highest grossing opening weekend for a movie based on a Broadway musical, surpassing Hairspray 's box office record in 2007 and later surpassed by Into the Woods.
In November 2008, Mamma Mia! became the fastest - selling DVD of all time in the UK, according to Official UK Charts Company figures. It sold 1,669,084 copies on its first day of release, breaking the previous record (held by Titanic) by 560,000 copies. By the end of 2008, the Official UK Charts Company declared that it had become the biggest selling DVD ever in the UK, with one in every four households owning a copy (over 5 million copies sold). The record was previously held by Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl with sales of 4.7 million copies.
In the United States, the DVD made over $30 million on its first day of release. By December 31, 2008, Mamma Mia! became the best - selling DVD of all time in Sweden with 545,000 copies sold.
The single - disc DVD released in Sweden on 26 November contains all of the following:
The widescreen single - disc includes a bonus disc which includes:
A bonus disc is included in a separate case and bundled with the movie, and includes:
Because of the film 's financial success, Hollywood studio chief David Linde, the co-chairman of Universal Studios told The Daily Mail that it would take a while, but there could be a sequel. He stated that he would be delighted if Judy Craymer, Catherine Johnson, Phyllida Lloyd, Benny Andersson, and Björn Ulvaeus agreed to the project, noting that there are still plenty of ABBA songs to use. Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was announced on May 19, 2017, with a planned release date of July 20, 2018. It will be written and directed by Ol Parker. On June 1, 2017, it was announced that Seyfried would be returning as Sophie. Later that month, Dominic Cooper confirmed in an interview that he would be returning for the sequel along with Streep, Firth and Brosnan. In July 2017, Baranski was confirmed to return as Tanya. That same month, Lily James was confirmed to portray young Donna. Jeremy Irvine and Alexa Davies are also set to portray younger versions of Sam and Rosie, respectively. Julie Walters and Stellan Skarsgård will also return as Rosie and Bill, respectively.
|
when did christianity become official religion of roman empire | State church of the Roman Empire - wikipedia
Nicene Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire with the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 AD, when Emperor Theodosius I made it the Empire 's sole authorized religion. The Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy, and the Catholic Church each claim to be the historical continuation of this church in its original form, but do not identify with it in the caesaropapist form that it took later. Unlike Constantine I, who with the Edict of Milan of 313 AD had established tolerance for Christianity without placing it above other religions and whose involvement in matters of the Christian faith extended to convoking councils of bishops who were to determine doctrine and to presiding at their meetings, but not to determining doctrine himself, Theodosius established a single Christian doctrine (specified as that professed by Pope Damasus I of Rome and Pope Peter II of Alexandria) as the Empire 's official religion.
Earlier in the 4th century, following the Diocletianic Persecution of 303 -- 313 and the Donatist controversy that arose in consequence, Constantine had convened councils of Christian bishops to define the orthodoxy, or "correct teaching '', of the Christian faith, expanding on earlier Christian councils. A series of ecumenical councils met during the 4th and 5th centuries, but Christianity continued to suffer rifts and schisms surrounding the issues of Arianism, Nestorianism, and Miaphysitism. In the 5th century the Western Empire decayed as a polity: invaders sacked Rome in 410 and in 455, and Odoacer, an Arian barbarian warlord, forced Romulus Augustus, the last nominal Western Emperor, to abdicate in 476. However, apart from the aforementioned schisms, the church as an institution persisted in communion, if not without tension, between the east and west. In the 6th century the Byzantine armies of the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I recovered Italy and other sections of the western Mediterranean shore. The Eastern Roman Empire soon lost most of these gains, but it held Rome, as part of the Exarchate of Ravenna, until 751, a period known in church history as the Byzantine Papacy. The Muslim conquests of the 7th century would begin a process of converting most of the then - Christian world in West Asia and North Africa to Islam, severely restricting the reach both of the Byzantine Empire and of its church. Missionary activity directed from Constantinople, the Byzantine capital, did not lead to a lasting expansion of the formal power of the Empire 's state church, since areas outside the empire 's political and military control set up their own distinct state churches, as in the case of Bulgaria in 919.
Justinian I, who became emperor in Constantinople in 527, established the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem -- referred to as the Pentarchy -- as the leadership of the Imperial church and gave each bishop the title of "Patriarch ''. However, Justinian saw these bishops as under his tutelage: according to his arrangement, "the Emperor was the head of the Church in the sense that he had the right and duty of regulating by his laws the minutest details of worship and discipline, and also of dictating the theological opinions to be held in the Church ''. However, by Justinian 's day, the churches that now form Oriental Orthodoxy had already seceded from the Imperial state church, while in the west Christianity was mostly subject to the laws and customs of nations that owed no allegiance to the Emperor in Constantinople. While eastern - born popes who were appointed or at least confirmed by the Eastern Emperor continued to be loyal to him as their political lord, they refused to accept his authority in religious matters, or the authority of such a council as the imperially convoked Council of Hieria of 754. Pope Gregory III (731 - 741) became the last Bishop of Rome to ask the Byzantine ruler to ratify his election. By then, the Roman Empire 's state church as originally conceived had ceased to exist. In the East, only the largest fragment of the Christian church was under the Emperor 's control, and with the crowning of Charlemagne on 25 December 800 AD as Imperator Romanorum by the latter 's ally, Pope Leo III, the de facto political split between east and west became irrevocable. Spiritually, the Chalcedonian Church, as a communion broader than the imperial state church, persisted as a unified entity, at least in theory, until the Great Schism and its formal division with the mutual excommunication in 1054 of Rome and Constantinople. Where the Emperor 's power remained, the state church developed in a caesaropapist form, although as the Byzantine Empire lost most of its territory to Islam, increasingly the members of the church lived outside the Byzantine state. The Eastern Roman Empire finally collapsed with the Fall of Constantinople to the Islamic Ottoman Turks in 1453.
Western missionary activities created a communion of churches that extended beyond the empire, the beginnings of which predated the establishment of the state church. The obliteration of the Empire 's boundaries by Germanic peoples and an outburst of missionary activity among these peoples, who had no direct links with the Eastern Roman Empire, and among Pictic and Celtic peoples who had never been part of the Roman Empire, fostered the idea of a universal church free from association with a particular state. On the contrary, "in the East Roman or Byzantine view, when the Roman Empire became Christian, the perfect world order willed by God had been achieved: one universal empire was sovereign, and coterminous with it was the one universal church ''; and the state church came, by the time of the demise of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, to merge psychologically with it to the extent that its bishops had difficulty in thinking of Christianity without an emperor.
Modern authors refer to this state church in a variety of ways: as the catholic church, the orthodox church, the imperial church, the imperial Roman church, or the Byzantine church, although some of these terms are also used for wider communions extending outside the Roman Empire. The legacy of the idea of a universal church polity carries on, directly or indirectly, in today 's Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church, as well as in others, such as the Anglican Communion.
Before the end of the 1st century, the Roman authorities recognized Christianity as a separate religion from Judaism. The distinction, perhaps already made in practice at the time of the Great Fire of Rome in the year 64, was given official status by the emperor Nerva around the year 98 by granting Christians exemption from paying the Fiscus Iudaicus, the annual tax upon the Jews. Pliny the Younger, when propraetor in Bithynia in 103, assumes in his letters to Trajan that because Christians do not pay the tax, they are not Jews.
Since paying taxes had been one of the ways that Jews demonstrated their goodwill and loyalty toward the Empire, Christians had to negotiate their own alternatives to participating in the imperial cult. Their refusal to worship the Roman gods or to pay homage to the emperor as divine resulted at times in persecution and martyrdom. Church Father Tertullian, for instance, attempted to argue that Christianity was not inherently treasonous, and that Christians could offer their own form of prayer for the well - being of the emperor.
Christianity spread especially in the eastern parts of the Empire and beyond its border; in the west it was at first relatively limited, but significant Christian communities emerged in Rome, Carthage, and other urban centers, becoming by the end of the 3rd century, the dominant faith in some of them. Christians accounted for approximately 10 % of the Roman population by 300, according to some estimates. According to Will Durant, the Christian Church prevailed over paganism because it offered a much more attractive doctrine and because the church leaders addressed human needs better than their rivals.
In 301, the Kingdom of Armenia, which Rome considered de jure a client kingdom though yielded de facto to the Parthians (its ruling dynasty was of Parthian extraction), became the first nation to adopt Christianity as its state church.
In 311, the dying Emperor Galerius ended the Diocletianic Persecution that he is reputed to have instigated, and in 313, Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, granting to Christians and others "the right of open and free observance of their worship ''.
Constantine began to utilize Christian symbols such as the Chi - Rho early in his reign but still encouraged traditional Roman religious practices including sun worship. In 330, Constantine established the city of Constantinople as the new capital of the Roman Empire. The city would gradually come to be seen as the intellectual and cultural center of the Christian world.
Over the course of the 4th century the Christian body became consumed by debates surrounding orthodoxy, i.e. which religious doctrines are the correct ones. In the early 4th century, a group in North Africa, later called Donatists, who believed in a very rigid interpretation of Christianity that excluded many who had abandoned the faith during the Diocletianic persecution, created a crisis in the western Empire.
A church synod, or council, was held in Rome in 313, followed by another in Arles in 314, the latter presided over by Constantine while still a junior emperor (see Tetrarchy). These synods ruled that the Donatist faith was heresy and, when the Donatists refused to recant, Constantine launched the first campaign of persecution by Christians against Christians, and began imperial involvement in Christian theology. However, during the reign of Emperor Julian the Apostate, the Donatists, who formed the majority party in the Roman province of Africa for 30 years, were given official approval.
Christian scholars and populace within the Empire were increasingly embroiled in debates regarding christology (i.e., regarding the nature of the Christ). Opinions ranged from belief that Jesus was entirely human to belief that he was entirely divine. The most persistent debate was that between the homoousian, or Athanasian, view (the Father and the Son are one and the same, eternal), which was adopted at the council meeting that Constantine called at Nicaea in 325, and the homoiousian, or Arian, view (the Father and the Son are similar, but the Father is greater than the Son). Emperors thereby became ever more involved with the increasingly divided Church.
Constantine was of divided opinions (even as to being Christian), but he largely backed the Athanasian side, though he was baptized on his deathbed by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia. His successor Constantius II supported a Semi-Arian position. Emperor Julian returned to the traditional (pagan) Roman / Greek religion, quickly quashed by his successor Jovian, a supporter of the Athanasian side.
A Council of Rimini in 359 supported the Arian view. A Council of Constantinople in 360 supported a compromise (see Semi-Arianism). The Council of Constantinople in 381, called by Emperor Theodosius I reasserted the Nicene or Athanasian view and rejected the Arian view. This council further refined the definition of orthodoxy, issuing, according to tradition, the Niceno - Constantinopolitan Creed.
On 27 February of the previous year, Theodosius I established, with the Edict of Thessalonica, the Christianity of the First Council of Nicaea as the official state religion, reserving for its followers the title of Catholic Christians and declaring that those who did not follow the religion taught by Pope Damasus I of Rome and Pope Peter of Alexandria were to be called heretics:
It is our desire that all the various nations which are subject to our Clemency and Moderation, should continue to profess that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as it has been preserved by faithful tradition, and which is now professed by the Pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic holiness. According to the apostolic teaching and the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one deity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, in equal majesty and in a holy Trinity. We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title of Catholic Christians; but as for the others, since, in our judgment they are foolish madmen, we decree that they shall be branded with the ignominious name of heretics, and shall not presume to give to their conventicles the name of churches. They will suffer in the first place the chastisement of the divine condemnation and in the second the punishment of our authority which in accordance with the will of Heaven we shall decide to inflict.
In 391, Theodosius closed all the "pagan '' (non-Christian and non-Jewish) temples and formally forbade pagan worship.
At the end of the 4th century the Roman Empire had effectively split into two states although their economies (and the Church, which only then became a state church) were still strongly tied. The two halves of the Empire had always had cultural differences, exemplified in particular by the widespread use of the Greek language in the Eastern Empire and its more limited use in the West (Greek, as well as Latin, was used in the West, but Latin was the spoken vernacular).
By the time the state church of the Empire was established at the end of the 4th century, scholars in the West had largely abandoned Greek in favor of Latin. Even the Church in Rome, where Greek continued to be used in the liturgy longer than in the provinces, abandoned Greek. Jerome 's Vulgate had begun to replace the older Latin translations of the Bible.
The 5th century would see further fracturing of the state church of the Roman Empire. Emperor Theodosius II called two synods in Ephesus, one in 431 and one in 449, the first of which condemned the teachings of Patriarch of Constantinople Nestorius, while the second supported the teachings of Eutyches against Archbishop Flavian of Constantinople.
Nestorius taught that Christ 's divine and human nature were distinct persons, and hence Mary was the mother of Christ but not the mother of God. Eutyches taught on the contrary that there was in Christ only a single nature, different from that of human beings in general. The First Council of Ephesus rejected Nestorius ' view, causing churches centered around the School of Edessa, a city at the edge of the empire, to break with the imperial church (see Nestorian schism).
Persecuted within the Roman Empire, many Nestorians fled to Persia and joined the Sassanid Church (the future Church of the East). The Second Council of Ephesus upheld the view of Eutyches, but was overturned two years later by the Council of Chalcedon, called by Emperor Marcian. Rejection of the Council of Chalcedon led to the exodus from the state church of the majority of Christians in Egypt and many in the Levant, who preferred miaphysite theology.
Thus, in addition to losing all the western empire, the state church suffered a significant diminishment even in the east within a century of its setting up. Those who upheld the Council of Chalcedon became known in Syriac as Melkites, the imperial church, followers of the emperor (in Syriac, malka). This schism resulted in an independent communion of churches, including the Egyptian, Syrian, Ethiopian and Armenian churches, that is today known as Oriental Orthodoxy. In spite of these schisms, however, the imperial church still represented the majority of Christians within the by now already diminished Roman Empire.
In the 5th century, the Western Empire rapidly decayed and by the end of the century was no more. Within a few decades, Germanic tribes, particularly the Goths and Vandals, conquered the western provinces. Rome was sacked in 410 and 455, and was to be sacked again in the following century in 546.
By 476 the Germanic chieftain Odoacer had conquered Italy and deposed the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, though he nominally submitted to the authority of Constantinople. The Arian Germanic tribes established their own systems of churches and bishops in the western provinces but were generally tolerant of the population who chose to remain in communion with the imperial church.
In 533 Roman Emperor Justinian in Constantinople launched a military campaign to reclaim the western provinces from the Arian Germans, starting with North Africa and proceeding to Italy. His success in recapturing much of the western Mediterranean was temporary. The empire soon lost most of these gains, but held Rome, as part of the Exarchate of Ravenna, until 751.
Justinian definitively established Caesaropapism, believing "he had the right and duty of regulating by his laws the minutest details of worship and discipline, and also of dictating the theological opinions to be held in the Church ''. According to the entry in Liddell & Scott, the term orthodox first occurs in the Codex Justinianus: "We direct that all Catholic churches, throughout the entire world, shall be placed under the control of the orthodox bishops who have embraced the Nicene Creed. ''
By the end of the 6th century the Church within the Empire had become firmly tied with the imperial government, while in the west Christianity was mostly subject to the laws and customs of nations that owed no allegiance to the emperor.
Emperor Justinian I assigned to five sees, those of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, a superior ecclesial authority that covered the whole of his empire. The First Council of Nicaea in 325 reaffirmed that the bishop of a provincial capital, the metropolitan bishop, had a certain authority over the bishops of the province. But it also recognized the existing supra - metropolitan authority of the sees of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch, and granted special recognition to Jerusalem.
Constantinople was added at the First Council of Constantinople (381) and given authority initially only over Thrace. By a canon of contested validity, the Council of Chalcedon (451) placed Asia and Pontus, which together made up Anatolia, under Constantinople, although their autonomy had been recognized at the council of 381.
Rome never recognized this pentarchy of five sees as constituting the leadership of the state church. It maintained that, in accordance with the First Council of Nicaea, only the three "Petrine '' sees of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch had a real patriarchal function. The canons of the Quinisext Council of 692, which gave ecclesiastical sanction to Justinian 's decree, were also never fully accepted by the Western Church.
Muslim conquests of the territories of the patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, most of whose Christians were in any case lost to the imperial state church since the aftermath of the Council of Chalcedon, left in effect only two patriarchates, those of Rome and Constantinople. Then in 740, Emperor Leo the Isaurian reacted to papal resistance to his iconoclast policy by transferring from the jurisdiction of Rome to that of Constantinople all but a minute portion of the then existing empire.
The Patriarch of Constantinople had already adopted the title of "ecumenical patriarch '', indicating what he saw as his position in the oikoumene, the Christian world ideally headed by the emperor and the patriarch of the emperor 's capital. Also under the influence of the imperial model of governance of the state church, in which "the emperor becomes the actual executive organ of the universal Church '', the pentarchy model of governance of the state church regressed to a monarchy of the Patriarch of Constantinople.
The Rashidun conquests began to expand the sway of Islam beyond Arabia in the 7th century, first clashing with the Roman Empire in 634. That empire and the Sassanid Persian Empire were at that time crippled by decades of war between them. By the late 8th century the Umayyad caliphate had conquered all of Persia and much of the Byzantine territory including Egypt, Palestine, and Syria.
Suddenly much of the Christian world was under Muslim rule. Over the coming centuries the successive Muslim states became some of the most powerful in the Mediterranean world.
Though the state church of the Roman Empire claimed religious authority over Christians in Egypt and the Levant, in reality the majority of Christians in these regions were by then miaphysites and members of other sects that had long been persecuted by Constantinople. The new Muslim rulers, in contrast, offered religious tolerance to Christians of all sects. Additionally subjects of the Muslim Empire could be accepted as Muslims simply by declaring a belief in a single deity and reverence for Muhammad (see shahada). As a result, the peoples of Egypt, Palestine and Syria largely accepted their new rulers and many declared themselves Muslims within a few generations. Muslim incursions later found success in parts of Europe, particularly Spain (see Al - Andalus).
During the 9th century, the Emperor in Constantinople encouraged missionary expeditions to nearby nations including the Muslim caliphate, and the Turkic Khazars. In 862 he sent Saints Cyril and Methodius to Slavic Great Moravia. By then most of the Slavic population of Bulgaria was Christian and Tsar Boris I himself was baptized in 864. Serbia was accounted Christian by about 870. In early 867 Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople wrote that Christianity was accepted by the Kievan Rus ', which however was definitively Christianized only at the close of the following century.
Of these, the Church in Great Moravia chose immediately to link with Rome, not Constantinople: the missionaries sent there sided with the Pope during the Photian Schism (863 -- 867). After decisive victories over the Byzantines at Acheloos and Katasyrtai, Bulgaria declared its Church autocephalous and elevated it to the rank of Patriarchate, an autonomy recognized in 927 by Constantinople, but abolished by Emperor Basil II Bulgaroktonos (the Bulgar - Slayer) after his 1018 conquest of Bulgaria.
In Serbia, which became an independent kingdom in the early 13th century, Stephen Uroš IV Dušan, after conquering a large part of Byzantine territory in Europe and assuming the title of Tsar, raised the Serbian archbishop to the rank of patriarch in 1346, a rank maintained until after the fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Turks. No Byzantine emperor ever ruled Russian Christianity.
Expansion of the Church in western and northern Europe began much earlier, with the conversion of the Irish in the 5th century, the Franks at the end of the same century, the Arian Visigoths in Spain soon afterwards, and the English at the end of the 6th century. By the time the Byzantine missions to central and eastern Europe began, Christian western Europe, in spite of losing most of Spain to Islam, encompassed Germany and part of Scandinavia, and, apart from the south of Italy, was independent of the Byzantine Empire and had been almost entirely so for centuries.
This situation fostered the idea of a universal church linked to no one particular state and of which the state church of the Roman Empire was only part. Long before the Byzantine Empire came to an end, Poland also, Hungary and other central European peoples were part of a Church that in no way saw itself as the empire 's state church and that, with the East - West Schism, had even ceased to be in communion with it.
With the defeat and death in 751 of the last Exarch of Ravenna and the end of the Exarchate, Rome ceased to be part of the Byzantine Empire. Forced to seek protection elsewhere, the Popes turned to the Franks and, with the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800, transferred their political allegiance to a rival Roman Emperor. More clearly than before, the church in the west, while remaining in communion with the state church of the Byzantine Empire, was not part of it. Disputes between the see of Rome, which claimed authority over all other sees, and that of Constantinople, which was now without rival in the empire, culminated perhaps inevitably in mutual excommunications in 1054.
Communion with Constantinople was broken off by European Christians with the exception of those ruled by the empire (including the Bulgarians and Serbs) and of the fledgling Kievan or Russian Church, then a metropolitanate of the patriarchate of Constantinople. This church became independent only in 1448, just five years before the extinction of the empire, after which the Turkish authorities included all their Orthodox Christian subjects of whatever ethnicity in a single millet headed by the Patriarch of Constantinople.
The Westerners who set up Crusader states in Greece and the Middle East appointed Latin (Western) patriarchs and other hierarchs, thus giving concrete reality and permanence to the schism. Efforts were made in 1274 (Second Council of Lyon) and 1439 (Council of Florence) to restore communion between East and West, but the agreements reached by the participating eastern delegations and by the Emperor were rejected by the vast majority of Byzantine Christians.
In the East, the idea that the Byzantine emperor was the head of Christians everywhere persisted among churchmen as long as the empire existed, even when its actual territory was reduced to very little. In 1393, only 60 years before the fall of the capital, Patriarch Antony IV of Constantinople wrote to Basil I of Muscovy defending the liturgical commemoration in Russian churches of the Byzantine emperor on the grounds that he was "emperor (βασιλεύς) and autokrator of the Romans, that is of all Christians ''. According to Patriarch Antony, "it is not possible among Christians to have a Church and not to have an emperor. For the empire and the Church have great unity and commonality, and it is not possible to separate them '', and "the holy emperor is not like the rulers and governors of other regions ''.
Following the schism between the Eastern and Western Churches, various emperors sought at times but without success to reunite the Church, invoking the notion of Christian unity between East and West in an attempt to obtain assistance from the Pope and Western Europe against the Muslims who were gradually conquering the empire 's territory. But the period of the Western Crusades against the Muslims had passed before even the first of the two reunion councils was held.
