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where did the french explore in north america | French colonization of the Americas - wikipedia
The French colonization of the Americas began in the 16th century, and continued on into the following centuries as France established a colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere. France founded colonies in much of eastern North America, on a number of Caribbean islands, and in South America. Most colonies were developed to export products such as fish, rice sugar, and furs.
As they colonized the New World, the French established forts and settlements that would become such cities as Quebec and Montreal in Canada; Detroit, Green Bay, St. Louis, Cape Girardeau, Mobile, Biloxi, Baton Rouge and New Orleans in the United States; and Port - au - Prince, Cap - Haïtien (founded as Cap - Français) in Haiti, Cayenne in French Guiana and São Luís (founded as Saint - Louis de Maragnan) in Brazil.
The French first came to the New World as explorers, seeking a route to the Pacific Ocean and wealth. Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I, King of France. In 1524, Francis sent Italian - born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, thus promoting French interests.
In 1534, Francis I of France sent Jacques Cartier on the first of three voyages to explore the coast of Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River. He founded New France by planting a cross on the shore of the Gaspé Peninsula. The French subsequently tried to establish several colonies throughout North America that failed, due to weather, disease, or conflict with other European powers. Cartier attempted to create the first permanent European settlement in North America at Cap - Rouge (Quebec City) in 1541 with 400 settlers but the settlement was abandoned the next year after bad weather and attacks from Native Americans in the area. A small group of French troops were left on Parris Island, South Carolina in 1562 to build Charlesfort, but left after a year when they were not resupplied by France. Fort Caroline established in present - day Jacksonville, Florida, in 1564, lasted only a year before being destroyed by the Spanish from St. Augustine. An attempt to settle convicts on Sable Island off Nova Scotia in 1598 failed after a short time. In 1599, a sixteen - person trading post was established in Tadoussac (in present - day Quebec), of which only five men survived the first winter. In 1604 Pierre Du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain founded a short - lived French colony, the first in Acadia, on Saint Croix Island, presently part of the state of Maine, which was much plagued by illness, perhaps scurvy. The following year the settlement was moved to Port Royal, located in present - day Nova Scotia.
Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec (1608) and explored the Great Lakes. In 1634, Jean Nicolet founded La Baye des Puants (present - day Green Bay), which is one of the oldest permanent European settlements in America. In 1634, Sieur de Laviolette founded Trois - Rivières. In 1642, Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve, founded Fort Ville - Marie which is now known as Montreal. Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette founded Sault Sainte Marie (1668) and Saint Ignace (1671) and explored the Mississippi River. At the end of the 17th century, René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle established a network of forts going from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River. Fort Saint Louis was established in Texas in 1685, but was gone by 1688. Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit (modern - day Detroit) in 1701 and Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville founded La Nouvelle Orléans (New Orleans) in 1718. Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville founded Baton Rouge in 1719.
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The French were eager to explore North America but New France remained largely unpopulated. Due to the lack of women, intermarriages between French and Indians were frequent, giving rise to the Métis people. Relations between the French and Indians were usually peaceful. As the 19th - century historian Francis Parkman stated:
"Spanish civilization crushed the Indian; English civilization scorned and neglected him; French civilization embraced and cherished him ''
To boost the French population, Cardinal Richelieu issued an act declaring that Indians converted to Catholicism were considered as "natural Frenchmen '' by the Ordonnance of 1627:
"The descendants of the French who are accustomed to this country (New France), together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it, shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen, and as such may come to live in France when they want, and acquire, donate, and succeed and accept donations and legacies, just as true French subjects, without being required to take no letters of declaration of naturalization. ''
Louis XIV also tried to increase the population by sending approximately 800 young women nicknamed the "King 's Daughters ''. However, the low density of population in New France remained a very persistent problem. At the beginning of the French and Indian War (1754 -- 1763), the British population in North America outnumbered the French 20 to 1. France fought a total of six colonial wars in North America (see the four French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rale 's War and Father Le Loutre 's War).
In 1562, Charles IX, under the leadership of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny sent Jean Ribault and a group of Huguenot settlers in an attempt to colonize the Atlantic coast and found a colony on a territory which will take the name of the French Florida. They discovered the probe and Port Royal Island, which will be called by Parris Island in South Carolina, on which he built a fort named Charlesfort. The group, led by René Goulaine de Laudonnière, moved to the south where they founded the Fort Caroline on the Saint John 's river in Florida on June 22, 1564.
This irritated the Spanish who claimed Florida and opposed the Protestant settlers for religious reasons. In 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés led a group of Spaniards and founded Saint Augustine, 60 kilometers south of Fort Caroline. Fearing a Spanish attack, Ribault planned to move the colony but a storm suddenly destroyed his fleet. On 20 September 1565 the Spaniards, commanded by Menéndez de Avilés, attacked and massacred all the Fort Caroline occupants including Jean Ribault.
The French interest in Canada focused first on fishing off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. However, at the beginning of the 17th century, France was more interested in fur from North America. The fur trading post of Tadoussac was founded in 1600. Four years later, Champlain made his first trip to Canada in a trade mission for fur. Although he had no formal mandate on this trip, he sketched a map of the St. Lawrence River and in writing, on his return to France, a report entitled Savages (Relation of his stay in a tribe of Montagnais near Tadoussac).
Champlain needed to report his findings to Henry IV. He participated in another expedition to New France in the spring of 1604, conducted by Pierre Du Gua de Monts. It helped the foundation of a settlement on Saint Croix Island, the first French settlement in the New World, which would be given up the following winter. The expedition then founded the colony of Port - Royal.
In 1608, Champlain founded a fur post that would become the city of Quebec, which would become the capital of New France. In Quebec, Champlain forged alliances between France and the Huron and Ottawa against their traditional enemies, the Iroquois. Champlain and other French travelers then continued to explore North America, with canoes made from Birch bark, to move quickly through the Great Lakes and their tributaries. In 1634, the Normand explorer Jean Nicolet pushed his exploration to the West up to Wisconsin.
Following the capitulation of Quebec by the Kirke brothers, the British occupied the city of Quebec and Canada from 1629 to 1632. Samuel de Champlain was taken prisoner and there followed the bankruptcy of the Company of One Hundred Associates. Following the Treaty of Saint - Germain - en - Laye, France took possession of the colony in 1632. The city of Trois - Rivières was founded in 1634. In 1642, the Angevin Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière founded Ville - Marie (later Montreal) which was at that time, a fort as protection against Iroquois attacks (the first great Iroquois war lasted from 1642 to 1667).
Despite this rapid expansion, the colony developed very slowly. The Iroquois wars and diseases were the leading causes of death in the French colony. In 1663 when Louis XIV provided the Royal Government, the population of New France was only 2500 European inhabitants. That year, to increase the population, Louis XIV sent between 800 and 900 ' King 's Daughters ' to become the wives of French settlers. The population of New France reached subsequently 7000 in 1674 and 15000 in 1689.
From 1689 to 1713, the French settlers were faced with almost incessant war during the French and Indian Wars. From 1689 to 1697, they fought the British in the Nine Years ' War. The war against the Iroquois continued even after the Treaty of Rijswijk until 1701, when the two parties agreed on peace. Then, the war against the English took over in the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1690 and 1711, Quebec City had successfully resisted the attacks of the English navy and then British army. Nevertheless, the British took advantage of the second war. With the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, France ceded to Britain Acadia (with a population of 1700 people), Newfoundland and Hudson Bay. Under the Sovereign Council, the population of the colony grew faster. However, the population growth was far inferior to that of the British Thirteen Colonies to the south. In the middle of the 18th century, New France accounted for 60,000 people while the British colonies had more than one million people. This placed the colony at a great military disadvantage against the British. The war between the colonies resumed in 1744, lasting until 1748. A final and decisive war began in 1754. The Canadiens and the French were helped by numerous alliances with Native Americans, but they were usually outnumbered on the battlefield.
On May 17, 1673, explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi River, known to the Sioux as does Tongo, or to the Miami - Illinois as missisipioui (the great river). They reached the mouth of the Arkansas and then up the river, after learning that it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico and not to the California Sea (Pacific Ocean).
In 1682, the Normand Cavelier de la Salle and the Italian Henri de Tonti came down the Mississippi to its Delta. They left from Fort Crevecoeur on the Illinois River, along with 23 French and 18 Native Americans. In April 1682, they arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi; they planted a cross and a column bearing the arms of the king of France. La Salle returned to France and won over the Secretary of State of the Navy to give him the command of Louisiana. He believed that it was close to New Spain by drawing a map on which the Mississippi seemed much further west than its actual rate. He set up a maritime expedition with four ships and 320 emigrants, but it ended in disaster when he failed to find the Mississippi Delta and was killed in 1687.
In 1698, Pierre LeMoyne d'Iberville left La Rochelle and explored the area around the mouth of the Mississippi. He stopped between Isle - aux - Chats (now Cat Island) and Isle Surgeres (renamed Isle - aux - Vascular or Ship Island) on February 13, 1699 and continued his explorations to the mainland, with his brother Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville to Biloxi. He built a precarious fort, called ' Maurepas ' (later ' Old Biloxi '), before returning to France. He returned twice in the Gulf of Mexico and established a fort at Mobile in 1702.
From 1699 to 1702, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was governor of Louisiana. His brother succeeded him in that post from 1702 to 1713. He was again governor from 1716 to 1724 and again 1733 to 1743. In 1718, Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville commanded a French expedition in Louisiana. He founded the city of New Orleans, in homage to Regent Duke of Orleans. The architect Adrian de Pauger drew the orthogonal plane of the Old Square.
In 1718, there were only 700 Europeans in Louisiana. The Mississippi Company arranged for ships to bring 800 more, who landed in Louisiana in 1718, doubling the European population. John Law encouraged Germans, particularly Germans of the Alsatian region who had recently fallen under French rule, and the Swiss to emigrate.
Prisoners were set free in Paris in September 1719 onwards, under the condition that they marry prostitutes and go with them to Louisiana. The newly married couples were chained together and taken to the port of embarkation. In May 1720, after complaints from the Mississippi Company and the concessioners about this class of French immigrants, the French government prohibited such deportations. However, there was a third shipment of prisoners in 1721.
The last French and Indian War resulted in the dissolution of New France, with Canada going to Great Britain and Louisiana going to Spain. Only the islands of Saint - Pierre - et - Miquelon are still in French hands.
In 1802 Spain returned Louisiana to France, but Napoleon sold it to the United States in 1803. The French left many toponyms (Illinois, Vermont, Bayous...) and ethnonyms (Sioux, Coeur d'Alene, Nez Percé...) in North America.
A major French settlement lay on the island of Hispaniola, where France established the colony of Saint - Domingue on the western third of the island in 1664. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles '', Saint - Domingue became the richest colony in the Caribbean due to slave plantation production of sugar cane. It had the highest slave mortality rate in the western hemisphere. A 1791 slave revolt, the only ever successful slave revolt, began the Haitian Revolution, led to freedom for the colony 's slaves in 1794 and, a decade later, complete independence for the country, which renamed itself Haiti. France briefly also ruled the eastern portion of the island, which is now the Dominican Republic.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, France ruled much of the Lesser Antilles at various times. Islands that came under French rule during part or all of this time include Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Marie - Galante, Martinique, St. Barthélemy, St. Croix, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Martin, St. Vincent and Tobago. Control of many of these islands was contested between the French, the British and the Dutch; in the case of St. Martin, the island was divided in two, a situation that persists to this day. Great Britain captured some of France 's islands during the Seven Years ' War and the Napoleonic Wars. Following the latter conflict, France retained control of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Marie - Galante, St. Barthélemy, and its portion of St. Martin; all remain part of France today. Guadeloupe (including Marie - Galante and other nearby islands) and Martinique each is an overseas department of France, while St. Barthélemy and St. Martin each became an overseas collectivity of France in 2007.
France Antarctique (formerly also spelled France antartique) was a French colony south of the Equator, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which existed between 1555 and 1567, and had control over the coast from Rio de Janeiro to Cabo Frio. The colony quickly became a haven for the Huguenots, and was ultimately destroyed by the Portuguese in 1567. On November 1, 1555, French vice-admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon (1510 -- 1575), a Catholic knight of the Order of Malta, who later would help the Huguenots to find a refuge against persecution, led a small fleet of two ships and 600 soldiers and colonists, and took possession of the small island of Serigipe in the Guanabara Bay, in front of present - day Rio de Janeiro, where they built a fort named Fort Coligny. The fort was named in honor of Gaspard de Coligny (then a Catholic statesman, who about a year later would become a Huguenot), an admiral who supported the expedition and would use the colony in order to protect his co-religionists. To the still largely undeveloped mainland village, Villegaignon gave the name of Henriville, in honour of Henry II, the King of France, who also knew of and approved the expedition, and had provided the fleet for the trip. Villegaignon secured his position by making an alliance with the Tamoio and Tupinambá Indians of the region, who were fighting the Portuguese.
Unchallenged by the Portuguese, who initially took little notice of his landing, Villegaignon endeavoured to expand the colony by calling for more colonists in 1556. He sent one of his ships, the Grande Roberge, to Honfleur, entrusted with letters to King Henry II, Gaspard de Coligny and according to some accounts, the Protestant leader John Calvin. After one ship was sent to France to ask for additional support, three ships were financed and prepared by the king of France and put under the command of Sieur De Bois le Comte, a nephew of Villegagnon. They were joined by 14 Calvinists from Geneva, led by Philippe de Corguilleray, including theologians Pierre Richier and Guillaume Chartrier. The new colonists, numbering around 300, included 5 young women to be wed, 10 boys to be trained as translators, as well as 14 Calvinists sent by Calvin, and also Jean de Léry, who would later write an account of the colony. They arrived in March 1557. The relief fleet was composed of: The Petite Roberge, with 80 soldiers and sailors was led by Vice Admiral Sieur De Bois le Comte. The Grande Roberge, with about 120 on board, captained by Sieur de Sainte - Marie dit l'Espine. The Rosée, with about 90 people, led by Captain Rosée. Doctrinal disputes arose between Villegagnon and the Calvinists, especially in relation to the Eucharist, and in October 1557 the Calvinists were banished from Coligny island as a result. They settled among the Tupinamba until January 1558, when some of them managed to return to France by ship together with Jean de Léry, and five others chose to return to Coligny island where three of them were drowned by Villegagnon for refusing to recant.
In 1560 Mem de Sá, the new Governor - General of Brazil, received from the Portuguese government the command to expel the French. With a fleet of 26 warships and 2,000 soldiers, on 15 March 1560, he attacked and destroyed Fort Coligny within three days, but was unable to drive off their inhabitants and defenders, because they escaped to the mainland with the help of the Native Brazilians, where they continued to live and to work. Admiral Villegaignon had returned to France in 1558, disgusted with the religious tension that existed between French Protestants and Catholics, who had come also with the second group (see French Wars of Religion). Urged by two influential Jesuit priests who had come to Brazil with Mem de Sá, named José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, and who had played a big role in pacifying the Tamoios, Mem de Sá ordered his nephew, Estácio de Sá to assemble a new attack force. Estácio de Sá founded the city of Rio de Janeiro on March 1, 1565, and fought the Frenchmen for two more years. Helped by a military reinforcement sent by his uncle, on January 20, 1567, he imposed final defeat on the French forces and decisively expelled them from Brazil, but died a month later from wounds inflicted in the battle. Coligny 's and Villegaignon 's dream had lasted a mere 12 years.
Equinoctial France was the contemporary name given to the colonization efforts of France in the 17th century in South America, around the line of Equator, before "tropical '' had fully gained its modern meaning: Equinoctial means in Latin "of equal nights '', i.e., on the Equator, where the duration of days and nights is nearly the same year round. The French colonial empire in the New World also included New France (Nouvelle France) in North America, particularly in what is today the province of Quebec, Canada, and for a very short period (12 years) also Antarctic France (France Antarctique, in French), in present - day Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. All of these settlements were in violation of the papal bull of 1493, which divided the New World between Spain and Portugal. This division was later defined more exactly by the Treaty of Tordesillas.
France Équinoxiale started in 1612, when a French expedition departed from Cancale, Brittany, France, under the command of Daniel de la Touche, Seigneur de la Ravardière, and François de Razilly, admiral. Carrying 500 colonists, it arrived in the Northern coast of what is today the Brazilian state of Maranhão. De la Ravardière had discovered the region in 1604 but the death of the king postponed his plans to start its colonization. The colonists soon founded a village, which was named "Saint - Louis '', in honor of the French king Louis IX. This later became São Luís in Portuguese, (1) the only Brazilian state capital founded by France. On 8 September, Capuchin friars prayed the first mass, and the soldiers started building a fortress. An important difference in relation to France Antarctique is that this new colony was not motivated by escape from religious persecutions to Protestants (see French Wars of Religion). The colony did not last long. A Portuguese army assembled in the Captaincy of Pernambuco, under the command of Alexandre de Moura, was able to mount a military expedition, which defeated and expelled the French colonists in 1615, less than four years after their arrival in the land. Thus, it repeated the disaster spelt for the colonists of France Antarctique, in 1567. A few years later, in 1620, Portuguese and Brazilian colonists arrived in number and São Luís started to develop, with an economy based mostly in sugar cane and slavery.
French traders and colonists tried again to settle a France Équinoxiale further North, in what is today French Guiana, in 1626, 1635 (when the capital, Cayenne, was founded) and 1643. Twice a Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale was founded, in 1643 and 1645, but both foundered as a result of misfortune and mismanagement. It was only after 1674, when the colony came under the direct control of the French crown and a competent Governor took office, that France Équinoxiale became a reality. To this day, French Guiana is a department of France.
French Guiana was first settled by the French in 1604, although its earliest settlements were abandoned in the face of hostilities from the indigenous population and tropical diseases. The settlement of Cayenne was established in 1643, but was abandoned. It was re-established in the 1660s. Except for brief occupations by the English and Dutch in the 17th century, and by the Portuguese in the 19th century, Guiana has remained under French rule ever since. From 1851 to 1951 it was the site of a notorious penal colony, Devil 's Island (Île du Diable). Since 1946, French Guiana has been an overseas department of France.
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who were tobys parents in this is us | List of this is Us characters - wikipedia
This Is Us is an American television series created by Dan Fogelman that premiered on NBC on September 20, 2016. The ensemble cast stars Milo Ventimiglia, Mandy Moore, Sterling K. Brown, Chrissy Metz, Justin Hartley, Susan Kelechi Watson, Chris Sullivan, and Ron Cephas Jones.
The characters in green have regular roles on the show. Dotted lines indicate a parental relationship through adoption, and dashed lines indicate either divorced, or widowed (or similarly separated), characters.
Jack Pearson (August 31, 1944 -- January 26, 1998), portrayed by Milo Ventimiglia, was Rebecca 's first husband (until he died), and the father of Kevin, Kate, and Randall. Jack had a brother named Nick.
Jack had a rough childhood because of his abusive, alcoholic father Stanley Pearson, causing them to have a strained relationship. Stanley did not know that Jack was married, so when Jack found out that he and Rebecca were expecting triplets, he went to his father asking for money, citing gambling debts, rather than telling him that he intended to buy a house for his family. When Stanley was in the nursing home dying, he met Rebecca and his granddaughter Kate for the first time. Jack was camping with Kevin and Randall when Rebecca contacted him about his father dying, but Jack refused to see him.
Jack was drafted into the Army at age 25; he served in the Vietnam War as a mechanic. He served along with his brother Nick, who died in the war. (After Jack took Randall to Washington, D.C. on a college tour to Howard University, he took Randall to the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, and told him about being drafted and how the war affected him; this may have been the first time that Jack shared about his Vietnam experiences to a member of the Pearson family -- including Rebecca.)
After serving in the war, and working as a manual laborer, Jack became a construction foreman. When he wanted to buy the house for his family, he approached his boss and got a raise to $17,000 a year (equivalent to more than $49,000 in 2016), making him the highest paid foreman at the company. He dreamed of opening his own firm, "Big Three Homes '', but put his dreams on hold in order to provide a steady income for his children by getting a desk job. However, he later decided to start the business, though the Big Three were about to start college.
Two of the triplets (the third triplet was stillborn) and Randall (who was left at a fire station) were all born on Jack 's 36th birthday. Jack always wanted to find out who Randall 's biological father was, and never knew that Rebecca had found him.
Jack struggled with alcoholism while the children were young, but he stopped drinking to focus more on his family. (Sometimes he 'd vent his anger on a punching bag to avoid drinking after a tough day.) However, he relapsed into alcoholism when he had a drink after a disagreement and argument with his wife, who wanted to go on tour with a band with a member she 'd once dated. His drinking continued for some time until he decided to deal with the problem by attending AA meetings. His sobriety and AA work continued for at least 6 months.
Jack died when his children were 17, and Kate keeps his ashes with her. On the night of the Super Bowl, Jack, Rebecca, Kate, and Randall go to bed for the night (Kevin was at a party with his girlfriend Sophie). Previously, a smoke alarm was shown to be missing batteries, and thus be inoperable. An old slow cooker given years previous by a neighbor was shown to have a faulty switch, which sparked and flamed, setting a towel and the house ablaze.
Jack saved Kate and Randall from the fire by guiding them to his and Rebecca 's bedroom. He then hoisted them down from the first story roof. Kate was worried about her dog, so Jack went back inside and got the dog and other family pictures. Jack was hospitalized for smoke inhalation, which caused stress on his heart and eventually caused fatal cardiac arrest.
Rebecca Pearson née Malone (born 1950 or 1951), portrayed by Mandy Moore, is Jack 's widow, Miguel Rivas ' second wife (after Jack died), and the mother of Kevin, Kate, and Randall.
She strives to be a better mother to her children, and has issues with Jack 's alcoholism. She has always known that William is Randall 's father, but kept them apart as she was afraid that he would try to take Randall back.
Rebecca always wanted to be a singer, but gave up on her dreams in order to focus on her family. In the mid 1990s, she had a chance to become a singer again by joining a band with her ex-boyfriend. Jack was upset after finding out about their history, which caused a rift between Rebecca and Jack.
When the house caught fire and Jack suffered smoke inhalation, at the hospital, since Jack appeared to be fine, Rebecca was making reservations for hotel rooms -- unaware that Jack was coding and staff was rushing to him. After making reservations, Rebecca got a candy bar for her and Jack. Rebecca turned around and the doctor explained the cause of Jack 's cardiac arrest. In shock, Rebecca took a bite of the candy bar, refusing to believe Jack was dead. She goes to his room to tell him what the doctor said, only to see him lifeless. She immediately shuts down upon seeing him dead. She then drives to Miguel 's and tells him the news, then goes in to talk to Kate and Randall.
Since she was out of Jack 's room when he died, Rebecca got the Pearsons to the funeral early, because she wanted to be present when the urn with Jack 's ashes was brought out. After Jack 's funeral, Dr. K let Rebecca know that she had always been strong. This encouragement gave her the strength to let Kevin and Randall know that neither of them needed to be "the man of the house '', since they were teenagers and should be dating, and to tell Kate not to blame herself for Jack 's death because Jack made his own decisions. She also got the courage to drive across a bridge she had feared, while taking the "Big Three '' to a Bruce Springsteen concert that Jack had previously obtained tickets for the night of the funeral.
At least 10 years after Jack 's death, Rebecca posted pictures of Tess, her first grandchild, on Facebook, then got a message from Jack 's best friend, Miguel Rivas. Rebecca later married Miguel.
Kevin Pearson (born August 31, 1980), portrayed by Justin Hartley (current day), Logan Shroyer (age 15 -- 17), and Parker Bates (ages 8 -- 10), is Jack and Rebecca 's son, and Kate and Randall 's brother. He is "Number One '' of the "Big Three '', being the first of the surviving triplets to be born.
Shortly before his tenth birthday, Kevin became attracted to Kate 's best friend, Sophie, whom he married when they were older. Kevin and Sophie decided that she would stay in New York and he would move to California to pursue acting, believing that their marriage could handle the distance. Kevin and Sophie later divorced, 12 years prior to season 1, due to the distance and Kevin cheating on her.
Kevin has always struggled with worrying about what people think of him, which caused him to have a strained relationship with Randall as they grew up. Kevin was visibly envious of Randall, who had always excelled in everything and received more attention from their parents, but he did n't realize that Randall has longed for the same attention from him. In high school he played football, as a quarterback, wearing number twelve one year and number one the next (His number one jersey was on display with Kevin 's trophies when he visited the high school at age 37, for an alumni celebration.) His goal of a football career ended when his knee was injured from a tackle during a game.
Kevin was an actor in Los Angeles, starring as the lead on a long - running sitcom called The Manny, a sitcom in the tradition of Who 's the Boss and The Nanny. He abruptly quit that show on his 36th birthday, criticizing the script quality, the producer 's reluctance to add nuance to the show, and the audience. After quitting his job, Kevin decided to move to New York to pursue a career as a serious stage actor on Broadway. Upon arriving in New York, he got hired as the lead role, David, in Back of an Egg, opposite a cynical actress named Olivia Maine (who thought Kevin did not have the ability, but that Kevin was hired because his being "The Manny '' would sell tickets).
When Kevin had trouble connecting with the emotions needed for his role, he began spending time with Olivia, who tried to get him to connect with his feelings. Kevin and Olivia briefly dated, but broke up after she brought her ex-boyfriend to the Pearson family cabin. After his breakup with Olivia, Kevin began dating the writer of the play, Sloane Sandburg, attending Hanukkah with her family and inviting her to the Christmas Eve party at Randall 's house.
Sloane took over as the lead of the play when Olivia disappeared and the play was at risk. Kevin decided to self - fund the performance, in order to save it. After Kevin and Sloane broke up, he reconnected with Sophie and began a relationship with her again.
Director Ron Howard saw Kevin 's play and had him cast in a war movie. Kevin had trouble with his lines when he could not focus after, when Kate (visiting the set) talked with costar Sylvester Stallone about her dad, Stallone talked to Kevin about his dad. Kevin also reinjured his knee (an old football injury) during an explosion on the set.
As a result of the injury, Kevin became addicted to pain medication and alcohol, and allowed his relationship with Sophie to deteriorate by telling her that he saw a future with her as a nightmare, although he failed to specify that this was due to his alcoholism and drug addition. One day after a brief visit with Randall, Kevin was speeding down a road, unaware that Tess was hiding in the back seat; Kevin was pulled over and charged with DUI, and Randall and Beth became angry with Kevin for endangering Tess. The judge ordered Kevin to go to rehab.
As part of Kevin 's ongoing efforts to rehabilitate, he was determined to make amends with everyone. He settled things with his mom (who was hurt during the rehab family session, tearfully revealing that Kevin was the first to leave after Jack 's death.) Kevin found out from Miguel that the thought of his being in love with Rebecca never crossed his mind while Jack was alive, and Miguel reassured him that he loved Rebecca now and was not going anywhere. When Kevin attempted to make things right with Sophie, she told him to not say anything and to just leave her with the memories of how he was at 10, or 17, or when their marriage was good. Kevin reconciled with Randall by helping him fix up the apartment building William lived in, and the two shared with each other how odd it felt that they could outlive their dad. On Super Bowl Sunday, about 20 years after Jack 's death, Kevin visited the memorial tree with some of his dad 's ashes, to talk with him, vowing to make him proud. (Kevin was at a party with Sophie when the house caught fire.)
Kate Emily Pearson (born August 31, 1980), portrayed by Chrissy Metz (current day), Hannah Zeile (age 15 -- 17), and Mackenzie Hancsicsak (ages 8 -- 10), is Jack and Rebecca 's daughter, and Kevin and Randall 's sister. She is "Number Two '' of the "Big Three '', being the second and last of the surviving triplets to be born.
Kate is obese and has struggled with issues of self - esteem her entire life, which she greatly attributes to her strained relationship with her mother and the death of her father. Her relationship with her mother led to depression, for which she later took Prozac. She discontinued taking this drug due to the side effect of weight gain.
Kate lives in Los Angeles and was her brother, Kevin 's, personal assistant. When Kevin decided to move to New York, he fired her in order to allow her to build her own life, apart from him. She is an ardent Pittsburgh Steelers fan and has a routine where she watches the games with her dad 's ashes. At nine years old, she had her appendix removed on Christmas Eve.
Kate decided to join a weight - loss support group, where she met Toby. Despite saying that she was not going to get involved with a fat person, she fell for Toby. When Toby decided to not continue with his diet, Kate broke up with him and decided to go to Randall 's for Thanksgiving. During a turbulent plane ride to New Jersey, Kate had an epiphany and decided to have gastric bypass surgery. After consulting with a doctor, she instead decided to enter a fat camp to attempt to lose the weight without surgery. When Toby surprised Kate by showing up at Randall 's house for Christmas, he told her that he can live without pizza and junk food, but that he can not live without her. Toby collapsed from a heart attack, and was taken to the hospital.
After Toby 's heart surgery, Kate and Toby decided to get engaged. Kate later found out she was pregnant. Kate and Toby announced their pregnancy to Kevin, and planned to get married at city hall, but then considered a big wedding. But Kate lost the baby in a miscarriage. Despite some struggle in their relationship after the miscarriage, Toby eventually came through for Kate. Kate struggled with eating junk food after the miscarriage, which Toby noticed when a trash bag broke.
Kate had said that her father 's death was her fault, and has a fear of caring for dogs. (Jack went back inside their burning house to save her dog, causing smoke inhalation which led to his death in the hospital. Afterwards, Kate wanted to give away the dog.) She blames herself even though Rebecca told Kate after Jack 's funeral not to blame herself, because Jack made his own decisions. Every year on Super Bowl Sunday, Kate would watch the videotape Jack made of her singing for a Berklee College of Music audition.
Randall Kenneth Pearson (born August 31, 1980), portrayed by Sterling K. Brown (current day), Niles Fitch (ages 15 -- 17), and Lonnie Chavis (ages 8 -- 10), is Jack and Rebecca 's (adopted) son, and Kate and Kevin 's brother. He is "Number Three '' of the "Big Three '', being adopted after Kevin and Kate were born. On his 36th birthday, he found his biological father, William, and invited him to his northern New Jersey home.
Randall worked at selling commodity futures based on weather patterns, and was shown to be successful and affluent. However, after a nervous breakdown and some time off, he felt that his firm did not appreciate or respect him, and quit.
On the day that Randall was born, he was dropped off in front of a firehouse by his biological father, William, and then taken to the hospital, where he was adopted by Jack and Rebecca. Jack and Rebecca originally named him Kyle (the name they had intended for their third child, who was stillborn). Taking William 's advice, Rebecca decided to give him his own name, naming him after William 's favorite poet, Dudley Randall, although she refused to let William see Randall. This allowed them to honor both their stillborn son 's memory and Randall, rather than essentially replacing one son with the other.
At age nine, Randall 's teacher informed Jack and Rebecca that Randall was a gifted child who was not being challenged enough at his current school. They decided to remove him from public school and send him to Hanes Academy. In high school Randall played football, wearing number 36.
Randall and Kevin had an estranged relationship and did n't reconnect until they were 36 years old. At some points, Kevin openly despised Randall. At a high school football game, where they played on opposing teams, they got in a fight. However, there were also some moments when they acted like brothers. When they were teenagers, Kevin was there with Kate to comfort Randall when a woman claimed to be his birth mother as a scam to get money. When they were 36, they got in a fight on the street in New York, but Kevin told onlookers they were brothers. When Randall had his nervous breakdown, Kevin left the theater -- when opening day was about to start -- to comfort Randall.
As an adult, Kevin was hurt that Randall did n't seem to care about his acting career. They began to reconnect when Kevin needed Randall 's advice, but Randall coldly told him he should n't care what he thinks. Eventually, Kevin moved to Randall 's house in New Jersey, but they still had some work to do on building their relationship. He loves Thanksgiving and has his family recreate a specific childhood Thanksgiving every year, including a 3.4 mile hike, watching Police Academy 3: Back in Training, and imitating a hotel owner known as "Pilgrim Rick ''.
In season 2, Randall wanted to adopt a baby (to honor his father 's legacy), but decided (with Beth 's input) to foster an older child who may need help. They fostered a 12 - year old girl named Deja, whose mother Shauna was incarcerated. She showed signs of physical abuse, but Randall and Beth started to win her trust and get her to open up. When the charges against Shauna were dropped, Deja went back home with her (over Randall 's initial objections). Randall and Beth planned to try fostering again after some time.
Beth Pearson, portrayed by Susan Kelechi Watson, is Randall 's wife, whom he met in college and later married, circa 1999. The couple has two daughters, Annie and Tess. Their marriage is based on honesty where they make an effort not to have secrets from one another. William revealed to Beth that he had met and communicated with Rebecca. This caused Beth to give Rebecca an ultimatum: to either tell Randall or she would. Growing up, Beth lived in a three - bedroom house with 14 other people. After Randall quit his job, Beth took a job so Randall could be a stay - at - home dad. But after a while, Beth thought Randall was in "outer space '', and Beth thought working again would be good for Randall.
When Annie 's pet lizard "Mr. McGiggles '' went missing during a Super Bowl Party, she accidentally stepped on him, killing him.
Toby Damon, portrayed by Chris Sullivan is Kate 's fiancé Toby was born in Palm Springs, California. Toby began dating Kate after they met at a weight - loss support group. Toby is confident with his own body although obese, and encourages Kate to have better self - esteem. He was previously married to a woman whom Kate views as beautiful and successful, but who treated him badly. Toby gained 90 pounds in the first year after his divorce.
Refusing to take Kate 's hesitance about the relationship lightly, Toby has continually come up with sweet gestures to win her over. In the beginning, he felt that he had to compete with Kevin for Kate 's attention. Despite breaking his weight - loss goals, Toby decided dieting was not for him and went off his diet, resulting in Kate breaking up with him. He surprised Kate by showing up at Randall 's house for Christmas Eve, stating that he could live without pizza and junk food, but that he could not live without her. On Christmas Eve, Toby collapsed and ended up in the hospital with an arrhythmia.
After Toby 's heart surgery, he and Kate decided to get engaged. Kate became pregnant with Toby 's child, but she miscarried; afterwards, despite an initial struggle in their relationship, Toby came through for her. Kate, around the 20th anniversary of Jack 's death, told Toby he strengthens her and Jack would have loved him.
William H. "Shakespeare '' Hill (died 2017), portrayed by Ron Cephas Jones (recent days) and Jermel Nakia (as a young adult), was Randall 's biological father.
William was a recovering drug addict who was suffering from terminal stage - four stomach cancer in the present. He grew up in Memphis, and after his mother moved to Pittsburgh he stayed in Memphis to play in his cousin Ricky 's band, where he played piano, wrote, and sang. William left the band, with the intention of returning, to care for his dying mother. However, after meeting Randall 's mother and becoming a drug addict, he never returned. He got clean after he thought he saw a monkey on the streets, realizing that nothing good comes from a person being on the street at 3: 30 am. (He also stayed clean for years after being told by a judge, who offered to help him after his first conviction, to picture the judge 's face when he was tempted to do the wrong thing.) William returned to Philadelphia to attend a Narcotics Anonymous meeting, hoping to find and reconnect with his former lover -- a man named Jessie.
William, who was bisexual, and Jesse never officially broke up. Jessie assumed William had died when he vanished one night -- the night William moved in with Randall 's family.
After leaving Randall at the firehouse, he waited outside the hospital to see him being taken home by Jack and Rebecca. Rebecca realized that William was Randall 's father, after seeing him getting onto the bus as she left the hospital. She eventually tracked him down, a secret she kept from everyone, including Randall and Jack.
William always wanted to have a relationship with his child, but promised Rebecca he would stay away for Randall 's benefit. He accidentally revealed this secret to Beth one night when they got high together, and Randall accidentally found out himself, when he found a letter and photo in William 's apartment, from Rebecca, while looking for cassette tapes. (William also told Randall about the second time William saw Rebecca; he took a cab to follow her home, hoping he could be in Randall 's life, but when he was outside the house, he thought better of it.)
William eventually succumbed to his cancer during a road trip back to Memphis with Randall. Prior to his death he left a letter to Randall 's girls, asking them to plan a fun memorial for him. He also sent Beth a postcard from Memphis, saying goodbye and calling her the daughter he never had.
Miguel Rivas, portrayed by Jon Huertas, was Jack 's best friend and is Rebecca 's second husband. Miguel was originally married to Shelly, before they divorced. While it originally seemed that his marriage to Rebecca happened shortly after Jack 's death, in season 2 it is clarified that the two did not get together until at least ten years after Jack 's passing. Miguel was initially disliked by Kevin, until Miguel told Kevin how much he is like his father.
Miguel told Beth and Toby one day, when Kevin in rehab was meeting with "immediate family '', that he felt like a real outsider compared to them and the Pearson family. When Kevin got out of rehab and stayed with Rebecca, Miguel was protective of her after she was hurt by Kevin 's arrest, and by Kevin criticizing her in his rehab session with the family. Kevin asked Miguel if he was in love with Rebecca when Jack was alive; Miguel said that idea never occurred to him because everyone saw Jack and Rebecca as one entity rather than two separate individuals. But he stated that he loves Rebecca now, and is not going anywhere.
Sophie, portrayed by Alexandra Breckenridge (modern day), Amanda Leighton (ages 15 - 17), and Sophia Coto (age 10), was Kate 's childhood best friend and Kevin 's childhood love and his ex-wife. Kevin moved to New York and reconciled with her, after his relationships with Olivia and Sloane ended. Their relationship initially survived the distance when Kevin was in his movie in L.A., but Kevin broke up with Sophie, admitting that he could n't be the man that he wanted to be for her. When Kevin got sober, he tried making amends to Sophie; she just wanted to remember Kevin when they were younger.
Tess Pearson, portrayed by Eris Baker, is Randall and Beth 's older daughter. She was promoted to series regular in season two. She was named after the Tessana ceiling fan Randall was going to purchase when hearing about Beth going into labor. Although not noticed acting out previously, she hid in her uncle Kevin 's car (claiming she hates it at her house), when he was pulled over for speeding and charged with DUI; she later claimed she was just unhappy that Deja, the foster child, had to go home. Tess admitted one day (on the 20th anniversary of Jack 's death) she had tried to prevent social workers from calling, worried that recent changes meant Randall wanted a "new life ''; Randall reassured her that he would always be devoted to her. Tess is shown in the future as an adult, working as a social worker, with an older Randall meeting her for dinner like they have done while Tess was younger.
Annie Pearson, portrayed by Faithe Herman, is Randall and Beth 's younger daughter. She was also promoted to series regular in season two. On William 's first night at Randall 's family 's house, when William wanted to step out, Annie convinced William that he might be happy if he stayed.
The following is a supplementary list of guest stars, some recurring, who appear in lesser roles. The characters are listed, in alphabetical order by actor, by the season in which they first appeared.
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who is the actor javier in the good behavior | Juan Diego Botto - Wikipedia
Juan Diego Botto Rota (born August 29, 1975, in Buenos Aires, Argentina) is an Argentine - Spanish actor.
Botto 's father disappeared during the Argentine Dirty War when Juan Diego was only two years old. With his mother and older sister María, also an actress, he moved to Madrid, Spain, where his mother taught acting classes out of their apartment. He attended high school in New York and lived there for two years.
Botto started acting at the age of five in the film Juego de poder (Power Game). His role in the 1999 film Sobreviviré (I will survive), about a woman who falls in love with a man who, unknown to her, is homosexual, got him more national and international recognition.
Botto has appeared on stage in Spain in several critically acclaimed plays. He also directed a play called Privilegio de ser perro (Privilege of Being a Dog), about the tough life immigrants are subjected to while trying to sneak into and live in a new country.
Botto currently stars in the TNT drama series Good Behavior, playing Javier, a charming hitman with a moral code.
Botto currently lives in Madrid with his wife, Spanish journalist and writer Olga Rodriguez (es). They have a daughter, Salma. He is also active in politics, protesting the 2003 war in Iraq and taking part in a support group for fellow children of the disappeared.
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countries that have no extradition to the us | Extradition law in the United States - wikipedia
Extradition law in the United States is the formal process by which a fugitive found in the United States is surrendered to another country or state for trial or punishment. For foreign countries, the process is regulated by treaty and conducted between the federal government of the United States and the government of a foreign country. The process is considerably different from interstate or intrastate extradition. Florida, Alaska, and Hawaii do not extradite for a misdemeanor conviction that was convicted in the US, as of 2010. Some felonies are an exception in American law such as a crime that is violent in nature, or a sexual offense, or felony driving while intoxicated; they will entail extradition from all states in the United States. Theft charges and small drug crimes are the exception; for instance, if a minor crime is committed in Florida, a person apprehended in Idaho will not be extradited back to the original crime 's jurisdiction. Federal charges are governed by US federal law and most states, with the exceptions of South Carolina and Missouri, have adopted the Uniform Criminal Extradition Act. In practice, Florida, Alaska, and Hawaii typically do not extradite if the crime in question is not a felony because of the associated costs of transporting the suspect and the housing fees that must be paid to the jurisdiction in which he is held until transported.
The Extradition Clause in the US Constitution requires states, upon demand of another state, to deliver a fugitive from justice who has committed a "treason, felony or other crime '' to the state from which the fugitive has fled. 18 U.S.C. § 3182 sets the process by which an executive of a state, district, or territory of the United States must arrest and turn over a fugitive from another state, district, or territory.
For a person to be extradited interstate, 18 U.S.C. § 3182 requires:
In Kentucky v. Dennison, decided in 1860, the Supreme Court held that, although the governor of the asylum state had a constitutional duty to return a fugitive to the demanding state, the federal courts had no authority to enforce this duty. As a result, for more than 100 years, the governor of one state was deemed to have discretion on whether or not he / she would comply with another state 's request for extradition.
In a 1987 case, Puerto Rico v. Branstad, the Court overruled Dennison, and held that the governor of the asylum state has no discretion in performing his or her duty to extradite, whether that duty arises under the Extradition Clause of the Constitution or under the Extradition Act (18 U.S.C. § 3182), and that a federal court may enforce the governor 's duty to return the fugitive to the demanding state. There are only four grounds upon which the Governor of the asylum state may deny another state 's request for extradition: (1) the extradition documents facially are not in order; (2) the person has not been charged with a crime in the demanding state; (3) the person is not the person named in the extradition documents; or (4) the person is not a fugitive. There appears to be at least one additional exception: if the fugitive is under sentence in the asylum state, he need not be extradited until his punishment in the asylum state is completed.
The United States has extradition treaties with more than 100 countries. Of the treaties most are dual criminality treaties with the remaining being list treaties. A list of countries with which the United States has an extradition treaty relationship can be found in the Federal Criminal Code and Rules, following 18 U.S.C. § 3181, but this list may not be completely accurate. (This list is reproduced as the list of United States extradition treaties.)
The United States maintains diplomatic relations but, according to the above - mentioned list, does not have extradition treaties with the following countries:
And the countries formerly part of Yugoslavia:
As well as these countries that have no diplomatic relations with the United States:
Even the partially recognized countries that have no diplomatic relations with but not recognized by the United States:
Generally under United States law (18 U.S.C. § 3184), extradition may be granted only pursuant to a treaty. Some countries grant extradition without a treaty, but every such country requires an offer of reciprocity when extradition is accorded in the absence of a treaty. Further, the 1996 amendments to 18 U.S.C. 3181 and 3184 permit the United States to extradite, without regard to the existence of a treaty, persons (other than citizens, nationals or permanent residents of the United States) who have committed crimes of violence against nationals of the United States in foreign countries.
All extradition treaties in force require foreign requests for extradition to be submitted through diplomatic channels, usually from the country 's embassy in Washington to the Department of State. Many treaties also require that requests for provisional arrest be submitted through diplomatic channels, although some permit provisional arrest requests to be sent directly to the Department of Justice. The Department of State reviews foreign extradition demands to identify any potential foreign policy problems and to ensure that there is a treaty in force between the United States and the country making the request, that the crime or crimes are extraditable offenses, and that the supporting documents are properly certified in accordance with 18 U.S.C. § 3190. If the request is in proper order, an attorney in the State Department 's Office of the Legal Adviser prepares a certificate attesting to the existence of the treaty, that the crime or crimes are extraditable offenses, and that the supporting documents are properly certified in accordance with 18 U.S.C. § 3190, and forwards it with the original request to the Justice Department 's Office of International Affairs ("OIA '').
Once the OIA receives a foreign extradition request, it reviews the request for sufficiency and forwards sufficient requests to the United States Attorney 's Office for the judicial district in which the fugitive is located. The U.S. Attorney 's office then obtains a warrant, and the fugitive is arrested and brought before the magistrate judge or the US district judge. The government opposes bond in extradition cases. Unless the fugitive waives his or her right to a hearing, the court will hold a hearing pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 3184 to determine whether the fugitive is extraditable. If the court finds the fugitive to be extraditable, it enters an order of extraditability and certifies the record to the Secretary of State, who decides whether to surrender the fugitive to the requesting government. OIA notifies the foreign government and arranges for the transfer of the fugitive to the agents appointed by the requesting country to receive him or her. Although the order following the extradition hearing is not appealable (by either the fugitive or the government), the fugitive may petition for a writ of habeas corpus as soon as the order is issued. The district court 's decision on the writ is subject to appeal, and the extradition may be stayed if the court so orders.
Habeas corpus is a legal procedure initiated by an individual to test the legality of his detention by the government. To benefit from habeas corpus, the affected person, or someone on his behalf, must file a petition for relief before a court with jurisdiction. The procedure is contained in 28 U.S.C. § 2241 et. seq. When the habeas petition contests the decision of an extradition magistrate, the individual must argue that his detention and surrender to a foreign country violates the United States Constitution, the applicable extradition treaty, or a federal statute.
Because orders of extradition can not be appealed, the only means for an individual to have them reviewed is to file a request for a writ of habeas corpus. The government, on the other hand, may renew its request if the original one is denied. Habeas corpus review by a district court is generally available whenever an individual "is in custody in violation of the Constitution or laws or treaties of the United States '', and is provided for several different types of detention in addition to extradition, such as detention after a criminal conviction, and for military purposes. As part of its habeas review, the court will normally accept the factual findings of the extradition magistrate, while legal issues are considered anew.
The scope of review of a writ of habeas corpus in extradition is meant to be limited. It is settled to cover at least inquiries on whether: (1) the extradition magistrate acquired jurisdiction over the individual and the matter; (2) the crime for which extradition is sought is included within the treaty as an extraditable offense, and (3) whether there is probable cause to commit the relator to trial. Many courts, however, have adopted an "expanded '' scope of habeas review that additionally considers issues about the violation of constitutional rights.
Petitioners in extradition cases may contest the legality of their detention though a habeas proceeding by arguing, for example, that the extradition treaty is not in force, that the alleged crime constitutes political behavior subject to exception, that the determination of extraditability by the magistrate has not been made according to the requirements of the applicable United States statutes and treaty, that the extradition procedure does not comply with the Constitution, and that the relator has not been formally charged.
Even though the decision of the extradition magistrate can not be appealed, the habeas corpus determination by the district court is subject to appeal to the corresponding circuit court. Thereafter, review may be sought through certiorari to the Supreme Court.
The federal structure of the United States can pose particular problems with respect to extraditions when the police power and the power of foreign relations are held at different levels of the federal hierarchy. For instance, in the United States, most criminal prosecutions occur at the state level, and most foreign relations occur at the federal level. In fact, under the United States Constitution, foreign countries may not have official treaty relations with sub-national units such as individual states; rather, they may have treaty relations only with the federal government. As a result, a state that wishes to prosecute an individual located in a foreign country must direct its extradition request through the federal government, which will negotiate the extradition with the foreign country. However, due to the constraints of federalism, any conditions on the extradition accepted by the federal government -- such as not to impose the death penalty -- are not binding on individual states.
In the case of Soering v. United Kingdom, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the United Kingdom was not permitted under its treaty obligations to extradite an individual to the United States, because the United States ' federal government was constitutionally unable to offer binding assurances that the death penalty would not be sought in Virginia courts. Ultimately, the Commonwealth of Virginia itself had to offer assurances to the federal government, which passed those assurances on to the United Kingdom, which extradited the individual to the United States.
Additional problems can arise due to differing criteria for crimes. For instance, in the United States, crossing state lines is a prerequisite for certain federal crimes (otherwise crimes such as murder are handled by state governments except in certain circumstances such as the killing of a federal official). This transportation clause is absent from the laws of many countries. Extradition treaties or subsequent diplomatic correspondence often include language providing that such criteria should not be taken into account when checking if the crime is one in the country from which extradition should apply.
To clarify the above point, if a person in the United States crosses the borders of the United States to go to another country, then that person has crossed a federal border, and federal law would apply in addition to state law. Crossing state lines (within the U.S.) in committing a crime could also create federal jurisdiction. In addition, travel by airplane in the United States subjects one to federal law, as all airports are subject to federal jurisdiction.
It is unlawful for U.S. citizens to enter or exit the United States without a valid U.S. passport or Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative -- compliant passport - replacement document, or without an exception or waiver. An application is required for the issuance of a passport. If a fugitive being extradited to the United States refuses to sign a passport application, the consular officer can sign it "without recourse ''.
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puerto rico's current status in relation to u.s | Political status of Puerto Rico - Wikipedia
The current political status of Puerto Rico is the result of various political activities within both the United States and Puerto Rican governments. Politically, Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory of the United States, which according to the U.S. Supreme Court 's Insular Cases is "a territory appurtenant and belonging to the United States, but not a part of the United States within the revenue clauses of the Constitution ''. The basic question regarding this issue is whether Puerto Rico should remain a U.S. territory, become a U.S. state or become an independent country.
American and Puerto Rican political activities regarding the status question have revolved around three sets of initiatives: presidential executive orders, bills in the U.S. Congress, and referenda held in Puerto Rico. U.S. Presidents have issued three executive orders on the subject, and Congress has considered four major bills on Puerto Rico 's political status. Puerto Rican status referenda have been held four times to determine the desired political status of Puerto Rico in relation to the United States of America. At the November 6, 2012, non-binding referendum on the status question, 54 % of respondents voted to reject the current status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution, while in a second question 61 % favored statehood as the preferred alternative. Another referendum was held on June 11, 2017, in which voters had three options: "Statehood '', "Free Association / Independence '' or "Current Territorial Status ''. An overwhelming 97 % of voters chose "Statehood '', although turnout was only 23 % due to a boycott from opponents to statehood.
In 2009, 2011, and most recently in 2016, The United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self - determination in Puerto Rico. Internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. More specifically, the Special Committee 's June 2016 report called for the United States "to allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty ''.
The United States acquired the islands of Puerto Rico in 1898 after the Spanish -- American War. In 1950, Congress enacted legislation (P.L. 81 - 600) authorizing Puerto Rico to hold a constitutional convention and in 1952, the people of Puerto Rico ratified a constitution establishing a republican form of government for the island. After being approved by Congress and the President in July 1952 and thus given force under federal law (P.L. 82 - 447), the new constitution went into effect on July 25, 1952.
Puerto Rico has been under U.S. sovereignty for over a century and Puerto Ricans have been U.S. citizens since 1917. Since the promulgation of the current Commonwealth constitution in 1952, further local attempts to change the island 's political status took place in 1967, 1993, and 1998. An additional referendum held in 1991 sought to amend the relationship through an amendment to the Puerto Rican constitution. Each time, the results favored retaining the current status over the possible independence of Puerto Rico and statehood alternatives.
As a result of Puerto Rico 's status as a U.S. territory, the citizens of Puerto Rico do not have any voting representation in the U.S. Federal government. Instead of outright representation through Senators and House Representatives, Puerto Rico has one non-voting Resident Commissioner in the House of Representatives. Furthermore, Puerto Rico is not represented in the Electoral College, and thus U.S. citizens resident there are unable to vote in U.S. presidential elections. Citizens of Puerto Rico can vote in the Republican and Democratic primary elections.
Although Puerto Rico presently has a certain amount of local autonomy, according to the U.S. Constitution ultimate governance of the island is retained by both the U.S. Congress and President. Thus, results of plebiscites, whether or not authorized by Congress, while they reflect public sentiment, and thus bear some impact, can be ignored by Congress. Ultimately, the results of Puerto Rican plebiscites are opinions, although congressional resolutions have expressed support for following the will of the Puerto Rican people.
The English term "commonwealth '' "does not describe or provide for any specific political status or relationship... (and) when used in connection with areas under U.S. sovereignty that are not states... broadly describes an area that is self - governing under a constitution of its adoption and whose right of self - government will not be unilaterally withdrawn by Congress ''. It is the same terminology used elsewhere but with other different meanings than what is meant for Puerto Rico:
But in the United States, "commonwealth '' is also a term, without a clear and stable legal definition, now and previously used by current and past possessions of the United States:
Juan R. Torruella, a judge on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit (which has jurisdiction over the Federal Court for the District of Puerto Rico), claims that the use of the term "commonwealth '' is a label that "can deceive and obscure the true nature of things ''. He contends that Puerto Rico is obviously not a state, and that "neither Puerto Rico 's status nor its relationship with the U.S. supports any legitimate claim that a British type of ' commonwealth ' exists between Puerto Rico and the United States ''.
Then U.S. Secretary of the Interior Oscar L. Chapman, under whose Department resided responsibility of Puerto Rican affairs, clarified the new commonwealth label by stating, "The bill (to permit Puerto Rico to write its own constitution) merely authorizes the people of Puerto Rico to adopt their own constitution and to organize a local government... The bill under consideration would not change Puerto Rico 's political, social, and economic relationship to the United States. ''
It has been said that "any inquiry into Puerto Rico 's status must begin with the Constitution of the United States, as well as various Supreme Court and lower court decisions ''.
Almost immediately after Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States, Puerto Rico 's political status was defined by a series of landmark decisions made by the U.S. Supreme Court in what are collectively known as The Insular Cases. From 1901 to 1905, the Supreme Court held that the Constitution extended ex proprio vigore to the territories. However, the Court in these cases also established the doctrine of territorial incorporation. Under the same, the Constitution only applied fully in incorporated territories such as Alaska and Hawaii, whereas it only applied partially in the new unincorporated territories of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines. Although other cases followed, strictly speaking the Insular Cases are the original six opinions issued concerning acquired territories as a result of the Treaty of Paris (1898). The six cases were:
Considered the leading Insular case, concluded that the United States could acquire territory and exercise unrestricted power in determining what rights to concede to its inhabitants. It included the "fateful phrase '' that:
While in an international sense Porto Rico (sic) was not a foreign country, since it was subject to the sovereignty of and was owned by the United States, it was foreign to the United States in a domestic sense, because the island has not been incorporated into the United States, but was merely appurtenant thereto as a possession.
Other authorities, such as José Trías Monge, state that the list also includes these additional two cases:
The Supreme Court later made other rulings. For example, in Balzac v. Porto Rico, 258 U.S. 298, 305 (1922), explained the distinction between an incorporated and a non-incorporated territory. Juan R. Torruella restated it this way, "an unincorporated territory is a territory as to which, when acquired by the United States, no clear intention was expressed that it would eventually be incorporated into the Union as a State ''.
Since the Insular Cases had established that only those rights in the U.S. Bill of Rights that are determined to be "fundamental '' are applicable in unincorporated territories, the implications of Balzac v. Porto Rico have been enormous. For example:
In a brief concurrence in the United States Supreme Court judgment of Torres v. Puerto Rico, 442 U.S. 465 (1979), Supreme Court Justice Brennan, argued that any implicit limits from the Insular Cases on the basic rights granted by the Constitution (including especially the Bill of Rights) were anachronistic in the 1970s.
Puerto Rico 's current political status limits to the autonomy of the Puerto Rican government. For example, the Island 's government is not fully autonomous, and a level of federal presence in the Island is commonplace, including a branch of the United States Federal District Court.
People born in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico are natural - born U.S. citizens. Puerto Ricans are also covered by a group of "fundamental civil rights '' but, because Puerto Rico is not a state, they are not covered by the full Bill of Rights. All residents must pay federal taxes but, for a variety of reasons, only some pay federal income taxes.
In 2017, the Government Accountability Office estimated that corporations paid $1.42 billion in taxes. Had Puerto Rico been a state, corporations would have paid an estimated $5 billion to $9.3 billion.
Puerto Ricans lack a voting representative in the U.S. Congress, but they do have a Resident Commissioner who has a voice in Congress (but no vote other than committee - level voting). Puerto Ricans must also serve in the United States military whenever it is compulsory in the mainland United States, with the same duties and obligations as U.S. citizens residing in the 50 states.
Governor Alejandro García Padilla signed legislation which would have allowed corporations owned by the Commonwealth to declare bankruptcy. However, in Puerto Rico v. Franklin California Tax - Free Trust (2016), the U.S. Supreme Court, by a vote of 5 -- 2, found the legislation was void because it was preempted by the U.S. Bankruptcy Code, with Justice Sonia Sotomayor dissenting.
In Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle (2016) the U.S. Supreme Court found that the Double Jeopardy Clause of the United States Constitution forbids successive criminal prosecutions by the Commonwealth and the Federal Government because they are not separate sovereigns.
On June 30, 2016, President Barack Obama signed the PROMESA into law, which empowered him to appoint a seven - member Financial Oversight and Management Board that has ultimate control over the Commonwealth 's budget.
Puerto Rico 's main political issue is the territory 's relationship with the United States. A United States territory since 1898, and known as "Estado Libre Asociado '' (Free Associated State) or as commonwealth since 1952, Puerto Rico today is torn by profound ideological rifts, as represented by its political parties, which stand for three distinct future political scenarios: the status quo (commonwealth), statehood, and independence. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) seeks to maintain or improve the current status towards becoming a more sovereign territory of the United States, the New Progressive Party (PNP) seeks to fully incorporate Puerto Rico as a U.S. state, and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP) seeks national independence.
When asked, in non-binding plebiscites, to choose between independence, statehood, or continuation of the status quo with enhanced powers, as proposed by the PPD, Puerto Ricans have voted to remain a commonwealth. In the penultimate plebiscite in 1998, Puerto Ricans voted for "none of the above '' by a slight majority. This has variously been interpreted as: "the people of Puerto Rico exercised their inalienable right to self - determination, and a majority of them -- fully 50.3 percent, to be exact -- chose to remain a colony. One might also say, however, the oldest strategy for governing recalcitrant subjects -- divide and conquer -- was subtly at work. ''
It is clear, however, that they are dissatisfied by their current status. The issue is debated and is on the agenda of all the political parties and civil society groups. Several pro-commonwealth leaders within the PPD are proposing an Associated Republic or Free Association similar to that of the former U.S. territories of the Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands or Palau.
In general, three main alternatives were presented to Puerto Rican voters in status plebiscites:
The exact expectations for each of these status formulas are a matter of debate by a given position 's adherents and detractors. Puerto Ricans have proposed positions that modify the alternatives above:
The following table summarizes the results of Puerto Rico 's plebiscites so far.
In the Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012 54.00 % of voters indicated "No '' to maintaining the current political status. A full 61.11 % of voters chose statehood, 33.34 % chose free association, and 5.55 % chose independence. Because there were almost 500,000 blank ballots, creating confusion as to the voters ' true desire, Congress decided to ignore the vote. The 2014 budget bill included $2.5 million in funding for a future vote on Puerto Rico 's political status.
The previous plebiscites provided voters with three options: remain a Commonwealth, Statehood and Independence / Free Association. The Puerto Rican status referendum, 2017 was to offer only two options: Statehood and Independence / Free Association. If the majority favor Independence / Free Association, a second vote will be held to determine the preference: full independence as a nation or associated free state status with independence but with a "free and voluntary political association '' between Puerto Rico and the United States. The specifics of the association agreement would be detailed in the Compact of Free Association that would be negotiated between the U.S. and Puerto Rico. That document might cover topics such as the role of the US military in Puerto Rico, the use of the US currency, free trade between the two entities, and whether Puerto Ricans would be U.S. citizens.
Governor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to "solve our 500 - year - old colonial dilemma... Colonialism is not an option... It 's a civil rights issue... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy, '' he told the news media.
Statehood might be useful as a means of dealing with the financial crisis, since it would allow for bankruptcy and the relevant protection. According to the Government Development Bank, this might be the only solution to the debt crisis. Congress has the power to vote to allow Chapter 9 protection without the need for statehood, but in late 2015 there was very little support in the House for this concept. Other benefits to statehood include increased disability benefits and Medicaid funding, the right to vote in Presidential elections and the higher (federal) minimum wage.
At approximately the same time as the referendum, Puerto Rico 's legislators are also expected to vote on a bill that would allow the Governor to draft a state constitution and hold elections to choose senators and representatives to the federal Congress. Regardless of the outcome of the votes, Congress will be the body to make the final decision on the status of Puerto Rico.
Various U.S. presidents have signed executive orders to help define, study, and generate activity regarding the political status of Puerto Rico. Three major orders were the 2005, 2007, and 2011 executive orders to establish the President 's Task Force on Puerto Rico 's Status.
The Territories Clause of the United States Constitution (Art. IV, Sec. 3, cl. 2) allows for Congress to "dispose of '' Puerto Rico and allow it to become independent of the U.S. (in the same way as the Philippines did in 1945) or, under the authority of the Admissions Clause (Art. IV, Sec. 3, cl. 1) for it to be admitted as a state of the United States (with a vote of Congress in the same way that Alaska and Hawaii were admitted in 1958 and 1959 respectively).
Since Congress must approve of any political status change for Puerto Rico, some argue that "congressional agreement to the options (on a ballot), prior to a plebiscite would save the people of Puerto Rico the grief of an emotionally draining and politically divisive vote that might result in a status not acceptable to Congress ''. Former Resident Commissioner and Former Governor Carlos Romero Barceló echoed this sentiment when he recalled, at a 1997 congressional hearing, that both "(Representatives) Young and Miller were clear in stating (in their March 3, 1997, letter to the presidents of the three political parties in Puerto Rico) that there was no purpose in presenting the people of Puerto Rico a status definition which does not represent an option that the Congress will be willing to ratify should it be approved in a plebiscite. ''
A catalyst for the legislative activity taking place in Congress was the release in December 2005 of the presidential task force 's report. Per United States v. Sanchez, 992 F. 2d 1143, 1152 -- 53 (11th Cir. 1993), "Congress continues to be the ultimate source of power (over Puerto Rico) pursuant to the Territory Clause of the Constitution ''. (quoting United States v. Andino, 831 F. 2d 1164, 1176 (1st Cir. 1987) (Torruella, J., concurring), cert. denied, 486 U.S. 1034 (1988)), cert. denied, 510 U.S. 11 10 (1994). 9 An Act of Congress, thus, is ultimately required to modify the current political status of Puerto Rico.
On June 9, 2016, in Commonwealth of Puerto Rico vs Sanchez Valle, a 6 - 2 majority of the United States Supreme Court determined that Puerto Rico is a territory and lacks sovereignty. The opinion of the court stated: "Back of the Puerto Rican people and their Constitution, the ' ultimate ' source of prosecutorial power remains the U.S. Congress, just as back of a city 's charter lies a state government. ''
Four major bills regarding the political status of Puerto Rico have come before Congress, H.R. 856, H.R. 900, H.R. 2499, and H.R. 2000.
The United Nations has intervened in the past to evaluate the legitimacy of Puerto Rico 's political status, to ensure that the island 's government structure complies with the standards of self - government that constitute the basic tenets of the United Nations Charter, its covenants, and its principles of international law. Some authorities, such as Trias Monge, argue that Puerto Rico "clearly does not meet the decolonization standards set by the United Nations in 1960 ''.
During its 8th session, the United Nations General Assembly recognized Puerto Rico 's self - government on November 27, 1953, with Resolution 748 (VIII). (UN Resolution "748 (VIII) '', adopted on November 27, 1953, during its 459th Plenary Meeting.) This removed Puerto Rico 's classification as a non-self - governing territory (under article 73 (e) of the Charter of the United Nations). The resolution passed, garnering a favorable vote from some 40 % of the General Assembly, with over 60 % abstaining or voting against it (20 to 16, plus 18 abstentions). Today, however, the UN "still debates whether Puerto Rico is a colony '' or not.
However, Puerto Rico 's political status is still debated in many international forums, possibly in part because of the circumstances surrounding the vote: "Under United States pressure, General Assembly Resolution 748 passed -- though only narrowly and with many countries abstaining. The debate over Resolution 748 prompted the United Nations to agree on governing arrangements that would provide full self - government to non-self - governing territories: in United States terms, these arrangements were statehood, independence, and free association. Yet, under international law, a freely associated state is a sovereign nation in a joint governing arrangement with another nation that either nation can unilaterally end. '' Though the subject continues to be debated in many forums it is clear that (1) the current territorial status has not satisfied Puerto Rican political leaders, and (2) that despite the divergent views that Puerto Ricans have with respect to their preferred political status, ' all factions agree on the need to end the present undemocratic arrangement whereby Puerto Rico is subject to the laws of Congress but can not vote in it. '
The list of factors for determining when a colony has achieved a full measure of self - government appears in Resolution 1541 (XV) of the General Assembly of the United Nations, 15 UN GAOR Supplement (No. 16) at 29, UN Document A / 4684 (1960).
The General Assembly did not apply its full list of criteria to Puerto Rico for determining whether or not self - governing status had been achieved. The UN 's Committee on Non-Self - Governing States recently unanimously agreed to ask the General Assembly to take up the issue of Puerto Rico. In June 2007, the Puerto Rico Senate approved a Concurrent Resolution urging the UN General Assembly to discuss Puerto Rico 's case.
Starting in 1971, "Cuba introduced annual resolutions on the issue in the UN 's Decolonization Committee but the United States has blocked General Assembly action and stopped cooperating with the Decolonization Committee. On August 23, 1973, the United States vigorously opposed that members of Puerto Rico 's independence movement be allowed to speak at the UN. The U.S. position has not been that Puerto Rico is not a territory; rather, the U.S. position of record, based on General Assembly Resolution 748, is that the Decolonization Committee lacks jurisdiction, that the matter is one for the United States and Puerto Rico to resolve, and that Puerto Rico has not sought a new status. ''
In 1972, the UN set a precedent when, after approving Puerto Rico 's association with the United States in 1953 as sufficient evidence to remove PR from the list of Colonized Countries, the United Nations reopened the matter in 1972 and it is still under review. "Failure (of the United States) to include independence as an option and harassment of (Puerto Rican) pro-independence organizations were reasons for the United Nations ' recent reconsideration of the status of Puerto Rico ''.
Since 1972, the Decolonization Committee has called for Puerto Rico 's decolonization and for the United States to recognize the island 's right to self - determination and independence. Most recently, the Decolonization Committee called for the General Assembly to review the political status of Puerto Rico, a power reserved by the 1953 resolution.
In 1993, the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950 and replace them with any rules or regulations of its choice. In a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the U.S. House Committee on Resources stated, "Puerto Rico 's current status does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self - government under Resolution 1541 '' (the three established forms of full self - government being stated in the report as (1) national independence, (2) free association based on separate sovereignty, or (3) full integration with another nation on the basis of equality). The report concluded that Puerto Rico "remains an unincorporated territory and does not have the status of ' free association ' with the United States as that status is defined under United States law or international practice '', and that the establishment of local self - government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by the U.S. Congress. The application of the U.S. Constitution applies partially to Puerto Rico by the Insular Cases.
Since 1953, the UN has been considering the political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving "independence '' or "decolonization ''. In 1978, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization determined that a "colonial relationship '' existed between the US and Puerto Rico.
The United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization has often referred to Puerto Rico as a nation in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. In a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self - determination in Puerto Rico. The group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self - determination and independence... (and) allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty ".
Though politically associated with the United States, Puerto Rico is considered by many other nations to have its own distinct national identity. Internationally, it has been reported that "the Fourteenth Ministerial Conference of the Movement of Non-aligned Nations... reaffirms that Puerto Rican people constitute a Latin American and Caribbean nation. ''
Although Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory of the United States classified as a commonwealth, many Puerto Ricans consider it to be a country in and of itself. In their book on American expansionism titled The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion, 1803 -- 1898, Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow also determined that "Most Puerto Ricans consider themselves a distinct national group. '' They also observed that both Americans and Puerto Ricans see themselves as separate cultures -- "even separate nationalities ''.
At the local level, it has been observed that Puerto Ricans "consider themselves a territorially distinct national unit, a nation defined by its cultural distinctiveness ''. In recent plebiscites Puerto Ricans have not expressed themselves in favor of a political status with the intention of becoming a sovereign state, but the idea that Puerto Rico is a separate social, political and cultural entity from the United States has been repeatedly expressed.
Both major United States political parties (Democratic and Republican) have expressed their support for the U.S. citizens in Puerto Rico to exercise their right to self - determination, with the Republican Party platform explicitly mentioning support for statehood and the Democratic Party platform expressing explicitly broader support for right to self - determination.
The U.S. -- Puerto Rico relationship is a matter of debate. Some contend that the current political status of Puerto Rico, perhaps with enhancements, remains a viable option. Others argue that commonwealth status is or should be only a temporary fix to be resolved in favor of other solutions considered permanent, non-colonial, and non-territorial. Some contend that if independence is achieved, the close relationship with the United States could be continued through compact negotiations with the federal government. One element apparently shared by all discussants is that the people of Puerto Rico seek to attain full, democratic representation, notably through voting rights on national legislation to which they are subject.
Controversy exists surrounding the "real '' political status of Puerto Rico, with some calling it a colony and others disagreeing. Some (especially independentistas and statehooders) claim Puerto Rico is still a colony despite the UN 's removing Puerto Rico from its list of non self - governing countries in 1953. Others (notably those who vote for the current commonwealth status option) argue that Puerto Rico is not a colony because the UN has not revoked its resolution after 55 years.
Some authors have called Puerto Rico "the world 's oldest colony '' (2001) and "one of the world 's last colonies '' (2004). Former chief justice of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court José Trías Monge wrote a book that referred to it as the "oldest colony in the world ''. Those who argue that Puerto Rico is still a colony insist that despite the UN resolution, Puerto Rico remains what some call a "post-colonial colony ''. Defenders of this point of view argue that Puerto Rico has less self - determination than before the U.S. invasion -- it no longer has its own Puerto Rican citizenship, free maritime control, nor congressional representation as it did in the Spanish Cortes. Trías Monge argues that just prior to the U.S. invasion, Puerto Rico enjoyed greater freedom and rights in certain areas:
Yet those who claim Puerto Rico is not a colony will say that in its 8th session, the United Nations General Assembly recognized Puerto Rico 's self - government on November 27, 1953, with Resolution 748. This side points out that such recognition removed Puerto Rico 's classification as a non-self - governing territory (under article 73 (e) of the Charter of the United Nations). They add that the Resolution has not been revoked even though Puerto Rico 's political status is still debated in many international forums.
Those who claim Puerto Rico is still a colony argue that Puerto Rico was vested with the commonwealth status by the U.S. Congress to give the appearance of self - government but that genuine decolonization never occurred. These supporters claim that the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1947 allowed the U.S. to continue its colonial policy of Puerto Rico in a post-colonial world. They see the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950 (P.L. 600) as a gimmick to maintain the colonial status of PR "The US Congress, however, carefully preserved its exclusive right to (unilaterally) alter the political status of Puerto Rico. Some saw the commonwealth as at best as temporary arrangement or at worst as a relic of the old colonial past. '' They also point to the fact that no change in the political status of Puerto Rico is possible unless authorized by the U.S. Congress as proof of the real current status. Rivera Ramos argues that the "deepest question pertains to the source of rights and the source of authority to govern... In the case of (unincorporated) territories, the rights deemed to apply to their people, as well as those denied them, have their source in a constitution they have not approved nor have the power to amend ''.
Those who support the view that Puerto Rico is no longer a colony but has changed into a different status, the commonwealth, argue that since the 1952 Constitution Congress has indicated that they will respect the wishes of the people of Puerto Rico, indicating that this is evidence of the validity of the current status as a non-colony.
Those claiming it is still a colony point to Congress legislating for Puerto Rico, and to bills where text such as those authorizing plebiscites in Puerto Rico (example "to conduct a second plebiscite between the options of (1) independence, (2) national sovereignty in association with the United States, and (3) U.S. statehood. The three options in the plebiscite also correspond to the options that the United Nations has identified as the options for decolonizing a territory. '' (HR 2499, section 2 (c)) clearly include content to satisfy the United Nations demand for decolonizing a territory. In addition to judicial decisions like the 1993 U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit decision, which stated that Congress may unilaterally repeal the Puerto Rican Constitution or the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act and replace them with any rules or regulations of its choice.
Some claim that granting of U.S. citizenship on Puerto Ricans on March 2, 1917 was devised by the United States in order to further reiterate its hold of Puerto Rico as a possession while others claim that it was a serious attempt to pave the way for statehood.
Former chief of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court José Trías Monge insists that statehood was never intended for the island and that, unlike Alaska and Hawaii, which Congress deemed incorporated territories and slated for annexation to the Union from the start, Puerto Rico was kept "unincorporated '' specifically to avoid offering it statehood. And Myriam Marquez has stated that Puerto Ricans "fear that statehood would strip the people of their national identity, of their distinct culture and language ''. Ayala and Bernabe add that the "purpose of the inclusion of U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans in the Jones Act of 1917 was an attempt by Congress to block independence and perpetuate Puerto Rico in its colonial status ''. Proponents of the citizenship clause in the Jones Act argue that "the extension of citizenship did not constitute a promise of statehood but rather an attempt to exclude any consideration of independence ''.
The preamble of the Commonwealth constitution approved by the people of Puerto Rico in 1952 in part reads: "We consider as determining factors in our life our citizenship of the United States of America and our aspiration continually to enrich our democratic heritage in the individual and collective enjoyment of its rights and privileges;
For the island 's pro-statehood movement, the concession of U.S. citizenship has been seen, ever since, as the key that would eventually guarantee statehood for the island, as soon as the people of Puerto Rico demanded equality in citizenship.