Even when persecuted by the emperor, the Eastern Church, George Pachymeres said, "counted the days until they should be rid not of their emperor (for they could no more live without an emperor than a body without a heart), but of their current misfortunes ''. The state church had come to merge psychologically in the minds of the Eastern bishops with the empire to such an extent that they had difficulty in thinking of Christianity without an emperor.
In Western Europe, on the other hand, the idea of a universal church linked to the Emperor of Constantinople was replaced by that in which the Roman see was supreme. "Membership in a universal church replaced citizenship in a universal empire. Across Europe, from Italy to Ireland, a new society centered on Christianity was forming. ''
The Western Church came to emphasize the term Catholic in its identity, an assertion of universality, while the Eastern Church came to emphasize the term Orthodox in its identity, an assertion of holding to the true teachings of Jesus. Both churches claim to be the unique continuation of the previously united Chalcedonian Church, whose core doctrinal formulations have been retained also by many of the churches that emerged from the Protestant Reformation, including Lutheranism and Anglicanism.
|
who played the biggest role in creating the first universities in europe | Medieval University - wikipedia
A medieval university is a corporation organized during the High Middle Ages for the purposes of higher learning.
The first Western European institutions generally considered to be universities were established in the Kingdom of Italy, then part of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of England, the Kingdom of France, the Kingdom of Spain, and the Kingdom of Portugal between the 11th and 15th centuries for the study of the Arts and the higher disciplines of Theology, Law, and Medicine. These universities evolved from much older Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools, and it is difficult to define the exact date at which they became true universities, although the lists of studia generalia for higher education in Europe held by the Vatican are a useful guide.
"The word universitas originally applied only to the scholastic guilds -- that is, the corporation of students and masters -- within the studium, and it was always modified, as universitas magistrorum, or universitas scholarium, or universitas magistrorum et scholarium. In the course of time, however, probably toward the latter part of the 14th century, the term began to be used by itself, with the exclusive meaning of a self - regulating community of teachers and scholars whose corporate existence had been recognized and sanctioned by civil or ecclesiastical authority. ''
From the early modern period onwards, this Western - style organizational form gradually spread from the medieval Latin west across the globe, eventually replacing all other higher - learning institutions and becoming the preeminent model for higher education everywhere.
The university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Prior to the establishment of universities, European higher education took place for hundreds of years in Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools (scholae monasticae), in which monks and nuns taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the 6th century AD.
With the increasing growth and urbanization of European society during the 12th and 13th centuries, a demand grew for professional clergy. Before the 12th century, the intellectual life of Western Europe had been largely relegated to monasteries, which were mostly concerned with performing the liturgy and prayer; relatively few monasteries could boast true intellectuals. Following the Gregorian Reform 's emphasis on canon law and the study of the sacraments, bishops formed cathedral schools to train the clergy in Canon law, but also in the more secular aspects of religious administration, including logic and disputation for use in preaching and theological discussion, and accounting to more effectively control finances. Pope Gregory VII was critical in promoting and regulating the concept of modern university as his 1079 Papal Decree ordered the regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into the first European universities.
Learning became essential to advancing in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and teachers also gained prestige. Demand quickly outstripped the capacity of cathedral schools, each of which was essentially run by one teacher. In addition, tensions rose between the students of cathedral schools and burghers in smaller towns. As a result, cathedral schools migrated to large cities, like Bologna, Rome and Paris.
Some scholars such as Syed Farid Alatas have noted some parallels between Madrasahs and early European colleges and have thus inferred that the first universities in Europe were influenced by the Madrasahs in Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily. Other scholars such as George Makdisi, Toby Huff and Norman Daniel, however, have questioned this, citing the lack of evidence for an actual transmission from the Islamic world to Christian Europe and highlighting the differences in the structure, methodologies, procedures, curricula and legal status of the "Islamic college '' (madrasa) versus the European university.
Hastings Rashdall set out the modern understanding of the medieval origins of the universities, noting that the earliest universities emerged spontaneously as "a scholastic Guild, whether of Masters or Students... without any express authorisation of King, Pope, Prince or Prelate. ''
Among the earliest universities of this type were the University of Bologna (1088), University of Paris (teach. mid-11th century, recogn. 1150), University of Oxford (teach. 1096, recogn. 1167), University of Modena (1175), University of Palencia (1208), University of Cambridge (1209), University of Salamanca (1218), University of Montpellier (1220), University of Padua (1222), University of Toulouse (1229), University of Orleans (1235), University of Siena (1240), University of Northampton (1261), University of Coimbra (1288), University of Pisa (1343), Charles University in Prague (1348), Jagiellonian University (1364), University of Vienna (1365), Heidelberg University (1386) and the University of St Andrews (1413) begun as private corporations of teachers and their pupils.
In many cases universities petitioned secular power for privileges and this became a model. Emperor Frederick I in Authentica Habita (1158) gave the first privileges to students in Bologna. Another step was when Pope Alexander III in 1179 "forbidding masters of the church schools to take fees for granting the license to teach (licentia docendi), and obliging them to give license to properly qualified teachers ''. Hastings Rashdall considered that the integrity of a university was only preserved in such an internally regulated corporation, which protected the scholars from external intervention. This independently evolving organization was absent in the universities of southern Italy and Spain, which served the bureaucratic needs of monarchs and which Rashdall considered to be their artificial creations.
The University of Paris was formally recognized when Pope Gregory IX issued the bull Parens scientiarum (1231). This was a revolutionary step: studium generale (university) and universitas (corporation of students or teachers) existed even before, but after the issuing of the bull, they attained autonomy. "(T) he papal bull of 1233, which stipulated that anyone admitted to be a teacher in Toulouse had the right to teach everywhere without further examinations (ius ubique docendi), in time, transformed this privilege into the single most important defining characteristic of the university and made it the symbol of its institutional autonomy... By the year 1292, even the two oldest universities, Bologna and Paris, felt the need to seek similar bulls from Pope Nicholas IV. ''
By the 13th century, almost half of the highest offices in the Church were occupied by degreed masters (abbots, archbishops, cardinals), and over one - third of the second - highest offices were occupied by masters. In addition, some of the greatest theologians of the High Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas and Robert Grosseteste, were products of the medieval university.
The development of the medieval university coincided with the widespread reintroduction of Aristotle from Byzantine and Arab scholars. In fact, the European university put Aristotelian and other natural science texts at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent. ''
Although it has been assumed that the universities went into decline during the Renaissance due to the scholastic and Aristotelian emphasis of its curriculum being less popular than the cultural studies of Renaissance humanism, Toby Huff has noted the continued importance of the European universities, with their focus on Aristotle and other scientific and philosophical texts into the early modern period, arguing that they played a crucial role in the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries. As he puts it "Copernicus, Galileo, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, and Newton were all extraordinary products of the apparently procrustean and allegedly Scholastic universities of Europe... Sociological and historical accounts of the role of the university as an institutional locus for science and as an incubator of scientific thought and arguments have been vastly understated. ''
Initially medieval universities did not have physical facilities such as the campus of a modern university. Classes were taught wherever space was available, such as churches and homes. A university was not a physical space but a collection of individuals banded together as a universitas. Soon, however, universities began to rent, buy or construct buildings specifically for the purposes of teaching.
Universities were generally structured along three types, depending on who paid the teachers. The first type was in Bologna, where students hired and paid for the teachers. The second type was in Paris, where teachers were paid by the church. Oxford and Cambridge were predominantly supported by the crown and the state, a fact which helped them survive the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538 and the subsequent removal of all the principal Catholic institutions in England. These structural differences created other characteristics. At the Bologna university the students ran everything -- a fact that often put teachers under great pressure and disadvantage. In Paris, teachers ran the school; thus Paris became the premiere spot for teachers from all over Europe. Also, in Paris the main subject matter was theology, so control of the qualifications awarded was in the hands of an external authority - the Chancellor of the diocese. In Bologna, where students chose more secular studies, the main subject was law.
It was also characteristic of teachers and scholars to move around. There was often competition between universities to secure the best and most popular teachers, leading to the marketisation of teaching. Universities would publish their list of scholars, in a bid to entice students to study at their institution. Students of Peter Abelard followed him to Melun, Corbeil and Paris, showing that popular teachers would bring students with them.
Students attended the medieval university at different ages, ranging from 14 if they were attending Oxford or Paris to study the Arts to their 30s if they were studying Law in Bologna. During this period of study students were often living far from home and unsupervised and as such developed a reputation, both among contemporary commentators and modern historians, for drunken debauchery. Students are frequently criticised in the Middle Ages for neglecting their studies for drinking, gambling and sleeping with prostitutes.
University studies took six years for a Master of Arts degree (a Bachelor of Arts degree would be awarded after completing the third or fourth year). The studies for this were organized by the faculty of arts, where the seven liberal arts were taught: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, and rhetoric. All instruction was given in Latin and students were expected to be able to converse in that language. The trivium comprised the three subjects that were taught first: grammar, logic, and rhetoric. These three subjects were the most important of the seven liberal arts for medieval students. The curriculum came also to include the three Aristotelian philosophies: physics, metaphysics and moral philosophy.
Much of medieval thought in philosophy and theology can be found in scholastic textual commentary because scholasticism was such a popular method of teaching. Aelius Donatus ' Ars grammatica was the standard textbook for grammar; also studied were the works of Priscian and Graecismus by Eberhard of Béthune. Cicero 's works were used for the study of rhetoric. Studied books on logic included Porphyry 's introduction to Aristotelian logic, Gilbert de la Porrée 's De sex principiis and Summulae Logicales by Petrus Hispanus (later Pope John XXI). The standard work of astronomy was Tractatus de sphaera.
Once a Master of Arts degree had been conferred, the student could leave the university or pursue further studies in one of the higher faculties, law, medicine, or theology, the last one being the most prestigious. A popular textbook for theological study was called the Sentences (Quattuor libri sententiarum) of Peter Lombard; theology students as well as masters were required to write extensive commentaries on this text as part of their curriculum. Studies in the higher faculties could take up to twelve years for a master 's degree or doctorate (initially the two were synonymous), though again a bachelor 's and a licentiate 's degree could be awarded along the way.
Courses were offered according to books, not by subject or theme. For example, a course might be on a book by Aristotle, or a book from the Bible. Courses were not elective: the course offerings were set, and everyone had to take the same courses. There were, however, occasional choices as to which teacher to use.
Students often entered the University at fourteen to fifteen years of age, though many were older. Classes usually started at 5: 00 or 6: 00 AM.
Students were afforded the legal protection of the clergy. In this way no one was allowed to physically harm them; they could only be tried for crimes in an ecclesiastical court, and were thus immune from any corporal punishment. This gave students free rein in urban environments to break secular laws with impunity, a fact which produced many abuses: theft, rape and murder were not uncommon among students, who did not face serious consequences and students were known to engage in drunkenness.
This led to uneasy tensions with secular authorities - the demarcation between town and gown. Masters and students would sometimes "strike '' by leaving a city and not returning for years. This happened at the University of Paris strike of 1229 after a riot left a number of students dead. The University went on strike and they did not return for two years. As the students had the legal status of clerics which, according to the Canon Law, could not be held by women, women were not admitted into universities.
Most universities in Europe were recognised by the Holy See as a Studium Generale, testified by a papal bull. Members of these institutions were encouraged to disseminate their knowledge across Europe, often lecturing at a different Studia Generales. Indeed, one of the privileges the papal bull confirmed was the right to confer the Ius ubique docendi, the right to teach everywhere.
Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the middle ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.
|
when was the letter j added to the bible | J - wikipedia
J is the tenth letter in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. Its normal name in English is jay / dʒ eɪ / or, now uncommonly, jy / dʒ aɪ /. When used for the palatal approximant, it may be called yod (/ jɒd / or / joʊd /) or yot (/ jɒt / or / joʊt /).
The letter J originated as a swash letter I, used for the letter I at the end of Roman numerals when following another I, as in XXIIJ or xxiij instead of XXIII or xxiii for the Roman numeral representing 23. A distinctive usage emerged in Middle High German. Gian Giorgio Trissino (1478 -- 1550) was the first to explicitly distinguish I and J as representing separate sounds, in his Ɛpistola del Trissino de le lettere nuωvamente aggiunte ne la lingua italiana ("Trissino 's epistle about the letters recently added in the Italian language '') of 1524. Originally, ' I ' and ' J ' were different shapes for the same letter, both equally representing / i /, / iː /, and / j /; but, Romance languages developed new sounds (from former / j / and / ɡ /) that came to be represented as ' I ' and ' J '; therefore, English J, acquired from the French J, has a sound value quite different from / j / (which represents the initial sound in the English word "yet '').
In English, ⟨ j ⟩ most commonly represents the affricate / dʒ /. In Old English, the phoneme / dʒ / was represented orthographically with ⟨ cg ⟩ and ⟨ cȝ ⟩. Under the influence of Old French, which had a similar phoneme deriving from Latin / j /, English scribes began to use ⟨ i ⟩ (later ⟨ j ⟩) to represent word - initial / dʒ / in Old English (for example, iest and, later jest), while using ⟨ dg ⟩ elsewhere (for example, hedge). Later, many other uses of ⟨ i ⟩ (later ⟨ j ⟩) were added in loanwords from French and other languages (e.g. adjoin, junta). The first English language book to make a clear distinction between ⟨ i ⟩ and ⟨ j ⟩ was published in 1633. In loan words such as raj, ⟨ j ⟩ may represent / ʒ /. In some of these, including raj, Azerbaijan, Taj Mahal, and Beijing, the regular pronunciation / dʒ / is actually closer to the native pronunciation, making the use of / ʒ / an instance of a hyperforeignism. Occasionally, ⟨ j ⟩ represents the original / j / sound, as in Hallelujah and fjord (see Yodh for details). In words of Spanish origin, where ⟨ j ⟩ represents the voiceless velar fricative (x) (such as jalapeño), English speakers usually approximate with the voiceless glottal fricative / h /.
In English, ⟨ j ⟩ is the fourth least frequently used letter in words, being more frequent only than ⟨ z ⟩, ⟨ q ⟩, and ⟨ x ⟩. It is, however, quite common in proper nouns, especially personal names.
The great majority of Germanic languages, such as German, Dutch, Icelandic, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian, use ⟨ j ⟩ for the palatal approximant / j /, which is usually represented by the letter ⟨ y ⟩ in English. Notable exceptions are English, Scots and (to a lesser degree) Luxembourgish. ⟨ j ⟩ also represents / j / in Albanian, and those Uralic, Slavic and Baltic languages that use the Latin alphabet, such as Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian, Polish, Czech, Serbo - Croatian, Slovak, Latvian and Lithuanian. Some related languages, such as Serbo - Croatian and Macedonian, also adopted ⟨ j ⟩ into the Cyrillic alphabet for the same purpose. Because of this standard, the lower case letter was chosen to be used in the IPA as the phonetic symbol for the sound.
In the Romance languages, ⟨ j ⟩ has generally developed from its original palatal approximant value in Latin to some kind of fricative. In French, Portuguese, Catalan, and Romanian it has been fronted to the postalveolar fricative / ʒ / (like ⟨ s ⟩ in English measure). In Spanish, by contrast, it has been both devoiced and backed from an earlier / ʝ / to a present - day / x ~ h /, with the actual phonetic realization depending on the speaker 's dialect / s.
In modern standard Italian spelling, only Latin words, proper nouns (such as Jesi, Letojanni, Juventus etc.) or those borrowed from foreign languages have ⟨ j ⟩. Until the 19th century, ⟨ j ⟩ was used instead of ⟨ i ⟩ in diphthongs, as a replacement for final - ii, and in vowel groups (as in Savoja); this rule was quite strict for official writing. ⟨ j ⟩ is also used to render / j / in dialect, e.g. Romanesque ajo for standard aglio (-- / ʎ / --) (garlic). The Italian novelist Luigi Pirandello used ⟨ j ⟩ in vowel groups in his works written in Italian; he also wrote in his native Sicilian language, which still uses the letter ⟨ j ⟩ to represent / j / (and sometimes also (dʒ) or (gj), depending on its environment).
In Basque, the diaphoneme represented by ⟨ j ⟩ has a variety of realizations according to the regional dialect: (gh, kh, j, ʝ, ɟ, ʒ, ʃ, x) (the last one is typical of Gipuzkoa).
Among non-European languages that have adopted the Latin script, ⟨ j ⟩ stands for / ʒ / in Turkish and Azerbaijani, for / ʐ / in Tatar. ⟨ j ⟩ stands for / dʒ / in Indonesian, Somali, Malay, Igbo, Shona, Oromo, Turkmen, and Zulu. It represents a voiced palatal plosive / ɟ / in Konkani, Yoruba, and Swahili. In Kiowa, ⟨ j ⟩ stands for a voiceless alveolar plosive, / t /.
In Chinese Pinyin, ⟨ j ⟩ stands for / tɕ /, the unaspirated equivalent of ⟨ q ⟩.
The Royal Thai General System of Transcription does not use the letter ⟨ j ⟩, although it is used in some proper names and non-standard transcriptions to represent either จ (tɕ) or ช (tɕh) (the latter following Pali / Sanskrit root equivalents).
In romanized Pashto, ⟨ j ⟩ represents ځ, pronounced (dz).
Unicode also has a dotless variant, ȷ (U + 0237). It is primarily used in Landsmålsalfabet and in mathematics. It is not intended to be used with diacritics since the normal j is softdotted in Unicode (that is, the dot is removed if a diacritic is to be placed above; Unicode further states that, for example i+ _̈ ≠ ı + _̈ and the same holds true for j and ȷ).
In Unicode, a duplicate of ' J ' for use as a special phonetic character in historical Greek linguistics is encoded in the Greek script block as ϳ (Unicode U + 03F3). It is used to denote the palatal glide / j / in the context of Greek script. It is called "Yot '' in the Unicode standard, after the German name of the letter J. An uppercase version of this letter was added to the Unicode Standard at U + 037F with the release of version 7.0 in June 2014.
In the Wingdings font by Microsoft, the letter "J '' is rendered as a smiley face (note this is distinct from the Unicode code point U + 263A, which renders as ☺). In Microsoft applications, ":) '' is automatically replaced by a smiley rendered in a specific font face when composing rich text documents or HTML email. This autocorrection feature can be switched off or changed to a Unicode smiley.
|
what episode does dan die on one tree hill | Dan Scott - wikipedia
Former
Daniel Robert "Dan '' Scott is a fictional character on the WB / CW television drama series One Tree Hill who is the primary antagonist for the first four seasons before becoming a tragic fallen antihero and is played by Paul Johansson. He is the father of Lucas Scott (by Karen Roe) and Nathan Scott (by Deborah Lee), the grandfather of James Lucas Scott and Lydia Bob Scott (via Nathan) and Sawyer Brooke Scott (via Lucas) and the uncle of Lily Roe Scott.
Every good story needs a villain Lucas. I 'm sorry but I 'm yours.
Dan grew up in Tree Hill, NC and attended Tree Hill High, where he was the star of the Ravens basketball team. Towards the end of senior year, Dan got his girlfriend Karen Roe pregnant, but abandoned her to take a basketball scholarship to North Carolina. At college he met Deb Lee, who also became pregnant by him. Dan returned to Tree Hill on the night his and Karen 's son Lucas was born but, on seeing Keith with Karen at the hospital, Dan left without Karen seeing him. Dan and Deb married and moved back to Tree Hill with their son Nathan. Dan tried to get joint custody of Lucas, but Karen refused and Dan gave up on trying to be part of Lucas 's life. He later became a successful car salesman having set up his own business with Deb 's money. Dan is a man with big dreams and expectations, especially regarding his son Nathan, but he does n't handle it very well when they 're not fulfilled.
Dan is a controlling father to Nathan, who is now the Ravens ' star player, but has nothing to do with Lucas. When Lucas joins the Ravens, Dan encourages Nathan to give his half - brother a hard time. Dan puts so much pressure on Nathan that Nathan takes drugs to enhance his basketball performance, leading to him collapsing on the court. When Deb finds out, she asks Dan for a divorce. When Dan 's parents come to town for Dan 's birthday, it is revealed that Dan 's father Royal put similar pressure on Dan and that Dan faked the extent of an injury he suffered in college in order to give up basketball. Dan also has an uneasy relationship with Keith, due to Keith 's continuing friendship with Karen. When Keith crashes the car he is driving with Lucas inside, Dan pulls Lucas from the car and saves his life, leading to a temporary truce with Karen. Keith is left in financial difficulty due to Lucas 's medical bills and Dan offers to buy Keith 's garage from him while Keith continues to run it. However, it soon becomes clear that Dan will be running the garage in his own way and Keith quits. After being rejected by Karen, Keith turns to Deb for comfort and they have a one - night stand. On walking in on them in bed together, Dan tells Keith that he is no longer his brother. Dan is about to sign his divorce papers to Deb when he suffers a heart attack. When Deb finds Dan on the floor, Dan tells her "you 'd better hope I die. ''
After his heart attack, Dan claims to be a changed person and tries to get closer to Lucas. Dan and Deb are united in their disapproval of Nathan 's marriage to Haley. Dan claims to have forgiven Deb and Keith for their fling and a guilty Deb allows Dan to live with her while he recovers. It becomes clear that the new Dan is an act when he lies to Deb after being given a clean bill of health and it is revealed that Keith 's new girlfriend Jules was actually hired by Dan to seduce his brother. On discovering that he has the same heart condition as Dan, Lucas agrees to move in with Dan on the conditions that Dan pays for Lucas 's medication and keeps this from Karen, and also that Dan leaves Keith and "Jules '' alone. Dan keeps his promises but Karen discovers the truth about Jules and threatens to tell Keith, leading to Jules leaving Keith at the altar. Dan is delighted at this result and, after knocking down the groom on the wedding cake, looks at Deb saying "one down, one to go ''. On discovering what Dan did, Keith confronts Dan at the dealership and attacks him. Before leaving town, Keith tells Dan that he has nothing left to lose, but Dan does. When Nathan and Haley 's marriage is in trouble, Dan is quick to pounce, and gets Nathan to sign annulment papers and move back in with him and Deb. However, Deb wants Dan out of their lives for good, especially after learning that Dan told Nathan that it is his fault that Deb is now addicted to pills. Lucas continues to live with Dan in order to bring down his father once and for all. He finds cash and an incriminating ledger in the attic of the dealership and discovers that Dan has been making money illegally by changing the amounts on bills and pocketing the extra cash. However, Dan has made Deb the co-owner of the dealership, meaning that she would be incriminated too. Dan then reveals he left the cash and ledger for Lucas to find as a test of Lucas 's loyalty, which Lucas failed, and so Dan severs all ties to Lucas, even cutting off his son 's heart medication. Dan also sabotages Karen 's relationship with her business lecturer Andy by walking into one of Andy 's classes and telling everyone that Andy is sleeping with Karen, which leads to Andy losing his job. Dan then tries to have Andy deported back to New Zealand. When Karen angrily confronts Dan at the dealership, Dan grabs her and forcefully kisses her, saying "is n't that was this is really about? '' At the end of the season Dan falls unconscious after drinking a poisoned bottle of whisky that was left for him with a note saying "for everything you 've done ''. The dealership is then set on fire with Dan inside.