As former Puerto Rico House of Representatives Speaker Miguel A. García Méndez subsequently declared, "For an American citizen, there can not be another political goal other than equality with his or her fellow American citizens. To seek other solutions -- to repudiate equality -- is to repudiate the natural destiny of American citizenship. ''
However, as early as 1912, President William Howard Taft had already said that there was no connection between the extension of citizenship to Puerto Ricans and the prospect of admission of Puerto Rico into the American Union. "I believe the demand for citizenship is just, and amply earned by the sustained loyalty on the part of the inhabitants of the island. But it should be remembered that the demand must be entirely dissociated from any thought of statehood ''. President Taft 's views in 1912 became a Supreme Court opinion when, in 1922, as Chief Justice, Taft wrote the opinion on Balzac, the last of the so - called Insular Cases.
Thus, in the end, U.S. citizenship has had multiple meanings for Puerto Ricans. For some it is a welcome link to the United States, regardless of the political status of the territory. For others, it has been nothing more than an imposed identity by an imperial power. Still others regard it as a useful asset that provides access to certain rights and tangible benefits and opportunities. And there are those that cherish it as a constituent element of their self - image and identity.
Some contend that Puerto Rico can not become a fully independent republic because there will be economic chaos and its citizens will die of hunger given that the land has no natural resources to sustain its population. But others point to the example of countries that became independent, such as Ireland and Singapore and, though some containing less land and natural resources than Puerto Rico, today have economies far better than the Island.
According to educational scientists Francesco Cordasco and Eugene Bucchioni, in their 1973 work The Puerto Rican Experience: a Sociological Sourcebook, the belief that Puerto Rico can not survive on its own results from teachings since grade school. "Puerto Ricans here and in Puerto Rico are taught three things: Puerto Rico is small and the US is big, Puerto Rico is poor and the US is rich, Puerto Rico is weak and the US is strong. '' This theory of non-sustainability is not new; it has been held by various groups at least since the 1930s.
Commonwealth partisans argue that Puerto Rico can not afford statehood, that post-war economic growth in Puerto Rico was the result of special treatment via exemption from Federal corporate taxes. Statehooders respond that such tax exemptions primarily benefit the large industrialists and not the population as a whole since low income Puerto Ricans would not pay taxes.
An example given by those who claim the Island will be able to support itself is Singapore, an island nation 14 times smaller than Puerto Rico with a drastically higher level of population density and fewer natural resources, which has surpassed the per capita income of larger nations, including the United States.
"In Puerto Rico, ever since you are a child, you are told that you live on a tiny island that has no natural resources, nothing. This is what they teach you in school, on TV, the media, and it 's always negative. This perception is a byproduct of the island 's political dependence on the U.S. Politicians here will name it 20,000 different ways, but in any dictionary Puerto Rico is a colony. And there is this colonized mentality that everything from abroad is better. ''
Juan Mari Brás stated, "Only through a great unified movement looking beyond political and ideological differences, can the prevalent fears of hunger and persecution be overcome for the eventual liberation of Puerto Rico, breaking through domination by the greatest imperialist power of our age. ''
After the invasion by the United States in 1898, the Americans made English the official language. In 1991 under the pro-Commonwealth PPD administration of Rafael Hernández Colón Spanish was declared the only official language in the Island. Then, in 1993, under the pro-statehood PNP administration of Pedro Rosselló, the law was reversed, and English was again reinstated as an official language alongside Spanish. In a 1993 survey by the Ateneo Puertorriqueño, a leading cultural institution in Puerto Rico, 93 percent of respondents indicated that they would not relinquish Spanish as their language if Puerto Rico ever became a state of the American Union, even if the United States required English as the only official language of the Island.
In a First Circuit Court of Appeals case Igartúa v. United States, two of three members of the three - judge panel that dismissed the appeal on procedural grounds suggested in separate opinions that, in an en banc reconsideration, the United States could be required to extend full voting representation to the United States citizens in Puerto Rico if (1) the en banc Court determines that, contrary to current Circuit precedent, the Constitution does not prohibit extending such rights "under another source of law '', (2) that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which, at Article 25, states that "(e) very citizen shall have the right and the opportunity... (t) o vote and to be elected at genuine and periodic elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage '', is self - executing.
More Puerto Ricans live stateside in the U.S. than in Puerto Rico. A 2009 report by the Pew Hispanic Center indicates that, as of 2007, 4.1 million Puerto Ricans lived in the mainland versus 3.9 million living in the Island. Since the 1967 referendum, there have been demands that stateside Puerto Ricans be allowed to vote in these plebiscites on the political status of Puerto Rico. Since the 1990s, the role of stateside Puerto Ricans in advocating for Puerto Rico in Washington, D.C., on issues such as the Navy 's removal from Vieques and others has increased, especially given that there have been three voting members of the U.S. Congress who are stateside Puerto Ricans (two from New York City and one from Chicago), in contrast to Puerto Rico 's single Resident Commissioner in the U.S. Congress with no vote.
Between February 24 - March 6, 2006, the National Institute for Latino Policy conducted an opinion survey over the Internet of a broad cross-section of stateside Puerto Rican community leaders and activists across the United States. The survey had a total of 574 respondents, including 88 non-Puerto Rican members of the Institute 's national network of community leaders.
The views of the 484 Puerto Ricans in the survey found broad support among them for the holding of a plebiscite on the future political status of Puerto Rico. While 73 % were in favor of such a vote, they were split on the options to be voted upon. Those supporting the 2005 proposal made by the White House Task Force on Puerto Rico 's Status that the vote be ultimately limited to the options of statehood versus independence made up 31 % of the total respondents. 43 % supported including the commonwealth option in the proposed plebiscite.
In a 1991 Gallup Poll more than 60 % of Americans said they would support independence or statehood if a majority of Puerto Ricans voted for either.
A March 13, 1998 Gallup Poll asked Americans: "Do you personally think Puerto Rico: Should become a completely independent nation; should remain a territory of the United States, or, should be admitted to the United States as the fifty - first state? ''
The responses were:
In a June 2007 Opinion Dynamics / Fox News poll, 57 % of Americans opposed Puerto Rican statehood.
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who supported the heliocentric model of the solar system | Heliocentrism - wikipedia
Heliocentrism is the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the Solar System. Historically, Heliocentrism was opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center. The notion that the Earth revolves around the Sun had been proposed as early as the 3rd century BC by Aristarchus of Samos, but at least in the medieval world, Aristarchus 's Heliocentrism attracted little attention -- possibly because of the loss of scientific works of the Hellenistic Era.
It was not until the 16th century that a mathematical model of a heliocentric system was presented, by the Renaissance mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic cleric Nicolaus Copernicus, leading to the Copernican Revolution. In the following century, Johannes Kepler introduced elliptical orbits, and Galileo Galilei presented supporting observations made using a telescope.
With the observations of William Herschel, Friedrich Bessel, and other astronomers, it was realized that the sun, while near the barycenter of the solar system, was not at any center of the universe.
While the sphericity of the Earth was widely recognized in Greco - Roman astronomy from at least the 3rd century BC, the Earth 's daily rotation and yearly orbit around the Sun was never universally accepted until the Copernican Revolution.
While a moving Earth was proposed at least from the 4th century BC in Pythagoreanism, and a fully developed heliocentric model was developed by Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BC, these ideas were not successful in replacing the view of a static spherical Earth, and from the 2nd century AD the predominant model, which would be inherited by medieval astronomy, was the geocentric model described in Ptolemy 's Almagest.
The Ptolemaic system was a sophisticated astronomical system that managed to calculate the positions for the planets to a fair degree of accuracy. Ptolemy himself, in his Almagest, points out that any model for describing the motions of the planets is merely a mathematical device, and since there is no actual way to know which is true, the simplest model that gets the right numbers should be used. However, he rejected the idea of a spinning earth as absurd as he believed it would create huge winds. His planetary hypotheses were sufficiently real that the distances of moon, sun, planets and stars could be determined by treating orbits ' celestial spheres as contiguous realities. This made the stars ' distance less than 20 Astronomical Units, a regression, since Aristarchus of Samos 's heliocentric scheme had centuries earlier necessarily placed the stars at least two orders of magnitude more distant.
Problems with Ptolemy 's system were well recognized in medieval astronomy, and an increasing effort to criticize and improve it in the late medieval period eventually led to the Copernican heliocentrism developed in Renaissance astronomy.
The non-geocentric model of the Universe was proposed by the Pythagorean philosopher Philolaus (d. 390 BC), who taught that at the center of the Universe was a "central fire '', around which the Earth, Sun, Moon and Planets revolved in uniform circular motion. This system postulated the existence of a counter-earth collinear with the Earth and central fire, with the same period of revolution around the central fire as the Earth. The Sun revolved around the central fire once a year, and the stars were stationary. The Earth maintained the same hidden face towards the central fire, rendering both it and the "counter-earth '' invisible from Earth. The Pythagorean concept of uniform circular motion remained unchallenged for approximately the next 2000 years, and it was to the Pythagoreans that Copernicus referred to show that the notion of a moving Earth was neither new nor revolutionary. Kepler gave an alternative explanation of the Pythagoreans ' "central fire '' as the Sun, "as most sects purposely hid (e) their teachings ''.
Heraclides of Pontus (4th century BC) said that the rotation of the Earth explained the apparent daily motion of the celestial sphere. It used to be thought that he believed Mercury and Venus to revolve around the Sun, which in turn (along with the other planets) revolves around the Earth. Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius (AD 395 -- 423) later described this as the "Egyptian System, '' stating that "it did not escape the skill of the Egyptians, '' though there is no other evidence it was known in ancient Egypt.
The first person known to have proposed a heliocentric system, however, was Aristarchus of Samos (c. 270 BC). Like Eratosthenes, Aristarchus calculated the size of the Earth, and measured the size and distance of the Moon and Sun, in a treatise which has survived. From his estimates, he concluded that the Sun was six to seven times wider than the Earth and thus hundreds of times more voluminous. Some have suggested that his calculation of the relative size of the Earth and Sun led Aristarchus to conclude that it made more sense for the Earth to be moving than for the huge Sun to be moving around it.
His writings on the heliocentric system are lost, but some information about them is known from a brief description by his contemporary, Archimedes, and from scattered references by later writers. Archimedes ' description of Aristarchus 's theory is given in the former 's book, The Sand Reckoner. The entire description comprises just three sentences, which Thomas Heath translates as follows:
You are aware (' you ' being King Gelon) that "universe '' is the name given by most astronomers to the sphere, the centre of which is the centre of the earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line between the centre of the sun and the centre of the earth. This is the common account (τά γραφόμενα), as you have heard from astronomers. But Aristarchus brought out a book consisting of certain hypotheses, wherein it appears, as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the universe is many times greater than the "universe '' just mentioned. His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the sun remain unmoved, that the earth revolves about the sun on the circumference of a circle, the sun lying in the middle of the orbit, and that the sphere of the fixed stars, situated about the same centre as the sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the centre of the sphere bears to its surface.
Aristarchus presumably took the stars to be very far away because he was aware that their parallax would otherwise be observed over the course of a year. The stars are in fact so far away that stellar parallax only became detectable when sufficiently powerful telescopes had been developed.
No references to Aristarchus 's heliocentrism are known in any other writings from before the common era. The earliest of the handful of other ancient references occur in two passages from the writings of Plutarch. These mention one detail not stated explicitly in Archimedes 's account -- namely, that Aristarchus 's theory had the Earth rotating on an axis. The first of these reference occurs in On the Face in the Orb of the Moon:
Only do not, my good fellow, enter an action against me for impiety in the style of Cleanthes, who thought it was the duty of Greeks to indict Aristarchus of Samos on the charge of impiety for putting in motion the Hearth of the Universe, this being the effect of his attempt to save the phenomena by supposing the heaven to remain at rest and the earth to revolve in an oblique circle, while it rotates, at the same time, about its own axis.
Only scattered fragments of Cleanthes 's writings have survived in quotations by other writers, but in Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, Diogenes Laertius lists A reply to Aristarchus (Πρὸς Ἀρίσταρχον) as one of Cleanthes 's works, and some scholars have suggested that this might have been where Cleanthes had accused Aristarchus of impiety.
The second of the references by Plutarch is in his Platonic Questions:
Did Plato put the earth in motion, as he did the sun, the moon, and the five planets, which he called the instruments of time on account of their turnings, and was it necessary to conceive that the earth "which is globed about the axis stretched from pole to pole through the whole universe '' was not represented as being held together and at rest, but as turning and revolving (στρεφομένην καὶ ἀνειλουμένην), as Aristarchus and Seleucus afterwards maintained that it did, the former stating this as only a hypothesis (ὑποτιθέμενος μόνον), the latter as a definite opinion (καὶ ἀποφαινόμενος)?
The remaining references to Aristarchus 's heliocentrism are extremely brief, and provide no more information beyond what can be gleaned from those already cited. Ones which mention Aristarchus explicitly by name occur in Aëtius 's Opinions of the Philosophers, Sextus Empiricus 's Against the Mathematicians, and an anonymous scholiast to Aristotle. Another passage in Aëtius 's Opinions of the Philosophers reports that Seleucus the astronomer had affirmed the Earth 's motion, but does not mention Aristarchus.
Since Plutarch mentions the "followers of Aristarchus '' in passing, it is likely that there were other astronomers in the Classical period who also espoused Heliocentrism, but whose work was lost. The only other astronomer from antiquity known by name who is known to have supported Aristarchus ' heliocentric model was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC), a Hellenistic astronomer who flourished a century after Aristarchus in the Seleucid empire. Seleucus adopted the heliocentric system of Aristarchus and is said to have proved the heliocentric theory. According to Bartel Leendert van der Waerden, Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a geometric model for the heliocentric theory and by developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used early trigonometric methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of Hipparchus. A fragment of a work by Seleucus has survived in Arabic translation, which was referred to by Rhazes (b. 865).
Alternatively, his explanation may have involved the phenomenon of tides, which he supposedly theorized to be caused by the attraction to the Moon and by the revolution of the Earth around the Earth - Moon ' center of mass '.
There were occasional speculations about heliocentrism in Europe before Copernicus. In Roman Carthage, the pagan Martianus Capella (5th century A.D.) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. Capella 's model was discussed in the Early Middle Ages by various anonymous 9th - century commentators and Copernicus mentions him as an influence on his own work.
The Ptolemaic system was also received in Indian astronomy. Aryabhata (476 -- 550), in his magnum opus Aryabhatiya (499), propounded a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. He accurately calculated many astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets, times of the solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon. Early followers of Aryabhata 's model included Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II.
Muslim astronomers often, but not entirely accepted the Ptolemaic system and the geocentric model.
Beginning in the 11th century, a tradition criticizing Ptolemy developed within Islamic astronomy, beginning with Ibn al - Haytham of Basra 's Al - Shukūk ' alā Baṭalamiyūs ("Doubts Concerning Ptolemy ''). Several Muslim scholars questioned the Earth 's apparent immobility and centrality within the universe.
Abu Sa'id al - Sijzi (d.c. 1020) accepted that the Earth rotates around its axis.
According to Al - Biruni, Sijzi invented an astrolabe called al - zūraqī based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries "That the motion we see is due to the Earth 's movement and not to that of the sky. '' That others besides al - Sijzi held this view is further confirmed by a reference from an Arabic work in the 13th century which states:
According to the geometers (or engineers) (muhandisīn), the earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars.
Early in the 11th century Alhazen wrote a scathing critique of Ptolemy 's model in his Doubts on Ptolemy (c. 1028), which some have interpreted to imply he was criticizing Ptolemy 's geocentrism, but most agree that he was actually criticizing the details of Ptolemy 's model rather than his geocentrism. Abu Rayhan Biruni (b. 973) discussed the possibility of whether the Earth rotated about its own axis and around the Sun, but in his Masudic Canon, he set forth the principles that the Earth is at the center of the universe and that it has no motion of its own. He was aware that if the Earth rotated on its axis, this would be consistent with his astronomical parameters, but he considered it a problem of natural philosophy rather than mathematics.
In the 12th century, some Islamic astronomers developed complete alternatives to the Ptolemaic system (although not heliocentric), such as Nur ad - Din al - Bitruji, who considered the Ptolemaic model as mathematical, and not physical. Al - Bitruji 's alternative system spread through most of Europe in the 13th century, with debates and refutations of his ideas continued up to the 16th century.
The Maragha school of astronomy in Ilkhanid - era Persia further developed "non-Ptolemaic '' planetary models involving Earth 's rotation. Notable astronomers of this school are Al - Urdi (d. 1266) Al - Katibi (d. 1277), and Al - Tusi (d. 1274).
The arguments and evidence used resemble those used by Copernicus to support the Earth 's motion. The criticism of Ptolemy as developed by Averroes and by the Maragha school explicitly address the Earth 's rotation but it did not arrive at explicit heliocentrism. The observations of the Maragha school were further improved at the Timurid - era Samarkand observatory under Qushji (1403 -- 1474).
European scholarship in the later medieval period actively received astronomical models developed in the Islamic world and by the 13th century was well aware of the problems of the Ptolemaic model. In the 14th century, bishop Nicole Oresme discussed the possibility that the Earth rotated on its axis, while Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa in his Learned Ignorance asked whether there was any reason to assert that the Sun (or any other point) was the center of the universe. In parallel to a mystical definition of God, Cusa wrote that "Thus the fabric of the world (machina mundi) will quasi have its center everywhere and circumference nowhere. ''
In India, Nilakantha Somayaji (1444 -- 1544), in his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata 's Aryabhatiya, developed a computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which the planets orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. In the Tantrasangraha (1500), he further revised his planetary system, which was mathematically more accurate at predicting the heliocentric orbits of the interior planets than both the Tychonic and Copernican models, but did not propose any specific models of the universe. Nilakantha 's planetary system also incorporated the Earth 's rotation on its axis. Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics seem to have accepted his planetary model.
Some historians maintain that the thought of the Maragheh observatory, in particular the mathematical devices known as the Urdi lemma and the Tusi couple, influenced Renaissance - era European astronomy, and thus was indirectly received by Renaissance - era European astronomy and thus by Copernicus. Copernicus used such devices in the same planetary models as found in Arabic sources. Furthermore, the exact replacement of the equant by two epicycles used by Copernicus in the Commentariolus was found in an earlier work by Ibn al - Shatir (d.c. 1375) of Damascus. Ibn al - Shatir 's lunar and Mercury models are also identical to those of Copernicus.
The state of knowledge on planetary theory received by Copernicus is summarized in Georg von Peuerbach 's Theoricae Novae Planetarum (printed in 1472 by Regiomontanus). By 1470, the accuracy of observations by the Vienna school of astronomy, of which Peuerbach and Regiomontanus were members, was high enough to make the eventual development of heliocentrism inevitable, and indeed it is possible that Regiomontanus did arrive at an explicit theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, some 30 years before Copernicus. While the influence of the criticism of Ptolemy by Averroes on Renaissance thought is clear and explicit, the claim of direct influence of the Maragha school, postulated by Otto E. Neugebauer in 1957, remains an open question. Copernicus explicitly references several astronomers of the "Islamic Golden Age '' (10th to 12th centuries) in De Revolutionibus: Albategnius (Al - Battani), Averroes (Ibn Rushd), Thebit (Thabit Ibn Qurra), Arzachel (Al - Zarqali), and Alpetragius (Al - Bitruji), but he does not show awareness of the existence of any of the later astronomers of the Maragha school.
It has been argued that Copernicus could have independently discovered the Tusi couple or took the idea from Proclus 's Commentary on the First Book of Euclid, which Copernicus cited. Another possible source for Copernicus 's knowledge of this mathematical device is the Questiones de Spera of Nicole Oresme, who described how a reciprocating linear motion of a celestial body could be produced by a combination of circular motions similar to those proposed by al - Tusi.
Nicolaus Copernicus in his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ("On the revolution of heavenly spheres '', first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg), presented a discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe in much the same way as Ptolemy in the 2nd century had presented his geocentric model in his Almagest. Copernicus discussed the philosophical implications of his proposed system, elaborated it in geometrical detail, used selected astronomical observations to derive the parameters of his model, and wrote astronomical tables which enabled one to compute the past and future positions of the stars and planets. In doing so, Copernicus moved Heliocentrism from philosophical speculation to predictive geometrical astronomy. In reality, Copernicus 's system did not predict the planets ' positions any better than the Ptolemaic system. This theory resolved the issue of planetary retrograde motion by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent, rather than real: it was a parallax effect, as an object that one is passing seems to move backwards against the horizon. This issue was also resolved in the geocentric Tychonic system; the latter, however, while eliminating the major epicycles, retained as a physical reality the irregular back - and - forth motion of the planets, which Kepler characterized as a "pretzel ''.
Copernicus cited Aristarchus in an early (unpublished) manuscript of De Revolutionibus (which still survives), stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion. '' However, in the published version he restricts himself to noting that in works by Cicero he had found an account of the theories of Hicetas and that Plutarch had provided him with an account of the Pythagoreans, Heraclides Ponticus, Philolaus, and Ecphantus. These authors had proposed a moving earth, which did not, however, revolve around a central sun.
The first information about the heliocentric views of Nicolaus Copernicus was circulated in manuscript completed some time before May 1, 1514. Although only in manuscript, Copernicus ' ideas were well known among astronomers and others. His ideas contradicted the then - prevailing understanding of the Bible. In the King James Bible (first published in 1611), First Chronicles 16: 30 states that "the world also shall be stable, that it be not moved. '' Psalm 104: 5 says, "(the Lord) Who laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be removed for ever. '' Ecclesiastes 1: 5 states that "The sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to his place where he arose. ''
Nonetheless, in 1533, Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered in Rome a series of lectures outlining Copernicus ' theory. The lectures were heard with interest by Pope Clement VII and several Catholic cardinals. On November 1, 1536, Archbishop of Capua Nikolaus von Schönberg wrote a letter to Copernicus from Rome encouraging him to publish a full version of his theory.
However, in 1539, Martin Luther said:
"There is talk of a new astrologer who wants to prove that the earth moves and goes around instead of the sky, the sun, the moon, just as if somebody were moving in a carriage or ship might hold that he was sitting still and at rest while the earth and the trees walked and moved. But that is how things are nowadays: when a man wishes to be clever he must... invent something special, and the way he does it must needs be the best! The fool wants to turn the whole art of astronomy upside - down. However, as Holy Scripture tells us, so did Joshua bid the sun to stand still and not the earth. ''
This was reported in the context of a conversation at the dinner table and not a formal statement of faith. Melanchthon, however, opposed the doctrine over a period of years.
Nicolaus Copernicus published the definitive statement of his system in De Revolutionibus in 1543. Copernicus began to write it in 1506 and finished it in 1530, but did not publish it until the year of his death. Although he was in good standing with the Church and had dedicated the book to Pope Paul III, the published form contained an unsigned preface by Osiander defending the system and arguing that it was useful for computation even if its hypotheses were not necessarily true. Possibly because of that preface, the work of Copernicus inspired very little debate on whether it might be heretical during the next 60 years. There was an early suggestion among Dominicans that the teaching of Heliocentrism should be banned, but nothing came of it at the time.
Some years after the publication of De Revolutionibus John Calvin preached a sermon in which he denounced those who "pervert the order of nature '' by saying that "the sun does not move and that it is the earth that revolves and that it turns ''.
On the other hand, Calvin is not responsible for another famous quotation which has often been misattributed to him: "Who will venture to place the authority of Copernicus above that of the Holy Spirit? '' It has long been established that this line can not be found in any of Calvin 's works. It has been suggested that the quotation was originally sourced from the works of Lutheran theologian Abraham Calovius.
Prior to the publication of De Revolutionibus, the most widely accepted system had been proposed by Ptolemy, in which the Earth was the center of the universe and all celestial bodies orbited it. Tycho Brahe, arguably the most accomplished astronomer of his time, advocated against Copernicus 's heliocentric system and for an alternative to the Ptolemaic geocentric system: a geo - heliocentric system now known as the Tychonic system in which the five then known planets orbit the sun, while the sun and the moon orbit the earth.
Tycho appreciated the Copernican system, but objected to the idea of a moving Earth on the basis of physics, astronomy, and religion. The Aristotelian physics of the time (modern Newtonian physics was still a century away) offered no physical explanation for the motion of a massive body like Earth, whereas it could easily explain the motion of heavenly bodies by postulating that they were made of a different sort substance called aether that moved naturally. So Tycho said that the Copernican system "... expertly and completely circumvents all that is superfluous or discordant in the system of Ptolemy. On no point does it offend the principle of mathematics. Yet it ascribes to the Earth, that hulking, lazy body, unfit for motion, a motion as quick as that of the aethereal torches, and a triple motion at that. '' Likewise, Tycho took issue with the vast distances to the stars that Aristarchus and Copernicus had assumed in order to explain the lack of any visible parallax. Tycho had measured the apparent sizes of stars (now known to be illusory -- see stellar magnitude), and used geometry to calculate that in order to both have those apparent sizes and be as far away as Heliocentrism required, stars would have to be huge (much larger than the sun; the size of Earth 's orbit or larger). Regarding this Tycho wrote, "Deduce these things geometrically if you like, and you will see how many absurdities (not to mention others) accompany this assumption (of the motion of the earth) by inference. '' He also cited the Copernican system 's "opposition to the authority of Sacred Scripture in more than one place '' as a reason why one might wish to reject it, and observed that his own geoheliocentric alternative "offended neither the principles of physics nor Holy Scripture ''.
The Jesuit astronomers in Rome were at first unreceptive to Tycho 's system; the most prominent, Clavius, commented that Tycho was "confusing all of astronomy, because he wants to have Mars lower than the Sun. '' However, after the advent of the telescope showed problems with some geocentric models (by demonstrating that Venus circles the sun, for example), the Tychonic system and variations on that system became very popular among geocentrists, and the Jesuit astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli would continue Tycho 's use of physics, stellar astronomy (now with a telescope), and religion to argue against Heliocentrism and for Tycho 's system well into the seventeenth century (see Riccioli).
Galileo was able to look at the night sky with the newly invented telescope. Then he published his discoveries in Letters on Sunspots that the Sun rotated and that Venus exhibited a full range of phases. These discoveries were not consistent with the Ptolemeic model of the solar system. As the Jesuit astronomers confirmed Galileo 's observations, the Jesuits moved toward Tycho 's teachings.
In a Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina, Galileo defended Heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to Scriptures (see Galileo affair). He took Augustine 's position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally when the scripture in question is in a Bible book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. The writers of the Scripture wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, and from that vantage point the sun does rise and set. In fact, it is the Earth 's rotation which gives the impression of the sun in motion across the sky.
In February 1615, prominent Dominicans including Thomaso Caccini and Niccolò Lorini brought Galileo 's writings on Heliocentrism to the attention of the Inquisition, because they appeared to violate Holy Scripture and the decrees of the Council of Trent. Cardinal and Inquisitor Robert Bellarmine was called upon to adjudicate, and wrote in April that treating Heliocentrism as a real phenomenon would be "a very dangerous thing, '' irritating philosophers and theologians, and harming "the Holy Faith by rendering Holy Scripture as false. ''
In January 1616 Msgr. Francesco Ingoli addressed an essay to Galileo disputing the Copernican system. Galileo later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the ban against Copernicanism that followed in February. According to Maurice Finocchiaro, Ingoli had probably been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the controversy, and the essay provided the "chief direct basis '' for the ban. The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against Heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from the arguments of Tycho Brahe, and it notedly mentioned the problem that Heliocentrism requires the stars to be much larger than the sun. Ingoli wrote that the great distance to the stars in the heliocentric theory "clearly proves... the fixed stars to be of such size, as they may surpass or equal the size of the orbit circle of the Earth itself. '' Ingoli included four theological arguments in the essay, but suggested to Galileo that he focus on the physical and mathematical arguments. Galileo did not write a response to Ingoli until 1624.
In February 1616, the Inquisition assembled a committee of theologians, known as qualifiers, who delivered their unanimous report condemning Heliocentrism as "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture. '' The Inquisition also determined that the Earth 's motion "receives the same judgement in philosophy and... in regard to theological truth it is at least erroneous in faith. '' Bellarmine personally ordered Galileo
"to abstain completely from teaching or defending this doctrine and opinion or from discussing it... to abandon completely... the opinion that the sun stands still at the center of the world and the earth moves, and henceforth not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatever, either orally or in writing. ''
In March, after the Inquisition 's injunction against Galileo, the papal Master of the Sacred Palace, Congregation of the Index, and Pope banned all books and letters advocating the Copernican system, which they called "the false Pythagorean doctrine, altogether contrary to Holy Scripture. '' In 1618 the Holy Office recommended that a modified version of Copernicus ' De Revolutionibus be allowed for use in calendric calculations, though the original publication remained forbidden until 1758.
In Astronomia nova (1609), Johannes Kepler had used an elliptical orbit to explain the motion of Mars. In Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae he developed a heliocentric model of the solar system in which all the planets have elliptical orbits. This provided significantly increased accuracy in predicting the position of the planets. Kepler 's ideas were not immediately accepted. Galileo for example completely ignored Kepler 's work. Kepler proposed Heliocentrism as a physical description of the solar system and Epitome astronomia Copernicanae was placed on the index of prohibited books despite Kepler being a Protestant.
Pope Urban VIII encouraged Galileo to publish the pros and cons of Heliocentrism. Galileo 's response, Dialogue concerning the two chief world systems (1632), clearly advocated Heliocentrism, despite his declaration in the preface that,
I will endeavour to show that all experiments that can be made upon the Earth are insufficient means to conclude for its mobility but are indifferently applicable to the Earth, movable or immovable...
and his straightforward statement,
I might very rationally put it in dispute, whether there be any such centre in nature, or no; being that neither you nor any one else hath ever proved, whether the World be finite and figurate, or else infinite and interminate; yet nevertheless granting you, for the present, that it is finite, and of a terminate Spherical Figure, and that thereupon it hath its centre...
Some ecclesiastics also interpreted the book as characterizing the Pope as a simpleton, since his viewpoint in the dialogue was advocated by the character Simplicio. Urban VIII became hostile to Galileo and he was again summoned to Rome. Galileo 's trial in 1633 involved making fine distinctions between "teaching '' and "holding and defending as true ''. For advancing heliocentric theory Galileo was forced to recant Copernicanism and was put under house arrest for the last few years of his life.
According to J.L. Heilbron, informed contemporaries of Galileo 's:
"appreciated that the reference to heresy in connection with Galileo or Copernicus had no general or theological significance. ''
René Descartes postponed, and ultimately never finished, his treatise The World, which included a heliocentric model, but the Galileo affair did little to slow the spread of Heliocentrism across Europe, as Kepler 's Epitome of Copernican Astronomy became increasingly influential in the coming decades. By 1686 the model was well enough established that the general public was reading about it in Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds, published in France by Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle and translated into English and other languages in the coming years. It has been called "one of the first great popularizations of science. ''
In 1687, Isaac Newton published Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which provided an explanation for Kepler 's laws in terms of universal gravitation and what came to be known as Newton 's laws of motion. This placed Heliocentrism on a firm theoretical foundation, although Newton 's Heliocentrism was of a somewhat modern kind. Already in the mid-1680s he recognized the "deviation of the Sun '' from the centre of gravity of the solar system. For Newton it was not precisely the centre of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem 'd the Centre of the World '', and this centre of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line ''. Newton adopted the "at rest '' alternative in view of common consent that the centre, wherever it was, was at rest.
Meanwhile, the Church remained opposed to Heliocentrism as a literal description, but this did not by any means imply opposition to all astronomy; indeed, it needed observational data to maintain its calendar. In support of this effort it allowed the cathedrals themselves to be used as solar observatories called meridiane; i.e., they were turned into "reverse sundials '', or gigantic pinhole cameras, where the Sun 's image was projected from a hole in a window in the cathedral 's lantern onto a meridian line.
In 1664, Pope Alexander VII published his Index Librorum Prohibitorum Alexandri VII Pontificis Maximi jussu editus (Index of Prohibited Books, published by order of Alexander VII, P.M.) which included all previous condemnations of heliocentric books.
In the mid-eighteenth century the Church 's opposition began to fade. An annotated copy of Newton 's Principia was published in 1742 by Fathers le Seur and Jacquier of the Franciscan Minims, two Catholic mathematicians, with a preface stating that the author 's work assumed Heliocentrism and could not be explained without the theory. In 1758 the Catholic Church dropped the general prohibition of books advocating Heliocentrism from the Index of Forbidden Books. The Observatory of the Roman College was established by Pope Clement XIV in 1774 (nationalized in 1878, but re-founded by Pope Leo XIII as the Vatican Observatory in 1891). In spite of dropping its active resistance to Heliocentrism, the Catholic Church did not lift the prohibition of uncensored versions of Copernicus 's De Revolutionibus or Galileo 's Dialogue. The affair was revived in 1820, when the Master of the Sacred Palace (the Church 's chief censor), Filippo Anfossi, refused to license a book by a Catholic canon, Giuseppe Settele, because it openly treated heliocentrism as a physical fact. Settele appealed to pope Pius VII. After the matter had been reconsidered by the Congregation of the Index and the Holy Office, Anfossi 's decision was overturned. Pius VII approved a decree in 1822 by the Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition to allow the printing of heliocentric books in Rome. Copernicus 's De Revolutionibus and Galileo 's Dialogue were then subsequently omitted from the next edition of the Index when it appeared in 1835.
Already in the Talmud, Greek philosophy and science under general name "Greek wisdom '' were considered dangerous. They were put under ban then and later for some periods.
The first Jewish scholar to describe the Copernican system, albeit without mentioning Copernicus by name, was Maharal of Prague, his book "Be'er ha - Golah '' (1593). Maharal makes an argument of radical skepticism, arguing that no scientific theory can be reliable, which he illustrates by the new - fangled theory of heliocentrism upsetting even the most fundamental views on the cosmos.
Copernicus is mentioned in the books of David Gans (1541 -- 1613), who worked with Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler. Gans wrote two books on astronomy in Hebrew: a short one "Magen David '' (1612) and a full one "Nehmad veNaim '' (published only in 1743). He described objectively three systems: Ptolemy, Copernicus and of Tycho Brahe without taking sides. Joseph Solomon Delmedigo (1591 -- 1655) in his "Elim '' (1629) says that the arguments of Copernicus are so strong, that only an imbecile will not accept them. Delmedigo studied at Padua and was acquainted with Galileo.
An actual controversy on the Copernican model within Judaism arises only in the early 18th century. Most authors in this period accept Copernican heliocentrism, with opposition from David Nieto and Tobias Cohn. Both of these authors argued against heliocentrism on grounds of contradictions to scripture. Nieto merely rejected the new system on those grounds without much passion, whereas Cohn went so far as to call Copernicus "a first - born of Satan '', though he also acknowledged that he would have found it difficult to counter one particular objection based on a passage from the Talmud.
In the 19th century two students of the Hatam sofer wrote books that were given approbations by him even though one supported heliocentrism and the other geocentrism. The one, a commentary on Genesis Yafe'ah le - Ketz written by R. Israel David Schlesinger resisted a heliocentric model and supported geocentrism. The other, Mei Menuchot written by R. Eliezer Lipmann Neusatz encouraged acceptance of the heliocentric model and other modern scientific thinking.
Since the 20th century most Jews have not questioned the science of heliocentrism. Exceptions include Shlomo Benizri and R.M.M. Schneerson of Chabad who argued that the question of heliocentrism vs. geocentrism is obsolete because of the relativity of motion. Schneerson 's followers in Chabad continue to deny the heliocentric model.
Kepler 's laws of planetary motion were used as arguments in favor of the heliocentric hypothesis. Three apparent proofs of the heliocentric hypothesis were provided in 1727 by James Bradley, in 1838 by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel and in 1851 by Foucault. Bradley discovered the stellar aberration, proving the relative motion of the earth. Bessel proved that the parallax of a star was greater than zero by measuring the parallax of 0.314 arcseconds of a star named 61 Cygni. In the same year Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve and Thomas Henderson measured the parallaxes of other stars, Vega and Alpha Centauri.
The thinking that the heliocentric view was also not true in a strict sense was achieved in steps. That the Sun was not the center of the universe, but one of innumerable stars, was strongly advocated by the mystic Giordano Bruno. Over the course of the 18th and 19th centuries, the status of the Sun as merely one star among many became increasingly obvious. By the 20th century, even before the discovery that there are many galaxies, it was no longer an issue.
The concept of an absolute velocity, including being "at rest '' as a particular case, is ruled out by the principle of relativity, also eliminating any obvious "center '' of the universe as a natural origin of coordinates. Some forms of Mach 's principle consider the frame at rest with respect to the distant masses in the universe to have special properties.
Even if the discussion is limited to the solar system, the Sun is not at the geometric center of any planet 's orbit, but rather approximately at one focus of the elliptical orbit. Furthermore, to the extent that a planet 's mass can not be neglected in comparison to the Sun 's mass, the center of gravity of the solar system is displaced slightly away from the center of the Sun. (The masses of the planets, mostly Jupiter, amount to 0.14 % of that of the Sun.) Therefore, a hypothetical astronomer on an extrasolar planet would observe a small "wobble '' in the Sun 's motion.
In modern calculations the terms "geocentric '' and "heliocentric '' are often used to refer to reference frames. In such systems the origin in the center of mass of the Earth, of the Earth -- Moon system, of the Sun, of the Sun plus the major planets, or of the entire solar system can be selected; see center - of - mass frame. Right Ascension and Declination are examples of geocentric coordinates, used in Earth - based observations, while the heliocentric latitude and longitude are used for orbital calculations. This leads to such terms as "heliocentric velocity '' and "heliocentric angular momentum ''. In this heliocentric picture, any planet of the Solar System can be used as a source of mechanical energy because it moves relatively to the Sun. A smaller body (either artificial or natural) may gain heliocentric velocity due to gravity assist -- this effect can change the body 's mechanical energy in heliocentric reference frame (although it will not changed in the planetary one). However, such selection of "geocentric '' or "heliocentric '' frames is merely a matter of computation. It does not have philosophical implications and does not constitute a distinct physical or scientific model. From the point of view of General Relativity, inertial reference frames do not exist at all, and any practical reference frame is only an approximation to the actual space - time, which can have higher or lower precision.
All Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al - Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al - Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted... the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere... concentrically envelops the other.
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who held political power in china in 1949 | Republic of China (1912 -- 1949) - wikipedia
The Republic of China was a sovereign state in East Asia that occupied the territories of modern China, and for part of its history Mongolia and Taiwan. It was founded in 1912, after the Qing dynasty, the last imperial dynasty, was overthrown in the Xinhai Revolution. The Republic 's first president, Sun Yat - sen, served only briefly before handing over the position to Yuan Shikai, former leader of the Beiyang Army. His party, then led by Song Jiaoren, won the parliamentary election held in December 1912. Song was assassinated shortly after, and the Beiyang Army led by Yuan Shikai maintained full control of the government in Beijing. Between late 1915 and early 1916, Yuan tried to reinstate the monarchy, before abdicating after popular unrest. After Yuan 's death in 1916, members of cliques in the former Beiyang Army claimed their autonomy and clashed with each other. During this period, the authority of the central government was weakened by a restoration of the Qing dynasty.
In 1925, Sun 's Kuomintang (KMT) established a rival government in the southern city of Guangzhou together with the fledgling Communist Party of China (CPC). The economy of the north, overtaxed to support warlord adventurism, collapsed in 1927 -- 28. General Chiang Kai - shek, who became KMT leader after Sun 's death, started his military Northern Expedition campaign in order to overthrow the government in Beijing. The central government was overthrown in 1928 and Chiang established a new nationalist government in Nanjing. In April 1927, he massacred communists in Shanghai, which forced the CPC into armed rebellion, marking the beginning of the Chinese Civil War.
There was industrialization and modernization, but also conflict between the Nationalist government in Nanjing, the CPC, remnant warlords, and the Empire of Japan. Nation - building took a backseat to war with Japan when the Imperial Japanese Army launched an offensive against China in 1937 that turned into a full - scale invasion. After the unconditional surrender of Japan in 1945, fighting quickly resumed between the KMT and the CPC, with both sides receiving foreign assistance due to the ongoing friction between the Soviet Union and the United States. In 1947, the Constitution of the Republic of China replaced the Organic Law of 1928 as the country 's fundamental law. In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party established the People 's Republic of China, overthrowing the Nationalist government on the mainland, which retreated to Taiwan, and relocated its capital from Nanking to Taipei.
A republic was formally established on 1 January 1912 following the Xinhai Revolution, which itself began with the Wuchang Uprising on 10 October 1911, successfully overthrowing the Qing Dynasty and ending over two thousand years of imperial rule in China. From its founding until 1949 it was based on mainland China. Central authority waxed and waned in response to warlordism (1915 -- 28), Japanese invasion (1937 -- 45), and a full - scale civil war (1927 -- 49), with central authority strongest during the Nanjing Decade (1927 -- 37), when most of China came under the control of the Kuomintang (KMT) under an authoritarian one - party military dictatorship.
At the end of World War II in 1945, the Empire of Japan surrendered control of Taiwan and its island groups to the Allies, and Taiwan was placed under the Republic of China 's administrative control. The communist takeover of mainland China in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 left the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) with control over only Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other minor islands. With the 1949 loss of mainland China in the civil war, the ROC government retreated to Taiwan and the KMT declared Taipei the provisional capital. The Communist Party of China took over all of mainland China and founded the People 's Republic of China (PRC) in Beijing.
In 1912, after over two thousand years of imperial rule, a republic was established to replace the monarchy. The Qing Dynasty that preceded the republic experienced a century of instability throughout the 19th century, suffered from both internal rebellion and foreign imperialism. The ongoing instability eventually led to the outburst of Boxer Rebellion in 1900, whose attacks on foreigners led to the invasion by the Eight Nation Alliance. China signed the Boxer Protocol and paid a large indemnity to the foreign powers: 450 million taels of fine silver (around $ 333 million or £ 67 million at the then current exchange rates). A program of institutional reform proved too little and too late. Only the lack of an alternative regime prolonged its existence until 1912.
The establishment of the Chinese Republic developed out of the Wuchang Uprising against the Qing government on 10 October 1911. That date is now celebrated annually as the ROC 's national day, also known as the "Double Ten Day ''. On 29 December 1911, Sun Yat - Sen was elected president by the Nanjing assembly with representatives from seventeen provinces. On 1 January 1912, he was officially inaugurated and pledged "to overthrow the despotic government led by the Manchu, consolidate the Republic of China and plan for the welfare of the people ''.
Sun, however, lacked the necessary military strength to defeat the Qing government by force. As a compromise, the new republic negotiated with the commander of the Beiyang Army, Yuan Shikai, with the promise of presidency in the republic if he was to remove the Qing emperor force. Yuan agreed to the deal, and the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty, Puyi, was forced to abdicate in 1912, and Yuan was officially elected president of the ROC in 1913. He ruled by military power and ignored the republican institutions established by his predecessor, threatening to execute Senate members who disagreed with his decisions. He soon dissolved the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party, banned "secret organizations '' (which implicitly included the KMT), and ignored the provisional constitution. An attempt at a democratic election in 1912 ended with the assassination of the elected candidate by a man recruited by Yuan. Ultimately, Yuan declared himself Emperor of China in 1915. The new ruler of China tried to increase centralization by abolishing the provincial system; however, this move angered the gentry along with the provincial governors, usually military men. Many provinces declared independence and became warlord states. Increasingly unpopular and deserted by his supporters, Yuan gave up being Emperor in 1916 and died of natural causes shortly after.
China declined into a period of warlordism. Sun, forced into exile, returned to Guangdong province in the south with the help of warlords in 1917 and 1922, and set up successive rival governments to the Beiyang government in Beijing; he re-established the KMT in October 1919. Sun 's dream was to unify China by launching an expedition to the north. However, he lacked military support and funding to make it a reality.
Meanwhile, the Beiyang government struggled to hold on to power, and an open and wide - ranging debate evolved regarding how China should confront the West. In 1919, a student protest against the government 's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, considered unfair by Chinese intellectuals, led to the May Fourth movement. These demonstrations were aimed at spreading Western influence to replace Chinese culture. It is also in this intellectual climate that the influence of Marxism spread and became more popular. It eventually led to the founding of the Communist Party of China in 1921.
After Sun 's death in March 1925, Chiang Kai - shek became the leader of the KMT. In 1926, Chiang led the Northern Expedition through China with the intention of defeating the Beiyang warlords and unifying the country. Chiang received the help of the Soviet Union and the Chinese Communists; however, he soon dismissed his Soviet advisers. He was convinced, not without reason, that they wanted to get rid of the KMT (also known as the Chinese Nationalists) and take over control. Chiang decided to strike first and purged the Communists, killing thousands of them. At the same time, other violent conflicts were taking place in China; in the South, where the Communists had superior numbers, Nationalist supporters were being massacred. These events eventually led to the Chinese Civil War between the Nationalists and Communists. Chiang Kai - shek pushed the Communists into the interior as he sought to destroy them, and established a government with Nanking as its capital in 1927. By 1928, Chiang 's army overturned the Beiyang government and unified the entire nation, at least nominally, beginning the so - called Nanjing Decade.
According to Sun Yat - sen 's theory, the KMT was to rebuild China in three phases: a phase of military rule through which the KMT would take over power and reunite China by force; a phase of political tutelage; and finally a constitutional democratic phase. In 1930, the Nationalists, having taken over power militarily and reunified China, started the second phase, promulgating a provisional constitution and beginning the period of so - called "tutelage ''. The KMT was criticized for instituting authoritarianism, but claimed it was attempting to establish a modern democratic society. Among other things, it created at that time the Academia Sinica, the Central Bank of China, and other agencies. In 1932, China sent a team for the first time to the Olympic Games. Laws were passed and campaigns mounted to promote the rights of women. The ease and speed of communication also allowed a focus on social problems, including those of the villages. The Rural Reconstruction Movement was one of many which took advantage of the new freedom to raise social consciousness.
Historians such as Edmund Fung argue that establishing a democracy in China at that time was not possible. The nation was at war and divided between Communists and Nationalists. Corruption within the government and lack of direction also prevented any significant reform from taking place. Chiang realized the lack of real work being done within his administration and told the State Council: "Our organization becomes worse and worse... many staff members just sit at their desks and gaze into space, others read newspapers and still others sleep. '' The Nationalist government wrote a draft of the constitution on 5 May 1936.
During this time a series of massive wars took place in western China, including the Kumul Rebellion, the Sino - Tibetan War and the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang. Although the central government was nominally in control of the entire country during this period, large areas of China remained under the semi-autonomous rule of local warlords, provincial military leaders or warlord coalitions. Nationalist rule was strongest in the eastern regions around the capital Nanjing, but regional militarists such as Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan retained considerable local authority. The Central Plains War in 1930, the Japanese aggression in 1931 and the Red Army 's Long March in 1934 led to more power for the central government, but there continued to be foot - dragging and even outright defiance, as in the Fujian Rebellion of 1933 -- 34.
Few Chinese had any illusions about Japanese desires on China. Hungry for raw materials and pressed by a growing population, Japan initiated the seizure of Manchuria in September 1931 and established ex-Qing emperor Puyi as head of the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932. The loss of Manchuria, and its vast potential for industrial development and war industries, was a blow to the Kuomintang economy. The League of Nations, established at the end of World War I, was unable to act in the face of the Japanese defiance.
The Japanese began to push from south of the Great Wall into northern China and the coastal provinces. Chinese fury against Japan was predictable, but anger was also directed against Chiang and the Nanking government, which at the time was more preoccupied with anti-Communist extermination campaigns than with resisting the Japanese invaders. The importance of "internal unity before external danger '' was forcefully brought home in December 1936, when Chiang Kai - shek, in an event now known as the Xi'an Incident, was kidnapped by Zhang Xueliang and forced to ally with the Communists against the Japanese in the Second Kuomintang - CCP United Front against Japan.
The Chinese resistance stiffened after 7 July 1937, when a clash occurred between Chinese and Japanese troops outside Beiping (Later Peking and Beijing) near the Marco Polo Bridge. This skirmish led to open, though undeclared, warfare between China and Japan. Shanghai fell after a three - month battle during which Japan suffered extensive casualties, both in its army and navy. The capital of Nanking fell in December 1937. It was followed by an orgy of mass murders and rapes known as the Nanking Massacre. The national capital was briefly at Wuhan, then removed in an epic retreat to Chongqing, the seat of government until 1945. In 1940 the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime was set up with its capital in Nanking, proclaiming itself the legitimate "Republic of China '' in opposition to Chiang Kai - shek 's government, though its claims were significantly hampered due to its nature as a Japanese puppet state controlling limited amounts of territory, along with its subsequent defeat at the end of the war.
The United Front between the Kuomintang and CCP took place with salutary effects for the beleaguered CCP, despite Japan 's steady territorial gains in northern China, the coastal regions and the rich Yangtze River Valley in central China. After 1940 conflicts between the Kuomintang and Communists became more frequent in the areas not under Japanese control. The entrance of the United States into the Pacific War after 1941 changed the nature of their relationship. The Communists expanded their influence wherever opportunities presented themselves through mass organizations, administrative reforms and the land - and tax - reform measures favoring the peasants and the spread of their organizational network, while the Kuomintang attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence. Meanwhile, northern China was infiltrated politically by Japanese politicians in Manchukuo using facilities such as Wei Huang Gong.
In 1945, the Republic of China emerged from the war nominally a great military power but actually a nation economically prostrate and on the verge of all - out civil war. The economy deteriorated, sapped by the military demands of foreign war and internal strife, by spiraling inflation and by Nationalist profiteering, speculation and hoarding. Starvation came in the wake of the war, and millions were rendered homeless by floods and the unsettled conditions in many parts of the country. The situation was further complicated by an Allied agreement at the Yalta Conference in February 1945 that brought Soviet troops into Manchuria to hasten the termination of war against Japan. Although the Chinese had not been present at Yalta, they had been consulted and had agreed to have the Soviets enter the war in the belief that the Soviet Union would deal only with the Kuomintang government.
After the end of the war in August 1945, the Nationalist Government moved back to Nanjing. With American help, Nationalist troops moved to take the Japanese surrender in North China. The Soviet Union, as part of the Yalta agreement allowing a Soviet sphere of influence in Manchuria, dismantled and removed more than half the industrial equipment left there by the Japanese. The Soviet presence in northeast China enabled the Communists to move in long enough to arm themselves with the equipment surrendered by the withdrawing Japanese army. The problems of rehabilitating the formerly Japanese - occupied areas and of reconstructing the nation from the ravages of a protracted war were staggering.
During World War II, the United States has become increasingly involved in Chinese affairs. As an ally, it embarked in late 1941 on a program of massive military and financial aid to the hard - pressed Nationalist Government. In January 1943, both the United States and the United Kingdom led the way in revising their unequal treaties with China from the past. Within a few months a new agreement was signed between the United States and the Republic of China for the stationing of American troops in China for the common war effort against Japan. In December 1943 the Chinese Exclusion Acts of the 1880s and subsequent laws enacted by the United States Congress to restrict Chinese immigration into the United States were repealed.
The wartime policy of the United States was initially to help China become a strong ally and a stabilizing force in postwar East Asia. As the conflict between the Kuomintang and the Communists intensified, however, the United States sought unsuccessfully to reconcile the rival forces for a more effective anti-Japanese war effort. Following the Surrender of Japan, the administration of Taiwan was handed over from Japan to the Republic of China on 25 October 1945. Toward the end of the war, United States Marines were used to hold Beiping (Beijing) and Tianjin against a possible Soviet incursion, and logistic support was given to Kuomintang forces in north and northeast China. To further this end, on 30 September 1945 the 1st Marine Division arrived in China, charged with security in the areas of the Shandong Peninsula and the eastern Hebei Province. During the war, China was one of the Big Four Allies of World War II and later became the Four Policemen, which was a precursor to the United Nations Security Council.
Through the mediating influence of the United States a military truce was arranged in January 1946, but battles between the Kuomintang and Communists soon resumed. Public opinion of the administrative incompetence of the Nationalist government was escalated and incited by the Communists in the nationwide student protest against mishandling of the Shen Chong rape case in early 1947 and another national protest against monetary reforms later that year. Realizing that no American efforts short of large - scale armed intervention could stop the coming war, the United States withdrew the American mission, headed by Gen. George C. Marshall, in early 1947. The Chinese Civil War became more widespread; battles raged not only for territories but also for the allegiance of cross-sections of the population. The United States aided the Nationalists with massive economic loans and weapons but no combat support.
Belatedly, the Republic of China government sought to enlist popular support through internal reforms. The effort was in vain, however, because of rampant government corruption and the accompanying political and economic chaos. By late 1948 the Kuomintang position was bleak. The demoralized and undisciplined National Revolutionary Army proved to be no match for the motivated and disciplined Communist People 's Liberation Army, earlier known as the Red Army. The Communists were well established in the north and northeast. Although the Kuomintang had an advantage in numbers of men and weapons, controlled a much larger territory and population than their adversaries and enjoyed considerable international support, they were exhausted by the long war with Japan and in - fighting among various generals. They were also losing the propaganda war to the Communists, with a population weary of Kuomintang corruption and yearning for peace.
In January 1949, Beiping was taken by the Communists without a fight, and its name changed back to Beijing. Following the capture of Nanjing on 23 April, major cities passed from Kuomintang to Communist control with minimal resistance through November. In most cases the surrounding countryside and small towns had come under Communist influence long before the cities. Finally, on 1 October 1949, Communists led by Mao Zedong founded the People 's Republic of China. During those periods, Chiang Kai - shek declared martial law in May 1949 whilst a few hundred thousand Nationalist troops and two million refugees, predominantly from the government and business community, fled from mainland China to Taiwan; there remained in China itself only isolated pockets of resistance. On 7 December 1949 Chiang proclaimed Taipei, Taiwan, the temporary capital of the Republic of China.
During the civil war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides during the civil war. Benjamin Valentino has estimated atrocities in the Chinese Civil War resulted in the death of between 1.8 million and 3.5 million people between 1927 and 1949. Atrocities include deaths from forced conscription and massacres.
The first Chinese national government was established on 1 January 1912, in Nanjing, with Sun Yat - sen as the provisional president. Provincial delegates were sent to confirm the authority of the national government, and they later also formed the first parliament. The power of this national government was limited and short - lived, with generals controlling both central and northern provinces of China. The limited acts passed by this government included the formal abdication of the Qing dynasty and some economic initiatives. The parliament 's authority became nominal; violations of the Constitution by Yuan were met with half - hearted motions of censure, and Kuomintang members of the parliament that gave up their membership in the KMT were offered 1,000 pounds. Yuan maintained power locally by sending military generals to be provincial governors or by obtaining the allegiance of those already in power.
When Yuan died, the parliament of 1913 was reconvened to give legitimacy to a new government. However, the real power of the time passed to military leaders, forming the warlord period. The impotent government still had its use; when World War I began, several Western powers and Japan wanted China to declare war on Germany, in order to liquidate German holdings.
There were also several warlord governments and puppet states sharing the same name.
The government of the Republic of China was founded on the Constitution of the ROC and its Three Principles of the People, which states that "(the ROC) shall be a democratic republic of the people, to be governed by the people and for the people. ''
In February 1928, the Fourth Plenary Session of the 2nd Kuomintang National Congress held in Nanjing passed the Reorganization of the Nationalist Government Act. This act stipulated that the Nationalist Government was to be directed and regulated under the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang, with the Committee of the Nationalist Government being elected by KMT Central Committee. Under the Nationalist Government were seven ministries -- Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, Transport, Justice, Agriculture and Mines, Commerce in addition institutions such as the Supreme Court, Control Yuan and the General Academy.
With the promulgation of the Organic Law of the Nationalist Government in October 1928, the government was reorganized into five different branches or Yuan, namely the Executive Yuan, Legislative Yuan, Judicial Yuan, Examination Yuan as well as the Control Yuan. The Chairman of the National Government was to be the head - of - state and commander - in - chief of the National Revolutionary Army. Chiang Kai - shek was appointed as the first Chairman of the Nationalist Government, a position he would retain until 1931. The Organic Law also stipulated that the Kuomintang, through its National Congress and Central Executive Committee, would exercise sovereign power during the period of political tutelage, and the KMT 's Political Council would guide and superintend the Nationalist Government in the execution of important national affairs, and that the council has the power to interpret or amend the organic law.
Shortly after the Second Sino - Japanese War, the long - delayed constitutional convention was summoned to meet in Nanking in May 1946. Amidst heated debate, this convention adopted many demands from several parties, including the KMT and the Communist Party, into the Constitution. This Constitution was promulgated on 25 December 1946 and came into effect on 25 December 1947. Under it, the Central Government was divided into the President and the five Yuans, each responsible for one power of the Government. None was responsible to the other except for certain obligations such as the President appointing the head of the Executive Yuan. Ultimately the President and the Yuans reported to the National Assembly, which represented the will of the Citizens.
The first elections for the National Assembly occurred in January 1948, and the Assembly was summoned to meet in March 1948. It elected the President of the Republic on 21 March 1948, formally bringing an end to the KMT party rule started in 1928 -- though the President was a member of the KMT. These elections, though praised by at least one US observer, were poorly received by the Communist Party, which would soon start an open, armed insurrection.
Before the Nationalist government was ousted from the mainland, the Republic of China had diplomatic relations with 59 countries such as Australia, Canada, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, France, Germany, Guatemala, Honduras, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Panama, Siam, Soviet Union, Spain, United Kingdom, United States, and Vatican City. Most of these relations continued at least until the 1970s, and the Republic of China remained a member of the United Nations until 1971.
The ROC had complicated relations with Mongolia (Outer Mongolia). As the successor of the Qing dynasty, the ROC claimed Outer Mongolia, and for a short time occupied it by Beiyang government. The Nationalist government of ROC recognised Mongolia 's independence in the 1945 Sino - Soviet Treaty of Friendship due to pressure from Soviet Union but the recognition was rescinded in 1953 during the Cold War.
In the early years of the Republic of China, the economy remained unstable as the country was marked by constant warfare between different regional warlord factions. The Beiyang government in Beijing were also experiencing constant change of leadership, and this political instability led to stagnation in economic development until Chinese reunification in 1928 by the Kuomintang.
After the Kuomintang reunified the country in 1928, China entered a period of relative stability despite of ongoing isolated military conflicts and in the face of Japanese aggression in Shandong eventually Manchuria in 1931.
The 1930s in China were alternatively known as the "Nanjing Decade '', in which economic growth was ongoing due to relative political stability compared to the previous decade. Chinese industries grew considerably from 1928 to 1931. While the economy was hit again by Japanese occupation of Manchuria in 1931 and the Great Depression from 1931 to 1935, industrial output recovered to their earlier peak by 1936. This is reflected by the trends in Chinese GDP. In 1932, China 's GDP peaked at 28.8 billion, before falling to 21.3 billion by 1934 and recovering to 23.7 billion by 1935. By 1930, foreign investment in China totaled 3.5 billion, with Japan leading (1.4 billion) and the United Kingdom at 1 billion. By 1948, however, the capital stock had halted with investment dropping to only 3 billion, with the US and Britain leading.
However, the rural economy was hit hard by the Great Depression of the 1930s, in which an overproduction of agricultural goods lead to massive falling prices for China as well as an increase in foreign imports (as agricultural goods produced in western countries were "dumped '' in China). In 1931, imports of rice in China amounted to 21 million bushels compared with 12 million in 1928. Other goods saw even more staggering increases. In 1932, 15 million bushels of grain were imported compared with 900,000 in 1928. This increased competition lead to a massive decline in Chinese agricultural prices (which were cheaper) and thus the income of rural farmers. In 1932, agricultural prices were 41 percent of 1921 levels. Rural incomes had fallen to 57 percent of 1931 levels by 1934 in some areas.
In 1937, Japan invaded China and the resulting warfare laid waste to China. Most of the prosperous east China coast was occupied by the Japanese, who carried out various atrocities such as the Rape of Nanjing in 1937. In one anti-guerilla sweep in 1942, the Japanese killed up to 200,000 civilians in a month. The war was estimated to have killed between 20 and 25 million Chinese, and destroyed all that Chiang had built up in the preceding decade. Development of industries was severely hampered after the war by devastating conflict as well as the inflow of cheap American goods. By 1946, Chinese industries operated at 20 % capacity and had 25 % of the output of pre-war China.
One effect of the war was a massive increase in government control of industries. In 1936, government - owned industries were only 15 % of GDP. However, the ROC government took control of many industries in order to fight the war. In 1938, the ROC established a commission for industries and mines to control and supervise firms, as well as instilling price controls. By 1942, 70 % of the capital of Chinese industry were owned by the government.
Following the war with Japan, Chiang acquired Taiwan from Japan and renewed his struggle with the communists. However, the corruption of the KMT, as well as hyperinflation as a result of trying to fight the civil war, resulted in mass unrest throughout the Republic and sympathy for the communists. In addition, the communists ' promise to redistribute land gained them support among the massive rural population. In 1949, the communists captured Beijing and later Nanjing as well. The People 's Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 October 1949. The Republic of China relocated to Taiwan where Japan had laid an educational groundwork.
The Republic of China Army takes its roots in the National Revolutionary Army, which was established by Sun Yat - sen in 1925 in Guangdong with the goal of reunifying China under the Kuomintang. Originally organized with Soviet aid as a means for the KMT to unify China against warlordism, the National Revolutionary Army fought major engagements in the Northern Expedition against the Chinese Beiyang Army warlords, in the Second Sino - Japanese War against the Imperial Japanese Army, and in the Chinese Civil War against the People 's Liberation Army.
During the Second Sino - Japanese War, the armed forces of the Communist Party of China were nominally incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army (while retaining separate commands), but broke away to form the People 's Liberation Army shortly after the end of the war. With the promulgation of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947 and the formal end of the KMT party - state, the National Revolutionary Army was renamed the Republic of China Armed Forces, with the bulk of its forces forming the Republic of China Army, which retreated to Taiwan in 1949 after their defeat in the Chinese Civil War. Units which surrendered and remained in mainland China were either disbanded or incorporated into the People 's Liberation Army.
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difference between neuromuscular junction and motor end plate | Neuromuscular junction - wikipedia
A neuromuscular junction (or myoneural junction) is a chemical synapse formed by the contact between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. It is at the neuromuscular junction that a motor neuron is able to transmit a signal to the muscle fiber, causing muscle contraction.
Muscles require innervation to function -- and even just to maintain muscle tone, avoiding atrophy. Synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction begins when an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal of a motor neuron, which activates voltage - dependent calcium channels to allow calcium ions to enter the neuron. Calcium ions bind to sensor proteins (synaptotagmin) on synaptic vesicles, triggering vesicle fusion with the cell membrane and subsequent neurotransmitter release from the motor neuron into the synaptic cleft. In vertebrates, motor neurons release acetylcholine (ACh), a small molecule neurotransmitter, which diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) on the cell membrane of the muscle fiber, also known as the sarcolemma. nAChRs are ionotropic receptors, meaning they serve as ligand - gated ion channels. The binding of ACh to the receptor can depolarize the muscle fiber, causing a cascade that eventually results in muscle contraction.
Neuromuscular junction diseases can be of genetic and autoimmune origin. Genetic disorders, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, can arise from mutated structural proteins that comprise the neuromuscular junction, whereas autoimmune diseases, such as myasthenia gravis, occur when antibodies are produced against nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the sarcolemma.
At the neuromuscular junction presynaptic motor axons terminate 30 nanometers from the cell membrane or sarcolemma of a muscle fiber. The sarcolemma at the junction has invaginations called postjunctional folds, which increase its surface area facing the synaptic cleft. These postjunctional folds form the motor endplate, which is studded with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at a density of 10,000 receptors / micrometer. The presynaptic axons terminate in bulges called terminal boutons (or presynaptic terminals) that project toward the postjunctional folds of the sarcolemma. In the frog each motor nerve terminal contains about 300,000 vesicles, with an average diameter of 0.05 micrometers. The vesicles contain acetylcholine. Some of these vesicles are gathered into groups of fifty, positioned at active zones close to the nerve membrane. Active zones are about 1 micrometer apart. The 30 nanometer cleft between nerve ending and endplate contains a meshwork of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) at a density of 2,600 enzyme molecules / micrometer, held in place by the structural proteins dystrophin and rapsyn. Also present is the receptor tyrosine kinase protein MuSK, a signaling protein involved in the development of the neuromuscular junction, which is also held in place by rapsyn.
About once every second in a resting junction randomly one of the synaptic vesicles fuses with the presynaptic neuron 's cell membrane in a process mediated by SNARE proteins. Fusion results in the emptying of the vesicle 's contents of 7000 - 10,000 acetylcholine molecules into the synaptic cleft, a process known as exocytosis. Consequently exocytosis releases acetylcholine in packets that are called quanta. The acetylcholine quantum diffuses through the acetylcholinesterase meshwork, where the high local transmitter concentration occupies all of the binding sites on the enzyme in its path. The acetylcholine that reaches the endplate activates ~ 2,000 acetylcholine receptors, opening their ion channels which permits sodium ions to move into the endplate producing a depolarization of ~ 0.5 mV known as a miniature endplate potential (MEPP). By the time the acetylcholine is released from the receptors the acetylcholinesterase has destroyed its bound ACh, which takes about ~ 0.16 ms, and hence is available to destroy the ACh released from the receptors.
When the motor nerve is stimulated there is a delay of only 0.5 to 0.8 msec between the arrival of the nerve impulse in the motor nerve terminals and the first response of the endplate The arrival of the motor nerve action potential at the presynaptic neuron terminal opens voltage - dependent calcium channels and Ca ions flow from the extracellular fluid into the presynaptic neuron 's cytosol. This influx of Ca causes several hundred neurotransmitter - containing vesicles to dock and fuse to the presynaptic neuron 's cell membrane through SNARE proteins to release their acetylcholine quanta by exocytosis. The endplate depolarization by the released acetylcholine is called an endplate potential (EPP). The endplate potential sets up an action potential in the muscle fiber which triggers contraction. The transmission from nerve to muscle is so rapid because each quantum of acetylcholine reaches the endplate in millimolar concentrations, high enough to combine with a receptor with a low affinity, which then swiftly releases the bound transmitter.
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter synthesized from dietary choline and acetyl - CoA (ACoA), and is involved in the stimulation of muscle tissue in vertebrates as well as in some invertebrate animals. In vertebrate animals, the acetylcholine receptor subtype that is found at the neuromuscular junction of skeletal muscles is the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), which is a ligand - gated ion channel. Each subunit of this receptor has a characteristic "cys - loop '', which is composed of a cysteine residue followed by 13 amino acid residues and another cysteine residue. The two cysteine residues form a disulfide linkage which results in the "cys - loop '' receptor that is capable of binding acetylcholine and other ligands. These cys - loop receptors are found only in eukaryotes, but prokaryotes possess ACh receptors with similar properties. Not all species use a cholinergic neuromuscular junction; e.g. crayfish and fruit flies have a glutamatergic neuromuscular junction.
AChRs at the skeletal neuromuscular junction form heteropentamers composed of two α, one β, one ɛ, and one δ subunits. When a single ACh ligand binds to one of the α subunits of the ACh receptor it induces a conformational change at the interface with the second AChR α subunit. This conformational change results in the increased affinity of the second α subunit for a second ACh ligand. AChRs therefore exhibit a sigmoidal dissociation curve due to this cooperative binding. The presence of the inactive, intermediate receptor structure with a single - bound ligand keeps ACh in the synapse that might otherwise be lost by cholinesterase hydrolysis or diffusion. The persistence of these ACh ligands in the synapse can cause a prolonged post-synaptic response.
The development of the neuromuscular junction requires signaling from both the motor neuron 's terminal and the muscle cell 's central region. During development, muscle cells produce acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) and express them in the central regions in a process called prepatterning. Agrin, a heparin proteoglycan, and MuSK kinase are thought to help stabilize the accumulation of AChR in the central regions of the myocyte. MuSK is a receptor tyrosine kinase -- meaning that it induces cellular signaling by binding phosphate molecules to self regions like tyrosines, and to other targets in the cytoplasm. Upon activation by its ligand agrin, MuSK signals via two proteins called "Dok - 7 '' and "rapsyn '', to induce "clustering '' of acetylcholine receptors. ACh release by developing motor neurons produces postsynaptic potentials in the muscle cell that positively reinforces the localization and stabilization of the developing neuromuscular junction.
These findings were demonstrated in part by mouse "knockout '' studies. In mice which are deficient for either agrin or MuSK, the neuromuscular junction does not form. Further, mice deficient in Dok - 7 did not form either acetylcholine receptor clusters or neuromuscular synapses.
The development of neuromuscular junctions is mostly studied in model organisms, such as rodents. In addition, in 2015 an all - human neuromuscular junction has been created in vitro using human embryonic stem cells and somatic muscle stem cells. In this model presynaptic motor neurons are activated by optogenetics and in response synaptically connected muscle fibers twitch upon light stimulation.
José del Castillo and Bernard Katz used ionophoresis to determine the location and density of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at the neuromuscular junction. With this technique, a microelectrode was placed inside the motor endplate of the muscle fiber, and a micropipette filled with acetylcholine (ACh) is placed directly in front of the endplate in the synaptic cleft. A positive voltage was applied to the tip of the micropipette, which caused a burst of positively charged ACh molecules to be released from the pipette. These ligands flowed into the space representing the synaptic cleft and bound to AChRs. The intracellular microelectrode monitored the amplitude of the depolarization of the motor endplate in response to ACh binding to nicotinic (ionotropic) receptors. Katz and del Castillo showed that the amplitude of the depolarization (excitatory postsynaptic potential) depended on the proximity of the micropipette releasing the ACh ions to the endplate. The farther the micropipette was from the motor endplate, the smaller the depolarization was in the muscle fiber. This allowed the researchers to determine that the nicotinic receptors were localized to the motor endplate in high density.
Toxins are also used to determine the location of acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. α - Bungarotoxin is a toxin found in the snake species Bungarus multicinctus that acts as an ACh antagonist and binds to AChRs irreversibly. By coupling assayable enzymes such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or fluorescent proteins such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) to the α - bungarotoxin, AChRs can be visualized and quantified.
Nerve gases and liquor damage this area.
Botulinum toxin (aka botulinum neurotoxin, BoNT, and sold under the trade name Botox) inhibits the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction by interfering with SNARE proteins. This toxin crosses into the nerve terminal through the process of endocytosis and subsequently interferes with SNARE proteins, which are necessary for ACh release. By doing so, it induces a transient flaccid paralysis and chemical denervation localized to the striated muscle that it has affected. The inhibition of the ACh release does not set in until approximately two weeks after the injection is made. Three months after the inhibition occurs, neuronal activity begins to regain partial function, and six months, complete neuronal function is regained.
Tetanus toxin, also known as tetanospasmin is a potent neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani and causes the disease state, tetanus. The LD of this toxin has been measured to be approximately 1 ng / kg, making it second only to Botulinum toxin D as the deadliest toxin in the world. It functions very similarly to botunlinum neurotoxin (BoNT) by attaching and endocytosing into the presynaptic nerve terminal and interfering with SNARE protein complexes. It differs from BoNT in a few ways, most apparently in its end state, wherein tetanospasmin demonstrates a rigid / spastic paralysis as opposed to the flaccid paralysis demonstrated with BoNT.
Latrotoxin (α - Latrotoxin) found in venom of widow spiders also affects the neuromuscular junction by causing the release of acetylcholine from the presynaptic cell. Mechanisms of action include binding to receptors on the presynaptic cell activating the IP3 / DAG pathway and release of calcium from intracellular stores and pore formation resulting in influx of calcium ions directly. Either mechanism causes increased calcium in presynaptic cell, which then leads to release of synaptic vesicles of acetylcholine. Latrotoxin causes pain, muscle contraction and if untreated potentially paralysis and death.
Snake venoms act as toxins at the neuromuscular junction and can induce weakness and paralysis. Venoms can act as both presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins.
Presynaptic neurotoxins, commonly known as β - neurotoxins, affect the presynaptic regions of the neuromuscular junction. The majority of these neurotoxins act by inhibiting the release of neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, into the synapse between neurons. However, some of these toxins have also been known to enhance neurotransmitter release. Those that inhibit neurotransmitter release create a neuromuscular blockade that prevents signaling molecules from reaching their postsynaptic target receptors. In doing so, the victim of these snake bite suffer from profound weakness. Such neurotoxins do not respond well to anti-venoms. After one hour of inoculation of these toxins, including notexin and taipoxin, many of the affected nerve terminals show signs of irreversible physical damage, leaving them devoid of any synaptic vesicles.
Postsynaptic neurotoxins, otherwise known as α - neurotoxins, act oppositely to the presynaptic neurotoxins by binding to the postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors. This prevents interaction between the acetylcholine released by the presynaptic terminal and the receptors on the postsynaptic cell. In effect, the opening of sodium channels associated with these acetylcholine receptors is prohibited, resulting in a neuromuscular blockade, similar to the effects seen due to presynaptic neurotoxins. This causes paralysis in the muscles involved in the affected junctions. Unlike presynaptic neurotoxins, postsynaptic toxins are more easily affected by anti-venoms, which accelerate the dissociation of the toxin from the receptors, ultimately causing a reversal of paralysis. These neurotoxins experimentally and qualitatively aid in the study of acetylcholine receptor density and turnover, as well as in studies observing the direction of antibodies toward the affected acetylcholine receptors in patients diagnosed with myasthenia gravis.
Any disorder that compromises the synaptic transmission between a motor neuron and a muscle cell is categorized under the umbrella term of neuromuscular diseases. These disorders can be inherited or acquired and can vary in their severity and mortality. In general, most of these disorders tend to be caused by mutations or autoimmune disorders. Autoimmune disorders, in the case of neuromuscular diseases, tend to be humoral mediated, B cell mediated, and result in an antibody improperly created against a motor neuron or muscle fiber protein that interferes with synaptic transmission or signaling.
Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder where the body makes antibodies against either the acetylcholine receptor (AchR) (in 80 % of cases), or against postsynaptic muscle - specific kinase (MuSK) (0 -- 10 % of cases). In seronegative myasthenia gravis low density lipoprotein receptor - related protein 4 is targeted by IgG1, which acts as a competitive inhibitor of its ligand, preventing the ligand from binding its receptor. It is not known if seronegative myasthenia gravis will respond to standard therapies.
Neonatal MG is an autoimmune disorder that affects 1 in 8 children born to mothers who have been diagnosed with myasthenia gravis (MG). MG can be transferred from the mother to the fetus by the movement of AChR antibodies through the placenta. Signs of this disease at birth include weakness, which responds to anticholinesterase medications, as well as fetal akinesia, or the lack of fetal movement. This form of the disease is transient, lasting for about three months. However, in some cases, neonatal MG can lead to other health effects, such as arthrogryposis and even fetal death. These conditions are thought to be initiated when maternal AChR antibodies are directed to the fetal AChR and can last until the 33rd week of gestation, when the γ subunit of AChR is replaced by the ε subunit.
Lambert - Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS) is an autoimmune disorder that affects the presynaptic portion of the neuromuscular junction. This rare disease can be marked by a unique triad of symptoms: proximal muscle weakness, autonomic dysfunction, and areflexia. Proximal muscle weakness is a product of pathogenic autoantibodies directed against P / Q - type voltage - gated calcium channels, which in turn leads to a reduction of acetylcholine release from motor nerve terminals on the presynaptic cell. Examples of autonomic dysfunction caused by LEMS include erectile dysfunction in men, constipation, and, most commonly, dry mouth. Less common dysfunctions include dry eyes and altered perspiration. Areflexia is a condition in which tendon reflexes are reduced and it may subside temporarily after a period of exercise.
50 -- 60 % of the patients that are diagnosed with LEMS also have present an associated tumor, which is typically small - cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). This type of tumor also expresses voltage - gated calcium channels. Oftentimes, LEMS also occurs alongside myasthenia gravis.
Treatment for LEMS consists of using 3, 4 - diaminopyridine as a first measure, which serves to increase the compound muscle action potential as well as muscle strength by lengthening the time that voltage - gated calcium channels remain open after blocking voltage - gated potassium channels. In the US, treatment with 3, 4 - diaminopyridine for eligible LEMS patients is available at no cost under an expanded access program. Further treatment includes the use of prednisone and azathioprine in the event that 3, 4 - diaminopyridine does not aid in treatment.
Neuromyotonia (NMT), otherwise known as Isaac 's syndrome, is unlike many other diseases present at the neuromuscular junction. Rather than causing muscle weakness, NMT leads to the hyperexcitation of motor nerves. NMT causes this hyperexcitation by producing longer depolarizations by down - regulating voltage - gated potassium channels, which causes greater neurotransmitter release and repetitive firing. This increase in rate of firing leads to more active transmission and as a result, greater muscular activity in the affected individual. NMT is also believed to be of autoimmune origin due to its associations with autoimmune symptoms in the individual affected.
Congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS) are very similar to both MG and LEMS in their functions, but the primary difference between CMS and those diseases is that CMS is of genetic origins. Specifically, these syndromes are diseases incurred due to mutations, typically recessive, in 1 of at least 10 genes that affect presynaptic, synaptic, and postsynaptic proteins in the neuromuscular junction. Such mutations usually arise in the ε - subunit of AChR, thereby affecting the kinetics and expression of the receptor itself. Single nucleotide substitutions or deletions may cause loss of function in the subunit. Other mutations, such as those affecting acetylcholinesterase and acetyltransferase, can also cause the expression of CMS, with the latter being associated specifically with episodic apnea. These syndromes can present themselves at different times within the life of an individual. They may arise during the fetal phase, causing fetal akinesia, or the perinatal period, during which certain conditions, such as arthrogryposis, ptosis, hypotonia, ophthalmoplegia, and feeding or breathing difficulties, may be observed. They could also activate during adolescence or adult years, causing the individual to develop slow - channel syndrome.
Treatment for particular subtypes of CMS (postsynaptic fast - channel CMS) is similar to treatment for other neuromuscular disorders. 3, 4 - Diaminopyridine, the first - line treatment for LEMS, is under development as an orphan drug for CMS in the US, and available to eligible patients under an expanded access program at no cost.
Bulbospinal muscular atrophy, also known as Kennedy 's disease, is a rare recessive trinucleotide, polyglutamine disorder that is linked to the X chromosome. Because of its linkage to the X chromosome, it is typically transmitted through females. However, Kennedy 's disease is only present in adult males and the onset of the disease is typically later in life. This disease is specifically caused by the expansion of a CAG - tandem repeat in exon 1 found on the androgen - receptor (AR) gene on chromosome Xq 11 - 12. Poly - Q - expanded AR accumulates in the nuclei of cells, where it begins to fragment. After fragmentation, degradation of the cell begins, leading to a loss of both motor neurons and dorsal root ganglia.
Symptoms of Kennedy 's disease include weakness and wasting of the facial bulbar and extremity muscles, as well as sensory and endocrinological disturbances, such as gynecomastia and reduced fertility. Other symptoms include elevated testosterone and other sexual hormone levels, development of hyper - CK - emia, abnormal conduction through motor and sensory nerves, and neuropathic or in rare cases myopathic alterations on biopsies of muscle cells.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy is an X-linked genetic disorder that results in the absence of the structural protein dystrophin at the neuromuscular junction. It affects 1 in 3,600 -- 6,000 males and frequently causes death by the age of 30. The absence of dystrophin causes muscle degeneration, and patients present with the following symptoms: abnormal gait, hypertrophy in the calf muscles, and elevated creatine kinase. If left untreated, patients may suffer from respiratory distress, which can lead to death.
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who was the last woman hung in england | Ruth Ellis - wikipedia
Ruth Ellis (9 October 1926 -- 13 July 1955) was the last woman to be executed in the United Kingdom, after being convicted of the murder of her lover, David Blakely.
From a humble background, Ellis was drawn into the world of London nightclub hostessing, which led to a chaotic life of brief relationships, some of them with upper - class nightclubbers and celebrities. Two of these were Blakely, a racing driver already engaged to another woman, and Desmond Cussen, a retail company director.
On Easter Sunday 1955, Ellis shot Blakely dead outside The Magdala public house in Hampstead, and immediately gave herself up to the police. At her trial, she took full responsibility for the murder; and her courtesy and composure, both in court and in the cells, was noted in the press. She was hanged at HM Prison Holloway.
Ellis was born in the Welsh seaside / rocky town of Rhyl, the third of six children. During her childhood her family moved to Basingstoke. Her mother, Elisaberta (Bertha) Cothals, was a Belgian refugee; her father, Arthur Hornby, was a cellist from Manchester who spent much of his time playing on Atlantic cruise liners. Arthur changed his surname to Neilson after the birth of Ruth 's elder sister Muriel.
Ellis attended Fairfields Senior Girls ' School in Basingstoke, leaving when she was 14 to work as a waitress. Shortly afterwards, in 1941 at the height of the Blitz, the Neilsons moved to London. In 1944, 17 - year - old Ruth became pregnant by a married Canadian soldier named Clare and gave birth to a son, whom she named Clare Andrea Neilson, known as "Andy ''. The father sent money for about a year, then stopped. The child eventually went to live with Ellis 's mother.
Ellis became a nightclub hostess through nude modelling work, which paid significantly more than the various factory and clerical jobs she had held since leaving school. Morris Conley, the manager of the Court Club in Duke Street, where she worked, blackmailed his hostess employees into sleeping with him. Early in 1950 she became pregnant by one of her regular customers, having taken up prostitution. She had this pregnancy terminated (illegally) in the third month and returned to work as soon as she could.
On 8 November 1950, she married 41 - year - old George Ellis, a divorced dentist with two sons, at the register office in Tonbridge, Kent. He had been a customer at the Court Club. He was a violent alcoholic, jealous and possessive, and the marriage deteriorated rapidly because he was convinced she was having an affair. Ruth left him several times but always returned.
In 1951, while four months pregnant, Ruth appeared, uncredited, as a beauty queen in the Rank film Lady Godiva Rides Again. She subsequently gave birth to a daughter Georgina, but George refused to acknowledge paternity and they separated shortly afterwards. Ruth and her daughter moved in with her parents and she went back to prostitution to make ends meet.
In 1953, Ruth Ellis decided to become the manager of The Little Club, a nightclub. At this time, she was lavished with expensive gifts by admirers, and had a number of celebrity friends. She met David Blakely, three years her junior, through racing driver Mike Hawthorn. Blakely was a well - mannered former public school boy, but also a hard - drinking racer. Within weeks he moved into her flat above the club, despite being engaged to another woman, Mary Dawson. Ellis became pregnant for the fourth time but aborted the child, feeling she could not reciprocate the level of commitment shown by Blakely towards their relationship.
She then began seeing Desmond Cussen. Born in 1922 in Surrey, he had been an RAF pilot, flying Lancaster bombers during the Second World War, leaving the RAF in 1946, when he took up accountancy. He was appointed a director of the family business Cussen & Co., a wholesale and retail tobacconists with outlets in London and South Wales. When Ruth was sacked as manager of the Little Club, she moved in with Cussen at 20 Goodward Court, Devonshire Street, north of Oxford Street, becoming his mistress.
The relationship with Blakely continued, however, and became increasingly violent and embittered as Ellis and Blakely continued to see other people. Blakely offered to marry Ellis, to which she consented, but she lost another child in January 1955, after a miscarriage induced by a punch to the stomach in an argument with Blakely.
On Easter Sunday, 10 April 1955, Ellis took a taxi from Cussen 's home to a second floor flat at 29 Tanza Road, Hampstead, the home of Anthony and Carole Findlater, where she suspected Blakely might be. As she arrived, Blakely 's car drove off, so she paid off the taxi and walked the quarter mile to the Magdala, a four - storey public house in South Hill Park, Hampstead, where she found Blakely 's car parked outside.
At around 9: 30 pm David Blakely and his friend Clive Gunnell emerged. Blakely passed Ellis waiting on the pavement when she stepped out of Henshaws Doorway, a newsagent next to the Magdala. He ignored her when she said "Hello, David, '' then shouted "David! ''
As Blakely searched for the keys to his car, Ellis took a. 38 calibre Smith & Wesson Victory model revolver from her handbag and fired five shots at Blakely. The first shot missed and he started to run, pursued by Ellis round the car, where she fired a second, which caused him to collapse onto the pavement. She then stood over him and fired three more bullets into him. One bullet was fired less than half an inch from Blakely 's back and left powder burns on his skin.
Ellis was seen to stand mesmerised over the body and witnesses reported hearing several distinct clicks as she tried to fire the revolver 's sixth and final shot, before finally firing into the ground. This bullet ricocheted off the road and injured Gladys Kensington Yule, 53, the wife of a local banker, in the base of her thumb, as she walked to the Magdala.
Ellis, in a state of shock, asked Gunnell, "Will you call the police, Clive? '' She was arrested immediately by an off - duty policeman, Alan Thompson, who took the gun from her, put it in his coat pocket, and heard her say, "I am guilty, I 'm a little confused. '' She was taken to Hampstead police station where she appeared to be calm and not obviously under the influence of drink or drugs. She made a detailed confession to the police and was charged with murder. Blakely 's body was taken to hospital with multiple bullet wounds to the intestines, liver, lung, aorta and trachea.
Three police officers were present during Ellis 's interrogation and during the taking of her statement at Hampstead police station: Detective Inspector Gill, Detective Inspector Crawford and Detective Chief Inspector Davies, but she had no legal representation at this time, or even when she made her first appearance at the magistrates ' court on 11 April 1955 and was ordered to be held on remand.
She was twice examined by principal Medical Officer, M.R. Penry Williams, who failed to find evidence of mental illness and she undertook an electroencephalography examination on 3 May that failed to find any abnormality. While on remand in Holloway, she was examined by psychiatrist Dr D. Whittaker for the defence, and by Dr A. Dalzell on behalf of the Home Office. Neither found evidence of insanity.
On 20 June 1955, Ellis appeared in the Number One Court at the Old Bailey, London, before Mr Justice Havers. She was dressed in a black suit and white silk blouse with freshly bleached and coiffured blonde hair. Her lawyers expressed concern about her appearance (and dyed blonde hair), but she did not alter it to appear less striking.
It 's obvious when I shot him I intended to kill him.
This was her answer to the only question put to her by Christmas Humphreys, counsel for the Prosecution, who asked, "When you fired the revolver at close range into the body of David Blakely, what did you intend to do? '' The defending counsel, Aubrey Melford Stevenson, supported by Sebag Shaw and Peter Rawlinson, would have advised Ellis of this possible question before the trial began, because it is standard legal practice to do so. Her reply to Humphreys 's question in open court guaranteed a guilty verdict and therefore the mandatory death sentence which followed. The jury took 20 minutes to convict her. She received the sentence, and was taken to the condemned cell at Holloway.
In a 2010 television interview Mr Justice Havers 's grandson, actor Nigel Havers, said his grandfather had written to the Home Secretary Gwilym Lloyd George recommending a reprieve as he regarded it as a crime passionnel, but received a curt refusal, which was still held by the family.
Ellis told her mother that she did not want a petition to reprieve her from the death sentence, and took no part in the campaign. However her relatives urged her solicitor John Bickford to petition to the Home Secretary, and he wrote a seven - page letter setting out the grounds. Gwilym Lloyd George took all the papers to the house of his sister Megan Lloyd George over the weekend, and decided that there were not sufficient grounds to recommend any interference with the due course of law.
Having been told that she would not be reprieved, Ellis dismissed her solicitor John Bickford (who had been chosen by Desmond Cussen) and asked to see Leon Simmons, the clerk to solicitor Victor Mishcon (whose law firm had previously represented her in her divorce proceedings but not in the murder trial). Simmons and Mishcon saw Bickford before going to Holloway; when Mishcon asked for a lead which might help save her, Bickford said "Ask her where she got the gun! ''. At 11.15 am on 12 July 1955, the day before her execution, Mishcon and Simmons saw Ellis, who wanted to make arrangements for her will. They pressed Ellis for the full story, which Ellis was reluctant to give; she asked Mishcon to promise not to use the information to try to secure a reprieve (Mishcon refused).
Ellis then revealed that she had been drinking with Desmond Cussen for most of the weekend and that Cussen had given her the gun and some shooting practice. Cussen had also driven her to the murder scene. Following the two - hour interview in the condemned cell, Mishcon and Simmons went to the Home Office, where they spoke to a senior civil servant. The Permanent Secretary Sir Frank Newsam, who was at Ascot races, was summoned back to London, and ordered the head of CID to check the story. Gwilym Lloyd George later said that the police were able to make considerable inquiries but that it made no difference to his decision, and in fact made Ellis 's guilt greater by showing the murder was premeditated. Lloyd George also explained that the injury to Gladys Yule was decisive in his decision not to reprieve Ellis: "We can not have people shooting off firearms in the street!... As long as I was Home Secretary I was determined to ensure that people could use the streets without fear of a bullet. ''
In a final letter to David Blakely 's parents from her prison cell, she wrote "I have always loved your son, and I shall die still loving him. ''
Ever since Edith Thompson 's execution in 1923, condemned female prisoners had been required to wear thick padded calico knickers, so just prior to the allotted time, Warder Evelyn Galilee, who had guarded Ellis for the previous three weeks, took her to the lavatory. Warder Galilee said, "I 'm sorry, Ruth, but I 've got to do this. '' They had tapes back and front to pull. Ellis said "Is that all right? '' and "Would you pull these tapes, Evelyn? I 'll pull the others. '' On re-entering the condemned cell, she took off her glasses, placed them on the table and said "I wo n't be needing these anymore. ''
Thirty seconds before 9 am on Wednesday 13 July, the official hangman, Albert Pierrepoint, and his assistant, Royston Rickard, entered the condemned cell and escorted Ruth 15 feet (4.6 m) to the execution room next door. She had been weighed at 103 pounds (47 kg) the previous day and a drop of 8 ft 4in (2.54 metres) was set. Pierrepoint carried out the execution in just 12 seconds and her body was left hanging for an hour. Her autopsy report, by the pathologist Dr Keith Simpson, was made public.
The Bishop of Stepney, Joost de Blank, visited Ellis just before her death, and she told him, "It is quite clear to me that I was not the person who shot him. When I saw myself with the revolver I knew I was another person. '' These comments were quoted in a London evening paper of the time, The Star.
The case caused widespread controversy at the time, evoking exceptionally intense press and public interest to the point that it was discussed by the Cabinet.
On the day of her execution the Daily Mirror columnist Cassandra wrote a column attacking the sentence, writing "The one thing that brings stature and dignity to mankind and raises us above the beasts will have been denied her -- pity and the hope of ultimate redemption. '' A petition to the Home Office asking for clemency was signed by 50,000 people, but the Conservative Home Secretary Major Gwilym Lloyd George rejected it. The British Pathé newsreel reporting Ellis 's execution openly questioned whether capital punishment -- of a female or of anyone -- had a place in the 20th century.
The novelist Raymond Chandler, then living in Britain, wrote a scathing letter to the Evening Standard, referring to what he described as "the medieval savagery of the law ''.
Though the British public as a whole supported the execution of a murderess, the hanging helped strengthen public support for the abolition of the death penalty, which was halted in practice for murder in Britain ten years later (the last execution in the UK occurred in 1964). Reprieve was by then commonplace. According to one statistical account, between 1926 and 1954, 677 men and 60 women had been sentenced to death in England and Wales, but only 375 men and seven women had been executed.
In the early 1970s, John Bickford, Ellis 's solicitor, made a statement to Scotland Yard from his home in Malta. He recalled that Desmond Cussen told him in 1955 that Ellis lied at the trial. Bickford had kept the information to himself. After Bickford 's confession a police investigation followed but no further action regarding Cussen was taken.
Anthony Eden, the Prime Minister at the time, made no reference to the Ruth Ellis case in his memoirs, nor is there anything in his papers. He accepted that the decision was the responsibility of the Home Secretary, but there are indications that he was troubled by it.
Foreign newspapers observed that the concept of the crime passionnel seemed alien to the British.
In 1969 Ellis 's mother, Berta Neilson, was found unconscious in a gas - filled room in her flat in Hemel Hempstead. She never fully recovered and did not speak coherently again. Ellis 's husband, George Ellis, descended into alcoholism and strangled himself in 1958. Her son, Andy, who was ten at the time of his mother 's hanging, took his own life in a bedsit in 1982, shortly after desecrating his mother 's grave. The trial judge, Sir Cecil Havers, had sent money every year for Andy 's upkeep, and Christmas Humphreys, the prosecution counsel at Ellis 's trial, paid for his funeral. Ellis 's daughter, Georgina, who was three when her mother was executed, was fostered by another family when her father killed himself three years later. She died of cancer aged 50.
The case continues to have a strong grip on the British imagination and in 2003 was referred back to the Court of Appeal by the Criminal Cases Review Commission. The Court firmly rejected the appeal, although it made clear that it could rule only on the conviction based on the law as it stood in 1955, and not on whether she should have been executed.
The court was critical of the fact that it had been obliged to consider the appeal:
We would wish to make one further observation. We have to question whether this exercise of considering an appeal so long after the event when Mrs Ellis herself had consciously and deliberately chosen not to appeal at the time is a sensible use of the limited resources of the Court of Appeal. On any view, Mrs Ellis had committed a serious criminal offence. This case is, therefore, quite different from a case like Hanratty (2002) 2 Cr App R 30 where the issue was whether a wholly innocent person had been convicted of murder. A wrong on that scale, if it had occurred, might even today be a matter for general public concern, but in this case there was no question that Mrs Ellis was other than the killer and the only issue was the precise crime of which she was guilty. If we had not been obliged to consider her case we would perhaps in the time available have dealt with 8 to 12 other cases, the majority of which would have involved people who were said to be wrongly in custody.
In July 2007 a petition was published on the 10 Downing Street website asking Prime Minister Gordon Brown to reconsider the Ruth Ellis case and grant her a pardon in the light of new evidence that the Old Bailey jury in 1955 was not asked to consider. It expired on 4 July 2008.
Ellis was buried in an unmarked grave within the walls of Holloway Prison, as was customary for executed prisoners. In the early 1970s the prison was extensively rebuilt, during which the bodies of all the executed women were exhumed for reburial elsewhere. Ellis 's body was reburied in the churchyard extension of St Mary 's Church in Amersham, Buckinghamshire. The headstone in the churchyard was inscribed "Ruth Hornby 1926 -- 1955 ''. Her son, Andy, destroyed the headstone shortly before he committed suicide in 1982.
Coincidentally, Styllou Christofi, who was hanged in December 1954 for murdering her daughter - in - law (the second - to - last woman to be executed in Britain), lived at 11 South Hill Park in Hampstead, with her son and daughter - in - law, a few yards from the Magdala public house at number 2a, where David Blakely was shot four months later.
In 1980, the third episode of the first series of the ITV drama series Lady Killers recreated the court case, with Ellis played by Georgina Hale.
The first cinema portrayal of Ellis came with the release of the 1985 film Dance with a Stranger, directed by Mike Newell and featuring Miranda Richardson as Ellis.
Both Ellis 's story and the story of Albert Pierrepoint are retold in the stage play Follow Me, written by Ross Gurney - Randall and Dave Mounfield and directed by Guy Masterson. It premiered at the Assembly Rooms as part of the 2007 Edinburgh Festival Fringe.
In the film Pierrepoint (2006), Ellis was portrayed by Mary Stockley.
Diana Dors, who had starred in Lady Godiva Rides Again, in which Ellis had had a minor, uncredited role, played a character resembling (though not based on) Ellis in the 1956 British film Yield to the Night, directed by J. Lee Thompson.
The case was the basis for Amanda Whittington 's play The Thrill of Love. It premiered at the New Vic Theatre, Newcastle - under - Lyme, in February 2013 and subsequently played at St James Theatre London with Faye Castelow in the main role. Maxine Peake played Ellis in an adaptation of Whittington 's play, broadcast on 5 November 2016 by BBC Radio 4
The life of Ellis was the inspiration behind a new musical play by Lucy Rivers, Sinners Club. A co-production with Theatr Clwyd, it premiered at The Other Room Theatre in Cardiff, February 2017.
The Ruth Ellis story was dramatized in the Murder Maps series of documentaries on the Yesterday Channel on 2 November 2017 ≤ ref ≥ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt7464202/.It featured Monica Weller ghost writer of RUTH ELLIS MY SISTER 'S SECRET LIFE.
The story was also the inspiration for the 2015 opera Entanglement by the composer Charlotte Bray.
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what does the piece of mirror do in harry potter | Magical objects in Harry Potter - wikipedia
The following is a list of magical objects used in the Harry Potter series.
In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Hermione Granger creates fake, enchanted Galleons that are used for communication between members of Dumbledore 's Army. Like real Galleons, the coins have numerals around the edge; on normal Galleons these serial numbers are n't used the same way the enchanted coins are used, the numbers represent the time and date of the next meeting, and automatically change to match whatever numbers Harry Potter sets on his coin. Due to the coins being infused with a Protean Charm, once Harry Potter alters his, every coin changes to suit. The coins grow hot when the numbers change to alert the members to look at their coins.
In Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, Draco Malfoy uses a pair of enchanted coins to bypass the communication limits imposed on Hogwarts, thus managing to keep in contact with Madam Rosmerta, whom he had placed under the Imperius Curse. Draco reveals he got the idea from Hermione 's DA coins, which were themselves inspired by Lord Voldemort 's use of the Dark Mark to communicate with his Death Eaters.
In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Neville Longbottom uses the DA 's coins to alert people such as Luna Lovegood and Ginny Weasley that Harry, Ron and Hermione have returned to Hogwarts. They then arrive at the Room of Requirement to fight in the Battle of Hogwarts on May 2, 1998.
A Howler is a blood - red letter sent to signify extreme anger or to convey a message very loudly and publicly. When it is opened, the sender 's voice, which has been magically magnified to a deafening volume, bellows a message at the recipient and then self - destructs. If it is not opened or there is a delay in opening it, the letter smolders, explodes violently, and shouts the message out even louder than normal. In the film version, the Howler folds itself into an origami - style set of lips and eyes, and shouts the message out and then shreds itself into scraps of paper before it burns itself.
In Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Ron Weasley receives a Howler from his mother, Molly Weasley, after he steals his father 's enchanted car and flies it to Hogwarts with Harry. Neville Longbottom confesses that he had once gotten a Howler from his grandmother, stating that he ignored it and that the result was horrible. Subsequently, Neville receives another Howler from his grandmother after Sirius Black uses his list of passwords to enter the Gryffindor Common Room in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. Hermione receives one in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire after Rita Skeeter publishes an article about the (fictional) relationship between Hermione and Harry. (In the film version, this incident is not referred to.) Dumbledore sends Harry 's aunt, Petunia Dursley, a Howler in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix to remind her of the agreement to allow Harry to live at Privet Drive when Harry 's Uncle Vernon attempts to throw him out. (This incident is not referred to in the film version.) In the film Harry receives a Howler from Mafalda Hopkirk to announce he has been expelled from Hogwarts for using underage magic outside school and his wand is to be broken.
A Deluminator is a device invented by Albus Dumbledore that resembles a cigarette lighter. It is used to remove or absorb (as well as return) the light from any light source to provide cover to the user. In Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, Dumbledore uses the Deluminator (then referred to as the Put - Outer) to darken Privet Drive, where the Dursley family household is located. It was next seen in Order of the Phoenix where Dumbledore loans the Deluminator to Moody, who uses it when transporting Harry from the Dursleys ' home to Number 12, Grimmauld Place. In Half - Blood Prince, Dumbledore uses the Deluminator again to darken Privet Drive before collecting Harry.
In Deathly Hallows, it is bequeathed to Ron by Dumbledore. After Ron had left his friends in anger, the Deluminator demonstrated an additional capability, similar to a homing device. Ron hears Hermione through the device as she says his name for the first time since he left, and, when he clicks it, the emitted ball of light enters his body and allows him to locate and Apparate to the vicinity of Harry and Hermione 's camp. Rowling stated Dumbledore left it to Ron because he believed he might have needed a little more guidance than Harry and Hermione.
Within the Harry Potter universe, an invisibility cloak is used to make the wearer invisible. All are very rare and expensive, and may be spun from pelts of the Demiguise, magical herbivores that are found in the Far East. They can also be ordinary cloaks with a Disillusionment Charm or a Bedazzlement Hex placed on them. Over time, these cloaks will lose their invisibility ability, eventually becoming opaque and vulnerable to penetration by various spells. Harry 's cloak, being one of the three Deathly Hallows, is a true cloak of invisibility, and will retain its invisibility forever. It is also resistant to most simple spells and charms (e.g. the summoning charm). Invisibility cloaks protect the wearer from visual detection only, meaning that even though the wearer can not be seen they are still solid, and can therefore be felt by physical contact. Alastor Moody 's magically charmed eye is able to penetrate them. The cloak is less effective against some animals, such as cats (e.g. Mrs. Norris) and snakes (e.g. Nagini). The Dementors in the books have no sense of sight and instead sense human despair, a sense unhindered by the use of an invisibility cloak. In addition to Harry 's cloak, Moody is known to possess two. One of these was borrowed by Sturgis Podmore in the course of work for the Order of the Phoenix. Barty Crouch, Sr. possessed one as well, which he used to hide his son Barty Crouch, Jr. to prevent him from going to Azkaban, the wizarding prison. Several times in the series, characters have been shown to either suspect or in some other fashion "sense '' that Harry is wearing his cloak: Snape is seen to be suspicious when being followed by Harry, even reaching out to grab at (what appears to be) thin air; in Half - Blood Prince, Draco Malfoy realises Harry is in his train carriage and successfully immobilizes him with a Petrificus Totalus (Body - Bind) curse, as despite wearing his cloak Harry inadvertently moved objects near him; and in Chamber of Secrets, Albus Dumbledore senses Harry and Ron beneath it in Hagrid 's cabin while talking to Lucius Malfoy during the event when Cornelius Fudge comes to take Hagrid to Azkaban and Lucius Malfoy hands over to Dumbledore his suspension letter.
The Deathly Hallows are three magical objects that are the focus of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- an unbeatable wand, a stone to bring the dead to life, and a cloak of invisibility. When owned by one person, they are said to give mastery over death. The objects are generally remembered only as part of a wizard 's fairy tale called The Tale of the Three Brothers, and have become mythological over time, but a small number of wizards including Dumbledore still believe in their existence and seek them. According to Rowling, the story about how these objects came into existence is based upon Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Pardoner 's Tale.
According to the tale, three brothers evaded Death, who gave them a choice of anything they wanted. The first brother chose a wand that could not be defeated in battle, the second brother asked for a way to bring back someone from the dead, and the third brother selected a cloak that made the wearer invisible, even to Death himself. Eventually, the first brother was killed, the second committed suicide, and finally, the third brother made Death a friend and gave the cloak to his son. The story is generally believed to refer to the Peverell brothers centuries ago, although very few actually believe the story to be fully true. Dumbledore believed that the Peverells were simply particularly powerful and ingenious wizard inventors. The sign of the Deathly Hallows had also been adopted as a personal symbol by dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald; therefore many wizards, such as Viktor Krum, mistakenly understood it to be a symbol of dark magic.
Dumbledore had sought the Hallows, initially in his youth as a friend of Grindelwald for the power they were said to bestow, but later on as a means to undo the accidental death of his sister. He eventually concluded he was "unworthy '' to possess them. He feels Harry could be a more worthy custodian but also fears Harry would be enamored of their power, therefore he guides Harry to them in a circuitous manner.
By contrast, Voldemort simply sought the wand for its supposedly unbeatable power, after his previous wand unaccountably failed to kill Harry Potter. He had not realised that the wand was one of three Hallows, nor sought the other two Hallows. He also possessed the Resurrection Stone but only made use of it as a horcrux. Dumbledore says that he doubts Voldemort would have any interest in the Cloak or the Stone even if he did know about them.
Harry eventually comes to possess all three Hallows -- the cloak being inherited from his father James Potter, later understood to be a descendant of one of the Peverell brothers, the Resurrection Stone in the Golden Snitch bequeathed to him by Dumbledore, and the allegiance and mastery of the Elder Wand when he defeats and disarms its prior owner, Draco Malfoy, who unwittingly won it from Dumbledore at the time of the latter 's death.
After Voldemort 's death, Harry uses the Elder Wand to repair his own damaged wand, then decides to return it to Dumbledore 's tomb, so that when he has a natural death, the Elder Wand 's power will die with him. In the film, Harry realizes that the Elder Wand is too powerful to fall into the wrong hands again, so he snaps it in two and throws it off a bridge. He also drops the Resurrection Stone in the Forbidden Forest but decides not to look for it in the hope that no wizard or witch will ever be able to own all three Hallows. He keeps the Cloak he had inherited, with the thought that he might pass it on to his children someday.
The Elder Wand, known throughout history as the Deathstick or the Wand of Destiny, is an extremely powerful wand made of elder wood with a core of Thestral tail hair. While most wizards have heard of supposedly invincible wands in wizarding history, wand experts and seekers after the Deathly Hallows realize that these are the same wand, reappearing periodically in the hand of a new owner.
According to the legend, the wand 's allegiance can only be won by killing its previous owner, and therefore its "bloody trail '' had become "splattered across the pages of wizarding history '', making it the Hallow most easily verified to be a real object. However, Harry discovers from Mr. Ollivander the wandmaker, this popular understanding is incorrect; the Elder Wand actually transfers its loyalty upon the defeat or disarmament, and not necessarily the killing, of its previous master. It will never work fully for a new owner otherwise. This subtle distinction becomes the basis upon which Voldemort is finally defeated, when he believes he has won the wand 's allegiance by killing Snape, who killed Dumbledore, while Harry realizes in fact he had defeated the wand 's true owner, Draco Malfoy, who had disarmed Dumbledore before Snape killed him. This left Harry and not Voldemort as the wand 's true master in their final encounter, even though neither Draco nor Harry had physically possessed the Elder Wand at that point.
According to wizard folklore, the Elder Wand used by its true master can not be defeated in a duel; this is incorrect, for Dumbledore was able to defeat the legendary dark wizard Grindelwald, who was the master of the Elder Wand at that point. It also appears, as the wand is somewhat sentient (as are all wands), that it will not allow itself to cause real harm to its true master. If its master dies naturally without ever being defeated or disarmed, the wand 's exceptional power will end for any following owner, since it was never won from the former.
The power of the Elder Wand was first shown in history, as Antioch Peverell, the eldest of the mythical Three Brothers, had a duel with an enemy he had long wanted to defeat. He won, and left his enemy dead on the floor; however after boasting of his unbeatable wand, Antioch was robbed and killed in his sleep by a rival wanting to take the wand. It eventually came to the possession of Gregorovitch, a Bulgarian wandmaker. Gregorovitch boasted about possessing the Elder Wand, believing it would boost his popularity, and he tried to reverse engineer its secrets as he faced competition from Ollivander. It was stolen from him by Gellert Grindelwald, a former friend of Dumbledore who sought to impose wizard power in the world. Grindelwald was defeated "at the height of his power '' by Dumbledore, who in his later years considered it the "only hallow (he) was fit to possess, not to boast of it or kill with it, but to tame it. ''
Dumbledore arranged his own death with Severus Snape, intending in part for Snape to "end up with the Elder Wand. '' Because his death would have been pre-arranged and not the result of his defeat, he had hoped this might break the wand 's power. However, Draco Malfoy disarmed Dumbledore before his death at the hands of Snape, causing the plan to fail; the wand was buried in Dumbledore 's tomb, but Draco had already unwittingly become its new master, even though he never took physical possession of it from Dumbledore. After Harry defeats Draco (even though Draco is not using the Elder Wand), the wand becomes loyal to Harry instead.
In the final book, Voldemort seeks the wand in order to defeat Harry -- his previous wands having failed -- and breaks into Dumbledore 's tomb to claim the wand as his own. During the Battle of Hogwarts, he understands that the wand is not performing for him as legend says it should, and mistakenly concludes this is because it had become loyal to Snape when Snape killed Dumbledore, and would only become loyal to him upon his killing of Snape. He therefore kills Snape, and believes the wand will thereafter serve him and be unbeatable, but during his final duel with Harry his Killing Curse rebounds and he dies -- as Harry had warned him -- since the Elder Wand will not allow itself to be used by him against its true master.
After Voldemort 's death, Harry uses the Elder Wand to repair his own broken holly and phoenix - feather wand, which he says he was "happier with '', and says he 'll return the Elder Wand to Dumbledore 's grave, feeling that if he dies peacefully, its superior power will end. In the film, Harry snaps the wand in two and throws the pieces off a bridge, wanting it to stay out of everyone 's possession forever.
Ron stated that the Elder Wand would be the Hallow he would choose, simply because it is the "unbeatable wand '', arguing that it was only dangerous to the brother who requested it because he kept on talking about his ownership of it and encouraging people to fight him. Hermione (who said she would choose the Cloak) is skeptical, reminding him that the Wand, by its very nature, would make its possessor overconfident and braggadocious. Rowling revealed in an interview that the first working title for Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows was Harry Potter and the Elder Wand.
The Resurrection Stone allows the holder to bring back deceased loved ones, in a semi-physical form, and communicate with them. The form of Sirius Black generated by the stone tells Harry that he and the other forms created by the stone are part of him and invisible to others. This seems to suggest that these apparitions are conjured from memories and are not really resurrected people. According to the fairy tale concerning the origin of the Deathly Hallows, using the Resurrection Stone drove the owner to kill himself because he brought his late fiancée back from the dead, and she was very unhappy in the real world for she did not belong there. By the time the stone was seen in Marvolo Gaunt 's possession, it had been set into a ring that bore the symbol of the Deathly Hallows, which the ignorant Gaunt believed to be the Peverell coat of arms; he used the ring to boast about his ancestry and blood purity. Both Dumbledore and Grindelwald desired the stone, but for different reasons. While Dumbledore wanted it to communicate with his dead family, Grindelwald allegedly intended to use it to create an army of zombie - like Inferi. Harry said this is the Hallow he would desire most, as like Dumbledore he could name people he would like to communicate with again. Voldemort became aware of the ring 's antiquity and eventually used the stone as a Horcrux, a container for part of his soul, being unaware of its additional magical properties.
Dumbledore recovered the ring from Marvolo 's estate, recognizing it as both a Horcrux and one of the Deathly Hallows. Forgetting that as a Horcrux, it was likely to be protected by curses laid by Voldemort, and blinded by personal desire, Dumbledore attempted to use the Resurrection Stone to talk to his deceased family. The curse destroyed his hand and began to spread throughout his body. Though the spread was partly contained in the destroyed and blackened hand by Snape, Dumbledore was doomed, having at most a year to live. In their Kings Cross encounter, Dumbledore told Harry that this proved he had learned nothing from his past mistakes and ambitions for using the Hallows, and was part of the reason for his fear that Harry might also become obsessed with their power if told of them.
The stone was later passed to Harry through Dumbledore 's will, hidden inside the Golden Snitch Harry caught with his mouth, nearly swallowing it, in his first - ever Quidditch match. The Snitch revealed the message "I open at the close '' when touched by Harry 's lips. Harry is unable to open the Snitch until he is about to die in the Forest, and realizes then "the close '' means the end, or his death. Harry uses the Stone to summon his deceased loved ones - his parents, his godfather Sirius Black, and Remus Lupin - to comfort him and strengthen his courage, before he goes to meet his death at Voldemort 's hand. The stone falls unseen from Harry 's numb fingers in the Forbidden Forest as he reaches Voldemort 's encampment. Harry survives the encounter and he and Dumbledore 's portrait later agreed that Harry will neither search for it nor tell others where it is. In a 2007 interview, Rowling said she would like to believe a centaur 's hoof pushed it into the ground, burying it forever.
According to the legend, the Cloak of Invisibility has the power to shield the wearer from being seen by Death. It was the Hallow belonging to the youngest brother, who did not trust Death and took the cloak to hide from him, only giving it up when he was old and ready for death. It is owned by Harry throughout the series, although only later does he discover its significance and origin.
Unlike other invisibility cloaks known to exist, this is uniquely a true invisibility cloak, in that it is able to completely shield the wearer and others from sight and can not be worn out by time or spells; other cloaks will lose their ability to conceal the wearer over time or become worn out, but the Hallow cloak will never fade or become damaged. At the end of Deathly Hallows, Dumbledore explains to Harry the Cloak 's true magic is it can shield and protect others as well as its owner. This is apparent when it does not respond to a Death Eater 's Summoning Charm while concealing Harry, Ron and Hermione in Deathly Hallows. Hermione claims that this is the Hallow she would choose, citing the usefulness Harry has found of it.
The cloak originally belonged to Ignotus Peverell. After his death, the cloak was passed down from father to son through Peverell 's descendants to James Potter. The Cloak was not in James 's possession the night he was murdered; he had previously lent it to Dumbledore, who was greatly interested in the Deathly Hallows and suspected that the Potter family heirloom was more than it appeared. Dumbledore returned the Cloak to Harry several years later as a Christmas present during his first year at Hogwarts. Harry uses the Cloak throughout the series in order to sneak around the school on various adventures. Harry 's father also used the cloak for similar purposes. It is large enough for Ron and Hermione to accompany him, and they frequently do, although this becomes increasingly difficult as they grow taller throughout the series.
While making the wearer invisible to Muggles and wizards, some creatures are able to sense people hidden under it. Snakes, for example, can not see through the Cloak of Invisibility, but they can somehow detect people under it. Mrs. Norris, Filch 's cat, also seems to sense Harry when he wears the cloak. Wearers can also be detected by the "Homenum Revelio '' spell. In Goblet of Fire, Moody 's magical eye can see Harry under the cloak. In Prisoner of Azkaban, Dumbledore warns that the Dementors ' perception of humans is unhindered by invisibility cloaks, as they are blind and sense people through emotions.
In the play Harry Potter and the Cursed Child Harry gifts the Invisibility Cloak to his eldest son James Potter, noting he 'd "been going on about the Invisibility Cloak since time itself ''. However, James ' younger brother Albus (the protagonist of the play) steals the Cloak and uses it to evade bullies at Hogwarts.
A Foe - glass is a mirror that detects and shows its owner 's enemies in or out of focus, depending on how close they are. Moody, in reality Barty Crouch, Jr. in disguise, said that when the whites of their eyes are visible, he is in trouble. When Moody / Crouch was attacking Harry, Harry watched Professors Snape, McGonagall and Dumbledore approach the room in the mirror before they actually got there. A Foe - glass is hanging in the Room of Requirement in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix when Harry uses the Room for D.A. meetings. Like all dark detectors, it can be fooled, as mentioned by Harry at the beginning of the first D.A. meeting.
The Marauder 's Map is a magical map of Hogwarts created by Remus Lupin, Peter Pettigrew, Sirius Black, and James Potter (respectively nicknamed "Moony '', "Wormtail '', "Padfoot '', and "Prongs '') while they were students at Hogwarts. During this time, they gained extensive knowledge about the school grounds, such as its various hidden passages, from their frequent night - time adventures together.
In Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Fred and George Weasley give the map to Harry so he can travel to the village of Hogsmeade through a hidden passageway. The twins had previously stolen the map from a drawer in Filch 's office that contained dangerous confiscated objects; it is revealed by Lupin that Filch probably knew what it was but not how to work it. Snape later finds the map in Harry 's possession and tries to force it to reveal its secrets, but the map merely mocks and insults him. Lupin (one of the creators of the map), the current Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, is called upon to investigate this "dark object '', and confiscates it to keep Harry safe, though he returns it to Harry after resigning his post at Hogwarts. From then on, the map becomes one of Harry 's most useful tools in his ongoing adventures.
At first glance, the Map is simply a blank piece of parchment; but when the user points his wand at the Map and says, "I solemnly swear that I am up to no good '', the message "Messrs. Moony, Wormtail, Padfoot and Prongs, purveyors of aids to magical mischief - makers, are proud to present the Marauder 's Map, '' and a detailed layout of Hogwarts appears. Saying, "Mischief managed! '' while pointing one 's wand on the parchment returns the map to its original blank state. The map displays the location of everyone within the castle and its grounds, and includes the location of secret passageways and instructions on how to access them. Several locations like the Room of Requirement and the Chamber of Secrets do not appear on the map, either as the Marauders did not have any knowledge of them, or, in the case of the former, they are not a fixed location. Furthermore, Animagus disguises, Polyjuice Potion, and Invisibility Cloaks can not fool the map, as shown in Goblet of Fire when Barty Crouch, Jr., using a Polyjuice Potion to disguise himself as Moody, and in Prisoner of Azkaban when Peter Pettigrew, who is supposed to be dead but as an Animagus has transformed into a rat, are both displayed on the map.
On the prop version of the map made for the films, the lines are made up of what at first glance are just random letters, but upon closer inspection are Latin words. The series makes no mention of Harry recovering the map from Moody 's office, even though he continued to use it in later books; when asked about this discrepancy, Rowling answered that Harry had indeed sneaked into the office and recovered it in the days following the Third Task, and that she had forgotten to include this detail in the book. When asked during an online question session, "What child did Harry give the Marauder 's Map to, if any? '' (after his school years), Rowling responded, "I 've got a feeling he did n't give it to any of them, but that James (Harry 's eldest son) sneaked it out of his father 's desk one day. '' However, in Cursed Child, Harry is shown to still possess the Marauder 's Map and gives it to Professor McGonagall to keep an eye on his wayward son Albus Potter.
A Probity Probe detects spells of concealment and hidden magical objects. The detector made its first appearance in Order of the Phoenix at the Ministry of Magic as a thin golden rod. After Voldemort 's return, Probes are used as part of the increased security at Gringotts as well as for scanning the students of Hogwarts for Dark objects. They are last seen when Harry, Ron, and Hermione arrive at Gringotts in Deathly Hallows to rob Bellatrix Lestrange 's vault of one of Voldemort 's Horcruxes.
A Remembrall is a small, clear orb, about the size of a large marble, containing smoke that turns red when it detects that the person holding it has forgotten something. Unfortunately, it does not tell the holder what has been forgotten, which makes it somewhat worthless. The forgetful Neville Longbottom is sent a Remembrall by his grandmother in Philosopher 's Stone. Remembralls are forbidden from being used during the O.W.L. exams, as they would enable students to know if they had written a wrong answer.
A Revealer is a bright red eraser, used to make invisible ink appear. It made its first appearance in Chamber of Secrets when Hermione tried to make hidden writing appear in Tom Riddle 's diary.
The Secrecy Sensor is a dark detector described as "an object that looked something like an extra-squiggly, golden television aerial. '' It vibrates when it detects concealment and lies. In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Moody mentions that it is "no use here, of course, too much interference -- students in every direction lying about why they have n't done their homework. '' However, it may have been responding to Moody 's own deception, as he was actually Barty Crouch Jr in disguise with a Polyjuice Potion.
In Order of the Phoenix, Secrecy Sensors are used at the Atrium Desk in the Ministry of Magic upon visitors to the government locale. Later in the book, Harry mentions to Dumbledore 's Army that they can be easily fooled like their other dark - detecting counterparts. In Half - Blood Prince, due to Hogwarts ' new stringent security measures, Argus Filch is assigned to inspect every student entering the castle with Secrecy Sensors. All the owls flying into Hogwarts are also placed under this measure to ensure that no Dark object enters the castle through mail. Hermione later explains that although Secrecy Sensors detect jinxes, curses, and Concealment Charms, they can not detect love potions, as they are not considered Dark.
A Sneakoscope serves as a Dark Arts detector. The device is described as a miniature glass - spinning top that emits shrill noises in the presence of deception, for instance, when an untrustworthy person is near or when a deceitful event takes place nearby.
Sneakoscopes are introduced in Prisoner of Azkaban when Harry receives a pocket - sized version from Ron for his 13th birthday. Bill says that Pocket Sneakoscopes are unreliable, as it lit up and spun at dinner for apparently no reason, but Fred and George had put beetles in his soup without his knowledge. The sneakoscope appears again on the Hogwarts Express, and again in Harry and Ron 's dormitory. Harry later discovers that Scabbers, Ron 's rat, who is present each time the Sneakoscope is spinning, is actually Peter Pettigrew in Animagus form. In Goblet of Fire, the somewhat paranoid Moody has several sneakoscopes that he somehow disabled (possibly related to a crack it was described as having), claiming, "It would n't stop whistling. '' Moody was later revealed to actually be Barty Crouch, Jr. under the effects of the Polyjuice Potion, thus explaining the constant alerts in his presence. Finally in Deathly Hallows, Hermione gives Harry a Sneakoscope for his seventeenth birthday which they later use as a lookout while in hiding.
The Weasleys have a special clock in their home, the Burrow, with nine hands, one for every member of the family. Instead of telling the time, the clock reveals the location or status of each family member. The known locations are: Home, School, Work, Travelling, Lost, Hospital, Prison, and Mortal Peril. The Weasleys are the only family mentioned in the series to own such a clock. Dumbledore calls the clock "excellent '' and seems impressed by it.
The location Mortal Peril is situated where the numeral 12 would normally be. Throughout the first five books the hands change to reflect the varying statuses of the family members, but by the sixth book all nine hands point to mortal peril at all times, except when someone is travelling. Mrs. Weasley takes this to mean that with Voldemort 's return, everyone is always in mortal peril, but she can not verify this as she does not know anyone else who has a clock like hers.
Various fans have re-created the clock for their own families, for example by using geofencing for cell phones.
Exploding Snap is a wizarding card game in which the cards spontaneously explode during games. The game is popular with Hogwarts students. In Chamber of Secrets, Harry and Ron are held back from investigating why spiders were fleeing Hogwarts because Fred and George delayed them with this game. Ron later singed his eyebrows while building a card house with Exploding Snap cards. In Order of the Phoenix, Lee Jordan is punished by Dolores Umbridge for saying that she can not tell them off for playing this game, as one of her Educational Decrees states that teachers can only talk to students about the subjects they are paid to teach. In Cursed Child Ginny remembers playing this game with Harry following the events of Chamber of Secrets and notes that it helped her to recover from the trauma (all the other students avoided her after learning the truth).
Gobstones is one of the many magical games played by young wizards in the books, along with Wizard 's Chess and Exploding Snap. Gobstones is similar to the Muggle games of marbles and pétanque, except that in Gobstones, the balls spit, or gob, a foul smelling liquid in the face of the opposing player when they lose a point. Hogwarts students are seen playing Gobstones throughout the books, and there is even a Gobstones Club at the school. It is also noted in the Harry Potter series that Eileen Prince (Snape 's mother) was captain of Hogwarts ' Gobstone Club, as a student, at age 15.
The Quidditch balls consist of a Quaffle, a large red ball (and the only one not bewitched to fly on its own) which the Chasers need to get through the three hoops on the field, gaining ten points each time this successfully occurs; two Bludgers, which fly around attempting to disturb the game and knock people off their brooms, and which the Beaters hit away from teammates and towards the opposing team; and the Golden Snitch, a very fast and difficult - to - see golden orb the size of a walnut with wings, which the Seeker on each team must capture to finish the game and gain 150 points. The Quidditch players wear gloves, leg pads, padded head guards, and occasionally goggles.
In Chamber of Secrets, a pack of Self - Shuffling Cards is mentioned as one of the various objects littering the floor of Ron 's room in the Burrow.
Wizard 's Chess is played with pieces and a board identical to Chess. The rules are also unchanged. The pieces are magically animated, and they violently attack each other when performing a capture, by knocking the captured piece out and dragging it off the board. The players order the pieces to move using algebraic chess notation.
Ron has a wizard 's chess set left to him by his grandfather and Harry first plays with pieces borrowed from Seamus Finnigan, which kept shouting him advice because they did not trust him. Harry later gets a set of his own in one of his wizard crackers during his first Christmas at Hogwarts.
During the climactic chapters of Philosopher 's Stone Harry, Ron and Hermione become human chess pieces in a life - sized game of Wizard 's Chess, which Harry wins thanks to Ron 's advice and sacrifice as a piece. In the films, the chess pieces are depicted using replicas of Lewis Chessmen.
A Horcrux is an object used to store part of a person 's soul, protecting him or her from death. The concept of a horcrux is very similar to that of the phylactery described by James George Frazer in his comparative study of mythology and religion, The Golden Bough.
If the body of the Horcrux 's creator is destroyed, the person is still able to survive. When the body of a Horcrux owner is killed, that portion of the soul that had remained in the body does not pass on to the next world, but will rather exist in a non-corporeal form capable of being resurrected by another wizard, as stated in Half - Blood Prince. If all of someone 's Horcruxes are destroyed, then the soul 's only anchor in the material world would be the body, the destruction of which would then cause final death.
This method was chosen by Voldemort to attain immortality. The concept is first introduced in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, though Horcruxes are present in earlier novels without being identified as such. Rowling uses Horace Slughorn 's expository dialogue to reveal that the creation of a Horcrux requires one to commit a murder, which, as the supreme act of evil, "rips the soul apart ''. After the murder, a spell is cast to infuse part of the ripped soul into an object, which then becomes a Horcrux. Rowling has never published the actual enchantment. In the final book of the series, Hermione finds the spell in a book titled Secrets of the Darkest Art. Rowling has revealed that she intends to detail the process and spell used to create a Horcrux in her long - mentioned Harry Potter Encyclopedia.
Both inanimate objects and living organisms have been used as Horcruxes, though the latter are considered riskier to use, since a living being can move and think for itself. There is no limit to the number of Horcruxes a witch or wizard can create. As the creator 's soul is divided into progressively smaller portions, they lose more of their natural humanity and the soul becomes increasingly unstable. Consequently, under very specific conditions, a soul fragment can be sealed within an object without the intention or knowledge of the creator. While the object thus affected will, like any Horcrux, preserve the immortality of the creator, it does not become a "Dark object ''. For example, Voldemort has unusual control over Nagini, and consequently Nagini is able to communicate with Voldemort about the presence of Harry in Godric 's Hollow in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.
Horcruxes made from inanimate objects are extremely difficult to destroy. They can not be destroyed by conventional means such as smashing, breaking, or burning. To be destroyed, a Horcrux must suffer damage so severe that repair through magical means would be impossible. Very few magical objects or spells are powerful enough to achieve this (mentioned and used were the Fiendfyre, Gryffindor 's Sword and Basilisk fang, the last two only being able to inflict such damage due to the basilisk venom permeating them both). Once a Horcrux is irreparably damaged, the fragment of soul within it is destroyed. A Horcrux can be deliberately magically undone only if the creator goes through a process of deep remorse for the murder committed to create the Horcrux. The pain of this remorse can be so excruciating that the process may kill the creator.
Voldemort 's creation of Horcruxes is central to the later storyline of the Harry Potter novels. As the number seven is a powerful number in magic, Voldemort intended to split his soul into that many pieces, with six Horcruxes and the last piece reposing within his body. When Voldemort attacked the Potter family, and his body was destroyed by the rebounded Killing Curse, a piece of his soul splintered off and attached itself to the only living thing remaining in the room, Harry Potter, in a manner similar to a Horcrux. Later on, Voldemort went on to complete his collection of the intended six Horcruxes by turning his snake Nagini into one, thus fragmenting his soul into a total of eight (counting the one residing in his own body), not seven, pieces. Complicating things even further, no more than six Horcruxes (including Harry) ever existed at any one time in the series: by the time Nagini had been made a Horcrux, one of the Horcruxes (Tom Riddle 's diary) had already been destroyed.
All of Voldemort 's deliberately created Horcruxes were made using objects that had been important to him or that held some sentimental value. He hid some of them carefully so that no one could find and destroy them, but used Nagini to do his bidding on several occasions, and the diary was always intended to be a weapon to carry out Voldemort 's plan to remove Muggle - borns from Hogwarts. Even without magical protection, Horcruxes can not be destroyed by any means of wand usage or physical force. In Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Harry intentionally destroys the diary with a Basilisk fang, although unaware it was a Horcrux at the time, to free Ginny from its influence. In Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, the discovery of the diary is revealed as the proof that leads to Dumbledore beginning the hunt for other Horcruxes, as it not only gives absolute proof that Voldemort split his soul, but also that there were likely other, better protected artifacts, given the risk Voldemort was taking by using the diary as a weapon.
Rowling revealed on Pottermore that Quirinus Quirrell served as a temporary Horcrux when Voldemort 's soul possessed his body during Harry 's first year at Hogwarts. A notable difference, however, is that the piece of soul within Quirrell was able to exist without its container, as it abandoned Quirrell and left him to die in the underground chambers.
Tom Riddle created his first Horcrux using a ring owned by his maternal grandfather, Marvolo Gaunt, during the summer before his fifth year as a student at Hogwarts, when he was fifteen years old. He casts the spell after murdering his Muggle father. The ring is introduced during the fourth chapter of Half - Blood Prince, having already been destroyed by Albus Dumbledore. In a Pensieve memory, it is revealed that Riddle had taken the gold ring, which has a black stone inscribed with a magical symbol, from his uncle Morfin Gaunt, whom he had framed for the murder of his father and grandparents by altering his uncle 's memories. Riddle wears the ring while still a student at Hogwarts, but eventually hides it in the house where the Gaunt family had lived. It remains hidden under the floorboards, placed in a golden box and protected by several enchantments, until Dumbledore finds it during the summer break between the events of Order of the Phoenix and Half - Blood Prince. Dumbledore destroys the first Horcrux with Godric Gryffindor 's sword, but, as revealed in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, he also recognizes the stone in the ring as the Resurrection Stone, one of the three Deathly Hallows. The Resurrection Stone was the Hallow Dumbledore most desired, hoping to assuage his guilt for his part in the death of his sister, Ariana. Though afterwards, he recognizes it as totally unwise, Dumbledore, forgetting it was also a Horcrux and thus likely to be protected by destructive enchantments, hoping to activate it and apologise to his long - dead family, places the ring on his hand. He is mortally injured by the ring 's curses. The injury leaves his right hand permanently disfigured and would have killed him quickly if not for the intervention of Snape who slowed the curse to Dumbledore 's withered right hand and arm, but could not stop it from eventually killing him, had it run its course. The damaged ring is kept for a time on a table in the Headmaster 's office.
Before his death, Dumbledore hides the ring 's black stone inside a Golden Snitch and he bequeaths the Snitch to Harry in his will. Voldemort remained unaware of the stone 's additional magical properties throughout his lifetime, Dumbledore noting that Voldemort 's fear of death and lack of loved ones would have given him no reason to be interested in the Stone for its original purpose, and doubting that Marvolo would have been remotely interested or aware of the Stone 's true history.
Tom Riddle used his diary to create his second Horcrux during his sixth year at Hogwarts. He cast the spell after murdering his fellow student Moaning Myrtle using the Basilisk. The diary is introduced in the thirteenth chapter of Chamber of Secrets and is destroyed by Harry Potter during the climax of the same book.
Before Voldemort 's downfall, he entrusted the Horcrux to Lucius Malfoy. While aware of its corrupting magical properties, Malfoy did not know the diary was a Horcrux, Voldemort having informed him of its value as a weapon but believing that he would be in a position to coordinate Malfoy 's use of it. In an attempt to discredit Arthur Weasley as well as dispose of an incriminating Dark object, Malfoy hid the diary in Ginny Weasley 's cauldron amidst her other books. Tom Riddle 's soul - fragment possessed Ginny and, through her, reopened the Chamber of Secrets, eventually starting to draw her life from her. At the end of book two, Harry saved Ginny and destroyed the diary by stabbing it with the venomous fang of a Basilisk, making it the first Horcrux to be destroyed. His reports of the diary 's behavior to Dumbledore were the latter 's first inkling that Voldemort might have created not just one Horcrux, but several: "What intrigued and alarmed me most was that the diary had been intended as a weapon as much as a safeguard '', implying that Voldemort must have had backups of some sort. It is also mentioned that Lucius was meant to wait for Voldemort 's say so before allowing the diary to be smuggled into Hogwarts, and that he never received it before Voldemort 's first defeat; Voldemort did n't know the diary was destroyed until he forced the truth out of Lucius, deeply enraging him at the manner Lucius had so blithely endangered a fragment of his soul.
To Rowling, a diary is a very scary object, having said in an interview: "The temptation particularly for a young girl, is to pour out her heart to a diary. '' Rowling 's little sister Diane was prone to this, and her great fear was that someone would read her diary. This gave Rowling the idea to have a diary that is, in itself, against the confider. When asked what would have happened if Ginny had died and Riddle had managed to escape, Rowling revealed that "it would have strengthened the present - day Voldemort considerably. ''
Tom Riddle used a cup owned by Hogwarts cofounder Helga Hufflepuff to create his third Horcrux. The spell was cast after he murdered Hepzibah Smith by poisoning her. The cup is introduced during the twentieth chapter of Half - Blood Prince and is destroyed by Hermione Granger in the thirty - first chapter of Deathly Hallows.
Hepzibah Smith, who owned the cup, was a distant descendant of Helga Hufflepuff. Riddle killed Smith, stole the cup, then framed her house elf Hokey for the crime. Voldemort entrusted the cup to Bellatrix Lestrange, who kept it protected in her vault at Gringotts Bank, a place to which Harry guessed a once penniless Voldemort would have always coveted a connection. Additional protective spells, including Gemino (multiply curse) and Flagrante (fire curse), were used to protect the contents of the vault. Harry, Ron and Hermione, with Hermione disguised as Bellatrix, broke into the bank and stole the cup. Hermione later destroyed the Horcrux using a fang from the remains of the Basilisk still in the Chamber of Secrets.
Riddle created his fourth Horcrux using a locket once owned by Salazar Slytherin, which had once belonged to Riddle 's mother, Merope Gaunt. The spell was cast after Riddle murdered a Muggle tramp. The locket is introduced briefly in Order of the Phoenix (described only as "a heavy locket that not one of them could open '') and is destroyed by Ron Weasley in the nineteenth chapter of Deathly Hallows.
Slytherin 's locket was passed down through the generations and eventually ended up in the possession of Merope Gaunt. After being abandoned by her husband Tom Riddle Sr., Merope sold the locket to Caractacus Burke, shopkeeper of Borgin & Burkes, for 10 Galleons, a small fraction of the locket 's true value. The locket was eventually sold to Hepzibah Smith. Riddle stole the locket, along with Helga Hufflepuff 's cup, after murdering Smith. Once the locket became a Horcrux, Voldemort hid it in a seaside cave where he had once terrorised two of his fellow orphans. The cave 's magical protection included a door that could only be opened with a blood offering, an enchanted boat, a basin of potion that causes pain and horrific visions to the drinker, and the use of Inferi. Dumbledore and Harry Potter pursued the locket in The Half - Blood Prince only to find a fake one at the bottom of the basin.
Disillusioned Death Eater Regulus Arcturus Black had learned about the Horcrux and its hiding place from his house elf Kreacher, whom he had originally volunteered to accompany Voldemort to hide the Horcrux. In an effort to bring about Voldemort 's eventual downfall, he and Kreacher navigated the magical protection and stole the locket, replacing it with the false one to fool Voldemort. While Black died in the effort, killed by the surrounding Inferi, Kreacher took the locket back to their home at Number 12, Grimmauld Place. Unable to destroy it like Black ordered, Kreacher continued to protect the locket for years. While the Order of the Phoenix was using the house as its headquarters, the locket was stolen by Mundungus Fletcher, a petty criminal and member of the Order. He gave it to Dolores Umbridge as a bribe when she caught him selling stolen property.
Two weeks after learning these details, Harry, Ron, and Hermione infiltrated the Ministry of Magic, where Umbridge worked, and stole the locket. Ron later saved Harry from being strangled by it when he wore it around his neck while attempting to retrieve the sword of Godric Gryffindor from the bottom of a lake in the Forest of Dean. When Ron attempted to destroy the locket, the fragment of soul inside assumed the shape of Harry and Hermione and played on Ron 's fear that his two friends had started a romantic relationship during his absence. Briefly at this point, Ron 's eyes gleamed scarlet, like Voldemort 's. Ron destroyed the locket using the sword of Gryffindor in the same forest.
Lord Voldemort created his fifth Horcrux using Rowena Ravenclaw 's diadem. The diadem is introduced by name in Deathly Hallows, but actually first appeared in Half - Blood Prince, described as "a tarnished tiara '' in the Room of Requirement. Ravenclaw 's daughter, Helena, stole the diadem from her mother in an attempt to become more intelligent than her mother. She fled to Albania, where she hid the diadem in the hollow of a tree when the Bloody Baron searched for her. After Helena was murdered by the Bloody Baron, she became the Ravenclaw house ghost and Tom Riddle, while a student at the school, charmed her into telling him the location of the diadem. Shortly after leaving Hogwarts and after the murder of Hepzibah Smith, he traveled to Albania and seized the artifact. Voldemort murdered an Albanian peasant to turn the diadem into a Horcrux. Years later, when Voldemort returned to Hogwarts, reapplying for the Defence Against the Dark Arts position but denied the job by Albus Dumbledore, he hid the diadem in the Room of Requirement. Because Voldemort believed himself to be the only one to have discovered the Room, he never placed any curses around the diadem.
In Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, Harry first comes into contact with the diadem when he hastily hides Snape 's old potions book in the Room of Requirement. The diadem was mentioned merely as an "old discoloured tiara '' in the sixth book; Harry used it to help mark the spot so he could later find where he placed the book. Later, after having the diadem described to him by the Ravenclaw ghost, Harry recalls this scene and hurries to retrieve it from the Room. The diadem was unintentionally destroyed by a Fiendfyre curse cast by Vincent Crabbe as he, Gregory Goyle, and Draco Malfoy attacked Harry, Ron, and Hermione inside the Room. In the film version, Harry stabs the diadem with another basilisk fang and Ron kicks it into the Room of Requirement, as the Fiendfyre reaches the door.
The sixth Horcrux was Nagini, the snake Voldemort had with him constantly. This Horcrux was created by Voldemort when he was hiding in the forests of Albania; the murder victim whom he used for its creation was Bertha Jorkins. He found Nagini, and becoming smitten by the snake, turned it into a Horcrux, being connected with it. In the last chapter of Deathly Hallows, Nagini was killed by Neville Longbottom using the sword of Godric Gryffindor. The destruction of the last remaining Horcrux made Voldemort mortal.
When Voldemort attempted to murder Harry, he inadvertently sealed a fragment of his soul within him in a manner similar to a Horcrux. The event took place just before the opening chapter of Philosopher 's Stone. Rowling has explicitly stated that Harry never became a proper "Dark object '' since the Horcrux spell was not cast. Regardless, as with all Horcruxes, Voldemort would remain immortal so long as his soul fragment remained within Harry. That portion of Voldemort 's soul is unintentionally destroyed by Voldemort himself at the close of the thirty - fourth chapter of Deathly Hallows with the help of the Elder Wand.
As a baby, Harry was in the room when Voldemort 's fatal Killing Curse backfired. Voldemort 's soul had been weakened and destabilised by his continuous murders and the creation of his previous Horcruxes. Harry became a Horcrux when a fragment of Voldemort 's soul attached itself to him after the unsuccessful curse. The lightning bolt - shaped scar on Harry 's forehead is a direct result of this attempted murder, and the connection that formed as a result is used to explain several important plot points. Throughout the series, Harry is able to receive insight into Voldemort 's mental and emotional states, allowing the reader to eavesdrop on the series ' primary antagonist. This insight is usually accompanied by pain in the scar on Harry 's forehead. Through Voldemort, Harry also inherited the ability to speak and understand Parseltongue. It is also revealed by Rowling in an interview that Harry 's frequent pain in his scar when Voldemort is either active, nearby, or feeling strong emotions, is really the trapped bit of soul yearning to depart from Harry 's body and rejoin its master 's soul.
This yearning was one of the reasons why the Killing Curse used by Voldemort on Harry in the Forbidden Forest does destroy the fragment of Voldemort 's soul within Harry, but only sends Harry 's soul into a near - death state. Harry could return to his body despite being hit by the Killing Curse from the Elder Wand because Voldemort had used Harry 's blood to regain his full strength in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, and because the actual master of the Elder Wand, Draco Malfoy, had been defeated by Harry making Harry the new master of the Elder Wand. Harry 's ownership of the wand used for the curse and the horcrux - like connection between Voldemort and Harry diminished Voldemort 's curse and protected Harry from irreversible death.
While Voldemort did learn of Harry 's telepathic connection, Voldemort was never aware that Harry was inadvertently carrying a fragment of his soul. With this destroyed, the connections between the two were also broken, and Harry never again felt pain in his scar. Rowling revealed Harry has also lost the ability to speak Parseltongue, though he regained the ability to understand it in Harry Potter and the Cursed Child after his scar began to hurt again following the rise of Voldemort and Bellatrix 's daughter Delphi whom Harry, his son Albus Severus, and his allies defeated and sent to Azkaban. In the epilogue of the film, the scar has faded to an ordinary looking scar on Harry 's forehead.
The Goblet of Fire is a goblet made of wood and is used at the beginning of every Triwizard Tournament. It is used solely to choose the participating school champions, serving as an "impartial judge. '' Slips of parchment with the names of potential candidates are placed in the Goblet and, at the designated time, a representative from each school is chosen when the slip of parchment containing their name spouts forth from the Goblet in a fountain of magical fire. The fake Moody stated once that the Goblet of Fire was "an exceptionally powerful magical object '' and it is very difficult to hoodwink, unless someone uses an exceptionally strong Confundus Charm.
During its use in Goblet of Fire, it is placed in the entrance hall and surrounded by an "Age Line '', a charm placed by Dumbledore to prevent underage wizards from entering the tournament. Anyone underage would grow a long white beard, as the Weasley twins demonstrated when they attempted to fool the goblet with an Ageing Potion. When not in use, the Goblet is kept in a jeweled casket in Dumbledore 's closet.
The Sword of Godric Gryffindor is a goblin - made sword adorned with large rubies on the pommel. It was once owned by Godric Gryffindor, one of the medieval founders of Hogwarts. In Chamber of Secrets, Harry draws the Sword out of the Sorting Hat to battle and kill a Basilisk. The sword also plays a key role in Deathly Hallows, where it is revealed to have become imbued with Basilisk venom following its use against the Basilisk, as it "only takes in that which makes it stronger ''. It is subsequently used to destroy three of Voldemort 's Horcruxes.
Because the Sword was goblin - forged, it is indestructible, and according to Griphook the goblin, the Sword was originally forged by the goblin Ragnuk the First and "stolen '' by Gryffindor, as The Sword was taken by Griphook when the Sword fell from Harry 's grasp during the raid on Bellatrix Lestrange 's vault in book seven. The sword returned to wizard hands, when Neville pulled it out of the Sorting Hat and used it to decapitate Nagini, Voldemort 's snake. This shows that no matter where the sword happened to be at the time, it will reappear in the Hat when a true member of Gryffindor house is in need of it.
Rowling has confirmed that Gryffindor did not steal the sword from Ragnuk and that this belief is merely part of Griphook 's goblin mistrust and prejudice against wizards. Godric Gryffindor commissioned Ragnuk the First to make the sword for him under his specifications. Once Ragnuk had made the sword, he was so fond of it that after he had presented it to Gryffindor, he told the goblins it had been stolen and sent minions to retrieve it for him. Gryffindor defeated the goblins using magic and instead of killing them, he bewitched them to go back to Ragnuk and say that if he tried to take the sword again, he would use it against them. The king took the threat seriously, but still insisted it had been stolen from him until the day he died.
It is mentioned in the Deathly Hallows that the Sword of Gryffindor is supposed to be in Bellatrix Lestrange 's vault, placed there by Severus Snape. Unknown to Bellatrix, that sword was only a replica. When Harry, Ron and Hermione were captured and brought to the Malfoy Manor, she spotted the sword near one of the Snatchers, who intended to keep it. She killed him and forced the rest out of the room, then tortured Hermione for information about the sword. But at Harry 's request, Griphook lied and said that the sword was a forgery. Bellatrix 's reaction to having her vault possibly broken into convinced Harry that the Horcrux was also placed in her vault.
Based upon the ancient alchemical idea of the Philosopher 's stone, the stone is owned by Nicolas Flamel and first mentioned in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone. The stone is legendary in that it changes all metals to gold, and can be used to brew a potion called the Elixir of Life, making the drinker immortal. The Philosopher 's Stone is seen only in the first and last book, although it is referenced several times throughout the series. It was destroyed at the end of the first book by Dumbledore with Flamel 's agreement.
In the American version, this stone is called the Sorcerer 's Stone.
The Sorting Hat is a sapient artefact used at Hogwarts, which uses Legilimency (essentially, the ability to read minds) to determine which of the four school houses -- Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, Ravenclaw or Slytherin -- each new student is to be assigned for their years at Hogwarts. The hat resembles a dilapidated conical leather wide - brimmed wizard 's hat, with folds and tears that make it appear to have eyes and a mouth. During the opening banquet at the beginning of each school year, the Hat is placed on every first - year student 's head. The Hat announces its choice aloud, and the student joins the selected house. The Hat speaks to the student while they 're being sorted and is willing to take the student 's preferences into account when it makes its decision. Sometimes it does not have the need to do so: for instance, the Hat barely touched Draco Malfoy 's head before sending him to Slytherin. The Sorting Hat had a difficult time placing Harry, almost placing him into Slytherin house before he requested specifically and emphatically not to be. The Hat instead placed him into Gryffindor, the house of his parents. Rowling has stated the reason for the Hat 's indecision as to which house to place him into was because it sensed the part of Voldemort 's soul within Harry.
The Sorting Hat originally belonged to Godric Gryffindor, one of the four founders of Hogwarts. The four founders used to hand - pick the students for their houses, but then realised someone else would have to do it after they died, so Gryffindor took off his hat, enchanted it, and let it choose. Since then, the Sorting Hat has always been used to choose which house the students are put in. Due to its age, it appears "patched and frayed and extremely dirty. '' Before Sorting the students each year, the hat recites a new introductory song. These songs occasionally warn of danger to come, as in Order of the Phoenix. The Sorting Hat 's songs vary in length and content, but always include a brief description of each house.
The Sorting Hat has shown the ability to conjure the Sword of Gryffindor from under its brim, as shown on two instances. Both times it is used to kill snakes; in Chamber of Secrets, it provides the sword to Harry to kill the Basilisk, and in Deathly Hallows, it delivers the sword to Neville. Dumbledore makes it clear in Chamber of Secrets that only a true Gryffindor can summon the sword in this fashion. In Deathly Hallows the Sorting Hat is set on fire by Voldemort, although it appears the hat was not destroyed, as Neville was able to draw the Sword of Gryffindor from it immediately after and behead Voldemort 's snake Nagini. In the epilogue at the end of Deathly Hallows, the Hat 's survival is confirmed, as Harry tells his youngest son that the Hat would take his preference into consideration.
According to Pottermore, a Hatstall is ' an archaic Hogwarts term for any new student whose Sorting takes longer than five minutes. This is an exceptionally long time for the Sorting Hat to deliberate, and occurs rarely, perhaps once every 50 years. Of Harry Potter 's contemporaries, Hermione Granger and Neville Longbottom came closest to being Hatstalls. The Sorting Hat spent nearly four minutes trying to decide whether it should place Hermione in Ravenclaw or Gryffindor. In Neville 's case, the Hat was determined to place him in Gryffindor: Neville, intimidated by that house 's reputation for bravery, requested a placing in Hufflepuff. Their silent wrangling resulted in triumph for the Hat. '
Rowling has stated on Pottermore that ' The Sorting Hat is notorious for refusing to admit it has made a mistake in its sorting of a student. On those occasions when Slytherins behave altruistically or selflessly, when Ravenclaws flunk all their exams, when Hufflepuffs prove lazy yet academically gifted and when Gryffindors exhibit cowardice, the Hat steadfastly backs its original decision. On balance, however, the Hat has made remarkably few errors of judgement over the many centuries it has been at work. '
In the Harry Potter films, the Sorting Hat is voiced by actor Leslie Phillips.
The Mirror of Erised is a mystical mirror discovered by Harry in an abandoned classroom in Philosopher 's Stone. On it is inscribed "erised stra ehru oyt ube cafru oyt on wohsi ''. When mirrored and correctly spaced, this reads "I show not your face but your heart 's desire. '' As "erised '' reversed is "desire, '' it is the "Mirror of Desire. '' Harry, upon encountering the Mirror, can see his parents, as well as what appears to be a crowd of relatives; Ron sees himself as Head Boy and Quidditch Captain holding the House Cup, thus revealing his wish to escape from the shadow of his highly successful older brothers, as well as his more popular friend, Harry. Dumbledore cautions Harry that the Mirror gives neither knowledge nor truth, merely showing the viewer 's deepest desire, and that men have wasted their lives away before it, entranced by what they see.
Dumbledore, one of the few other characters to face the Mirror in the novel, claims to see himself holding a pair of socks he always wanted, telling Harry that "one can never have enough socks, '' and lamenting that he did not receive any for Christmas, since people will insist on giving him books. However, Harry suspects that this is not true, and it is suggested in Deathly Hallows that what he really sees is his entire family alive, well and happy together again, much like Harry.
The Mirror of Erised was the final protection given to the Philosopher 's Stone in the first book. Dumbledore hid the Mirror and hid the Stone inside it, knowing that only a person who wanted to find but not use the Stone would be able to obtain it. Anyone else would see him or herself making an Elixir of Life or turning things to gold, rather than actually finding the Stone, and would be unable to obtain it. What happens to it afterwards is unknown.
In Order of the Phoenix, Sirius gives Harry a mirror he originally used to communicate with James while they were in separate detentions. That mirror is a part of a set of Two - way Mirrors that are activated by holding one of them and saying the name of the other possessor, causing his or her face to appear on the caller 's mirror and vice versa. Harry receives this mirror from Sirius in a package after spending his Christmas holiday at Grimmauld Place. Harry, at first, chooses not to open the package, although he does discover the mirror after Sirius 's death, by which point it is no longer functional. It makes its second appearance in Deathly Hallows when Mundungus Fletcher loots Grimmauld Place and sells Sirius 's mirror to Aberforth Dumbledore, who uses it to watch out for Harry in Deathly Hallows. When Harry desperately cries for help to a shard of the magical mirror (which broke in the bottom of his trunk), a brilliant blue eye belonging to Aberforth (which Harry mistakes for Albus 's eye), appears and he sends Dobby, who arrives to help Harry escape from Malfoy Manor to Shell Cottage.
The photographs and portraits in the world of wizards are not stationary like in the Muggle world. They move around within the frame and from one portrait to another, and are also able to talk if they are developed in a certain potion. A portrait of the Fat Lady is used in Hogwarts to cover the door to the Gryffindor common room and opens only when she is given the password. Also, there are various paintings of old Headmasters and Headmistresses of Hogwarts in Dumbledore 's office, and he is shown to be in discussion with them from time to time. He also uses the portrait of Phineas Nigellus, Sirius Black 's great grandfather, to communicate with Sirius and to keep a watch at the Order 's Headquarters through another portrait of Phineas in the house. The headmaster portraits are special, not simply due to the fact that they appear in them because of their death. The reason for this is that part of their soul stays behind in their portrait.
Prank objects from Weasleys ' Wizard Wheezes are made and designed by the owners of the shop, Fred and George, who test their new creations on themselves and other Hogwarts students.
There are also prank items which the Weasleys import from elsewhere, such as:
Zonko 's Joke Shop was a favorite place for Hogwarts students to shop on Hogsmeade trips. It carried "jokes and tricks to fulfill even Fred and George 's wildest dreams. '' Such products include Hiccough (Hiccup) Sweets, Frog Spawn Soap, and Nose - Biting Teacups. Fred and George tried to buy the place to expand their shop in Hogsmeade during Harry 's sixth year, but they turned it down due to the dark times coming up.
Other prank objects include Belch Powder, Dungbombs (which explode and cause a large and extremely smelly mess), and Ever - Bashing Boomerangs (which hit their target repeatedly after being thrown). Fanged Frisbees are quite literally normal Frisbees with fangs and are first mentioned in Goblet of Fire as one of Filch 's newest restricted items during Dumbledore 's start - of - term speech. However, they make their first appearance in Half - Blood Prince when Ron whirled one around the Gryffindor common room, it changed course with a mind of its own, and took a bite out of a tapestry. Most of these objects are banned at Hogwarts due to the possibility of injury.
More objects include Screaming Yo - Yos, which scream very loudly when worked, and Stink Pellets, which are used to distract prefects and teachers, and give a most unpleasant smell.
In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Hermione used an Undetectable Extension Charm on her beaded handbag, significantly enlarging the bag 's internal dimensions without affecting its physical size. As well, the mass of the objects placed in her handbag is negated, making the bag easy to carry. Bags similar to this appear in other contexts, such as the "bag of holding '' in Dungeons and Dragons or the "magic satchel '' in many other games. Hermione uses it to carry everything they need when they travel across the United Kingdom on their hunt for Horcruxes.
Mokeskin pouches are a type of draw - string pouch that can be operated only by the owner. Harry receives one as his 17th birthday present from Hagrid, using it to store several items of personal significance, such as the Golden Snitch, his broken wand, the false locket, the shard of Sirius ' mirror and the Marauders ' map.
Alastor Moody owns a strangely bewitched magical trunk. It has seven locks on it, and the trunk opens to a different assortment of objects for each lock. Most notably, though, the seventh compartment is about 10 feet (3 m) deep (possibly because of the use of an Undetectable Extension Charm), and is where Barty Crouch Jr. imprisoned the real Moody. Other compartments contain spellbooks, Dark Detectors, and Moody 's Invisibility Cloak.
A Pensieve is a stone basin used to review memories. Covered in mystic runes, it contains memories whose physical form is neither gas nor liquid. A witch or wizard can extract their own or another 's memories, store them in the Pensieve, and review them later. It also relieves the mind when it becomes cluttered with information. Anyone can examine the memories in the Pensieve, which also allows viewers to fully immerse themselves in the memories stored within, much like a magical form of virtual reality.
Users of these devices view the memories from a third - person - point - of - view, providing a near - omniscient perspective of the events preserved. Rowling confirmed memories in the Pensieve allow one to view details of things that happened even if they did not notice or remember them, and stated "that 's the magic of the Pensieve, what brings it alive. '' The memories contained in the Pensieve have the appearance of silver threads. Memories that have deteriorated due to age, or that were heavily manipulated or tampered with to alter perspectives (such as Slughorn 's), may appear thick and jelly - like and offer obscured viewing. Memories are not limited to just those of humans, since Hokey the house - elf provided Dumbledore with a memory as well. It makes its last appearance in Deathly Hallows when Harry uses it to uncover the truth about Snape.
In the fourth film, the Pensieve in Dumbledore 's office conforms to the description given in the novel. However, in the sixth and eighth films, it appears as a shallow metal dish, floating in midair and filled with a mercury - like liquid. During the eighth film, Harry removes it from the stone basin so he can use it to examine Snape 's memories.
Arthur Weasley owned a 1960 Ford Anglia 105E that he subsequently enchanted; consequently, the vehicle can fly, become invisible, and carry the entire Weasley family in spite of its formerly non-enchanted interior dimensions (also the Undetectable Extension Charm), among other abilities. In Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, the car is borrowed by Fred, George and Ron, who use it to rescue Harry from the Dursleys ' house. Ron and Harry later steal the car in order to return to Hogwarts after the gate to Platform 93⁄4 is sealed by Dobby. After they arrive at school, landing in the Whomping Willow, the car ejects Harry, Ron, and their luggage, then flees into the Forbidden Forest, ignoring Ron 's pleas for it to come back. Mr Weasley soon faces an inquiry at the Ministry of Magic, as seven Muggles saw the car flying across the countryside, and is forced to pay a large fine.
The car reappears when Harry and Ron visit Aragog in the forest: when the great spider 's colony of acromantula attempt to devour Harry and Ron, the car attacks the spiders and carries the boys to safety. The car does not return to the Weasleys despite saving Ron and Harry, instead re-entering the forest to remain on its own. The car 's current condition is undisclosed; Ron had commented that the enchanted vehicle had become "wild '' and thus operated autonomously, like a wild animal. In theory, it might still exist when the characters ' children attend Hogwarts.
The 1962 Ford Anglia used in the film was acquired by Rupert Grint, who plays Ron Weasley, and is currently displayed in the National Motor Museum, Beaulieu. A total of 14 Ford Anglias were destroyed during the filming of the scene where the car crashes into the Whomping Willow.
A replica of the car in its feral state can be seen in the queue line for the Dragon Challenge roller coaster at the Universal Studios Islands of Adventure theme park. Occasionally it blinks its headlights and honks its horn when its motion detectors sense that guests are standing in front of it or walking by it.
Broomsticks are used for transportation by witches and wizards of all ages, and for participating in the game of Quidditch. Their use is similar to that of flying carpets, although the latter are banned in Great Britain by the Ministry of Magic. However, they are uncomfortable for extended trips, even with a cushion charm applied, and thus many wizards favour other means of transport for those journeys.
Broomsticks are treated as a major consumer product in the wizarding world. There are numerous manufacturers and models of brooms, including Cleansweeps and Comets, all of which vary in their capabilities. These range from expensive high - performance models to toy broomsticks for young children that fly only a few feet off the ground to family - sized broomsticks that seat multiple people and include a luggage compartment below the seating area.
Since Harry plays Quidditch, his broomsticks - a Nimbus 2000 and later a Firebolt - are prominent in the series. The Nimbus 2000 was given to him by special consent of Dumbledore via Minerva McGonagall, who had chosen him as the Gryffindor Seeker. The Firebolt was given to him by his godfather Sirius Black as a Christmas gift after his Nimbus was destroyed by the Whomping Willow tree during a Quidditch match. The Firebolt remains the fastest broom in the world, having surpassed the previous record holder, the Nimbus 2001 (which Draco Malfoy owns and which his father Lucius Malfoy had given as gifts to the entire Slytherin team as a bribe to have Draco as their Seeker). The price of the Firebolt is so high it is only available upon request.
Floo Powder is a glittering powder used by wizards to travel and communicate using fireplaces. It was invented by Ignatia Wildsmith (1227 -- 1320) and named after the flue, which is the passageway that leads from a fireplace to the chimney and allows hot gases to escape.
Floo powder can be used with any fireplace connected to the Floo Network. To transport from one to another, the fire at the point of departure must first be lit. The traveler throws a handful of Floo powder into the flames, turning them emerald green, then steps into the fireplace and states the intended destination in a clear and purposeful voice. Floo powder can also be used for communication; a wizard or witch can kneel in front of the fireplace and stick their head into the fire, which will then appear in the fire of the destination fireplace, leaving the witch or wizard free to talk. It is also known that other body parts may be transported via Floo Powder, as Umbridge almost catches Sirius the second time he converses with Harry through the Floo network. Voices can also be transmitted through the Floo Network, as seen in the Prisoner of Azkaban by Snape, who summons Lupin through his office 's fireplace while interrogating Harry about the Marauder 's Map.
In Chamber of Secrets, the Weasleys travel to Diagon Alley using Floo Powder. Harry did not say "Diagon Alley '' clearly enough due to coughing in the fire 's smoke and ashes, so he was sent to Borgin and Burkes in Knockturn Alley. In the fourth book, Mr. Weasley uses his position at the Ministry to have the Dursleys ' fireplace temporarily connected to the Floo Network, unaware that it had been blocked up. Sirius uses the network to communicate with Harry in the same book. In the fifth book, Harry uses the Gryffindor fireplace and later Umbridge 's fireplace to communicate with Sirius; he is forced to use the latter because Umbridge begins monitoring all other lines of communication in and out of Hogwarts.
The Floo Network is controlled by the Ministry of Magic. The Ministry also has over 700 fireplaces in its headquarters so that officials and workers can go directly to / from work without the hustle and bustle of travelling on brooms or by Portkey - or the indignity of having to flush themselves in through a public toilet, as portrayed in Deathly Hallows.
According to Pottermore, the only licensed producer of Floo Powder in Britain is Floo - Pow, a company whose Headquarters is located in Diagon Alley. No shortage of Floo Powder has ever been reported, nor does anybody know anyone who makes it. Its price has remained constant for one hundred years: two Sickles a scoop.
Flying carpets are rugs, that are enchanted with the ability to fly. Flying Carpets were once an accepted form of travel for the British magical community, but they are banned due to being defined as a Muggle Artefact by the Registry of Proscribed Charmable Objects. It is therefore against British wizarding law to charm carpets or fly them, although they are still legal in other countries. Mr. Weasley was heavily involved in the introduction of this legislation due to his position in the Misuse of Muggle Artefacts office. It is revealed that the ban was relatively recent, not only due to Mr. Weasley 's involvement, but also because Barty Crouch 's grandfather owned and operated a 12 - seater Axminster before flying carpets were prohibited.
The Hogwarts Express is the train which transports Hogwarts students to and from the school at the beginning and end of each term. It also transports willing students home for the Christmas holidays. It is stationed in Hogsmeade when not in use, and it can be accessed only by using the magical wall between the platforms 9 and 10.
The Knight Bus is a heavily enchanted purple triple - decker Regent Three class bus that transports witches and wizards. It is hailed just like in hitchhiking, but instead of the thumb, the wizard has to hold his wand hand out to hail the Knight Bus. It makes its first appearance in Prisoner of Azkaban when Harry unintentionally hails it by holding his wand hand out. Harry has a final ride on the Knight Bus with a number of his friends in Order of the Phoenix. The Knight Bus is faster than travelling by broomstick, but not as fast as near instantaneous Floo Powder and Apparating. The bus charges for the service based on distance; Harry is charged a base fare of 11 Sickles to travel from Little Whinging to The Leaky Cauldron. Amenities such as hot - water bottles, toothbrushes, and hot chocolate are available for a small additional fee.
The bus functions as a convenient form of public transportation for the wizard or witch who can not or will not choose another means of transportation. The riders are seemingly picked up by the bus from all over in - universe Great Britain, bringing passengers to the destinations of their choice with seemingly no set route. It bolts through the streets entirely invisible to Muggles and causes other objects to dodge it (instead of the other way around) for short distance - travel. For longer distances, the Knight Bus makes hundred - mile (160 km) leaps, accompanied by a great bang and jolt. The interior of the bus changes depending on the time of day, having seats by day and beds by night. It is also highly uncomfortable, according to Ron and Harry. Its only mentioned limitation in travelling is that it is unable to voyage through water.
The conductor of the Knight Bus is Stan Shunpike, and its driver is Ernie Prang. In the third film, Ernie is accompanied by a talking shrunken head voiced by Lenny Henry.
As revealed on Pottermore, the Knight Bus was first commissioned in 1865 as a method for underage or infirm wizards to transport themselves discreetly. The idea was proposed by then - Minister of Magic Dugald McPhail, after a number of other ideas such as broomsticks with sidecars were vetoed, taking inspiration from the then - relatively - new bus service.
The actual Knight Bus seen in the film adaptation was built by grafting the top deck of a London AEC Regent III RT bus onto the top of another "RT '' bus. Both buses were originally built for London Transport; the "RT '' was the standard London diesel - powered double - decker bus of which approximately 4,000 were built from 1939 until the mid-1950s (and were used in daily service until 1979). The actual bus used was RT3882 (registration LLU681), with the additional top deck from former RT2240 (registration KGU169). Parts of RT 4497 (OLD 717) were also used. A replica of the Knight Bus sits in front of the London facade at The Wizarding World of Harry Potter in Universal Studios Florida, serving as a stage for a small audience - interactive show with a Stan Shunpike look - alike and a shrunken head.
Portkeys are first mentioned in Goblet of Fire by Mr. Weasley. They are an alternative to Apparation but can also be used to transport a group of people at once. Created by using the Portus spell, a Portkey can be set to transport anybody who touches it to a designated location or to become active at a predetermined time and transport itself and anyone touching to its set destination. It may be created for one - way, one - time use or to transport the holder to and from a particular place in a round trip. The creation of Portkeys is highly restricted and controlled by the Department of Magical Transport, Portkey office. Cornelius Fudge objects to Dumbledore spontaneously creating one, stating that Dumbledore has n't got authorisation; and at one point Lupin says, "... it 's more than our life 's worth to set up an unauthorised Portkey. ''
Any object can be used as a Portkey; it is common practise to select old, worthless items, to discourage unsuspecting Muggles from picking them up and activating them. Portkey objects used in the Potter series include a football and an old Wellington boot. Once the Portus charm is cast upon an object, it glows blue and vibrates gently; once settled it has become a Portkey. When Portkeys are activated, users feel the sensation of a hook being jerked from behind their navel. The floor disappears from beneath their feet, leaving their last position behind them, and they fly forward through a whirlwind of colour and sound, appearing suddenly at their destination. With enough practice it is possible to achieve a graceful landing: After the Portkey trip to the Quidditch World Cup in the fourth film, Mr. Weasley, Cedric and Amos Diggory land on their feet, while the less experienced teenagers, including Harry, fall on the ground.
A Portkey plays an important role in the climax of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. At the end of the Triwizard Tournament, the Triwizard Cup is revealed to have been turned into a Portkey by Barty Crouch Junior and it transports Harry Potter and Cedric Diggory to a graveyard where Cedric is killed and Voldemort regains physical form. Prompted by his parents, Harry later uses the Portkey to escape with Cedric 's body back to Hogwarts.
Sirius Black owned a flying motorbike, which he lent to Hagrid the night Harry 's parents died. It is first seen when Hagrid delivers the baby Harry to Number 4, Privet Drive in the first book, and then again when Hagrid uses it to transport Harry to a safe house in the seventh volume. In Deathly Hallows, various modifications have been made to the bike by Mr. Weasley, allowing it to create a brick wall or a net that erupts from the exhaust pipe and to shoot dragon fire from the exhaust, impelling the bike 's sudden acceleration. The dragon - fire feature is used to great effect by Hagrid and Harry when being chased by Voldemort; however, Mr. Weasley did warn that he was unsure of its safety and that they should use it only in an emergency. He was right to say this, as the sidecar of the motorbike, unaffected by Hagrid 's magic dislodged after the abrupt acceleration.
The bike is severely damaged when, with Hagrid and Harry aboard, it crashes into Ted and Andromeda Tonks 's garden pond. Mr. Weasley covertly tells Harry that he plans to put the bike back together when "he has time '', meaning when Mrs. Weasley is distracted or has forgotten about it. He hides it in the chicken coop and manages to repair it, giving it to Harry between the end of Deathly Hallows and the epilogue. The bike is now still in Harry 's possession, but he does n't use it.
A Time - Turner may be used for short - term time travel. Hermione receives a Time - Turner from McGonagall in Prisoner of Azkaban, enabling her to attend more than one class simultaneously. Hermione is ordered to keep it a secret from everyone, including Harry and Ron, although they do notice the suspicious impossibility of her schedule and several bizarre disappearances and reappearances. Hermione lets Harry and Ron in on the secret near the end of the book, when she and Harry use the Time - Turner to save Sirius Black and Buckbeak. Feeling the strain from her heavy course load, she finally returns the device to McGonagall at the end of the novel.
A large supply of Time - Turners is kept at the Ministry, as seen in Order of the Phoenix; however, during the events of that book, a glass - fronted cabinet containing the Time - Turners is destroyed. Due to their time - affecting properties, the cabinet is seen to fall, shatter and repair itself repeatedly. In Half - Blood Prince, Hermione quotes an article in The Daily Prophet which stated that "the entire stock of Ministry Time - Turners '' was destroyed during that incident. The books do not discuss who else may be in possession of Time - Turners outside of the Ministry. Time - Turners are very dangerous when in the wrong hands, as it 's said that many wizards met their demise after confronting and accidentally killing their own selves from the future so they are issued very carefully.
Hermione 's Time - Turner resembles a gold hourglass pendant on a necklace; it is unclear if all of them do. The user twists the hourglass pendant, with the number of twists corresponding to the number of hours of back travel required.
Time - Turners are a significant point device in Cursed Child, where it is revealed that a principle known as Croaker 's Law restricts all legal Time - Turners to travelling a maximum of five hours into the past (any longer would create ripple effects that would harm either the time traveller or time itself) - although it is widely rumoured that Draco Malfoy 's son Scorpius is the son of Lord Voldemort and that Scorpius ' mother used a Time - Turner to make this possible. An illegal Time - Turner capable of travelling back years is confiscated from a Dark wizard by the Ministry of Magic (although official word remains that all Time - Turners are destroyed) and is later stolen by Albus Potter and Scorpius Malfoy, who intend to travel back in time to prevent the death of Cedric Diggory. Unfortunately, they quickly discover the Time - Turner is a cheaply - made prototype that only takes them back for five minutes before forcibly returning them to the present. After accidentally creating (and then undoing) an alternate reality where Voldemort survived and took over the world, Albus and Scorpius resolve to destroy the Time - Turner, but are forced into another time trip by the story 's villain and are left trapped in the past when the Time - Turner is destroyed. Back in the present, Draco reveals he possesses a professionally - made Time - Turner (bound by neither Croaker 's Law nor the five - minute flaw) - he never admitted its existence for fear it would lend credence to the rumours surrounding his son and never used it (despite being tempted by the possibility of seeing his dead wife alive again). When Albus and Scorpius are able to send a message to their parents, Draco 's Time - Turner is used to rescue the boys.
The Vanishing Cabinet is a cabinet located in the Room of Requirement at Hogwarts that is a part of a set of two. The other cabinet resides in Borgin and Burkes. If used properly, a person who steps into one of the cabinets will instantly emerge from the other.
The Vanishing Cabinet is first seen in Chamber of Secrets when Harry hides in it to elude the Malfoys after accidentally traveling to Borgin and Burkes via the Floo Network; its transportation features are not activated as he does not shut the Cabinet completely. Its Hogwarts counterpart is also mentioned in Chamber of Secrets when Nearly Headless Nick persuades Peeves the Poltergeist to drop it (thus breaking it) over Filch 's office in order to help Harry escape detention for tracking in mud. It was also used in Order of the Phoenix by Fred and George when they forced Montague, the Slytherin Quidditch captain and member of the Inquisitorial Squad, into it when he tried to take house points from Gryffindor. Draco then learns of Montague 's experience, discovering transportation is possible between the two Cabinets and the other is located in Borgin and Burkes. In Half - Blood Prince he manages to fix the broken one at Hogwarts so as to transport the Death Eaters into the highly secured castle.
Though this set is the only one mentioned in the book series, the film version of Half - Blood Prince reveals that they were popular when Voldemort first came to power, as they would allow people to make a quick getaway from Voldemort and his Death Eaters in an emergency.
The Anti-Cheating Quill, a quill with an anti-cheating charm on it, first mentioned in Philosopher 's Stone. In book five they are assigned to every O.W.L. student -- and presumably those taking other exams -- in order to prevent students from cheating in their written exams.
The Auto - Answer Quill is a quill that has been bewitched so that when the quill touches a question on a piece of parchment it writes the answer instantly. The quill is banned from the O.W.L. Examinations and the inks are checked out every time the test is on.
The Blood Quill is a torture quill used by Umbridge throughout the Order of the Phoenix to punish students that she has given detention. It is described as having an unusually sharp black nib. As the user writes, the quill magically and very painfully cuts into the back of the user 's hand and uses his or her blood for ink. In the fifth book, Harry has detention with Umbridge on several occasions; he is required to write lines (I must not tell lies) and is not released from this until Umbridge believes "the message has sunk in. '' When carried out repeatedly over an extended period, this leads to permanent scarring, as Harry shows Scrimgeour in the last two books. The scars tingle whenever Harry hears Umbridge 's name, but it is not clear whether this is psychological or akin to Harry 's forehead scar hurting whenever Voldemort is active. Another victim of this form of detention is Lee Jordan; in the film adaptation of the book, members of Dumbledore 's Army are forced to use these quills as well. Blood quills are considered illegal to own.
According to Pottermore, the Quill of Acceptance is a magical object which detects the birth of a child with magical capabilities. It is located in Hogwarts School, where it records the children 's names in a large book. Professor McGonagall consults the book and sends out the subsequent Hogwarts acceptance letters by owl once the child turns eleven. It has been made very popular due to its use in registering users for the closed beta of Pottermore.
A Quick Quotes Quill is a stenographic tool, acid green in colour, employed by Rita Skeeter to spin the words of her subjects into a more salacious or melodramatic form. In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Skeeter uses the quill to interview Harry about his participation in the Triwizard Tournament for her column in The Daily Prophet. Harry continually tries to alert her to the inaccuracy of the quill; however, she continually ignores him. Additionally, in Deathly Hallows, Rita mentions in her Daily Prophet interview concerning her posthumous biography of Dumbledore that her Quick Quotes Quill helped her to write the book so quickly after his death.
The Spell - Checking Quill temporarily corrects spelling as the user writes; however, once the charm wears off it constantly misspells words, even if the user writes them correctly. The most notable example is its misspelling of Ron 's name as "Roonil Wazlib '' in Half - Blood Prince. It is sold through Weasley 's Wizard Wheezes, the joke shop opened by Fred and George Weasley.
These objects remain uncategorised as they are the only ones in their field.
Cauldrons are magical receptacles in which potions are brewed. They can be bought at the Cauldron Shop in Diagon Alley. There are many different sizes and materials for cauldrons; Hogwarts asks students to buy a simple pewter size 2 cauldron, though in the first book Harry expresses a longing for one of pure gold.
In Goblet of Fire, Percy Weasley writes a report on cauldrons for his new Ministry job in the hope that it will push regulation of the thickness of cauldron bottoms, as he believes foreign imports are a safety risk.
Gubraithian Fire is an everlasting magical fire that may only be created by extremely skilled wizards. Hagrid and Madame Maxime gave a bundle of Gubraithian fire, conjured by Dumbledore, as a gift to the Gurg (leader) of the giants during their attempts to sway them to Dumbledore 's side.
Omnioculars are a pair of magical brass binoculars used by Harry, Ron and Hermione in the fourth book during the Quidditch World Cup. Omnioculars, besides having the magnification capabilities of binoculars, have many other useful features. For example, they have the ability to slow down or replay something seen through the lenses, although a side effect is that the view in the lenses is not current and can lead to confusion as to the state of the match. They also have a play - by - play feature, where the names of moves performed by Quidditch players is shown in bright purple letters across the Omnioculars ' lenses. Omnioculars also have the ability to list the names and numbers of the players, and can zero in on players rapidly.
Spellotape is magical adhesive tape. The name is a play on Sellotape, a popular brand which has become a generic name for transparent adhesive tape in the United Kingdom. It is used by Ron in Chamber of Secrets to repair his wand after he breaks it while trying to halt Mr. Weasley 's flying car. It is also used by Hermione in Prisoner of Azkaban when she binds her Care of Magical Creatures textbook to prevent it from biting her, and by Kreacher to mend a photo of Bellatrix Lestrange later in the series. It is used by Ginny in Goblet of Fire, who was mending her copy of the One Thousand Magical Herbs and Fungi textbook.
A wand is a wooden stick - like object used to channel magical energy and thus increase its power, and without which only limited magic is possible. Wands are used as both tools and weapons in the wizarding world. They are thus an important aspect of nearly all magic, and great importance is placed on wand mastery. Wands are generally carried inside the wizard 's robes or otherwise somewhere on their person; however, they can also be placed into other objects. For instance, Rubeus Hagrid hid the broken halves of his wand inside his umbrella, and in the film adaptations, Lucius Malfoy hides his wand in his cane. In the magical world, when a wizard is expelled from Hogwarts, their wands are snapped in half. This type of damage to a wand is nearly irreparable, though Harry is able to mend his wand, which was accidentally broken by Hermione, with the help of the powerful Elder Wand.
A wand is made by a wandmaker who is learned in wandlore, the study of wands. Wands are handcrafted from high - quality woods, or "wandwoods '', which are capable of sustaining magic (e.g. holly, yew, ebony, vinewood, mahogany, cherry, oak, etc.). A core is then inserted into the middle of the wand from top to bottom, which gives it its power to generate magical effects. Common cores include phoenix tail feathers, unicorn tail hairs, and dragon heartstrings. Veela hair is also used, but less commonly. In the Deathly Hallows, the Elder Wand is described as the only wand with a core made from the tail hair of a Thestral. The only wand shop seen in the books is Ollivanders. Garrick Ollivander is a wandmaker who has an eidetic memory concerning wands, as well as the ability to identify the distinguishing features of a wand. In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Ollivander is seen to evaluate two foreign wands: Viktor Krum 's, whose wand was crafted by Gregorovitch, was unusually thick and had a dragon 's heartstring core; Fleur Delacour 's, created by an unknown wandmaker, was made of rosewood with a core of Veela hair. Ollivander believes Veela hair produces "temperamental '' wands and does not use it.
Salazar Slytherin 's wand contained a fragment of a basilisk horn, which allowed Slytherin and other Parselmouths who possessed it to cast spells with it at a distance by speaking to it in Parseltongue. In the United States, wand cores are created from the horn of river serpents, Wampus hair, Snallygaster heartstring and Jackalope antlers, a practice originated in the 17th century by the first American wandmaker, Isolt Sayre, an Irish immigrant who founded the Ilvermorny School of Witchcraft and Wizardry in Massachusetts, and the Slytherin wand 's last owner. She buried it outside the school grounds, and within a year, an unknown species of snakewood tree grew from the burial spot. It resisted all attempts to prune or kill it, but after several years the leaves were found to contain powerful medicinal properties.
A wand is generally considered a very personal object. Wands belonging to other wizards can be borrowed, resulting in a comparatively less potent effect. In Philosopher 's Stone, Harry had to try out many wands before he found one that "chose him. '' Wands with cores from the same source give strange effects (Priori Incantatem) when forced to fight each other, as is the case with Harry and Voldemort 's wands. In Goblet of Fire, it is revealed each of their wands contains a tail feather from Fawkes, the phoenix belonging to Dumbledore. After Priori Incantatem, the wands get to know the opposites ' master, as explained in Deathly Hallows. While, according to Ollivander, any object can channel magic if the wizard is strong enough, wands are the most commonly used because of their efficiency (due to the owner 's bond with the wand itself). This can explain how some wizards are able to use spells without wands (for example, retrieving an item with Accio).
Furthermore, wands are able to be won from a witch or wizard and can therefore change their allegiance. This is the case when Harry takes Draco 's wand at Malfoy Manor, and consequently the wand 's allegiance swaps to Harry, as explained by Ollivander; and, by extension, so does the allegiance of the Elder Wand, which itself has changed hands many times.
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benjamin or the diary of a virgin 1968 | Benjamin (film) - wikipedia
Benjamin (original title: Benjamin ou les Mémoires d'un puceau; U.S title: The Diary of an Innocent Boy) is a 1968 French comedy film directed by Michel Deville who co-wrote the screenplay with Nina Companéez.
"Benjamin was a role that I really liked, '' said Deneuve later. "It was a comedy, but in the spirit and tone particular. ''
In the eighteenth century, seventeen - year - old virgin Benjamin comes with his old servant to stay at the estate of his aunt, Countess de Valandry, who is having an affair with Count Philippe. Benjamin is pursued by various woman, including the beautiful Anne, who really loves Philippe.
Filming began in June 1967. The day before, Catherine Deneuve 's sister and fellow actress Françoise Dorléac had died in a car accident.
"It is a painful time in my life, '' she later recalled. "I was in a cloud. I shot like a misty PLC. Fortunately, grief did not score the film. ''
The film was the eleventh most popular movie at the French box office in 1968.
The critic for The Guardian claimed that "the dialogue is stylish without being witty and it is continuously and tiresomely arch. '' The Los Angeles Times said the film was "as superlatively acted as it is photographed and scored ''. The Washington Post said the film "has little to be said for it except is evidently authentic chateux ''.
Pauline Kael wrote that Pierre Clementi "indicates adolescent innocence by being loose - limbed and girlish. It is essential for the boy to suggest the kind of man he will become once he has learned what everyone is so eager to teach him, but Clémenti looks as though he would become a lesbian. ''
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where did england come in the euro vision | Pound sterling - Wikipedia
United Kingdom
Guernsey (local issue: Guernsey pound)
Isle of Man (local issue: Manx pound)
The pound sterling (symbol: £; ISO code: GBP), commonly known as the pound, is the official currency of the United Kingdom, Jersey, Guernsey, the Isle of Man, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, the British Antarctic Territory, and Tristan da Cunha. It is subdivided into 100 pence (singular: penny, abbreviated: p). A number of nations that do not use sterling also have currencies called the pound. At various times, the pound sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold, but it is currently fiat money, backed only by the economy in the areas where it is accepted. The pound sterling is the world 's oldest currency still in use and which has been in continuous use since its inception.
The British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling: the "Guernsey pound '' and the "Jersey pound ''. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man (alongside the Manx pound), Gibraltar (alongside the Gibraltar pound), the Falkland Islands (alongside the Falkland Islands pound), Saint Helena and Ascension Island in Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (alongside the Saint Helena pound). The Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Banknotes issued by other jurisdictions are not regulated by the Bank of England; local governments use Bank of England notes as backing for local issuance by allowing them to be exchanged 1: 1 at face value.
Sterling is the fourth most - traded currency in the foreign exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro, and the Japanese yen. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, with an 11.3 % weighting as of 2011 (USD 41.9 %, Euro 37.4 %, Yen 9.4 %). Sterling is also the third most - held reserve currency in global reserves (about 4 %).
The full official name pound sterling (plural: pounds sterling), is used mainly in formal contexts and also when it is necessary to distinguish the United Kingdom currency from other currencies with the same name. Otherwise the term pound is normally used. The currency name is sometimes abbreviated to just sterling, particularly in the wholesale financial markets, but not when referring to specific amounts; for example, "Payment is accepted in sterling '' but never "These cost five sterling ''. The abbreviations "ster. '' and "stg. '' are sometimes used. The term "British pound '' is sometimes incorrectly used in less formal contexts, and it is not an official name of the currency.
The exchange rate of the pound sterling against the US Dollar is referred to as "cable '' in the wholesale foreign exchange markets. The origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the GBP / USD exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex traders of GBP / USD are sometimes referred to as "cable dealers ''. GBP / USD is now the only currency pair with its own name in the foreign exchange markets, after IEP / USD, known as "wire '' particularly in the forward FX markets, no longer exists after the Irish Pound was replaced by the euro in 1999.
There is apparent convergence of opinion regarding the origin of the term "pound sterling '', toward its derivation from the name of a small Norman silver coin, and away from its association with Easterlings (Germanic traders) or other etymologies. Hence, the Oxford English Dictionary (and sources derived therefrom) state that the "most plausible '' etymology is derivation from the Old English steorra for "star '' with the added diminutive suffix "- ling '', to mean "little star '' and to refer to a silver penny of the English Normans. As another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived:
silver coins known as "sterlings '' were issued in the Saxon kingdoms, 240 of them being minted from a pound of silver... Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in "pounds of sterlings, '' a phrase later shortened...
However, the perceived narrow window of the issuance of this coin, and the fact that coin designs changed frequently in the period in question, led Philip Grierson to reject this in favour of a more complex theory.
Another argument that the Hanseatic League was the origin for both the origin of its definition and manufacture, and in its name is that the German name for the Baltic is "Ost See '', or "East Sea '', and from this the Baltic merchants were called "Osterlings '', or "Easterlings ''. In 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called "Easterlings Hall '', or Esterlingeshalle. Because the League 's money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the "Easterlings '', which was contracted to "' sterling ''.
For further discussion of the etymology of "sterling '', see sterling silver.
The currency sign for the pound is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar (as on sterling bank notes), though a version with a double cross-bar (₤) is also sometimes seen. This symbol derives from medieval Latin documents; the Roman words libra, solidus, and denarius (£ sd) referred to pounds, shillings and pence in the British pre-decimal (duodecimal) currency system and the black - letter "L '' was the abbreviation for libra, the basic Roman unit of weight.
The ISO 4217 currency code is GBP, formed from "GB '', the ISO 3166 - 1 alpha - 2 code for the United Kingdom, and the first letter of "pound ''. It does not stand for "Great Britain Pound '' or "Great British Pound ''. Occasionally, the abbreviation "UKP '' is used but this is non-standard because the ISO 3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB (see Terminology of the British Isles). The Crown dependencies use their own (non-ISO) codes: GGP (Guernsey pound), JEP (Jersey pound) and IMP (Isle of Man pound). Stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX (sometimes GBp), when listing stock prices.
A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, which is singular and plural, except in the common phrase "Quids in! '' The term may have come via Italian immigrants from "scudo '', the name for a number of coins used in Italy until the 19th century; or from Latin ' quid ' via the common phrase quid pro quo, literally, "what for what, '' or, figuratively, "An equal exchange or substitution ''.
Since decimalisation in 1971 (see Decimal Day), the pound has been divided into 100 pence (until 1981 described on the coinage as "new pence ''). The symbol for the penny is "p ''; hence an amount such as 50p (£ 0.50) properly pronounced "fifty pence '' is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced "fifty pee '' / fɪfti: pi:/. This also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system. A decimal halfpenny was issued until 1984, but was removed due to having a higher cost to manufacture than its face value.
Prior to decimalisation, the pound was divided into 20 shillings and each shilling into 12 pence, making 240 pence to the pound. The symbol for the shilling was "s. '' -- not from the first letter of the word, but from the Latin solidus. The symbol for the penny was "d. '', from the French denier, from the Latin denarius (the solidus and denarius were Roman coins). A mixed sum of shillings and pence, such as 3 shillings and 6 pence, was written as "3 / 6 '' or "3s. 6d. '' and spoken as "three and six '' or "three and sixpence '' except for "1 / 1, '' "2 / 1 '' etc., which were spoken as "one and a penny '', "two and a penny '', etc.). 5 shillings, for example, was written as "5s. '' or, more commonly, "5 / -- ''. Various coin denominations had, and in some cases continue to have, special names -- such as crown, farthing, sovereign and guinea. See Coins of the pound sterling and List of British coins and banknotes for details.
By the 1950s, coins of Kings George III, George IV and William IV had disappeared from circulation, but coins (at least the penny) bearing the head of any British king or queen from Queen Victoria onwards could be found in circulation. Silver coins were replaced by those in cupro - nickel in 1947, and by the 1960s the silver coins were rarely seen. Silver / cupro - nickel shillings (from any period after 1816) and florins (2 shillings) remained as legal tender after decimalisation (as 5p and 10p respectively) until 1993, but are now officially demonetised.
The pound sterling is the world 's oldest currency still in use.
The pound was a unit of account in Anglo - Saxon England, equal to 240 silver pennies and equivalent to one pound weight of silver. It evolved into the modern British currency, the pound sterling.
The accounting system of 4 farthings = 1 penny, 12 pence = 1 shilling, 20 shillings = 1 pound was adopted from that introduced by Charlemagne to the Frankish Empire (see French livre).
The origins of sterling lie in the reign of King Offa of Mercia (757 -- 796), who introduced the silver penny. It copied the denarius of the new currency system of Charlemagne 's Frankish Empire. As in the Carolingian system, 240 pennies weighed 1 pound (corresponding to Charlemagne 's libra), with the shilling corresponding to Charlemagne 's solidus and equal to 12d. At the time of the penny 's introduction, it weighed 22.5 troy grains of fine silver (32 tower grains; about 1.5 g), indicating that the Mercian pound weighed 5,400 troy grains (the Mercian pound became the basis of the tower pound, which also weighed 5,400 troy grains, equivalent to 7,680 tower grains, about 350g).
The early pennies were struck from fine silver (as pure as was available). However, in 1158, a new coinage was introduced by King Henry II (known as the Tealby penny) which was struck from 0.925 (92.5 %) silver. This became the standard until the 20th century and is today known as sterling silver, named after its association with the currency. Sterling silver is harder than the 0.999 (99.9 %) fine silver that was traditionally used, and so sterling silver coins did not wear down as rapidly as fine silver coins. The English currency was almost exclusively silver until 1344, when the gold noble was successfully introduced into circulation. However, silver remained the legal basis for sterling until 1816.
During the time of Henry III, the pound sterling equalled the pound weight Tower. In the 28th year of Edward I (around 1300), the Tale Pound, or Pound Sterling, first began to differ from or come short of the Pound weight Tower, from which it originated and to which it had been equal until then, for by indenture of that year the pound weight was to contain 20s. 3d. in Tale. In the 27th year of Edward III (around 1354), the pound sterling was now only 80 % of the pound weight, or 9 oz 12 dwt (or 9.6 oz) Tower. By an Act of 13 Henry IV (around 1412), the pound weight of standard silver was to contain thirty shillings in Tale, or one and a half pounds sterling; thus the pound sterling reduced to two - thirds of a pound weight, or 8 oz Tower. The pound sterling was adjusted in weight several more times thereafter.
In the reign of Henry IV (1399 -- 1413), the penny was reduced in weight to 15 grains (0.97 g) of silver, with a further reduction to 12 grains (0.78 g) in 1464.
During the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI, the silver coinage was drastically debased, although the pound was redefined to the troy pound of 5,760 grains (373 g) in 1526. In 1544, a silver coinage was issued containing just one - third silver and two - thirds copper -- equating to. 333 silver, or 33.3 % pure. The result was a coin copper in appearance but relatively pale in colour. In 1552, a new silver coinage was introduced, struck in sterling silver. However, the penny 's weight was reduced to 8 grains (0.52 g), so 1 troy pound of sterling silver produced 60 shillings of coins. This silver standard was known as the "60 - shilling standard '' and lasted until 1601 when a "62 - shilling standard '' was introduced, reducing the penny 's weight to 7 ⁄ grains (0.50 g).
Throughout this period, the size and value of the gold coinage fluctuated considerably.
In 1663, a new gold coinage was introduced based on the 22 carat fine guinea. Fixed in weight at 44 ⁄ to the troy pound from 1670, this coin 's value varied considerably until 1717, when it was fixed at 21 shillings (21 / -, 1.05 pounds). However, despite the efforts of Sir Isaac Newton, Master of the Mint, to reduce the guinea 's value, this valuation overvalued gold relative to silver when compared to the valuations in other European countries. In line with Gresham 's Law, British merchants sent silver abroad in payments whilst goods for export were paid for with gold. As a consequence of these flows of silver out and gold in, Great Britain was effectively on a gold standard. Aggravating this outflow was the fact that silver was the only commodity accepted by China for exporting goods during this period. From the mid-17th century, around 28,000 metric tons (27,600 imperial tons) of silver were received by China, principally from European powers, in exchange for Chinese tea and other goods. In order to trade with China, Great Britain had first to trade with the other European nations to receive silver, which led to the East India Company redressing this trade imbalance through the indirect sale of opium to the Chinese.
Domestic offtake further reduced silver in circulation, as the improving fortunes of the merchant class led to increased demand for tablewares. Silversmiths had always regarded coinage as a source of raw material, already verified for fineness by the government. As a result, sterling coins were being melted and fashioned into sterling silverware at an accelerating rate. A 1697 Act of Parliament tried to stem this tide by raising the minimum acceptable fineness on wrought plate from sterling 's 92.5 % to a new Britannia silver standard of 95.83 %. Silverware made purely from melted coins would be found wanting when the silversmith took his wares to the Assay Office, thus discouraging the melting of coins.
The Bank of England was founded in 1694, followed by the Bank of Scotland a year later. Both began to issue paper money.
The pound Scots once had much the same value as the pound sterling, but it suffered far higher devaluation until in the 17th century it was pegged to sterling at a value of 12 pounds Scots = 1 pound sterling.
In 1707, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland merged to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. In accordance with the Treaty of Union, the currency of Great Britain was sterling, with the pound Scots soon being replaced by sterling at the pegged value.
In 1801, Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland were united to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. However, the Irish pound continued to exist and was not replaced by sterling until January 1826. The conversion rate had long been thirteen Irish pounds to twelve pounds sterling.
Sterling circulated in much of the British Empire. In some parts, it was used alongside local currencies. For example, the gold sovereign was legal tender in Canada despite the use of the Canadian dollar. Several colonies and dominions adopted the pound as their own currency. These included Australia, Barbados, British West Africa, Cyprus, Fiji, the Irish Free State, Jamaica, New Zealand, South Africa and Southern Rhodesia. Some of these retained parity with sterling throughout their existence (e.g. the South African pound), whilst others deviated from parity after the end of the gold standard (e.g. the Australian pound). These currencies and others tied to sterling constituted the sterling area.
The original English colonies on mainland North America were not party to the sterling area because the above - mentioned silver shortage in England coincided with these colonies ' formative years. As a result of equitable trade (and rather less equitable piracy), the Spanish milled dollar became the most common coin within the English colonies.
During the American war of independence and the Napoleonic wars, Bank of England notes were legal tender, and their value floated relative to gold. The Bank also issued silver tokens to alleviate the shortage of silver coins. In 1816, the gold standard was adopted officially, with the silver standard reduced to 66 shillings (66 / -, £ 3 6s), rendering silver coins a "token '' issue (i.e. not containing their value in precious metal). In 1817, the sovereign was introduced, valued at 20 shillings. Struck in 22 ‐ carat gold, it contained 113 grains (7.3 g) of gold and replaced the guinea as the standard British gold coin without changing the gold standard. In 1825, the Irish pound, which had been pegged to sterling since 1801 at a rate of 13 Irish pounds = 12 pounds sterling, was replaced, at the same rate, with sterling.
By the 19th century the pound sterling was widely accepted outside Britain. The American Nellie Bly carried Bank of England notes on her 1889 -- 1890 trip around the world in 72 days. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many other countries adopted the gold standard. As a consequence, conversion rates between different currencies could be determined simply from the respective gold standards. The pound sterling was equal to 4.85 United States dollars, 5.25 Canadian dollars, 12.10 Dutch guilders, 26.28 French francs (or equivalent currencies in the Latin Monetary Union), 20.43 German marks or 24.02 Austro - Hungarian krone. After the International Monetary Conference of 1867 in Paris, the possibility of the UK joining the Latin Monetary Union was discussed, and a Royal Commission on International Coinage examined the issues, resulting in a decision against joining monetary union.
The gold standard was suspended at the outbreak of the war in 1914, with Bank of England and Treasury notes becoming legal tender. Before World War I, the United Kingdom had one of the world 's strongest economies, holding 40 % of the world 's overseas investments. But after the end of the war, the country was indebted: Britain owed £ 850 million (£ 37.3 billion as of 2015), mostly to the United States, with interest costing the country some 40 % of all government spending. To try to resume stability, a version of the gold standard was reintroduced in 1925, under which the currency was fixed to gold at its pre-war peg, but one could only exchange currency for gold bullion, not for coins. This was abandoned on 21 September 1931, during the Great Depression, and sterling suffered an initial devaluation of some 25 %.
In 1940, an agreement with the US pegged the pound to the U.S. dollar at a rate of £ 1 = $4.03. (Only the year before, it had been $4.86.) This rate was maintained through the Second World War and became part of the Bretton Woods system which governed post-war exchange rates. Under continuing economic pressure, and despite months of denials that it would do so, on 19 September 1949 the government devalued the pound by 30.5 % to $2.80. The move prompted several other currencies to be devalued against the dollar.
Operation Bernhard was the codename of a secret Nazi plan devised during the Second World War by the RSHA and the SS to destabilise the British economy via economic warfare by flooding the global economy and the British Empire with forged Bank of England £ 5, £ 10, £ 20, and £ 50 notes.
In 1961, 1964 and 1966, the pound came under renewed pressure, as speculators were selling pounds for dollars. In summer 1966, with the value of the pound falling in the currency markets, exchange controls were tightened by the Wilson government. Among the measures, tourists were banned from taking more than £ 50 out of the country in travellers ' cheques and remittances, plus £ 15 in cash; this restriction was not lifted until 1979. The pound was devalued by 14.3 % to $2.40 on 18 November 1967.
Until decimalisation, amounts were stated in pounds, shillings, and pence, with various widely understood notations. The same amount was denoted by 32s 6d, 32 / 6, £ 1 12s 6d, £ 1 / 12 / 6. It was customary to specify some prices (for example professional fees and auction prices for works of art) in guineas (one guinea was 21 shillings) although guinea coins were no longer in use.
Formal parliamentary proposals to decimalise sterling were first made in 1824 when Sir John Wrottesley, MP for Staffordshire, asked in the British House of Commons whether consideration had been given to decimalising the currency. Wrottesley raised the issue in the House of Commons again in 1833, and it was again raised by John Bowring, MP for Kilmarnock Burghs, in 1847 whose efforts led to the introduction in 1848 of what was in effect the first decimal coin in the United Kingdom, the florin, valued at one - tenth of a pound sterling. However, full decimalisation was resisted, although the florin coin, re-designated as ten new pence, survived the transfer to a full decimal system in 1971, with examples surviving in British coinage until 1993.
J.B. Smith, MP for Stirling Burghs, raised the issue of full decimalisation again in Parliament in 1853, resulting in the Chancellor of the Exchequer, William Gladstone, announcing soon afterwards that "the great question of a decimal coinage '' was "now under serious consideration ''. A full proposal for the decimalisation of sterling was then tabled in the House of Commons in June 1855, by William Brown, MP for Lancashire Southern, with the suggestion that the pound sterling be divided into one thousand parts, each called a "mil '', or alternatively a farthing, as the pound was then equivalent to 960 farthings which could easily be rounded up to one thousand farthings in the new system. This did not result in the conversion of the pound sterling into a decimal system, but it was agreed to establish a Royal Commission to look into the issue. However, largely due to the hostility to decimalisation of two of the appointed commissioners, Lord Overstone (a banker) and John Hubbard (Governor of the Bank of England), decimalisation in Britain was effectively quashed for over a hundred years.
However the pound sterling was decimalised in various British colonial territories before the United Kingdom (and in several cases in line with William Brown 's proposal that the pound be divided into 1000 parts, called mils). These included Hong Kong from 1863 to 1866; Cyprus from 1955 until 1960 (and continued on the island as the division of the Cypriot pound until 1983); and the Palestine Mandate from 1926 until 1948.
Towards the end of the Second World War, various attempts to decimalise the pound sterling in the United Kingdom were made. Later, in 1966, the British government decided to include in the Queen 's Speech a plan to convert the pound into a decimal currency. As a result of this, on 15 February 1971, the UK decimalised the pound sterling, replacing the shilling and penny with a single subdivision, the new penny. For example, a price tag of £ 1 12s 6d became £ 1.62 ⁄. The word "new '' was omitted from coins minted after 1981.
With the breakdown of the Bretton Woods system, the pound floated from August 1971 onwards. At first it appreciated a little, rising to almost $2.65 in March 1972 from $2.42, the upper bound of the band in which it had been fixed. The sterling area effectively ended at this time, when the majority of its members also chose to float freely against the pound and the dollar.
James Callaghan became Prime Minister in 1976. He was immediately told the economy was facing huge problems, according to documents released in 2006 by the National Archives. The effects of the 1973 oil crisis were still being felt, with inflation rising to over 27 % in 1975. Financial markets were beginning to believe the pound was overvalued, and in April that year The Wall Street Journal advised the sale of sterling investments in the face of high taxes, in a story that ended with "goodbye, Great Britain. It was nice knowing you ''. At the time the UK government was running a budget deficit, and Labour 's strategy emphasised high public spending. Callaghan was told there were three possible outcomes: a disastrous free fall in sterling, an internationally unacceptable siege economy, or a deal with key allies to prop up the pound while painful economic reforms were put in place. The US government feared the crisis could endanger NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC), and in light of this the US Treasury set out to force domestic policy changes. In November 1976 the International Monetary Fund (IMF) announced the conditions for a loan, including deep cuts in public expenditure.
The Conservative Party was elected to office in 1979, on a programme of fiscal austerity. Initially the pound rocketed, moving above US $2.40, as interest rates rose in response to the monetarist policy of targeting money supply. The high exchange rate was widely blamed for the deep recession of 1981. Sterling fell sharply after 1980; at its lowest, the pound stood at just $1.03 in March 1985, before rising to $1.70 in December 1989.
In 1988, Margaret Thatcher 's Chancellor of the Exchequer, Nigel Lawson, decided that the pound should "shadow '' the West German Deutsche Mark, with the unintended result of a rapid rise in inflation as the economy boomed due to inappropriately low interest rates. (For ideological reasons, the Conservative Government declined to use alternative mechanisms to control the explosion of credit. For this reason, former Prime Minister Edward Heath referred to Lawson as a "one club golfer '').
Following German re-unification in 1990, the reverse held true, as high borrowing costs to fund Eastern reconstruction, a need exacerbated by the political choice to make the Ostmark equivalent to the Deutsche Mark (DM), meant rates in other countries shadowing the DM, especially the UK, were far too high relative to domestic circumstances, leading to a housing decline and recession.
On 8 October 1990 the Conservative government (Third Thatcher ministry) decided to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), with the pound set at DM 2.95. However, the country was forced to withdraw from the system on "Black Wednesday '' (16 September 1992) as Britain 's economic performance made the exchange rate unsustainable. Speculator George Soros made approximately US $1 billion from shorting the pound.
' Black Wednesday ' saw interest rates jump from 10 % to 15 % in an unsuccessful attempt to stop the pound from falling below the ERM limits. The exchange rate fell to DM2. 20. Those who had argued for a lower GBP / DM exchange rate were vindicated as the cheaper pound encouraged exports and contributed to the economic prosperity of the 1990s.
In 1997, the newly elected Labour government handed over day - to - day control of interest rates to the Bank of England (a policy that had originally been advocated by the Liberal Democrats). The Bank is now responsible for setting its base rate of interest so as to keep inflation (as measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI)) very close to 2 % per annum. Should CPI inflation be more than one percentage point above or below the target, the governor of the Bank of England is required to write an open letter to the Chancellor of the Exchequer explaining the reasons for this and the measures which will be taken to bring this measure of inflation back in line with the 2 % target. On 17 April 2007, annual CPI inflation was reported at 3.1 % (inflation of the Retail Prices Index was 4.8 %). Accordingly, and for the first time, the Governor had to write publicly to the government explaining why inflation was more than one percentage point higher than its target.
As a member of the European Union, the United Kingdom could have adopted the euro as its currency. However, the subject was always politically controversial, and the UK negotiated an opt - out on this issue.
In 2007, Gordon Brown, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, ruled out membership for the foreseeable future, saying that the decision not to join had been right for Britain and for Europe.
On 1 January 2008, with the Republic of Cyprus switching its currency from the Cypriot pound to the Euro, the British sovereign bases on Cyprus (Akrotiri and Dhekelia) followed suit making the Sovereign Base Areas the only territory under British sovereignty to officially use the euro.
The 2016 referendum which started the process of United Kingdom 's withdrawal from the European Union makes adoption of the euro almost impossible.
The government of former Prime Minister Tony Blair had pledged to hold a public referendum to decide on membership should "five economic tests '' be met, to increase the likelihood that adoption of the euro would be in the national interest. In addition to these internal (national) criteria, the UK would have to meet the European Union 's economic convergence criteria (Maastricht criteria) before being allowed to adopt the euro. The Conservative and Liberal Democrat coalition government (2010 -- 2015) ruled out joining the euro for that parliamentary term. Currently, the UK 's annual government deficit, as a percentage of the GDP, is above the defined threshold.
The idea of replacing the pound with the euro was always controversial with the British public, partly because of the pound 's identity as a symbol of British sovereignty and because it would, according to many critics, have led to suboptimal interest rates, harming the British economy. In December 2008, the results of a BBC poll of 1000 people suggested that 71 % would vote no to the euro, 23 % would vote yes, while 6 % said they were unsure. The pound did not join the Second European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM II) after the euro was created. Denmark and the UK have opt - outs from entry to the euro. Theoretically, every other EU nation must eventually sign up.
The Scottish Conservative Party claimed that there was an issue for Scotland in that the adoption of the euro would mean the end of nationally distinctive banknotes, as the euro banknotes do not have national designs. Before the No vote in the Scottish independence referendum in 2014, the Scottish National Party affirmed that the Euro would not be the national currency of an independent Scotland.
The pound and the euro fluctuate in value against one another, although there may be correlation between movements in their respective exchange rates with other currencies such as the US dollar. Inflation concerns in the UK led the Bank of England to raise interest rates in late 2006 and 2007. This caused the pound to appreciate against other major currencies and, with the US dollar depreciating at the same time, the pound hit a 15 - year high against the US dollar on 18 April 2007, reaching US $2 the day before, for the first time since 1992. The pound and many other currencies continued to appreciate against the dollar; sterling hit a 26 - year high of US $2.1161 on 7 November 2007 as the dollar fell worldwide. From mid-2003 to mid-2007, the pound / euro rate remained range - bound (within ± 5 %) of € 1.45.
Following the global financial crisis in late 2008, the pound depreciated sharply, reaching £ 1 per $1.38 (US) on 23 January 2009 and falling below € 1.25 against the euro in April 2008. A further decline occurred during the remainder of 2008, most dramatically on 29 December when its euro rate hit an all - time low at € 1.0219, while its US dollar rate depreciated. The pound appreciated in early 2009 reaching a peak against the euro in mid-July of € 1.17. The following months the pound remained broadly steady against the euro, with the pound 's current (27 May 2011) value at € 1.15 and US $1.65.
On 5 March 2009, the Bank of England announced that it would pump £ 75 billion of new capital into the British economy, through a process known as quantitative easing. This was the first time in the United Kingdom 's history that this measure had been used, although the Bank 's Governor Mervyn King suggested it was not an experiment.
The process saw the Bank of England creating new money for itself, which it then used to purchase assets such as government bonds, secured commercial paper, or corporate bonds. The initial amount stated to be created through this method was £ 75 billion, although Chancellor of the Exchequer Alistair Darling had given permission for up to £ 150 billion to be created if necessary. It was expected that the process would occur over a period of three months with results only likely in the long term. By 5 November 2009, some £ 175 billion had been injected using quantitative easing and the effectiveness of the process remained less successful in the long term. In July 2012, the final increase in the asset purchases finance meant QE had peaked at £ 375 billion, then holding solely UK Government bonds, representing one third of the UK national debt.
The result of the 2016 UK referendum on EU membership caused a major decline in the pound against other world currencies as the future of international trade relationships and domestic political leadership became unclear. The referendum result weakened sterling against euro overnight by 5 %. The night before the vote £ 1 was trading for € 1.30; on the day following the referendum, when the result was clear, £ 1 was trading at € 1.23. By October 2016, the exchange rate was € 1.12 to the pound, a fall of 14 % since the referendum.By the end of August 2017 the pound fell lower at € 1.08. Against the US dollar, meanwhile, the pound fell from $1.466 to $1.3694 when the referendum result was first revealed, and down to $1.2232 by October 2016, a fall of 16 %.
The Bank of England had stated (2009) that the decision had been taken to prevent the rate of inflation falling below the 2 % target rate. Mervyn King, the Governor of the Bank of England, also had suggested there were no other monetary options left as interest rates had already been cut to their lowest level ever (0.5 %) and it was unlikely that they would be cut further.
The inflation rate per annum rose in following years, reaching 5.2 % (based on Consumer Price Index) in September 2011, then decreased to around 2.5 % in the following year.
The silver penny (plural: pence; abbreviation: d) was the principal and often the only coin in circulation from the 8th century until the 13th century. Although some fractions of the penny were struck (see farthing and halfpenny), it was more common to find pennies cut into halves and quarters to provide smaller change. Very few gold coins were struck, with the gold penny (worth 20 silver pence) a rare example. However, in 1279, the groat, worth 4d, was introduced, with the half groat following in 1344. 1344 also saw the establishment of a gold coinage with the introduction (after the failed gold florin) of the noble worth six shillings and eight pence (6 / 8) (i.e. 3 nobles to the pound), together with the half and quarter noble. Reforms in 1464 saw a reduction in value of the coinage in both silver and gold, with the noble renamed the ryal and worth 10 / - (i.e. 2 to the pound) and the angel introduced at the noble 's old value of 6 / 8.
The reign of Henry VII saw the introduction of two important coins: the shilling (abbr.: s; known as the testoon) in 1487 and the pound (known as the sovereign, abbr.: £ or L) in 1489. In 1526, several new denominations of gold coins were added, including the crown and half crown worth five shillings (5 / -), and two shillings and six pence (2 / 6, two and six) respectively. Henry VIII 's reign (1509 -- 1547) saw a high level of debasement which continued into the reign of Edward VI (1547 -- 1553). This debasement was halted in 1552, and a new silver coinage was introduced, including coins for 1d, 2d, 3d, 4d and 6d, 1 / -, 2 / 6 and 5 / -. In the reign of Elizabeth I (1558 -- 1603), silver ⁄ d and 1 ⁄ d coins were added, but these denominations did not last. Gold coins included the half - crown, crown, angel, half - sovereign and sovereign. Elizabeth 's reign also saw the introduction of the horse - drawn screw press to produce the first "milled '' coins.
Following the succession of the Scottish King James VI to the English throne, a new gold coinage was introduced, including the spur ryal (15 / -), the unite (20 / -) and the rose ryal (30 / -). The laurel, worth 20 / -, followed in 1619. The first base metal coins were also introduced: tin and copper farthings. Copper halfpenny coins followed in the reign of Charles I. During the English Civil War, a number of siege coinages were produced, often in unusual denominations.
Following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the coinage was reformed, with the ending of production of hammered coins in 1662. The guinea was introduced in 1663, soon followed by the ⁄, 2 and 5 guinea coins. The silver coinage consisted of denominations of 1d, 2d, 3d, 4d and 6d, 1 / -, 2 / 6 and 5 / -. Due to the widespread export of silver in the 18th century, the production of silver coins gradually came to a halt, with the half crown and crown not issued after the 1750s, the 6d and 1 / - stopping production in the 1780s. In response, copper 1d and 2d coins and a gold ⁄ guinea (7 / -) were introduced in 1797. The copper penny was the only one of these coins to survive long.
To alleviate the shortage of silver coins, between 1797 and 1804, the Bank of England counterstamped Spanish dollars (8 reales) and other Spanish and Spanish colonial coins for circulation. A small counterstamp of the King 's head was used. Until 1800, these circulated at a rate of 4 / 9 for 8 reales. After 1800, a rate of 5 / - for 8 reales was used. The Bank then issued silver tokens for 5 / - (struck over Spanish dollars) in 1804, followed by tokens for 1 / 6 and 3 / - between 1811 and 1816.
In 1816, a new silver coinage was introduced in denominations of 6d, 1 / -, 2 / 6 (half - crown) and 5 / - (crown). The crown was only issued intermittently until 1900. It was followed by a new gold coinage in 1817 consisting of 10 / - and £ 1 coins, known as the half sovereign and sovereign. The silver 4d coin was reintroduced in 1836, followed by the 3d in 1838, with the 4d coin issued only for colonial use after 1855. In 1848, the 2 / - florin was introduced, followed by the short - lived double florin in 1887. In 1860, copper was replaced by bronze in the farthing (quarter penny, ⁄ d), halfpenny and penny.
During the First World War, production of the half sovereign and sovereign was suspended, and although the gold standard was later restored, the coins saw little circulation thereafter. In 1920, the silver standard, maintained at. 925 since 1552, was reduced to. 500. In 1937, a nickel - brass 3d coin was introduced; the last silver 3d coins were issued seven years later. In 1947, the remaining silver coins were replaced with cupro - nickel, with the exception of Maundy coinage which was then restored to. 925. Inflation caused the farthing to cease production in 1956 and be demonetised in 1960. In the run - up to decimalisation, the halfpenny and half - crown were demonetised in 1969.
British coinage timeline:
At present, the oldest circulating coins in the UK are the 1p and 2p copper coins introduced in 1971. No other coins from before 1982 are in circulation. Prior to the demonetisation of the larger 10p in 1993, the oldest circulating coins had usually dated from 1947: although older coins (shilling; florin, sixpence to 1980) were still legal tender, inflation meant that their silver content was worth more than their face value, which meant that they tended to be removed from circulation. Before decimalisation in 1971, a handful of change might have contained coins 100 or more years old, bearing any of five monarchs ' heads, especially in the copper coins.
The first sterling notes were issued by the Bank of England shortly after its foundation in 1694. Denominations were initially handwritten on the notes at the time of issue. From 1745, the notes were printed in denominations between £ 20 and £ 1000, with any odd shillings added by hand. £ 10 notes were added in 1759, followed by £ 5 in 1793 and £ 1 and £ 2 in 1797. The lowest two denominations were withdrawn after the end of the Napoleonic wars. In 1855, the notes were converted to being entirely printed, with denominations of £ 5, £ 10, £ 20, £ 50, £ 100, £ 200, £ 300, £ 500 and £ 1000 issued.
The Bank of Scotland began issuing notes in 1695. Although the pound Scots was still the currency of Scotland, these notes were denominated in sterling in values up to £ 100. From 1727, the Royal Bank of Scotland also issued notes. Both banks issued some notes denominated in guineas as well as pounds. In the 19th century, regulations limited the smallest note issued by Scottish banks to be the £ 1 denomination, a note not permitted in England.
With the extension of sterling to Ireland in 1825, the Bank of Ireland began issuing sterling notes, later followed by other Irish banks. These notes included the unusual denominations of 30 / - and £ 3. The highest denomination issued by the Irish banks was £ 100.
In 1826, banks at least 65 miles (105 km) from London were given permission to issue their own paper money. From 1844, new banks were excluded from issuing notes in England and Wales but not in Scotland and Ireland. Consequently, the number of private banknotes dwindled in England and Wales but proliferated in Scotland and Ireland. The last English private banknotes were issued in 1921.
In 1914, the Treasury introduced notes for 10 / - and £ 1 to replace gold coins. These circulated until 1928, when they were replaced by Bank of England notes. Irish independence reduced the number of Irish banks issuing sterling notes to five operating in Northern Ireland. The Second World War had a drastic effect on the note production of the Bank of England. Fearful of mass forgery by the Nazis (see Operation Bernhard), all notes for £ 10 and above ceased production, leaving the bank to issue only 10 / -, £ 1 and £ 5 notes. Scottish and Northern Irish issues were unaffected, with issues in denominations of £ 1, £ 5, £ 10, £ 20, £ 50 and £ 100.
The Bank of England reintroduced £ 10 notes in 1964. In 1969, the 10 / - note was replaced by the 50p coin to prepare for decimalisation. £ 20 Bank of England notes were reintroduced in 1970, followed by £ 50 in 1981. A £ 1 coin was introduced in 1983, and Bank of England £ 1 notes were withdrawn in 1988. Scottish and Northern Irish banks followed, with only the Royal Bank of Scotland continuing to issue this denomination.
UK notes include raised print (e.g. on the words "Bank of England ''); watermarks; embedded metallic thread; holograms; and fluorescent ink visible only under UV lamps. Three printing techniques are involved: offset litho, intaglio and letterpress; and the notes incorporate a total of 85 specialized inks.
The £ 5 polymer banknote, issued by Northern Bank (now Danske Bank) in 2000, was the only polymer note in circulation until 2016, although Danske Bank also produces paper - based £ 10, £ 20 and £ 50 notes. The Bank of England introduced £ 5 polymer banknotes in September 2016, and the paper £ 5 notes were withdrawn on 5 May 2017. This date was picked due to its short format, 5 / 5. A polymer £ 10 banknote was introduced on 14 September 2017, but was only available in 20 ATMs nationwide on the first day.
The Bank of England produces notes named "giant '' and "titan ''. A giant is a one million pound note, and a titan is a one hundred million pound bank note, of which there are about 40. Giants and titans are used only within the banking system.
As the central bank of the United Kingdom which has been delegated authority by the government, the Bank of England sets the monetary policy for the British pound by controlling the amount of money in circulation. It has a monopoly on issuance of banknotes in England and Wales, and regulates the amount of banknotes issued by seven authorized banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. HM Treasury has reserve powers to give orders to the committee "if they are required in the public interest and by extreme economic circumstances '' but such orders must be endorsed by Parliament within 28 days.
Unlike banknotes which have separate issuers in Scotland and Northern Ireland, all UK coins are issued by the Royal Mint, which is an independent enterprise (wholly owned by the Treasury) which also mints coins for other countries.
In Britain 's Crown Dependencies, the Manx pound, Jersey pound, and Guernsey pound are unregulated by the Bank of England and are issued independently. However, they are maintained at a fixed exchange rate by their respective governments, and Bank of England notes have been made legal tender on the islands, forming a sort of one - way de facto currency union. These currencies do not have ISO 4217 codes so "GBP '' is usually used to represent all of them; informal codes are used where the difference is important.
British Overseas Territories are responsible for the monetary policy of their own currencies (where they exist), and have their own ISO 4217 codes. The Falkland Islands pound, Gibraltar pound, and Saint Helena pound are set at a fixed 1: 1 exchange rate with the British pound by local governments.
Legal tender in the United Kingdom is defined such that "a debtor can not successfully be sued for non-payment if he pays into court in legal tender. '' Parties can alternatively settle a debt by other means with mutual consent. Strictly speaking it is necessary for the debtor to offer the exact amount due as there is no obligation for the other party to provide change.
Throughout the UK, £ 1 and £ 2 coins are legal tender for any amount, with the other coins being legal tender only for limited amounts. Bank of England notes are legal tender for any amount in England and Wales, but not in Scotland or Northern Ireland. (Bank of England 10 / - and £ 1 notes were legal tender, as were Scottish banknotes, during World War II under the Currency (Defence) Act 1939, repealed on 1 January 1946.) Channel Islands and Isle of Man banknotes are legal tender only in their respective jurisdictions.
Bank of England, Scottish, Northern Irish, Channel Islands, Isle of Man, Gibraltar, and Falkland banknotes may be offered anywhere in the UK, although there is no obligation to accept them as a means of payment, and acceptance varies. For example, merchants in England generally accept Scottish and Northern Irish bills, but some unfamiliar with them may reject them. However, Scottish and Northern Irish bills both tend to be accepted in Scotland and Northern Ireland, respectively. Merchants in England generally do not accept Jersey, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Gibraltar, and Falkland notes, but Isle of Man notes are generally accepted in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Bank of England notes are generally accepted in the Falklands and Gibraltar, but for example Scottish and Northern Irish notes are not. Since all of the bills are denominated in pounds sterling, banks will exchange them for locally issued bills at face value, though some in the UK have had trouble exchanging Falkland Islands pounds.
Commemorative £ 5 and 25p (crown) coins, rarely seen in circulation, are legal tender, as are the bullion coins issued by the Mint.
In 2006, the House of Commons Library published a research paper which included an index of prices in pounds for each year between 1750 and 2005, where 1974 was indexed at 100.
Regarding the period 1750 -- 1914 the document states: "Although there was considerable year on year fluctuation in price levels prior to 1914 (reflecting the quality of the harvest, wars, etc.) there was not the long - term steady increase in prices associated with the period since 1945 ''. It goes on to say that "Since 1945 prices have risen in every year with an aggregate rise of over 27 times ''.
The value of the index in 1751 was 5.1, increasing to a peak of 16.3 in 1813 before declining very soon after the end of the Napoleonic Wars to around 10.0 and remaining in the range 8.5 -- 10.0 at the end of the nineteenth century. The index was 9.8 in 1914 and peaked at 25.3 in 1920, before declining to 15.8 in 1933 and 1934 -- prices were only about three times as high as they had been 180 years earlier.
Inflation had a dramatic effect during and after World War II -- the index was 20.2 in 1940, 33.0 in 1950, 49.1 in 1960, 73.1 in 1970, 263.7 in 1980, 497.5 in 1990, 671.8 in 2000 and 757.3 in 2005.
The following table shows the equivalent amount of goods and services that, in a particular year, could be purchased with £ 1.
The table shows that from 1971 to 2015 the British pound lost about 92 % of its buying power.
The smallest coin in 1971 was the ⁄ p, worth about 6.4 p in 2015 prices.
The pound is freely bought and sold on the foreign exchange markets around the world, and its value relative to other currencies therefore fluctuates.
As of 27 August 2017, £ 1 was worth US $ 1.289, € 1.0808, ¥ 141, CHF 1.22329, A $ 1.6247, C $ 1.6083 or INR 82.50.
Sterling is used as a reserve currency around the world and is currently ranked third in value held as reserves. The percental composition of currencies of official foreign exchange reserves since 1995.
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how many 3 peats do the lakers have | Los Angeles Lakers - wikipedia
The Los Angeles Lakers are an American professional basketball team based in Los Angeles. The Lakers compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA), as a member of the league 's Western Conference Pacific Division. The Lakers play their home games at Staples Center, an arena shared with the NBA 's Los Angeles Clippers, the Los Angeles Sparks of the Women 's National Basketball Association, and the Los Angeles Kings of the National Hockey League. The Lakers are one of the most successful teams in the history of the NBA, and have won 16 NBA championships (11 in Los Angeles), their last being in 2010.
The franchise began with the 1947 purchase of a disbanded team, the Detroit Gems of the National Basketball League (NBL). The new team began playing in Minneapolis, calling themselves the Minneapolis Lakers in honor of the state 's nickname, "Land of 10,000 Lakes ''. Initially a member of the NBL, the Lakers won the 1948 NBL championship before joining the rival Basketball Association of America and winning five of the next six BAA and NBA championships in Minneapolis after the NBA formed in 1949. The team was propelled by center George Mikan, who is described by the NBA 's official website as the league 's "first superstar ''. After struggling financially in the late 1950s following Mikan 's retirement, they relocated to Los Angeles before the 1960 -- 61 season.