Dan survives the fire, but the dealership is destroyed. Dan at first thinks it was Lucas who tried to kill him when he remembers seeing him in the fire, but it is revealed that Lucas saved him. Wanting access to the fire investigation, Dan runs for mayor of Tree Hill. His family - based campaign includes having Deb pretend to love him in exchange for a final divorce. This ploy works and Dan is elected mayor. As mayor, Dan gains access to CCTV showing Keith buying the whisky used to drug Dan, and when Keith returns to town Dan has him arrested on suspicion of his attempted murder. Although the police release Keith due to lack of evidence, Dan still believes that Keith was the perpetrator, and things become worse when Keith announces that he is going to marry Karen and adopt Lucas. One day at Tree Hill High, Jimmy Edwards takes a gun to school and fires it, causing a lock down. Keith persuades Dan as mayor to let him go into the school to talk to Jimmy, but Jimmy commits suicide by shooting himself in front of Keith. Dan then gets into the school, picks up the gun and shoots Keith, killing him. Jimmy gets the blame for Keith 's death as it is assumed that he shot Keith before turning the gun on himself. Dan convinces himself that Keith deserved what he got as he started the war with Dan. Nevertheless, Dan becomes haunted, seeing visions of Keith as a child everywhere, and this has a profound effect on him. Realizing he has to change his ways he tries to get closer to Nathan, telling his son that he is proud of him and that he loves him. Haley then gives Dan a second chance by inviting him to her and Nathan 's second wedding. At the ceremony Deb tells Dan that it was her, not Keith, who tried to kill him in the fire. Dan goes to Keith 's grave and breaks down. Dan then apologizes to Karen for how he treated her and Lucas and she reveals that she is pregnant with Keith 's child. Dan takes her in his arms promising to be there for her this time. He then goes home and discovers that someone has written "MURDERER '' on his wall.
Dan tries to make amends for Keith 's death by looking after Karen. However, he still sees messages everywhere calling him a murderer, and wonders if it is all in his head. Meanwhile, Nathan is in deep debt and asks Dan to help him. Dan refuses and Nathan goes to a loan shark, Daunte, instead. Daunte forces Nathan to shave points in a basketball game and then demands that Nathan lose the State Championship. On discovering the trouble that Nathan is in, Dan confronts Daunte and offers to pay him off, but Daunte gets Dan to back down by threatening Nathan, Lucas, the pregnant Haley and Karen. When the Ravens win the State Championship, Daunte runs Haley over and crashes into a construction site. Nathan pulls Daunte out of the car and beats him, before realizing he is dead. Dan takes the fall for Nathan and is arrested. Dan plans to plead guilty to Daunte 's murder in order to be punished for Keith 's death, but the coroner 's report shows that Daunte was already dead when Nathan pulled him out of the car. Dan is released and the experience brings him and Karen closer together, as Karen admires what Dan was willing to do for his son. Dan and Karen begin to come together romantically, attending the school prom together as chaperones, but Dan continues to receive text messages and notes accusing him of killing his brother. Dan discovers that the person sending the messages is Abby Brown, a student who witnessed the shooting. Dan then visits Abby and her mother and tries to explain why he killed Keith, saying "Karen was mine, she was supposed to be mine ''. Abby leaves Tree Hill for good, but not before telling Lucas what she knows. Lucas walks in on Dan and his mother kissing and attacks Dan, shouting that he killed Keith, but Karen refuses to believe him. Lucas then goes to the police, but Dan has got there first and told them that Lucas is just trying to sabotage Dan 's relationship with Karen. On learning from Haley that Deb has a gun, Lucas steals the gun and confronts Dan in front of Karen, causing her to collapse. Lucas fires a warning shot to make Dan leave, before rushing the unconscious Karen to hospital. After learning from Deb that Dan killed Keith, Nathan confronts Dan and tells him that he will never be a part of his grandson 's life. After Karen 's daughter is born by c - section, Dan visits his new niece in the hospital, before turning himself in to the police.
Two weeks later, a recovered Karen visits Dan in his cell and tells him that she has a daughter, Lily, who will never know her father because of Dan, before spitting at him. Dan is so distraught by this encounter that he tries to hang himself in his cell with his bedsheet. The sheet unravels after a few seconds, and Dan falls to the floor, left to agonize over what he has done.
Four and a half years later, Nathan visits Dan in prison, and tells him that he will never be like him. Nathan then tells Dan that Jamie found a picture of him once and Nathan told him that his grandfather was dead. Later, a prison guard tells Dan that Nathan left behind an envelope, which contains a picture of Jamie. A parole hearing is held for Dan and despite Lucas pleading with the board not to be fooled by Dan, he is released. Soon after, Dan goes to a store to buy a basketball for his grandson and ends up sleeping with the cashier later that night. At Lucas 's wedding, Dan sits outside in his car and is confronted by Haley, who tells him to stay away from the family. When Jamie is abducted during the ceremony by his evil nanny, Carrie, Dan saves him and threatens Carrie, telling her that he killed his brother and would have no problem doing the same to her. Dan then returns Jamie to Nathan and Haley 's house and is attacked by Lucas and Nathan. On Jamie 's 5th birthday Dan goes to drop off a gift and has a confrontation with Deb. After the party Nathan goes and tells Dan to stay away and Dan reveals he only has six months to live due to his HCM. However, after the man in front of him on the heart transplant list dies, he becomes number one. Excited, he leaves the hospital and helps an old man retrieve his cane before suddenly getting hit by a car. Ironically, seconds later his beeper goes off because a heart has been found for him.
When he wakes up from the accident, it is revealed that Carrie, Jamie 's former nanny, was the one who ran him over, as revenge for interfering with her taking Jamie as her son. He finds himself in a "hospital room '' but when he tries to escape (Carrie is torturing him) he discovers that he is not in a hospital room, but in her house, in a room which Carrie designed to confuse him by disguising it as a hospital room by putting medical equipment and painting the room, as well as adding hospital - style curtains. Carrie devises a plan to get Jamie by telling Haley that Dan is dying, so that she 'll bring Jamie to see him. Carrie goes after Jamie, then Haley too. Dan shoots Carrie once she attempts to kill Haley and Deb. Carrie wakes up later that night, and reminds Dan that he promised he 'd kill her if she came near his family again, prompting him to keep his word and shoot her again, this time killing her. As a result, Nathan and Haley let Dan see Jamie, but Nathan quickly reminds his father that he still hates him for killing his uncle. Unfortunately, Dan still finds himself without a heart transplant and has to wait longer. In the mean time, he tries to be a father to Nathan by advising him on his basketball and has a talk with Lucas about the day of the school shooting to help with the Ravens movie. His relationship with Jamie also grows and he finally has a blowout with Deb about Keith. When his heart transplant does come, the man who delivers it trips over a dog 's leash and the dog eats it. Dan ultimately loses all hope and attempts to drown himself at a beach. He then goes to tells Jamie goodbye. Jamie becomes upset and asks him who killed Keith; and Dan admits that he did it. Dan leaves Tree Hill, but not before saying some last words to Lucas and Nathan. At the end of the season we see Dan as a broken man. He hates his life and wants to die. To make amends he goes to visit Coach Durham to whom he confesses that when he looks back on his life it all went wrong when he refused to play at the state championship. He tells Coach Durham that he should be dead but he is n't and that he realizes "this is my hell ''. He has to see his family experience the happiest moments of their lives but he ca n't feel them. To this Coach Durham replies "you created that, Danny ''. Dan then turns a gun on himself but ca n't bring himself to pull the trigger. He then forces the gun into Coach Durham 's hand and begs the latter to shoot him. Later, after Dan cries in his arms, Durham adds, "there is still time for redemption, son ''. Nathan shows up and tells Dan that he has made it to the NBA. Later Peyton lets Dan hold his other grandchild, Sawyer Scott. At the end of the episode he tells the audience that when he looks in the mirror he sees that he was supposed to be someone else, but fell short of that person.
Fourteen months have passed since the season six finale, and Dan is now a motivational speaker. He has his own TV show called Scott Free Redemption. He has also written a book with the same title. It is then revealed that he is married to Rachel Gatina. Dan reached out to his son Nathan when he read about him and Renee Richardson, who he meets, asking her to speak on his show. Dan reveals that Renee Richardson was lying about Nathan 's alleged affair and exposes her on his show. It is also revealed that Dan did in fact have a heart transplant as he quotes Renee Richardson 's con as "Takes a Con to Know a Con. '' About a year earlier, Dan traveled to Mexico to have a heart transplant. His new wife Rachel Gatina paid with his money for a family to pull the life support plug on their young son. The heart was then given to Dan. Dan returns to Tree Hill and tries to ask forgiveness from Nathan. Nathan will not forgive Dan, but only "tolerate '' him for Jamie 's sake. Dan then meets Clay, who he shakes up (by throwing him in the ocean), telling him not to give up on being an agent. On the eve of Nathan and Haley 's departure, Rachel gets Dan to do a live broadcast from the school hallway where he killed Keith. Dan then runs into Jimmy 's mother, who tells him she will never be able to forgive him. So instead of reading his script, Dan talks about his life and tells his audience that there is no forgiveness for him, only what comes next. He gives everything that he has to charity as well as divorce papers to Rachel. As he is preparing to leave Tree Hill, Nathan meets up with him to tell him that he 's back with the Bobcats, and says thank you. He then says goodbye to Jamie.
Dan has moved to a diner, and reappears again when Quinn visits him to help her to kill Katie Ryan, and he convinces her not to do it. In the finale, Nathan visits him and gives him a photo of Lydia and a baseball from Jamie 's first game and Dan thinks that there is a chance for forgiveness.
Dan burns down his diner and returns to Tree Hill and asks Haley for a place to stay, initially resistant, she offers him money, but he says that he does n't want money. He moves into Nathan and Haley 's house, to the delight of Jamie, who is excited to spend time with him. Nathan tells him that he is going to Europe and that when he comes back he wants him to be gone. When Nathan does not return from Europe, Haley and Jamie blame Dan. He rents out the sound stage from Julian and uses it to find Nathan. Dan, Julian, and Chris Keller save Nathan. However, Dan is shot while rescuing Nathan and dies in the hospital surrounded by Nathan, Haley, Deb, Jamie and Lydia. When he dies, he sees a vision of his brother Keith, who brings him to the hallway where Dan shot Keith and he tells him that he forgives him. When Keith goes into the light, Dan asks him "I know where you 're going, but what about me? '' and Keith says "Do n't worry little brother, You 're my plus one. ''
|
what was the smallest country to win world cup | Uruguay national football team - wikipedia
The Uruguay national football team represents Uruguay in international association football and is controlled by the Uruguayan Football Association, the governing body for football in Uruguay. The current head coach is Óscar Tabárez. The Uruguayan team is commonly referred to as La Celeste (The Sky Blue). The Uruguayan team won the 2011 Copa América. They have won the Copa América 15 times, being the team that has won the tournament on most occasions. The team has won the FIFA World Cup twice, including the first World Cup in 1930 as hosts, defeating Argentina 4 -- 2 in the final. They won their second title in 1950, upsetting host Brazil 2 -- 1 in the final match, which received an attendance higher than any football match ever.
They have won the Gold Medals in football at the Summer Olympics twice, in 1924 and 1928 recognized by FIFA as World Championships, before the creation of the World Cup. Uruguay also won the 1980 Mundialito, a tournament among former World Cup champions. In total, Uruguay have won 20 official titles, a world record for the most international titles held by any country.
Their success is amplified by the fact that the nation has a very small population of around 3.4 million inhabitants (2011 est.). Uruguay is by far the smallest country in the world to have won a World Cup in terms of population, 1.75 million inhabitants in 1930. The second - smallest country, by population, to have won the World Cup is Argentina with a population of nearly 28 million people in 1978. Uruguay is also the smallest country ever to win any World Cup medals; only six FIFA member nations with a currently smaller population than Uruguay 's have ever qualified to any World Cup: Northern Ireland (three times), Slovenia (twice), Wales, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and Iceland.
In 1901, Uruguay played against Argentina in their first ever match, a close contest won by Argentina 3 -- 2. Prior to 1916, Uruguay played more than 30 matches, of which all but one were against Argentina. The inaugural Copa America provided Uruguay with more varied opposition. Victories over Chile and Brazil, along with a tie against Argentina, enabled Uruguay to win the tournament. The following year Uruguay hosted the competition, and retained the title by winning every game. The 1919 Copa América saw Uruguay 's first defeat in the tournament, a 1 -- 0 defeat in a playoff with Brazil which went to two periods of extra time, the longest Copa América match in history.
In 1924, the Uruguay team traveled to Paris to become the first South American team to compete in the Olympic Games. In contrast to the physical style of the European teams of the era, Uruguay played a style based around short passes, and won every game, defeating Switzerland 3 -- 0 in the gold medal match. In the 1928 Summer Olympics, Uruguay went to Amsterdam to defend their title, again winning the gold medal after defeating Argentina 2 -- 1 in the replay of the final (the first match was a draw after extra time). FIFA assumed the responsibility of the organization of the Football Games to be played by FIFA rules and the tournaments would be recognized as World Championships. It only happened twice (1924 / 1928 Summer Olympic Games) until the creation of its own FIFA World Championship, the FIFA World Cup, in 1930.
Following the double Olympic triumph, Uruguay was chosen as the host nation for the first World Cup, held in 1930, the centenary of Uruguay 's first constitution. During the World Cup, Uruguay won all its matches, and converted a 1 -- 2 half - time deficit to a 4 -- 2 victory against Argentina at the Estadio Centenario. Due to the refusal of some European teams to participate in the first World Cup, the Uruguayan Football Association urged other countries to reciprocate by boycotting the 1934 World Cup played in Italy. For the 1938 World Cup, France was chosen as host, contrary to a previous agreement to alternate the championships between South America and Europe, so Uruguay again refused to participate.
Uruguay again won the World Cup in 1950, beating hosts Brazil in one of the biggest upsets in World Cup history. The decisive match was at the Maracanã Stadium in Brazil. Uruguay came from behind to beat the host nation in a match which would become known as the Maracanazo. Many Brazilians had to be treated for shock after the event, such was the surprise of Uruguay 's victory.
After their fourth - place finish in the 1954 World Cup, the team had mixed performances and after the fourth - place finish in 1970, their dominance, quality and performance dropped. They were no longer a world football power and failed to qualify for the World Cup on five occasions in the last nine competitions. They reached an all - time low and at one time ranked 76th in the FIFA World Rankings.
In 2010, however, a new generation of footballers, led by Luis Suárez, Diego Forlán and Edinson Cavani, formed a team considered to be Uruguay 's best in the last four decades, catching international attention after finishing fourth in the 2010 World Cup. Uruguay opened the tournament with a goalless draw against France, followed by defeats of South Africa (3 -- 0) in and Mexico (1 -- 0) respectively, finishing at the top of their group with seven points. In the second round, they played South Korea, defeating them 2 -- 1 with star striker Luis Suárez scoring a brace and earning Uruguay a spot in the quarter - finals for the first time since 1970. Against Ghana, the match finished 1 -- 1, forcing the game into extra-time. Both sides had their chances at extra time but Suárez blocked the ball with his hand in the penalty area, earning Suárez a red card and earning Uruguay universal scorn. Ghana striker Asamoah Gyan missed the subsequent penalty, forcing the game to go into penalties where Uruguay would win 4 -- 2, sending them into the last four. They played the Netherlands in the semifinals but were beaten 3 -- 2. For the third - place match, they played Germany, again losing 3 -- 2. This placed Uruguay in fourth place for the tournament, their best result in 40 years. Diego Forlan was awarded the Player of The Tournament.
A year later, they won the Copa America for the first time in 16 years and broke the record for the most successful team in South America. Luis Suárez ended up as the Player of The Tournament In the 2014 World Cup Uruguay was placed in Group D alongside Costa Rica, England, and Italy. They were upset by Costa Rica in the opening match, losing 3 -- 1 despite taking the lead in the first half. They rebounded with a 2 -- 1 victory over England, in which Suárez scored a brace right after coming back from an injury, and a 1 -- 0 victory over Italy, placing them second in their group and earning a spot in the last 16. During the match against Italy, forward Luis Suárez bit Italian defender Giorgio Chiellini on his left shoulder. Two days after the match, the FIFA Disciplinary Committee banned Suárez for nine international matches, the longest such ban in World Cup history, exceeding the eight - match ban handed to Italy 's Mauro Tassotti for breaking the nose of Spain 's Luis Enrique in 1994. Suárez was also banned from taking part in any football - related activity (including entering any stadium) for four months and fined CHF 100,000 (approx. £ 65,700 / € 82,000 / US $ 119,000). In the round of 16, Uruguay played Colombia but were beaten 2 -- 0, eliminating them from the tournament.
At the 2015 and 2016 Copa América, Uruguay, missing banned striker Luis Suárez, were eliminated in the quarter - finals and group stages respectively.
Since 1930, Uruguay have played their home games at the Estadio Centenario in the Uruguayan capital Montevideo. The stadium was built as a celebration of the centenary of Uruguay 's first constitution, and had a capacity of 90,000 when first fully opened. The stadium hosted several matches in the 1930 World Cup, including the final, which was watched by a crowd of 93,000. Crowds for Uruguay 's home matches vary greatly depending on the importance of the match and the quality of the opposition. World Cup qualifying matches often attract crowds of between 50,000 and 73,000.
Uruguay 's stadium Estadio Centenario is one of the biggest stadiums in the world over 100m wide and 100m long.
Between 1901 and 1910, Uruguay wore a variety of different shirts during matches, including solid green and white tops, and even a shirt modeled from the Flag of Artigas. On 10 April 1910, now - defunct River Plate F.C. defeated Argentine team Alumni by 2 -- 1, being the first time an Uruguayan team beat legendary Alumni. That day River Plate wore its alternate jersey, a light blue one due to the home jersey was similar to Alumni 's. Ricardo LeBas proposed Uruguay to wear a light blue jersey as a tribute to the victory of River Plate over Alumni. This was approved by president of the Uruguayan Association, Héctor Gómez.
The red jersey that was used in some previous away strips was first used at the 1935 Copa América, held in Santa Beatriz in Peru, which Uruguay won. It was not worn again (except for a 1962 FIFA World Cup match, against Colombia) until 1991, when it was officially adopted as the away jersey.
Four stars appear above the team logo on the jersey. Two represent Uruguay 's 1930 and 1950 World Cup victories, and the other two represent the gold medals received at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics and recognised by FIFA as World Championships.
Goalkeeping Coach
The following 23 players were named in the squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup Caps and goals correct as of 6 July 2018, subsequent to the match against France.
The following players have also been called up to the Uruguay squad in the past 12 months.
Withdrew due to injury. Preliminary squad. Retired from international football.
Champions Runners - up Third Place Fourth Place
Champions Runners - up Third Place Fourth Place
Champions Runners - up Third Place Fourth Place
Champions Runners - up Third Place Fourth Place
Gold Silver Bronze
Note: The list above is for Senior and Olympic teams.
† played consecutively with Taça do Atlantica in 1976
Below is a list of all matches Uruguay have played against FIFA recognised teams
Updated as of 6 July 2018.
As of 6 July 2018.
Competitive matches only as of 14 June 2016
Uruguay have 4 stars in the emblem, 2 stars from the Gold medals earned in the 1924 and 1928 Olympic Games (recognized by FIFA as World Championships in accordance with the IOC) and 2 stars from the two World Cups from 1930 and 1950.
Uruguay has a long - standing rivalry with Argentina, that came into existence when they beat their South American neighbors 4 -- 2 in the first World Cup final, held in Montevideo in 1930. As a response, the following day saw an angry mob threw stones at the Uruguayan consulate in the Argentinian capital Buenos Aires.
Uruguay has an old rivalry with their South American neighbors. Their best known match was played at the 1950 World Cup which was held in Brazil where they defeated the host with the result 2 - 1 in front of almost 200 000 spectators at the Maracanã Stadium, thus winning the competition and earning their second World Cup title.
|
the rembrandts i'll be there for you album | I 'll Be There for You (the Rembrandts song) - wikipedia
"I 'll Be There for You '' is a song recorded by the American duo The Rembrandts. It is best known as the theme song to the American sitcom Friends, which premiered during 1994 and ended in 2004. The song was also released as the first single from the group 's third studio album LP.
"I 'll Be There for You '' was co-written by Friends producers David Crane and Marta Kauffman, Kauffman 's husband, composer Michael Skloff, and songwriter Allee Willis, along with Phil Sōlem and Danny Wilde, both of the Rembrandts. It is strongly influenced by The Beatles, especially reminiscent of the "I Feel Fine '' guitar riff, and is also highly reminiscent of The Monkees ' "Pleasant Valley Sunday. ''
The original theme, which is under one minute long, was later re-recorded as a three - minute pop song. After Nashville program director Charlie Quinn, along with radio announcer and music director Tom Peace, looped the original short version into a full - length track and broadcast it on radio station WYHY, it became so popular that they had to re-record it. "Our record label said we had to finish the song and record it. There was no way to get out of it, '' lead singer Phil Sōlem said.
The music video of the song featured the six main stars of Friends, taking the singing and dancing roles of the band after, amusingly, attacking them all and bemusing everyone else on the set with their daft behaviour. The video was included as a bonus feature on several of the show 's Complete Season DVD Boxsets.
In the United States, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart for eight weeks. When the single was released 1995, it peaked at # 3 on the UK Singles Chart in the United Kingdom and at # 17 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States as the flipside to "This House Is Not a Home ''. It also peaked at # 1 on the U.S. Top 40 Mainstream and Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks charts.
The song was the most successful in Canada where it peaked at number 1 for 5 consecutive weeks.
In April 2004, the song was ranked at # 15 on Blender magazine 's list of the "50 Worst Songs Ever ''.
"I 'll Be There for You '' has been included on the following compilation albums:
|
what is the next series after percy jackson and the olympians | The Heroes of Olympus - wikipedia
The Heroes of Olympus is a pentalogy of fantasy - adventure novels written by American author Rick Riordan. The novels detail a conflict between Greek and Roman demigods and Gaea, the earth goddess. The series is a sequel to Percy Jackson & the Olympians, which dealt with Greek gods. Riordan introduces Roman mythology into his sequel series as well as several new characters. The first book of the series, The Lost Hero, was published on October 12, 2010. The final entry in the series, The Blood of Olympus, was published on October 7, 2014.
The Heroes of Olympus is centered around a prophecy, introduced in The Last Olympian, that predicted seven demigods would unite to protect the world from an awakened Gaea. Demigods from both the Greek camp, Camp Half - Blood, and a newfound Roman camp, Camp Jupiter, work together to save the world from being destroyed by Gaea. The prophecy reads:
Seven half - bloods shall answer the call, To storm or fire, the world must fall. An oath to keep with a final breath, And foes bear arms to the Doors of Death.
Seven demigods -- Annabeth Chase, Leo Valdez, Percy Jackson and Piper McLean from Camp Half - Blood, with Jason Grace, Frank Zhang, and Hazel Levesque from Camp Jupiter -- join forces. A storm or a fire will destroy the world (Leo destroys Gaea with a fire). One of the seven will make an oath that is kept until their last breath. Leo vows to return to Ogygia. Leo dies in the explosion that kills Gaea. He is revived thanks to the Physician 's Cure. (This also could have been to bring back Festus.) The last line details how demigods, a giant, and a titan will free the Doors of Death.
The novel begins by introducing Jason Grace, Piper McLean, and Leo Valdez, three newly discovered demigods who travel to Camp Half - Blood. In response to a prophecy, they set off on a quest to prevent the rebirth of the giant king Porphyrion and rescue Piper 's father, who has been kidnapped by another giant, Enceladus. Jason, who has amnesia, also begins to remember pieces of his past throughout the book - most importantly, that he comes from a Roman camp for demigods called Camp Jupiter. Camp Half - Blood resolves to seek out this other camp both to gain allies in the fight against Gaea, the giants ' mother and commander, and to locate the missing Percy Jackson.
The novel opens with Percy Jackson (stricken with amnesia) discovering Camp Jupiter and meeting several Roman demigods. After a prophecy from Mars, he, Frank Zhang, and Hazel Levesque travel to Alaska to stop the rise of the giant Alcyoneus and free the god Thanatos, whom the giant has captured. After successfully completing their mission, the group returns to Camp Jupiter to defend it from yet another giant, Polybotes, and his army. After repelling this invasion, the demigods from Camp Jupiter go to meet the delegation from Camp Half - Blood arriving in the flying ship known as the Argo II.
After the Argo II unintentionally fires on Camp Jupiter, the seven demigods of the "Prophecy of Seven '' - Percy Jackson, Annabeth Chase, Hazel Levesque, Frank Zhang, Jason Grace, Piper McLean, and Leo Valdez - rush to escape the angered Roman campers. They travel to Rome following the Mark of Athena, a magical talisman designed to lead children of Athena (like Annabeth) to the missing Athena Parthenos. During their journey, they hear that Nico di Angelo has been captured by the Aloadae, and go to rescue him. Although they successfully free the son of Hades and locate the statue, Annabeth and Percy are pulled into Tartarus and the rest of the group resolves to find some way to save them.
In Tartarus, Percy Jackson and Annabeth Chase travel towards the "Doors of Death '' (the only exit to the mortal world) with help from Bob the Titan, hoping to escape and simultaneously stop more monsters from getting through. In the mortal world, the remaining demigods search for the mortal side of the Doors to help open them. They also meet with Reyna Avila Ramírez - Arellano, a Roman demigod; she, Nico di Angelo, and Coach Hedge leave with the Athena Parthenos for Camp Half - Blood. Once reunited, the original seven sail for Greece, where they expect Gaea 's main force will gather.
While Reyna Ramírez - Arellano, Nico di Angelo, and Gleeson Hedge travel towards Camp Half - Blood (where the Romans are preparing to attack the Greeks), the seven of the quest travel to Athens. With help from the gods, the demigods defeat the giants in Athens. They then return to the fight on Long Island and Leo Valdez sacrifices himself to defeat Gaea and restore peace. In the final pages, Leo is resurrected by his bronze dragon Festus and goes to find his girlfriend Calypso. Unaware that he is alive, Camp Half - Blood and Camp Jupiter mourn his loss, determining to become allies and prevent such a deadly war from happening again.
Released August 14, 2012, The Demigod Diaries is a collection of short stories. Similar to The Demigod Files, it contains some new stories with character interviews, illustrations, puzzles, and a quiz. The four stories include:
After realizing how many Greek and Roman myths he had left untouched as well the immense success of the original series, Riordan began writing a second series, using inspiration for his storyline from experiences that he and his children had while playing video and role - playing games such as World of Warcraft and Scion. After creating the storyline, Riordan created three new main characters -- Jason, Piper, and Leo -- but continued to use the previous main characters such as Annabeth and Grover as secondary characters.
Unlike the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series which uses first - person narration solely from Percy 's point of view, the second series is told in third - person, with the point of view alternating between various main characters. In The Lost Hero, those characters are Jason, Piper, and Leo. Although initially uncertain how fans would react, Riordan later found that they enjoyed the new format, as it allowed them to learn more about each character.
Riordan says that "it was my way of letting them revisit that world in a fresh twist, but also to catch up with Percy and Annabeth and the rest of the gang from the first series ''. He also decided to include the Roman gods after many readers requested that Riordan write a new series on Roman gods, who are the Roman equivalent of the Greek gods, with some minor changes in personality. He pondered on how the Roman aspect of the gods would be after moving from Greece to Rome to America. After a while, "playing with that idea gave me the idea for the new series ''.
The Lost Hero, the first book in the Heroes of Olympus series, was released on October 12, 2010 as a hardcover, audiobook, and ebook. The initial publishing run consisted of 2.5 million copies. The book 's official publication was preceded by several "sneak - peek '' releases by Disney - Hyperion. A graphic novel version, adapted and illustrated by Orpheus Collar, was released October 7, 2014.
A sequel pentalogy series titled The Trials of Apollo is currently in - development, with the first installment, The Hidden Oracle released on May 3, 2016. The second installment, The Dark Prophecy, was released on May 2, 2017.
The Lost Hero was a number one bestseller on the lists of The New York Times, USA Today, The Wall Street Journal, and Publishers Weekly. Many critics praised the novel as a good follow - up to Riordan 's previous series. A review by The Epoch Times commented, "If anyone was afraid that Riordan could n't top his Percy Jackson series -- they can quit worrying. This new series, even though in the same genre as the Percy Jackson group, has fresh ideas, more mystery and magic and keeps the reader engrossed from start to finish. '' Despite this praise, some reviews were more mixed. Vicky Smith of Kirkus Reviews wrote, "(there are) far too many pages of stretched - out action, telling not showing and awkward dialogue... Unless Riordan tightens things up considerably by number five, (readers) may find themselves hoping that it does not end with a third Great Prophecy ''.
The Lost Hero won the Barnes & Noble Best Book of 2010 award and was a Massachusetts Children 's Book Award Honor book for 2014, among other honors. Rick Riordan was named "Author of the Year '' for the novel at the 2011 Children 's Choice Awards. The book was also recommended by the ALA Best Fiction for Young Adults list of 2012.
|
savage garden i knew i loved you video | I Knew I Loved You - Wikipedia
"I Knew I Loved You '' is a song by Australian pop duo Savage Garden, released as the second single from their second studio album, Affirmation. The song went straight to number one on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming the band 's second number one in the United States after "Truly Madly Deeply ''.
After its third week at number one, the single was knocked off by Mariah Carey 's "Thank God I Found You '' featuring Joe and 98 Degrees. It later returned to the top again the following week, for its fourth and final week at the top.
It was the last song by an Australian artist to reach the top of the Billboard Hot 100 for over twelve years, until Gotye peaked at number one with his single "Somebody That I Used to Know '' (featuring Kimbra) in 2012. The music video featured then teen actress Kirsten Dunst as Darren Hayes ' love interest, and received a heavy rotation on MTV.
The music video was filmed by director Kevin Bray in August 1999 on a New York City Subway set that had previously been used on the sitcom Seinfeld. It features Hayes playing out a romantic plot on a subway train, with a female passenger (played by American actress Kirsten Dunst) as the object of his affections.
At one point, the train comes to a stop due to a power outage (at 2: 24); red emergency lighting comes on and everyone in the carriage joins hands. Hayes, who is sitting opposite his aforementioned love interest, extends his hand to her.
As they touch, the video cuts to a montage of the couple walking through a park, bathed in sunlight, laughing and holding hands. The video then cuts back to the carriage as the power comes back on and the train pulls into the station. Hayes and the woman exit with the other passengers, and share a fleeting glance before going their separate ways. Shots of the band performing alone on the subway platform and in the carriage are interspersed throughout the video. The video was uploaded on YouTube on 25 October 2009. As of October 2017, the video has received over 74 million views.
The song was a huge success in the United States, on the Billboard Hot 100, where it spent four weeks at the top, and an eventual 124 weeks on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart, breaking the record for 123 weeks set by another of the duo 's songs, "Truly Madly Deeply '' (which, in terms of sales and later time spent on the Recurrents chart, is still the # 1 AC song of all time). It ranked # 21 in the All Time Adult Contemporary Chart. The song was also certified Platinum by the RIAA and became the highest - played song on US radio of 2000.
|
the soviet and east german blockade of berlin lasted for | Berlin blockade - wikipedia
The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 -- 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post -- World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies ' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Western control. The Soviets offered to drop the blockade if the Western Allies withdrew the newly introduced Deutsche mark from West Berlin.
In response, the Western Allies organized the Berlin airlift (26 June 1948 -- 30 September 1949) to carry supplies to the people of West Berlin, a difficult feat given the size of the city 's population. Aircrews from the United States Air Force, the British Royal Air Force, the French Air Force, the Royal Canadian Air Force, the Royal Australian Air Force, the Royal New Zealand Air Force, and the South African Air Force flew over 200,000 flights in one year, providing to the West Berliners up to 8,893 tons of necessities each day, such as fuel and food. The Soviets did not disrupt the airlift for fear this might lead to open conflict.
By the spring of 1949, the airlift was clearly succeeding, and by April it was delivering more cargo than had previously been transported into the city by rail. On 12 May 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade of West Berlin. The Berlin Blockade served to highlight the competing ideological and economic visions for postwar Europe.
From 17 July to 2 August 1945, the victorious Allies reached the Potsdam Agreement on the fate of postwar Europe, calling for the division of defeated Germany into four temporary occupation zones (thus re-affirming principles laid out earlier by the Yalta Conference). These zones were located roughly around the then - current locations of the allied armies. Also divided into occupation zones, Berlin was located 100 miles (160 km) inside Soviet - controlled eastern Germany. The United States, United Kingdom, and France controlled western portions of the city, while Soviet troops controlled the eastern sector.
In the eastern zone, the Soviet authorities forcibly unified the Communist Party of Germany and Social Democratic Party (SPD) in the Socialist Unity Party ("SED ''), claiming at the time that it would not have a Marxist -- Leninist or Soviet orientation. The SED leaders then called for the "establishment of an anti-fascist, democratic regime, a parliamentary democratic republic '' while the Soviet Military Administration suppressed all other political activities. Factories, equipment, technicians, managers and skilled personnel were removed to the Soviet Union.
In a June 1945 meeting, Stalin informed German communist leaders that he expected to slowly undermine the British position within their occupation zone, that the United States would withdraw within a year or two and that nothing would then stand in the way of a united Germany under communist control within the Soviet orbit. Stalin and other leaders told visiting Bulgarian and Yugoslavian delegations in early 1946 that Germany must be both Soviet and communist.
A further factor contributing to the Blockade was that there had never been a formal agreement guaranteeing rail and road access to Berlin through the Soviet zone. At the end of the war, western leaders had relied on Soviet goodwill to provide them with access. At that time, the western allies assumed that the Soviets ' refusal to grant any cargo access other than one rail line, limited to ten trains per day, was temporary, but the Soviets refused expansion to the various additional routes that were later proposed.
The Soviets also granted only three air corridors for access to Berlin from Hamburg, Bückeburg, and Frankfurt. In 1946 the Soviets stopped delivering agricultural goods from their zone in eastern Germany, and the American commander, Lucius D. Clay, responded by stopping shipments of dismantled industries from western Germany to the Soviet Union. In response, the Soviets started a public relations campaign against American policy and began to obstruct the administrative work of all four zones of occupation.
Until the blockade began in 1948, the Truman Administration had not decided whether American forces should remain in West Berlin after the establishment of a West German government, planned for 1949.
Berlin quickly became the focal point of both US and Soviet efforts to re-align Europe to their respective visions. As Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov noted, "What happens to Berlin, happens to Germany; what happens to Germany, happens to Europe. '' Berlin had suffered enormous damage; its prewar population of 4.3 million people was reduced to 2.8 million.
After harsh treatment, forced emigration, political repression and the particularly hard winter of 1945 -- 1946, Germans in the Soviet - controlled zone were hostile to Soviet endeavours. Local elections in 1946 resulted in a massive anti-communist protest vote, especially in the Soviet sector of Berlin. Berlin 's citizens overwhelmingly elected non-Communist members to its city council.
Meanwhile, to coordinate the economies of the British and United States occupation zones, these were combined on 1 January 1947 into what was referred to as the Bizone (renamed "the Trizone '' when France joined on 1 June 1948). After March 1946 the British zonal advisory board (Zonenbeirat) was established, with representatives of the states, the central offices, political parties, trade unions, and consumer organisations. As indicated by its name, the zonal advisory board had no legislative power, but was merely advisory. The Control Commission for Germany -- British Element made all decisions with its legislative power. In reaction to the Soviet and British advances, in October 1945 the Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS) encouraged the states in the US zone to form a co-ordinating body, the so - called Länderrat (council of states), with the power to legislate for the entire US zone. It created its own central bodies (Ausschüsse or joint interstate committees) headed by a secretariat seated in Stuttgart. While the British and Soviet central administrations were allied institutions, these US zone committees were not OMGUS subdivisions, but instead were autonomous bodies of German self - rule under OMGUS supervision.
Representatives of these three governments, along with the Benelux nations, met twice in London (London 6 - Power Conference) in the first half of 1948 to discuss the future of Germany, going ahead despite Soviet threats to ignore any resulting decisions. Eventually the London Agreement on German External Debts, also known as the London Debt Agreement (German: Londoner Schuldenabkommen), was concluded. Under the London Debts Agreement of 1953, the repayable amount was reduced by 50 % to about 15 billion marks and stretched out over 30 years, and compared to the fast - growing German economy were of minor impact.
In response to the announcement of the first of these meetings, in late January 1948, the Soviets began stopping British and American trains to Berlin to check passenger identities. As outlined in an announcement on 7 March 1948, all of the governments present approved the extension of the Marshall Plan to Germany, finalised the economic merger of the western occupation zones in Germany and agreed upon the establishment of a federal system of government for them.
After a 9 March meeting between Stalin and his military advisers, a secret memorandum was sent to Molotov on 12 March 1948, outlining a plan to force the policy of the western allies into line with the wishes of the Soviet government by "regulating '' access to Berlin. The Allied Control Council (ACC) met for the last time on 20 March 1948, when Vasily Sokolovsky demanded to know the outcome of the London Conference and, on being told by negotiators that they had not yet heard the final results from their governments, he said, "I see no sense in continuing this meeting, and I declare it adjourned. ''
The entire Soviet delegation rose and walked out. Truman later noted, "For most of Germany, this act merely formalized what had been an obvious fact for some time, namely, that the four - power control machinery had become unworkable. For the city of Berlin, however, this was an indication for a major crisis. ''
On 25 March 1948, the Soviets issued orders restricting Western military and passenger traffic between the American, British and French occupation zones and Berlin. These new measures began on 1 April along with an announcement that no cargo could leave Berlin by rail without the permission of the Soviet commander. Each train and truck was to be searched by the Soviet authorities. On 2 April, General Clay ordered a halt to all military trains and required that supplies to the military garrison be transported by air, in what was dubbed the "Little Lift ''.
The Soviets eased their restrictions on Allied military trains on 10 April 1948, but continued periodically to interrupt rail and road traffic during the next 75 days, while the United States continued supplying its military forces by using cargo aircraft. Some 20 flights a day continued through June, building up stocks of food against future Soviet actions, so that by the time the blockade began at the end of June, at least 18 days supply per major food type, and in some types, much more, had been stockpiled that provided time to build up the ensuing airlift.
At the same time, Soviet military aircraft began to violate West Berlin airspace and would harass, or what the military called "buzz '', flights in and out of West Berlin. On 5 April, a Soviet Air Force Yakovlev Yak - 3 fighter collided with a British European Airways Vickers Viking 1B airliner near RAF Gatow airfield, killing all aboard both aircraft. The Gatow air disaster exacerbated tensions between the Soviets and the other allied powers. Internal Soviet reports in April stated that "Our control and restrictive measures have dealt a strong blow to the prestige of the Americans and British in Germany '' and that the Americans have "admitted '' that the idea of an airlift would be too expensive.
On 9 April, Soviet officials demanded that American military personnel maintaining communication equipment in the Eastern zone must withdraw, thus preventing the use of navigation beacons to mark air routes. On 20 April, the Soviets demanded that all barges obtain clearance before entering the Soviet zone.
Creation of an economically stable western Germany required reform of the unstable Reichsmark German currency introduced after the 1920s German inflation. The Soviets had debased the Reichsmark by excessive printing, resulting in Germans using cigarettes as a de facto currency or for bartering. The Soviets opposed western plans for a reform. They interpreted this new currency as an unjustified, unilateral decision. They responded by cutting all land links between West Berlin and West Germany. The Soviets believed that the only currency that should be allowed to circulate was the currency that they issued themselves. In February 1948, the Americans and British had proposed to the ACC that a new German currency be created, replacing the over-circulated and devalued Reichsmark. The Soviets refused to accept this proposal, hoping to continue the German recession, in keeping with their policy of a weak Germany.
Anticipating the introduction of a new currency by the other countries in the non-Soviet zones, the Soviet Union in May 1948 directed its military to introduce its own new currency and to permit only the Soviet currency to be used in their sector of Berlin, if the other countries brought in a different currency there. On 18 June the United States, Britain and France announced that on 21 June the Deutsche Mark would be introduced, but the Soviets refused to permit its use as legal tender in Berlin. The Allies had already transported 250,000,000 Deutsche marks into the city and it quickly became the standard currency in all four sectors. Against the wishes of the Soviets, the new currency, along with the Marshall Plan that backed it, appeared to have the potential to revitalise Germany. Stalin looked to force the Western nations to abandon Berlin.
The day after the 18 June 1948 announcement of the new Deutsche Mark, Soviet guards halted all passenger trains and traffic on the autobahn to Berlin, delayed Western and German freight shipments and required that all water transport secure special Soviet permission. On 21 June, the day the Deutsche Mark was introduced, the Soviet military halted a United States military supply train to Berlin and sent it back to western Germany. On 22 June, the Soviets announced that they would introduce a new currency in their zone.
That same day, a Soviet representative told the other three occupying powers that "We are warning both you and the population of Berlin that we shall apply economic and administrative sanctions that will lead to the circulation in Berlin exclusively of the currency of the Soviet occupation zone. '' The Soviets launched a massive propaganda campaign condemning Britain, the United States and France by radio, newspaper and loudspeaker. The Soviets conducted well - advertised military maneuvers just outside the city. Rumors of a potential occupation by Soviet troops spread quickly. German communists demonstrated, rioted and attacked pro-West German leaders attending meetings for the municipal government in the Soviet sector.
On 24 June, the Soviets severed land and water connections between the non-Soviet zones and Berlin. That same day, they halted all rail and barge traffic in and out of Berlin. The West answered by introducing a counter-blockade, stopping all rail traffic into East Germany from the British and US zones. Over the following months this counter-blockade would have a damaging impact on East Germany, as the drying up of coal and steel shipments seriously hindered industrial development in the Soviet zone. On 25 June, the Soviets stopped supplying food to the civilian population in the non-Soviet sectors of Berlin. Motor traffic from Berlin to the western zones was permitted, but this required a 23 - kilometer (14.3 - mile) detour to a ferry crossing because of alleged "repairs '' to a bridge. They also cut off the electricity relied on by Berlin, using their control over the generating plants in the Soviet zone.
Surface traffic from non-Soviet zones to Berlin was blockaded, leaving open only the air corridors. The Soviets rejected arguments that the occupation rights in the non-Soviet sectors of Berlin and the use of the supply routes during the previous three years had given Britain, France and the United States a legal claim to use of the highways, tunnels, railroads, and canals. Relying on Soviet goodwill after the war, Britain, France, and the United States had never negotiated an agreement with the Soviets to guarantee these land - based rights of access to Berlin through the Soviet zone.
At the time, West Berlin had 36 days ' worth of food, and 45 days ' worth of coal. Militarily, the Americans and British were greatly outnumbered because of the postwar scaling back of their armies. The United States, like other western countries, had disbanded most of its troops and was largely inferior in the European theatre. The entire United States Army had been reduced to 552,000 men by February 1948. Military forces in the western sectors of Berlin numbered only 8,973 Americans, 7,606 British and 6,100 French. Of the 98,000 American troops in West Germany in March 1948 only 31,000 were combat forces, and only one reserve division was immediately available in the United States. Because of the imbalance, American war plans were based on using hundreds of atomic bombs, but only about 50 Fat Man - specification bombs, the only version then available to the American military, existed in mid-1948. As of March 1948 only 35 "Silverplate '' atomic - capable Boeing B - 29 Superfortress bombers -- just over half of the 65 Silverplate specification B - 29 aircraft built through the end of 1947 -- and a few trained flight and assembly crews existed. Three B - 29 groups arrived in Europe in July and August 1948, but the Soviets possibly knew that none were atomic - capable; the first Silverplate bombers arrived in April 1949.