Led by Hall of Famers Elgin Baylor and Jerry West, Los Angeles made the NBA Finals six times in the 1960s, but lost each series to the Boston Celtics, beginning their long and storied rivalry. In 1968, the Lakers acquired four - time NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) Wilt Chamberlain to play center, and after losing in the Finals in 1969 and 1970, they won their sixth NBA title -- and first in Los Angeles -- in 1972, led by new head coach Bill Sharman. After the retirement of West and Chamberlain, the team acquired another center, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, who had won multiple MVP awards, but was unable to make the Finals in the late 1970s. The 1980s Lakers were nicknamed "Showtime '' due to their Magic Johnson - led fast break - offense, and won five championships in a 9 - year span, including their first ever Finals championship against the Celtics in 1985. This team featured Hall of Famers in Johnson, Abdul - Jabbar, and James Worthy, and a Hall of Fame coach, Pat Riley. After Abdul - Jabbar and Johnson 's retirement, the team struggled in the early 1990s before acquiring Shaquille O'Neal and Kobe Bryant in 1996. Led by O'Neal, Bryant, and another Hall of Fame coach, Phil Jackson, Los Angeles won three consecutive titles between 2000 to 2002, securing the franchise its second "three - peat ''. After losing both the 2004 and 2008 NBA Finals, the Lakers won two more championships by defeating the Orlando Magic in 2009 and Boston in 2010.
The Lakers hold the record for NBA 's longest winning streak, 33 straight games, set during the 1971 -- 72 season. 21 Hall of Famers have played for Los Angeles, while four have coached the team. Four Lakers -- Abdul - Jabbar, Johnson, O'Neal, and Bryant -- have won the NBA MVP Award for a total of eight awards.
The Lakers ' franchise began in 1947 when Ben Berger and Morris Chalfen of Minnesota purchased the recently disbanded Detroit Gems of the National Basketball League (NBL) for $15,000 from Gems owner Maury Winston. Minneapolis sportswriter Sid Hartman played a key behind the scenes role in helping put together the deal and later the team. Inspired by Minnesota 's nickname, "Land of 10,000 Lakes '', the team christened themselves the Lakers. Hartman helped them hire John Kundla from College of St. Thomas, to be their first head coach, by meeting with him and selling him on the team.
The Lakers had a solid roster, which featured forward Jim Pollard, playmaker Herm Schaefer, and center George Mikan, who became the most dominant player in the NBL. In their first season, they led the league with a 43 -- 17 record, later winning the NBL Championship that season.
In 1948, the Lakers moved from the NBL to the Basketball Association of America (BAA), and Mikan 's 28.3 point per game (ppg) scoring average set a BAA record. In the 1949 BAA Finals they won the championship, beating the Washington Capitols four games to two. The following season, the team improved to 51 -- 17, repeating as champions. In the 1950 -- 51 season, Mikan won his third straight scoring title at 28.4 ppg and the Lakers went 44 -- 24 to win their second straight division title. One of those games, a 19 -- 18 loss against the Fort Wayne Pistons, became infamous as the lowest scoring game in NBA history. In the playoffs, they defeated the Indianapolis Olympians in three games but lost to the Rochester Royals in the next round.
During the 1951 -- 52 season, the Lakers won 40 games, finishing second in their division. They faced the New York Knicks in the NBA Finals, which they won in seven games. In the 1952 -- 53 season, Mikan led the NBA in rebounding, averaging 14.4 rebounds per game (rpg), and was named MVP of the 1953 NBA All - Star Game. After a 48 -- 22 regular season, the Lakers defeated the Fort Wayne Pistons in the Western playoffs to advance to the NBA Finals. They then defeated the New York Knicks to win their second straight championship. Though Lakers star George Mikan suffered from knee problems throughout the 1953 -- 54 season, he was still able to average 18 ppg. Clyde Lovellette, who was drafted in 1952, helped the team win the Western Division. The team won its third straight championship in the 1950s and fifth in six seasons when it defeated the Syracuse Nationals in seven games.
Following Mikan 's retirement in the 1954 off - season, the Lakers struggled but still managed to win 40 games. Although they defeated the Rochester Royals in the first round of the playoffs, they were defeated by the Fort Wayne Pistons in the semifinals. Although they had losing records the next two seasons, they made the playoffs each year. Mikan came back for the last half of the 1955 -- 56 season, but struggled and retired for good after the season. Led by Lovellette 's 20.6 points and 13.5 rebounds, they advanced to the Conference Finals in 1956 -- 57. The Lakers had one of the worst seasons in team history in 1957 -- 58 when they won a league - low 19 games. They had hired Mikan, who had been the team 's general manager for the previous two seasons, as head coach to replace Kundla. Mikan was fired in January when the team was 9 -- 30, and Kundla was rehired.
The Lakers earned the top pick in the 1958 NBA draft and used it to select Elgin Baylor. Baylor, who was named NBA Rookie of the Year and co-MVP of the 1959 NBA All - Star Game, averaged 24.9 ppg and 15.0 rpg helping the Lakers improve to second in their division despite a 33 -- 39 record. After upsetting the Hawks in six games in the division finals, they returned to the NBA Finals, but were swept by the Celtics, beginning their long rivalry.
In their last year in Minneapolis, the Lakers went 25 -- 50. On January 18, 1960, the team was coming off a loss and traveling to St. Louis when their plane crash - landed. Snow storms had driven the pilot 150 miles off course when he was forced to land in a cornfield. No one was hurt. Their record earned them the number two pick in the 1960 NBA draft. The team selected Jerry West from West Virginia University. During the 1960 off - season, the Lakers became the NBA 's first West Coast team when owner Bob Short decided to move the team to Los Angeles. Led by Baylor 's 34.8 ppg and 19.8 rpg, Los Angeles won 11 more than the year before in West 's first season. On November 15 that season, Baylor set a new NBA scoring record when he scored 71 points in a victory against the New York Knicks while grabbing 25 rebounds. In doing so, Baylor broke his own NBA record of 64 points. Despite a losing record, the Lakers made the playoffs. They came within two points of the NBA Finals when they lost in game seven of their second round series against St. Louis.
Led by Baylor and West at 38.3 and 30.8 ppg respectively, the Lakers improved to 54 -- 26 in 1961 -- 62, and made the finals. In a game five victory, Baylor grabbed 22 rebounds and set the still - standing NBA record for points in a finals game with 61, despite fouling out of the game. The Lakers, however, lost to the Celtics by three points in overtime of game seven. Frank Selvy, after making two jumpers in the final 40 seconds to tie the game, missed a potential game - winning 18 foot jump shot in regulation, a miss which he said in June 2010 still haunted him more than 40 years later.
Los Angeles won 53 games in 1962 -- 63, behind Baylor 's 34.0 ppg and West 's 27.1 ppg but lost in the NBA Finals in six games to the Celtics. After falling to 42 -- 38 and losing in the first round of the 1964 NBA Playoffs to the Hawks, the team won 49 games in 1964 -- 65. The Lakers surged past the Baltimore Bullets in the division finals, behind West 's record - setting 46.3 ppg in the series. They lost again to Celtics in the Finals however, this time in five games.
Los Angeles lost in the finals to Boston in seven games again in 1966, this time by two points. Down by 16 entering the fourth quarter, and 10 with a minute and a half to go, the Lakers mounted a furious rally in the closing moments, which fell just short. After dropping to 36 wins and losing in the first round of the 1967 NBA Playoffs, they lost in the finals to the Celtics again in 1968. Los Angeles moved to a brand - new arena, The Forum, in 1967, after playing seven seasons at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena.
On July 9, 1968, the team acquired Wilt Chamberlain from the Philadelphia 76ers for Darrell Imhoff, Archie Clark, and Jerry Chambers. In his first season as a Laker, Chamberlain set a team record by averaging a league - leading 21.1 rpg. West, Baylor, and Chamberlain each averaged over 20 points, and Los Angeles won their division. The Lakers and Celtics again met in the finals, and Los Angeles had home court advantage against Boston for the first time in their rivalry. They won the first game behind Jerry West 's 53 points, and had a 3 -- 2 lead after five. Boston won the series in seven games however, and earned their 11th NBA Championship in 13 seasons. West was named the first - ever Finals MVP; this remains the only time that a member of the losing team has won the award. In 1970, West won his first scoring title at 31.2 ppg, the team returned to the finals, and for the first time in 16 years, they did not have to face the Celtics; instead playing the New York Knicks, who defeated them 4 -- 3. The next season the Lakers were defeated by the Milwaukee Bucks, led by future Laker Lew Alcindor (now known as Kareem Abdul - Jabbar) in the Western Conference Finals.
The 1971 -- 72 season brought several changes. Owner Jack Kent Cooke brought in Bill Sharman as head coach, and Elgin Baylor announced his retirement early in the season after realizing that his legs were not healthy enough. Sharman increased the team 's discipline. He introduced the concept of the shootaround, where players would arrive at the arena early in the morning before a game to practice shots. They won 14 straight games in November and all 16 games played in December. They won three straight to open the year of 1972 but on January 9, the Milwaukee Bucks ended their winning streak by defeating the Lakers, 120 -- 104. By winning 33 straight games, Los Angeles set a record for longest winning streak of any team in American professional sports. The Lakers won 69 games that season, which stood as the NBA record for 24 years until the Chicago Bulls won 72 games in 1995 -- 96. Chamberlain averaged a low 14.8 points but led the league in rebounding at 19.2 a game. West 's 9.7 assists per game (apg) led the league, he also averaged more than 25 points, and was named MVP of the 1972 NBA All - Star Game. The team failed to score 100 points just once all year, and at the end of the season, Bill Sharman was named Coach of the Year. The Lakers went on to reach the finals against the New York Knicks where they would avenge their 1970 finals loss by defeating them 4 games to 1. Chamberlain tallied 24 points and 29 rebounds in game five and won the NBA Finals Most Valuable Player Award.
The Lakers won 60 games in the 1972 -- 73 NBA season, and took another Pacific Division title. Wilt Chamberlain, playing in his final season, again led the league in rebounding and set the still standing NBA record for field - goal percentage at 72.7 %. The team defeated the Chicago Bulls in seven games in the conference semifinals, then the Golden State Warriors in five in the Western Division Finals. They played the New York Knicks in the 1973 NBA Finals. Los Angeles took the first game by three points, but New York won the series in five games.
During the 1973 -- 74 season, the team was hampered by the loss of West, who played only 31 games before his legs gave out. Goodrich, averaging 25.3 points, helped the team to a late - season surge. Trailing the Golden State Warriors by three games with seven left to play, the Lakers rallied to finish 47 -- 35 and win the Pacific Division. They made the playoffs but managed just one win against Milwaukee in the conference semifinals. Following the season, West retired due to contract disagreements with Cooke, and filed a suit for unpaid back wages.
After missing the playoffs in the 1974 -- 75 season, the Lakers acquired Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, who had won three league MVP 's by that time. Abdul - Jabbar wanted out of Milwaukee, demanding a trade to either New York or Los Angeles. He was traded for Elmore Smith, Brian Winters, Junior Bridgeman, and Dave Meyers. Abdul - Jabbar had his fourth MVP season in 1975 -- 76, leading the league in rebounding, blocked shots, and minutes played. The Lakers struggled in January, going 3 -- 10, and finished out of the playoffs at 40 -- 42.
West and Cooke settled their differences -- and the former Laker 's lawsuit -- and Cooke hired him to replace Sharman as the team 's coach. West became upset, however, when Cooke refused to spend the money necessary to acquire forward Julius Erving, who the Nets were selling. Behind another MVP season from Abdul - Jabbar, Los Angeles won the Pacific Division, finishing the 1976 -- 77 season a league - best 53 -- 29. They defeated the Warriors in a seven - game series to open the postseason before being swept by Portland in the Western Conference Finals. During the offseason, Los Angeles picked up Jamaal Wilkes from Golden State and signed first - round draft pick Norm Nixon. In the first two minutes of the first game of the 1977 -- 78 season, Abdul - Jabbar punched Bucks center Kent Benson for an overly aggressive elbow and broke his hand. Two months later, a healthy Abdul - Jabbar got into an altercation with Houston Rockets center Kevin Kunnert after a rebound. The team 's starting power forward, Kermit Washington, who was averaging 11.5 points and 11.2 rebounds, entered the fight, and when Rudy Tomjanovich ran in from the bench to break up the action, Washington punched him in the face. Tomjanovich nearly died from the punch, suffering a fractured skull and other facial injuries, which prematurely ended his playing career. Washington, who stated that he assumed Tomjanovich was a combatant, was suspended for two months by the NBA, and released by the Lakers. The team won 45 games despite being down a starter in Washington and not having Abdul - Jabbar for nearly two months, but lost in the first round of the playoffs to Seattle. During the 1978 -- 79 season, the team posted a 47 -- 35 record but lost to the SuperSonics in the semifinal round of the playoffs.
In the 1979 NBA draft, Los Angeles selected 6 - foot, 9 - inch point guard Magic Johnson from Michigan State with the first overall pick. It took Johnson 's teammates time to acclimate themselves to his passing ability, as his "no - look '' passes often caught them unaware. Once they adjusted, his passing became a key part of Los Angeles ' offense. The Lakers won 60 games in Johnson 's rookie year, and defeated the Philadelphia 76ers in six games in the 1980 NBA Finals. Johnson won the Finals MVP award, after starting at center for the injured Abdul - Jabbar in game six, and tallying 42 points, 15 rebounds, and seven assists. The team fell off in the 1980 -- 81 season, though, as the Lakers lost Johnson for most of the season to a knee injury. The team turned in a 54 -- 28 record and finished second behind the Phoenix Suns in the Pacific Division. The Rockets, led by Moses Malone, defeated Los Angeles in the first round of the playoffs.
Early in the 1981 -- 82 season, Johnson complained to the media about head coach Paul Westhead and demanded a trade. Westhead was fired shortly after Johnson 's criticisms, and although Lakers ' owner Jerry Buss stated that Johnson 's comments did not factor into the decision, Johnson was vilified by the national media and booed both on the road and at home. Buss promoted assistant coach Pat Riley to "co-head coach '' with Jerry West (although West considered himself Riley 's assistant) on November 19 and the team won 17 of its next 20 games. Nicknamed "Showtime '' due to the team 's new Johnson - led fast break - offense, the Lakers won the Pacific Division title and swept both the Suns and Spurs in the 1982 playoffs. Los Angeles stretched its postseason winning streak to nine games by taking the first contest of the NBA Finals from the 76ers. The team won the Finals 4 -- 2 to finish a 12 -- 2 playoff run. On draft night in 1982, the Lakers had the first overall pick (the result of a trade with Cleveland midway through the 1979 -- 80 season, when the Lakers had sent Don Ford and a 1980 first - round pick to the Cavaliers for Butch Lee and their 1982 selection) and selected James Worthy from North Carolina. The Lakers won the Pacific Division at 58 -- 24, but Worthy suffered a leg injury in the last week of the season and missed the rest of the season. Nevertheless, they advanced to play Philadelphia in the 1983 NBA Finals after defeating Portland and San Antonio. The Sixers, however, won the series and the championship in four games. After the season West replaced Sharman as the team 's GM.
In the 1983 -- 84 season, Los Angeles went 54 -- 28, and played Boston in the Finals for the first time since 1969. The Lakers won two of the first three games. However, Kevin McHale 's hard clothesline foul of Lakers forward Kurt Rambis on a fast break is credited as a turning point of the series. Boston won three of the next four to win the title and send Los Angeles 's record to 0 -- 8 in Finals series against the Celtics.
Using the past year 's Finals defeat as motivation, the team won the Pacific Division for the fourth straight year and lost just two games in the Western Conference playoffs. In the NBA Finals, the Celtics were again the Lakers ' final hurdle. Los Angeles lost game one of the NBA Finals by a score of 148 -- 114, in what is remembered as the "Memorial Day Massacre ''. The Lakers, behind 38 - year - old Finals MVP Abdul - Jabbar, recovered to defeat the Celtics in six games. The team won the title in the Boston Garden, becoming the only visiting team to ever win an NBA championship there.
In the 1985 -- 86 season, the Lakers started 24 -- 3 and went on to win 62 games and their fifth straight division title. The Rockets, however, defeated the Lakers in five games in the Western Conference Finals. Houston won the series when Ralph Sampson hit a 20 - foot jumper as time expired in game five at The Forum.
Prior to the 1986 -- 87 season, the Lakers moved A.C. Green into the starting lineup, and acquired Mychal Thompson from the Spurs. Johnson won his first career MVP Award while leading the Lakers to a 65 -- 17 record, and Michael Cooper was named NBA Defensive Player of the Year. Before the season, Riley had made the decision to shift the focus of the offense to Johnson over the 40 - year - old Abdul - Jabbar. The Lakers advanced to the NBA Finals by sweeping the Nuggets, defeating the Warriors in five games, and sweeping the SuperSonics in the Western Conference Finals. The Lakers defeated Boston in the first two games of the Finals, and the teams split the next four games, giving Los Angeles their second championship in three seasons. The series was highlighted by Johnson 's running "baby hook '' shot to win game four at Boston Garden with two seconds remaining. Johnson was named the NBA Finals MVP, in addition to regular - season MVP. At the Lakers ' championship celebration in Los Angeles, coach Riley brashly declared that Los Angeles would repeat as NBA champions, which no team had done since the 1968 -- 69 Boston Celtics.
Looking to make good on Riley 's promise in the 1987 -- 88 season, the Lakers took their seventh consecutive Pacific Division title with a 62 -- 20 record. They swept the Spurs in the first round of the Western Conference Finals before pulling out a tough seven - game series win over the Utah Jazz led by youngsters Karl Malone and John Stockton. A seven - game Western Conference finals win over the Dallas Mavericks propelled the Lakers to the NBA Finals once again. In their seventh trip to the Finals in nine years, they met the Detroit Pistons. Los Angeles would take the series in seven games, and James Worthy 's game seven triple - double earned him a Finals MVP award. The win marked their fifth title in nine years, but would also mark their last title until 2000.
In the 1988 -- 89 season, Los Angeles won 57 games and their eighth consecutive Pacific Division crown. They swept the through the playoffs defeating Portland, Seattle, and Phoenix. In eighth trip to the NBA Finals in 10 years, they once again faced the Detroit Pistons. Hampered by injuries to Byron Scott and Johnson, the Lakers were swept by Detroit.
Following the 1989 Finals, on June 28, 1989, after 20 professional seasons, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar announced his retirement. The Lakers still cruised through the Pacific Division, winning their ninth consecutive division crown with a 63 -- 19 record. However, after beating the Rockets in the first round, they lost four games to one in the second round of the playoffs to the Suns. Riley announced he was stepping down after the season citing burnout, and was replaced by Mike Dunleavy. Riley 's departure received a mixed reaction from the players. They respected his contributions, but some, such as Worthy and Scott, had grown tired of his intense practices and felt he tried to take too much credit for the team 's successes. Following the season, 1987 Defensive Player of the Year winner Michael Cooper decided to play in Europe and was waived at his request.
The 1990 -- 91 Lakers failed to win the Pacific Division for the first time in 10 years, but still finished with a 58 -- 24 record. After cruising through the Western Conference playoffs, the Lakers found themselves in the NBA Finals once again, their ninth trip to the Finals in 12 years. The 1991 Finals represented a changing of the guard as the Lakers were defeated in five games by the Chicago Bulls, led by superstar Michael Jordan.
On November 7, 1991, Magic Johnson announced he had tested positive for HIV and would retire immediately.
In their first season without Johnson, the team won 43 games to earn the eight seed in the Western Conference playoffs. The Lakers became the first eighth seed to win the opening two games on the road against a number one seed when they took a 2 -- 0 lead versus Phoenix. They lost the next two games at home however, then game five in Phoenix in overtime. Following the season head coach Mike Dunleavy was fired.
The Lakers would lose 43 games in 1992 -- 93 under Randy Pfund, their first losing season since 1976. The Lakers would still make the playoffs, but were bounced in the first round. During the 1993 -- 94 season, Pfund was fired during the season that would result in the Lakers failing to make the playoffs for the first time since 1976. Magic Johnson, would coach the final 16 games of the season with former teammate Michael Cooper as his lead assistant. Johnson decided not to take the job permanently due to what he felt was a lack of commitment from certain players, and Los Angeles ended the season with a 10 - game losing streak to finish 33 -- 49.
Under new coach Del Harris, Los Angeles made the playoffs each of the next two seasons, but was eliminated in the second and first rounds respectively. The team was led by young guards Nick Van Exel and Eddie Jones. Johnson came out of retirement to return as a player in the 1995 -- 96 season to lead the then 24 -- 18 Lakers to a 29 -- 11 finish. After some run - ins with Van Exel, displeasure with Harris 's strategies, and a first round loss to the Rockets, Johnson decided to retire for the final time after the season.
During the 1996 off - season, the Lakers acquired 17 - year - old Kobe Bryant from the Charlotte Hornets for Vlade Divac; Bryant was drafted 13th overall out of Lower Merion High School in Ardmore, Pennsylvania in that year 's draft, by Charlotte. Los Angeles also signed free - agent Shaquille O'Neal. Trading for Bryant was West 's idea, and he was influential in the team 's signing of the all - star center. "Jerry West is the reason I came to the Lakers '', O'Neal later said. They used their 24th pick in the 1996 draft to select Derek Fisher. During the season, the team traded Cedric Ceballos to Phoenix for Robert Horry. O'Neal led the team to a 56 -- 26 record, their best effort since 1990 -- 91, despite missing 31 games due to a knee injury. O'Neal averaged 26.2 ppg and 12.5 rpg and finished third in the league in blocked shots (2.88 bpg) in 51 games. The Lakers defeated the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round of the playoffs as O'Neal scored 46 points in Game 1 against the Trail Blazers, marking the highest single - game playoff scoring output by a Laker since Jerry West scored 53 against the Celtics in 1969. In the next round, the Lakers lost in five games to the Utah Jazz.
In the 1997 -- 98 season, O'Neal and the Lakers had the best start in franchise history, 11 -- 0. O'Neal would miss 20 games on the season due to an abdominal injury. Los Angeles battled Seattle for the Pacific Division title most of the season. In the final two months, the Lakers won 22 of their final 25 games, finishing 61 -- 21, but still finished second to Seattle in the standings. The Lakers defeated Portland three games to one in the first roundto advance to face Seattle. Although the Sonics won the first game, the Lakers responded with four straight wins, taking the series, but were swept by the Jazz in the Western Conference Finals.
During the 1998 -- 99 season, All - Star guard Eddie Jones and center Elden Campbell were traded to the Charlotte Hornets. The team also acquired J.R. Reid, B.J. Armstrong, and Glen Rice. Head coach Del Harris was fired in February after a three - game losing streak and replaced on an interim basis by former Laker Kurt Rambis. The team finished 31 -- 19 in the strike - shortened season, which was fourth in the Western Conference. The Lakers defeated Houston in the first round of the playoffs, but were swept by San Antonio in the next round. Game four of the series would be the last game ever played at the Great Western Forum.
Before the 1999 -- 2000 season, West was prepared to hire Rambis as the team 's full - time coach before an outcry from fans and members of the organization caused him to seek out a bigger name. Los Angeles hired former Chicago Bulls coach Phil Jackson, who had coached that team to six championships, and gave him a lucrative $6 million a year contract. He brought along assistant Tex Winter and they installed Winter 's version of the triangle offense. The Lakers signed veterans Brian Shaw, John Salley, Ron Harper, and A.C. Green, who was a Laker during the "Showtime '' era. The team also moved to a new arena, the Staples Center.
Led by league MVP O'Neal, the Lakers won 31 of their first 36 games. They finished 67 -- 15, the highest win total since they won 65 in the 1986 -- 87 season. The eliminated Sacramento and Phoenix in the first two rounds of the playoffs. After the Lakers took a three games to one lead in the Western Conference Finals against Portland, the Trail Blazers won the next two games to force a game seven. The Lakers, who trailed by 15 points in the fourth quarter, would go on 19 -- 4 run to tie the game and eventually win 89 -- 84 to advance to the NBA Finals. In their first trip to the Finals since 1991, the Lakers defeated Reggie Miller and the Indiana Pacers four games to two win their first title since 1988. West retired from his spot in the team 's front office after the season after a power struggle between him and Jackson over control of the team 's operations. After the season, starters Rice and Green left the team, and Los Angeles signed Horace Grant.
The following season, the Lakers won 11 fewer regular season games than the prior year, but swept the first three rounds of the playoffs, defeating the Portland, Sacramento, and San Antonio. They met Allen Iverson and the Philadelphia 76ers in the NBA Finals. Although the Sixers took game one in overtime, the Lakers won the next four games to win their second straight title. Their 15 -- 1 postseason record was the best in NBA history until the Golden State Warriors broke it in 2017.
The Lakers won 58 games in 2001 -- 02. In the playoffs, they swept Portland and defeated San Antonio four games to one to advance to the Western Conference Finals to face Sacramento. The series would go on to be known as one of the greatest playoff matchups in NBA history. The series extended to all seven games, and ended in a Lakers victory. In game one, Bryant scored 30 points as the Lakers won, 106 -- 99. The series would then shift in Sacramento 's favor, with the Kings winning the next two games. Facing a deficit in game 4, the Lakers had the ball with under 20 seconds to play. After misses by both Bryant and O'Neal, Kings center Vlade Divac tapped the ball away from the rim in an attempt to wind down the clock. It went straight into Robert Horry 's hands, who drained a game - winning three with under three seconds to play. After the Kings won game five on a buzzer beater by Mike Bibby, the Lakers were faced with a must - win game six. In one of the most controversial playoff games in league history (Tim Donaghy scandal), the Lakers would win by four points. The Lakers went on to win game seven in overtime, with the Kings missing numerous potentially game - saving shots and free throws. The Lakers then achieved a three - peat by sweeping Jason Kidd and the New Jersey Nets in the NBA Finals. O'Neal won each of the Finals series ' MVP awards, making him the only player besides Michael Jordan to win three consecutive Finals MVPs.
The Lakers would attempt a four - peat the following year, but started the 2002 -- 03 season 11 -- 19. However, they finished the season 39 -- 13 to finish 50 -- 32. They defeated Minnesota in the first round of the playoffs, but the four - peat attempt ended as they were eliminated by San Antonio in six games in the second round.
During the 2003 -- 04 season, the team was the subject of intense media coverage generated by the teaming of four stars and the sexual - assault case involving Kobe Bryant. Before the season, the Lakers signed two - time MVP Karl Malone formerly of the Jazz, and former Seattle Defensive Player of the Year Gary Payton to join O'Neal and Bryant. Three of the "big four '', however, struggled with injuries: O'Neal suffered from a strained calf, Malone an injured knee, and Bryant an injured shoulder. The Lakers started 18 -- 3 and finished 56 -- 26 and won the Pacific Division title, entering the playoffs as the No. 2 seed. They defeated Houston, San Antonio, and Minnesota to advance to the NBA Finals. In the Finals, they would lose to Detroit in five games.
During the 2004 offseason, the team entered a rebuilding phase when O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom, Brian Grant, Caron Butler, and a first - round draft pick. Bryant and O'Neal had clashed in the past, and the media credited their feud as one of the motivating factors for the trade. Jackson did not return as head coach, and wrote a book about the team 's 2003 -- 04 season, in which he heavily criticized Bryant and called him "uncoachable ''. The Lakers front office said that the book contained "several inaccuracies ''.
The Lakers also traded Rick Fox and Gary Payton to Boston, for Chris Mihm, Marcus Banks, and Chucky Atkins before the 2004 -- 05 season. Derek Fisher, frustrated with losing playing time, opted out of his contract and signed with the Warriors. The team hired Rudy Tomjanovich to replace Jackson. After sitting out the first half of the 2004 -- 05 season, Malone announced his retirement on February 13, 2005. Tomjanovich coached the team to a 22 -- 19 record before resigning due to health problems. Assistant Frank Hamblen was named interim head coach to replace Tomjanovich for the remainder of the season. Bryant (ankle) and Odom (shoulder) suffered injuries, and the Lakers finished 34 -- 48, missing the playoffs for only the fifth time in franchise history and the first time since 1995.
With the 10th overall pick in the 2005 draft, the Lakers selected Andrew Bynum, a center from St. Joseph High School in Metuchen, New Jersey. The team also traded Caron Butler and Chucky Atkins to Washington for Kwame Brown and Laron Profit. Jackson returned to coach the team after Rudy Tomjanovich resigned midway through the previous season. On January 22, 2006, Bryant scored 81 points against Toronto, the second - highest total in NBA history. Ending the season 45 -- 37, the team made the playoffs after a one - season absence. After taking a three games to one lead in the first round, Phoenix came back to take the series in seven games.
In the following season, the Lakers won 26 of their first 39 games, but lost 27 of their last 43 -- including seven in a row at one point -- to finish 42 -- 40. They were eliminated in the first round by Phoenix again. Frustrated by the team 's inability to advance in the playoffs, Bryant demanded to be traded in the offseason. Buss initially agreed to seek a trade, but also worked to try to change Bryant 's mind.
After re-acquiring Derek Fisher, the Lakers started the 2007 -- 08 season with a 25 -- 11 record, before Andrew Bynum, their center who was leading the league in field - goal percentage, went out for the year due to a knee injury in mid-January. They acquired power forward Pau Gasol from the Memphis Grizzlies in a trade in early February and went 22 -- 5 to finish the season. The Lakers ' 57 -- 25 record earned them the first seed in the Western Conference. Bryant was awarded the league 's MVP award, becoming the first Laker to win the award since O'Neal in 2000. In the playoffs, they defeated the Nuggets in four games, the Jazz in six, and the defending champion Spurs in five, but lost to the Celtics in six games in the NBA Finals.
In the 2008 -- 09 season, the Lakers finished 65 -- 17; the best record in the Western Conference. They defeated the Jazz in five games, the Rockets in seven and the Nuggets in six, to win the Western Conference title. They then won their 15th NBA championship by defeating the Orlando Magic in five games in the NBA finals. Bryant was named the NBA Finals MVP for the first time in his career.
The Lakers, who had added Ron Artest (now Metta World Peace) in place of Trevor Ariza in their starting lineup, finished the 2009 -- 10 season with the best record in the Western Conference for the third straight time. On January 13, 2010, the Lakers became the first team in NBA history to win 3,000 regular season games by defeating the Dallas Mavericks 100 -- 95. They defeated the Oklahoma City Thunder, the Utah Jazz, and the Phoenix Suns in the Western Conference playoffs. In the finals, the Lakers played the Boston Celtics for the 12th time. They rallied back from a 3 -- 2 disadvantage in the series and erased a 13 - point deficit in the fourth quarter of the seventh game to defeat the Celtics. This series win gave them their 16th NBA title overall and 11th since they moved to Los Angeles. Bryant was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row, despite a 6 -- 24 shooting performance in game seven.
After much speculation, head coach Phil Jackson returned for the 2010 -- 11 season. In the playoffs, the Lakers defeated the New Orleans Hornets in the first round. But their opportunity for a three - peat was denied by the Dallas Mavericks in a four - game sweep of the second round. After the season, it was announced that Jackson will not be returning to coach the Lakers.
After Jackson 's retirement, former Cleveland Cavaliers head coach Mike Brown was hired as head coach on May 25, 2011. Before the start of the shortened 2011 -- 12 season, the Lakers traded Lamar Odom to the Dallas Mavericks after Odom requested to be traded. On the trade deadline long time Laker Derek Fisher along with a first round draft pick were traded to the Houston Rockets for Jordan Hill. With a 41 -- 25 regular season record the Lakers entered the playoffs as the third seed, the team defeated the Denver Nuggets in the first round in seven games but were eliminated by the Oklahoma City Thunder in the second round in five games.
On July 4, 2012, Steve Nash of the Phoenix Suns agreed to a sign - and - trade deal that would send him to the Lakers in exchange for the Lakers ' 2013 and 2015 first round draft picks, 2013 and 2014 second round draft picks, and $3 million. The trade was made official on July 11, 2012, the first day the trade moratorium was lifted. On August 10, 2012, in a four - team trade the Lakers traded Andrew Bynum and acquired Dwight Howard. On November 9, 2012, Mike Brown was relieved of coaching duties after a 1 -- 4 start to the 2012 -- 13 season. Assistant Coach Bernie Bickerstaff took over as interim head coach, leading the Lakers to a 5 -- 5 record. On November 12, 2012, the Lakers hired Mike D'Antoni as head coach. On February 18, 2013, Lakers owner Jerry Buss died from cancer at age 80. On the court, D'Antoni coached the Lakers to a 40 -- 32 record the rest of the way to finish 45 -- 37, their worst record since 2007. The Lakers clinched a playoff berth on the final game of the season and finished seventh in the Western Conference after beating the Houston Rockets on April 16, 2013. The Lakers battled injuries all season, the most prominent of which is the Achilles tendon rupture to Kobe Bryant that ended his season after 78 games. The absence of Bryant was sorely felt as the Lakers were swept by the San Antonio Spurs in the first round of the 2013 NBA Playoffs. Nevertheless, Bryant passed Lakers legend Wilt Chamberlain to become the fourth all - time leading scorer in NBA history on March 30, 2013, against the Sacramento Kings.
On March 25, 2014, the Lakers scored 51 points in the third quarter against the New York Knicks, the most points scored in a quarter in the history of the franchise. The Lakers went on to miss the NBA playoffs for the first time since 2005, for just the second time in the last two decades and for just the sixth time in franchise history. On April 30, 2014, Mike D'Antoni resigned from his position as head coach after a 27 -- 55 season.
After spending the majority of the off - season without a head coach, the Lakers named former player Byron Scott as the new head coach. After the season, he was the frontrunner to become the new Lakers head coach. Scott interviewed three times for the position, which had become vacant after Mike D'Antoni 's resignation. On July 28, 2014, he signed a multi-year contract to coach the Lakers.
During the first game of the 2014 -- 15 season, the 7th overall pick in the 2014 NBA draft, Julius Randle went down with a broken leg, which ended his rookie season. The Lakers began their season losing 10 of their first 16 games. After playing only 35 games, Kobe Bryant tore a rotator cuff in his shoulder ending his season. Nick Young was also forced to end his season with a fractured kneecap, leaving the team with a record of 14 -- 41. With 27 games left in the regular season, Byron Scott gave rookie Jordan Clarkson more playing time. Clarkson, the 46th overall pick in the 2014 draft, finished his rookie season with game stats of 11.9 ppg, 3.2 rpg, 3.5 apg, and shooting 44.8 % from the field. The Lakers ' season ended with a record of 21 -- 61, the 4th worst record in the league and at the time the worst record in franchise history.
The next season, the Lakers had the second overall pick of the 2015 NBA draft, which they used to select Ohio State freshman point guard D'Angelo Russell. On November 30, 2015, Bryant announced he would retire at the end of the season after 20 seasons with the team. In Bryant 's last season the team missed the playoffs for the third straight year with a 17 -- 65 record, the worst in franchise history.
On April 24, 2016, the Lakers announced that they will not to exercise their option on Byron Scott 's contract for the following season. On April 29, the Lakers announced another former Laker, Luke Walton, as their new head coach. At the time of his hiring, Walton was an assistant coach for the Golden State Warriors, who were in the playoffs, so Walton could not officially begin his duties as head coach until the Warriors playoff run was over. The Lakers earned the second overall pick in the 2016 NBA draft, and selected Brandon Ingram from Duke University.
On February 21, 2017, the Lakers fired general manager Mitch Kupchak, while Magic Johnson was named as the president of basketball operations. The team 's governor Jeanie Buss, also announced the removal of her brother, Jim Buss, from his position as executive vice president of basketball operations. On March 7, 2017, the Lakers hired Rob Pelinka as the general manager, signing him to a five - year deal. The Lakers again earned the second overall pick, this time, in the 2017 NBA draft, and selected Lonzo Ball from UCLA.
The rivalry between the Boston Celtics and the Lakers involves the two most storied basketball franchises in National Basketball Association (NBA) history. It has been called the best rivalry in the NBA. The two teams have met a record 12 times in the NBA Finals, starting with their first Finals meeting in 1959. They would go on to dominate the league in the 1960s and the 1980s, facing each other six times in the 1960s and three times in the 1980s.
The rivalry had been less intense since the retirements of Magic Johnson and Larry Bird in the early 1990s, but in 2008 it was renewed as the Celtics and Lakers met in the Finals for the first time since 1987, with the Celtics winning the series 4 -- 2. They faced off once again in the 2010 NBA Finals, which the Lakers won in 7 games.
The two teams have won the two highest numbers of championships, the Celtics 17, the Lakers 16; together, the 33 championships account for almost half of the 67 championships in NBA history.
The rivalry between the Lakers and the Los Angeles Clippers is unique because they are the only two NBA teams to share an arena, the Staples Center. It is also one of only two intra-city rivalries in the NBA, the other being the new crosstown rivalry between the New York Knicks and Brooklyn Nets.
Los Angeles fans have historically favored the Lakers. Some contend that the term rivalry is inaccurate until the Clippers become more successful. However, with the addition of Chris Paul and Blake Griffin to the Clippers ' roster and their emergence as playoff contenders, the rivalry has started to develop in earnest, with a recent matchup between the teams garnering ESPN its highest ratings ever for a regular season broadcast in Los Angeles.
The San Antonio Spurs and the Lakers, developed what some would classify as a rivalry in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Since 1999, the teams have met in the NBA Playoffs five times, with the clubs combining to appear in seven consecutive NBA Finals (1999 -- 2005). Additionally, the teams combined to win five NBA championships from 1999 to 2003. The Spurs won the NBA championship in 1999, 2003, 2005, 2007 and 2014 while the Lakers won the championship in 2000, 2001, 2002, 2009 and 2010. From 1999 to 2004 the clubs ' rivalry was often considered the premier rivalry in the NBA, and each time the clubs faced each other in the playoffs the winner advanced to the NBA Finals. In 2008 the teams met again in the Western Conference Finals where the Spurs were handily defeated only to beat LA when they met again in 2013 (though against a Lakers team without an injured Kobe Bryant).
Berger and Chalfen purchased the NBL 's disbanded Detroit Gems for $15,000 in 1947, changed their name to the Lakers and relocated them to Minnesota. Max Winter bought a third of the club in their early years, and sold his share to Mikan in 1954. Berger bought Mikan 's share in 1956 giving him a controlling (2⁄3) interest. After Mikan retired, attendance plummeted and the team lost money for several seasons, leading the ownership group to put the team up for sale in 1957. Marty Marion, a retired baseball player and manager, and his business partner Milton Fischman attempted to purchase the team with the intention of moving the club to Kansas City, Missouri. Mikan offered to mortgage his home in an attempt to buy the team and keep the club in Minnesota. The Lakers were sold to a group of investors led by Bob Short however. The team was sold to Short 's group with the agreement that it would not be relocated to Kansas City but kept in Minnesota. Short 's ownership group consisted of 117 Minnesota businesses and private citizens, who amassed a total of $200,000 for the purchase; $150,000 to buy the team and $50,000 to run it. By 1958 Short had become 80 % owner of the team by buying out his partners, but the team was floundering. Attendance remained poor, and the NBA had put the Lakers on "financial probation '', notifying them that if they did not meet certain ticket sales numbers they could be bought out by the league and relocated. Short was forced to move the team to Los Angeles in 1960; the club had lost $60,000 in the first half of the 1959 -- 60 season alone. The NBA 's owners originally voted 7 -- 1 against the move. When Short indicated that he might take the team to new rival league that was developing however, the owners held another vote that same day and allowed the relocation (8 -- 0). Aided by Baylor 's drawing power, and the new locale, the team 's finances improved when they arrived in LA. Short sold the team to Washington Redskins owner and publisher Jack Kent Cooke in 1965 for a then league record amount of $5,175,000. Short insisted the deal be conducted in cash as he was wary of Cooke, so guards transported the money in a cart from one New York bank to another.
Cooke was a more hands - on owner than Short, and overhauled the team 's operations. He personally financed construction of the Forum in 1967 at a cost of $16.5 million. He owned the team until 1979 when he sold it, the NHL 's Los Angeles Kings, the Forum, and some real estate to Jerry Buss for $67 million. Cooke was forced to sell the team as he was undergoing a costly divorce. Buss was a local chemical engineer and former University of Southern California professor who had become wealthy in real estate. Philip Anschutz bought a stake in the team in 1998, and until October 2010 Magic Johnson was a minority owner as well. Buss started the trend of allowing sponsors to add their name to team 's stadiums when he renamed the Forum the Great Western Forum in 1988. In 2009 major sponsors included Verizon Wireless, Toyota, Anheuser - Busch, American Express, and Carl 's Jr., and the team 's $113 average ticket price was the highest in the league. Fast food chain Jack in the Box is another major sponsor, the company gives all fans in attendance at home games a coupon for two free tacos if the Lakers hold their opponent under 100 points and win. The company also sponsors the team 's halftime shows on KCAL - TV and Fox Sports West. In 2013, Buss died at the age of 80 after being hospitalized for 18 months with cancer. His controlling ownership of the team passed to his six children via a trust, with each child receiving an equal vote. Buss ' succession plan had daughter Jeanie Buss assume his title as the Lakers ' governor as well as its team representative at NBA Board of Governors meetings.
Given the team 's proximity to Hollywood, the Lakers fanbase includes numerous celebrities, many of whom can be seen at the Staples Center during home games. Jack Nicholson, for example, has held season tickets since the 1970s, and directors reportedly need to work their shooting schedules around Lakers home games. From 2002 and 2007 the team averaged just over 18,900 fans, which placed them in the top ten in the NBA in attendance. Red Hot Chili Peppers ' song "Magic Johnson '' from their 1989 album Mother 's Milk is a tribute to the former point guard, and frontman Anthony Kiedis and bassist Michael "Flea '' Balzary are frequently seen attending home games. The team has sold out every home game since the 2007 -- 08 season. As of 2010, the Lakers have the most popular team merchandise among all NBA teams, and Bryant the most popular jersey.
The Laker nickname came from the state of Minnesota being the Land of 10,000 Lakes. The team 's colors are purple, gold and white. The Lakers logo consists of the team name, "Los Angeles Lakers '' written in purple on top of a gold basketball. Purple uniforms are used for road games and gold uniforms are used for home games. The team also wears white jerseys for Sunday and holiday home games.
The Lakers have won 16 NBA titles and have appeared in the NBA Finals 15 other times. These appearances include eight NBA Finals appearances in the 1980s. The best record posted by the team was 69 -- 13, in 1972; the worst record was 17 -- 65, in 2015 -- 16.
Bryant holds most individual team records for longevity including most games played (1333), and most minutes logged (48,298). Johnson holds all significant assist records for the club including career assists (10,141), assists in a game (24), and highest assist average for a season (13.1). Johnson also has the most triple doubles, with his 138 over 100 more than the next closest player (Bryant; 17). Elmore Smith holds team records for blocks in a game (17), blocks per game for a season (4.85), and career blocks per game (3.93). The scoring records are mostly shared by Elgin Baylor and Bryant, with Baylor having the highest average for a career (27.4) while Bryant has the highest points scored in a single game (81). Baylor, Bryant and West hold the top five single season scoring averages, with Bryant occupying the numbers one (35.4) and four (31.6) spots, while Baylor has the second (34.8), and third (34.0), and West the fifth (31.3).
The Lakers hold several NBA records as a team including most consecutive games won overall (33) and most consecutive road games won (16) both of which came during the 1971 -- 72 season. Highest field - goal percentage for a season at 54.5 % (1984 -- 85), and highest road winning percentage at 0.816 (1971 -- 72). They also hold records for having (into the 2009 -- 10 season) the most wins (3,027), the highest winning percentage (61.9 %), and the most NBA Finals appearances (31). The 2000 -- 01 team set the NBA record for best playoff record at 15 -- 1, which was later broken by the Golden State Warriors in 2017. The 1971 -- 72 team holds franchise records in wins (69), most points scored, and largest margin of victory; both of the latter came in the team 's 63 point win versus Golden State (162 -- 99). They also used to hold the record for most wins at home in the regular season (going 36 -- 5 in 1971 -- 72, then 37 -- 4 in both 1976 -- 77 and 1979 -- 80) before the Boston Celtics set the current record of 40 -- 1 in the 1985 -- 86 season.
The Lakers play their home games at Staples Center, located at L.A. Live in Downtown Los Angeles. Staples Center opened in fall 1999, and seats up to 18,997 for Lakers games. The Staples Center is also home to the Los Angeles Clippers, the WNBA 's Los Angeles Sparks, and the NHL 's Los Angeles Kings. The arena is owned and operated by AEG and L.A. Arena Company. Before moving to the Staples Center, for 32 seasons (1967 -- 1999), the Lakers played their home games at The Forum in Inglewood, California, located approximately 10 miles southwest of the team 's current home at Staples Center. During the 1999 NBA preseason, the Lakers played their home games at the Forum before officially moving into Staples Center, and once again hosted a preseason game versus the Golden State Warriors on October 9, 2009, this time to commemorate the team 's 50th anniversary season in Los Angeles.
In the first seven years in Los Angeles, the team played their home games at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena, south of Downtown Los Angeles. While the team played in Minneapolis, the team played their home games at the Minneapolis Auditorium, from 1947 to 1960.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2018 -- 04 -- 09
The Lakers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
The Lakers have had three first overall picks in their history: Elgin Baylor (selected in 1958), Magic Johnson (selected in 1979) and James Worthy (selected in 1982). The Lakers have also had six lottery picks in their history: Eddie Jones (selected 10th overall in 1994), Andrew Bynum (selected 10th overall in 2005), Julius Randle (selected 7th overall in 2014), D'Angelo Russell (selected 2nd overall in 2015), Brandon Ingram (selected 2nd overall in 2016), and Lonzo Ball (selected 2nd overall in 2017). Other draft picks include Jerry West and Gail Goodrich in the 1960s, Michael Cooper and Norm Nixon in the 1970s, A.C. Green and Vlade Divac in the 1980s, Elden Campbell, Nick Van Exel, Derek Fisher, and Devean George in the 1990s, and Luke Walton, Sasha Vujačić, and Ronny Turiaf in the 2000s.
There have been 22 head coaches for the Lakers franchise. John Kundla coached the team in Minneapolis when they won their first five BAA / NBA championships, from 1949 to 1954. Pat Riley is second in franchise history in both regular season and playoff games coached and wins. Phil Jackson broke Riley 's regular season wins record in 2009, and he passed Riley 's playoff wins and games coached records in 2010. Jackson, Riley, Kundla, and Bill Sharman have all been inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame for their coaching careers. George Mikan, Jim Pollard, Jerry West, Pat Riley, Magic Johnson, Kurt Rambis and Byron Scott have all played and head coached for the Lakers. Jackson, who had two stints as head coach, was coach from 2005 -- 2006 until 2010 -- 2011. Mike Brown was named his replacement for the 2011 -- 2012 season in May 2011. Brown was fired on November 9, 2012, after a 1 -- 4 start. Assistant coach Bernie Bickerstaff served as interim head coach for five games before the Lakers selected Mike D'Antoni as their new head coach. D'Antoni resigned at the end of the 2013 -- 2014 season. In July 2014, Byron Scott was hired as head coach. After the 2015 -- 2016 season ended, Scott was fired. On April 29, 2016, former Lakers player Luke Walton was named as Scott 's replacement.
The Lakers have 30 Hall of Famers (23 players, 4 head coaches, 1 assistant coach, and 2 contributors) who contributed to the organization.
The Lakers have retired eleven jersey numbers and an honorary microphone in honor of their players and broadcaster:
In addition, several other players and coaches who were instrumental to the franchise 's success during its days in Minneapolis were named Honored Minneapolis Lakers, although their numbers are not retired by the franchise:
Chick Hearn was the team 's broadcaster for 41 years until his death in 2002. He broadcast 3,338 consecutive games between November 21, 1965, and December 16, 2001. Hearn came up with West 's "Mr. Clutch '' nickname. He was a part of the team 's "inner sanctum '' when Cooke was owner, and was consulted on basketball decisions. Paul Sunderland, who had filled in for a couple of games while Hearn recuperated in 2001 -- 02, was named the permanent play - by - play announcer. Stu Lantz was retained as the color commentator. Sunderland 's contract expired in the summer of 2005, and the team chose not to renew it. Joel Meyers moved in alongside Lantz as the television announcer, while Spero Dedes and former Laker player Mychal Thompson on the radio.
For the 2011 -- 12 NBA season, Bill Macdonald became the new television play - by - play announcer, joining Lantz who remained as the color analyst. Meanwhile, John Ireland joined Mychal Thompson to call the games on radio.
As of the 2009 -- 10 season, Lakers radio broadcasts are heard on KSPN (Los Angeles ESPN Radio affiliate) in English and KWKW in Spanish. KLAC had the team 's radio broadcast rights from the 1976 -- 77 season until the 2008 -- 09 season. Until 2011, telecasts had been split between KCAL - TV (road games) and Fox Sports West (home games), unless they are chosen for national broadcasts on ABC. KCAL had been the Lakers ' over-the - air television broadcaster since 1977, dating back to when the station was the RKO General - owned KHJ - TV, the longest relationship between an NBA team and a television station. Prior to KHJ, Laker games were televised on KTLA. The Lakers had been on Fox Sports West since 1985, dating to when it was the original Prime Ticket and owned by Buss.
On February 14, 2011, Time Warner Cable and the Lakers announced the formation of two new regional sports networks (one in English, one in Spanish) that will exclusively televise the team 's games and related programming for 20 years starting with the 2012 -- 13 NBA season. The said networks were originally known as Time Warner Cable SportsNet, before it was renamed Spectrum SportsNet in 2016 upon Charter Communications ' purchase of Time Warner Cable.
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when does the constitution called for all national elections to be held | Election Day (United states) - wikipedia
In the United States, Election Day is the day set by law for the general elections of federal public officials. It is statutorily set as "the Tuesday next after the first Monday in the month of November '' or "the first Tuesday after November 1 ''. The earliest possible date is November 2, and the latest possible date is November 8.
For federal offices (President, Vice President, and United States Congress), Election Day occurs only in even - numbered years. Presidential elections are held every four years, in years divisible by four, in which electors for President and Vice President are chosen according to the method determined by each state. Elections to the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate are held every two years; all Representatives are elected to serve two - year terms and are up for election every two years, while Senators serve six - year terms, staggered so that one third of Senators are elected in any given general election. General elections in which presidential candidates are not on the ballot are referred to as midterm elections. Terms for those elected begin in January the following year; the President and Vice President are inaugurated ("sworn in '') on Inauguration Day, which is usually on January 20.
Many state and local government offices are also elected on Election Day as a matter of convenience and cost saving, although a handful of states hold elections for state offices (such as governor) during odd - numbered "off years '', or during other even - numbered "midterm years '', and may hold special elections for offices that have become vacant. Congress has mandated a uniform date for presidential (3 U.S.C. § 1) and congressional (2 U.S.C. § 1 and 2 U.S.C. § 7) elections, though early voting is nonetheless authorized in many states.
Election Day is a Public holiday in some states, including Delaware, Hawaii, Kentucky, Louisiana, Montana, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, West Virginia, and the territory of Puerto Rico. Some other states require that workers be permitted to take time off with pay. California Elections Code Section 14000 provides that employees otherwise unable to vote must be allowed two hours off with pay, at the beginning or end of a shift. A federal holiday, Democracy Day, to coincide with Election Day has been proposed. Other movements in the IT and automotive industries encourage employers to voluntarily give their employees paid time off on Election Day.
No federal law regulated the 1788 federal election. In 1792, federal law permitted each state to conduct presidential elections in the state (i.e., to choose their electors) at any time in a 34 - day period before the first Wednesday of December, which was the day set for the meeting of the electors of the U.S. president and vice-president (the Electoral College), in their respective states. This gave each state some flexibility in the holding of their elections. An election date in November was seen as convenient because the harvest would have been completed (important in an agrarian society) and the winter - like storms would not yet have begun in earnest (especially an advantage in the days before paved roads and snowplows). However, in this arrangement the states that voted later could be influenced by a candidate 's victories in the states that voted earlier, a problem later exacerbated by improved communications via train and telegraph. In close elections, the states that voted last might well determine the outcome.
A uniform date for choosing presidential electors was instituted by the Congress in 1845. Many theories have been advanced as to why the Congress settled on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The actual reasons, as shown in records of Congressional debate on the bill in December 1844, were fairly prosaic. The bill initially set the day for choosing presidential electors on "the first Tuesday in November, '' in years divisible by four (1848, 1852, etc.). But it was pointed out that in some years the period between the first Tuesday in November and the first Wednesday in December (when the electors are required to meet in their state capitals to vote) would be more than 34 days, in violation of the existing Electoral College law. So, the bill was reworded to move the date for choosing presidential electors to the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, a date scheme already used in New York. The period between Election Day and the first Wednesday in December is always 29 days. The effect of the change was to make November 2 the earliest day on which Election Day may fall.
In 1845, the United States was largely an agrarian society. Farmers often needed a full day to travel by horse - drawn vehicles to the county seat to vote. Tuesday was established as election day because it did not interfere with the Biblical Sabbath or with market day, which was on Wednesday in many towns.
In modern times, the United States is no longer primarily an agrarian society, and Tuesday is now normally a work day throughout the country with most voters working on that day. This has led activists to object to Election Day being on a Tuesday on the grounds that it decreases voter turnout. They advocate either making Election Day a federal holiday or allowing voters to cast their ballots over two or more days. Activists also encourage workplaces to allow their employees paid time off in lieu of such mandates and encourage voters to make use of early voting and postal voting facilities when available and convenient.
Several commentators have noted the irony of Election Day being a regular working day, while Veterans Day, which typically falls on November 11, is a federal holiday. Many have called for the holidays to be merged, so citizens can have a day off to vote. This would be seen as a way to honor veterans by exercising the democratic right to vote.
Delaware, Hawaii, Kentucky, Montana, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, West Virginia, and the territory of Puerto Rico have declared Election Day a civic holiday. Some other states require that workers be permitted to take time off from employment without loss of pay. California Elections Code Section 14000 and New York State Election Law provide that employees without sufficient time to vote must be allowed two hours off with pay, at the beginning or end of a shift. Democracy Day, a planned federal holiday to coincide with Election Day, was unsuccessfully proposed in the U.S. House of Representatives and the U.S. Senate in 2005. It was later reintroduced in the Senate in 2014 and has not been enacted.
Some employers allow their employees to come in late or leave early on Election Day to allow them an opportunity to get to their precinct and vote. The United Auto Workers union has negotiated making Election Day a holiday for workers of U.S. domestic auto manufacturers. In July 2016, venture capitalist Hunter Walk began encouraging tech companies to give their employees time off to vote on Election Day. Walk 's campaign evolved into a website, TakeOffElectionDay.com, which now highlights the 140 + tech companies (including Spotify, Wikimedia Foundation, Autodesk, and Square, Inc.) that are giving their employees time to vote on Election Day.
Most states allow for early voting, allowing voters to cast ballots before the Election Day. Early voting periods vary from 4 to 50 days prior to Election Day. Unconditional early voting in person is allowed in 32 states and in D.C. Also, most states have some kind of absentee ballot system. Unconditional absentee voting by mail is allowed in 27 states and D.C., and with an excuse in another 21 states. Unconditional permanent absentee voting is allowed in 7 states and in D.C.
In Colorado, Oregon and Washington State all major elections are by postal voting, with ballot papers sent to voters several weeks before Election Day. In Colorado and Oregon, all postal votes must be received by a set time on Election Day, as is common with absentee ballots in most states (except overseas military ballots, which receive more time by federal law). Washington State requires postal votes be postmarked by Election Day. For the 2008 presidential election, 32 % of votes were early votes.
Elected offices of municipalities, counties (in most states), and other local entities (such as school boards and other special - purpose districts) have their elections subject to rules of their state, and in some states, they vary according to choices of the jurisdiction in question. For instance, in Connecticut, all towns, cities, and boroughs hold elections in every odd - numbered year, but as of 2004, 16 have them on the first Monday in May, while the other 153 are on Election Day. In Massachusetts, the 50 cities are required to hold their elections on Election Day, but the 301 towns may choose any date, and most have traditionally held their elections in early spring, after the last snowfall.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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what is the world's third largest island in the malay archipelago | Malay Archipelago - wikipedia
The Malay Archipelago (Malaysian & Indonesian: Kepulauan Melayu / Nusantara, Tagalog: Kapuluang Malay, Visayan: Kapupud - ang Malay) is the archipelago between mainland Indochina and Australia. It has also been called the Malay World, Indo - Australian Archipelago, East Indies, Nusantara, Spices Archipelago, and other names over time. The name was taken from the 19th - century European concept of a Malay race, later based on the distribution of Austronesian languages.
Situated between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, the group of over 25,000 islands is the largest archipelago by area, and fourth by number of islands in the world. It includes Brunei, Singapore, East Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and East Timor. The island of New Guinea is usually excluded from definitions of the Malay Archipelago, although the Indonesian western portion of the island may be included. The term is largely synonymous with maritime Southeast Asia.
The term was derived from the European concept of a Malay race, which referred to the people who inhabited what is now Brunei, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia (excluding Western New Guinea), the Philippines and East Timor. The racial concept was proposed by European explorers based on their observations of the influence of the ethnic Malay empire, Srivijaya, which was based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia.
The 19th - century naturalist Alfred Wallace used the term "Malay Archipelago '' as the title of his influential book documenting his studies in the region. Wallace also referred to the area as the "Indian Archipelago '' and the "Indo - Australian '' Archipelago. He included within the region the Solomon Islands and the Malay Peninsula due to physiographic similarities. As Wallace noted, there are arguments for excluding Papua New Guinea for cultural and geographical reasons: Papua New Guinea is culturally quite different from the other countries in the region, and the island of New Guinea is geologically not part of the continent of Asia, as the islands of the Sunda Shelf are (see Australia).
The archipelago was called the "East Indies '' from the late 16th century and throughout the European colonial era. It is still sometimes referred to as such, but broader usages of the "East Indies '' term had included Indochina and the Indian subcontinent. The area is called "Nusantara '' in the Indonesian and Malaysian languages. The area is also referred to as the "Indonesian archipelago ''. The term "maritime Southeast Asia '' is largely synonymous, covering both the islands in Southeast Asia and nearby island - like communities, such as those found on the Malay Peninsula.
The land and sea area of the archipelago exceeds 2 million km. The more than 25,000 islands of the archipelago comprise many smaller archipelagoes.
The major groupings are:
The seven largest islands are New Guinea, Borneo, Sumatra, Sulawesi and Java in Indonesia; and Luzon and Mindanao in the Philippines.
Geologically, the archipelago is one of the most active volcanic regions in the world. Producing many volcanoes especially in Java, Sumatra and Lesser Sunda Islands region where most volcanoes over 3,000 m (9,843 ft) situated. Tectonic uplifts also produced large mountains, including the highest in Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with a height of 4,095.2 m and Puncak Jaya on Papua, Indonesia at 4,884 m (16,024 ft). Other high mountains in the archipelago include Puncak Mandala, Indonesia at 4,760 m (15,617 ft) and Puncak Trikora, Indonesia, at 4,750 m (15,584 ft).
The climate throughout the archipelago is tropical, owing to its position on the equator.
Wallace used the term Malay Archipelago as the title of his influential book documenting his studies in the region. He proposed what would come to be known as the "Wallace Line '', a boundary that separated the flora and fauna of Asia and Australia. The ice age boundary was formed by the deep water straits between Borneo and Sulawesi; and through the Lombok Strait between Bali and Lombok. This is now considered the western border of the Wallacea transition zone between the zoogeographical regions of Asia and Australia. The zone has a mixture of species of Asian and Australian origin, and its own endemic species.
Over 380 million people live in the region, with the 12 most populated islands being:
The people living there are predominantly from Austronesian subgroupings and correspondingly speak western Malayo - Polynesian languages. The main religions in this region are Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism and traditional animism.
Culturally, the region is often seen as part of "Farther India '' or Greater India -- the Coedes Indianized states of Southeast Asia refers to it as "Island Southeast Asia ''.
"If we draw a line... commencing along the western coast of Gilolo, through the island of Bouru, and curving round the west end of Mores, then bending back by Sandalwood Island to take in Rotti, we shall divide the Archipelago into two portions, the races of which have strongly marked distinctive peculiarities. This line will separate the Malayan and all the Asiatic races, from the Papuans and all that inhabit the Pacific; and though along the line of junction intermigration and commixture have taken place, yet the division is on the whole almost as well defined and strongly contrasted, as is the corresponding zoological division of the Archipelago, into an Indo - Malayan and Austro - Malayan region. ''
Coordinates: 2 ° 56 ′ S 107 ° 55 ′ E / 2.933 ° S 107.917 ° E / - 2.933; 107.917
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yeh un dino ki baat hai serial star cast | Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai - wikipedia
Sony SET India
Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai (English: It 's About Those Days) is a Hindi drama series on SET and produced by Shashi Sumeet Productions, which started airing from 5 September 2017. Newbie Ashi Singh and TV actor Randeep Rai play the lead roles of Naina and Sameer respectively. The show is based on the youngsters ' love story and is set in the 1990s.
The show has been critically acclaimed for its performances and script. This show has also been dubbed in Tamil known as Ninaithale Inikkum.
The story starts in 1990, place being Ahmadabad, Gujarat. Naina Aggarwal (Ashi Singh) is a quintessential good girl who tops her school every year. She is excellent in studies. She is looked after by Bela chachi and Anand chacha. Her mother passed away when she was young. Her father, Rakesh Aggarwal is a librarian in her school, who is a strict and stubborn person. Her elder brother Arjun is a cricketer.
Sameer Maheshwari (Randeep Rai) is a good looking happy - go - lucky, spoilt brat. He studied in a boarding school in Nainital, after which he is transferred to Naina 's school. Naina, after meeting Sameer, falls for him instantly. She constantly tries to get his attention. Sameer 's enemies in the school challenge him to make Naina say "I Love You '' to him, to which Sameer agrees. Thereafter, their school goes for a school trip, where she realizes that she is in love with him. Sameer also makes her fall for him. One day, Naina gathers courage to propose Sameer, where his enemies reveal that it was just a bet. Naina is heartbroken, and vows never to love anyone. Sameer realizes that he too has fallen for her, as he was never taken care of as Naina did. Sameer tries to gain her love, which he does but with much difficulty. Sameer and Naina are now in a happy relation.
2 years pass by, and the couple is in the same college. They continue their relation. After Arjun - Shefali break up, Naina fears of facing her family 's wrath and she breaks - up with Sameer. Both are heartbroken. Naina 's taiji forces her to get married, which she unwillingly agrees to and gets engaged to a to - be C.A, Sharad. Sameer also decides to move on and establishes a relation with Sunaina.
The opening theme of the show Yeh Un Dinon Ki Baat Hai is composed by Anu Malik. The lyrics are written by Sanjay Chhel and it comprises the voices of legendary singers Kumar Sanu and Sadhana Sargam.
The show has received mostly positive reviews and is considered to be doing well. It was particularly hailed for a fresh outlook and for bringing out the nostalgia and the flavours of the 90s well. The show topped the Sony TV shows by gaining a TRP of 1.1 its first week.
Bollywood Life hailed it as one of the best TV shows launched in 2017 and praised the performances of newcomers Ashi Singh and Randeep Rai.
UK 's weekly Asian newspaper Eastern Eye praised the creative team of the show for leaving no stone unturned to recreate the city of Ahmedabad from an earlier era and called it a tribute to the city.
This show has also earned compliments from various television as well as film actors.
For the Gold Awards 2018, Ashi Singh was nominated for ' Best Debut in a Leading Role ' in Female category.
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when does star wars come out in america | Star Wars: the Last Jedi - wikipedia
Star Wars: The Last Jedi (also known as Star Wars: Episode VIII -- The Last Jedi) is a 2017 American epic space opera film written and directed by Rian Johnson. It is the second installment of the Star Wars sequel trilogy and the eighth main installment of the Star Wars franchise, following Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015). It was produced by Lucasfilm and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The ensemble cast includes Mark Hamill, Carrie Fisher, Adam Driver, Daisy Ridley, John Boyega, Oscar Isaac, Andy Serkis, Lupita Nyong'o, Domhnall Gleeson, Anthony Daniels and Gwendoline Christie in returning roles, with Kelly Marie Tran, Laura Dern and Benicio del Toro joining the cast. The film features the final film performance by Fisher, who died in December 2016, and it is dedicated to her memory. The plot follows Rey as she receives Jedi training from Luke Skywalker, in hopes of turning the tide for the Resistance in the fight against Kylo Ren and the First Order.
The Last Jedi was part of a new trilogy of films announced after Disney 's acquisition of Lucasfilm in October 2012. It was produced by Lucasfilm President Kathleen Kennedy and Ram Bergman, with Force Awakens director J.J. Abrams as an executive producer. John Williams, composer for the previous films, returned to compose the score. Scenes that required shooting at Skellig Michael in Ireland were filmed during pre-production in September 2015, with principal photography beginning at Pinewood Studios in the United Kingdom in February 2016 and ending in July 2016. Post-production wrapped in September 2017.
The Last Jedi had its world premiere in Los Angeles on December 9, 2017, and was released in the United States on December 15, 2017. It has grossed over $1.3 billion worldwide, making it the highest - grossing film of 2017, the 7th - highest - ever grossing film in North America and the 9th - highest - grossing film of all time. It is also the second - highest - grossing film of the Star Wars franchise, and turned a net profit of over $417 million. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised its ensemble cast, visual effects, musical score, action sequences and emotional weight; some considered it the best Star Wars film since The Empire Strikes Back. The film received four nominations at the 90th Academy Awards, including Best Original Score and Best Visual Effects, as well two nominations at the 71st British Academy Film Awards. A sequel, provisionally titled Star Wars: Episode IX, is scheduled for release on December 20, 2019.
Resistance forces, led by General Leia Organa, flee D'Qar when a First Order fleet arrives. Poe Dameron leads a costly counterattack that destroys a First Order dreadnought, but after the Resistance escapes to hyperspace, the First Order tracks them and attacks the Resistance convoy. Kylo Ren, Leia 's son, hesitates to fire on the lead Resistance ship after sensing his mother 's presence, but his TIE fighter wingmen destroy the bridge, incapacitating Leia. Disapproving of new leader Vice Admiral Holdo 's passive strategy, Poe helps Finn, BB - 8, and mechanic Rose Tico embark on a secret mission to disable the tracking device.
Meanwhile, Rey arrives on Ahch - To with Chewbacca and R2 - D2 aboard the Millennium Falcon to recruit Luke Skywalker to the Resistance. Disillusioned by his failure to train Kylo as a Jedi, and under self - imposed exile from the Force, Luke refuses to help -- even after he learns of Han Solo 's death at Kylo 's hands -- and believes that the Jedi should become extinct. Unbeknownst to Luke, Rey and Kylo communicate through the Force, puzzling the two enemies. As the rival Force users learn about each other, each has future visions of themselves as partners.
R2 - D2 persuades Luke to train Rey. After Kylo tells Rey about what happened between him and Luke that caused him to choose the dark side of the Force, Luke confesses that he momentarily contemplated killing Kylo upon sensing that Supreme Leader Snoke was corrupting him, causing Kylo to destroy Luke 's new Jedi Order in retaliation. Convinced that Kylo can be redeemed, Rey leaves Ahch - To to confront Kylo without Luke. Luke prepares to burn down the Ahch - To Jedi temple and library, but hesitates. Yoda 's ghost appears and destroys the temple by summoning a thunderstorm, claiming Rey has all she needs to learn, and encourages Luke to learn from his failure.
Holdo reveals her plan to discreetly evacuate the remaining Resistance members using small transports. Believing her actions cowardly and risky, Poe leads a mutiny. Finn, Rose, and BB - 8 travel to the Canto Bight casino and acquire the help of the hacker DJ, who says he can help them disable the tracking device. They infiltrate Snoke 's ship, but all but BB - 8 are captured by Captain Phasma. Meanwhile, Rey lands on the ship, and Kylo brings her to Snoke, who reveals that he facilitated the mental connection between her and Kylo as part of a plan to destroy Luke. Ordered to kill Rey, Kylo instead kills Snoke and, with Rey, defeats Snoke 's guards. Rey believes that Kylo has returned to the light side of the Force, but he instead invites her to rule the galaxy with him, which she refuses. They use the Force to fight for possession of Anakin Skywalker 's lightsaber, which splits in two.
Leia recovers and stuns Poe, allowing the evacuation to begin. Holdo remains on the ship to mislead Snoke 's fleet as the others flee to an abandoned Rebel Alliance base on Crait. DJ reveals the Resistance 's plan to the First Order, and the evacuation transports are slowly destroyed. Holdo sacrifices herself by ramming Snoke 's fleet at lightspeed; Rey escapes in the chaos, while Kylo declares himself Supreme Leader. BB - 8 frees Finn and Rose, who escape after defeating Phasma, and they join survivors on Crait. When the First Order arrives, Poe, Finn, and Rose attack with old speeders. Rey and Chewbacca draw the TIE fighters away with the Falcon, while Rose stops Finn from completing a suicide run against the enemy siege cannon, which penetrates the Resistance fortress.
Luke appears and confronts the First Order to enable surviving Resistance members to escape. Kylo orders the First Order 's forces to fire on Luke to no effect. He then engages Luke in a lightsaber duel; upon striking Luke, Kylo realizes he has been fighting a Force projection of him. Rey uses the Force to help the Resistance escape on the Falcon. Luke, exhausted, dies peacefully on Ahch - To. His death is sensed by Rey and Leia, but Leia tells surviving rebels that the Resistance has all it needs to rise again. At Canto Bight, one of the children who helped Finn and Rose escape grabs a broom with the Force and gazes into space.
Joonas Suotamo appears as Chewbacca, taking over the role from Peter Mayhew after previously serving as his body double for The Force Awakens. Mayhew, who was 73 years old and suffering from chronic knee and back pain, is credited as "Chewbacca consultant. '' Billie Lourd, Mike Quinn, and Timothy D. Rose reprise their roles as Lieutenant Connix, Nien Nunb, and Admiral Ackbar respectively from previous films. Due to the death of Erik Bauersfeld, Admiral Ackbar is now voiced by Tom Kane. Amanda Lawrence appears as Commander D'Acy, and Mark Lewis Jones and Adrian Edmondson play Captains Canady and Peavey respectively. BB - 8 is controlled by puppeteers Dave Chapman and Brian Herring, with initial voice work by Ben Schwartz and final sound effects voiced by Bill Hader modulated through a synthesizer. Jimmy Vee portrays R2 - D2, taking over the role from Kenny Baker who died on August 13, 2016. Veronica Ngo portrays Rose 's sister Paige Tico, a Resistance gunner who sacrifices her life to destroy a First Order dreadnought.
Justin Theroux plays the master codebreaker, while Lily Cole plays his companion. Joseph Gordon - Levitt has a voice cameo as Slowen Lo. Warwick Davis plays Wodibin. Gareth Edwards, director of the Star Wars Anthology film Rogue One, has a cameo appearance as a Resistance Soldier, as does Gary Barlow. Directors Edgar Wright and Joe Cornish also cameo in the film. Hermione Corfield appears as Tallissan "Tallie '' Lintra, a Resistance A-Wing pilot and squadron leader. Noah Segan and Jamie Christopher appear as Resistance pilots Starck and Tubbs. Hamill 's children, Griffin, Nathan, and Chelsea, cameo as Resistance soldiers. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Harry filmed cameo appearances as stormtroopers. Tom Hardy also filmed an appearance as a stormtrooper, but his cameo was ultimately dropped from the final cut. Hugh Skinner cameos as a Resistance Officer.
In October 2012, Star Wars creator George Lucas sold his production company Lucasfilm, and with it the Star Wars franchise, to The Walt Disney Company. Disney announced a new trilogy of Star Wars films. J.J. Abrams was named director of the first episode in the trilogy, The Force Awakens, in January 2013. In June 2014, director Rian Johnson was reported to be in talks to write and direct its sequel, dubbed Episode VIII, and to write a treatment for the third film, Episode IX, with Ram Bergman producing both films. Johnson confirmed in August 2014 that he would direct Episode VIII. In September, filmmaker Terry Gilliam asked Johnson about what it felt like to take over something that was made famous by another filmmaker, to which Johnson responded:
I 'm just starting into it, but so far, honestly, it 's the most fun I 've ever had writing. It 's just joyous. But also for me personally, I grew up not just watching those movies but playing with those toys, so as a little kid, the first movies I was making in my head were set in this world. A big part of it is that direct connection, almost like an automatic jacking back into childhood in a weird way. But I do n't know, ask me again in a few years and we 'll be able to talk about that.
The story begins immediately after the last scene of The Force Awakens. He had his story group watch films such as Twelve O'Clock High, The Bridge on the River Kwai, Gunga Din, Three Outlaw Samurai, Sahara, and Letter Never Sent for inspiration while developing ideas. He felt it was difficult to work on the film while The Force Awakens was being finished.
In December 2015, Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy stated that "we have n't mapped out every single detail (of the sequel trilogy) yet ''. She said that Abrams was collaborating with Johnson and that Johnson would in turn work with (then) Episode IX director Colin Trevorrow to ensure a smooth transition. Abrams is an executive producer along with Jason McGatlin and Tom Karnowski. Lucasfilm announced the film 's title, Star Wars: The Last Jedi, on January 23, 2017.
In September 2015, Disney shortlisted the female cast members to Gina Rodriguez, Tatiana Maslany, and Olivia Cooke. Later that month, Benicio del Toro confirmed that he would play a villain in the film, and Mark Hamill was also confirmed. In October 2015, Gugu Mbatha - Raw was rumored to have been cast in the film. In November, Jimmy Vee was cast as R2 - D2. In November, Kennedy announced at the London premiere for The Force Awakens that the entire cast would return for Episode VIII, along with "a handful '' of new cast members. In February 2016, at the start of filming, it was confirmed that Laura Dern and Kelly Marie Tran had been cast in unspecified roles. In April 2017, at Star Wars Celebration Orlando, Lucasfilm announced that Tran plays Resistance maintenance worker Rose Tico, which Johnson described as the film 's largest new role. To keep Frank Oz 's return as Yoda a secret, producers excluded Oz 's name in the billing for the film 's pre-release marketing and ensured that Oz stayed on set during filming.