Soviet military forces in the Soviet sector that surrounded Berlin totaled 1.5 million. The two United States regiments in Berlin could have provided little resistance against a Soviet attack. General Lucius D. Clay, in charge of the U.S. Occupation Zone in Germany, summed up the reasons for not retreating in a cable to Washington, D.C. on 13 June 1948: "There is no practicability in maintaining our position in Berlin and it must not be evaluated on that basis... We are convinced that our remaining in Berlin is essential to our prestige in Germany and in Europe. Whether for good or bad, it has become a symbol of the American intent. ''
Believing that Britain, France, and the United States had little option than to acquiesce, the Soviet Military Administration in Germany celebrated the beginning of the blockade. General Clay felt that the Soviets were bluffing about Berlin since they would not want to be viewed as starting a Third World War. He believed that Stalin did not want a war and that Soviet actions were aimed at exerting military and political pressure on the West to obtain concessions, relying on the West 's prudence and unwillingness to provoke a war. Commander of United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) General Curtis LeMay reportedly favoured an aggressive response to the blockade, in which his B - 29s with fighter escort would approach Soviet air bases while ground troops attempted to reach Berlin; Washington vetoed the plan.
Although the ground routes had never been negotiated, the same was not true of the air. On 30 November 1945, it had been agreed in writing that there would be three twenty - mile - wide air corridors providing free access to Berlin. Additionally, unlike a force of tanks and trucks, the Soviets could not claim that cargo aircraft were some sort of military threat. In the face of unarmed aircraft refusing to turn around, the only way to enforce the blockade would have been to shoot them down. An airlift would put the Soviet Union in the position of either shooting down unarmed humanitarian aircraft, thus breaking their own agreements, or backing down.
The airlift option critically depended on scale and effectiveness. If the supplies could not be flown in fast enough, Soviet help would eventually be needed to prevent starvation. Clay was told to take advice from General LeMay to see if an airlift was possible. Initially taken aback by the inquiry, which was "Can you haul coal? '', LeMay replied "We can haul anything. ''
When American forces consulted Britain 's Royal Air Force (RAF) about a possible joint airlift, they learned the RAF was already running an airlift in support of British troops in Berlin. General Clay 's counterpart, General Sir Brian Robertson, was ready with some concrete numbers. During the Little Lift in April 1948, British Air Commodore Reginald Waite had calculated the resources required to support the entire city.
The American military government, based on a minimum daily ration of 1,990 calories (July 1948), set a total of daily supplies needed at 646 tons of flour and wheat, 125 tons of cereal, 64 tons of fat, 109 tons of meat and fish, 180 tons of dehydrated potatoes, 180 tons of sugar, 11 tons of coffee, 19 tons of powdered milk, 5 tons of whole milk for children, 3 tons of fresh yeast for baking, 144 tons of dehydrated vegetables, 38 tons of salt and 10 tons of cheese. In all, 1,534 tons were required each day to sustain the over two million people of Berlin. Additionally, for heat and power, 3,475 tons of coal, diesel and petrol were also required daily.
Carrying all this in would not be easy. The postwar demobilisation left the US forces in Europe with only two groups of C - 47 Skytrain transports (the military version of the Douglas DC - 3, which the British called "Dakota ''), nominally 96 aircraft, each of which could carry about 3.5 tons of cargo. LeMay believed that "with an all - out effort '' of 100 daily round trips these would be able to haul about 300 tons of supplies a day. The RAF was somewhat better prepared, since it had already moved some aircraft into the German area, and they expected to be able to supply about 400 tons a day.
This was not nearly enough to move the 5,000 tons a day that would be needed, but these numbers could be increased as new aircraft arrived from the United Kingdom, the United States, and France. The RAF would be relied on to increase its numbers quickly. It could fly additional aircraft in from Britain in a single hop, bringing the RAF fleet to about 150 Dakotas and 40 of the larger Avro Yorks with a 10 - ton payload.
With this fleet, the British contribution was expected to rise to 750 tons a day in the short term, a month, but even that at the cost of suspending all air traffic except for the airlift to Berlin and Warsaw. For a longer - term operation, the US would have to add additional aircraft as soon as possible, and those would have to be as large as possible while still able to fly into the Berlin airports. Only one aircraft type was suitable, the four - engined C - 54 Skymaster and its US Navy equivalent, the R5D, of which the US military had approximately 565, with 268 Air Force and Navy Skymasters in MATS, 168 in the troop carrier groups, and 80 Navy R5Ds in miscellaneous commands. Planners calculated that including C - 54s already ordered to Germany and drawing on those flying with civilian carriers, 447 Skymasters could be available for an "extreme emergency. ''
Given the feasibility assessment made by the British, an airlift appeared to be the best course of action. One remaining concern was the population of Berlin. Clay called in Ernst Reuter, the mayor - elect of Berlin, accompanied by his aide, Willy Brandt. Clay told Reuter, "Look, I am ready to try an airlift. I ca n't guarantee it will work. I am sure that even at its best, people are going to be cold and people are going to be hungry. And if the people of Berlin wo n't stand that, it will fail. And I do n't want to go into this unless I have your assurance that the people will be heavily in approval. '' Reuter, although sceptical, assured Clay that Berlin would make all the necessary sacrifices and that the Berliners would support his actions.
General Albert Wedemeyer, the US Army Chief of Plans and Operations, was in Europe on an inspection tour when the crisis broke out. He had been the commander of the US China - Burma - India Theater in 1944 -- 45 and he had a detailed knowledge of the previously - largest airlift -- the World War II American airlift from India over the Hump of the Himalayas to China. His endorsement of the airlift option gave it a major boost. The British and Americans agreed to start a joint operation without delay; the US action was dubbed "Operation Vittles, '' while the British action was called "Operation Plainfare ''. The Australian contribution to the airlift, begun in September 1948, was designated "Operation Pelican. ''
The British asked Canada to contribute planes and crews. It refused, primarily on the grounds that the operation risked war and Canada had not been consulted.
On 24 June 1948 LeMay appointed Brigadier General Joseph Smith, headquarters commandant for USAFE at Camp Lindsey, as the Provisional Task Force Commander of the airlift. Smith had been chief of staff in LeMay 's B - 29 command in India during World War II and had no airlift experience. On 25 June 1948 Clay gave the order to launch Operation Vittles. The next day 32 C - 47s lifted off for Berlin hauling 80 tons of cargo, including milk, flour, and medicine. The first British aircraft flew on 28 June. At that time, the airlift was expected to last three weeks.
On 27 June, Clay cabled William Draper with an estimate of the current situation:
I have already arranged for our maximum airlift to start on Monday (June 28). For a sustained effort, we can use seventy Dakotas (C - 47s). The number which the British can make available is not yet known, although General Robertson is somewhat doubtful of their ability to make this number available. Our two Berlin airports can handle in the neighborhood of fifty additional airplanes per day. These would have to be C - 47s, C - 54s or planes with similar landing characteristics, as our airports can not take larger planes. LeMay is urging two C - 54 groups. With this airlift, we should be able to bring in 600 or 700 tons a day. While 2,000 tons a day is required in normal foods, 600 tons a day (utilizing dried foods to the maximum extent) will substantially increase the morale of the German people and will unquestionably seriously disturb the Soviet blockade. To accomplish this, it is urgent that we be given approximately 50 additional transport planes to arrive in Germany at the earliest practicable date, and each day 's delay will of course decrease our ability to sustain our position in Berlin. Crews would be needed to permit maximum operation of these planes.
By 1 July, the system was getting under way. C - 54s were starting to arrive in quantity, and Rhein - Main Air Base became exclusively a C - 54 hub, while Wiesbaden retained a mix of C - 54s and C - 47s. Aircraft flew northeast through the American air corridor into Tempelhof Airport, then returned due west flying out on through the British air corridor. After reaching the British Zone, they turned south to return to their bases.
The British ran a similar system, flying southeast from several airports in the Hamburg area through their second corridor into RAF Gatow in the British Sector, and then also returning out on the center corridor, turning for home or landing at Hanover. However, unlike the Americans, the British also ran some round - trips, using their southeast corridor. On 6 July the Yorks and Dakotas were joined by Short Sunderland flying boats. Flying from Finkenwerder on the Elbe near Hamburg to the Havel river next to Gatow, their corrosion - resistant hulls suited them to the particular task of delivering baking powder and other salt into the city.
Accommodating the large number of flights to Berlin of dissimilar aircraft with widely varying flight characteristics required close co-ordination. Smith and his staff developed a complex timetable for flights called the "block system '': three eight - hour shifts of a C - 54 section to Berlin followed by a C - 47 section. Aircraft were scheduled to take off every four minutes, flying 1,000 feet higher than the flight in front. This pattern began at 5,000 feet and was repeated five times. (This system of stacked inbound serials was later dubbed "the ladder. '')
During the first week the airlift averaged only ninety tons a day, but by the second week it reached 1,000 tons. This likely would have sufficed had the effort lasted only a few weeks, as originally believed. The Communist press in East Berlin ridiculed the project. It derisively referred to "the futile attempts of the Americans to save face and to maintain their untenable position in Berlin. ''
Despite the excitement engendered by glamorous publicity extolling the work (and over-work) of the crews and the daily increase of tonnage levels, the airlift was not close to being operated to its capability because USAFE was a tactical organisation without any airlift expertise. Maintenance was barely adequate, crews were not being efficiently used, transports stood idle and disused, necessary record - keeping was scant, and ad hoc flight crews of publicity - seeking desk personnel were disrupting a business - like atmosphere. This was recognised by the United States National Security Council at a meeting with Clay on 22 July 1948, when it became clear that a long - term airlift was necessary. Wedemeyer immediately recommended that the deputy commander for operations of the Military Air Transport Service (MATS), Maj. Gen. William H. Tunner, command the operation. When Wedemeyer had been the commander of US forces in China during World War II, Tunner as commander of the India - China Division of the Air Transport Command had reorganised the Hump airlift between India and China, doubling the tonnage and hours flown. USAF Chief of Staff Hoyt S. Vandenberg endorsed the recommendation.
On 28 July 1948, Tunner arrived in Wiesbaden to take over the operation. He revamped the entire airlift operation, reaching an agreement with LeMay to form the Combined Air Lift Task Force (CALTF) to control both the USAFE and RAF lift operations from a central location, which went into effect in mid-October 1948. MATS immediately deployed eight squadrons of C - 54s -- 72 aircraft to Wiesbaden and Rhein - Main Air Base to reinforce the 54 already in operation, the first by 30 July and the remainder by mid-August, and two - thirds of all C - 54 aircrew worldwide began transferring to Germany to allot three crews per aircraft.
Two weeks after his arrival, on 13 August, Tunner decided to fly to Berlin to grant an award to Lt. Paul O. Lykins, an airlift pilot who had made the most flights into Berlin up to that time, a symbol of the entire effort to date. Cloud cover over Berlin dropped to the height of the buildings, and heavy rain showers made radar visibility poor. A C - 54 crashed and burned at the end of the runway, and a second one landing behind it burst its tires while trying to avoid it. A third transport ground looped after mistakenly landing on a runway under construction. In accordance with the standard procedures then in effect, all incoming transports including Tunner 's, arriving every three minutes, were stacked above Berlin by air traffic control from 3,000 feet (910 m) to 12,000 feet (3,700 m) in bad weather, creating an extreme risk of mid-air collision. Newly unloaded planes were denied permission to take off to avoid that possibility and created a backup on the ground. While no one was killed, Tunner was embarrassed that the control tower at Tempelhof had lost control of the situation while the commander of the airlift was circling overhead. Tunner radioed for all stacked aircraft except his to be sent home immediately. This became known as "Black Friday, '' and Tunner personally noted it was from that date that the success of the airlift stemmed.
As a result of Black Friday, Tunner instituted a number of new rules; instrument flight rules (IFR) would be in effect at all times, regardless of actual visibility, and each sortie would have only one chance to land in Berlin, returning to its air base if it missed its approach, where it was slotted back into the flow. Stacking was completely eliminated, and with straight - in approaches, the planners found that in the time it once took to unstack and land nine aircraft, 30 could be landed bringing in 300 tons. Accident rates and delays dropped immediately. Another decision was made when it was realised that it took just as long to unload a 3.5 - ton C - 47 as a 10 - ton C - 54. One of the reasons for this was the sloping cargo floor of the "taildragger '' C - 47s, which made truck loading difficult. The tricycle geared C - 54 's cargo deck was level, so that a truck could back up to it and offload cargo quickly. Tunner decided, as he had done during the Hump operation, to replace all C - 47s in the airlift with C - 54s or larger aircraft, which went into full effect after 28 September 1948.
Having noticed on his first inspection trip to Berlin on 31 July that there were long delays as the flight crews returned to their aircraft after getting refreshments from the terminal, Tunner banned aircrew from leaving their aircraft for any reason while in Berlin. Instead, he equipped jeeps as mobile snack bars, handing out refreshments to the crews at their aircraft while it was being unloaded. Gail Halvorsen later noted, "he put some beautiful German Fräuleins in that snack bar. They knew we could n't date them, we had no time. So they were very friendly. '' Operations officers handed pilots their clearance slips and other information while they snacked. With unloading begun as soon as engines were shut down on the ramp, turnaround before takeoff back to Rhein - Main or Wiesbaden was reduced to thirty minutes.
To maximise utilization of a limited number of aircraft, Tunner altered the "ladder '' to three minutes and 500 feet (150 m) of separation, stacked from 4,000 feet (1,200 m) to 6,000 feet (1,800 m). Maintenance, particularly adherence to 25 - hour, 200 - hour, and 1000 - hour inspections, became the highest priority and further maximised utilization. Tunner also shortened block times to six hours to squeeze in another shift, making 1440 (the number of minutes in a day) landings in Berlin a daily goal. His purpose, illustrating his basic philosophy of the airlift business, was to create a "conveyor belt '' approach to scheduling that could be sped up or slowed down as situations might dictate. The most effective measure taken by Tunner, and the most initially resisted until it demonstrated its efficiency, was creation of a single control point in the CALTF for controlling all air movements into Berlin, rather than each air force doing its own.
The Berliners themselves solved the other problem, the lack of manpower. Crews unloading and making airfield repairs at the Berlin airports were replaced almost entirely by local people, who were given additional rations in return. As the crews improved, the times for unloading continued to fall, with a record being set by the unloading of an entire 10 - ton shipment of coal from a C - 54 in ten minutes, later beaten when a twelve - man crew unloaded the same quantity in five minutes and 45 seconds.
By the end of August, after two months, the Airlift was succeeding; daily operations flew more than 1,500 flights a day and delivered more than 4,500 tons of cargo, enough to keep West Berlin supplied. From January 1949 forward, 225 C - 54s (40 % of USAF and USN Skymasters worldwide) were devoted to the lift. Supplies improved to 5,000 tons a day.
Gail Halvorsen, one of the many Airlift pilots, decided to use his off time to fly into Berlin and make movies with his hand - held camera. He arrived at Tempelhof on 17 July on one of the C - 54s and walked over to a crowd of children who had gathered at the end of the runway to watch the aircraft. He introduced himself and they started to ask him questions about the aircraft and their flights. As a goodwill gesture, he handed out his only two sticks of Wrigley 's Doublemint Gum. The children quickly divided up the pieces as best they could, even passing around the wrapper for others to smell. He was so impressed by their gratitude and that they did n't fight over them, that he promised the next time he returned he would drop off more. Before he left them, a child asked him how they would know it was him flying over, and he replied, "I 'll wiggle my wings. ''
The next day, on his approach to Berlin, he rocked the aircraft and dropped some chocolate bars attached to a handkerchief parachute to the children waiting below. Every day after that the number of children increased and he made several more drops. Soon, there was a stack of mail in Base Ops addressed to "Uncle Wiggly Wings '', "The Chocolate Uncle '' and "The Chocolate Flier ''. His commanding officer was upset when the story appeared in the news, but when Tunner heard about it, he approved of the gesture and immediately expanded it into "Operation Little Vittles ''. Other pilots participated, and when news reached the US, children all over the country sent in their own candy to help out. Soon, major candy manufacturers joined in. In the end, over twenty three tons of candy were dropped on Berlin, and the "operation '' became a major propaganda success. The candy - dropping aircraft were christened "raisin bombers '' by the German children.
The Soviets had an advantage in conventional military forces, but were preoccupied with rebuilding their war - torn economy and society. The U.S. had a stronger navy and air force, and had nuclear weapons. Neither side wanted a war; the Soviets did not disrupt the airlift.
As the tempo of the Airlift grew, it became apparent that the Western powers might be able to pull off the impossible: indefinitely supplying an entire city by air alone. In response, starting on 1 August, the Soviets offered free food to anyone who crossed into East Berlin and registered their ration cards there, but West Berliners overwhelmingly rejected Soviet offers of food.
Throughout the airlift, Soviet and German communists subjected the hard - pressed West Berliners to sustained psychological warfare. In radio broadcasts, they relentlessly proclaimed that all Berlin came under Soviet authority and predicted the imminent abandonment of the city by the Western occupying powers. The Soviets also harassed members of the democratically elected citywide administration, which had to conduct its business in the city hall located in the Soviet sector.
During the early months of the airlift, the Soviets used various methods to harass allied aircraft. These included buzzing by Soviet planes, obstructive parachute jumps within the corridors, and shining searchlights to dazzle pilots at night. Although the USAFE reported 733 separate harassing events, including flak, air - to - air fire, rocketing, bombing, and explosions, this is now considered to be exaggerated. None of these measures were effective. Former RAF Dakota pilot Dick Arscott described one "buzzing '' incident. "Yaks (Soviet plane) used to come and buzz you and go over the top of you at about twenty feet which can be off putting. One day I was buzzed about three times... The following day it started again and he came across twice and I got a bit fed up with it. So when he came for the third time, I turned the aircraft into him and it was a case of chicken, luckily he was the one who chickened out. ''
In the autumn of 1948 it became impossible for the non-Communist majority in Greater Berlin 's citywide parliament to attend sessions at city hall within the Soviet sector. The parliament (Stadtverordnetenversammlung von Groß - Berlin) had been elected under the provisional constitution of Berlin two years earlier (20 October 1946). As SED - controlled policemen looked on passively, Communist - led mobs repeatedly invaded the Neues Stadthaus, the provisional city hall (located on Parochialstraße since all other central municipal buildings had been destroyed in the War), interrupted the parliament 's sessions, and physically menaced its non-Communist members. The Kremlin organised an attempted putsch for control of all of Berlin through a 6 September takeover of the city hall by SED members.
Three days later RIAS Radio urged Berliners to protest against the actions of the communists. On 9 September 1948 a crowd of 500,000 people gathered at the Brandenburg Gate, next to the ruined Reichstag in the British sector. The Airlift was working so far, but many West Berliners feared that the Allies would eventually discontinue it. Then - SPD city councillor Ernst Reuter took the microphone and pleaded for his city, "You peoples of the world, you people of America, of England, of France, look on this city, and recognise that this city, this people, must not be abandoned -- can not be abandoned! ''.
The crowd surged towards the eastern sector and someone ripped down the Red Flag from the Brandenburg Gate. Soviet military police responded, killing one. The situation could have escalated further, but a British deputy provost intervened and pointedly pushed the Soviet police back with his swagger stick. Never before had so many Berliners gathered. The resonance worldwide was enormous, notably in the United States, where a strong feeling of solidarity with Berliners reinforced a determination not to abandon them.
Berlin 's parliament decided to meet instead in the canteen of the Technical College of Berlin - Charlottenburg in the British sector, boycotted by the members of SED, which had gained 19.8 % of the electoral votes in 1946. On 30 November 1948 the SED gathered its elected parliament members and 1,100 further activists and held an unconstitutional so - called "extraordinary city assembly '' (außerordentliche Stadtverordnetenversammlung) in East Berlin 's Metropol - Theater which declared the elected city government (Magistrat) and its democratic members (city councillors) to be deposed and replaced it with a new one led by Oberbürgermeister (lord mayor) Friedrich Ebert junior and consisting of communists only. This arbitrary act had no legal effect in West Berlin, but the Soviet occupants prevented the elected city government for all of Berlin from further acting in the eastern sector.
The city parliament, boycotted by its SED members, then voted for its re-election on 5 December 1948, however, inhibited in the eastern sector and defamed by the SED as a Spalterwahl ("divisive election ''). The SED did not nominate any candidates for this election and appealed to the electorate in the western sectors to boycott the election, while the democratic parties ran for seats. The turnout amounted to 86.3 % of the western electorate with the SPD gaining 64.5 % of the votes (= 76 seats), the CDU 19.4 % (= 26 seats), and the Liberal - Demokratische Partei (LDP, merged in the FDP in 1949) 16.1 % (= 17 seats).
On 7 December the new, de facto West - Berlin - only city parliament elected a new city government in West Berlin headed by Lord Mayor Reuter, who had already once been elected lord mayor in early 1946 but prevented from taking office by a Soviet veto. Thus two separate city governments officiated in the city divided into East and West versions of its former self. In the east, a communist system supervised by house, street, and block wardens was quickly implemented.
West Berlin 's parliament accounted for the de facto political partition of Berlin and replaced the provisional constitution of Berlin by the Verfassung von Berlin (constitution of Berlin), meant for all Berlin, with effect of 1 October 1950 and de facto restricted to the western sectors only, also renaming city parliament (from Stadtverordnetenversammlung von Groß - Berlin to Abgeordnetenhaus von Berlin), city government (from Magistrat von Groß - Berlin to Senate of Berlin), and head of government (from Oberbürgermeister to Governing Mayor of Berlin).
Although the early estimates were that about 4,000 to 5,000 tons per day would be needed to supply the city, this was made in the context of summer weather, when the Airlift was only expected to last a few weeks. As the operation dragged on into autumn, the situation changed considerably. The food requirements would remain the same (around 1,500 tons), but the need for additional coal to heat the city dramatically increased the total amount of cargo to be transported by an additional 6,000 tons a day.
To maintain the Airlift under these conditions, the current system would have to be greatly expanded. Aircraft were available, and the British started adding their larger Handley Page Hastings in November, but maintaining the fleet proved to be a serious problem. Tunner looked to the Germans once again, hiring (plentiful) ex-Luftwaffe ground crews.
Another problem was the lack of runways in Berlin to land on: two at Tempelhof and one at Gatow -- neither of which was designed to support the loads the C - 54s were putting on them. All of the existing runways required hundreds of labourers, who ran onto them between landings and dumped sand into the runway 's Marston Mat (pierced steel planking) to soften the surface and help the planking survive. Since this system could not endure through the winter, between July and September 1948 a 6,000 ft. - long asphalt runway was constructed at Tempelhof.
Far from ideal, with the approach being over Berlin 's apartment blocks, the runway nevertheless was a major upgrade to the airport 's capabilities. With it in place, the auxiliary runway was upgraded from Marston Matting to asphalt between September and October 1948. A similar upgrade program was carried out by the British at Gatow during the same period, also adding a second runway, using concrete.
The French Air Force, meanwhile, had become involved in the First Indochina War, so it could only bring up some old Junkers Ju 52s to support its own troops and they were too small and slow to be of much help. However, France agreed to build a complete, new and larger airport in its sector on the shores of Lake Tegel. French military engineers, managing German construction crews, were able to complete the construction in under 90 days. The airport was mostly built by hand, by thousands of mostly female labourers who worked day and night.
Heavy equipment was needed to level the ground, equipment that was too large and heavy to fly in on any existing cargo aircraft. The solution was to dismantle large machines and then re-assemble them. Using the five largest American C - 82 Packet transports, it was possible to fly the machinery into West Berlin. This not only helped to build the airfield, but also demonstrated that the Soviet blockade could not keep anything out of Berlin. The Tegel airfield was subsequently developed into Berlin - Tegel Airport.
To improve air traffic control, which would be critical as the number of flights grew, the newly developed Ground Controlled Approach radar system (GCA) was flown to Europe for installation at Tempelhof, with a second set installed at Fassberg in the British Zone in West Germany. With the installation of GCA, all - weather airlift operations were assured.
None of these efforts could fix the weather: which became the biggest problem. November and December 1948 proved to be the worst months of the airlift operation. One of the longest - lasting fogs ever experienced in Berlin blanketed the entire European continent for weeks. All too often, aircraft would make the entire flight and then be unable to land in Berlin. On 20 November, 42 aircraft departed for Berlin, but only one landed there. At one point, the city had only a week 's supply of coal left. However, the weather eventually improved, and more than 171,000 tons were delivered in January 1949, 152,000 tons in February, and 196,223 tons in March.
By April 1949, airlift operations were running smoothly and Tunner wanted to shake up his command to discourage complacency. He believed in the spirit of competition between units and, coupled with the idea of a big event, felt that this would encourage them to greater efforts. He decided that, on Easter Sunday, the airlift would break all records. To do this, maximum efficiency was needed and so, to simplify cargo - handling, only coal would be airlifted. Coal stockpiles were built up for the effort and maintenance schedules were altered so that the maximum number of aircraft were available.
From noon on 15 April to noon on 16 April 1949, crews worked around the clock. When it was over, 12,941 tons of coal had been delivered in 1,383 flights, without a single accident. A welcome side effect of the effort was that operations in general were boosted, and tonnage increased from 6,729 tons to 8,893 tons per day thereafter. In total, the airlift delivered 234,476 tons in April.
On 21 April, the tonnage of supplies flown into the city exceeded that previously brought by rail.
On 15 April 1949, the Russian news agency TASS reported a willingness by the Soviets to lift the blockade. The next day, the US State Department stated that the "way appears clear '' for the blockade to end. Soon afterwards, the four powers began serious negotiations, and a settlement was reached, on Western terms. On 4 May 1949, the Allies announced an agreement to end the blockade in eight days ' time.
The Soviet blockade of Berlin was lifted at one minute after midnight on 12 May 1949. A British convoy immediately drove through to Berlin, and the first train from West Germany reached Berlin at 5: 32 A.M. Later that day, an enormous crowd celebrated the end of the blockade. General Clay, whose retirement had been announced by US President Truman on 3 May, was saluted by 11,000 US soldiers and dozens of aircraft. Once home, Clay received a ticker - tape parade in New York City, was invited to address the US Congress, and was honoured with a medal from President Truman.
Nevertheless, flights continued for some time, to build up a comfortable surplus, though night flying and then weekend flights could be eliminated once the surplus was large enough. By 24 July 1949, three months ' worth of supplies had been amassed, ensuring that there was ample time to restart the Airlift if needed.
The Berlin Airlift officially ended on 30 September 1949, after fifteen months. In total, the USA delivered 1,783,573 tons and the RAF 541,937 tons, totalling 2,326,406 tons, nearly two - thirds of which was coal, on 278,228 flights to Berlin. The Royal Australian Air Force delivered 7,968 tons of freight and 6,964 passengers during 2,062 sorties. The C - 47s and C - 54s together flew over 92 million miles in the process, almost the distance from Earth to the Sun. At the height of the Airlift, one plane reached West Berlin every thirty seconds.
Pilots came from the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa.
A total of 101 fatalities were recorded as a result of the operation, including 40 Britons and 31 Americans, mostly due to non-flying accidents. One Royal Australian Air Force member was killed in an aircraft crash at Lubeck while attached to No. 27 Squadron RAF. Seventeen American and eight British aircraft crashed during the operation.
The cost of the Airlift was shared between the USA, UK, and Germany. Estimated costs range from approximately US $224 million to over US $500 million (equivalent to approximately $2.3 billion to $5.14 billion now).
Operational control of the three Allied air corridors was assigned to BARTCC (Berlin Air Route Traffic Control Center) air traffic control located at Tempelhof. Diplomatic approval was granted by a four - power organisation called the Berlin Air Safety Center, also located in the American sector.
Tegel was developed into West Berlin 's principal airport. In 2007, it was joined by a re-developed Berlin - Schönefeld International Airport in Brandenburg. As a result of the development of these two airports, Tempelhof was closed in October 2008, while Gatow is now home of the Museum of the German Luftwaffe and a housing development. During the 1970s and 1980s Schönefeld had its own crossing points through the Berlin Wall and communist fortifications for western citizens.
The Soviets ' contravention by the blockade of the agreement reached by the London 6 - Power Conference, and the Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948, convinced Western leaders that they had to take swift and decisive measures to strengthen the portions of Germany not occupied by the Soviets. The Blockade also helped to overcome any remaining differences between the French, British and Americans regarding West Germany, leading to a merger of the three countries ' occupation zones into "trizonia ''.
These countries also agreed to replace their military administrations in those zones with High Commissioners operating within the terms of a three - power occupation statute. The Blockade also helped to unify German politicians in these zones in support of the creation of a West German state; some of them had hitherto been fearful of Soviet opposition. The blockade also increased the perception among many Europeans that the Soviets posed a danger, helping to prompt the entry into NATO of Portugal, Iceland, Italy, Denmark, and Norway.
Animosities between Germans and the western Allies -- Britain, France and the United States -- were greatly reduced by the airlift, with the former enemies recognizing common interests, shared values and mutual respect. The Soviets refused to return to the Allied Control Council in Berlin, rendering the four - power occupation authority set up at the Potsdam conference useless. It has been argued that the events of the Berlin Blockade are proof that the Allies conducted their affairs within a rational framework, since they were keen to avoid war.
In the early days, the Americans used their C - 47 Skytrain or its civilian counterpart Douglas DC - 3. These machines could carry a payload of up to 3.5 tons, but were replaced by C - 54 Skymasters and Douglas DC - 4s, which could carry up to 10 tons and were faster. These made up a total of 330 aircraft, which made them the most used types. Other American aircraft such as the 5 C - 82 Packets, and the one YC - 97A Stratofreighter 45 - 59595, with a payload of 20 tons -- a gigantic load for that time -- were only sparsely used.
The British used a considerable variety of aircraft types. Many aircraft were either former bombers or civil versions of bombers. In the absence of enough transports, the British chartered many civilian aircraft. British European Airways (BEA) coordinated all British civil aircraft operations. Apart from BEA itself, the participating airlines included British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) and most British independent airlines of that era -- e.g. Eagle Aviation, Silver City Airways, British South American Airways (BSAA), the Lancashire Aircraft Corporation, Airwork, Air Flight, Aquila Airways, Flight Refuelling Ltd (which used their Lancaster tankers to deliver aviation fuel), Skyways, Scottish Airlines and Ciro 's Aviation.
Altogether, BEA was responsible to the RAF for the direction and operation of 25 British airlines taking part in "Operation Plainfare ''. The British also used flying boats, particularly for transporting corrosive salt. These included civilian aircraft operated by Aquila Airways. These took off and landed on water and were designed to be corrosion - resistant. In winter, when ice covered the Berlin rivers and made the use of flying boats difficult, the British used other aircraft in their place.
Altogether, a total of 692 aircraft were engaged in the Berlin Airlift, more than 100 of which belonged to civilian operators.
Notes
Citations
|
when was puerto rico annexed by the united states | History of Puerto Rico - wikipedia
The history of Puerto Rico began with the settlement of the archipelago of Puerto Rico by the Ortoiroid people between 3,000 and 2,000 BC. Other tribes, such as the Saladoid and Arawak Indians, populated the island between 430 BC and 1000 AD. At the time of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the New World in 1492, the dominant indigenous culture was that of the Taínos. The Taíno people 's numbers went dangerously low during the later half of the 16th century because of new infectious diseases carried by Europeans, exploitation by Spanish settlers, and warfare.
Located in the northeastern Caribbean, Puerto Rico formed a key part of the Spanish Empire from the early years of the exploration, conquest and colonization of the New World. The island was a major military post during many wars between Spain and other European powers for control of the region in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The smallest of the Greater Antilles, Puerto Rico was a stepping - stone in the passage from Europe to Cuba, Mexico, Central America, and the northern territories of South America. Throughout most of the 19th century until the conclusion of the Spanish -- American War, Puerto Rico and Cuba were the last two Spanish colonies in the New World; they served as Spain 's final outposts in a strategy to regain control of the American continents. Realizing that it was in danger of losing its two remaining Caribbean territories, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. The decree was printed in Spanish, English and French in order to attract Europeans, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity and strength with the arrival of new settlers. Free land was offered to those who wanted to populate the islands on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church.
In 1898, during the Spanish -- American War, Puerto Rico was invaded and subsequently became a possession of the United States. The first years of the 20th century were marked by the struggle to obtain greater democratic rights from the United States. The Foraker Act of 1900, which established a civil government, and the Jones Act of 1917, which made Puerto Ricans U.S. citizens, paved the way for the drafting of Puerto Rico 's Constitution and its approval by Congress and Puerto Rican voters in 1952. However, the political status of Puerto Rico, a Commonwealth controlled by the United States, remains an anomaly.
The settlement of Puerto Rico began with the establishment of the Ortoiroid culture from the Orinoco region in South America. Some scholars suggest that their settlement dates back 4000 years. An archeological dig at the island of Vieques in 1990 found the remains of what is believed to be an Ortoiroid man (named Puerto Ferro man) which was dated to around 2000 BC. The Ortoiroid were displaced by the Saladoid, a culture from the same region that arrived on the island between 430 and 250 BC.
Between the seventh and 11th centuries, the Arawak are thought to have settled the island. During this time the Taíno culture developed, and by approximately 1000 AD, it had become dominant. Taíno culture has been traced to the village of Saladero at the basin of the Orinoco River in Venezuela; the Taíno migrated to Puerto Rico by crossing the Lesser Antilles.
At the time of Columbus ' arrival, an estimated 30 to 60 thousand Taíno Amerindians, led by the cacique (chief) Agüeybaná, inhabited the island. They called it "Borinquen '', "the great land of the valiant and noble Lord ''. The natives lived in small villages led by a cacique and subsisted on hunting, fishing and gathering of indigenous cassava root and fruit. When the Spaniards arrived in 1493, the Taíno were already in conflict with the raiding Carib, who were moving up the Antilles chain. The Taíno domination of the island was nearing its end, and the Spanish arrival marked the beginning of their extinction. Their culture, however, remains part of that of contemporary Puerto Rico. Musical instruments such as maracas and güiro, the hammock, and words such as Mayagüez, Arecibo, iguana, Caguas and huracán (hurricane) are examples of the legacy left by the Taíno.
On September 24, 1493, Christopher Columbus set sail on his second voyage with 17 ships and 1,200 to 1,500 soldiers from Cádiz. On November 19, 1493 he landed on the island, naming it San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint John the Baptist. The first European colony, Caparra, was founded on August 8, 1508 by Juan Ponce de León, a lieutenant under Columbus, who was greeted by the Taíno Cacique Agüeybaná and who later became the first governor of the island. Ponce de Leon was actively involved in the Higuey massacre of 1503 in Puerto Rico. In 1508, Sir Ponce de Leon was chosen by the Spanish Crown to lead the conquest and slavery of the Taíno Indians for gold mining operations. The following year, the colony was abandoned in favor of a nearby islet on the coast, named Puerto Rico (Rich Port), which had a suitable harbor. In 1511, a second settlement, San Germán was established in the southwestern part of the island. According to the "500TH Florida Discovery Council Round Table '', on March 3, 1513, Juan Ponce de León, organized and commenced an expedition (with a crew of 200, including women and free blacks) departing from "Punta Aguada '' Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico was the historic first gateway to the discovery of Florida, which opened the door to the settlement of the southeastern United States. They introduced Christianity, cattle, horses, sheep, the Spanish language and more to the land (Florida) that later became the United States of America. This settlement occurred 107 years before the Pilgrims landed. During the 1520s, the island took the name of Puerto Rico while the port became San Juan.
The Spanish settlers established the first repartimiento system, under which natives were distributed to Spanish officials to be used as slave labor. On December 27, 1512, under pressure from the Roman Catholic Church, Ferdinand II of Aragon issued the Burgos ' Laws, which modified the repartimiento into a system called encomiendas, aimed at ending the exploitation. The laws prohibited the use of any form of punishment toward the indigenous people, regulated their work hours, pay, hygiene, and care, and ordered them to be catechized. In 1511, the Taínos revolted against the Spanish; cacique Urayoán, as planned by Agüeybaná II, ordered his warriors to drown the Spanish soldier Diego Salcedo to determine whether the Spaniards were immortal. After drowning Salcedo, they kept watch over his body for three days to confirm his death. The revolt was easily crushed by Ponce de León and within a few decades much of the native population had been decimated by disease, violence, and a high occurrence of suicide. As a result, Taíno culture, language, and traditions were generally destroyed, and were claimed to have "vanished '' 50 years after Christopher Columbus arrived. Since the early 21st century, efforts have been made to revive and rebuild Taíno culture.
The Roman Catholic Church of chappel, realizing the opportunity to expand its influence, also participated in colonizing the island. On August 8, 1511, Pope Julius II established three dioceses in the New World, one in Puerto Rico and two on the island of Hispaniola under the archbishop of Seville. The Canon of Salamanca, Alonso Manso, was appointed bishop of the Puerto Rican diocese. On September 26, 1512, before his arrival on the island, the first school of advanced studies was established by the bishop. Taking possession in 1513, he became the first bishop to arrive in the Americas. Puerto Rico would also become the first ecclesiastical headquarters in the New World during the reign of Pope Leo X and the general headquarters of the Spanish Inquisition in the New World.
As part of the colonization process, African slaves were brought to the island in 1513. Following the decline of the Taíno population, more slaves were brought to Puerto Rico; however, the number of slaves on the island paled in comparison to those in neighboring islands. Also, early in the colonization of Puerto Rico, attempts were made to wrest control of Puerto Rico from Spain. The Caribs, a raiding tribe of the Caribbean, attacked Spanish settlements along the banks of the Daguao and Macao rivers in 1514 and again in 1521 but each time they were easily repelled by the superior Spanish firepower. However, these would not be the last attempts at control of Puerto Rico. The European powers quickly realized the potential of the newly discovered lands and attempted to gain control of them.
The first school in Puerto Rico and the first school in the United States after Puerto Rico became a US territory, was the Escuela de Gramatica (Grammar School). The school was established by Bishop Alonso Manso in 1513, in the area where the Cathedral of San Juan was to be constructed. The school was free of charge and the courses taught were Latin language, literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology.
Sparked by the possibility of immense wealth, many European powers made attempts to wrest control of the Americas from Spain in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Success in invasion varied, and ultimately all Spanish opponents failed to maintain permanent control of the island. In 1528, the French, recognizing the strategic value of Puerto Rico, sacked and burned the southwestern town of San Germán. They also destroyed many of the island 's first settlements, including Guánica, Sotomayor, Daguao and Loíza before the local militia forced them to retreat. The only settlement that remained was the capital, San Juan. French corsairs would again sack San Germán in 1538 and 1554.
Spain, determined to defend its possession, began the fortification of the inlet of San Juan in the early 16th century. In 1532, construction of the first fortifications began with La Fortaleza (the Fortress) near the entrance to San Juan Bay. Seven years later the construction of massive defenses around San Juan began, including Fort San Felipe del Morro astride the entrance to San Juan Bay. Later, Fort San Cristóbal and Fort San Jerónimo -- built with a financial subsidy from the Mexican mines -- garrisoned troops and defended against land attacks. In 1587, engineers Juan de Tejada and Juan Bautista Antonelli redesigned Fort San Felipe del Morro; these changes endure. Politically, Puerto Rico was reorganized in 1580 into a captaincy general to provide for more autonomy and quick administrative responses to military threats.
On November 22, 1595, English privateer Sir Francis Drake -- with 27 vessels and 2,500 troops -- sailed into San Juan Bay intending to loot the city. However, they were unable to defeat the forces entrenched in the forts. Knowing Drake had failed to overcome the city 's defenses by sea, on June 15, 1598, the Royal Navy, led by George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland, landed troops from 21 ships to the east in Santurce. Clifford and his men met Spanish resistance while attempting to cross the San Antonio bridge (from an area known today as Condado) into the islet of San Juan. Nonetheless, the English conquered the island and held it for several months. They were forced to abandon the island owing to an outbreak of dysentery among the troops. The following year Spain sent soldiers, cannons, and a new governor, Alonso de Mercado, to rebuild the city of San Juan.
The 17th and 18th centuries saw more attacks on the island. On September 25, 1625, the Dutch, under the leadership of Boudewijn Hendrick (Balduino Enrico), attacked San Juan, besieging Fort San Felipe del Morro and La Fortaleza. Residents fled the city but the Spanish, led by Governor Juan de Haro, were able to repel the Dutch troops from Fort San Felipe del Morro. The fortification of San Juan continued; in 1634, Philip IV of Spain fortified Fort San Cristóbal, along with six fortresses linked by a line of sandstone walls surrounding the city. In 1702, the English assaulted the town of Arecibo, located on the north coast, west of San Juan, with no success. In 1797, the French and Spanish declared war on the United Kingdom. The British attempted again to conquer the island, attacking San Juan with an invasion force of 7,000 troops and an armada consisting of 64 warships under the command of General Ralph Abercromby. Captain General Don Ramón de Castro and his army successfully resisted the attack.
Amidst the constant attacks, the first threads of Puerto Rican society emerged. A 1765 census conducted by Lt. General Alejandro O'Reilly showed a total population of 44,883, of which 5,037 (11.2 %) were slaves, a low percentage compared to the other Spanish colonies in the Caribbean. In 1786 the first comprehensive history of Puerto Rico -- Historia Geográfica, Civil y Política de Puerto Rico by Fray Iñigo Abbad y Lasierra -- was published in Madrid, documenting the history of Puerto Rico from the time of Columbus ' landing in 1493 until 1783. The book also presents a first hand account of Puerto Rican identity, including music, clothing, personality and nationality.
In 1779, Puerto Ricans fought in the American Revolutionary War under the command of Bernardo de Gálvez, who was named Field Marshal of the Spanish colonial army in North America. Puerto Ricans participated in the capture of Pensacola, the capital of the British colony of West Florida and the cities of Baton Rouge, St. Louis and Mobile. The Puerto Rican troops, commanded by Brigadier General Ramón de Castro, helped defeat the British and Indian army of 2,500 soldiers and British warships in Pensacola.
The 19th century brought many changes to Puerto Rico, both political and social. In 1809, the Spanish government, in opposition to Napoleon, was convened in Cádiz in southern Spain. While still swearing allegiance to the king, the Supreme Central Junta invited voting representatives from the colonies. Ramón Power y Giralt was nominated as the local delegate to the Cádiz Cortes. The Ley Power ("the Power Act '') soon followed, which designated five ports for free commerce -- Fajardo, Mayagüez, Aguadilla, Cabo Rojo and Ponce -- and established economic reforms with the goal of developing a more efficient economy. In 1812, the Cádiz Constitution was adopted, dividing Spain and its territories into provinces, each with a local corporation or council to promote its prosperity and defend its interests; this granted Puerto Ricans conditional citizenship.
On August 10, 1815, the Royal Decree of Grace was issued, allowing foreigners to enter Puerto Rico (including French refugees from Hispaniola), and opening the port to trade with nations other than Spain. This was the beginning of agriculture - based economic growth, with sugar, tobacco and coffee being the main products. The Decree also gave free land to anyone who swore their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and their allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church. Thousands of families from all regions of Spain (particularly Asturias, Catalonia, Majorca and Galicia), Germany, Corsica, Ireland, France, Portugal, the Canary Islands and other locations, escaping from harsh economic times in Europe and lured by the offer of free land, soon immigrated to Puerto Rico. However, these small gains in autonomy and rights were short lived. After the fall of Napoleon, absolute power returned to Spain, which revoked the Cádiz Constitution and reinstated Puerto Rico to its former condition as a colony, subject to the unrestricted power of the Spanish monarch.
The integration of immigrants into Puerto Rican culture and other events changed Puerto Rican society. On June 25, 1835, Queen María Cristina abolished the slave trade to Spanish colonies. In 1851, Governor Juan de la Pezuela Cevallos founded the Royal Academy of Belles Letters. The academy licensed primary school teachers, formulated school methods, and held literary contests that promoted the intellectual and literary progress of the island.
In 1858, Samuel Morse introduced wired communication to Latin America when he established a telegraph system in Puerto Rico. Morse 's oldest daughter Susan Walker Morse (1821 -- 1885), would often visit her uncle Charles Pickering Walker who owned the Hacienda Concordia in the town of Guayama. Morse, who often spent his winters at the Hacienda with his daughter and son - in - law, who lived and owned the Hacienda Henriqueta, set a two - mile telegraph line connecting his son - in - law 's hacienda to their house in Arroyo. The line was inaugurated on March 1, 1859 in a ceremony flanked by the Spanish and American flags. The first lines transmitted by Morse that day in Puerto Rico were:
Puerto Rico, beautiful jewel! When you are linked with the other jewels of the Antilles in the necklace of the world 's telegraph, yours will not shine less brilliantly in the crown of your Queen!