Second unit photography began during pre-production at Skellig Michael in Ireland on September 14, 2015, due to the difficulties of filming at that location during other seasons. It would have lasted four days, but filming was canceled for the first day due to poor weather and rough conditions. In November 2014, Ivan Dunleavy, chief executive of Pinewood Studios, confirmed that the film would be shot at Pinewood, with additional filming in Mexico. In September 2015, del Toro revealed that principal photography would begin in March 2016; Kennedy later stated that filming would begin in January 2016. The production began work on the 007 Stage at Pinewood Studios on November 15, 2015. Rick Heinrichs served as production designer.
In January 2016, production of Episode VIII was delayed until February 2016, due to script rewrites. Additionally, filming was potentially in danger of being delayed further due to an upcoming strike between the Producers Alliance for Cinema and Television and the Broadcasting, Entertainment, Cinematograph and Theatre Union. On February 10, 2016, Disney CEO Bob Iger confirmed that principal photography had begun, under the working title Space Bear. Additional filming took place in Dubrovnik, Croatia from March 9 to 16, 2016, as well as in Ireland in May. Malin Head in County Donegal and a mountain headland, Ceann Sibeal in County Kerry, served as additional filming locations. To increase the scenes ' intimacy Driver and Ridley were both present when filming Kylo and Rey 's Force visions. Location filming for the battle scenes on the planet Crait took place in July 2016 at the Salar de Uyuni salt flats in Bolivia.
Principal photography wrapped on July 22, 2016, though as of early September 2016, Nyong'o had not filmed her scenes. In February 2017, it was announced that sequences from the film were shot in IMAX. Production designer Rick Heinrichs said the original screenplay called for 160 sets, double what might be expected, but that Johnson did some "trimming and cutting ''. Ultimately 125 sets were created on 14 sound stages at Pinewood Studios.
According to creature designer Neal Scanlan, The Last Jedi uses more practical effects than any Star Wars film, with 180 to 200 creatures created with practical effects, some cut from the final edit. For Yoda 's appearance in the film as a Force ghost, the character was created using puppetry, as was done in the original Star Wars trilogy (as opposed to computer - generated imagery, which was used to create Yoda in most of the prequel trilogy).
The film 's Canto Bight sequence contains a reference to the 1985 Terry Gilliam film Brazil, in which Finn and Rose are arrested for committing parking violation 27B / 6.
In July 2013, Kennedy announced at Star Wars Celebration Europe that John Williams would return to score the Star Wars sequel trilogy. Williams confirmed his assignment for The Last Jedi at a Tanglewood concert in August 2016, stating he would begin recording the score "off and on '' in December 2016 until March or April 2017. On February 21, 2017, it was confirmed that recording was underway, with both Williams and William Ross conducting the sessions.
In lieu of a traditional spotting session with Johnson, Williams was provided a temp track of music from his previous film scores as a reference for scoring The Last Jedi. The score briefly quotes "Aquarela do Brasil '' by Ary Barroso in its "Canto Bight '' track as another reference to the film Brazil. It also contains a brief quote of Williams ' own theme for The Long Goodbye (co-composed by Johnny Mercer) during Finn and Rose 's escape, although this quote is not heard in the official soundtrack release.
The official soundtrack album was released by Walt Disney Records on December 15, 2017 in digipak CD, digital formats, and streaming services.
In January 2015, Disney CEO Bob Iger stated that Episode VIII would be released in 2017, and in March, Lucasfilm announced a release date of May 26, 2017. In January 2016, The Last Jedi was rescheduled for December 15, 2017 in 3D and IMAX 3D. On January 23, 2017, the film 's title was announced as Star Wars: The Last Jedi. Similarly to The Empire Strikes Back, Return of the Jedi and The Force Awakens, "Episode VIII '' was included in the film 's opening crawl, although not in its official title.
The Last Jedi had its world premiere in Los Angeles on December 9, 2017. The European premiere was held at London 's Royal Albert Hall on December 12, 2017, with a red carpet event.
It was reported that Disney had placed notable conditions on U.S. cinemas screening The Last Jedi, which some operators described as being "onerous ''. Disney required that the film be screened in a cinema 's largest auditorium for a four - week period (other Disney releases have had similar clauses, but only for two weeks), and was given a 65 % cut of ticket sales (a percentage higher than the 55 -- 60 % average of other major films, and cited as the highest split ever demanded by a Hollywood film behind the 64 % split of The Force Awakens). The agreement, which was required to be kept confidential, also contained regulations on promotions and restrictions on removing any scheduled screening. Violations were to be penalized with an additional 5 % cut of ticket sales. Some cinemas declined to screen the film due to these conditions, particularly smaller or one - screen cinemas that would otherwise be barred from screening any other film during the commitment period. Industry representatives considered this policy to be reasonable, citing the performance of Disney releases and the Star Wars franchise, and that the guaranteed business attracted by the film, and concession sales, would make up for the larger cut of ticket sales.
A set of eight promotional postage stamps were released on October 12, 2017 in the UK by the Royal Mail with artwork by Malcolm Tween. On September 19, 2017, Australia Post released a set of stamp packs. Tie - in promotional campaigns were done with Nissan Motors and Bell Media, among others. Two main trailers were released, followed by numerous television spots. Figurines of many of the characters were released in October, and advance tickets for Last Jedi went on sale in October.
Several tie - in books were released on the same day of the North American release of the movie, including The Last Jedi: Visual Dictionary, and various children 's reading and activity books. Related novelizations included the prequel book Cobalt Squadron, and the Canto Bight, a collection of novellas about the Canto Bight Casino.
As with The Force Awakens, there is no official tie - in game for The Last Jedi, in favor of integrating content from the film into other Star Wars video games, including Star Wars Battlefront II, which introduced various content from the film, during the second week of the game 's first "season ''. An update to the MOBA mobile game Star Wars: Force Arena added new content from the sequel era, including some characters as they appeared in The Last Jedi. Characters from the film also appeared in the mobile RPG Star Wars: Galaxy of Heroes.
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released Star Wars: The Last Jedi digitally in HD and 4K via digital download and Movies Anywhere on March 13, 2018, with an Ultra HD Blu - ray, Blu - ray, and DVD physical release on March 27. It was the first Star Wars film to be released on the Ultra HD Blu - ray format.
The official novelization is by Jason Fry, with an audiobook version narrated by Marc Thompson. There is a "junior novel '' by Michael Kogge (2018 Lucasfilm Press), and an audiobook version narrated by Jessica Almasy.
As of March 25, 2018, Star Wars: The Last Jedi has grossed $620 million in the United States and Canada, and $712.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.332 billion. It had a worldwide opening of $450.8 million, the fifth - biggest of all time, including $40.6 million that was attributed to IMAX screenings, the second biggest for IMAX. It was estimated that the film would need to gross $800 million worldwide to break even; Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $417.5 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues, making it the most profitable release of 2017.
On December 31, 2017, its 17th day of release, it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the fourth film of 2017, the fifteenth Disney film, the fourth Star Wars film and the thirty - second film overall to pass the mark. The film was the highest - grossing film of 2017, the second highest - grossing film in the franchise (behind The Force Awakens), the fourth highest - grossing film released by Walt Disney Studios, the sixth highest - grossing film in North America and the ninth - highest - grossing film of all time.
Pre-sale tickets went on sale in the United States on October 9, 2017, and as with The Force Awakens and Rogue One, ticket service sites such as Fandango had their servers crash due to heavy traffic and demand. In the United States and Canada, industry tracking had The Last Jedi grossing around $200 million from 4,232 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $45 million from Thursday night previews, the second - highest amount ever (behind The Force Awakens ' $57 million). It went on to make $104.8 million on its first day (including previews) and $220 million over the weekend, both the second - highest amounts of all time. The opening weekend figure included an IMAX opening - weekend of $25 million, the biggest IMAX opening of the year and the second biggest ever behind The Force Awakens.
After dropping by 76 % on its second Friday, the worst Friday - to - Friday drop in the series, the film fell by a total of 67.5 % in its second weekend, grossing $71.6 million. It was the largest second - weekend drop of the franchise, although it remained atop the box office. The three day total was the 14th biggest second weekend of all time. It grossed an additional $27.5 million on Christmas Day, the second biggest Christmas Day gross of all time behind The Force Awakens ($49.3 million), for a four - day weekend total of $99 million. It made $52.4 million in its third weekend, again topping the box office. It also brought its domestic total to $517.1 million, overtaking fellow Disney vehicle Beauty and the Beast as the highest of 2017. It was the 6th biggest third weekend of all time. It had the 7th biggest New Year 's Day gross of all time with $14.3 million, bringing the four day total to $66.8 million. It grossed $23.7 million and was surpassed the following weekend by Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle (which was in its third week) and Insidious: The Last Key.
In its first two days of release the film made $60.8 million from 48 markets. The top countries were the United Kingdom ($10.2 million), Germany ($6.1 million), France ($6 million), Australia ($5.6 million) and Brazil ($2.5 million). By the end of the weekend, the film made $230.8 million outside North America, the ninth - highest of all time. This included $36.7 million in the UK (third - highest), $23.6 million in Germany (second - highest), $18.1 million in France, $15.9 million in Australia (second - highest), $14.4 million in Japan, $8.5 million in Russia, $8.3 million in Spain, $7.2 million in Brazil, $7 million in Italy and Mexico, $6.0 million in Sweden and $5.1 million in South Korea. On its second weekend, it grossed $76.1 million overseas and became the fourth - highest - grossing film of the year in Europe. As of January 21, the largest markets outside of the United States and Canada are the United Kingdom ($109.3 million), Germany ($79.8 million), France ($63.5 million), Japan ($60.8 million) and Australia ($43.5 million).
The film had a $28.7 million opening weekend in China, the lowest for a Star Wars film in that country since 2005. Star Wars: The Force Awakens opened to $52 million two years prior and Rogue One, which featured Chinese stars Donnie Yen and Jiang Wen, opened to $30 million in 2016. The Last Jedi added only $7 million during the week, to reach a total of $34.2 million in its first seven days. A week after its debut, China 's movie exhibitors dropped the film 's showtimes by 92 percent, from its 34.5 % percent share of the territory 's total screenings. The film grossed $910,000 in its third weekend, dropping to ninth place at the Chinese box office, overshadowed by new releases including Bollywood film Secret Superstar, Hollywood films Ferdinand and Wonder, and Chinese film A Better Tomorrow 2018. The Last Jedi grossed $41 million in China, as of January 21, 2018.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Star Wars: The Last Jedi has an approval rating of 91 % based on 371 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Star Wars: The Last Jedi honors the saga 's rich legacy while adding some surprising twists -- and delivering all the emotion - rich action fans could hope for. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 85 out of 100, based on 56 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film four out of four stars, praising the surprises and risks that it took, writing that "The movie works equally well as an earnest adventure full of passionate heroes and villains and a meditation on sequels and franchise properties... (The film) is preoccupied with questions of legacy, legitimacy and succession, and includes multiple debates over whether one should replicate or reject the stories and symbols of the past. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, praising the cast and the direction: "You 're in hyper - skilled hands with Johnson who makes sure you leave the multiplex feeling euphoric. The middle part of the current trilogy, The Last Jedi ranks with the very best Star Wars epics (even the pinnacle that is The Empire Strikes Back) by pointing the way ahead to a next generation of skywalkers -- and, thrillingly, to a new hope. ''
Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 3.5 / 4 stars, saying, "Star Wars: The Last Jedi... does n't pack quite the same emotional punch (as The Force Awakens) and it lags a bit in the second half, (but) this is still a worthy chapter in the Star Wars franchise, popping with exciting action sequences, sprinkled with good humor and containing more than a few nifty ' callbacks ' to previous characters and iconic moments. '' For The Hollywood Reporter, Todd McCarthy said, "Loaded with action and satisfying in the ways its loyal audience wants it to be, writer - director Rian Johnson 's plunge into George Lucas ' universe is generally pleasing even as it sometimes strains to find useful and / or interesting things for some of its characters to do. ''
Will Gompertz, arts editor of BBC News, gave the film 4 / 5 stars, writing "Rian Johnson... has not ruined your Christmas with a turkey. His gift to you is a cracker, a blockbuster movie packed with invention, wit, and action galore. '' Mark Kermode, British film critic, gave the film 4 / 5 stars saying Johnson "proves himself the master of the balancing act, keeping the warring forces of this intergalactic franchise in near - perfect harmony. '' The unpredictability of the plot was appreciated by reviewers such as Alex Leadbeater of Screen Rant, who commented specifically that the death of Snoke was "the best movie twist in years ''.
Conversely, Richard Brody of The New Yorker wrote, "Despite a few stunning decorative touches (most of which involve the color red) and that brief central sequence of multiple Reys, the movie comes off as a work that 's ironed out, flattened down, appallingly purified. Above all, it delivers a terrifyingly calculated consensus storytelling, an artificial universality that is achieved, in part, through express religious references. '' Kate Taylor of The Globe and Mail gave the film 2 / 4 stars, saying the film suffered from too many new additions and writing, "Nifty new animals, a maturing villain, a flagging heroine, muffled humour -- as it seeks to uphold a giant cultural legacy, this unfolding trilogy struggles to maintain a balance that often seems just out of reach. ''
Audience reception measured by scientific polling methods was highly positive. Audiences randomly polled by CinemaScore on opening day gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale. Surveys from SurveyMonkey and comScore 's PostTrak found that 89 % of audience members graded the film positively.
The user - generated review sections of Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic contained scores that were significantly more negative, achieving the ratings of 48 % and 4.5 / 10, respectively. Several reviewers speculated that the low user scores are the result of manipulation, either by coordinated vote brigading from internet groups or from bots. Quartz noted that some new accounts gave negative ratings to both The Last Jedi and Thor: Ragnarok, while Bleeding Cool stated that reviews for Thor had tapered off up to that point but skyrocketed afterwards. In response to tampering claims, Rotten Tomatoes released a statement that they did not detect any unusual activity aside from a noticeable "uptick in the number of written user reviews '' on The Last Jedi.
Reviewers characterized The Last Jedi as divisive among audiences. Todd VanDerWerff of Vox found that disgruntled fans saw the film as too progressive, disliked its humor, plot, or character arcs, or felt betrayed that it ignored fan theories. Other reviewers made similar observations. Particularly divisive was the reveal that Rey 's parents are insignificant; many fans had expected her to be Luke 's daughter or to share a lineage with another character from the original trilogy. There was also sentiment that Snoke 's character was underdeveloped and that Luke 's actions contrasted his previous heroic portrayal. Reviewers stated that fan theories were held so strongly among some viewers that it was difficult for them to accept different stories. However, other viewers appreciated the film 's action, tone and deviation from Star Wars tradition.
Episode IX, the final installment of the sequel trilogy, is scheduled for release on December 20, 2019. Principal photography is set to begin in June 2018. Although Colin Trevorrow had been attached to direct the film, on September 5, 2017, Lucasfilm announced that Trevorrow had stepped down. A week later, Lucasfilm announced that J.J. Abrams would return to direct Episode IX and co-write it with Chris Terrio. Abrams and Terrio stated that Episode IX will bring together all three trilogies, with elements from the previous two trilogies.
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who wrote the poem footsteps in the sand | Footprints (poem) - wikipedia
"Footprints, '' also known as "Footprints in the Sand, '' is a popular allegorical text written in prose.
This popular text is based in Christian beliefs and describes an experience in which a person is walking on a beach with God. They leave two sets of footprints in the sand. The tracks represent stages of the speaker 's life. The two trails dwindle to one, especially at the lowest and most hopeless moments of the person 's life. When questioning God, believing that the Lord must have abandoned his love during those times, God gives the explanation, "During your times of trial and suffering, when you see only one set of footprints, it was then that I carried you. ''
The authorship of the poem is disputed, with a number of people claiming to have written it. In 2008, Rachel Aviv in a Poetry Foundation article discusses the claims of Burrell Webb, Mary Stevenson, Margaret Fishback Powers, and Carolyn Joyce Carty. Later that year, The Washington Post, covering a lawsuit between the claims of Stevenson, Powers and Carty, said that "At least a dozen people '' had claimed credit for the poem.
The three authors who have most strenuously promoted their authorship are Margaret Powers (née Fishback), Carolyn Carty, and Mary Stevenson. Powers says she wrote the poem on Canadian Thanksgiving weekend, in mid-October, 1964. Powers is among the contenders who have resorted to litigation in hopes of establishing a claim. She is occasionally confused with American writer Margaret Fishback. Powers published an autobiography in 1993.
Carolyn Carty also claims to have written the poem in 1963 when she was six years old based on an earlier work by her great - great aunt, a Sunday school teacher. She is known to be a hostile contender of the "Footprints '' poem and declines to be interviewed about it, although she writes letters to those who write about the poem online. A collection of poetry by Carty with a claim to authorship of "Footprints '' was published in 2004.
Mary Stevenson is also a purported author of the poem circa 1936. A Stevenson biography was published in 1995.
Before its appearance in the 1970s, the phrase "footprints in the sand '' occurred in other works. The most dominant usage in prose is in the context of fictional or nonfiction adventure or mystery stories or articles. Prominent fiction includes Daniel Defoe 's 1719 novel Robinson Crusoe and Nathaniel Hawthorne 's short story Foot - prints on the Sea - shore published in the Democratic Review. Hawthorne published the story again in Twice - Told Tales and it has been reprinted many times since. A line in the story reads, "Thus, by tracking our foot - prints in the sand, we track our own nature in its wayward course, and steal a glance upon it, when it never dreams of being so observed. Such glances always make us wiser. '' Non-fiction includes the 1926 post-kidnapping discovery of Aimee Semple McPherson in the northern Mexican desert.
In the two centuries before 1980, when "Footprints '' entered popular American culture, many books, articles, and sermons appeared with "Fooprints in the Sand '' as a title. Some of them concerned the lives of Christian missionaries. Footprints and Living Songs is an 1883 biography of hymn - writer Frances Ridley Havergal. In 1839, "A Psalm of Life '' by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow contained the lines:
Within a decade, the last phrase of the poem was being used in public discourse without attribution, apparently on the assumption that any literate reader would know its origin. In some usages "of time '' disappeared; later, "on '' seems to become "in ''. "The Object of a Life '' (1876) by George Whyte - Melville includes the lines:
was published in the widely read (and plagiarized) Temple Bar. The lines here are strikingly similar in many respects to those seen in contemporaneous hymn lyrics and later poetry.
Deuteronomy 1: 31 presents the concept of "God bearing you ''. The 1609 Douay - Rheims Bible Old Testament translation from Latin into English uses the wording, "And in the wilderness (as thou hast seen) the Lord thy God hath carried thee, as a man is wont to carry his little son, all the way that you have come, until you came to this place. '' In 1971, the New American Standard Bible used the language "and in the wilderness where you saw how the LORD your God carried you ''. Nearly identical wording is used in other late 20th century translations, including the New International Version of 1978.
May Riley Smith 's poem "If '', published without attribution in the Indianapolis Journal in 1869, includes a stanza that describes God 's footprints in the sand next to a boy 's:
June Hadden Hobbs suggested that the origin of the modern "Footprints '' is in Mary B.C. Slade 's 1871 hymn "Footsteps of Jesus '' as "almost surely the source of the notion that Jesus 's footprints have narrative significance that influences the way believers conduct their life stories... it allows Jesus and a believer to inhabit the same space at the same time... Jesus travels the path of the believer, instead of the other way around. ''
A similar argument could be made for Footprints of Jesus by L.B. Thorpe as published in the 1878 The International Lesson Hymnal.
Aviv suggests that the source of the modern "Footprints '' allegory is the opening paragraph of Charles Haddon Spurgeon 's 1880 sermon "The Education of the Sons of God ''. He wrote:
"And did you ever walk out upon that lonely desert island upon which you were wrecked, and say, ' I am alone, -- alone, -- alone, -- nobody was ever here before me '? And did you suddenly pull up short as you noticed, in the sand, the footprints of a man? I remember right well passing through that experience; and when I looked, lo! it was not merely the footprints of a man that I saw, but I thought I knew whose feet had left those imprints; they were the marks of One who had been crucified, for there was the print of the nails. So I thought to myself, ' If he has been here, it is a desert island no longer. ' ''
In 1883, an American encyclopedia of hymns by female writers included Jetty Vogel, an English poet. Vogel 's "At the Portal '' follows someone looking at their footprints as they deviate from the proper path. Vogel 's hymn has an angel 's footsteps but lacks the "I carried you '' of the modern "Footprints ''.
In 1892, the Evening Star ran a short story "Footprints in the Sand '' written by Flora Haines Loughead for the Star. The work uses a metaphor for Christ, of a father following footprints in the sand of another 's child headed for danger, as he wonders, "Why was it that there was nowhere any sign of a larger footprint to guide the little babyish feet? ''
In 1918, Mormon publication The Children 's Friend re-published the Loughead piece (credited, but misspelled "Laughead ''), ensuring a wider distribution in the western states. Chicago area poet Lucille Veneklasen frequently submitted poems to the Chicago Tribune in the 1940s and 1950s; one entitled "Footprints '' was published in the Tribune in late 1958:
Veneklasen 's poem appeared occasionally in newspaper obituaries, commonly lacking attribution, and often with the decease substituted for "I ''.
In 1963 and 1964, the Aiken Standard and Review in South Carolina ran a poem by frequent contributor M.L. Sullivan titled "Footprints ''. This was a bit of romantic verse that moves from sadness at "lone footprints in the sand '' to close with "our footprints in the sand ''.
The earliest known formally dated publications of any variants of the poem are from 1978, with three different descriptions of the person and also the setting. The first to appear in July, 1978, in a small Iowa town newspaper, is a very concise (six - sentence) version featuring an "elderly man '' and "rocky roads ''. There is no attribution for this piece, and this version does not seem to have appeared in any other publication.
The second and most complete early appearance was in a September 1978 issue of Evangel, a semi-monthly Church of God publication. This version is similar to the "Carty '' version but is credited to "Author Unknown -- (Submitted by Billy Walker) ''. A third version appeared in October, 1978, in two California papers, first in Oakland and twelve days later in Shafter, with a "young woman '' and a "sandy pathway '' in a "desert wilderness ''. This version does not appear to have re-emerged later.
In 1979, additional appearances occurred: two in small Louisiana and Mississippi newspapers, one in a Catholic journal, two in widely syndicated newspapers columns, one on a nationwide radio program and reprinted by two small papers, and one in a prominent evangelist 's biography. In January, 1979, the Opelousas, Louisiana, Daily World published a near exact Carty version but with a "My dear child '' mutation at the end, and no attribution.
In March, the Winona Times presented a Powers - like version with "a certain elderly man... walking along a sea shore '' where "Out of the waves shot rays of light, mystic and wonderful that played across the sky illuminating scenes from his life ''. He was "sorely troubled and his life had been at its saddest and lowest ebb. ''
The March, 1979 issue of Liguorian, a monthly publication of the Catholic Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, published a complete, nearly unmodified first - person version following Carty, but attributed to "Author Unknown ''.
Christian televangelist and columnist Robert Schuller noted in his column that a reader had sent him a story; it is unclear whether the version presented in the column -- which casts a "pilgrim '' as the human character -- was used verbatim or was rewritten by Schuller: this particular version has not been re-published after the column 's original nationwide publication during March -- August, 1979.
In April, 1979, the Havre Daily News in Montana published a variant of the Carty version told in first person with slightly different punctuation and a "never, never '' alteration to match the "precious, precious child '' of the previous sentence. The author of the local weekly column noted that it had been supplied by a friend who had "first heard (it) when Paul Harvey quoted it on his radio program. '' It is unknown whether the listener had copied it down from memory or received a written version from Mr. Harvey or elsewhere. No recordings or transcriptions of Mr. Harvey 's daily radio news and commentary broadcasts are known to have survived. A verbatim copy of the Havre instance ran in a small, inmate - produced newsletter published by the Napa State Hospital, in July, 1979.
Advice columnist Ann Landers published an exact copy of the Stevenson version in July, 1979. The column indicates that the correspondent who provided the work, claims to have carried a tattered copy around "for years '' with no further explanation of its publication source. She printed the piece again in late February 1982 in response to reader demand and noted that it had also appeared in Reader 's Digest. The 1982 republication added a novel phrase "I would never desert you ''.
Christian televangelist Jerry Falwell 's 1979 biography, Jerry Falwell: Aflame for God, opens a chapter with an expanded "a man dreamed '' version.
Humorist and columnist Erma Bombeck published a condensed version of Stevenson 's variant in July 1980.
During the 1980 United States presidential campaign, Ronald Reagan used a variant of "Footprints '', with himself as the human, as the closing lines in an August speech to evangelical leaders in Dallas, Texas. President Reagan used "Footprints '' again in a speech at the annual National Prayer Breakfast on February 5, 1981. These versions appear to be Stevenson paraphrases.
Advice columnist Dear Abby ran a Carty version attributed to "Author Unknown '' in late 1981.
In 1983, Cristy Lane released country gospel version of the song called "Footprints in the Sand ''. The song peaked at No. 64 on the Billboard Country chart and No. 30 on the U.S. Christian chart.
The 1983 television movie Choices of the Heart closes with lead character Jean Donovan reciting a condensed version of Powers / Carty.
In 1984, Ken Brown published a version of the poem in rhyme and rhythm as opposed to the more commonly known free form versions popular today.
In 1994, English singer Chris de Burgh included a summary of the poem as the fourth stanza in his song "Snows of New York '' in the album This Way Up: In my dream we walked, you and I to the shore / Leaving footprints by the sea / And when there was just one set of prints in the sand / That was when you carried me.
Per Magnusson, David Kreuger, Richard Page, and Simon Cowell wrote a song based on the poem, called "Footprints in the Sand '', which was recorded by Leona Lewis. It appears on Lewis 's debut album Spirit. Another song inspired by the poem called "Footprints '' was recorded by Dancehall / Reggae group T.O.K.
The poem is parodied in the Half Man Half Biscuit song "Footprints '', off the 1993 album This Leaden Pall. In the song, the Lord explains the fact that there is only one set of footprints this way: "During your times of trial and suffering, when you see only one set of footprints, that must have been when I was appearing on... Junior Kick Start! ''
The poem was used in the memorial service for Air France Flight 447 on 3 June 2009.
In 2016, a larger - than - life sculpture inspired by the poem was installed at Pippen Memorial Park in Carthage, Texas.
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how many states are there in india with names | List of Indian state and union Territory name etymologies - wikipedia
The Republic of India was constituted in 1947 as a union of states. After the States Reorganisation Act of 1956, there was a rearrangement of state boundaries along linguistic lines, many states were given names in their own languages. Many states are named due to their geographical characteristics, peculiar history or populations and colonial influences.
One theory is Tenugu is derived from the Proto - Dravidian word "ten '', meaning "south '' to signify "The people who live in the South ''. This seems likely because there are similar names for other Dravidian languages: Badaga, Kodagu, and Vadugar (a name for the Telugu - speaking people given by people in Tamil Nadu, meaning "people who are in the north (relatively) ''). The name Telugu then, is a result of the ' n ' - > ' l ' alternation established in Telugu. Other variants used include Telengu, Telungu, and Tenungu, one of which could have lent its name to the region Telangana.
Alternatively, the name Telangana could have been derived from the word "trilinga '', as in the "trilinga desha '', which translates to "the country of the three Lingas ''. According to a Hindu legend, Shiva descended in the lingam form on three mountains, Kaleshwaram, Srisailam and Draksharam, which marked the boundaries of the Trilingadesha, later called "telinga '', "telunga '' or "telugu ''. (6) (7) The word "telinga '' changed over time to Telangana and the name Telangana was designated to distinguish the predominantly Telugu - speaking region of the erstwhile Hyderabad State from its predominantly Marathi - speaking one, Marathwada. (8) One of the earliest uses of a word similar to Telangana can also be seen in a name of Malik Maqbul (14th century C.E.), who was called the "tilangani '', which implies that he was from Telangana. He was the commander of the Warangal Fort (Kataka Paludu). (9)
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what country does the us give the most money to | United States foreign aid - wikipedia
United States foreign aid is aid given by the United States government to other governments. It does not include money from private charitable organizations based in the United States, or remittances sent between family members. There are two broad categories: military aid and economic assistance. The Congressional Research Service divides it into five categories: bilateral development aid, economic assistance, humanitarian aid, multilateral economic contributions, and military aid.
Foreign aid recipients include developing countries, countries of strategic importance to the United States, and countries recovering from war. The government channels about half of its economic assistance through a specialized agency, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Government - sponsored foreign aid began a systematic fashion after World War II; there were numerous programs of which the largest were the Marshall Plan of 1948 and the Mutual Security Act of 1951 - 61.
Military aid provided to foreign countries varies mostly on what natural resources the foreign country has to offer.
Foreign aid is generally unpopular with the general public, with a 2017 poll finding 57 % favor a cut and 6 % who want increased aid. On the other hand, foreign aid has bipartisan support in Congress, and most Americans overestimate foreign aid as a share of the total federal budget. In the past, less than 1 % of the national budget went to foreign assistance. As of fiscal year 2017, foreign aid between the U.S. State Department and USAID totaled $50.1 billion, or just over 1 % of the budget.
In fiscal year 2014, the U.S. government allocated the following amounts for aid:
Total economic and military assistance: $43.10 billion
Notes:
During World War One, the Committee for Relief in Belgium (CRB), which sent food to the hungry in that war - torn country, received $387 million from the U.S. government (as well as $314 million from the British and French governments and about $200 million from non-governmental sources). These government monies were given in the form of loans, but a considerable portion of those loans were forgiven.
After the war, the American Relief Administration, directed by Herbert Hoover who had also been prominent in the CRB, continued food distribution to war - devastated European countries. It also distributed food and combated typhus in Russia during 1921 - 23. The U.S. Congress appropriated $20 million for the ARA under the Russian Famine Relief Act of 1921.
Levels of United States aid increased greatly during World War Two, mainly on account of the Lend - lease program. United States government aid remained high in the decade after the war because of contributions to European reconstruction, and competition for influence versus the Communist powers in the first years of the Cold War. By 1960, the annual aid amount had receded to about half of what it was in the early post-war years, and, in inflation - adjusted terms, it has remained at that level -- with some fluctuations -- until the present.
The Lend - lease program, which began in 1941 (before the U.S. entrance in the war) was an arrangement whereby the United States sent large amounts of war materials and other supplies to nations whose defense was considered vital to the defense of the United States. It began with the passage by Congress of the Lend - lease act (PL 77 - 11) on 11 March 1941. Initially, the main recipient was Great Britain; the Soviet Union began receiving supplies (paid for in gold) in June 1941 outside of Lend - lease, and was included in the Lend - lease agreement in November 1941. By the end of the war, most of the Allied countries had been declared eligible for Lend - lease aid, although not all received it. By the time the program was ended by President Truman in August 1945, more than $50 billion worth of supplies had been disbursed, of which the Commonwealth countries received $31 billion and the Soviet Union $11 billion. Although formally the material was loaned, in the end only partial repayment was demanded.
A second wartime aid program, the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), was founded in November 1943, by 44 Allied governments, for the purpose of assisting and resettling displaced victims of the war. Its initial focus was on assisting people in areas the Allies had captured from the Axis powers: distributing food, clothing and other essentials, and helping with medical care and sanitation. Later it also assisted in the resumption of agriculture and industry. Each of the 44 signatories was supposed to contribute one percent of its national income. The chief beneficiaries were China, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Italy, Poland, the Ukrainian SSR and Yugoslavia. UNRRA returned about 7 million displaced people to their countries of origin and provided refugee camps for about one million who were unwilling to be repatriated. UNRRA ceased operations in Europe in mid-1947; some of its activities in Asia continued under other auspices until early 1949. In the end 52 countries had contributed as donors. Contributions from governments and private organizations during the four years of the program totaled over $3.8 billion; more than half of that was from the United States.
After the war, the United States began giving large amounts of aid to Greece and Turkey under the Truman doctrine. Both countries were experiencing civil strife between communist and anti-communist factions, and the President and his advisors feared that their efforts to keep European countries from adopting communism might be about to suffer a serious setback. In December 1946, the Prime Minister of Greece visited Washington and requested additional United States aid. Truman promulgated his containment doctrine in early 1947, a major component of which was to be aid to the world 's poor countries in order to blunt the appeals of radicalism to their hungry peoples and to bolster their anti-communist political elements. In May 1947 the U.S. government granted Greece $300 million in military and economic aid. Turkey received $100 million. The U.S. government gave Greece $362 million in 1949, and U.S. aid to Greece generally remained over $100 million annually until 1998.
The most well - known, and largest, United States aid program in the immediate post-war years was the European Recovery Program (ERP). More often known as the Marshall Plan, it was the creation of George Kennan, William Clayton, and others at the U.S. State Department under Secretary of State George Marshall. Publicly suggested by Marshall in June 1947, and put into action about a year later, the Plan was essentially an extension of the Greece -- Turkey aid strategy to the rest of Europe. The U.S. administration considered the stability of the existing governments in Western Europe vital to its own interests. On 3 April 1948, President Truman signed the Economic Cooperation Act, establishing the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) to administer the program, and actual disbursements got underway. The focus was on promoting production, stabilizing currencies, and promoting international trade. To be eligible for the aid, a country had to sign an agreement with the United States government committing itself to the Act 's purposes. The Communist countries were formally invited to participate in the Plan although Secretary Marshall thought it unlikely that they would accept and they did in fact decline the aid. Also in 1948, the United States and the recipient countries created the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC -- it became the OECD in 1961) to coordinate the use of the aid. A large portion of the money given was used to purchase goods from the United States, and the ships used to transport the goods had to be of U.S. nationality. Until after the Korean War, military aid was not part of the plan. The Marshall Plan ended in December 1951 and its functions were transferred to the Mutual Security Administration. The United States government gave out about $12.5 billion under the Plan during its three - and - a-half year existence. The countries receiving the most were Great Britain ($3.3 billion), France ($2.3 billion) and West Germany ($1.4 billion).
From 1945 to 1953 -- U.S. provides grants and credits amounting to $5.9 billion to Asian countries, especially China / Taiwan ($1.051 billion), India ($255 million), Indonesia ($215 million), Japan ($2.44 billion), South Korea ($894 million), Pakistan ($98 million) and the Philippines ($803 million). In addition, another $282 million went to Israel and $196 million to the rest of the Middle East. The main category was economic aid, but some military aid was provided. All this aid was separate from the Marshall Plan.
Congress passed the Foreign Assistance Act on September 4, 1961, reorganizing U.S. foreign assistance programs and separating military and non-military aid. The Act man which was established by President Kennedy two months later. USAID became the first U.S. foreign assistance organization whose primary focus was long - term economic and social development.
President Obama announced to the UN Millennium Development Goals summit in September 2010 that the United States was changing its policy towards foreign aid. The President said the country would focus more on effectiveness, and make sure donated food, medicine, and money help countries get to the point where they no longer require such aid. Infrastructure set up for the President 's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief would be used to build capacity in local health care systems to improve maternal and child health, and also fight tropical diseases. The new policy would increase the profile and participation of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), which would coordinate more directly with the National Security Council and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. Some observers criticized the link with national security and foreign policy as unhelpful for the impoverished, and others lamented the attempted streamlining as only adding more bureaucracy. Foreign aid is a highly partisan issue in the United States, with liberals, on average, supporting government - funded foreign aid much more than conservatives do, who tend to prefer to provide foreign aid privately.
Interviews with 1,012 adult Americans were conducted by telephone by Opinion Research Corporation in January 2011: Published by CNN, the response was that 81 % felt that reducing aid to foreign countries was a good way to reduce the federal budget deficit, while 18 % thought aid was more important than reducing deficit. Thomas Pogge, Director of the Global Justice Program and Leitner Professor of Philosophy and International Affairs at Yale University, has predicted that public opinion will not change even while the hardships suffered by poor people are rising, partly as a result of the Global Financial Crisis. Some claim the U.S. is helping corrupt governments with the aid.
Worldwide opinion of the United States improves with contributions to developing countries.
Several polls have been done assessing the knowledge of the US Public in regards to how much they know about the government 's foreign aid spending. A poll conducted by World Public Opinion in 2010 found that the average estimate for how much of the government 's budget is spent on foreign aid was 25 percent. The average amount proposed by the public was 10 percent of the federal government 's budget be used on foreign aid. In actuality, less than 1 percent of the US federal budget goes towards foreign aid. Less than 19 percent of respondents thought that the percent of the budget that goes towards foreign aid was less than 5 percent. Steven Kull, director of PIPA, relates this overestimation towards an increase in hearing about foreign aid efforts during the Obama administration, but estimates of foreign aid have always been high.
A poll conducted in 2013 by Research Pew Center found that the majority of Americans wanted to either maintain or increase spending on all US government initiatives except foreign aid. This is attributed, by Alice C. Hu, to a gross misconception of how much of the federal budget is actually spent on foreign aid.
A study by the Washington Post from 2017 shows that Americans are easily persuaded in regards to their opinions on US foreign aid. The percentage of people who were provided no argument regarding foreign aid and though the US spends too much on it was 67 percent. The percentage of people who were provided a positive argument for foreign aid and thought the US spent too much on it was 28 percent. The percentage of people who were provided a negative argument against foreign aid and thought that the US spends too much on it was 88 percent. This shows that the US public is perceptive to changing their beliefs about US foreign aid based on the information presented.
Because the US public is perceptive to information regarding public aid, Steven Kull, Director of the Program on International Policy Attitudes, laid out steps to preserve or create a positive outlook on US foreign aid.
A study by Andy Baker, a political scientist at the University of Colorado at Boulder, found that Americans are more likely to support foreign aid going to an African country than they are to support foreign aid going to an Eastern European country. Respondents averaged wanting to cut aid going to those of European descent by 40 percent, while respondents averaged wanting to cut aid going to those of African descent by only 11 percent. Baker attributes this to a paternalistic view Americans have of themselves over those of African descent.
Because of the size of the US federal budget, the 0.7 percent of the budget put towards foreign aid totaled 23 billion dollars in 2012. Most US foreign aid does not go to other governments due to skepticism about corruption in other countries. There is a fear amongst the American people that foreign aid is funneled and used to increase the personal wealth of corrupt government leaders of foreign countries. However, about 85 percent of foreign aid goes to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and US - government contractors, meaning that most of foreign aid is not being given directly to foreign governments.
General:
USG sources of data on United States aid are:
Non-USG sources of data on United States aid are:
Bristol, Nellie. 2010. "US Foreign Aid Restructuring: is it "a very big deal? '' From World Report. Accessed 4 / 19 / 2010.
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what happens at the end of kali yuga | Kali Yuga - wikipedia
Kali Yuga (Devanāgarī: कलियुग (kəli juɡə), lit. "age of Kali '', or "age of vice '') is the last of the four stages (or ages or yugas) the world goes through as part of a ' cycle of yugas ' (i.e. Mahayuga) described in the Sanskrit scriptures. The other ages are called Satya Yuga, Treta Yuga, and Dvapara Yuga.
Kali Yuga is associated with the demon Kali (not to be confused with the goddess Kālī). The "Kali '' of Kali Yuga means "strife '', "discord '', "quarrel '' or "contention ''.
According to Puranic sources, Krishna 's departure marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to 17 / 18 February 3102 BCE.
According to the Surya Siddhanta, Kali Yuga began at midnight (00: 00) on 18 February 3102 BCE. This is also considered the date on which Lord Krishna left the earth to return to Vaikunta. This information is placed at the temple of Bhalka, the place of this incident (see photo).
According to the astronomer and mathematician Aryabhatta the Kali Yuga started in 3102 BCE. He finished his book "Aryabhattiya '' in 499 CE, in which he gives the exact year of the beginning of Kali Yuga. He writes that he wrote the book in the "year 3600 of the Kali Age '' at the age of 23. As it was the 3600th year of the Kali Age when he was 23 years old, and given that Aryabhatta was born in 476 CE, the beginning of the Kali Yuga would come to (3600 - (476 + 23) + 1 (As only one year elapses between 1 BCE and 1 CE) =) 3102 BCE.
According to KD Abhyankar, the starting point of Kaliyuga is an extremely rare planetary alignment, which is depicted in the Mohenjo - Daro seals. Going by this alignment the year 3102 BCE is slightly off. The actual date for this alignment is February 7 of 3104 BCE. There is also sufficient proof to believe that Vrdhha Garga knew of precession at least by 500 BCE. Garga had calculated the rate of precession to within 30 % of what the modern scholars estimate.
Most interpreters of vedic scriptures, as Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Goswami and his recent disciple Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada believe that Earth is currently in Kali Yuga and lasts 432,000 years. Other authors, such as Swami Sri Yukteswar and Paramhansa Yogananda, believe that it is now an ascending Dvapara Yuga, indicating levels of cycles within each major Yuga period as each being a development, the smaller cycles within cycles eventually leading to full development of the qualities of the ages. The Kali Yuga is thought by some authors to last 6480 years although other durations have been proposed.
Hindus believe that human civilization degenerates spiritually during the Kali Yuga, which is referred to as the Dark Age because in it people are as far away as possible from God. Hinduism often symbolically represents morality (dharma) as an Indian bull. In Satya Yuga, the first stage of development, the bull has four legs, but in each age morality is reduced by one quarter. By the age of Kali, morality is reduced to only a quarter of that of the golden age, so that the bull of Dharma has only one leg.
The Mahabharata War and the decimation of Kauravas thus happened at the Yuga - Sandhi, the point of transition from one yuga to another. The scriptures mention Sage Narada to have momentarily intercepted the demon Kali on his way to the Earth when Duryodhana was about to be born in order to make him an embodiment of ' arishadvargas ' and adharma in preparation of the era of decay in values and the consequent havoc.
A discourse by Markandeya in the Mahabharata identifies some of the attributes of Kali Yuga. In relation to rulers, it lists:
With regard to human relationships, Markandeya 's discourse says:
The Brahma Vaivarta Purana (related to Rathantara kalpa) mentions a ten thousand - year period, starting from the traditional dating of the Kali Yuga epoch, during which bhakti yogis will be present. Lord Krishna foretold that Kali Yuga will be full of extreme hardships for people with ideals and values.
The Brahma - vaivarta Purana has words spoken by Lord Krishna to Mother Ganga just before the beginning of the Kali Yuga (the age of quarrel and strife). The Kali Yuga began approximately five thousand years ago, and it has a duration of 432,000 years, leaving us with 427,000 years until the end of the present age. Within this 432,000 year period, there is a period of 10,000 years that will be a golden age. That golden age is being described below by Lord Sri Krishna. Predicted in Brahma - vaivarta Purana 4.129. The fourth part of the Brahma - vaivarta is called Kṛṣṇa - janma - khanda. Chapter 129 is called Golokarohanam, because it describes how Krishna returns to His abode. This specific dialogue is between Lord Krishna and Mother Ganga. Verse 49 is a question by Ganga, verses 50 -- 60 are Lord Sri Krishna 's answer.
This text is taken from the Brahma - vaivarta Purana (14)
Text 59:
kaler daSa - sahasraaNi
madbhaktaaH saMti bhu - tale
ekavarNaa bhaviSyaMti
madbhakteSu gateSu ca
"For 10,000 years of Kali such devotees of Mine will be present on earth. After the departure of My devotees there will be only one varna, Outcaste. ''
The above is supported in 4.90. 32 -- 33:
kalau dasa - sahasrAni
haris tiSThati medinI
devAnAM pratimA pUjyA
sAstrANi ca purANakam
"(Sri Krisna said:) Lord Hari will stay on this earth for the first ten - thousand years of Kali - yuga. Till then gods will be worshipped and the Puranas and scriptures will also be present. ''
Hence to protect ourself from Kali, it is believed that we should start doing japa, meditation or any yoga like Bhakti yoga, karma yoga, Raja yoga, and jnana yoga. But, Chanting the holy name of God is the best path in Kali yuga.
Kali is the reigning lord of Kali Yuga and his nemesis is Kalki, the tenth and final Avatar of Lord Vishnu. According to the Vishnu Purana, Kali is a negative manifestation working towards the cause of ' the end ' or rather towards eventual rejuvenation of the universe. Kali also serves as an antagonistic force in the Kalki Purana. It is said that towards the end of this yuga, Kalki will return riding on a white horse to do battle with Kali and his dark forces. The world will suffer a fiery cataclysm that will destroy all evil, and a new age (the next Satya Yuga of the following Mahayuga), will begin.
Some Shaivites maintain that the ill effects of Kali Yuga can only be moderated by the manifestation of Lord Shiva Himself. Shastriji, one of the followers of Haidakhan Babaji, gave the following narration:
"Once Parvati asked Lord Shiva, her husband: ' You have done good work for the people in all ages, but I am afraid for the people in the Kali Yuga; how will they safeguard themselves? ' Then Lord Shiva told Parvati: ' I will appear in the Kali Yuga and I will create a new state, a new centre of religion - a most important place, where I will live and establish all the Gods there. ' ''
Shastriji went further to suggest that this promise manifested through the person of Haidakhan Babaji. One of the central tenets of Haidakhan Babaji 's teachings is the message of Karma Yoga or hard work. In the context of Kali yuga Haidakhan Babaji explained:
"As I have told you before, the thing needed in this Age is work (karma). In every Age people have reached salvation through different types of action and sadhana (spiritual discipline), but in this Age one can reach liberation only through hard work. I want real, practical human beings and only he is a true human being who lives in accordance with this Age. We need not consider religion or caste, but look only to hard work. ''
In Sikhism, Kali Yuga is metaphorically used to describe the state of the world as was commonly understood in the 16th century. It is stressed that one should meditate as much as possible to reach the state of Nirvana and be liberated or be one with God. Guru Granth Sahib Ji on Ang: 1185 says:
ab kaloo aaeiou rae: Now, the Dark Age of Kali Yuga has come.
eik naam bovahu bovahu: Plant the Naam, the Name of the One Lord.
an rooth naahee naahee: It is not the season to plant other seeds.
math bharam bhoolahu bhoolahu: Do not wander lost in doubt and delusion.
The Italian Traditionalist thinker Julius Evola, drawing on the work of René Guénon, describes modern Western civilization as being in its Kali Yuga phase, in a state of degeneration and eventual collapse, in his seminal 1934 anti-modernist work on the world of Tradition, Rivolta contro il mondo moderno (Revolt Against the Modern World).
The dictionary definition of Kali Yuga at Wiktionary
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the curious incident of the dog in the night time plot | The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night - Time - wikipedia
The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night - Time is a 2003 mystery novel by British writer Mark Haddon. Its title quotes the fictional detective Sherlock Holmes in Arthur Conan Doyle 's 1892 short story "Silver Blaze ''. Haddon and The Curious Incident won the Whitbread Book Awards for Best Novel and Book of the Year, the Commonwealth Writers ' Prize for Best First Book, and the Guardian Children 's Fiction Prize. Unusually, it was published simultaneously in separate editions for adults and children.
The novel is narrated in the first - person perspective by Christopher John Francis Boone, a 15 - year - old boy who describes himself as "a mathematician with some behavioural difficulties '' living in Swindon, Wiltshire. Although Christopher 's condition is not stated, the book 's blurb refers to Asperger syndrome, high - functioning autism, or savant syndrome. In July 2009, Haddon wrote on his blog that "Curious Incident is not a book about Asperger 's... if anything it 's a novel about difference, about being an outsider, about seeing the world in a surprising and revealing way. The book is not specifically about any specific disorder, '' and that he, Haddon, is not an expert on autism spectrum disorder or Asperger syndrome.
The book uses prime numbers to number the chapters, rather than the conventional successive numbers.
Christopher, a fifteen - year - old boy with an autism spectrum condition, lives with his father, who has told him that his mother, Judy, died two years ago. The boy discovers the dead body of the neighbour 's dog, Wellington, speared by a garden fork. Mrs Shears, the dog 's owner, calls the police, and Christopher comes under suspicion. When a policeman touches him, he hits the policeman, and is arrested, then released with a police caution. He decides to investigate the dog 's death, despite his father 's orders to stay out of other people 's business. He is severely limited by his fears and difficulties when interpreting the world around him. Throughout his adventures, Christopher records his experiences in a book, which he calls a "murder mystery novel ''. During his investigation, Christopher meets people whom he has never before encountered, even though they live on the same street, including the elderly Mrs Alexander, who informs Christopher that his mother had an affair with Mr Shears and had been with him for a long time.
Christopher 's father, Ed, discovers the book and confiscates it after a brief fight with the boy. While searching for the confiscated book, Christopher uncovers a trove of letters which his mother wrote to him, dated after her supposed death, which his father has also hidden. He is so shocked by his father lying about his mother 's death that he is unable to move, curls up on the bed, vomits and groans for several hours until his father returns home. Ed realizes that Christopher has read the letters and cleans him up. He then confesses that he had indeed lied about Judy 's death and also that it was he who killed Wellington, stating that it was a mistake resulting from his anger after a heated argument with Mrs Shears. Christopher, having lost all trust in his father and fearing that Ed might try to kill him since he had already killed the dog, decides to live with his mother and runs away. He remembers his mother 's address from the letters and embarks on an adventurous trip to London, where his mother lives with Mr Shears.
After a long and event - filled journey, evading policemen and feeling ill from the overwhelmingly large amount of information and stimuli from the trains and crowds around him, he finally finds his way to his mother and Mr Shears 's home, and waits outside until they arrive. Judy is delighted that Christopher has come to her; she is upset that Ed told Christopher that she was dead. Mr Shears does not want Christopher living with them and never did. Very soon after arriving, Christopher wants to return to Swindon in order to take his mathematics A-level. His mother leaves Mr Shears, their relationship having broken down because of their conflict about Christopher and Mr Shears 's rejection of Christopher. Judy then moves into a rented room in Swindon. After an argument with Ed, she agrees to let Ed meet Christopher for daily brief visits. Christopher remains terrified of his father and makes repeated attempts to prevent him from talking. He hopes Ed will be imprisoned for killing Wellington, although his mother explains that for this to happen, Mrs Shears would have to press charges.
The story ends with Ed getting Christopher a Golden Retriever puppy, whom Christopher gets to name, and promising that he will rebuild trust with Christopher slowly, "no matter how long it takes ''. Christopher asserts that he will take further A-level exams and attend university. He completes his mathematics A-level with top grades despite having eaten and slept very little. Earlier in the story he talks about wanting to become an astronaut, but at the end he declares that his goal is to become a scientist. The book ends with Christopher optimistic about his future, having solved the mystery of the murdered dog, gone to London on his own, found his mother, written a book about his adventures, and achieved an A in his A-level maths exam.
In a June 2003 interview with NPR 's Terry Gross on her program Fresh Air, Haddon said about Christopher, "If he were diagnosed, he would be diagnosed as having Asperger 's syndrome, which is a form of autism. I suppose you 'd call it high - function autism in that he can function on, you know, a day - to - day basis, in a kind of rudimentary way. But he has a serious difficulty with life in that he really does n't empathize with other human beings. He ca n't read their faces. He ca n't put himself in their shoes. And he ca n't understand anything more than the literal meaning of whatever 's said to him, although I 'm very careful in the book not to actually use the word ' Asperger 's ' or ' autism. '... Because I do n't want him to be labelled, and because, as with most people who have a disability, I do n't think it 's necessarily the most important thing about him... And as a good friend of mine said after reading the book, a friend who is himself a mathematician, it 's not a novel about a boy who has Asperger 's syndrome; it 's a novel about a young mathematician who has some strange behavioural problems. And I think that 's right. ''
Haddon added, in the conversation with Terry Gross, "I have to say honestly that I did more research about the London Underground and the inside of Swindon Railway Station, where some of the novel takes place, than I did about Asperger 's syndrome. I gave him kind of nine or 10 rules that he would live his life by, and then I did n't read any more about Asperger 's because I think there is no typical person who has Asperger 's syndrome, and they 're as large and diverse a group of people as any other group in society. And the important thing is that I did a lot of imagining, that I did a lot of putting myself into his shoes in trying to make him come alive as a human being rather than getting him right, whatever that might mean. ''
Haddon states on his website that, although he had read "a handful of newspaper and magazine articles about, or by, people with Asperger 's and autism '' in preparation for writing the book, he knows "very little '' about Asperger 's syndrome and that Christopher Boone is inspired by two different people. According to Haddon, none of these people can be labelled as having a disability. Haddon added that he "slightly regret (s) '' that the term Asperger 's syndrome appeared on the cover of his novel. In 2010, in an interview with The Independent, he was described as "now thoroughly irritated that the word Asperger 's appeared on subsequent editions of the novel, because now everyone imagines that he is an expert and he keeps getting phone calls asking him to appear at lectures. ''
In a critical essay on the novel, Vivienne Muller quotes some praise by experts on disability theory: "In its presentation of Christopher 's everyday experiences of the society in which he lives, the narrative offers a rich canvas of experiences for an ethnographic study of this particular cognitive condition, and one which places a positive spin on the syndrome. The reader in this instance acts as ethnographer, invited to see what Mark Osteen claims is a ' quality in autistic lives that is valuable in and of itself ' (cited in (S.) Adams 2005, p. 1). Along similar lines, (Alex) McClimens writes that Haddon 's novel is ' an ethnographic delight ' and that ' Haddon 's achievement is to have written a novel that turns on the central character 's difference without making that difference a stigmatising characteristic ' (2005, p. 24). '' Muller adds that the novel "works with a strong sense of the disabled speaking subject, drawing readers into Christopher 's cognitive / corporeal space through an incremental layering of his perspectives and reactions... The narrative also bristles with diagrams, maps, drawings, stories, texts that inform Christopher 's lexicon for mapping meaning in a world of bewildering signs and sounds. '' She also admires such elements as "the digressive stream - of - connectedness - and - disconnectedness way in which Christopher writes and thinks; the obsessive focus on minutiae; his musings about why animals behave the way they do; his quasi philosophizing on death and life and the afterlife; his ambition to be an astronaut... ''
In a survey of children 's books which "teach about emotional life, '' Laura Jana wrote, "On the one hand, this is a story of how an undeniably quirky teenage boy clings to order, deals with a family crisis, and tries to make sense of the world as he sees it. But it also provides profound insight into a disorder -- autism -- that leaves those who have it struggling to perceive even the most basic of human emotions. In so doing, The Curious Incident leaves its readers with a greater appreciation of their own ability to feel, express, and interpret emotions. This mainstream literary success made its way to the top of the New York Times bestseller list for fiction at the same time it was being touted by experts in Asperger 's syndrome and autism - spectrum disorder as an unrivaled fictional depiction of the inner workings of an autistic teenage boy. ''
Christopher often comments on his inability to appreciate some metaphors and similes. He gives as an example a quote that he found in "a proper novel '': "I am veined with iron, with silver and with streaks of common mud. I can not contract into the firm fist which those clench who do not depend on stimulus. '' Haddon told Terry Gross, "Funnily enough, it 's actually a quote from Virginia Woolf. It 's Virginia Woolf on an off day, in the middle, I think, of The Waves. An author whom I love actually, but who sometimes got a little too carried away. ''
The book was joint winner of the 2004 Boeke Prize, won the 2003 Whitbread Book of the Year award and sold more than two million copies. Haddon also was one of the winners of the 2004 Alex Awards, which "honor the 10 top adult books with appeal for adolescents. ''
As well as winning the Guardian Children 's Fiction Prize, Haddon earned the Book Trust teenage fiction award. The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night - Time was also long - listed for the Man Booker Prize, and "many observers were surprised that it did not advance to the shortlist. '' John Carey, chairman of the Booker panel of judges, told The Guardian, "We have several clashes of opinion among the judges but I found Haddon 's book about a boy with Asperger 's syndrome breathtaking. ''
A survey in Great Britain, conducted by the BBC 's literacy campaign for World Book Day, found Curious Incident to be among "the top five happy endings, as voted on by readers '' in novels (the others were Pride and Prejudice, To Kill a Mockingbird, Jane Eyre and Rebecca, the last of which Curious outranked).
School Library Journal praised it as a "rich and poignant novel. '' The San Jose Mercury News said, "Haddon does something audacious here, and he does it superbly. He shows us the way consciousness orders the world, even when the world does n't want to be ordered, '' adding that "the great achievement of this novel is that it transcends its obvious cleverness. It 's more than an exercise in narrative ingenuity. Filled with humor and pain, it verges on profundity in its examination of those things -- customs, habits, language, symbols, daily routines, etc. -- that simultaneously unite and separate human beings. '' A reviewer for The Christian Century described it as "an absorbing, plausible book '': "The reader becomes absorbed not only in the mystery of a murdered dog and a missing mom, but also in the mysterious world of an autistic child. ''
A reviewer for The Atlanta Journal - Constitution wrote that the story is "a touching evolution, one that Haddon scripts with tenderness and care... a unique window into the mind of a boy who thinks a little differently, but like many kids his age, does n't quite know how to feel. '' Professor Roger Soder called it "visceral '' and a "delightful story, '' declaring, "All of us in our Spokane Book Club are special education professionals and so have considerable experience with kids with this disability, and we found the story believable. ''
Dr. Alex McClimens, whom Muller quoted above, also wrote, "This magnificent essay in communication is compulsory reading for anyone with the slightest interest in autistic spectrum disorders. This book is also required reading for those who simply enjoy a fascinating story... we are offered a first person narrative to match anything by contemporary writers. Mark Haddon has created a true literary character and his handling of the teenage Asperger 's heroic adventure is brilliantly crafted. He uses the literal mind - set of his hero to mask the true direction of the plot. '' Reviewer Paul Moorehead calls the book "a fairly ripping adventure story '' and writes, "It 's also quite a feat of writing. The actual use of language is somewhat austere -- an unavoidable consequence of having a boy with autism as a narrator -- but it has its own beauty, and it works. So persuasive and so effective is the construction of Christopher, not only is he a character you 're rooting for, he 's also the character in the story you understand the best. It 's startling how believably and comfortably this story puts you into what you might have thought were likely to be some pretty alien shoes. ''
Reviewer David Ellis, naming Curious Incident an "ambitious and innovative novel, '' wrote that Haddon "manages to avoid the opposing pitfalls of either offending people with autism and their families or turning Christopher into an object of pity. Instead of becoming the focus of the plot, the autism enhances it. The unemotional descriptions amplify many moments of observational comedy, and misfortunes are made extremely poignantly. '' He concludes that Christopher 's story is "far more enjoyable and likely to stay with you for far longer than any medical textbook. ''
The novel was selected as a recommended book for the 2006 Galveston Reads program, a literacy encouragement program in Galveston County, Texas. Kimball Brizendine, the Mayor of Friendswood, issued a proclamation declaring "Galveston County Reads Day '' and encouraging "all citizens, teens to seniors '' to read the novel. Five days later, he retracted the statement, declaring that it was "not (his) intention to endorse this readership (sic) for our younger readers. '' The journal American Libraries reported, "City Council member Chris Peden went a step further, asserting to the January 28 Galveston County Daily News that while he had n't read Curious Incident in its entirety, he had noted that the ' F word ' appeared on page four and that ' later in the book, the (lead character) says there is no God and there is no life after death. Clearly, these are not ideas we should promote to kids '. ''
In August, 2007, some parents in Bryan, Texas, "were appalled to see what their kids were reading '' and protested the inclusion of the book in high school libraries, with one parent claiming that Curious Incident and another book (Catalyst by Laurie Halse Anderson) were "unsuitable for not just some but all high school students. ''
A stage adaptation, by Simon Stephens and directed by Marianne Elliott, premiered at the National Theatre on 2 August 2012. It starred Luke Treadaway as Christopher, Nicola Walker as his mother Judy, Paul Ritter as his father Ed, Una Stubbs as Mrs Alexander and Niamh Cusack as Siobhan. The production, which ran until late October 2012, was broadcast live to cinemas worldwide on 6 September 2012 through the National Theatre Live programme.
The show transferred to the Apollo Theatre in Shaftesbury Avenue, London, from March 2013. On 19 December 2013, during a performance of The Curious Incident at the Apollo, parts of the ceiling fell down injuring around 80 of the over 700 patrons inside. The production re-opened at the Gielgud Theatre on 24 June 2014. The new West End cast was led by Sion Daniel Young as Christopher Boone, with Rebecca Lacey as Siobhan, Nicolas Tennant as Ed, Mary Stockley as Judy, Jacqueline Clarke as Mrs Alexander, Indra Ové as Mrs Shears, Stephen Beckett as Roger Shears, Matthew Trevannion as Mr Thompson, Pearl Mackie as No. 40 / Punk Girl, Sean McKenzie as Reverend Peters and Kaffe Keating plays alternate Christopher. They were joined by Mark Rawlings, Penelope McGhie, Naomi Said and Simon Victor.
An adaptation and translation into Spanish by María Renée Prudencio played at the Teatro de los Insurgentes in Mexico City in June 2014. The character of Christopher was played by Luis Gerardo Méndez and by Alfonso Dosal on alternate days. An Israeli adaptation (translation into Hebrew by Daniel Efrat) has been staged at the Beit Lessin Theater in Tel Aviv since March 2014, starring Nadav Netz as Christopher. Netz won the Best Actor category at the 2015 Israeli Theater Awards for the role.
The film rights for the novel were optioned by Brad Grey and Brad Pitt for Warner Brothers. In 2011 Steve Kloves was attached to write and direct the project, but as of 2017 it has not yet been produced.
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who can change the existing laws in india | Amendment of the Constitution of India - wikipedia
Amending the Constitution of India is the process of making changes to the nation 's fundamental law or supreme law. The procedure of amendment in the constitution is laid down in Part XX (Article 368) of the Constitution of India. This procedure ensures the sanctity of the Constitution of India and keeps a check on arbitrary power of the Parliament of India.
However, there is another limitation imposed on the amending power of the constitution of India, which developed during conflicts between the Supreme Court and Parliament, where Parliament wants to exercise discretionary use of power to amend the constitution while the Supreme Court wants to restrict that power. This has led to the laying down of various doctrines or rules in regard to checking the validity / legality of an amendment, the most famous among them is the Basic structure doctrine as laid down by the Supreme Court in the case of Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala.
The framers of the Constitution were neither in favour of the traditional theory of federalism, which entrusts the task of constitutional amendment to a body other than the Legislature, nor did they favour a rigid special procedure for such amendments. They also never wanted to have a British - style system where Parliament is supreme. The framers, instead, adopted a combination of the "theory of fundamental law '', which underlies the written Constitution of the United States with the "theory of parliamentary sovereignty '' as existing in the United Kingdom. The Constitution of India vests constituent power upon the Parliament subject to the special procedure laid down therein.
During the discussion in the Constituent Assembly on this aspect, some members were in favour of adopting an easier mode of amending procedure for the initial five to ten years. Explaining why it was necessary to introduce an element of flexibility in the Constitution, Jawaharlal Nehru observed in the Constituent Assembly on 8 November 1948, "While we want this Constitution to be as solid and as permanent a structure as we can make it, nevertheless there is no permanence in Constitutions. There should be a certain flexibility. If you make anything rigid and permanent, you stop a nation 's growth, the growth of a living, vital, organic people. Therefore, it has to be flexible... while we, who are assembled in this House, undoubtedly represent the people of India, nevertheless I think it can be said, and truthfully, that when a new House, by whatever name it goes, is elected in terms of this Constitution, and every adult in India has the right to vote - man and woman - the House that emerges then will certainly be fully representative of every section of the Indian people. It is right that House elected so - under this Constitution of course it will have the right to do anything - should have an easy opportunity to make such changes as it wants to. But in any event, we should not make a Constitution, such as some other great countries have, which are so rigid that they do not and can not be adapted easily to changing conditions. Today especially, when the world is in turmoil and we are passing through a very swift period of transition, what we may do today may not be wholly applicable tomorrow. Therefore, while we make a Constitution which is sound and as basic as we can, it should also be flexible... ''
Dr. P.S. Deshmukh believed that the amendment of the Constitution should be made easier as he felt there were contradictory provisions in some places which would be more and more apparent when the provisions were interpreted, and that the whole administration would suffer, if the amendment to the Constitution was not made easy. Brajeshwar Prasad also favoured a flexible Constitution so as to make it survive the test of time. He was of the opinion that rigidity tends to check progressive legislation or gradual innovation. On the other hand, H.V. Kamath favoured ensuring procedural safeguards to avoid the possibility of hasty amendment to the Constitution.
"It is said that the provisions contained in the Draft make amendment difficult. It is proposed that the Constitution should be amendable by a simple majority at least for some years. The argument is subtle and ingenious. It is said that this Constituent Assembly is not elected on adult suffrage while the future Parliament will be elected on adult suffrage and yet the former has been given the right to pass the Constitution by a simple majority while the latter has been denied the same right. It is paraded as one of the absurdities of the Draft Constitution. I must repudiate the charge because it is without foundation. To know how simple are the provisions of the Draft Constitution in respect of amending the Constitution one has only to study the provisions for amendment contained in the American and Australian Constitutions. Compared to them those contained in the Draft Constitution will be found to be the simplest. The Draft Constitution has eliminated the elaborate and difficult procedures such as a decision by a convention or a referendum... It is only for amendments of specific matters -- and they are only few -- that the ratification of the State Legislatures is required. All other Articles of the Constitution are left to be amended by Parliament. The only limitation is that it shall be done by a majority of not less than two - thirds of the members of each House present and voting and a majority of the total membership of each House. It is difficult to conceive a simpler method of amending the Constitution.
What is said to be the absurdity of the amending provisions is founded upon a misconception of the position of the Constituent Assembly and of the future Parliament elected under the Constitution. The Constituent Assembly in making a Constitution has no partisan motive. Beyond securing a good and workable Constitution it has no axe to grind. In considering the Articles of the Constitution it has no eye on getting through a particular measure. The future Parliament if it met as Constituent Assembly, its members will be acting as partisans seeking to carry amendments to the Constitution to facilitate the passing of party measures which they have failed to get through Parliament by reason of some Article of the Constitution which has acted as an obstacle in their way. Parliament will have an axe to grind while the Constituent Assembly has none. That is the difference between the Constituent Assembly and the future Parliament. That explains why the Constituent Assembly though elected on limited franchise can be trusted to pass the Constitution by simple majority and why the Parliament though elected on adult suffrage can not be trusted with the same power to amend it. ''
The Constitution of India provides for a distinctive amending process when compared to the Constitutions of other nations. It can be described as partly flexible and partly rigid. The Constitution provides for a variety in the amending process. This feature has been commended by Australian academic Sir Kenneth Wheare who felt that uniformity in the amending process imposed "quite unnecessary restrictions '' upon the amendment of parts of a Constitution. An amendment of the Constitution can be initiated only by the introduction of a Bill in either House of Parliament. The Bill must then be passed in each House by a majority of the total membership of that House and by a majority of not less than two - thirds of the members of that House present and voting. There is no provision for a joint sitting in case of disagreement between the two Houses. The Bill, passed by the required majority, is then presented to the President who shall give his assent to the Bill. If the amendment seeks to make any change in any of the provisions mentioned in the proviso to article 368, it must be ratified by the Legislatures of not less than one - half of the States. Although, there is no prescribed time limit for ratification, it must be completed before the amending Bill is presented to the President for his assent.
Every constitutional amendment is formulated as a statute. The first amendment is called the "Constitution (First Amendment) Act '', the second, the "Constitution (Second Amendment) Act '', and so forth. Each usually has the long title "An Act further to amend the Constitution of India ''.
The original constitution provided for three categories of amendments. The first category of amendments are those contemplated in articles 4 (2), 169 (3) - 1962, 239A (2) - 1962, 239AA (7b) - 1991, 243M (4b) - 1992, 243ZC (3) - 1992, 244A (4) - 1969, 356 (1) c, para 7 (2) of Schedule V and para 21 (2) of Schedule VI. These amendments can be effected by Parliament by a simple majority such as that required for the passing of any ordinary law. The amendments under this category are specifically excluded from the purview of article 368 which is the specific provision in the Constitution dealing with the power and the procedure for the amendment of the Constitution. Article 4 provides that laws made by Parliament under article 2 (relating to admission or establishment of new States) and article 3 (relating to formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States) effecting amendments in the First Schedule or the Fourth Schedule and supplemental, incidental and consequential matters, shall not be deemed to be amendments of the Constitution for the purposes of article 368. For example, the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, which brought about reorganisation of the States in India, was passed by Parliament as an ordinary piece of legislation. In Mangal Singh v. Union of India (A.I.R. 1967 S.C. 944), the Supreme Court held that power to reduce the total number of members of Legislative Assembly below the minimum prescribed under article 170 (1) is implicit in the authority to make laws under article 4. Article 169 empowers Parliament to provide by law for the abolition or creation of the Legislative Councils in States and specifies that though such law shall contain such provisions for the amendment of the Constitution as may be necessary, it shall not be deemed to be an amendment of the Constitution for the purposes of article 368. The Legislative Councils Act, 1957, which provided for the creation of a Legislative Council in Andhra Pradesh and for increasing the strength of the Legislative Councils in certain other States, is an example of a law passed by Parliament in exercise of its powers under article 169. The Fifth Schedule contains provisions as to the administration and control of the Schedule Areas and Scheduled Tribes. Para 7 of the Schedule vests Parliament with plenary powers to enact laws amending the Schedule and lays down that no such law shall be deemed to be an amendment of the Constitution for the purposes of article 368. Under Para 21 of the Sixth Schedule, Parliament has full power to enact laws amending the Sixth Schedule which contains provisions for the administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. No such law, will be deemed to be an amendment of the Constitution for the purposes of article 368.
The second category includes amendments that can be effected by Parliament by a prescribed ' special majority '; and the third category of amendments includes those that require, in addition to such "special majority '', ratification by at least one half of the State Legislatures. The last two categories are governed by article 368.
Ambedkar speaking in the Constituent Assembly on 17 September 1949, pointed out that there were "innumerable articles in the Constitution '' which left matters subject to laws made by Parliament. Under article 11, Parliament may make any provision relating to citizenship notwithstanding anything in article 5 to 10. Thus, by passing ordinary laws, Parliament may, in effect, provide, modify or annul the operation of certain provisions of the Constitution without actually amending them within the meaning of article 368. Since such laws do not in fact make any change whatsoever in the letter of the Constitution, they can not be regarded as amendments of the Constitution nor categorised as such. Other examples include Part XXI of the Constitution -- "Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions '' whereby "Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution '' power is given to Parliament to make laws with respect to certain matters included in the State List (article 369); article 370 (1) (d) which empowers the President to modify, by order, provisions of the Constitution in their application to the State of Jammu and Kashmir; provisos to articles 83 (2) and 172 (1) empower Parliament to extend the lives of the House of the People and the Legislative Assembly of every State beyond a period of five years during the operation of a Proclamation of Emergency; and articles 83 (1) and 172 (2) provide that the Council of States / Legislative Council of a State shall not be subject to dissolution but as nearly as possible one - third of the members thereof shall retire as soon as may be on the expiration of every second year in accordance with the provisions made in that behalf by Parliament by law.
part - xx Article 368 (1) of the Constitution of India grants constituent power to make formal amendments and empowers Parliament to amend the Constitution by way of addition, variation or repeal of any provision according to the procedure laid down therein, which is different from the procedure for ordinary legislation. Article 368 has been amended by the 24th and 42nd Amendments in 1971 and 1976 respectively. The following is the full text of Article 368 of the Constitution, which governs constitutional amendments. New clauses 368 (1) and 368 (3) were added by the 24th Amendment in 1971, which also added a new clause (4) in article 13 which reads, "Nothing in this article shall apply to any amendment of this Constitution made under article 368. '' The provisions in italics were inserted by the 42nd Amendment, but were later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Minerva Mills v. Union of India in 1980. After the 24th amendment, Article 4 (2), etc. of the constitution are superseded / made void by article 368 (1) which is the only procedure for amending the constitution however marginal may be the nature of the amendment. Supreme court ruled that the constituent power under article 368 must be exercised by the Parliament in the prescribed manner and can not be exercised under the legislative powers of the Parliament.
368. Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and Procedure therefor:
As per the procedure laid out by article 368 for amendment of the Constitution, an amendment can be initiated only by the introduction of a Bill in either House of Parliament. The Bill must then be passed in each House by a majority of the total membership of that House and by a majority of not less than two - thirds of the members of that House present and voting. There is no provision for a joint sitting in case of disagreement between the two Houses. Total membership in this context has been defined to mean the total number of members comprising the House irrespective of any vacancies or absentees on any account vide Explanation to Rule 159 of the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha.
The Bill, passed by the required majority, is then presented to the President who shall give his assent to the Bill. If the amendment seeks to make any change in any of the provisions mentioned in the proviso to article 368, it must be ratified by the Legislatures of not less than one - half of the States. These provisions relate to certain matters concerning the federal structure or of common interest to both the Union and the States viz., the election of the President (articles 54 and 55); the extent of the executive power of the Union and the States (articles 73 and 162); the High Courts for Union territories (article 241); The Union Judiciary and the High Courts in the States (Chapter IV of Part V and Chapter V of Part VI); the distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the States (Chapter I of Part XI and Seventh Schedule); the representation of States in Parliament; and the provision for amendment of the Constitution laid down in article 368. Ratification is done by a resolution passed by the State Legislatures. There is no specific time limit for the ratification of an amending Bill by the State Legislatures. However, the resolutions ratifying the proposed amendment must be passed before the amending Bill is presented to the President for his assent.
Article 368 does not specify the legislative procedure to be followed at various stages of enacting an amendment. There are gaps in the procedure as to how and after what notice a Bill is to be introduced, how it is to be passed by each House and how the President 's assent is to be obtained. This point was decided by the Supreme Court in Shankari Prasad Singh Deo v. Union of India (AIR 1951 SC 458). Delivering the judgment, Patanjali Sastri J. observed, "Having provided for the constitution of a Parliament and prescribed a certain procedure for the conduct of its ordinary legislative business to be supplemented by rules made by each House (article 118), the makers of the Constitution must be taken to have intended Parliament to follow that procedure, so far as it may be applicable consistently with the express provisions of article 368, when they entrusted to it power of amending the Constitution. '' Hence, barring the requirements of special majority, ratification by the State Legislatures in certain cases, and the mandatory assent by the President, a Bill for amending the Constitution is dealt with the Parliament following the same legislative process as applicable to an ordinary piece of legislation. The Rules of the House in the Rajya Sabha do not contain special provisions with regard to Bills for the amendment of the Constitution and the Rules relating to ordinary Bills apply, subject to the requirements of article 368.
The Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business make certain specific provisions regarding amendment bills in the Lok Sabha. They relate to the voting procedure in the House at various stages of such Bills, in the light of the requirements of article 368; and the procedure before introduction in the case of such Bills, if sponsored by Private Members. Although the "special majority '', required by article 368 is prima facie applicable only to the voting at the final stage, the Lok Sabha Rules prescribe adherence to this constitutional requirement at all the effective stages of the Bill, i.e., for adoption of the motion that the Bill be taken into consideration; that the Bill as reported by the Select / Joint Committee be taken into consideration, in case a Bill has been referred to a Committee; for adoption of each clause or schedule or clause or schedule as amended, of a Bill; or that the Bill or the Bill as amended, as the case may be, be passed.
This provision was arrived at after consultation with the Attorney - General and detailed discussions in the Rules Committee. It has been described as "evidently ex abundanti cautela '', a Latin phrase, which in law, describes someone taking precautions against a very remote contingency. By strictly adhering to article 368, the provision is intended to ensure the validity of the procedure adopted, but also guard against the possibility of violation of the spirit and scheme of that article 29 by the consideration of a Bill seeking to amend the Constitution including its consideration clause by clause being concluded in the House with only the bare quorum present. Voting at all the above stages is by division. However, the Speaker may, with the concurrence of the House, put any group of clauses or schedules together to the vote of the House, provided that the Speaker will permit any of the clauses or schedules be put separately, if any member requests that. The Short Title, Enacting Formula and the Long Title are adopted by a simple majority. The adoption of amendments to clauses or schedules of the Bill, requires a majority of members present and voting in the same manner as in the case of any other Bill.
A Bill for amendment of the Constitution by a Private Member is governed by the rules applicable to Private Members ' Bills in general. The period of one month 's notice applies to such a Bill also. In addition, in Lok Sabha, such a Bill has to be examined and recommended by the Committee on Private Members ' Bills before it is included in the List of Business. The Committee has laid down the following principles as guiding criteria in making their recommendations in regard to these Bills:
"(i) The Constitution should be considered as a sacred document -- a document which should not be lightly interfered with and it should be amended only when it is found absolutely necessary to do so. Such amendments may generally be brought forward when it is found that the interpretation of the various articles and provisions of the Constitution has not been in accordance with the intention behind such provisions and cases of lacunae or glaring inconsistencies have come to light. Such amendments should, however, normally be brought by the Government after considering the matter in all its aspects and consulting experts, and taking such other advice as they may deem fit. (ii) Some time should elapse before a proper assessment of the working of the Constitution and its general effect is made so that any amendments that may be necessary are suggested as a result of sufficient experience. (iii) Generally speaking, notice of Bills from Private Members should be examined in the background of the proposal or measures which the Government may be considering at the time so that consolidated proposals are brought forward before the House by the Government after collecting sufficient material and taking expert advice. (iv) Whenever a Private Member 's Bill raises issues of far - reaching importance and public interest, the Bill might be allowed to be introduced so that public opinion is ascertained and gauged to enable the House to consider the matter further. In determining whether a matter is of sufficient public importance, it should be examined whether the particular provisions in the Constitution are adequate to satisfy the current ideas and public demand at the time. In other words, the Constitution should be adapted to the current needs and demands of the progressive society and any rigidity which may impede progress should be avoided. ''
The role of the states in constitutional amendment is limited. State legislatures can not initiate any Bill or proposal for amendment of the Constitution. They are associated in the process of the amendment only through the ratification procedure laid down in article 368, in case the amendment seeks to make any change in any of the provisions mentioned in the proviso to article 368. The only other provision for constitutional changes by state legislatures is to initiate the process for creating or abolishing Legislative Councils in their respective legislatures, and to give their views on a proposed Parliamentary bill seeking to affect the area, boundaries or name of any State or States which has been referred to them under the proviso to Article 3. However, this referral does not restrict Parliament 's power to make any further amendments of the Bill.
Article 169 (1) reads, "Notwithstanding anything in article 168, Parliament may by law provide for the abolition of the Legislative Council of a State having such a Council or for the creation of such a Council in a State having no such Council, if the Legislative Assembly of the State passes a resolution to that effect by a majority of the total membership of the Assembly and by a majority of not less than two - thirds of the members of the Assembly present and voting. '' The proviso of article 3 provides that no bill for the purpose shall be introduced in either House of Parliament except on the recommendation of the President and unless, where the proposal contained in the Bill affects the area, boundaries or name of any of the States, the bill has been referred by the President to the Legislature of the State for expressing its views thereon within such period as may be specified in the reference or within such further period as the President may allow and the period so specified or allowed has expired.
Union territories have no say in constitutional amendments, including the ratification process which is only open to States. Delhi and Puducherry are two union territories that are entitled, by special constitutional amendments, to have an elected Legislative Assembly and a Cabinet of ministers, thereby enjoying partial statehood powers. Both of these territories can participate in the ratification process.
The Constitution can be amended five to seven times by the Parliament; and only in the manner provided. Although Parliament must preserve the basic framework of the Constitution, there is no other limitation placed upon the amending power, meaning that there is no provision of the Constitution that can not be amended. In Abdul Rahiman Jamaluddin v. Vithal Arjun (AIR 1958 Bombay, 94, (1957)), the Bombay High Court held that any attempt to amend the Constitution by a Legislature other than Parliament, and in a manner different from that provided for, will be void and inoperative.
The Supreme Court first struck down a constitutional amendment in 1967, ruling in the case of I.C. Golak Nath and Ors. vs. State of Punjab and Anr. An amendment was struck down on the basis that it violated Article 13: "The State shall not make any law which takes away or abridges the rights conferred by (the charter of Fundamental Rights) ''. The term "law '' in this article was interpreted as including a constitutional amendment. Parliament responded by enacting the twenty - fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India which declared that "nothing in Article 13 shall apply to any amendment of this Constitution ''.
The current limitation on amendments comes from Kesavananda Bharati v. The State of Kerala, where the Supreme Court ruled that amendments of the constitution must respect the "basic structure '' of the constitution, and certain fundamental features of the constitution can not be altered by amendment. Parliament attempted to remove this limitation by enacting the Forty - second Amendment, which declared, among other provisions, that "there shall be no limitation whatever on the constituent power of Parliament to amend... this Constitution ''. However, this change was itself later declared invalid by the Supreme Court in Minerva Mills v. Union of India.
The issue of whether an entire constitutional amendment is void for want of ratification or only an amended provision required to be ratified under proviso to clause (2) of article 368 was debated before the Supreme Court in Kihota Hollohon v. Zachilhu (AIR 1993 SC 412), in which the constitutional validity of the Tenth Schedule of the Constitution inserted by the 52nd Amendment in 1985 was challenged. The decisions of the Speakers / Chairmen on disqualification, which had been challenged in different High Courts through different petitions, were heard by a five - member Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court. The case, now popularly known as Anti-Defection case, was decided in 1992. The Constitution Bench in its majority judgement upheld the validity of the Tenth Schedule, but declared Paragraph 7 of the Schedule invalid because it was not ratified by the required number of the Legislatures of the States as it brought about in terms and effect, a change in articles 136, 226 and 227 of the Constitution. While doing so, the majority treated Paragraph 7 as a severable part from the rest of the Schedule. However, in the dissenting opinion, the minority of the Judges held that the entire Amendment is invalid for want of ratification.
Despite the super majority requirement in the Constitution, it is one of the most frequently amended governing documents in the world, and the most amended national constitution in the world; amendments have averaged about two a year. This is partly because the Constitution is so specific in spelling out government powers that amendments are often required to deal with matters that could be addressed by ordinary statutes in other democracies. As a result, it is the longest constitution of any sovereign nation in the world. It currently consists of over 117,000 words (450 articles plus 115 amendments). Another reason is that the Parliament of India is elected by means of single seat districts, under the plurality voting system, used in the United Kingdom and the United States. This means that, it is possible for a party to win two thirds of the seats in Parliament without securing two thirds of the vote. For example, in the first two Lok Sabha elections held under the Constitution, the Indian National Congress party won less than one half of the national vote but roughly two thirds of seats in the chamber.
The most important and frequent reason for amendments to the Constitution is the curtailment of the Fundamental Rights charter. This is achieved by inserting laws contrary to the fundamental rights provisions into Schedule 9 of the Constitution. Schedule 9 protects such laws from judicial review. The typical areas of restriction include laws relating to property rights, and affirmative action in favour of minority groups such as the "scheduled castes '', "scheduled tribes '', and other "backward classes '' and also lower classes people.
In a landmark ruling in January 2007, a nine judge constitutional bench of the Supreme Court of India confirmed that all laws (including those in Schedule 9) would be open to judicial review if they violate the "basic structure of the constitution ''. Chief Justice Yogesh Kumar Sabharwal noted, "If laws put in the Ninth Schedule abridge or abrogate fundamental rights resulting in violation of the basic structure of the constitution, such laws need to be invalidated ''.
Constitutional amendments have been made to facilitate changes in the territorial extent of the Republic of India due to the incorporation of the former French colony of Pondicherry, the former Portuguese colony of Goa, and a minor exchange of territory with Pakistan. Amendments are also necessary with regard to littoral rights over the exclusive economic zone of 200 mi and the formation of new states and union territories by the reorganization of existing states. Constitutional amendment under article 368 allows peaceful division of the country provided fundamental rights (Article 13) are ensured in all the resultant countries. The constitution (ninth amendment) act, 1960 is an example which has ceded territory to old Pakistan.
The constitution includes transitional provisions intended to remain in force only for a limited period. These need to be renewed periodically. For example, for continuing reservation in parliamentary seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes an constitutional amendment is enacted once in every ten years.
Amendments have been made with the intent of reform the system of government and incorporating new "checks and balances '' in the Constitution. These have included the following:
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who ends up with who at the end of dawson's creek | Joey Potter - wikipedia
Josephine Lillian "Joey '' Potter (born September, 1983) is a fictional character and de facto lead role from the WB television drama Dawson 's Creek, portrayed by Katie Holmes. Joey appeared in all episodes of the series, which ran from 1998 -- 2003.
Joey has been friends with Dawson Leery since they were very young. She lives with her older sister, Bessie, Bessie 's son Alexander and (sometimes) boyfriend, Bodie. Her father Mike, is in and out of prison for drug trafficking. Her mother, Lillian, died of breast cancer when Joey was thirteen. Joey is also the only character to appear in every episode of the series.
In season one, Joey is the "girl next door. '' She is confused by her growth into a teenager and her developing feelings for her longtime best friend Dawson, who she also admitted is her soulmate. She immediately becomes jealous when Jen Lindley arrives and steals Dawson away from her. She is intimidated by Jen, who grew up in New York and does not know how to compete. She lives with her pregnant sister Bessie, and she works for her at the Ice House, the Potter family restaurant. She is frustrated with having to deal with work and taking care of her sister along with significant helpings of teenage angst. Nonetheless, Joey manages to be helpful with the birth of Bessie 's son, Alexander, as does their critical neighbor, Evelyn Ryan. One day she is convinced to compete in the beauty pageant, which she does so that she can win the cash prize. But instead of winning the contest, she wins Dawson 's heart, as he finally sees past his best friend image, and realizes that he has strong romantic feelings towards her. At the end of the season, she finds herself with the opportunity of going to Paris for a year, but rejects it in favor of staying in Capeside with Dawson after she and Dawson kiss.
At the start of the season, she and Dawson are a couple and things start out well, but Joey begins to think that she is losing her identity, as she ca n't see where Dawson ends and she begins. During a full moon, the new guy in town, Jack McPhee, kisses her. Dawson finds out during a school dance. After a huge argument, Joey decides to break up with him, even though for the first time they both say that they love each other. She says that she wants to "find herself, '' and so she breaks up with him.
Joey and Jack begin dating afterward but the relationship ends just as quickly when Jack realizes that he 's gay. Joey 's father is released from prison and comes back into her life. At first this change is uneasy, but they heal the rift between them and she gets back together with Dawson. However, Dawson finds out that Joey 's father is dealing cocaine. After a fire at the restaurant which was started by rivals of Joey 's father, Dawson tells his parents who advise him he needs to go to the police. He tells Joey instead. He convinces her to wear a wire, and get a confession from her father so that nothing like the fire will happen again. She gets the confession from her father and shows him the wire. Knowing that she had betrayed her father, she is understandably heartbroken and angry with Dawson. She breaks up with him and tells him she does n't even want to know him and that she will never forgive him.
After Dawson returns from visiting his mom over the summer, Joey offers herself to him but Dawson rejects her. Joey flees and Dawson asks Pacey Witter to keep an eye on her. As the season progresses, it becomes obvious that Pacey and Joey 's friendship evolves into something deeper. Joey has a brief relationship with a college student, A.J. Moller (Robin Dunne). This relationship makes Pacey jealous and forces him to confront his true feelings for Joey. After months of build up, Pacey finally kisses Joey after she confides in him that he and Dawson are the only ones to "have ever known her in a way that no one else does. '' Joey initially is angry when Pacey kisses her; however, later she comes to realize that she may also have feelings for him, as well.
Joey took a job at a Logan 's Marina, where she received unwanted sexual advances from her supervisor, Rob Logan.
During a trip to the home of Dawson 's aunt, Gwen (Gail 's sister), Joey and Pacey confront their feelings for one another. Joey confesses that being around Pacey makes her feel more alive resulting in Pacey kissing her again. Pacey tells Joey she needs to figure out what she wants and leaves. Joey stops him and pulls Pacey into a kiss, having made her choice, but Dawson 's aunt Gwen sees this happen. After this realization, they begin a secret romantic relationship.
When Dawson finds out about Joey and Pacey 's relationship, he is furious, and the friendship between the three is never the same again. Dawson gives Joey an ultimatum - him or Pacey. Joey stupidly pulls back from Pacey in an effort to mend his and her friendship with Dawson. Dawson, however, sees Pacey as his enemy and opponent in winning Joey 's heart. Dawson tries his best to win Joey back, including throwing an alternative prom with Joey as his date. However, Dawson witnesses Joey and Pacey share a romantic dance before the night is over.
In the season finale, Joey comes to realize that while she 's just fearful of losing her oldest friend, Dawson, she has fallen in love with Pacey. With Dawson 's urging, Joey rushes off to tell Pacey that she loves him before he departs for a summer at sea on his boat. She joins Pacey on his boat and the two then sail off into the sunset.
Joey and Pacey return to Capeside from their summer at sea in the fourth season, and are quickly brought back to reality when they must confront the events of the past year and the subsequent fallout. Joey is eager to mend fences, though Dawson is still hurt by what happened. Pacey 's relationship with Dawson never quite recovers until the end of the series, though the two are civil and acknowledge a shared history and group of friends.
Joey and Dawson get chosen as class couple as a practical joke by Drue Valentine. Also, Pacey has returned to academic probation while Joey dreams of admittance to the prestigious Worthington College in Boston. On a ski trip with the senior class, Pacey and Joey finally sleep together for the first time. However, when Dawson questions her, she lies about losing her virginity. Pacey finds out about the lie and is unsettled. He is further disturbed when Joey accepts money from Dawson to attend Worthington.
After Joey returns from New York with Jen, she discovers from Gretchen that Pacey was arrested for public drunkness and that she also believes she may be pregnant. Bessie soon finds out that Joey believes she may be pregnant at Gail 's baby shower, and Bessie argues with her about not being ready to have a baby, and having an immature boyfriend who would never cope with a child. Joey later defends herself by saying that whatever happens in her life will be different. Joey later does a test and finds out she is not pregnant, but the situation draws the sisters close together. When Joey finally reaches Pacey on the phone, she lies about the pregnancy scare and is disappointed that Pacey did n't tell her about his arrest.
Pacey soon begins to feel insecure about Joey 's success and their relationship despite her insistence that her future lies with him, believes that he is n't good enough for her, and that their futures are worlds apart. At their senior prom, Pacey breaks up with Joey, who is devastated. The season ends with Joey headed to Worthington and Pacey to another summer at sea.
At the end of the season, as Dawson is preparing to leave Capeside for Los Angeles, in a scene reminiscent of Season One 's ending, Dawson and Joey share a kiss.
In season five, Joey attends Worthington University in Boston, where she meets and befriends her roommate Audrey Liddell. Joey is studying English Literature, and for a time starts seeing her college professor, David Wilder.
Throwing everyone for a loop, Mitch is killed in a car accident leaving Gail, Dawson and baby Lily behind. Having been a witness to her mother 's painful last days, Joey thinks that she can help Dawson through the process of grieving for his father. She attends Mitch 's funeral, but is rejected when she tries to help Dawson deal with his whirl of emotions. Upon returning to her dorm room in Boston, a crying Joey is comforted by Audrey. While Jen convinces Dawson to go to counseling, Joey catches Jack in a ' bid ' to get one of his frat brothers in bed with Audrey during the fraternity 's Winter Formal.
Joey later joins the band, Aggressive Mediocrity, as lead singer with Jen 's cheating ex, Charlie Todd (Chad Michael Murray). They embark on a whirlwind romance before she tells him to leave to pursue his dream of being a touring musician. She has an unforgettable run - in with a mugger, who luckily for her, gets hit by a car shortly after robbing her at gunpoint. However, when she is requested to be at his side in the hospital, Joey discovers that the mugger is also a drug addict, and has a young daughter, Sammie, with his wife, Grace. When the mugger dies with Joey at his side, she returns to the waiting room, all of her belongings returned, including the money. Thinking of Sammie, whose situation reminds her of the relationship she has with her own father, Joey leaves all the money hidden in Grace 's backpack.
At the end of the season she returns to Capeside, and Dawson confesses to her that he wants to be with her. She rejects him saying that all those feelings were in the past, but in the last episode she rushes to the airport, to declare her true feelings for Dawson. She catches him, and they kiss. Joey tells Dawson to go to Los Angeles as that is his destiny, and that they 'll meet up after the summer. As she goes to get a refund, she is offered the chance to go to Paris, and the audience is left hanging.
In the beginning of the sixth season, it is revealed that Joey did n't end up going to Paris, but went home to Capeside. After not talking all summer, she and Dawson meet up and have a one - night stand in her dorm room. The next day it is revealed that Dawson has a girlfriend in California. Joey breaks things off with him. She takes a job as a waitress at Hell 's Kitchen, with the help of aspiring drummer, Emma Jones. Joey eventually falls for the bartender, Eddie Doling (Oliver Hudson). They both have a love for writing and literature, but it turns out that he is not officially a student at Worthington, as his family was too poor to afford the tuition.
After Christmas, Eddie disappears without telling Joey, going back to Worcester to live with his parents. In trying to find him, Joey gets some help from Harley Hetson -- the 15 - year - old, alienated, headstrong daughter of her snobbish and somewhat misogynist English professor, Greg Hetson (Roger Howarth), whom Joey clashes with several times during the entire season. Harley lies, telling Eddie that Joey was pregnant with his child in order to lure him back to Boston.
Joey and Pacey begin to rekindle their romance after sharing a kiss at his apartment. After being locked overnight in a K - Mart together, they discuss their past and current relationship. Each admits that they miss the other. They briefly reunite, but when Eddie reappears in Joey 's life, she breaks it off with Pacey (ironically Pacey and Joey break up at another high school dance resembling the prom).
After Pacey and Dawson have another falling out after Pacey 's stocks tank and Dawson loses his entire investment, Joey decides that it 's time they worked things out for themselves without her in the middle because it "is not her fight '' and that it never has been, and never will be. After a heart to heart with Pacey on the dock, Joey brings everyone together to help Dawson make his movie. Joey finally goes to Paris and the final episode of the season ends with her standing before the famous Eiffel Tower.
The final two episodes are set approximately five years after the season finale. Joey is a junior editor living in New York with her writer boyfriend, Christopher (Jeremy Sisto). During this double episode, the five friends return to Capeside for Gail Leery 's third wedding (but second husband). Although she had originally planned to spend the weekend with Christopher, Joey runs scared after finding an engagement ring hidden in the couple 's dresser while she is packing for the trip.
The five friends reunite at Pacey 's restaurant to reminisce about the past. Afterwards, Joey drops by Dawson 's house, and the two reestablish their friendship. During Gail 's wedding reception, Joey and Pacey kiss (reigniting lingering feelings between the two), but the moment is interrupted when Jen collapses. It is later discovered that Jen has a deadly heart condition.
At the same time, Joey ends her relationship with Christopher and chooses between Dawson and Pacey. Though she loves Dawson, she acknowledges that he is her soulmate who is tied to her childhood, a love that is pure and eternally innocent. She also can not deny she is still in love with Pacey. After Jen 's death, she decides to stop running and confront her feelings for Pacey.
In the midst of their romantic entanglements, Joey, Dawson, Jack, and Pacey are brought together at the Ice House, now owned by Pacey, to say goodbye to Jen, who dies from pulmonary congestion.
In the epilogue, Joey and Pacey watch Dawson 's semi-autobiographical television series The Creek in their apartment before calling up Dawson together, where they discover he is going to meet his hero, Steven Spielberg. They have renewed their romantic relationship, and the series ends with them as a couple living together in New York.
"I 'm a lot like Joey, '' said Holmes. "I think they saw that. I come from a small town. I was a tomboy. Joey tries to be articulate and deny that she does n't have a lot of experience in life. Her life parallels mine, which is all about new everything -- relationships, personal perceptions -- and about being guarded. '' Holmes filmed the pilot of Dawson 's Creek in Wilmington, North Carolina, during spring break of her senior year of high school in 1997. When the show was picked up by The WB, Holmes moved to Wilmington, where the show filmed.
Dawson 's Creek ran from 1998 to 2003, and Holmes was the only actor to appear in all 128 episodes. "It was very difficult for me to leave Wilmington, to have my little glass bubble burst and move on. I hate change. On the other hand it was refreshing to play someone else, '' she said in 2004. Holmes confirmed that, as often happens on soaps, the character was a caricature of the actor:
"Joey Potter is a headstrong, vibrant, wily, sultry, and determined go - getter. And yet, in a gloriously contradictory manner, in spite of her tough - as - nails exterior demeanor, Joey 's also a frail, sometimes uncertain, emotionally sensitive, in - need - of - love person '', said the show 's official book. Joey, named for Jo in Little Women, for years had been climbing in Dawson 's bedroom window and platonically sharing his bed. Joey 's mother had died from cancer when Joey was thirteen and her father, Mike (Gareth Williams), was in prison for "conspiracy to traffic in marijuana in excess of 10,000 pounds. '' Her harried, unmarried, and very pregnant sister, Bessie (Nina Repeta), about ten years older than Joey, was raising her while running the Ice House restaurant, where Joey worked as a waitress. GQ described Joey as "kind of an uptight fussbudget -- one who 's always twisted up over doing the right thing and bungling - up ways to hook up with her crush and across the creek neighbor, Dawson. ''
The 5 ft 9 in (1.75 m) tall brunette enchanted the press, writers of both sexes commenting how Holmes was the sort of girl one wants to bring home to meet the parents and to marry. "The Audrey Hepburn of her generation '', was one typical comment. Time called her "impossibly lovely '' and Entertainment Weekly said she was "next up for idolhood. '' Variety, reviewing the pilot, said Holmes "is a confident young performer who delivers her lines with slyness and conviction. '' Holmes made such an impression in Hollywood, The New York Times Magazine claimed everyone was seeking to cast a "Katie Holmes type '', who, the reporter claimed, "is a throwback to the 1950s: she is a smart girl next door (as opposed to the babe - o-rama blondes) '' -- the sort represented by her Dawson 's Creek co-star Michelle Williams. But her "type '' was no less attractive, Arena magazine declaring her "the most coquettishly sexy woman on television. Anywhere. ''
Holmes was soon on the covers of magazines such as Seventeen, TV Guide, and Rolling Stone. Jancee Dunn, an editor at Rolling Stone said she was chosen for the cover because "every time you mention Dawson 's Creek you tend to get a lot of dolphin - like shrieks from teenage girls. The fact that she is drop - dead gorgeous did n't hurt either. ''
Reviews were mixed. The Blade said the characters "just talk like they came from a planet ruled by Manhattan psychologists, one where small talk is punishable by death. '' Holmes herself needed help with the dialogue. "Sometimes before we read a script, I have to get my dictionary and call people to make sure I 'm pronouncing some of the words correctly. '' The show brought her national attention and many fans back home; Toledo 's Thanksgiving Day parade in November 1998 had record attendance when Holmes was named grand marshal.
"As Joey '', said Life magazine, "Holmes has had seismic influences on teen life... Through it all, Joey has managed to hang on to her integrity... The show -- and Katie 's character in particular -- has touched a nerve. ''
Her relationship with Pacey was included in TV Guide 's list of "The Best TV Couples of All Time ''. Flavorwire chose the show 's other central pairing, Joey and Dawson, in its list of "TV 's Best ' 90s Teen Power Couples ''.
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where did the thames get its name from | River Thames - wikipedia
The River Thames (/ tɛmz / (listen) TEMZ) is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles (346 km), it is the longest river entirely in England and the second longest in the United Kingdom, after the River Severn. It also flows through Oxford (where it is called Isis), Reading, Henley - on - Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its long tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary. The Thames drains the whole of Greater London.
Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise and fall of 7 metres (23 ft). Running through some of the driest parts of mainland Britain and heavily abstracted for drinking water, the Thames ' discharge is low considering its length and breadth: the Severn has a discharge almost twice as large on average despite having a smaller drainage basin. In Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60 % smaller.
Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs. Its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands. With its waters varying from freshwater to almost seawater, the Thames supports a variety of wildlife and has a number of adjoining Sites of Special Scientific Interest, with the largest being in the remaining parts of the North Kent Marshes and covering 5,449 hectares (13,460 acres).
In 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world -- the $350,000 International Riverprize.
The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas (from * tamēssa), recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys "Thames ''. The name may have meant "dark '' and can be compared to other cognates such as Russian темно (Proto - Slavic * tĭmĭnŭ), Lithuanian tamsi "dark '', Sanskrit tamas, Irish teimheal and Welsh tywyll "darkness '' (Proto - Celtic * temeslos) and Middle Irish teimen "dark grey ''. The same origin is shared by countless other river names, spread across Britain, such as the River Tamar at the border of Devon and Cornwall, several rivers named Tame in the Midlands and North Yorkshire, the Tavy on Dartmoor, the Team of the North East, the Teifi and Teme of Wales, the Teviot in the Scottish Borders, as well as one of the Thames ' tributaries called the Thame.
Kenneth H. Jackson has proposed that the name of the Thames is not Indo - European (and of unknown meaning), while Peter Kitson suggested that it is Indo - European but originated before the Celts and has a name indicating "muddiness '' from a root * tā -, ' melt '. It has also been suggested that it is not of Celtic origin, but Germanic (thus linking it with the Eem, Ems and Amstel) meaning: "inhabited place where the estuary begins '', i. e. a place by the river, rather than the river itself.
Indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name ' Thames ' is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit (Tamesubugus made (this)). It is believed that Tamesubugus ' name was derived from that of the river. Tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography (c.AD 700).
The river 's name has always been pronounced with a simple t / t /; the Middle English spelling was typically Temese and the Brittonic form Tamesis. A similar spelling from 1210, "Tamisiam '', is found in the Magna Carta.
The th spelling lends an air of Greek to the name and was added during the Renaissance possibly to reflect or support a claim that the name was derived from the Thyamis in Epirus, from where early Celtic - speaking groups were wrongly thought to have migrated to Britain.
The Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Historically, and especially in Victorian times, gazetteers and cartographers insisted that the entire river was correctly named the Isis from its source down to Dorchester on Thames and that only from this point, where the river meets the Thame and becomes the "Thame - isis '' (supposedly subsequently abbreviated to Thames) should it be so called. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as "River Thames or Isis '' down to Dorchester. However, since the early 20th century this distinction has been lost in common usage outside of Oxford, and some historians suggest the name Isis is nothing more than a truncation of Tamesis, the Latin name for the Thames.
Richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called * (p) lowonida. This gave the name to a settlement on its banks, which became known as Londinium, from the Indo - European roots * pleu - "flow '' and * - nedi "river '' meaning something like the flowing river or the wide flowing unfordable river. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word: as "Landen '' with a similar origin to the word "land ''.
For merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the "London River ''. Londoners often refer to it simply as "the river '' in expressions such as "south of the river ''.
The river gives its name to three informal areas: the Thames Valley, a region of England around the river between Oxford and West London; the Thames Gateway; and the greatly overlapping Thames Estuary around the tidal Thames to the east of London and including the waterway itself. Thames Valley Police is a formal body that takes its name from the river, covering three counties. The administrative powers of the Thames Conservancy have been taken on with modifications by the Environment Agency and, in respect of the Tideway part of the river, such powers are split between the agency and the Port of London Authority. In non-administrative use, stemming directly from the river and its name are Thames Valley University, Thames Water, Thames Television productions, Thames & Hudson publishing, Thameslink (north - south railways passing through central London) and South Thames College. Historic entities include the Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company
The administrative powers of the Thames Conservancy have been taken on with modifications by the Environment Agency and, in respect of the Tideway part of the river, such powers are split between the agency and the Port of London Authority.
The marks of human activity, in some cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river. These include a variety of structures connected with use of the river, such as navigations, bridges and watermills, as well as prehistoric burial mounds. A major maritime route is formed for much of its length for shipping and supplies: through the Port of London for international trade, internally along its length and by its connection to the British canal system. The river 's position has put it at the centre of many events in British history, leading to it being described by John Burns as "liquid history ''.
Two broad canals link the river to other river basins: the Kennet and Avon Canal (Reading to Bath) and the Grand Union Canal (London to the Midlands). The Grand Union effectively bypassed the earlier, narrow and winding Oxford Canal which also remains open as a popular scenic recreational route. Three further cross-basin canals are disused but are in various stages of reconstruction: the Thames and Severn Canal (via Stroud), which operated until 1927 (to the west coast of England), the Wey and Arun Canal to Littlehampton, which operated until 1871 (to the south coast), and the Wilts and Berks Canal
Rowing and sailing clubs are common along the Thames, which is navigable to such vessels. Kayaking and canoeing also take place. Major annual events include the Henley Royal Regatta and the Boat Race, while the Thames has been used during two Summer Olympic Games: 1908 (rowing); 1948 (rowing and canoeing). Safe headwaters and reaches are a summer venue for organised swimming, which is prohibited on safety grounds in a stretch centred on Central London.
The usually quoted source of the Thames is at Thames Head (at grid reference ST980994). This is about ⁄ mile (1.2 km) north of Kemble parish church in southern Gloucestershire, near the town of Cirencester, in the Cotswolds.
However, Seven Springs near Cheltenham, where the Churn (which feeds into the Thames near Cricklade) rises, is also sometimes quoted as the Thames ' source, as this location is furthest from the mouth, and adds some 14 miles (23 km) to the length. At Seven Springs above the source is a stone with the Latin hexameter inscription "Hic tuus o Tamesine pater septemgeminus fons '', which means "Here, O Father Thames, (is) your sevenfold source ''.
The springs at Seven Springs flow throughout the year, while those at Thames Head are only seasonal (a winterbourne). The Thames is the longest river entirely in England, but the River Severn, which is partly in Wales, is the longest river in the United Kingdom. As the River Churn, sourced at Seven Springs, is 14 miles (23 km) longer than the Thames (from its traditional source at Thames Head to the confluence), the overall length of the Thames measured from Seven Springs, 229 miles (369 km), is greater than the Severn 's length 220 miles (350 km). Thus, the "Churn / Thames '' river may be regarded as the longest natural river in the United Kingdom.
The stream from Seven Springs is joined at Coberley by a longer tributary which could further increase the length of the Thames, with its source in the grounds of the National Star College at Ullenwood.
The Thames flows through or alongside Ashton Keynes, Cricklade, Lechlade, Oxford, Abingdon - on - Thames, Wallingford, Goring - on - Thames and Streatley, Pangbourne and Whitchurch - on - Thames, Reading, Wargrave, Henley - on - Thames, Marlow, Maidenhead, Windsor and Eton, Staines - upon - Thames and Egham, Chertsey, Shepperton, Weybridge, Sunbury - on - Thames, Walton - on - Thames, Molesey and Thames Ditton. The river was subject to minor redefining and widening of the main channel around Oxford, Abingdon and Marlow before 1850, since when further cuts to ease navigation have reduced distances further.
Molesey faces Hampton, London, and in Greater London the Thames passes Hampton Court Palace, Surbiton, Kingston upon Thames, Teddington, Twickenham, Richmond (with a famous view of the Thames from Richmond Hill), Syon House, Kew, Brentford, Chiswick, Barnes, Hammersmith, Fulham, Putney, Wandsworth, Battersea and Chelsea. In central London, the river passes Pimlico and Vauxhall, and then forms one of the principal axes of the city, from the Palace of Westminster to the Tower of London. At this point, it historically formed the southern boundary of the medieval city, with Southwark, on the opposite bank, then being part of Surrey.
Beyond central London, the river passes Bermondsey, Wapping, Shadwell, Limehouse, Rotherhithe, Millwall, Deptford, Greenwich, Cubitt Town, Blackwall, New Charlton and Silvertown, before flowing through the Thames Barrier, which protects central London from flooding by storm surges. Below the barrier, the river passes Woolwich, Thamesmead, Dagenham, Erith, Purfleet, Dartford, West Thurrock, Northfleet, Tilbury and Gravesend before entering the Thames Estuary near Southend - on - Sea.
Sediment cores up to 10 m deep collected by the British Geological Survey from the banks of the tidal River Thames contain geochemical information and fossils which provide a 10,000 - year record of sea - level change. Combined this and other studies suggest that the Thames sea - level has risen more than 30 m during the Holocene at a rate of around 5 -- 6 mm per year from 10,000 to 6,000 years ago. The rise of sea level dramatically reduced when the ice melt nearly concluded over the past 4,000 years. Since the beginning of the 20th century rates of sea level rise range from 1.22 mm per year to 2.14 mm per year.
The Thames River Basin District, including the Medway catchment, covers an area of 6,229 square miles (16,130 km). The river basin includes both rural and heavily urbanised areas in the east and northern parts while the western parts of the catchment are predominantly rural. The area is among the driest in the United Kingdom. Water resources consist of groundwater from aquifers and water taken from the Thames and its tributaries, much of it stored in large bank - side reservoirs.
The Thames itself provides two - thirds of London 's drinking water while groundwater supplies about 40 per cent of public water supplies in the total catchment area. Groundwater is an important water source, especially in the drier months, so maintaining its quality and quantity is extremely important. Groundwater is vulnerable to surface pollution, especially in highly urbanised areas.
Brooks, canals and rivers, within an area of 3,842 square miles (9,951 km), combine to form 38 main tributaries feeding the Thames between its source and Teddington Lock. This is the usual tidal limit; however, high spring tides can raise the head water level in the reach above Teddington and can occasionally reverse the river flow for a short time. In these circumstances, tidal effects can be observed upstream to the next lock beside Molesey weir, which is visible from the towpath and bridge beside Hampton Court Palace. Before Teddington Lock was built in 1810 -- 12, the river was tidal at peak spring tides as far as Staines upon Thames.
In descending order, non-related tributaries of the non-tidal Thames, with river status, are the Churn, Leach, Cole, Ray, Coln, Windrush, Evenlode, Cherwell, Ock, Thame, Pang, Kennet, Loddon, Colne, Wey and Mole. In addition, there are occasional backwaters and artificial cuts that form islands, distributaries (most numerous in the case of the Colne), and man - made distributaries such as the Longford River. Three canals intersect this stretch: the Oxford Canal, Kennet and Avon Canal and Wey Navigation.
Its longest artificial secondary channel (cut), the Jubilee River, was built between Maidenhead and Windsor for flood relief and completed in 2002.
The non-tidal section of the river is owned and managed by the Environment Agency, which is responsible for managing the flow of water to help prevent and mitigate flooding, and providing for navigation: the volume and speed of water downstream is managed by adjusting the sluices at each of the weirs and, at peak high water, levels are generally dissipated over preferred flood plains adjacent to the river. Occasionally, flooding of inhabited areas is unavoidable and the agency issues flood warnings. Due to stiff penalties applicable on the non-tidal river, which is a drinking water source before treatment, sanitary sewer overflow from the many sewage treatment plants covering the upper Thames basin is rare in the non-tidal Thames, which ensures clearer water compared to the river 's tideway.
Below Teddington Lock (about 55 miles or 89 kilometres upstream of the Thames Estuary), the river is subject to tidal activity from the North Sea. Before the lock was installed, the river was tidal as far as Staines, about 16 miles (26 km) upstream. London, capital of Roman Britain, was established on two hills, now known as Cornhill and Ludgate Hill. These provided a firm base for a trading centre at the lowest possible point on the Thames.
A river crossing was built at the site of London Bridge. London Bridge is now used as the basis for published tide tables giving the times of high tide. High tide reaches Putney about 30 minutes later than London Bridge, and Teddington about an hour later. The tidal stretch of the river is known as "the Tideway ''. Tide tables are published by the Port of London Authority and are available online. Times of high and low tides are also posted on Twitter.
The principal tributaries of the River Thames on the Tideway include the rivers Brent, Wandle, Effra, Westbourne, Fleet, Ravensbourne (the final part of which is called Deptford Creek), Lea, Roding, Darent and Ingrebourne. At London, the water is slightly brackish with sea salt, being a mix of sea and fresh water.
This part of the river is managed by the Port of London Authority. The flood threat here comes from high tides and strong winds from the North Sea, and the Thames Barrier was built in the 1980s to protect London from this risk.
The River Thames contains over 80 islands ranging from the large estuarial marshlands of the Isle of Sheppey and Canvey Island to small tree - covered islets like Rose Isle in Oxfordshire and Headpile Eyot in Berkshire. They are found all the way from the Isle of Sheppey in Kent to Fiddler 's Island in Oxfordshire. Some of the largest inland islands, for example Formosa Island near Cookham and Andersey Island at Abingdon, were created naturally when the course of the river divided into separate streams.
In the Oxford area the river splits into several streams across the floodplain (Seacourt Stream, Castle Mill Stream, Bulstake Stream and others), creating several islands (Fiddler 's Island, Osney and others). Desborough Island, Ham Island at Old Windsor and Penton Hook Island were artificially created by lock cuts and navigation channels. Chiswick Eyot is a familiar landmark on the Boat Race course, while Glover 's Island forms the centrepiece of the spectacular view from Richmond Hill.
Islands of historical interest include Magna Carta Island at Runnymede, Fry 's Island at Reading, and Pharaoh 's Island near Shepperton. In more recent times Platts Eyot at Hampton was the place where Motor Torpedo Boats (MTB) s were built, Tagg 's Island near Molesey was associated with the impresario Fred Karno and Eel Pie Island at Twickenham was the birthplace of the South East 's R&B music scene.
Westminster Abbey and the Palace of Westminster (commonly known today as the Houses of Parliament) were built on Thorney Island, which used to be an eyot.
The River Thames can first be identified as a discrete drainage line as early as 58 million years ago, in the Thanetian stage of the late Palaeocene epoch. Until around 500,000 years ago, the Thames flowed on its existing course through what is now Oxfordshire, before turning to the north east through Hertfordshire and East Anglia and reaching the North Sea near Ipswich.
At this time the river system headwaters lay in the English West Midlands and may, at times, have received drainage from the Berwyn Mountains in North Wales. Brooks and rivers like the River Brent, Colne Brook and Bollo Brook either flowed into the then River Thames or went out to sea on the course of the present - day River Thames.
About 450,000 years ago, in the most extreme Ice Age of the Pleistocene, the Anglian, the furthest southern extent of the ice sheet was at Hornchurch in east London. It dammed the river in Hertfordshire, resulting in the formation of large ice lakes, which eventually burst their banks and caused the river to be diverted onto its present course through what is now London. Progressively, the channel was pushed south to form the St Albans depression by the repeated advances of the ice sheet.
This created a new river course through Berkshire and on into London, after which the river rejoined its original course in southern Essex, near the present River Blackwater estuary. Here it entered a substantial freshwater lake in the southern North Sea basin. The overspill of this lake caused the formation of the Dover Strait gap between Britain and France. Subsequent development led to the continuation of the course that the river follows at the present day.
Most of the bedrock of the Vale of Aylesbury is made up of clay and chalk that was formed at the end of the ice age and at one time was under the Proto - Thames. Also created at this time were the vast underground reserves of water that make the water table higher than average in the Vale of Aylesbury.
The last advance from that Scandinavian ice flow to have reached this far south covered much of north west Middlesex and finally forced the Proto - Thames to take roughly its present course. At the height of the last ice age, around 20,000 BC, Britain was connected to mainland Europe by a large expanse of land known as Doggerland in the southern North Sea basin. At this time, the Thames ' course did not continue to Doggerland but flowed southwards from the eastern Essex coast where it met the Rhine, the Meuse and the Scheldt flowing from what are now the Netherlands and Belgium. These rivers formed a single river -- the Channel River (Fleuve Manche) -- that passed through the Dover Strait and drained into the Atlantic Ocean in the western English Channel.
The ice sheet, which stopped around present day Finchley, deposited boulder clay to form Dollis Hill and Hanger Hill. Its torrent of meltwater gushed through the Finchley Gap and south towards the new course of the Thames, and proceeded to carve out the Brent Valley in the process. Upon the valley sides there can be seen other terraces of brickearth, laid over and sometimes interlayered with the clays.
These deposits were brought in by the winds during the periglacial periods, suggesting that wide, flat marshes were then part of the landscape, which the new river Brent proceeded to cut down. The steepness of the valley sides is an indicator of the very much lower mean sea levels caused by the glaciation locking up so much water upon the land masses, thus causing the river water to flow rapidly seaward and so erode its bed quickly downwards.
The original land surface was around 350 to 400 feet (110 to 120 metres) above the current sea level. The surface had sandy deposits from an ancient sea, laid over sedimentary clay (this is the blue London Clay). All the erosion down from this higher land surface, and the sorting action by these changes of water flow and direction, formed what is known as the Thames River Gravel Terraces.
Since Roman times and perhaps earlier, the isostatic rebound from the weight of previous ice sheets, and its interplay with the eustatic change in sea level, have resulted in the old valley of the River Brent, together with that of the Thames, silting up again. Thus, along much of the Brent 's present - day course, one can make out the water meadows of rich alluvium, which is augmented by frequent floods.
After the river took its present - day course, many of the banks of the Thames Estuary and the Thames Valley in London were partly covered in marshland, as was the adjoining Lower Lea Valley. Streams and rivers like the River Lea, Tyburn Brook and Bollo Brook drained into the river, while some islands, e.g. Thorney Island, formed over the ages. The northern tip of the ancient parish of Lambeth, for example, was marshland known as Lambeth Marshe, but it was drained in the 18th century; it is remembered in the street name Lower Marsh.
The East End of London, also known simply as the East End, was the area of London east of the medieval walled City of London and north of the River Thames, although it is not defined by universally accepted formal boundaries; the River Lea can be considered another boundary. Most of the local riverside was also marshland. The land was drained and became farmland; it was built on after the Industrial Revolution. Use of the term "East End '' in a pejorative sense began in the late 19th century,
Canvey Island in southern Essex (area 18.45 km, 7.12 sq mi; population 37,479) was once marshy, but is now a fully reclaimed island in the Thames estuary. It is separated from the mainland of south Essex by a network of creeks. Lying below sea level it is prone to flooding at exceptional tides, but has nevertheless been inhabited since Roman times.
Various species of birds feed off the river or nest on it, some being found both at sea and inland. These include cormorant, black - headed gull and herring gull. The mute swan is a familiar sight on the river but the escaped black swan is more rare. The annual ceremony of Swan Upping is an old tradition of counting stocks.
Non-native geese that can be seen include Canada geese, Egyptian geese and bar - headed geese, and ducks include the familiar native mallard, plus introduced Mandarin duck and wood duck. Other water birds to be found on the Thames include the great crested grebe, coot, moorhen, heron and kingfisher. Many types of British birds also live alongside the river, although they are not specific to the river habitat.
The Thames contains both sea water and fresh water, thus providing support for seawater and freshwater fish. However, many populations of fish are at risk and are being killed in tens of thousands because of pollutants leaking into the river from human activities. Salmon, which inhabit both environments, have been reintroduced and a succession of fish ladders have been built into weirs to enable them to travel upstream.
On 5 August 1993, the largest non-tidal salmon in recorded history was caught close to Boulters Lock in Maidenhead. The specimen weighed 14 ⁄ pounds (6.6 kg) and measured 22 inches (56 cm) in length. The eel is particularly associated with the Thames and there were formerly many eel traps. Freshwater fish of the Thames and its tributaries include brown trout, chub, dace, roach, barbel, perch, pike, bleak and flounder. Colonies of short - snouted seahorses have also recently been discovered in the river. The Thames is also host to some invasive crustaceans, including the signal crayfish and the Chinese mitten crab.
Aquatic mammals are also known to inhabit the Thames. The population of grey and harbour seals numbers up to 700 in the Thames Estuary. These animals have been sighted as far upriver as Richmond. Bottlenose dolphins and harbour porpoises are also sighted in the Thames.
On 20 January 2006, a 16 -- 18 ft (4.9 -- 5.5 m) northern bottle - nosed whale was seen in the Thames as far upstream as Chelsea. This was extremely unusual: this whale is generally found in deep sea waters. Crowds gathered along the riverbanks to witness the extraordinary spectacle but there was soon concern, as the animal came within yards of the banks, almost beaching, and crashed into an empty boat causing slight bleeding. About 12 hours later, the whale is believed to have been seen again near Greenwich, possibly heading back to sea. A rescue attempt lasted several hours, but the whale died on a barge. See River Thames whale.
The River Thames has played several roles in human history: as an economic resource, a maritime route, a boundary, a fresh water source, a source of food and more recently a leisure facility. In 1929, John Burns, one - time MP for Battersea, responded to an American 's unfavourable comparison of the Thames with the Mississippi by coining the expression "The Thames is liquid history ''.
There is evidence of human habitation living off the river along its length dating back to Neolithic times. The British Museum has a decorated bowl (3300 -- 2700 BC), found in the river at Hedsor, Buckinghamshire, and a considerable amount of material was discovered during the excavations of Dorney Lake. A number of Bronze Age sites and artefacts have been discovered along the banks of the river including settlements at Lechlade, Cookham and Sunbury - on - Thames.
So extensive have the changes to this landscape been that what little evidence there is of man 's presence before the ice came has inevitably shown signs of transportation here by water and reveals nothing specifically local. Likewise, later evidence of occupation, even since the arrival of the Romans, may lie next to the original banks of the Brent but have been buried under centuries of silt.
Some of the earliest written references to the Thames (Latin: Tamesis) occur in Julius Caesar 's account of his second expedition to Britain in 54 BC, when the Thames presented a major obstacle and he encountered the Iron Age Belgic tribes the Catuvellauni and the Atrebates along the river. The confluence of the Thames and Cherwell was the site of early settlements and the River Cherwell marked the boundary between the Dobunni tribe to the west and the Catuvellauni tribe to the east (these were pre-Roman Celtic tribes). In the late 1980s a large Romano - British settlement was excavated on the edge of the village of Ashton Keynes in Wiltshire.
In AD 43, under the Emperor Claudius, the Romans occupied England and, recognising the river 's strategic and economic importance, built fortifications along the Thames valley including a major camp at Dorchester. Cornhill and Ludgate Hill provided a defensible site near a point on the river both deep enough for the era 's ships and narrow enough to be bridged; Londinium (London) grew up around the Walbrook on the north bank around the year 47. Boudica 's Iceni razed the settlement in AD 60 or 61 but it was soon rebuilt and, following the completion of its bridge, it grew to become the provincial capital of the island.
The next Roman bridges upstream were at Staines) on the Devil 's Highway between Londinium and Calleva (Silchester). Boats could be swept up to it on the rising tide with no need for wind or muscle power.
A Romano - British settlement grew up north of the confluence, partly because the site was naturally protected from attack on the east side by the River Cherwell and on the west by the River Thames. This settlement dominated the pottery trade in what is now central southern England, and pottery was distributed by boats on the Thames and its tributaries.
Competition for the use of the river created the centuries - old conflict between those who wanted to dam the river to build millraces and fish traps and those who wanted to travel and carry goods on it. Economic prosperity and the foundation of wealthy monasteries by the Anglo - Saxons attracted unwelcome visitors and by around AD 870 the Vikings were sweeping up the Thames on the tide and creating havoc as in their destruction of Chertsey Abbey.
Once King William had won total control of the strategically important Thames Valley, he went on to invade the rest of England. He had many castles built, including those at Wallingford, Rochester, Windsor and most importantly the Tower of London. Many details of Thames activity are recorded in the Domesday Book. The following centuries saw the conflict between king and barons coming to a head in AD 1215 when King John was forced to sign the Magna Carta on an island in the Thames at Runnymede. Among a host of other things, this granted the barons the right of Navigation under Clause 23.
Another major consequence of John 's reign was the completion of the multi-piered London Bridge, which acted as a barricade and barrage on the river, affecting the tidal flow upstream and increasing the likelihood of the river freezing over. In Tudor and Stuart times, various kings and queens built magnificent riverside palaces at Hampton Court, Kew, Richmond on Thames, Whitehall and Greenwich.
As early as the 1300s, the Thames was used to dispose of waste matter produced in the city of London, thus turning the river into an open sewer. In 1357, Edward III described the state of the river in a proclamation: "... dung and other filth had accumulated in divers places upon the banks of the river with... fumes and other abominable stenches arising therefrom. ''
The growth of the population of London greatly increased the amount of waste that entered the river, including human excrement, animal waste from slaughter houses, and waste from manufacturing processes. According to historian Peter Ackroyd, "a public lavatory on London Bridge showered its contents directly onto the river below, and latrines were built over all the tributaries that issued into the Thames. ''
During a series of cold winters the Thames froze over above London Bridge: in the first Frost Fair in 1607, a tent city was set up on the river, along with a number of amusements, including ice bowling.
In good conditions, barges travelled daily from Oxford to London carrying timber, wool, foodstuffs and livestock. The stone from the Cotswolds used to rebuild St Paul 's Cathedral after the Great Fire in 1666 was brought all the way down from Radcot. The Thames provided the major route between the City of London and Westminster in the 16th and 17th centuries; the clannish guild of watermen ferried Londoners from landing to landing and tolerated no outside interference. In 1715, Thomas Doggett was so grateful to a local waterman for his efforts in ferrying him home, pulling against the tide, that he set up a rowing race for professional watermen known as "Doggett 's Coat and Badge ''.
By the 18th century, the Thames was one of the world 's busiest waterways, as London became the centre of the vast, mercantile British Empire, and progressively over the next century the docks expanded in the Isle of Dogs and beyond. Efforts were made to resolve the navigation conflicts upstream by building locks along the Thames. After temperatures began to rise again, starting in 1814, the river stopped freezing over. The building of a new London Bridge in 1825, with fewer piers (pillars) than the old, allowed the river to flow more freely and prevented it from freezing over in cold winters.
Throughout early modern history the population of London and its industries discarded their rubbish in the river. This included the waste from slaughterhouses, fish markets, and tanneries. The buildup in household cesspools could sometimes overflow, especially when it rained, and was washed into London 's streets and sewers which eventually led to the Thames. In the late 18th and 19th centuries people known as Mudlarks scavenged in the river mud for a meagre living.
In the 19th century the quality of water in Thames deteriorated further. The dumping of raw sewage into the Thames was formerly only common in the City of London, making its tideway a harbour for many harmful bacteria. Gas manufactories were built alongside the river, and their by - products leaked into the water, including spent lime, ammonia, cyanide, and carbolic acid. The river had an unnaturally warm temperature caused by chemical reactions in the water, which also removed the water 's oxygen. Four serious cholera outbreaks killed tens of thousands of people between 1832 and 1865. Historians have attributed Prince Albert 's death in 1861 to typhoid that had spread in the river 's dirty waters beside Windsor Castle. Wells with water tables that mixed with tributaries (or the non-tidal Thames) faced such pollution with the widespread installation of the flush toilet in the 1850s. In the ' Great Stink ' of 1858, pollution in the river reached such an extreme that sittings of the House of Commons at Westminster had to be abandoned. Chlorine - soaked drapes were hung in the windows of Parliament in an attempt to stave off the smell of the river, but to no avail.
A concerted effort to contain the city 's sewage by constructing massive sewer systems on the north and south river embankments followed, under the supervision of engineer Joseph Bazalgette. Meanwhile, similar huge undertakings took place to ensure the water supply, with the building of reservoirs and pumping stations on the river to the west of London, slowly helping the quality of water to improve.
The Victorian era was one of imaginative engineering. The coming of the railways added railway bridges to the earlier road bridges and also reduced commercial activity on the river. However, sporting and leisure use increased with the establishment of regattas such as Henley and the Boat Race. On 3 September 1878, one of the worst river disasters in England took place, when the crowded pleasure boat Princess Alice collided with the Bywell Castle, killing over 640 people.
The growth of road transport, and the decline of the Empire in the years following 1914, reduced the economic prominence of the river. During the Second World War, the protection of certain Thames - side facilities, particularly docks and water treatment plants, was crucial to the munitions and water supply of the country. The river 's defences included the Maunsell forts in the estuary, and the use of barrage balloons to counter German bombers using the reflectivity and shapes of the river to navigate during the Blitz.
In the post-war era, although the Port of London remains one of the UK 's three main ports, most trade has moved downstream from central London. In the late 1950s, the discharge of methane gas in the depths of the river caused the water to bubble, and the toxins wore away at boats ' propellers.
The decline of heavy industry and tanneries, reduced use of oil - pollutants and improved sewage treatment have led to much better water quality as compared with the late 19th and early - to mid-20th centuries and aquatic life has returned to its formerly ' dead ' stretches.
Alongside the entire river runs the Thames Path, a National Route for walkers and cyclists.
In the early 1980s a pioneering flood control device, the Thames Barrier, was opened. It is closed to tides several times a year to prevent water damage to London 's low - lying areas upstream (the 1928 Thames flood demonstrated the severity of this type of event).
In the late 1990s, the 7 - mile (11 km) long Jubilee River was built as a wide "naturalistic '' flood relief channel from Taplow to Eton to help reduce the flood risk in Maidenhead Windsor and Eton.
One of the major resources provided by the Thames is the water distributed as drinking water by Thames Water, whose area of responsibility covers the length of the River Thames. The Thames Water Ring Main is the main distribution mechanism for water in London, with one major loop linking the Hampton, Walton, Ashford and Kempton Park Water Treatment Works with central London.
In the past, commercial activities on the Thames included fishing (particularly eel trapping), coppicing willows and osiers which provided wood, and the operation of watermills for flour and paper production and metal beating. These activities have disappeared. A screw turbine hydro - electric plant at Romney Lock to power Windsor Castle using two Archimedes ' screws was opened in 2013 by the Queen.
The Thames is popular for a wide variety of riverside housing, including high - rise flats in central London and chalets on the banks and islands upstream. Some people live in houseboats, typically around Brentford and Tagg 's Island.
In London there are many sightseeing tours in tourist boats, past the more famous riverside attractions such as the Houses of Parliament and the Tower of London as well as regular riverboat services co-ordinated by London River Services. London city Airport is situated on the Thames, in East London. Previously it was a dock.
In summer, passenger services operate along the entire non-tidal river from Oxford to Teddington. The two largest operators are Salters Steamers and French Brothers. Salters operate services between Folly Bridge, Oxford and Staines. The whole journey takes 4 days and requires several changes of boat. French Brothers operate passenger services between Maidenhead and Hampton Court. Along the course of the river a number of smaller private companies also offer river trips at Oxford, Wallingford, Reading and Hampton Court. Many companies also provide boat hire on the river.
The leisure navigation and sporting activities on the river have given rise to a number of businesses including boatbuilding, marinas, ships chandlers and salvage services.
The Air Line aerial cable system over the Thames from the Greenwich Peninsula to the Royal Docks has been in operation since the 2012 Summer Olympics.
The river is policed by five police forces. The Thames Division is the River Police arm of London 's Metropolitan Police, while Surrey Police, Thames Valley Police, Essex Police and Kent Police have responsibilities on their parts of the river outside the metropolitan area. There is also a London Fire Brigade fire boat on the river. The river claims a number of lives each year.
As a result of the Marchioness disaster in 1989 when 51 people died, the Government asked the Maritime and Coastguard Agency, the Port of London Authority and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI) to work together to set up a dedicated Search and Rescue service for the tidal River Thames. As a result, there are four lifeboat stations on the River Thames at Teddington (Teddington lifeboat station), Chiswick (Chiswick lifeboat station), Victoria Embankment / Waterloo Bridge (Tower Lifeboat Station) and Gravesend (Gravesend lifeboat station).
The Thames is maintained for navigation by powered craft from the estuary as far as Lechlade in Gloucestershire and for very small craft to Cricklade. From Teddington Lock to the head of navigation, the navigation authority is the Environment Agency. Between the sea and Teddington Lock, the river forms part of the Port of London and navigation is administered by the Port of London Authority. Both the tidal river through London and the non-tidal river upstream are intensively used for leisure navigation.
The non-tidal River Thames is divided into reaches by the 45 locks. The locks are staffed for the greater part of the day, but can be operated by experienced users out of hours. This part of the Thames links to existing navigations at the River Wey Navigation, the River Kennet and the Oxford Canal. All craft using it must be licensed. The Environment Agency has patrol boats (named after tributaries of the Thames) and can enforce the limit strictly since river traffic usually has to pass through a lock at some stage. A speed limit of 8 km / h (4.3 kn) applies. There are pairs of transit markers at various points along the non-tidal river that can be used to check speed -- a boat travelling legally taking a minute or more to pass between the two markers.
The tidal river is navigable to large ocean - going ships as far upstream as the Pool of London and London Bridge. Although London 's upstream enclosed docks have closed and central London sees only the occasional visiting cruise ship or warship, the tidal river remains one of Britain 's main ports. Around 60 active terminals cater for shipping of all types including ro - ro ferries, cruise liners and vessels carrying containers, vehicles, timber, grain, paper, crude oil, petroleum products, liquified petroleum gas etc. There is a regular traffic of aggregate or refuse vessels, operating from wharves in the west of London. The tidal Thames links to the canal network at the River Lea Navigation, the Regent 's Canal at Limehouse Basin and the Grand Union Canal at Brentford.
Upstream of Wandsworth Bridge a speed limit of 8 knots (15 km / h) is in force for powered craft to protect the riverbank environment and to provide safe conditions for rowers and other river users. There is no absolute speed limit on most of the Tideway downstream of Wandsworth Bridge, although boats are not allowed to create undue wash. Powered boats are limited to 12 knots between Lambeth Bridge and downstream of Tower Bridge, with some exceptions. Boats can be approved by the harbour master to travel at speeds of up to 30 knots from below Tower Bridge to past the Thames Barrier.
In the Middle Ages the Crown exercised general jurisdiction over the Thames, one of the four royal rivers, and appointed water bailiffs to oversee the river upstream of Staines. The City of London exercised jurisdiction over the tidal Thames. However, navigation was increasingly impeded by weirs and mills, and in the 14th century the river probably ceased to be navigable for heavy traffic between Henley and Oxford. In the late 16th century the river seems to have been reopened for navigation from Henley to Burcot.
The first commission concerned with the management of the river was the Oxford - Burcot Commission, formed in 1605 to make the river navigable between Burcot and Oxford.
In 1751 the Thames Navigation Commission was formed to manage the whole non-tidal river above Staines. The City of London long claimed responsibility for the tidal river. A long running dispute between the City and the Crown over ownership of the river was not settled until 1857, when the Thames Conservancy was formed to manage the river from Staines downstream. In 1866 the functions of the Thames Navigation Commission were transferred to the Thames Conservancy, which thus had responsibility for the whole river.
In 1909 the powers of the Thames Conservancy over the tidal river, below Teddington, were transferred to the Port of London Authority.
In 1974 the Thames Conservancy became part of the new Thames Water Authority. When Thames Water was privatised in 1990, its river management functions were transferred to the National Rivers Authority, in 1996 subsumed into the Environment Agency.
In 2010, the Thames won the world 's largest environmental award at the time, the $350,000 International Riverprize, presented at the International Riversymposium in Perth, WA in recognition of the substantial and sustained restoration of the river by many hundreds of organisations and individuals since the 1950s.
Until enough crossings were established, the river presented a formidable barrier, with Belgic tribes and Anglo - Saxon kingdoms being defined by which side of the river they were on. When English counties were established their boundaries were partly determined by the Thames. On the northern bank were the ancient counties of Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Middlesex and Essex. On the southern bank were the counties of Wiltshire, Berkshire, Surrey and Kent.
The 214 bridges and 17 tunnels that have been built to date have changed the dynamics and made cross-river development and shared responsibilities more practicable. In 1965, upon the creation of Greater London, the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames incorporated the former ' Middlesex and Surrey ' banks, Spelthorne moved from Middlesex to Surrey; and further changes in 1974 moved some of the boundaries away from the river. For example, some areas were transferred from Berkshire to Oxfordshire, and from Buckinghamshire to Berkshire. On occasion -- for example in rowing -- the banks are still referred to by their traditional county names.
Many of the present - day road bridges are on the site of earlier fords, ferries and wooden bridges. At Swinford Bridge, a toll bridge, there was first a ford and then a ferry prior to the bridge being built. The earliest known major crossings of the Thames by the Romans were at London Bridge and Staines Bridge. At Folly Bridge in Oxford the remains of an original Saxon structure can be seen, and medieval stone bridges such as Newbridge and Abingdon Bridge are still in use.
Kingston 's growth is believed to stem from its having the only crossing between London Bridge and Staines until the beginning of the 18th century. During the 18th century, many stone and brick road bridges were built from new or to replace existing bridges both in London and along the length of the river. These included Putney Bridge, Westminster Bridge, Datchet Bridge, Windsor Bridge and Sonning Bridge.
Several central London road bridges were built in the 19th century, most conspicuously Tower Bridge, the only Bascule bridge on the river, designed to allow ocean - going ships to pass beneath it. The most recent road bridges are the bypasses at Isis Bridge and Marlow By - pass Bridge and the motorway bridges, most notably the two on the M25 route Queen Elizabeth II Bridge and M25 Runnymede Bridge.
Railway development in the 19th century resulted in a spate of bridge building including Blackfriars Railway Bridge and Charing Cross (Hungerford) Railway Bridge in central London, and the spectacular railway bridges by Isambard Kingdom Brunel at Maidenhead Railway Bridge, Gatehampton Railway Bridge and Moulsford Railway Bridge.
The world 's first underwater tunnel was Marc Brunel 's Thames Tunnel built in 1843 and now used to carry the East London Line. The Tower Subway was the first railway under the Thames, which was followed by all the deep - level tube lines. Road tunnels were built in East London at the end of the 19th century, being the Blackwall Tunnel and the Rotherhithe Tunnel. The latest tunnels are the Dartford Crossings.
Many foot crossings were established across the weirs that were built on the non-tidal river, and some of these remained when the locks were built -- for example at Benson Lock. Others were replaced by a footbridge when the weir was removed as at Hart 's Weir Footbridge. Around 2000, several footbridges were added along the Thames, either as part of the Thames Path or in commemoration of the millennium. These include Temple Footbridge, Bloomers Hole Footbridge, the Hungerford Footbridges and the Millennium Bridge, all of which have distinctive design characteristics.
Before bridges were built, the main means of crossing the river was by ferry. A significant number of ferries were provided specifically for navigation purposes. When the towpath changed sides, it was necessary to take the towing horse and its driver across the river. This was no longer necessary when barges were powered by steam. Some ferries still operate on the river. The Woolwich Ferry carries cars and passengers across the river in the Thames Gateway and links the North Circular and South Circular roads. Upstream are smaller pedestrian ferries, for example Hampton Ferry and Shepperton to Weybridge Ferry the last being the only non-permanent crossing that remains on the Thames Path.
Treated sewage from all the towns and villages in the Thames catchment flow into the Thames via sewage treatment plants. This includes all the sewage from Swindon, Oxford, Reading and Windsor.
However, untreated sewage still regularly enters the Thames during wet weather. In the summer of 2004, storms led to the discharge of a million tonnes of raw sewage into the river, leading to the death of over ten thousand fish.
Mercury (Hg) is an environmentally persistent heavy metal which at high concentrations can be toxic to marine life and humans. Sixty sediment cores of 1 m in depth, spanning the entire tidal River Thames, between Brentford and the Isle of Grain have been analysed for total Hg. The sediment records show a clear rise and fall of Hg pollution through history. Mercury concentrations in the River Thames decrease downstream from London to the outer Estuary with the total Hg levels ranging from 0.01 to 12.07 mg / kg, giving a mean of 2.10 mg / kg which is higher than many other UK and European river estuaries. The highest amount of sedimentary - hosted Hg pollution in the Thames estuary occurs in the central London area between Vauxhall Bridge and Woolwich. The majority of sediment cores show a clear decrease in Hg concentrations close to the surface which is attributed to an overall reduction in polluting activities as well as improved effectiveness of recent environmental legalisation and river management (e.g. Oslo - Paris convention).
Evaluation of select of lipid compounds in the Thames estuary, known as glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (GDGTs) has revealed enhanced concentrations of isoprenoid GDGT compounds (crenarchaeol) around East London. This suggests that London 's pollution affects the spatial distribution of natural carbon in the river sediments. Other organic geochemical measurements of carbon flow such as stable carbon isotopes (δ13C) were found to be insensitive to this urban disturbance.
There are several watersports prevalent on the Thames, with many clubs encouraging participation and organising racing and inter-club competitions.
The Thames is the historic heartland of rowing in the United Kingdom. There are over 200 clubs on the river, and over 8,000 members of British Rowing (over 40 % of its membership). Most towns and districts of any size on the river have at least one club. Internationally attended centres are Oxford, Henley - on - Thames and events and clubs on the stretch of river from Chiswick to Putney.
Two rowing events on the River Thames are traditionally part of the wider English sporting calendar:
The University Boat Race (between Oxford and Cambridge) takes place in late March or early April, on the Championship Course from Putney to Mortlake in the west of London.
Henley Royal Regatta takes place over five days at the start of July in the upstream town of Henley - on - Thames. Besides its sporting significance the regatta is an important date on the English social calendar alongside events like Royal Ascot and Wimbledon.
Other significant or historic rowing events on the Thames include:
Other regattas, head races and university bumping races are held along the Thames which are described under Rowing on the River Thames.
Sailing is practised on both the tidal and non-tidal reaches of the river. The highest club upstream is at Oxford. The most popular sailing craft used on the Thames are lasers, GP14s and Wayfarers. One sailing boat unique to the Thames is the Thames Rater, which is sailed around Raven 's Ait.
Skiffing has dwindled in favour of private motor boat ownership but is competed on the river in the summer months. Six clubs and a similar number of skiff regattas exist from the Skiff Club, Teddington upstream.
Unlike the "pleasure punting '' common on the Cherwell in Oxford and the Cam in Cambridge, punting on the Thames is competitive as well as recreational and uses narrower craft, typically based at the few skiff clubs.
Kayaking and canoeing are common, with sea kayakers using the tidal stretch for touring. Sheltered water kayakers and canoeists use the non-tidal section for training, racing and trips. Whitewater playboaters and slalom paddlers are catered for at weirs like those at Hurley Lock, Sunbury Lock and Boulter 's Lock. At Teddington just before the tidal section of the river starts is Royal Canoe Club, said to be the oldest in the world and founded in 1866. Since 1950, almost every year at Easter, long distance canoeists have been competing in what is now known as the Devizes to Westminster International Canoe Race, which follows the course of the Kennet and Avon Canal, joins the River Thames at Reading and runs right up to a grand finish at Westminster Bridge.
In 2006 British swimmer and environmental campaigner Lewis Pugh became the first person to swim the full length of the Thames from outside Kemble to Southend - on - Sea to draw attention to the severe drought in England which saw record temperatures indicative of a degree of global warming. The 202 miles (325 km) swim took him 21 days to complete. The official headwater of the river had stopped flowing due to the drought forcing Pugh to run the first 26 miles (42 km).
Since June 2012 the Port of London Authority has made and enforces a by - law that bans swimming between Putney Bridge and Crossness, Thamesmead (thus including all of central London) without obtaining prior permission, on the grounds that swimmers in that area of the river endanger not only themselves, due to the strong current of the river, but also other river users.
Organised swimming events take place at various points generally upstream of Hampton Court, including Windsor, Marlow and Henley. In 2011 comedian David Walliams swam the 140 miles (230 km) from Lechlade to Westminster Bridge and raised over £ 1 million for charity.
In non-tidal stretches swimming was, and still is, a leisure and fitness activity among experienced swimmers where safe, deeper outer channels are used in times of low stream.
A Thames meander is a long - distance journey over all or part of the Thames by running, swimming or using any of the above means. It is often carried out as an athletic challenge in a competition or for a record attempt.
Houses of Parliament Sunlight Effect (Le Parlement effet de soleil) -- Claude Monet
The first Westminster Bridge as painted by Canaletto in 1746.
Maidenhead Railway Bridge as Turner saw it in 1844
Monet 's Trouée de soleil dans le brouillard, Houses of Parliament, London, Sun Breaking Through the Fog, 1904
Whistler 's Nocturne in Blue and Gold: Old Battersea Bridge (c. 1872 -- 1875)
Foggy Morning on the Thames -- James Hamilton (between 1872 and 1878)
Boating on the Thames - John Lavery, circa 1890
The River Thames has been a subject for artists, great and minor, over the centuries. Four major artists with works based on the Thames are Canaletto, J.M.W. Turner, Claude Monet and James Abbott McNeill Whistler. The 20th century British artist Stanley Spencer produced many works at Cookham.
The river is lined with various pieces of sculpture, but John Kaufman 's sculpture The Diver: Regeneration is sited in the Thames near Rainham.
The river and bridges are destroyed - together with much of the city - in the movie Independence Day 2.
The Thames is mentioned in many works of literature including novels, diaries and poetry. It is the central theme in three in particular:
Three Men in a Boat by Jerome K. Jerome, first published in 1889, is a humorous account of a boating holiday on the Thames between Kingston and Oxford. The book was intended initially to be a serious travel guide, with accounts of local history of places along the route, but the humorous elements eventually took over. The landscape and features of the Thames as described by Jerome are virtually unchanged, and the book 's enduring popularity has meant that it has never been out of print since it was first published.
Charles Dickens Our Mutual Friend (written in the years 1864 -- 65) describes the river in a grimmer light. It begins with a scavenger and his daughter pulling a dead man from the river near London Bridge, to salvage what the body might have in its pockets, and heads to its conclusion with the deaths of the villains drowned in Plashwater Lock upstream. The workings of the river and the influence of the tides are described with great accuracy. Dickens opens the novel with this sketch of the river, and the people who work on it:
In these times of ours, though concerning the exact year there is no need to be precise, a boat of dirty and disreputable appearance, with two figures in it, floated on the Thames, between Southwark Bridge which is of iron, and London Bridge which is of stone, as an autumn evening was closing in. The figures in this boat were those of a strong man with ragged grizzled hair and a sun - browned face, and a girl of nineteen or twenty. The girl rowed, pulling a pair of sculls very easily; the man with the rudder - lines slack in his hands, and his hands loose in his waisteband, kept an eager look - out.
Kenneth Grahame 's The Wind in the Willows, written in 1908, is set in the middle to upper reaches of the river. It starts as a tale of anthropomorphic characters "simply messing about in boats '' but develops into a more complex story combining elements of mysticism with adventure and reflection on Edwardian society. It is generally considered one of the most beloved works of children 's literature and the illustrations by E.H. Shepard and Arthur Rackham feature the Thames and its surroundings.
The river almost inevitably features in many books set in London. Most of Dickens ' other novels include some aspect of the Thames. Oliver Twist finishes in the slums and rookeries along its south bank. The Sherlock Holmes stories by Arthur Conan Doyle often visit riverside parts as in The Sign of Four. In Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad, the serenity of the contemporary Thames is contrasted with the savagery of the Congo River, and with the wilderness of the Thames as it would have appeared to a Roman soldier posted to Britannia two thousand years before. Conrad also gives a description of the approach to London from the Thames Estuary in his essays The Mirror of the Sea (1906). Upriver, Henry James ' Portrait of a Lady uses a large riverside mansion on the Thames as one of its key settings.
Literary non-fiction works include Samuel Pepys ' diary, in which he recorded many events relating to the Thames including the Fire of London. He was disturbed while writing it in June 1667 by the sound of gunfire as Dutch warships broke through the Royal Navy on the Thames.
In poetry, William Wordsworth 's sonnet On Westminster Bridge closes with the lines:
T.S. Eliot makes several references to the Thames in The Fire Sermon, Section III of The Waste Land.
and
The Sweet Thames line is taken from Edmund Spenser 's Prothalamion which presents a more idyllic image:
Also writing of the upper reaches is Matthew Arnold in The Scholar Gypsy:
Wendy Cope 's poem ' After the Lunch ' is set on Waterloo Bridge, beginning:
Dylan Thomas mentions the Thames in his poem "A Refusal to Mourn the Death, by Fire, of a Child in London ''. "London 's Daughter '', the subject of the poem, lays "Deep with the first dead... secret by the unmourning water of the riding Thames ''.
Science - fiction novels make liberal use of a futuristic Thames. The utopian News from Nowhere by William Morris is mainly the account of a journey through the Thames valley in a socialist future. The Thames also features prominently in Philip Pullman 's His Dark Materials trilogy, as a communications artery for the waterborne Gyptian people of Oxford and the Fens.