Minor slave revolts had occurred in the island during this period, However the revolt planned and organized by Marcos Xiorro in 1821, was the most important of them all. Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful, he achieved legendary status among the slaves and is part of Puerto Rico 's folklore.
The last half of the 19th century was marked by the Puerto Rican struggle for sovereignty. A census conducted in 1860 revealed a population of 583,308. Of these, 300,406 (51.5 %) were white and 282,775 (48.5 %) were persons of color, the latter including people of primarily African heritage, mulattos and mestizos. The majority of the population in Puerto Rico was illiterate (83.7 %) and lived in poverty, and the agricultural industry -- at the time, the main source of income -- was hampered by lack of road infrastructure, adequate tools and equipment, and natural disasters, including hurricanes and droughts. The economy also suffered from increasing tariffs and taxes imposed by the Spanish Crown. Furthermore, Spain had begun to exile or jail any person who called for liberal reforms.
On September 23, 1868, hundreds of men and women in the town of Lares -- stricken by poverty and politically estranged from Spain -- revolted against Spanish rule, seeking Puerto Rican independence. The Grito de Lares ("Lares Cry '' or "Lares Uprising '') was planned by a group led by Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances, at the time exiled to the Dominican Republic, and Segundo Ruiz Belvis. Dr. Betances had founded the Comité Revolucionario de Puerto Rico (Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico) in January 1868. The most important figures in the uprising were Manuel Rojas, Mathias Brugman, Mariana Bracetti, Francisco Ramírez Medina and Lola Rodríguez de Tió. The uprising, although significant, was quickly controlled by Spanish authorities.
Following the Grito de Lares revolt, political and social reforms occurred toward the end of the 19th century. On June 4, 1870, due to the efforts of Román Baldorioty de Castro, Luis Padial and Julio Vizcarrondo, the Moret Law was approved, giving freedom to slaves born after September 17, 1868 or over 60 years old; on March 22, 1873, the Spanish National Assembly officially abolished, with a few special clauses, slavery in Puerto Rico. In 1870, the first political organizations on the island were formed as two factions emerged. The Traditionalists, known as the Partido Liberal Conservador (Liberal Conservative Party) were led by José R. Fernández, Pablo Ubarri and Francisco Paula Acuña and advocated assimilation into the political party system of Spain. The Autonomists, known as the Partido Liberal Reformista (Liberal Reformist Party) were led by Román Baldorioty de Castro, José Julián Acosta, Nicolás Aguayo and Pedro Gerónimo Goico and advocated decentralization away from Spanish control. Both parties would later change their names to Partido Incondicional Español (Unconditional Spanish Party) and Partido Federal Reformista (Reformist Federal Party), respectively. In March 1887, the Partido Federal Reformista was reformed and named the Partido Autonomista Puertorriqueño (Puerto Rican Autonomist Party); it tried to create a political and legal identity for Puerto Rico while emulating Spain in all political matters. It was led by Román Baldorioty de Castro, José Celso Barbosa, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón and Luis Muñoz Rivera.
Leaders of "El Grito de Lares '', who were in exile in New York City, joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee, founded on December 8, 1895, and continued their quest for Puerto Rican independence. In 1897, Antonio Mattei Lluberas and the local leaders of the independence movement of the town of Yauco, organized another uprising, which became known as the "Intentona de Yauco ''. This was the first time that the current Puerto Rican flag was unfurled in Puerto Rican soil. The local conservative political factions, which believed that such an attempt would be a threat to their struggle for autonomy, opposed such an action. Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities who acted swiftly and put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule.
The struggle for autonomy came close to achieving its goal on November 25, 1897, when the Carta Autonómica (Charter of Autonomy), which conceded political and administrative autonomy to the island, was approved in Spain. In the past 400 - plus years, after centuries of colonial rule, Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, the Prime Minister of Spain granted the island an autonomous government on November 25, 1897 in the empire 's legislative body in Cádiz, Spain, and trade was opened up with the United States and European colonies. The charter maintained a governor appointed by Spain, who held the power to veto any legislative decision he disagreed with, and a partially elected parliamentary structure. That same year, the Partido Autonomista Ortodoxo (Orthodox Autonomist Party), led by José Celso Barbosa and Manuel Fernández Juncos, was founded. On February 9, 1898, the new government officially began. Local legislature set its own budget and taxes. They accepted or rejected commercial treaties concluded by Spain. In February 1898, Governor General Manuel Macías inaugurated the new government of Puerto Rico under the Autonomous Charter which gave town councils complete autonomy in local matters. Subsequently, the governor had no authority to intervene in civil and political matters unless authorized to do so by the Cabinet. General elections were held in March and on July 17, 1898 Puerto Rico 's autonomous government began to function, but not for long.
In 1890, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker, wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the creation of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy. Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean Sea; these would serve as coaling and naval stations, as well as strategic points of defense after construction of a canal in the Isthmus. Since 1894, the Naval War College had been formulating plans for war with Spain and by 1896, the Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan which included military operations in Puerto Rican waters.
On March 10, 1898, Dr. Julio J. Henna and Robert H. Todd, leaders of the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, began to correspond with United States President William McKinley and the United States Senate in hopes that they would consider including Puerto Rico in the intervention planned for Cuba. Henna and Todd also provided the US government with information about the Spanish military presence on the island. On April 24, Spanish Minister of Defense Segismundo Bermejo sent instructions to Spanish Admiral Cervera to proceed with his fleet from Cape Verde to the Caribbean, Cuba and Puerto Rico. In May, Lt. Henry H. Whitney of the United States Fourth Artillery was sent to Puerto Rico on a reconnaissance mission. He provided maps and information on the Spanish military forces to the US government that would be useful for an invasion.
The Spanish -- American War broke out in late April. The American strategy was to seize Spanish colonies in the Atlantic -- Puerto Rico and Cuba -- and their possessions in the Pacific -- the Philippines and Guam. On May 10, Spanish forces at Fort San Cristóbal under the command of Capt. Ángel Rivero Méndez in San Juan exchanged fire with the USS Yale under the command of Capt. William C. Wise. Two days later, on May 12, a squadron of 12 US ships commanded by Rear Admiral William T. Sampson bombarded installations at San Juan. On June 25, the USS Yosemite blocked San Juan harbor. On July 18, General Nelson A. Miles, commander of US forces, received orders to sail for Puerto Rico and to land his troops. On July 21, a convoy with nine transports and 3,300 soldiers, escorted by USS Massachusetts, sailed for Puerto Rico from Guantánamo. General Nelson Miles landed unopposed at Guánica, located in the southern coast of the island, on July 25, 1898, with the first contingent of American troops. Opposition was met in the southern and central regions of the island but by the end of August the island was under United States control.
On August 12, peace protocols were signed in Washington and Spanish Commissions met in San Juan on September 9 to discuss the details of the withdrawal of Spanish troops and the cession of the island to the United States. On October 1, an initial meeting was held in Paris to draft the Peace Treaty and on December 10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed (ratified by the US Senate February 6, 1899). Spain renounced all claim to Cuba, ceded Guam and Puerto Rico and its dependent islets to the United States, and transferred sovereignty over the Philippines to the United States and in turn was paid $20,000,000 ($580 million in 2016 dollars) by the U.S. General John R. Brooke became the first United States military governor of the island.
After the ratification of the Treaty of Paris of 1898, Puerto Rico came under the military control of the United States of America. This brought about significant changes: the name of the island was changed to Porto Rico (it would be changed back to Puerto Rico in 1932) and the currency was changed from the Puerto Rican peso to the United States dollar. Freedom of assembly, speech, press, and religion were decreed and an eight - hour day for government employees was established. A public school system was begun and the U.S. Postal service was extended to the island. The highway system was enlarged, and bridges over the more important rivers were constructed. The government lottery was abolished, cockfighting was forbidden, and a centralized public health service established. Health conditions were poor at the time, with high rates of infant mortality and numerous endemic diseases.
The beginning of the military government also marked the creation of new political groups. The Partido Republicano (Republican Party) and the American Federal Party were created, led by José Celso Barbosa and Luis Muñoz Rivera, respectively. Both groups supported annexation by the United States as a solution to the colonial situation. The island 's Creole sugar planters, who had suffered from declining prices, hoped that U.S. rule would help them gain access to the North American market.
Disaster struck in August 1899, when two hurricanes ravaged the island: the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane on August 8, and an unnamed hurricane on August 22. Approximately 3,400 people died in the floods and thousands were left without shelter, food, or work. The effects on the economy were devastating: millions of dollars were lost due to the destruction of the majority of the sugar and coffee plantations.
The military government in Puerto Rico was short lived; it was disbanded on April 2, 1900, when the U.S. Congress enacted the Foraker Act (also known as the Organic Act of 1900), sponsored by Senator Joseph B. Foraker. This act established a civil government and free commerce between the island and the United States. The structure of the insular government included a governor appointed by the president, an executive council (the equivalent of a senate), and a legislature with 35 members, though the executive veto required a two - thirds vote to override. The first appointed civil governor, Charles Herbert Allen, was inaugurated on May 1, 1900. On June 5, President William McKinley appointed an Executive Council which included five Puerto Rican members and six U.S. members. The act also established the creation of a judicial system headed by the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico and allowed Puerto Rico to send a Resident Commissioner as a representative to Congress. The Department of Education was subsequently formed, headed by Martin Grove Brumbaugh (later governor of Pennsylvania). Teaching was conducted entirely in English with Spanish treated as a special subject. However, both Spanish and English were official languages in the island. On November 6, the first elections under the Foraker Act were held and on December 3, the first Legislative Assembly took office. On March 14, 1901, Federico Degetau took office as the first Resident Commissioner from Puerto Rico in Washington. The Foraker Act, (with the influence of a fearful progressive) placed a limit of 500 acres (2.0 km) as the amount of land that any one person was allowed to own. This part of the Act was not enforced.
The American program included building up a modern economic infrastructure that included roads, ports, electric power systems, and telephones and telegraphs, as well as hospitals and programs to develop agriculture.
Sugar mill owners in 1898 -- 1945 had made their sugar mills turn into a monocultural plantation in the 20th century economy. The sugar mills, tobacco, and cigar and cigarette factories gained the United States ' attention due to the fast production and large amount. Women and children were the ones working in these industries. Puerto Rican trades had gone to the United States 95 % of the time. In 1914, the coffee production that once was steady had failed.
The sugar industry rose along with the economy. The mill owners who were Puerto Ricans and the people who lived on the island who were French and Spanish took the United States ' corporate capital. The United States had four operations were part of the United sugar refineries that was owned by Cuba and the Dominican Republic. In 1870, Congress made the tariff wall in order to domestic producers of sugar. This had an effect of putting sugar producers into bankruptcy. The United States acquired jurisdiction over Puerto Rico where there was free trade between the two. Capital flowed into Puerto Rico with the effect of modernizing its sugar processing mills due to the United States ' influence.
The United States had formed a Tobacco Trust that had basis rules for cigarettes, but Puerto Ricans had issues when it came to brand and local marketing. The Tobacco Trust controlled cigarettes and cigar production as well as controlled the tobacco leaf. There was a fall of the industry due to the exports.
During the time when sugar was not going well the coffee in the late 1800s. What changed the coffee production started when the export production replaced the farming. People lost their land and properties, the amount of land disposal shrank and the people hoped that Europe would take part in the trade of coffee, but they did not. Coffee makers were not happy with them being controlled by the United States. In 1933 most of the people worked as families instead of individuals most likely due to 90 percent of the output due to them being poor.
In 1899, the United States took over rich lands that influenced Puerto Rico 's economy that soon made Puerto Rico a state that was more capitalized in operation. There was no limit in their treads to the United States, the sugar industry had expanded and irrigation payments. The taxes Hollander Act was taxing 2 percent on rural property in 1901. This made the people very angry and the people protested. The people were able to bring the tax down to 1 percent but this still forced landowners to sell their land.
The American administrators put great emphasis on developing a modern school system. English - language instruction provoked fears of cultural genocide. This effort generated resistance from teachers, parents, politicians, intellectuals and others. Resistance to the imposition of English was part of a larger effort to resist invasion and colonization. The schools became an important arena for cultural identity, as promoted by the middle - class local teachers who rejected the idea of creating Hispanic Yankees speaking only English, and instead sought to have an autonomous Puerto Rican culture that incorporated the best of modern pedagogy and learning, with a respect for the island 's Hispanic language and cultural traditions. U.S. officials underestimated the place of Spanish in Puerto Rican culture. By 1898 Spanish was firmly rooted in the population. Spanish was also one of the leading international languages, through which Puerto Ricans were in contact with the world. It was the language in which culture was communicated. The level of opposition to the imposition of English was such that it led to the failure of U.S. language policies in Puerto Rico.
One shock came in 1935, however, when a New York study found Puerto Rican schoolchildren in New York City to be seriously deficient in basic skills. After 39 years of the imposition of English at the University of Puerto Rico, Spanish became the preferred language of instruction in 1942, and in the public schools the vernacular of Puerto Ricans became the language of teaching and learning in 1940 -- 50.
Puerto Rico 's agricultural economy was transformed into a sugar monoculture economy, supplemented by gardens for local consumption. American sugar companies had an advantage over the local sugar plantation owners. The local plantation owner could finance his operations only at local banks which offered high interest rates, compared to the low rates that American companies received from the commercial banks in Wall Street. This factor, plus the tariffs imposed, forced many of the local sugar plantation owners to go bankrupt or to sell their holdings to the more powerful sugar companies. Sugar was considered one of the few strategic commodities in which the United States was not fully self - sufficient.
An economically evolving Puerto Rico called for a new advancement in political status. Powerful, innovative Puerto Rican leaders including Luis Muñoz Rivera, José de Diego, Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón, Manuel Zeno Gandía, Luis Lloréns Torres, Eugenio Benítez Castaño, and Pedro Franceschi contributed to the rise of multiple successful political parties. However, the birth of multiple political groups led to a diversion of the island 's interests: uniting as a statehood with the US, becoming a US territory commonwealth, or declaring independence altogether. In 1900, the Partido Federal (Federal Party) was formed during the US military rule of the island after the Spanish -- American War. It was formed by Luis Munoz Rivera and other members of the Autonomist Party. The Partido Federal favored immediate transformation of Puerto Rico into an organized unincorporated territory and eventually join US statehood. The Partido Obrero Socialista de Puerto Rico (Socialist Labor Party of Puerto Rico) were founded by Santiago Iglesias Pantin. Overtime the Partido Obrero Socialista de Puerto Rico was also in favor of statehood with the US. The Partido Federal campaigned for assimilation into the United States and wanted to develop prosperously with their best interests under the new US administration. They wanted to fully integrate US law and government. Their plan was to become a territory and have representation through a delegate and eventually become a US state with no restrictions. The Partido Obrero Socialista de Puerto Rico did not advocate for independence. Instead party leader, Santiago Iglesias Pantin, advocated for statehood and change in economic policies which were influenced by his practice in founding the Federación Regional de Trabajadores (Regional Workers Federation) and labor newspaper Ensayo Obrero. The party was based on the principles of the Socialist Labor Party of America and received much support from American colonial authorities. After the dissolution of the Federal Party, Luis Muñoz Rivera and José de Diego founded the Partido Unionista de Puerto Rico (Unionist Party of Puerto Rico) in 1904. The Unionist Party of Puerto Rico aimed to secure "the right of Puerto Rico to assert its own personality, either through statehood or independence. '' The beginning of the Partido Independentista, the independence party, was in 1909. Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón, Manuel Zeno Gandía, Luis Lloréns Torres, Eugenio Benítez Castaño, and Pedro Franceschi founded the party which was the first political party whose agenda was the independence of Puerto Rico. Another change occurred during the year the party was founded. The Olmsted Amendment changed the Foraker Act, which was designed to switch the Puerto Rican government from a military one to a government ran by the civilians. Instead, the Olmsted act called for the government to be managed solely under the executive branch.
The Puerto Rican status quo was again altered in 1909 when the Foraker Act, which replaced military rule with a civilian government in Puerto Rico, was modified by the Olmsted Amendment. This amendment placed the supervision of Puerto Rican affairs in the jurisdiction of an executive department designated by the president of the United States. In 1914, the first Puerto Rican officers, Martín Travieso (Secretary) and Manuel V. Domenech (Commissioner of Interiors), were assigned to the Executive Cabinet. This allowed for native Puerto Ricans to hold a majority in the Council, which consisted of five members selected by the president, for the first time in history. A 1915 delegation from Puerto Rico, accompanied by the Governor Arthur Yager, traveled to Washington, D.C. to ask Congress to grant the island more autonomy. Luis Muñoz Rivera became one of the founders of the Union Party in Puerto Rico who was against the Foraker Act. This delegation and speeches made by Resident Commissioner Muñoz Rivera in Congress, coupled with political and economic interests, led to the drafting of the Jones -- Shafroth Act of 1917 (Jones Act).
The Jones Act was made to replace the Foraker Act, which allowed for the free entry of Puerto Rican goods into the U.S. market. The Jones Act was approved by the U.S. Congress on December 5, 1916, and signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on March 2, 1917. Although it extended citizenship to Puerto Ricans, it was n't always welcomed. The Partido Union had opposed extension of U.S. citizenship in 1912 if it did n't make Puerto Rico a state. If they did n't become a state, U.S. citizenship would be interpreted as an attempt to block independence of the Puerto Ricans. For them, the promise of citizenship did n't affirm the promise of statehood, it excluded any considerations of independence.
The law made Puerto Rico a United States territory which is "organized but unincorporated, '' much like a colony. Puerto Ricans were also collectively given a restricted U.S. citizenship. This implied that Puerto Ricans in the island did not have full American citizenship rights, such as the right to vote for the President of the United States. The Act allowed conscription to be extended to the island, sending 20,000 Puerto Rican soldiers to the United States Army during the First World War. The Act also divided governmental powers into three branches: executive (appointed by the President of the United States), legislative, and judicial. The legislative branch was composed of the senate, consisting of 19 members, and a house of representatives, consisting of 39 members. The members of the legislature were freely elected by the Puerto Rican people. A bill of rights, which established elections to be held every four years, was also created.
Though the Act created a more structured government for Puerto Rico, the United States Congress still held the right to veto or amend bills and laws passed by the provincial legislative body. In addition to veto power, the United States could prevent the enforcing of actions taken by the legislature. The Act stated that the President of the United States was to appoint members of the Puerto Rico 's legislative branch, as well as the directors of the six major government departments - agriculture and labor, health, interior, and treasury (with the advisement of Congress) and the Attorney General and the commissioner of education. The Act also made English the official language of the Puerto Rican courts, government, and the public education systems.
On October 11, 1918, an earthquake occurred, with an approximate magnitude of 7.3 on the Richter scale, accompanied by a tsunami reaching 6.1 metres (20 ft) in height. The epicenter was located northwest of Aguadilla in the Mona Passage (between Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic). This earthquake caused great damage and loss of life at Mayagüez, and lesser damage along the west coast. Tremors continued for several weeks. Approximately 116 casualties were reported resulting from the earthquake and 40 from the tsunami.
Some politicians were in favor of Puerto Rico becoming an incorporated state of the U.S., while others wanted Puerto Rico to gain independence from the United States. Amid this debate, a nationalist group emerged that encouraged radical activism for Puerto Rico to become independent from the United States. As a consequence of the Jones Act and the establishment of elections, a new political party, the Partido Nacionalista de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rican Nationalist Party), was founded on September 17, 1922. This party used advocated massive demonstrations and protests against any political activity that was not going to result in Puerto Rico gaining independence. In 1924, Pedro Albizu Campos joined the party and later became the vice president in 1927. In 1930, Albizu was elected president. Being the president, he instilled many of his political ideologies into the party which was composed heavily of anticolonial politics and feelings of contempt against the United States. In the 1930s, the Nationalist Party, led by president Pedro Albizu Campos failed to attract sufficient electoral support and withdrew from political participation. Increased conflict arose between their adherents and the authorities. On October 20, 1935 Albizu testified against the dean of the University of Puerto Rico, claiming that he wanted to Americanize the institution. Four days later a student assembly gathered and declared Albizu a persona non grata, forbidding him to speak there. Albizu was later arrested and convicted of conspiring to overthrow the American government. He was arrested for breaking the Smith Act of 1940 which declared that it was against the law for anyone to teach or be part of a group that encouraged the overthrow of the American government.
On October 23, 1935, a student assembly was planned to be held at the University of Puerto Rico - Río Piedras campus. Its officials asked Governor Blanton Winship to provide armed police officers for the campus, to forestall possible violence. Colonel Elisha Francis Riggs, the U.S. appointed Police Chief, commanded the forces. A couple of police officers spotted what they believed to be a suspicious - looking automobile and asked the driver Ramón S. Pagán for his license. Pagán was the Secretary of the Nationalist Party at this time. He was accompanied in the car by his friends and other Nationalist Party members Pedro Quiñones and Eduardo Rodríguez. The police officers asked Pagán to slowly drive to the police station on Calle Arzuaga, but a block from the station, the police surrounded the vehicle and fired their guns into the car. Pagán, Quiñones, and Rodríguez were not armed with weapons. José Santiago Barea, another Nationalist, was approaching the car when police began shooting. It resulted in the death of the four nationalists and one bystander.
In retaliation for the "Río Piedras massacre '' at the University of Rio Piedras, on February 23, 1936, Nationalists Hiram Rosado and Elias Beauchamp killed Colonel E. Francis Riggs in San Juan. They were taken into custody where they were killed by policemen and officers while being held at the San Juan headquarters. Rosado and Beauchamp were declared heroes by the Nationalist Party president, Pedro Albizu - Campos. Shortly after, the San Juan Federal Court had Albizu arrested for his incitement of discontent. After initially being found innocent in a jury with seven Puerto Ricans and two North Americans, the judge ordered a new jury which had ten North Americans and two Puerto Ricans, who found him guilty. On July 31, 1936, Albizu and several other Nationalists such as Juan Antonio Corretjer and Clemente Soto Vélez were convicted of being associated with Riggs ' murder. They were sentenced to six to 10 years in a federal prison in the United States.
On March 21, 1937, a peaceful march was organized by the Nationalist Party, under Pedro Alibizu Campos, to commemorate the ending of slavery in Puerto Rico in 1873 by the governing Spanish National Assembly. The police, under the orders of General Blanton Winship, the US - appointed colonial Governor of Puerto Rico, opened fire at the peaceful Puerto Rican Nationalist Party parade, which is now known as the "Ponce massacre '': 20 unarmed people (including two policemen) were killed, with wounded persons ranging between 100 -- 200. This occurred because the head of the police force in Juana Díaz, Guillermo Soldevila, raised a whip and struck the chest of Tomás Lopez de Victoria, the captain of the cadet corps, and told him to stop the march. As a result, a police officer, Armando Martinez, ran from the corner in front of the Nationalist council and fired once into the air. This prompted many others to fire their arms.
On July 25, 1938, a little over a year after the Ponce massacre, Governor Winship ordered a military parade take place in the city of Ponce in celebration of the American invasion of Puerto Rico. Such celebrations customarily took place in San Juan, the capital of the colonial government. At the parade, an attempt was made to assassinate Winship, allegedly by members of the Nationalist Party. It was the first time in Puerto Rico 's long history that an attempt had been made against a governor. Although Winship escaped unscathed, a total of 36 people were wounded, including a colonel in the National Guard and the Nationalist gunman.
In the years after World War II, social, political and economical changes began to take place that have continued to shape the island 's character today. The late 1940s brought the beginning of a major migration to the continental United States, mainly to New York City. The main reasons for this were an undesirable economic situation brought by the Great Depression, as well as strong recruiting by the U.S. armed forces for personnel and U.S. companies for workers.
In 1946 President Truman appointed Resident Commissioner Jesús T. Piñero to serve as island governor; he was the first Puerto Rican appointed to that position. On June 10, 1948, Piñero signed the infamous "Ley de la Mordaza '' (Gag Law). Law 53, as it was officially known, was passed by the Puerto Rican legislature presided by Luis Muñoz Marín on May 21, 1948. The Law made it illegal to display the Puerto Rican flag, sing a nationalist song, talk about independence or to campaign for the independence of the island. It resembled the anti-communist Smith Law passed in the United States.
The U.S. Congress passed an act allowing Puerto Ricans to elect their governor, and the first elections under this act were held on November 2, 1948. Luis Muñoz Marín, president of the Puerto Rican Senate, successfully campaigned and became the first democratically elected Governor of the island on January 2, 1949.
On July 4, 1950, President Harry S. Truman signed Public Act 600, which allowed Puerto Ricans to draft their own constitution establishing their own internal government structures; it also renamed the body politic as the "Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. '' in English and "Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico '' in Spanish. (The Commonwealth designation was similar to the bodies politic of the states of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Kentucky.) Once in office, Muñoz Marin did not pursue Puerto Rican Independence, which angered some of his constituency.
On October 30, 1950, a group of Puerto Rican nationalists, led by Pedro Albizu Campos, staged several local attacks, known as the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party revolts of the 1950s, the most successful of which is known as the Jayuya Uprising. The revolts included an attack on the governor 's mansion, La Fortaleza. Puerto Rican military forces were called in to put down the Jayuya Uprising. Two days later, two Nationalists from New York tried to storm in to Blair House, then the president 's temporary residence, to assassinate United States President Harry S. Truman. These acts led Muñoz to crack down on Puerto Rican nationalists and advocates of Puerto Rican independence. The actions by both Muñoz and the United States ' Government would later be determined as infringing on constitutional rights.
In February 1952, the Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by voters in a referendum, and a federal law approved it, subject to striking Sec. 20 of Article II and adding text to Sec. 3 of Article VII of the final draft, amendments that were finally ratified in November of that year. The island organized as the Estado Libre Asociado (Commonwealth of Puerto Rico). That same year marked the first time that the Flag of Puerto Rico could be publicly displayed, after having been criminalized in 1948 by the Popular Democratic Party - controlled government. In March 1954, four Nationalists fired guns from the visitors gallery in the US House of Representatives at the Capitol, to protest the lack of Puerto Rican independence, wounding several persons.
Luis A. Ferré founded Estadistas Unidos (United Statehooders), an organization to campaign for statehood in the 1967 plebiscite, after the Statehood Republican Party chose to boycott the vote. On July 23, 1967, the first plebiscite on the political status of Puerto Rico was held. Voters affirmed continuation of Commonwealth status (Commonwealth -- 60.4 % Statehood -- 39 %; Independence -- 0.6 %). Other plebiscites have been held to determine the political status of Puerto Rico, in 1993 and in 1998. Both times, although by smaller margins, the status quo has been upheld. In 2012, a majority voted to reject the current status and voted to become a state. The referendum was controversial as opponents had tried to persuade people to abstain from voting altogether and argued the vote was invalid.
As the U.S. Constitution empowers Congress to admit new states, the referendum could be taken only as a sign of popular opinion. Legally the island remains a territory of the United States, under congressional supervision. After the 1967 plebiscite, the Partido Nuevo Progresista (New Progressive Party or New Party for Progress) was organized under Ferré 's leadership. The party campaigned for Puerto Rico to become the 51st state of the Union. Luis A. Ferré was elected governor on November 5, 1968, with 43.6 % of the vote, the first time a pro-statehood governor had received a plurality. The New Progressive Party, the Popular Democratic Party, and the Independence Party constitute the current political status - based registered political parties in the island.
Puerto Rico continues to struggle to define its political status. Even though Puerto Rico was granted the right to draft its own Constitution, approved conditionally by Congress on July 3, 1952, it remains an unincorporated organized territory of the United States. Its ambiguous status continues to spark political debates which dominate Puerto Rican society.
On July 23, 1967, the first plebiscite on the political status of Puerto Rico was held. Voters overwhelmingly affirmed continuation of Commonwealth status (with 60.4 % voting to remain a commonwealth, 39 % voting to work towards statehood. Other referendums have been subsequently held to determine the political status of Puerto Rico, in 1993 and in 1998. In all three of these, the status quo has been upheld; there was no strong feeling in favor of independence or statehood.
The Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012 occurred on November 6, 2012. The result a 54 % majority of the ballots cast against the continuation of the island 's territorial political status, and in favor of a new status. Of votes for new status, a 61.1 % majority chose statehood. This was by far the most successful referendum for statehood advocates. In all earlier referenda, votes for statehood were matched almost equally by votes for remaining an American territory, with the remainder for independence. Support for U.S. statehood has risen in each successive popular referendum. Because there were almost 500,000 blank ballots in the 2012 referendum, creating confusion as to the voters ' true desire, Congress decided to ignore the vote.
The Puerto Rican status referendum, 2017 occurred on June 11, 2017. While initially the referendum would only have the options of statehood and independence / free association, a letter from the Trump administration recommended to add the Commonwealth, the current status, in the plebiscite. The option had been removed from this plebiscite in response to the results of the plebiscite in 2012 which asked whether to remain in the current status and No had won. However, the Trump administration cited changes in demographics during the past 5 years to add the option once again. Amendments to the plebiscite bill were adopted making ballot wording changes requested by the U.S. Department of Justice, as well as adding a "current territorial status '' option.
Governor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to "solve our 500 - year - old colonial dilemma... Colonialism is not an option... It 's a civil rights issue... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy, '' he told the news media. Benefits of statehood include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.
Regardless of the outcome of the referendum, action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.
While the eye of Category 5 Hurricane Irma passed north of the island on September 5, 2017, winds were sufficient to leave 1 million citizens without power. On September 20, 2017, Hurricane Maria hit the island directly, destroying infrastructure including most homes, all electricity, most potable water supplies, transportation, and communication.
Coffee was a major industry before the 1940s. Arabica beans were introduced to the island in 1736. Production soared in the central mountainous area after 1855 because of cheap land, a low - paid and plentiful workforce, good credit facilities, and a growing market in the U.S., Spain and Europe. Decline set in after 1897, and the end came with a major hurricane in 1928 and the 1930s depression. While coffee declined, sugar and tobacco grew in importance, thanks to the large mainland market.
The island 's social and economic structure modernized after 1898, with new infrastructure such as roads, ports, railroads and telegraph lines, and new public health measures. The high infant mortality death rate of the late 19th century declined steadily, thanks in large measure to basic public health programs.
Land tenure did not become concentrated in fewer hands, but incomes increased as American agribusiness and capital investments arrived. The land tenure system in the firm control of local farmers (small, medium, and large). After 1940 dairying became an industry second only to sugar, and had a higher dollar output than the better - known traditional crops -- coffee and tobacco.
In the 1920s, the economy of Puerto Rico boomed. A dramatic increase in the price of sugar, Puerto Rico 's principal export, brought cash to the farmers. As a result, the island 's infrastructure was steadily upgraded. New schools, roads and bridges were constructed. The increase in private wealth was reflected in the erection of many residences, while the development of commerce and agriculture stimulated the extension of banking and transport facilities.
This period of prosperity came to an end in 1929 with the onset of the Great Depression. At the time, agriculture was the main contributor to the economy. Industry and commerce slowed during the 1930s as well. The problems were aggravated when on September 27, 1932, Hurricane San Ciprián struck the island. Exact figures of the destruction are not known but estimates say that 200 -- 300 people were killed, more than a thousand were injured, and property damage escalated to $30 -- 50 million ($530 million to $880 million as of 2016).
The agricultural production, the principal economic driver for the island, came to a standstill. Under President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal, a Puerto Rican Reconstruction Administration was authorized. Funds were made available for construction of new housing, infrastructure, including transportation improvements and other capital investment to improve island conditions. In 1938, a new federal minimum wage law was passed, establishing it at 25 cents an hour. As a consequence, two - thirds of the island 's textile factories closed because they could not be profitable while paying workers at that level.
After World War II, large numbers of young people migrated to the mainland 's industrial cities for work and remitted dollars back to their families. In 1950 Washington introduced Operation Bootstrap, which greatly stimulated economic growth from 1950 until the 1970s. Due to billions of dollars of corporate investments, the growth rate was 6 % for the 1950s, 5 % for the 1960s, and 4 % for the 1970s. Puerto Rico became one of the most affluent economies in Latin America. However, it had to import 80 % of its food.
Operation Bootstrap was sponsored by governor Muñoz Marín. It was coupled with agrarian reform (land redistribution) that limited the area that could be held by large sugarcane interests. Operation Bootstrap enticed US mainland investors to transfer or create manufacturing plants by granting them local and federal tax concessions, but maintaining the access to mainland markets free of import duties. Another incentive was the lower wage scales in the densely populated island. The program accelerated the shift from an agricultural to an industrial society. The 1950s saw the development of labor - intensive light industries, such as textiles; later manufacturing gave way to heavy industry, such as petrochemicals and oil refining, in the 1960s and 1970s. Muñoz Marín 's development programs brought some prosperity for an emergent middle class. The industrialization was in part fueled by generous local incentives and freedom from federal taxation, while providing access to continental US markets without import duties. As a result, a rural agricultural society was transformed into an industrial working class. Manufacturing activity, however, has been burdened by electricity rates two to three times the average in the United States.
In 2005, protests over the noise of bombing practice forced the closure of Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. This resulted in a loss of 6,000 jobs and an annual decrease in income of $300 million.
In 2006, Puerto Rico saw its credit rating downgraded to one notch above non-investment grade by the main credit rating agencies, with the possibility of more downgrades happening in the near future. This has led to fiscal measures to reduce government spending, increase revenues and balance the budget, and the implementation in 2006 and expansion in 2013 of a 7 % sales tax.
Present - day Puerto Rico has become a major tourist destination and a leading pharmaceutical and manufacturing center, as well as a major financial center for the Caribbean.
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government - debt crisis posed serious problems for the government which was saddled with outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with a 45 percent poverty rate and 12.4 % unemployment that is more than twice the mainland U.S. average. The debt had been increasing during a decade long recession.
The Commonwealth had been defaulting on many debts, including bonds, since 2015. "Without action before April, Puerto Rico 's ability to execute contracts for Fiscal Year 2018 with its managed care organizations will be threatened, thereby putting at risk beginning July 1, 2017 the health care of up to 900,000 poor U.S. citizens living in Puerto Rico '', according to a letter sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. They also said that "Congress must enact measures recommended by both Republicans and Democrats that fix Puerto Rico 's inequitable health care financing structure and promote sustained economic growth. ''
Initially, the oversight board created under PROMESA called for Puerto Rico 's governor Ricardo Rosselló to deliver a fiscal turnaround plan by January 28. Just before that deadline, the control board gave the Commonwealth government until February 28 to present a fiscal plan (including negotiations with creditors for restructuring debt) to solve the problems. A moratorium on lawsuits by debtors was extended to May 31. It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals to avoid a bankruptcy - like process under PROMESA.
|
who presides over the senate can he/she vote | President of the Senate - wikipedia
The President of the Senate is a title often given to the presiding officer of a senate, and is the speaker of other assemblies.
The senate president often ranks high in a jurisdiction 's succession for its top executive office: for example, the President of the Senate of Nigeria is second in line for succession to the presidency, after only the Vice President of the Federal Republic, while in France, which has no vice president, the Senate President is first in line to succeed to the Presidential powers and duties.
The Argentine Senate is presided over by the Vice-President of the Republic, currently Gabriela Michetti. This was a recent expansion of the Vice-President's powers introduced as part of the 1994 constitutional amendments (Constitution, Art. 57). The Vice-President may only cast a vote to break a tied Senate vote.
The President of the Australian Senate is a senator, traditionally a member of the governing party or coalition, elected by the Senate at the beginning of each parliament as the first item of business. They are assisted by a Deputy President who is traditionally a member of the largest opposition party. The current president is Scott Ryan, a Liberal senator from Victoria, who has held the office since 13 November 2017.
At the start of every parliamentary session, the Senate of Barbados elects a President and a Vice President, neither of whom may be ministers or parliamentary secretaries. Prior to the January 2008 general election, the positions were held by Sir Fred Gollop and Dame Patricia Symmonds.
The presiding officer of the Belgian Senate is elected by the senators at the beginning of each parliamentary term. The President of the Senate is customarily a member of a majority party with a great deal of political experience. The president presides over the plenary assembly of the Senate, guides and controls debates in the assembly, is responsible for ensuring the democratic functioning of the Senate, maintains order and security in the assembly and for enforcing the Rules of the Senate, and represents the Senate at both the national (to the other institutions) and the international level.
The President of the Senate, together with the President of the Chamber of Representatives, ranks immediately behind the King in the order of precedence. The elder of the two takes the second place in the order of precedence. The Presidents of the Senate and the Chamber rank above the Prime Minister.
The Senate of Belize elects both a president and a vice-president upon first convening after a general election. The person elected president may be a senator (provided he / she does not concurrently hold a ministerial position) or a person external to the Senate. The vice-president must be a member of the Senate who does not hold a ministerial portfolio. (Constitution, section 66.)
The current President is Andrea Gill, with Juliet Thimbriel as Vice-President.
The current President of Brazil 's Federal Senate is Eunício Oliveira.
The President of the Federal Senate is the third in order to succeed the president (only below the Vice President and the President of the Chamber of Deputies). It is also the president of the National Congress, which includes the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies.
The President of the Senate of Burundi, since 17 August 2005, is Molly Beamer of the CNDD - FDD. The president is assisted in his work by two vice-presidents.
The Senate of Cambodia is led by a 12 - person permanent commission (bureau), which is in turn chaired by the President of the Senate, currently Say Chhum. He is assisted by a First and a Second Vice-President. The President and Vice-Presidents are elected as the first item of business at the start of every legislative session.
While the Speaker of the Canadian Senate, who serves as the presiding officer of the Senate of Canada, is not described as a "president '' in English, the position is called Président du Sénat in French. He is appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister.
The President of the Senate of Chile is elected from among the country 's senators. The current holder of the position, since March 2010, is Jorge Pizarro.
The President of the Senate -- Javier Cáceres Leal for the 2009 -- 10 period -- also serves as the President of the Congress of Colombia.
The members of the former Senate of Fiji (abolished in 2012) used to elect from among their number both a President and Vice-President, whose roles were similar to those of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the House of Representatives, respectively.
The last persons to hold those positions were Kinijoji Maivalili (President) and Hafiz Khan (Vice-President). The military coup of 5 December 2006 brought their terms to a premature end.
In the Free City of Danzig (1920 -- 1939 / 1945), the Senate (or Senat in German) was the executive branch, with Senators (Senatoren) being the holders of ministerial portfolios. In Danzig the President of the Senate (Präsident des Senats) was an office equivalent to that of prime minister in other countries.
The Senate of France elects a president from among its own number. The President of the French Senate stands first in line of succession in case of death or resignation of the President of the Republic, becoming acting president until a presidential election can be held. This most recently occurred with Alain Poher, who was senate president from 1968 to 1992 and who served as interim president on two occasions: following Charles de Gaulle 's resignation in 1969, and following Georges Pompidou 's death in office in 1974.
Since 2014, the position has been held by Gérard Larcher of the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP).
In the German states of Bremen (Senate of Bremen) and Hamburg (Senate of Hamburg), the Senates (or Senate in German) are the executive branch, with Senators (Senatoren) being the holders of ministerial portfolios. In these Länder, the President of the Senate (Präsident des Senats) is an office equivalent to that of minister - president in other German Länder.
The Senate of Italy holds its first sitting no later than 20 days after a general election. That session, presided by the oldest senator, proceeds to elect the President of the Senate for the following parliamentary period. On the first two attempts at voting, an absolute majority (a majority of all senators) is needed; if a third round is needed, a candidate can be elected by a majority of the senators present and voting. If this third round fails to produce a winner, a final ballot is held between the two senators with the highest votes in the previous ballot. In the case of a tie, the elder senator is deemed the winner.
In addition to overseeing the business of the chamber, chairing and regulating debates, deciding whether motions and bills are admissible, representing the Senate, etc., the President of the Senate stands in for the President of the Republic when s / he is unable to perform his / her duties.
The current President of the Senate is Pietro Grasso. For a historical listing, see: List of Presidents of the Senate of Italy.
While the Vice President of Liberia serves as President of the Senate, the senators also elect from among their number a President pro tempore to lead the chamber 's day - to - day business.
The Senate of Malaysia elects a president from its members, who is comparable to the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The position is partisan and has usually been held by a member of the Government party.
The Senate of Mexico, at the beginning of each annual legislative session, elects an Executive Board (Mesa Directiva) from among its 128 members. The Executive Board comprises a president, three vice-presidents, and four secretaries, elected by an absolute majority of the Senators. Members of the Executive Board may be re-elected for the following year without restriction. The President of the Executive Board also serves as the President of the Senate.
The President of the Senate for the 2015 -- 16 period of sessions is Roberto Gil Zuarth, a National Action Party (PAN) senator for Chiapas.
The President of the Senate is the presiding officer of the Senate of Nigeria, elected by its membership.
The current President of the Senate is Dr. Bukola Saraki, who represents Kwara State for the APC.
Peru had a bicameral Congress from 1829 until 1992. The President of the Senate was elected by the Senate members to preside over the sessions for one year.
The first session of the Senate is headed by the eldest senator. In that session the senators elect the Standing Bureau of the Romanian Senate. It consists of the President of the Senate, four vice-presidents, four secretaries, and four quaestors. The President of the Standing Bureau also serves as the President of the Senate. The President is elected, by secret ballot, for the duration of the legislative period. The Senate president succeeds temporarily the President of Romania if the latter resigns, is suspended, incapacitated or dies in office. (He / she continues to be President of the Senate during the ad - interim presidency of the country. He / she acts as President until a new president is elected).
The Senate of South Africa was the upper house of Parliament between 1910 and 1981, and between 1994 and 1997. During both periods, the Senate was led by a President.
The Senate of Ceylon was the upper house of Parliament between 1947 and 1971. During this periods, the Senate was led by a President.
The President of the Senate of Trinidad and Tobago, who is generally elected from the government benches, chairs debates in the chamber and stands in for the country 's president during periods of absence or illness (Constitution, section 27). A Vice-President of the Senate is also elected from among the senators. The current President of the Senate is Christine Kangaloo.
The Vice President of the United States is assigned the responsibility of presiding over the Senate and designated as its president by the United States Constitution. The vice president, as President of the Senate, has the authority (ex officio, for he or she is not an elected member of the Senate) to cast a tie - breaking vote. Other than this, the rules of the Senate grant its president very little power (in contrast to the powerful office of Speaker of the House of Representatives).
While vice presidents used to regularly preside over the Senate, modern vice presidents have done so only rarely, usually only when swearing in new senators, during joint sessions, announcing the result of a vote on a significant bill or confirmation, or when casting a tie - breaking vote. The Senate chooses a president pro tempore to preside in the vice president 's absence. Modern presidents pro tempore, too, rarely preside over the Senate. In practice, the junior senators of the majority party typically preside in order to learn Senate procedure.
Vice presidents have cast 261 tie - breaking votes since the U.S. federal government was established in 1789. The vice president with the most tie breaking votes is John Adams (served 1789 -- 1797) with 29. The current Vice President Mike Pence, in office since January 2017, has made six tie - breaking votes.
In state governments of the United States, the presiding officer of the state senate (the upper house) is a matter decided by the state 's constitution. Some states designate the lieutenant governor as president of the senate, while in other states, the Senate elects its own president. The Tennessee Senate elects a senator Speaker of the Senate, who is given the title of Lieutenant Governor.
Similarly, New Hampshire has no lieutenant governor, but the state senate elects a president who is the de facto lieutenant governor, given that in the event of the governor 's death, resignation, or inability to serve, the president of the senate acts as governor until the vacancy is filled. New Jersey previously used the same system, but with the important proviso that the Senate president continued to serve in that position while also serving as acting governor. After Christine Todd Whitman resigned as governor, Donald DiFrancesco spent nearly a year as acting governor. As a result of his tenure, questions were raised about the propriety of such a system, particularly with regard to separation of powers - related issues. A constitutional amendment was enacted in 2005 to create the office of lieutenant governor effective at the 2009 election.
The Vice President of Uruguay presides over the country 's 30 - member Senate.
|
when did you stop loving me george strait | When Did You Stop Loving Me - Wikipedia
"When Did You Stop Loving Me '' is a song written by Donny Kees and Monty Holmes and recorded by American country music artist George Strait. It was released in April 1993 as the third and final single from his album Pure Country. The song reached both number 6 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart and on the Canadian RPM Country Tracks chart.
"When Did You Stop Loving Me '' debuted at number 62 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of May 1, 1993.
|
Subsets and Splits
No saved queries yet
Save your SQL queries to embed, download, and access them later. Queries will appear here once saved.