In The Deptford Mice trilogy by Robin Jarvis, the Thames appears several times. In one book, rat characters swim through it to Deptford. Winner of the Nestlé Children 's Book Prize Gold Award I, Coriander, by Sally Gardner is a fantasy novel in which the heroine lives on the banks of the Thames.
Mark Wallington describes a journey up the Thames in a camping skiff, in his 1989 book Boogie up the River (ISBN 978 - 0 - 09 - 965910 - 5).
The Water Music composed by George Frideric Handel premiered on 17 July 1717, when King George I requested a concert on the River Thames. The concert was performed for King George I on his barge and he is said to have enjoyed it so much that he ordered the 50 exhausted musicians to play the suites three times on the trip.
The song ' Old Father Thames ' was recorded by Peter Dawson at Abbey Road Studios in 1933 and by Gracie Fields five years later.
Jessie Matthews sings "My river '' in the 1938 film Sailing Along, and the tune is the centrepiece of a major dance number near the end of the film.
The Sex Pistols played a concert on the Queen Elizabeth Riverboat on 7 June 1977, the Queen 's Silver Jubilee year, while sailing down the river.
The choral line "(I) (liaised) live by the river '' in the song "London Calling '' by the Clash refers to the River Thames.
Two songs by the Kinks feature the Thames as the setting of the first song 's title and, for the second song, arguably in its mention of ' the river ': "Waterloo Sunset '' is about a couple 's meetings on Waterloo Bridge, London and starts: "Dirty old river, must you keep rolling, flowing into the night? '' and continues "Terry meets Julie, Waterloo station '' and "... but Terry and Julie cross over the river where they feel safe and sound... ''. "See My Friends '' continually refers to the singer 's friends "playing ' cross the river '' instead of the girl who "just left ''. Furthermore, Ray Davies as a solo artist refers to the river Thames in his "London Song ''.
Ewan MacColl 's "Sweet Thames, Flow Softly '', written in the early 1960s, is a tragic love ballad set on trip up the river (see Edmund Spencer 's love poem 's refrain above)
English musician Imogen Heap wrote a song from the point of view of the River Thames entitled "You Know Where To Find Me ''. The song was released in 2012 on 18 October as the sixth single from her fourth album Sparks.
The 1928 Thames flood was a disastrous flood of the River Thames that affected much of riverside London on 7 January 1928, as well as places further downriver. Fourteen people were drowned in London and thousands were made homeless when flood waters poured over the top of the Thames Embankment and part of the Chelsea Embankment collapsed. It was the last major flood to affect central London, and, particularly following the disastrous North Sea flood of 1953, helped lead to the implementation of new flood - control measures that culminated in the construction of the Thames Barrier in the 1970s.
The 1947 Thames flood was worst overall 20th century flood of the River Thames, affecting much of the Thames Valley as well as elsewhere in England during the middle of March 1947 after a very severe winter.
The floods were caused by 4.6 inches (120 mm) of rainfall (including snow); the peak flow was 61.7 billion litres (13.6 billion imperial gallons) of water per day and the damage cost a total of £ 12 million to repair. War damage to some of the locks made matters worse.
Other significant Thames floods since 1947 have occurred in 1968, 1993, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006 and 2014.
On the night of 31 January, the North Sea flood of 1953 devastated the island taking the lives of 58 islanders, and led to the temporary evacuation of the 13,000 residents. Canvey is consequently protected by modern sea defences comprising 15 miles (24 km) of concrete seawall. Many of the victims were in the holiday bungalows of the eastern Newlands estate and perished as the water reached ceiling level. The small village area of the island is approximately two feet (0.6 m) above sea level and consequently escaped the effects of the flood.
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where is the story of king david found in the bible | David - wikipedia
David (/ ˈdeɪvɪd /; Hebrew: דָּוִד , Modern David, Tiberian Dāwîḏ (Dawith) (help info); Dawid; Ancient Greek: Δαυίδ Davíd; Latin: Davidus, David; Gəˁəz: Dawit; possibly meaning "beloved one '') was the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah, according to the Hebrew Bible.
In the biblical narrative, David is a young shepherd who first gains fame as a musician and later by killing Goliath. He becomes a favorite of King Saul and a close friend of Saul 's son Jonathan. Worried that David is trying to take his throne, Saul turns on David. After Saul and Jonathan are killed in battle, David is anointed as King. David conquers Jerusalem, taking the Ark of the Covenant into the city, and establishing the kingdom founded by Saul. As king, David arranges the death of Uriah the Hittite to cover his adultery with Bathsheba. The text does not state whether she consented to sex. According to the same biblical text, God denies David the opportunity to build the temple and his son, Absalom, tries to overthrow him. David flees Jerusalem during Absalom 's rebellion, but after Absalom 's death he returns to the city to rule Israel. Before his peaceful death, he chooses his son Solomon as his successor. He is mentioned in the prophetic literature as an ideal king and an ancestor of a future Messiah, and many psalms are ascribed to him.
Historians of the Ancient Near East agree that David probably existed around 1000 BCE, but that there is little that can be said about him as a historical figure. There is no direct evidence outside of the Bible concerning David, but the Tel Dan Stele, an inscribed stone erected by a king of Damascus in the late 9th / early 8th centuries BCE to commemorate his victory over two enemy kings, contains the phrase ביתדוד , bytdwd, which most scholars translate as "House of David ''. Ancient Near East historians generally doubt that the united monarchy as described in the Bible existed.
David is richly represented in post-biblical Jewish written and oral tradition, and is discussed in the New Testament. Early Christians interpreted the life of Jesus in light of the references to the Messiah and to David; Jesus is described as being descended from David. David is discussed in the Quran and figures in Islamic oral and written tradition as well. The biblical character of David has inspired many interpretations in fictional literature over centuries.
The first book of Samuel portrays David as the youngest of the eight sons of Jesse of Bethlehem. His mother is not named in any book of the Bible, but the Talmud identifies her as Nitzevet daughter of Adael. When the story was retold in 1 Chronicles (4th century BCE) he was made the youngest of seven sons and given two sisters, Zeruiah and Abigail. The Book of Ruth (possibly also 4th century BCE) traces his ancestry back to Ruth the Moabite.
David is described as cementing his relations with various political and national groups through marriage. He is described as having eight wives: Michal, the second daughter of King Saul; Ahinoam the Jezreelite; Abigail the Carmelite, previously wife of Nabal; Maachah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur; Haggith; Abital; Eglah; and Bathsheba.
The Book of Chronicles lists his sons with his various wives and concubines. In Hebron, David had six sons: Amnon, by Ahinoam; Daniel, by Abigail; Absalom, by Maachah; Adonijah, by Haggith; Shephatiah, by Abital; and Ithream, by Eglah. By Bathsheba, his sons were Shammua, Shobab, Nathan and Solomon. David 's sons born in Jerusalem of his other wives included Ibhar, Elishua, Eliphelet, Nogah, Nepheg, Japhia, Elishama and Eliada. Jerimoth, who is not mentioned in any of the genealogies, is mentioned as another of his sons in 2 Chronicles 11: 18. His daughter Tamar, by Maachah, is a key character in the incident of her rape by one of her half - brothers.
God is angered when Saul, Israel 's king, unlawfully offers a sacrifice and later disobeys a divine instruction to not only kill all of the Amalekites, but to destroy also their confiscated property. Consequently, he sends the prophet Samuel to anoint a shepherd, David, the youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem, to be king instead.
God sends an evil spirit to torment Saul. Saul 's courtiers recommend that he send for David, a man skillful on the lyre, wise in speech, and brave in battle. So David enters Saul 's service as one of the royal armour - bearers, and plays the lyre to soothe the king.
War comes between Israel and the Philistines, and the giant Goliath challenges the Israelites to send out a champion to face him in single combat. David, sent by his father to bring provisions to his brothers serving in Saul 's army, declares that he can defeat Goliath. Refusing the king 's offer of the royal armour, he kills Goliath with his sling. Saul inquires the name of the young hero 's father.
Saul sets David over his army. All Israel loves David, but his popularity causes Saul to fear him ("What else can he wish but the kingdom? ''). Saul plots his death, but Saul 's son Jonathan, one of those who loves David, warns him of his father 's schemes and David flees. He goes first to Nob, where he is fed by the priest Ahimelech and given Goliath 's sword, and then to Gath, the Philistine city of Goliath, intending to seek refuge with King Achish there. Achish 's servants or officials question his loyalty, and David sees that he is in danger there. He goes next to the cave of Adullam, where his family join him. From there he goes to seek refuge with the king of Moab, but the prophet Gad advises him to leave and he goes to the Forest of Hereth, and then to Keilah, where is involved in a further battle with the Philistines. Saul plans to besiege Keilah so that he can capture David, so David leaves the city in order to protect its inhabitants. From there he takes refuge in the mountainous Wilderness of Ziph.
Jonathan meets with David again and confirms his loyalty to David as the future king. The people of Ziph notify Saul that David is taking refuge in their territory, Saul seeks confirmation and plans to capture David in the Wilderness of Maon, but his attention is diverted by a renewed Philistine invasion and David is able to secure some respite at Ein Gedi. Returning from battle with the Philistines, Saul heads to Ein Gedi in pursuit of David and enters the cave where, as it happens, David and his supporters are hiding, "to attend to his needs ''. David realises he has an opportunity to kill Saul, but this is not his intention: he secretly cuts off a corner of Saul 's robe and when Saul has left the cave he comes out to pay homage to Saul as the king and to demonstrate, using the piece of robe, that he holds no malice towards Saul. The two are thus reconciled and Saul recognises David as his successor. Anglican theologian Donald Spence Jones holds that, "one of the most beautiful characteristics of David 's many - sided nature was this enduring loyalty to Saul and to Saul 's house ''.
Alternatively, or (in the opinion of some commentators) subsequently, Saul and David were reconciled following a similar occurrence when David was able to infiltrate Saul 's camp on the hill of Hachilah and remove his spear and a jug of water from his side while he and his guards lay asleep. In this account (1 Samuel 26), David is advised by Abishai that this is his opportunity to kill Saul, but David declines, saying he will not "stretch out (his) hand against the Lord 's anointed ''. David shows, by removing Saul 's spear, that he had chance to take Saul 's life but did not do so. Saul confesses that he has been wrong to pursue David, blesses him and promises that he "will do great things and surely triumph ''. David prays that his own protection will be like his protection of Saul. The New King James Version and the New International Version both identify this episode as a second reconciliation between Saul and David (with no account of any intervening dispute) but theologian Albert Barnes says the incident "is of a nature unlikely to have occurred more than once ''. This, it seems, was their last interview; after this they saw each other no more.
A different tradition is recalled in 1 Samuel 27: 1 -- 4, namely that Saul ceased to pursue David because David took refuge a second time with Achish, the Philistine king of Gath. Robert Jamieson, in the Jamieson - Fausset - Brown Bible Commentary, suggests that Saul and David had "become irreconcilable '' despite the reconciliations described in 1 Samuel 24 and 1 Samuel 26. Achish permits David to reside in Ziklag, close to the border between Gath and Judea, from where he leads raids against the Geshurites, the Girzites and the Amalekites, but leads Achish to believe he is attacking the Israelites in Judah, the Jerahmeelites and the Kenites. Achish believes that David had become a loyal vassal, but he never wins the trust of the princes or lords of Gath and at their request Achish instructs David to remain behind to guard the camp when the Philistines march against Saul. David returns to Ziklag. Jonathan and Saul are killed in battle, and David is anointed king over Judah. In the north, Saul 's son Ish - Bosheth is anointed king of Israel, and war ensues until Ish - Bosheth is murdered.
With the death of Saul 's son, the elders of Israel come to Hebron and David is anointed king over all of Israel. He conquers Jerusalem, previously a Jebusite stronghold, and makes it his capital. He brings the Ark of the Covenant to the city, intending to build a temple for God, but the prophet Nathan forbids it, prophesying that the temple would be built by one of his sons. Nathan also prophesies that God has made a covenant with the house of David stating, "your throne shall be established forever ''. David wins more victories over the Philistines, while the Moabites, Edomites, Amalekites, Ammonites and king Hadadezer of Aram - Zobah pay tribute after being defeated.
During a siege against the Ammonite capital of Rabbah, David remains in Jerusalem. He spies a woman, Bathsheba, bathing on a nearby rooftop and summons her; she becomes pregnant. The text in the Bible does not explicitly state whether Bathsheba consented or not for sex. Larry Richards and Lawrence O. Richards state that the biblical text supports the innocence of Bathsheba, that David took the initiative to find out her identity and summon her, and that she was alone at the time and had no way to refuse the requests of a king. David J. Zucker writes that "She is a victim of ' power rape ' ''. Andrew J. Schmutzer stated that "David 's "taking '' Bathsheba makes him responsible for her coming to him. '' Antony F. Campbell states "The ' violation of Bathsheba ' may be the least unsatisfactory terminology, especially given the ambivalence of the text 's storytelling. '' David calls her husband, Uriah the Hittite, back from the battle to rest, hoping that he will go home to his wife and the child will be presumed to be his. Uriah does not visit his wife, however, so David conspires to have him killed in the heat of battle. David then marries the widowed Bathsheba. In response, Nathan prophesies the punishment that will fall upon him, stating "the sword shall never depart from your house. '' When David acknowledges that he has sinned, Nathan advises him that his sin is forgiven and he will not die, but the child will.
In fulfillment of Nathan 's words, David 's son Absalom rebels. Absalom 's forces are routed at the battle of the Wood of Ephraim, and he is caught by his long hair in the branches of a tree where, contrary to David 's order, he is killed by Joab, the commander of David 's army. David laments the death of his favourite son: "O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son! '' until Joab persuades him to recover from "the extravagance of his grief '' and to fulfil his duty to his people. David returns to Gilgal and is escorted across the River Jordan and back to Jerusalem by the tribes of Judah and Benjamin.
When David is old and bedridden, Adonijah, his eldest surviving son and natural heir, declares himself king. Bathsheba and Nathan go to David and obtain his agreement to crown Bathsheba 's son Solomon as king, according to David 's earlier promise, and the revolt of Adonijah is put down. David dies at the age of 70 after reigning for 40 years, and on his deathbed counsels Solomon to walk in the ways of God and to take revenge on his enemies.
The Tel Dan Stele, an inscribed stone erected by a king of Damascus in the late 9th / early 8th centuries BCE to commemorate his victory over two enemy kings, contains the phrase ביתדוד , bytdwd, which most scholars translate as "House of David ''. Other scholars, such as Anson Rainey have challenged this reading, but it is likely that this is a reference to a dynasty of the Kingdom of Judah which traced its ancestry to a founder named David. The Mesha Stele from Moab, dating from approximately the same period, may also contain the name David in two places, although this is less certain than the mention in the Tel Dan inscription.
Apart from these, all that is known of David comes from the biblical literature. The Books of Samuel were substantially composed during the time of King Josiah at the end of the 7th century BCE, extended during the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE), and substantially complete by about 550 BCE, although further editing was done even after then -- the silver quarter - shekel which Saul 's servant offers to Samuel in 1 Samuel 9 "almost certainly fixes the date of the story in the Persian or Hellenistic period ''. The authors and editors of Samuel drew on many earlier sources, including, for their history of David, the "history of David 's rise '' (1 Samuel 16: 14 -- 2 Samuel 5: 10), and the "succession narrative '' (2 Samuel 9 -- 20 and 1 Kings 1 -- 2). The Book of Chronicles, which tells the story from a different point of view, was probably composed in the period 350 -- 300 BCE, and uses Samuel as its source.
The authors and editors of Samuel and Chronicles did not aim to record history, but to promote David 's reign as inevitable and desirable, and for this reason there is little about David that is concrete and undisputed. The archaeological evidence indicates that in the 10th century BCE, the time of David, Judah was sparsely inhabited and Jerusalem was no more than a small village; over the following century it slowly evolved from a highland chiefdom to a kingdom, but always overshadowed by the older and more powerful kingdom of Israel to the north. The biblical evidence likewise indicates that David 's Judah was something less than a full - fledged monarchy: it often calls him negid, for example, meaning "prince '' or "chief '', rather than melek, meaning "king ''; the biblical David sets up none of the complex bureaucracy that a kingdom needs (even his army is made up of volunteers), and his followers are largely related to him and from his small home - area around Hebron.
Beyond this, the full range of possible interpretations is available. The late John Bright, in his History of Israel (1981), takes Samuel at face value. Donald B. Redford, however, sees all reconstructions from biblical sources for the United Monarchy period as examples of "academic wishful thinking ''. Thomas L. Thompson rejects the historicity of the biblical narrative: "The history of Palestine and of its peoples is very different from the Bible 's narratives, whatever political claims to the contrary may be. An independent history of Judea during the Iron I and Iron II periods has little room for historicizing readings of the stories of I - II Samuel and I Kings. '' Amihai Mazar however, concludes that based on recent archeological findings, like those in City of David, Khirbet Qeiyafa, Tel Dan, Tel Rehov, Khirbet en - Nahas and others "the deconstruction of United Monarchy and the devaluation of Judah as a state in 9th century is unacceptable interpretation of available historic data ''. According to Mazar, based on archeological evidences, the United Monarchy can be described as a "state in development ''.
Some studies of David have been written: Baruch Halpern has pictured David as a lifelong vassal of Achish, the Philistine king of Gath; Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman have identified as the oldest and most reliable section of Samuel those chapters which describe David as the charismatic leader of a band of outlaws who captures Jerusalem and makes it his capital. Steven McKenzie, Associate Professor of the Hebrew Bible at Rhodes College and author of King David: A Biography, states the belief that David actually came from a wealthy family, was "ambitious and ruthless '' and a tyrant who murdered his opponents, including his own sons.
Critical Bible scholarship holds that the biblical account of David 's rise to power is a political apology -- an answer to contemporary charges against him, of his involvement in murders and regicide.
Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman reject the idea that David ruled over a united monarchy, suggesting instead that he ruled only as a chieftain over the southern kingdom of Judah, much smaller than the northern kingdom of Israel at that time. They posit that Israel and Judah were still polytheistic in the time of David and Solomon, and that much later seventh - century redactors sought to portray a past golden age of a united, monotheistic monarchy in order to serve contemporary needs. They note a lack of archeological evidence for David 's military campaigns and a relative underdevelopment of Jerusalem, the capital of Judah, compared to a more developed and urbanized Samaria, capital of Israel.
Jacob L. Wright, Associate Professor of Hebrew Bible at Emory University, has written that the most popular legends about David, including his killing of Goliath, his affair with Bathsheba, and his ruling of a United Kingdom of Israel rather than just Judah, are the creation of those who lived generations after him, in particular those living in the late Persian or Hellenistic periods.
The Book of Samuel calls David a skillful harp (lyre) player and "the sweet psalmist of Israel. '' Yet, while almost half of the Psalms are headed "A Psalm of David '' (also translated as "to David '' or "for David '') and tradition identifies several with specific events in David 's life (e.g., Psalms 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63 and 142), the headings are late additions and no psalm can be attributed to David with certainty.
Psalm 34 is attributed to David on the occasion of his escape from Abimelech (or King Achish) by pretending to be insane. According to the parallel narrative in 1 Samuel 21, instead of killing the man who had exacted so many casualties from him, Abimelech allows David to depart, exclaiming, "Am I so short of madmen that you have to bring this fellow here to carry on like this in front of me? Must this man come into my house? ''
David is an important figure in Rabbinic Judaism. Many legends have grown around the figure of David. According to one Rabbinic tradition, David was raised as the son of his father Jesse and spent his early years herding his father 's sheep in the wilderness while his brothers were in school.
David 's adultery with Bathsheba was only an opportunity to demonstrate the power of repentance, and the Talmud states that it was not adultery at all, quoting a Jewish practice of divorce on the eve of battle. Furthermore, according to Talmudic sources, the death of Uriah was not to be considered murder, on the basis that Uriah had committed a capital offense by refusing to obey a direct command from the King. However, in tractate Sanhedrin, David expressed remorse over his transgressions and sought forgiveness. God ultimately forgave David and Bathsheba but would not remove their sins from Scripture.
According to midrashim, Adam gave up 70 years of his life for the life of David. Also, according to the Talmud Yerushalmi, David was born and died on the Jewish holiday of Shavuot (Feast of Weeks). His piety was said to be so great that his prayers could bring down things from Heaven.
The concept of the Messiah is important in Christianity. Originally an earthly king ruling by divine appointment ("the anointed one '', as the title Messiah had it), the "son of David '' became in the last two pre-Christian centuries the apocalyptic and heavenly one who would deliver Israel and usher in a new kingdom. This was the background to the concept of Messiahship in early Christianity, which interpreted the career of Jesus "by means of the titles and functions assigned to David in the mysticism of the Zion cult, in which he served as priest - king and in which he was the mediator between God and man ''. The early Church believed that "the life of David (foreshadowed) the life of Christ; Bethlehem is the birthplace of both; the shepherd life of David points out Christ, the Good Shepherd; the five stones chosen to slay Goliath are typical of the five wounds; the betrayal by his trusted counsellor, Achitophel, and the passage over the Cedron remind us of Christ 's Sacred Passion. Many of the Davidic Psalms, as we learn from the New Testament, are clearly typical of the future Messiah. '' In the Middle Ages, "Charlemagne thought of himself, and was viewed by his court scholars, as a ' new David '. (This was) not in itself a new idea, but (one whose) content and significance were greatly enlarged by him ''. The linking of David to earthly kingship was reflected in later Medieval cathedral windows all over Europe through the device of the Tree of Jesse, its branches demonstrating how divine kingship descended from Jesse, through his son David, to Jesus.
Western Rite churches (Lutheran, Roman Catholic) celebrate his feast day on 29 December, Eastern - rite on 19 December. The Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches celebrate the feast day of the "Holy Righteous Prophet and King David '' on the Sunday of the Holy Forefathers (two Sundays before the Great Feast of the Nativity of the Lord), when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus. He is also commemorated on the Sunday after the Nativity, together with Joseph and James, the Brother of the Lord.
In European Christian culture of the Middle Ages, David was made a member of the Nine Worthies, a group of heroes encapsulating all the ideal qualities of chivalry. His life was thus proposed as a valuable subject for study by those aspiring to chivalric status. This aspect of David in the Nine Worthies was popularised firstly through literature, and was thereafter adopted as a frequent subject for painters and sculptors.
David was considered as a model ruler and a symbol of divinely - ordained monarchy throughout medieval Western Europe and Eastern Christendom. David was perceived as the biblical predecessor to Christian Roman and Byzantine emperors and the name "New David '' was used as an honorific reference to these rulers. The Georgian Bagratids and the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia claimed a direct biological descent from him. Likewise, the Frankish Carolingian dynasty frequently connected themselves to David; Charlemagne himself occasionally used the name of David as his pseudonym.
David (Arabic داود, Dāwūd) is a highly important figure in Islam as one of the major prophets sent by God to guide the Israelites. David is mentioned several times in the Quran, often with his son Solomon. The actual Arabic equivalent to the Hebrew Davīd is Dawūd. In the Qur'an: David killed Goliath (2: 251), a giant soldier in the Philistine army. When David killed Goliath, God granted him kingship and wisdom and enforced it (38: 20). David was made God 's "vicegerent on earth '' (38: 26) and God further gave David sound judgment (21: 78; 37: 21 -- 24, 26) as well as the Psalms, regarded as books of divine wisdom (4: 163; 17: 55). The birds and mountains united with David in uttering praise to God (21: 79; 34: 10; 38: 18), while God made iron soft for David (34: 10), God also instructed David in the art of fashioning chain - mail out of iron (21: 80); an indication of the first use of Wrought iron, this knowledge gave David a major advantage over his bronze and cast iron - armed opponents, not to mention the cultural and economic impact. Together with Solomon, David gave judgment in a case of damage to the fields (21: 78) and David judged the matter between two disputants in his prayer chamber (38: 21 -- 23). Since there is no mention in the Qur'an of the wrong David did to Uriah nor any reference to Bathsheba, Muslims reject this narrative.
Muslim tradition and the hadith stress David 's zeal in daily prayer as well as in fasting. Qur'an commentators, historians and compilers of the numerous Stories of the Prophets elaborate upon David 's concise Qur'anic narratives and specifically mention David 's gift in singing his Psalms as well as his musical and vocal talents. His voice is described as having had a captivating power, weaving its influence not only over man but over all beasts and nature, who would unite with him to praise God.
Literary works about David include:
David has been depicted several times in films; these are some of the best - known:
For a considerable period, starting in the 15th century and continuing until the 19th, French playing card manufacturers assigned to each of the court cards names taken from history or mythology. In this context, the King of Spades was often known as "David ''.
Miniature from the Paris Psalter: David in the robes of a Byzantine emperor.
Medieval manuscript: The funeral of King David.
Russian icon, iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, 18th century: St. David, Prophet and King.
Rembrandt, c. 1650: Saul and David.
Arnold Zadikow, 1930: The Young David displayed in the entrance of Berlin 's Jewish Museum from 1933 until its loss during the Second World War.
Media related to David at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to David at Wikiquote
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what a shame the poor groom's bride is | I Write Sins Not Tragedies - wikipedia
"I Write Sins Not Tragedies '' is a song by American rock band Panic! at the Disco, and is the second single from their debut studio album, A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out (2005). It was released on April 27, 2006 on both CD and 7 '' vinyl. The pizzicato cello motif that the song is built upon was played by session musician Heather Stebbins. The song reached No. 7 on the United States Billboard Hot 100. This was the band 's only top forty hit until the release of "Hallelujah '' in 2015. While the song failed to hit the top 10 on the Alternative Songs chart peaking at No. 12 which was lower than their prior single, "The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage '' which peaked at No. 5, the song 's success on the Hot 100 and Mainstream Top 40 (at No. 2) charts was what made the song one of the biggest modern rock hits of 2006 and is still one of the band 's most played songs on alternative radio stations to this day.
In the UK, the song was released on February 27, 2006 as a limited edition single with a free sticker. Because the sticker was included with the CD single, the song was not eligible for the UK Singles Chart. Official Charts Company rules state that stickers are not allowed in single releases. Later, in September 2006, due to the popularity of the track and following further single releases there of "Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off '' and "But It 's Better If You Do '', going top 40 there, the single was re-released on October 30, 2006. Despite receiving significant radio airplay upon its re-release, the single only reached No. 25 in the UK Singles Chart.
Many U.S. radio stations, in response to the language found in the song, wanted an edited version. The lyrics "The poor groom 's bride is a whore '' and "Have n't you people ever heard of closing a goddamn door? '' were changed by replacing "whore '' with a "shhh '' sound and removing "god '' in "goddamn ''. Some stations -- generally modern rock stations -- still play the original version.
The song was covered by Fall Out Boy, fellow Decaydance band, for their live album, * * * *: Live in Phoenix. (Fall Out Boy commonly uses the song 's chorus as a lead - in to "This Ai n't a Scene, It 's an Arms Race '' in concert.)
"I Write Sins Not Tragedies '' was ranked No. 3 in Billboard 's Best 2000 's Video poll.
The title of the song refers to Douglas Coupland 's novel Shampoo Planet, wherein the main character, Tyler Johnson, says: "I am writing a list of tragic character flaws on my dollar bills with a felt pen. I am thinking of the people in my universe and distilling for each of these people the one flaw in their character that will be their downfall -- the flaw that will be their undoing. What I write are not sins; I write tragedies. ''
"I Write Sins Not Tragedies '' is Panic! at the Disco 's first single to have a music video. ("The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage '' was the first single, but no video was filmed.) The video for the song takes place at a strange, circus - themed wedding played by the Lucent Dossier Vaudeville Cirque.
The video starts as the bride, played by Jessie Preston, and groom, Daniel Isaac McGuffey, are about to be married. Her family dress and behave formally, but are revealed later to have fallen asleep and have eyes painted on their eyelids. His family are lower - class entertainers and carnival folk, and interrupt the wedding. The ringmaster, played by vocalist Brendon Urie, acts as narrator and disrupts the events. After an argument between the two families, the bride runs out and is followed by one of her guests. The ringmaster drags the groom outside by his tie, where his fiancée is kissing the guest who followed her out of the church. The groom straightens up, looking shocked, and Urie and the groom bow to the camera. The ringmaster is revealed to be the groom 's alter ego.
The music video by director Shane Drake won the award for Video of the Year during the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards. This marked the first occasion since the 1989 VMAs that the winner of Video of the Year did not win anything else. The video was also ranked No. 7 on VH1 's list of the Top 100 Videos of 2006.
The video was shot in December 2005. According to vocalist Brendon Urie, he and guitarist Ryan Ross suffered from the flu while filming the video clip. In August 2011, the video won Best VMA Winning Video of All Time, in a worldwide poll on MTV 's website.
UK 7 '' poster bag (February 2006)
UK CD single (February 2006)
WMI CD single (May 2006)
UK CD single (October 2006)
UK 7 '' gatefold sleeve (October 2006)
UK 7 '' picture disc (October 2006)
Enhanced CD single (October 2006)
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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who plays elizabeth mccord's brother on madam secretary | Elizabeth McCord (character) - wikipedia
Elizabeth "Bess '' Adams McCord is a fictional character and the protagonist of the CBS TV series Madam Secretary portrayed by Téa Leoni. Elizabeth is the United States Secretary of State.
Born in Virginia, Elizabeth attended Houghton Hall Boarding School, where she was co-captain of the debate team alongside Bahrainian Crown Prince Yousif Obaid (Aasif Mandvi). She attended the University of Virginia, and one of her professors was future Chief Justice of the United States Frawley (Morgan Freeman). It was also where she met her future husband.
In 1990, Elizabeth married Henry McCord (Tim Daly). They have two daughters, Stephanie "Stevie '' (Wallis Currie - Wood) and Alison (Kathrine Herzer), and a son, Jason (Evan Roe). She also has a brother, Dr. Will Adams (Eric Stoltz), who is married to Sophie Adams, and with whom he has a 5 - year - old daughter, Annie; both of her parents died when she was young, in a car accident. She speaks fluent French, German, Arabic, Persian and "a year of high school Spanish ''.
Elizabeth worked for the CIA as an analyst for 20 years until she resigned from her position due to an ethical dilemma, just as she was being considered for promotion to Station Chief, Baghdad. She then taught at the University of Virginia as a Political Science Professor. After the death of Vincent Marsh (Brian Stokes Mitchell) in a plane crash, President Conrad Dalton (Keith Carradine) (her former mentor at the CIA) asked her to be the US Secretary of State. Not a natural politician, Elizabeth frequently clashes with the White House Chief of Staff Russell Jackson (Željko Ivanek).
As the Secretary of State, her first year in office was spent investigating her predecessor 's death.
In "Tamerlane '', Elizabeth is in the home of Iranian Foreign Minister Zahed Javani (Usman Ally) when a coup d'état orchestrated by Secretary Marsh, CIA Director Andrew Munsey, and CIA analyst Juliet Humphrey, is attempted; during the attack, both Minister Javani and her personal bodyguard, DS Agent Fred Cole, were killed. In the aftermath, Elizabeth was left with some post-traumatic stress and has been seeing Russell Jackson 's personal therapist.
In "The Show Must Go On '', during a communications blackout on Air Force One with both the President and the Speaker of the House on board, and with the Vice President in surgery and President pro tempore of the Senate found to be incompetent after a series of mini-strokes earlier in the year, Elizabeth is sworn in as Acting President for a number of hours.
In "You Say You Want a Revolution '', Elizabeth and her Cuban counterpart are instrumental in the restoration of Cuba -- United States relations, including the opening of the Cuban embassy in Washington and the U.S. embassy in Havana and the repeal of the embargo against Cuba. This has been viewed as a significant milestone in the Dalton presidency.
During the first half of the second season, Elizabeth was instrumental in preventing a potential United States - Russia War (which ultimately was believed to escalate into World War III).
In "Vartius '', due to the failing health and impending resignation of Mark Delgado (Alex Fernandez), President Dalton offered the position of Vice President of the United States to Elizabeth. She initially accepted, but when President Dalton lost his party 's primary, she advised him to run as an independent candidate and ask a popular senator from Pennsylvania to be his Vice President instead, as winning Pennsylvania would increase his chances of ensuring neither major party candidate would achieve a majority in the Electoral College.
With the exception of her personal assistant, Blake Moran (Erich Bergen), Elizabeth inherited her entire senior staff from her predecessor, Vincent Marsh.
Her personal staff consists of:
In "Blame Canada '', she fired Allen Bollings (John Finn), the chief negotiator responsible for peace talks with Iran for threatening military action rather than the trade ban relaxations she authorized, and then lying to herself and the President about it.
Starting in "Whisper of the Ax '', Elizabeth recruited veteran political operative Michael "Mike B. '' Barnow (Kevin Rahm) as a special advisor to help her politically strategize; another politician once referred to Mike B. as her "personal hatchet man ''.
In "The Essentials '', Nadine retires from the State Department upon learning that she 's about to become a grandmother in order to spend time with her family in San Francisco. After her departure, Elizabeth names Jay her new Chief of Staff.
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why historian need to be careful while studying literary sources | Historian - wikipedia
A historian is a person who researches, studies, and writes about the past, and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the study of all history in time. If the individual is concerned with events preceding written history, the individual is an historian of prehistory. Although "historian '' can be used to describe amateur and professional historians alike, it is reserved more recently for those who have acquired graduate degrees in the discipline. Some historians, though, are recognized by publications or training and experience. "Historian '' became a professional occupation in the late nineteenth century as research universities were emerging in Germany and elsewhere.
During the Irving v Penguin Books and Lipstadt trial, it became evident that the court needed to identify what was an "objective historian '' in the same vein as the reasonable person, and reminiscent of the standard traditionally used in English law of "the man on the Clapham omnibus ''. This was necessary so that there would be a legal bench mark to compare and contrast the scholarship of an objective historian against the methods employed by David Irving, as before the Irving v Penguin Books and Lipstadt trial, there was no legal precedent for what constituted an objective historian.
Justice Gray leant heavily on the research of one of the expert witnesses, Richard J. Evans, who compared illegitimate distortion of the historical record practice by holocaust deniers with established historical methodologies.
In summarising Gray 's judgement, in an article published in the Yale Law Journal, Wendie E. Schneider distils these seven points for what he meant by an objective historian:
Schneider uses the concept of the "objective historian '' to suggest that this could be an aid in assessing what makes an historian suitable as an expert witnesses under the Daubert standard in the United States. Schneider proposed this, because, in her opinion, Irving could have passed the standard Daubert tests unless a court was given "a great deal of assistance from historians ''.
Schneider proposes that by testing an historian against the criteria of the "objective historian '' then, even if an historian holds specific political views (and she gives an example of a well - qualified historian 's testimony that was disregarded by a United States court because he was a member of a feminist group), providing the historian uses the "objective historian '' standards, he or she is a "conscientious historian ''. It was Irving 's failure as an "objective historian '' not his right wing views that caused him to lose his libel case, as a "conscientious historian '' would not have "deliberately misrepresented and manipulated historical evidence '' to support his political views.
The process of historical analysis involves investigation and analysis of competing ideas, facts, and purported facts to create coherent narratives that explain "what happened '' and "why or how it happened ''. Modern historical analysis usually draws upon other social sciences, including economics, sociology, politics, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and linguistics. While ancient writers do not normally share modern historical practices, their work remains valuable for its insights within the cultural context of the times. An important part of the contribution of many modern historians is the verification or dismissal of earlier historical accounts through reviewing newly discovered sources and recent scholarship or through parallel disciplines like archaeology.
Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need, and the telling of history has emerged independently in civilizations around the world. What constitutes history is a philosophical question (see philosophy of history). The earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name.
Systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a development that became an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region. The earliest known critical historical works were The Histories, composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 -- c. 425 BCE) who later became known as the "father of history '' (Cicero). Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus ' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events. Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a rationalistic element that set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon (c. 431 -- 355 BCE) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis.
The Romans adopted the Greek tradition. While early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Origines, composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234 -- 149 BCE), was written in Latin, in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. Strabo (63 BCE -- c. 24 CE) was an important exponent of the Greco - Roman tradition of combining geography with history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era. Livy (59 BCE -- 17 CE) records the rise of Rome from city - state to empire. His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history.
In Chinese historiography, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. The Spring and Autumn Annals, the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period from 722 to 481 BCE, is among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts arranged on annalistic principles. Sima Qian (around 100 BCE) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing. His written work was the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. Its scope extends as far back as the 16th century BCE, and it includes many treatises on specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people, and also explores the lives and deeds of commoners, both contemporary and those of previous eras.
Christian historiography began early, perhaps as early as Luke - Acts, which is the primary source for the Apostolic Age. Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages. They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes. An example of this type of writing is the Anglo - Saxon Chronicles, which were the work of several different writers: it was started during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late 9th century, but one copy was still being updated in 1154.
Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammad 's life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, scholars had to verify which sources were more reliable. To evaluate these sources, they developed various methodologies, such as the science of biography, science of hadith and Isnad (chain of transmission). They later applied these methodologies to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization. Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah (d. 712), Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 728), Ibn Ishaq (d. 761), al - Waqidi (745 -- 822), Ibn Hisham (d. 834), Muhammad al - Bukhari (810 -- 870) and Ibn Hajar (1372 -- 1449).
During the Age of Enlightenment, the modern development of historiography through the application of scrupulous methods began.
French philosophe Voltaire (1694 -- 1778) had an enormous influence on the art of history writing. His best - known histories are The Age of Louis XIV (1751), and Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations (1756). "My chief object, '' he wrote in 1739, "is not political or military history, it is the history of the arts, of commerce, of civilization -- in a word, -- of the human mind. '' He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history, and achievements in the arts and sciences. He was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, culture, and political history.
At the same time, philosopher David Hume was having a similar impact on history in Great Britain. In 1754, he published the History of England, a six - volume work that extended from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688. Hume adopted a similar scope to Voltaire in his history; as well as the history of Kings, Parliaments, and armies, he examined the history of culture, including literature and science, as well. William Robertson, a Scottish historian, and the Historiographer Royal published the History of Scotland 1542 - 1603, in 1759 and his most famous work, The history of the reign of Charles V in 1769. His scholarship was painstaking for the time and he was able to access a large number of documentary sources that had previously been unstudied. He was also one of the first historians who understood the importance of general and universally applicable ideas in the shaping of historical events.
The apex of Enlightenment history was reached with Edward Gibbon 's, monumental six - volume work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, published on 17 February 1776. Because of its relative objectivity and heavy use of primary sources, at the time its methodology became a model for later historians. This has led to Gibbon being called the first "modern historian ''. The book sold impressively, earning its author a total of about £ 9000. Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that thereafter, "His fame was as rapid as it has been lasting. ''
The tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired much of the historiography and analysis of the early 19th century. Interest in the 1688 Glorious Revolution was also rekindled by the Great Reform Act of 1832 in England.
Thomas Carlyle published his magnum opus, the three - volume The French Revolution: A History in 1837. The resulting work had a passion new to historical writing. Thomas Macaulay produced his most famous work of history, The History of England from the Accession of James the Second, in 1848. His writings are famous for their ringing prose and for their confident, sometimes dogmatic, emphasis on a progressive model of British history, according to which the country threw off superstition, autocracy and confusion to create a balanced constitution and a forward - looking culture combined with freedom of belief and expression. This model of human progress has been called the Whig interpretation of history.
In his main work Histoire de France, French historian Jules Michelet coined the term Renaissance (meaning "Re-birth '' in French language), as a period in Europe 's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world. The nineteen volume work covered French history from Charlemagne to the outbreak of the Revolution. Michelet was one of the first historians to shift the emphasis of history to the common people, rather than the leaders and institutions of the country. Another important French historian of the period was Hippolyte Taine. He was the chief theoretical influence of French naturalism, a major proponent of sociological positivism and one of the first practitioners of historicist criticism. Literary historicism as a critical movement has been said to originate with him.
One of the major progenitors of the history of culture and art, was the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt Burckhardt 's best - known work is The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860). According to John Lukacs, he was the first master of cultural history, which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age, a particular people, or a particular place. By the mid-19th century, scholars were beginning to analyse the history of institutional change, particularly the development of constitutional government. William Stubbs 's Constitutional History of England (3 vols., 1874 -- 78) was an important influence on this developing field. The work traced the development of the English constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain until 1485, and marked a distinct step in the advance of English historical learning.
Karl Marx introduced the concept of historical materialism into the study of world historical development. In his conception, the economic conditions and dominant modes of production determined the structure of society at that point. Previous historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations. Process of nationalization of history, as part of national revivals in the 19th century, resulted with separation of "one 's own '' history from common universal history by such way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that constructed history as history of a nation. A new discipline, sociology, emerged in the late 19th century and analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale.
The modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were pioneered in 19th - century German universities. Leopold von Ranke was a pivotal influence in this regard, and is considered as the founder of modern source - based history.
Specifically, he implemented the seminar teaching method in his classroom, and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents. Beginning with his first book in 1824, the History of the Latin and Teutonic Peoples from 1494 to 1514, Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources for an historian of the age, including "memoirs, diaries, personal and formal missives, government documents, diplomatic dispatches and first - hand accounts of eye - witnesses ''. Over a career that spanned much of the century, Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources (empiricism), an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics (aussenpolitik). Sources had to be hard, not speculations and rationalizations. His credo was to write history the way it was. He insisted on primary sources with proven authenticity.
The term Whig history was coined by Herbert Butterfield in his short book The Whig Interpretation of History in 1931, (a reference to the British Whigs, advocates of the power of Parliament) to refer to the approach to historiography that presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment, culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy. In general, Whig historians emphasized the rise of constitutional government, personal freedoms, and scientific progress. The term has been also applied widely in historical disciplines outside of British history (the history of science, for example) to criticize any teleological (or goal - directed), hero - based, and transhistorical narrative. Butterfield 's antidote to Whig history was "... to evoke a certain sensibility towards the past, the sensibility which studies the past ' for the sake of the past ', which delights in the concrete and the complex, which ' goes out to meet the past ', which searches for ' unlikenesses between past and present '. '' Butterfield 's formulation received much attention, and the kind of historical writing he argued against in generalised terms is no longer academically respectable.
The French Annales School radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the 20th century by stressing long - term social history, rather than political or diplomatic themes. The school emphasized the use of quantification and the paying of special attention to geography. An eminent member of this school, Georges Duby, described his approach to history as one that
relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events, but strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances, to observe the long and medium - term evolution of economy, society, and civilisation.
Marxist historiography developed as a school of historiography influenced by the chief tenets of Marxism, including the centrality of social class and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes. Friedrich Engels wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, which was salient in creating the socialist impetus in British politics from then on, e.g. the Fabian Society. R.H. Tawney 's The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (1912) and Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926), reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history. A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) formed in 1946 and became a highly influential cluster of British Marxist historians, who contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society. Members included Christopher Hill, Eric Hobsbawm and E.P. Thompson.
World history, as a distinct field of historical study, emerged as an independent academic field in the 1980s. It focused on the examination of history from a global perspective and looked for common patterns that emerged across all cultures. Arnold J. Toynbee 's ten - volume A Study of History, written between 1933 and 1954, was an important influence on this developing field. He took a comparative topical approach to independent civilizations and demonstrated that they displayed striking parallels in their origin, growth, and decay. William H. McNeill wrote The Rise of the West (1965) to improve upon Toynbee by showing how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history, borrowing critical skills from one another, and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary.
An undergraduate history degree is often used as a stepping stone to graduate studies in business or law. Many historians are employed at universities and other facilities for post-secondary education. In addition, it is normal for colleges and universities to require the PhD degree for new full - time hires, and a master 's degree for part - timers. Publication is increasingly required by smaller schools, so graduate papers become journal articles and PhD dissertations become published monographs. The graduate student experience is difficult -- those who finish their doctorate in the United States take on average 8 or more years; funding is scarce except at a few very rich universities. Being a teaching assistant in a course is required in some programs; in others it is a paid opportunity awarded a fraction of the students. Until the 1980s it was rare for graduate programs to teach how to teach; the assumption was that teaching was easy and that learning how to do research was the main mission.
Professional historians typically work in colleges and universities, archival centers, government agencies, museums, and as freelance writers and consultants. The job market for new PhDs in history is poor and getting worse, with many relegated to part - time "adjunct '' teaching jobs with low pay and no benefits.
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a country that can be seen as democratic authoritarian and theocratic | Theocracy - wikipedia
Theocracy is a form of government in which a deity is the source from which all authority derives. The Oxford English Dictionary has this definition:
1. a system of government in which priests rule in the name of God or a god.
1.1. the commonwealth of Israel from the time of Moses until the election of Saul as King.
An ecclesiocracy is a situation where the religious leaders assume a leading role in the state, but do not claim that they are instruments of divine revelation: for example, the prince - bishops of the European Middle Ages, where the bishop was also the temporal ruler. Such a state may use the administrative hierarchy of the religion for its own administration, or it may have two ' arms ' -- administrators and clergy -- but with the state administrative hierarchy subordinate to the religious hierarchy. Theocracy differs from theonomy, the latter of which is government based on divine law.
The papacy in the Papal States occupied a middle ground between theocracy and ecclesiocracy, since the Pope did not claim he was a prophet who received revelation from God and translated it into civil law.
Religiously endorsed monarchies fall between theocracy and ecclesiocracy, according to the relative strengths of the religious and political organs.
Most forms of theocracy are oligarchic in nature, involving rule of the many by the few, some of whom so anointed under claim of divine commission.
The word theocracy originates from the Greek θεοκρατία meaning "the rule of God ''. This in turn derives from θεός (theos), meaning "god '', and κρατέω (krateo), meaning "to rule. '' Thus the meaning of the word in Greek was "rule by god (s) '' or human incarnation (s) of god (s).
The term was initially coined by Flavius Josephus in the first century A.D. to describe the characteristic government of the Jews. Josephus argued that while mankind had developed many forms of rule, most could be subsumed under the following three types: monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy. The government of the Jews, however, was unique. Josephus offered the term "theocracy '' to describe this polity, ordained by Moses, in which God is sovereign and his word is law.
Josephus ' definition was widely accepted until the Enlightenment era, when the term started to collect more universalistic and negative connotations, especially in Hegel 's hands. The first recorded English use was in 1622, with the meaning "sacerdotal government under divine inspiration '' (as in Biblical Israel before the rise of kings); the meaning "priestly or religious body wielding political and civil power '' is recorded from 1825.
In some religions, the ruler, usually a king, was regarded as the chosen favorite of God (or gods) who could not be questioned, sometimes even being the descendant of, or a god in their own right. Today, there is also a form of government where clerics have the power and the supreme leader could not be questioned in action. From the perspective of the theocratic government, "God himself is recognized as the head '' of the state, hence the term theocracy, from the Koine Greek θεοκρατία "rule of God '', a term used by Josephus for the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Taken literally, theocracy means rule by God or gods and refers primarily to an internal "rule of the heart '', especially in its biblical application. The common, generic use of the term, as defined above in terms of rule by a church or analogous religious leadership, would be more accurately described as an ecclesiocracy.
In a pure theocracy, the civil leader is believed to have a personal connection with the civilization 's religion or belief. For example, Moses led the Israelites, and Muhammad led the early Muslims. There is a fine line between the tendency of appointing religious characters to run the state and having a religious - based government. According to the Holy Books, Prophet Joseph was offered an essential governmental role just because he was trustworthy, wise and knowledgeable (Quran 12: 54 -- 55). As a result of the Prophet Joseph 's knowledge and also due to his ethical and genuine efforts during a critical economic situation, the whole nation was rescued from a seven - year drought (Quran 12: 47 -- 48). When religions have a "holy book, '' it is used as a direct message from God. Law proclaimed by the ruler is also considered a divine revelation, and hence the law of God. As to the Prophet Muhammad ruling, "The first thirteen of the Prophet 's twenty - three year career went on totally apolitical and non-violent. This attitude partly changed only after he had to flee from Mecca to Medina. This hijra, or migration, would be a turning point in the Prophet 's mission and would mark the very beginning of the Muslim calendar. Yet the Prophet did not establish a theocracy in Medina. Instead of a polity defined solely by Islam, he founded a territorial polity based on religious pluralism. This is evident in a document called the ' Charter of Medina ', which the Prophet signed with the leaders of the other community in the city. '' According to the Quran, Prophets were not after power or material resources. For example in surah 26 verses (109, 127, 145, 164, 180), the Koran repeatedly quotes from Prophets, Noah, Hud, Salih, Lut, and Shu'aib that: '' I do not ask you for it any payment; my payment is only from the Lord of the worlds. '' While, in theocracy many aspects of the holy book are overshadowed by material powers. Due to be considered divine, the regime entitles itself to interpret verses to its own benefit and abuse them out of the context for its political aims. An ecclesiocracy, on the other hand, is a situation where the religious leaders assume a leading role in the state, but do not claim that they are instruments of divine revelation. For example, the prince - bishops of the European Middle Ages, where the bishop was also the temporal ruler. Such a state may use the administrative hierarchy of the religion for its own administration, or it may have two ' arms ' -- administrators and clergy -- but with the state administrative hierarchy subordinate to the religious hierarchy. The papacy in the Papal States occupied a middle ground between theocracy and ecclesiocracy, since the pope did not claim he was a prophet who received revelation from God and translated it into civil law.
Religiously endorsed monarchies fall between these two poles, according to the relative strengths of the religious and political organs.
Theocracy is distinguished from other, secular forms of government that have a state religion, or are influenced by theological or moral concepts, and monarchies held "By the Grace of God ''. In the most common usage of the term, some civil rulers are leaders of the dominant religion (e.g., the Byzantine emperor as patron and defender of the official Church); the government proclaims it rules on behalf of God or a higher power, as specified by the local religion, and divine approval of government institutions and laws. These characteristics apply also to a caesaropapist regime. The Byzantine Empire however was not theocratic since the patriarch answered to the emperor, not vice versa; similarly in Tudor England the crown forced the church to break away from Rome so the royal (and, especially later, parliamentary) power could assume full control of the now Anglican hierarchy and confiscate most church property and income.
Secular governments can also co-exist with a state religion or delegate some aspects of civil law to religious communities. For example, in Israel marriage is governed by officially recognized religious bodies who each provide marriage services for their respected adherents, yet no form of civil marriage (free of religion, for atheists, for example) exists nor marriage by non-recognized minority religions.
Following the Capture of Rome on 20 September 1870, the Papal States including Rome with the Vatican were annexed by the Kingdom of Italy. In 1929, with the Lateran Treaty signed with the Italian Government, the new state of Vatican City (population 842) -- with no connection with the former Papal States -- was formally created and recognized as an independent state. The head of state of the Vatican is the pope, elected by the College of Cardinals, an assembly of Senatorial - princes of the Church. They are usually clerics, appointed as Ordinaries, but in the past have also included men who were not bishops nor clerics. A pope is elected for life, and either dies or may resign. The cardinals are appointed by the popes, who therefore choose the electors of their successors.
Voting is limited to cardinals under 80 years of age. A Secretary for Relations with States, directly responsible for international relations, is appointed by the pope. The Vatican legal system is rooted in canon law but ultimately is decided by the pope; the Bishop of Rome as the Supreme Pontiff, "has the fullness of legislative, executive and judicial powers. '' Although the laws of Vatican City come from the secular laws of Italy, under article 3 of the Law of the Sources of the Law, provision is made for the supplementary application of the "laws promulgated by the Kingdom of Italy ''. The government of the Vatican can also be considered an ecclesiocracy (ruled by the Church).
Mount Athos is a mountain peninsula in Greece which is an Eastern Orthodox autonomous region consisting of 20 monasteries under the direct jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. There has been almost 1,800 - years of continuous Christian presence on Mount Athos and it has a long history of monastic traditions, which dates back to at least 800 A.D. The origins of self rule are originally from an edict by the Byzantine Emperor Ioannis Tzimisces in 972, which was later reaffirmed by the Emperor Alexios I Komnenos in 1095. After Greece 's independence from the Ottoman empire Greece claimed mount Athos but after a diplomatic dispute with Russia the region was formally recognised as Greek after World War 1.
Mount Athos is specifically exempt from the free movement of people and goods required by Greece 's membership of the European Union and entrance is only allowed with express permission from the monks. The number of daily visitors to Mount Athos is restricted, with all visitors required to obtain an entrance permit. Only men are permitted to visit and Orthodox Christians take precedence in permit issuing. Residents of Mount Athos must be men aged 18 and over who are members of the Eastern Orthodox Church and also either monks or workers.
Athos is governed jointly by a ' Holy Community ' consisting of representatives from the 20 monasteries and a Civil Governor, appointed by the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Holy Community also has a four - member executive committee called the ' Holy Administration ' which is lead by a Protos.
Iran has been described as a "theocratic republic '' (by the CIA World Factbook), and its constitution a "hybrid '' of "theocratic and democratic elements '' by Francis Fukuyama. Like other Islamic states, it maintains religious laws and has religious courts to interpret all aspects of law. According to Iran 's constitution, "all civil, penal, financial, economic, administrative, cultural, military, political, and other laws and regulations must be based on Islamic criteria. ''
In addition, Iran has a religious ruler and many religious officials in powerful government posts. The head of state, or "Supreme Leader '', is a faqih (scholar of Islamic law), and possesses more power than Iran 's president. The Leader appoints the heads of many powerful posts: the commanders of the armed forces, the director of the national radio and television network, the heads of the powerful major religious foundations, the chief justice, the attorney general (indirectly through the chief justice), special tribunals, and members of national security councils dealing with defence and foreign affairs. He also co-appoints the 12 jurists of the Guardian Council.
The Leader is elected by the Assembly of Experts which is made up of mujtahids, who are Islamic scholars competent in interpreting Sharia.
The Guardian Council, has the power to veto bills from majlis (parliament), approve or disapprove candidates who wish to run for high office (president, majlis, the Assembly of Experts). The council supervises elections, and can greenlight or ban investigations into the election process. Six of the Guardians (half the council) are faqih empowered to approve or veto all bills from the majlis (parliament) according to whether the faqih believe them to be in accordance with Islamic law and customs (Sharia). The other six members are lawyers appointed by the head of the judiciary (who is also a cleric and also appointed by the Leader).
An Islamic republic is the name given to several states that are officially ruled by Islamic laws, including the Islamic Republics of Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, and Mauritania. Pakistan first adopted the title under the constitution of 1956. Mauritania adopted it on 28 November 1958. Iran adopted it after the 1979 Iranian Revolution that overthrew the Pahlavi dynasty. Afghanistan adopted it in 2004 after the fall of the Taliban government. Despite having similar names the countries differ greatly in their governments and laws.
The term "Islamic republic '' has come to mean several different things, some contradictory to others. To some Muslim religious leaders in the Middle East and Africa who advocate it, an Islamic republic is a state under a particular Islamic form of government. They see it as a compromise between a purely Islamic caliphate and secular nationalism and republicanism. In their conception of the Islamic republic, the penal code of the state is required to be compatible with some or all laws of Sharia, and the state may not be a monarchy, as many Middle Eastern states are presently.
The Central Tibetan Administration, colloquially known as the Tibetan government in exile, is a Tibetan exile organisation with a state - like internal structure. According to its charter, the position of head of state of the Central Tibetan Administration belongs ex officio to the current Dalai Lama, a religious hierarch. In this respect, it continues the traditions of the former government of Tibet, which was ruled by the Dalai Lamas and their ministers, with a specific role reserved for a class of monk officials.
On March 14, 2011, at the 14th Dalai Lama 's suggestion, the parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration began considering a proposal to remove the Dalai Lama 's role as head of state in favor of an elected leader.
The first directly elected Kalön Tripa was Samdhong Rinpoche, who was elected August 20, 2001.
Before 2011, the Kalön Tripa position was subordinate to the 14th Dalai Lama who presided over the government in exile from its founding. In August of that year, Lobsang Sangay polled 55 percent votes out of 49,189, defeating his nearest rival Tethong Tenzin Namgyal by 8,646 votes, becoming the second popularly elected Kalon Tripa. The Dalai Lama announced that his political authority would be transferred to Sangay.
On September 20, 2012, the 15th Tibetan Parliament - in - Exile unanimously voted to change the title of Kalön Tripa to Sikyong in Article 19 of the Charter of the Tibetans in exile and relevant articles. The Dalai Lama had previously referred to the Kalon Tripa as Sikyong, and this usage was cited as the primary justification for the name change. According to Tibetan Review, "Sikyong '' translates to "political leader '', as distinct from "spiritual leader ''. Foreign affairs Kalon Dicki Chhoyang stated that the term "Sikyong '' has had a precedent dating back to the 7th Dalai Lama, and that the name change "ensures historical continuity and legitimacy of the traditional leadership from the fifth Dalai Lama ''. The online Dharma Dictionary translates sikyong (srid skyong) as "secular ruler; regime, regent. '' The title sikyong had previously been used by regents who ruled Tibet during the Dalai Lama 's minority.
Having a state religion is not sufficient to be a theocracy in the narrow sense. Many countries have a state religion without the government directly deriving its powers from a divine authority or a religious authority directly exercising governmental powers. Since the narrow sense has few instances in the modern world, the more common usage is the wider sense of an enforced state religion.
The imperial cults in Ancient Egypt and the Roman Empire, as well as numerous other monarchies, deified the ruling monarch. The state religion was often dedicated to the worship of the ruler as a deity, or the incarnation thereof.
Early Israel was ruled by Judges before instituting a monarchy. The Judges were believed to be representatives of YHVH Yahweh (also translated as, Jehovah).
In ancient and medieval Christianity, Caesaropapism is the doctrine where a head of state is at the same time the head of the church.
Unified religious rule in Tibet began in 1642, when the Fifth Dalai Lama allied with the military power of the Mongol Gushri Khan to consolidate the political power and center control around his office as head of the Gelug school. This form of government is known as the dual system of government. Prior to 1642, particular monasteries and monks had held considerable power throughout Tibet, but had not achieved anything approaching complete control, though power continued to be held in a diffuse, feudal system after the ascension of the Fifth Dalai Lama. Power in Tibet was held by a number of traditional elites, including members of the nobility, the heads of the major Buddhist sects (including their various tulkus), and various large and influential monastic communities.
Political power was sometimes used by monastic leaders to suppress rival religious schools through the confiscation of property and direct violence. Social mobility was somewhat possible through the attainment of a monastic education, or recognition as a reincarnated teacher, but such institutions were dominated by the traditional elites and governed by political intrigue. Non-Buddhists in Tibet were members of an outcast underclass.
The Bogd Khaanate period of Mongolia (1911 -- 19) is also cited as a former Buddhist theocracy.
Similar to the Roman Emperor, the Chinese sovereign was historically held to be the Son of Heaven. However, from the first historical Emperor on, this was largely ceremonial and tradition quickly established it as a posthumous dignity, like the Roman institution. The situation before Qin Shi Huang Di is less clear.
The Shang dynasty essentially functioned as a theocracy, declaring the ruling family the sons of heaven and calling the chief sky god Shangdi after a word for their deceased ancestors. After their overthrow by the Zhou, the royal clan of Shang were not eliminated but instead moved to a ceremonial capital where they were charged to continue the performance of their rituals.
The titles combined by Shi Huangdi to form his new title of emperor were originally applied to god - like beings who ordered the heavens and earth and to culture heroes credited with the invention of agriculture, clothing, music, astrology, &c. Even after the fall of Qin, an emperor 's words were considered sacred edicts (聖旨) and his written proclamations "directives from above '' (上 諭).
As a result, some Sinologists translate the title huangdi (usually rendered "emperor '') as thearch. The term properly refers to the head of a thearchy (a kingdom of gods), but the more accurate "theocrat '' carries associations of a strong priesthood that would be generally inaccurate in describing imperial China. Others reserve the use of "thearch '' to describe the legendary figures of Chinese prehistory while continuing to use "emperor '' to describe historical rulers.
The Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace in 1860s Qing China was a heterodox Christian theocracy led by a person who said that he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ, Hong Xiuquan. This theocratic state fought one of the most destructive wars in history, the Taiping Rebellion, against the Qing dynasty for fifteen years before being crushed following the fall of the rebel capital Nanjing.
The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a Caliph should be elected by Muslims or their representatives. Followers of Shia Islam, however, believe a Caliph should be an Imam chosen by God from the Ahl al - Bayt (the "Family of the House '', Muhammad 's direct descendants).
The Byzantine Empire (a.d. 324 -- 1453) operated under caesaropapism, meaning that the emperor was both the head of civil society and the ultimate authority over the ecclesiastical authorities, or patriarchates. The emperor was considered to be God 's omnipotent representative on earth and he ruled as an absolute autocrat.
Jennifer Fretland VanVoorst argues, "the Byzantine Empire became a theocracy in the sense that Christian values and ideals were the foundation of the empire 's political ideals and heavily entwined with its political goals ''. Steven Runciman says in his book on The Byzantine Theocracy (2004):
The constitution of the Byzantine Empire was based on the conviction that it was the earthly copy of the Kingdom of Heaven. Just as God ruled in Heaven, so the Emperor, made in His image, should rule on earth and carry out his commandments... It saw itself as a universal empire. Ideally, it should embrace all the peoples of the Earth who, ideally, should all be members of the one true Christian Church, its own Orthodox Church. Just as man was made in God 's image, so man 's kingdom on Earth was made in the image of the Kingdom of Heaven.
Historians debate the extent to which Geneva, Switzerland, in the days of John Calvin (1509 -- 64) was a theocracy. On the one hand, Calvin 's theology clearly called for separation between church and state. Other historians have stressed the enormous political power wielded on a daily basis by the clerics.
In nearby Zurich, Switzerland, Protestant reformer Huldrych Zwingli (1484 - 1531) built a political system that many scholars have called a theocracy, while others have denied it.
The question of theocracy has been debated at extensively by historians regarding the Mormon communities in Illinois, and especially in Utah.
Joseph Smith, mayor of Nauvoo, Illinois, and founder of the Mormon movement, ran as an independent for president in 1844. He proposed the redemption of slaves by selling public lands; reducing the size and salary of Congress; the closure of prisons; the annexation of Texas, Oregon, and parts of Canada; the securing of international rights on high seas; free trade; and the re-establishment of a national bank. His top aide Brigham Young campaigned for Smith saying, "He it is that God of Heaven designs to save this nation from destruction and preserve the Constitution. '' The campaign ended when Smith was killed by a mob while in the Carthage, Illinois, jail on June 27, 1844.
After severe persecution, the Mormons left the United States and resettled in a remote part of Utah, which was then part of Mexico. However the United States took control in 1848 and would not accept polygamy. The Mormon State of Deseret was short - lived. Its original borders stretched from western Colorado to the southern California coast. When the Mormons arrived in the valley of the Great Salt Lake in 1847, the Great Basin was still a part of Mexico and had no secular government. As a result, Brigham Young administered the region both spiritually and temporally through the highly organized and centralized Melchizedek Priesthood. This original organization was based upon a concept called theodemocracy, a governmental system combining Biblical theocracy with mid-19th - century American political ideals.
In 1849, the Saints organized a secular government in Utah, although many ecclesiastical leaders maintained their positions of secular power. The Mormons also petitioned Congress to have Deseret admitted into the Union as a state. However, under the Compromise of 1850, Utah Territory was created and Brigham Young was appointed governor. In this situation, Young still stood as head of the LDS Church as well as Utah 's secular government.
After the abortive Utah War of 1857 -- 1858, the replacement of Young by an outside Federal Territorial Governor, intense federal prosecution of LDS Church leaders, and the eventual resolution of controversies regarding plural marriage, and accession by Utah to statehood, the apparent temporal aspects of LDS theodemocracy receded markedly.
During the Achaemenid Empire, Zoroastrianism was the state religion and included formalized worship. The Persian kings were known to be pious Zoroastrians and also ruled with a Zoroastrian form of law called asha. However, Cyrus the Great, who founded the empire, avoided imposing the Zoroastrian faith on the inhabitants of conquered territory. Cyrus 's kindness towards Jews has been cited as sparking Zoroastrian influence on Judaism.
Under the Seleucids, Zoroastrianism became autonomous. During the Sassanid period, the Zoroastrian calendar was reformed, image - use was banned, Fire Temples were increasingly built and intolerance towards other faiths prevailed.
The short reign (1494 -- 1498) of Girolamo Savonarola, a Dominican priest, over the city of Florence had features of a theocracy. During his rule, "un-Christian '' books, statues, poetry, and other items were burned (in the Bonfire of the Vanities), sodomy was made a capital offense, and other Christian practices became law.
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how is the head of the church of england | Church of England - wikipedia
The Church of England (C of E) is the Established Church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor. The Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It traces its history to the Christian church recorded as existing in the Roman province of Britain by the third century, and to the 6th - century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury.
The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII failed to secure an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon in 1534. The English Reformation accelerated under Edward VI 's regents, before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. The Act of Supremacy 1558 renewed the breach and the Elizabethan Settlement charted a course enabling the English church to describe itself as both catholic and reformed:
In the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants. In the 17th century, the Puritan and Presbyterian factions continued to challenge the leadership of the Church which under the Stuarts veered towards a more catholic interpretation of the Elizabethan Settlement especially under Archbishop Laud and the rise of the concept of Anglicanism as the Via Media. After the victory of the Parliamentarians the Prayer Book was abolished and the Presbyterian and Independent factions dominated. The Episcopacy was abolished. The Restoration restored the Church of England, episcopacy and the Prayer Book. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to greater religious tolerance.
Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English. The church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo - Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality. The church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members.
The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop. Within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the legislative body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy and laity. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament.
According to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian and Origen in the first years of the 3rd century. Three Romano - British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Serdica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, and a number of references to the church in Roman Britain are found in the writings of 4th century Christian fathers. Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippo 's doctrine of original sin.
While Christianity was long established as the religion of the Britons at the time of the Anglo - Saxon invasion, Christian Britons made little progress in converting the newcomers from their native paganism. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrew 's (later canonised as Augustine of Canterbury) from Rome to evangelise the Angles. This event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. With the help of Christians already residing in Kent, Augustine established his church at Canterbury, the capital of the Kingdom of Kent, and became the first in the series of Archbishops of Canterbury in 598. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England. The Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, the Church of England considers itself to be the same church which was more formally organised by Augustine.
While some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. Queen Bertha of Kent was among the Christians in England who recognised papal authority before Augustine arrived, and Celtic Christians were carrying out missionary work with papal approval long before the Synod of Whitby.
The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in England. This meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hilda 's double monastery of Streonshalh (Streanæshalch), later called Whitby Abbey. It was presided over by King Oswiu, who did not engage in the debate but made the final ruling.
In 1534, King Henry VIII separated the English Church from Rome. A theological separation had been foreshadowed by various movements within the English Church, such as Lollardy, but the English Reformation gained political support when Henry VIII wanted an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn. Pope Clement VII, considering that the earlier marriage had been entered under a papal dispensation and how Catherine 's nephew, Emperor Charles V, might react to such a move, refused the annulment. Eventually, Henry, although theologically opposed to Protestantism, took the position of Supreme Head of the Church of England to ensure the annulment of his marriage. He was excommunicated by Pope Paul III.
In 1536 -- 40 Henry VIII engaged in the Dissolution of the Monasteries, which controlled much of the richest land. He disbanded monasteries, priories, convents and friaries in England, Wales and Ireland, appropriated their income, disposed of their assets, and provided pensions for the former residents. The properties were sold to pay for the wars. Bernard argues:
The population of England at the time is estimated to have been only 2.5 million: half male of whom 750,000 adult. This is one in 75, not 1 in 50. However the latter figure is creditable if secular clergy are included.
Henry maintained a strong preference for traditional Catholic practices and, during his reign, Protestant reformers were unable to make many changes to the practices of the Church of England. Indeed, this part of Henry 's reign saw trials for heresy of Protestants as well as Roman Catholics.
Under his son, King Edward VI, more Protestant - influenced forms of worship were adopted. Under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, a more radical reformation proceeded. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy in particular the Prayer Book of 1549, but both influenced by Protestant doctrines such as justification by faith alone, the rejection of the sacrifice of the Mass, and the Real Presence understood as physical presence (Cranmer was Calvinist in that he believed Christ was truly and really present in the Eucharist but after a spiritual manner as in a sacrament). The confession of the reformed Church of England was set out in the Forty - two Articles (later revised to thirty - nine). The reformation however was cut short by the death of the king. Queen Mary I, who succeeded him, returned England again to the authority of the papacy, thereby ending the first attempt at an independent Church of England. During her co-reign with her husband, King Philip, many leaders and common people were burnt for their refusal to recant of their reformed faith. These are known as the Marian martyrs and the persecution led to her nickname of "Bloody Mary ''.
Mary also died childless and so it was left to the new regime of her half - sister Elizabeth to resolve the direction of the church. The settlement under Queen Elizabeth I (from 1558), known as the Elizabethan Settlement, tried to stir a middle way between radical Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, the via media, (a term that actually only became current in the 1620s), as the character of the Church of England, a church moderately Reformed in doctrine, as expressed in the Thirty - Nine Articles, but also emphasising continuity with the Catholic and Apostolic traditions of the Church Fathers. The three-fold ministry in the Apostolic Succession was maintained; the institutional continuity of the Church was preserved without break (at her accession almost all clergy had been ordained in Catholic Orders using the Roman Pontifical), although the character of the organization was changed by the adoption of some reformed doctrines and the simplification of the outwards forms of worship and the abandonment of traditional vestments and art work; the retention of medieval Canon Law, a much shortened Calendar of Saints and liturgical music. It was also an established church (constitutionally established by the state with the Head of State as its supreme governor). The exact nature of the relationship between church and state would be a source of continued friction into the next century.
For the next century, through the reigns of James I, who ordered the translation of the Bible known as the King James Version (Authorized to be used in parishes which does not mean it was the official version), and Charles I, culminating in the English Civil War and the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, there were significant swings back and forth between two factions: the Puritans (and other radicals) who sought more far - reaching Protestant reforms, and the more conservative churchmen who aimed to keep closer to traditional beliefs and Catholic practices. The failure of political and ecclesiastical authorities to submit to Puritan demands for more extensive reform was one of the causes of open warfare. By Continental standards the level of violence over religion was not high, since the Civil was mainly about politics, but the casualties included King Charles I and the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud and tens of thousands of civilians who died from the unsettled conditions. Under the Commonwealth and the Protectorate of England from 1649 to 1660, the bishops were dethroned and former practices were outlawed, and Presbyterian ecclesiology was introduced in place of the episcopate. The 39 Articles were replaced by the Westminster Confession, the Book of Common Prayer by the Directory of Public Worship. Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform to this form of State Presbyterianism.
With the Restoration of Charles II, Parliament restored the Church of England to a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation, taken for granted by the Tudors, had to be abandoned. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with the Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and those Puritans and Protestants who dissented from the Anglican establishment, having to continue their existence outside the national church rather than trying to influence or trying to gain control of it. One result of the Restoration was the ousting of 2,000 parish ministers who had not been ordained by bishops in the Apostolic Succession or had been by presbyters (ministers in presbyter 's orders). Continuing official suspicion and legal restrictions continued well into the 19th century. Roman Catholics, perhaps 5 % of the English population (down from 20 % in 1600) were grudgingly tolerated, having had little or no official representation after the Pope 's excommunication of Queen Elizabeth in 1570, though the Stuarts were sympathetic to them. In the 18th century they dwindled to 1 % of the population mostly among eccentric gentry and their tenants and extended families.
By the Fifth Article of the Union with Ireland 1800, the Church of England and Church of Ireland were united into "one Protestant Episcopal church, to be called, the United Church of England and Ireland ''. Although this union was declared "an essential and fundamental Part of the Union '', the Irish Church Act 1869 separated the Irish part of the church again and disestablished it, the Act coming into effect on 1 January 1871.
As the British Empire expanded, British colonists and colonial administrators took the established church doctrines and practices together with ordained ministry and formed overseas branches of the Church of England. As they developed or, beginning with the United States of America, became sovereign or independent states, many of their churches became separate organisationally but remained linked to the Church of England through the Anglican Communion.
In Bermuda, the oldest remaining English colony (now designated a British Overseas Territory), the first Church of England services were performed by the Reverend Richard Buck, one of the survivors of the 1609 wreck of the Sea Venture which initiated Bermuda 's permanent settlement. The nine parishes of the Church of England in Bermuda, each with its own church and glebe land, rarely had more than a pair of ordained ministers to share between them until the Nineteenth Century. From 1825 to 1839, Bermuda 's parishes were attached to the See of Nova Scotia. Bermuda was then grouped into the new Diocese of Newfoundland and Bermuda from 1839. In 1879, the Synod of the Church of England in Bermuda was formed. At the same time, a Diocese of Bermuda became separate from the Diocese of Newfoundland, but both continued to be grouped under the Bishop of Newfoundland and Bermuda until 1919, when Newfoundland and Bermuda each received its own Bishop.
The Church of England in Bermuda was renamed in 1978 as the Anglican Church of Bermuda, which is an extra-provincial diocese, with both metropolitan and primatial authority coming directly from the Archbishop of Canterbury. Among its parish churches is St Peter 's Church in the UNESCO World Heritage Site of St George 's Town, which is both the oldest Anglican and the oldest non-Roman Catholic church in the New World.
Under the guidance of Rowan Williams and with significant pressure from clergy union representatives, the ecclesiastical penalty for convicted felons to be defrocked was set aside from the Clergy Discipline Measure 2003. The clergy union argued that the penalty was unfair to victims of hypothetical miscarriages of criminal justice, because the ecclesiastical penalty is considered irreversible. Although clerics can still be banned for life from ministry, they remain ordained as priests.
The archbishops of Canterbury and York warned in January 2015 that the Church of England will no longer be able to carry on in its current form unless the downward spiral in membership is somehow reversed as typical Sunday attendances had halved to 800,000 in the previous 40 years:
The urgency of the challenge facing us is not in doubt. Attendance at Church of England services has declined at an average of one per cent per annum over recent decades and, in addition, the age profile of our membership has become significantly older than that of the population... Renewing and reforming aspects of our institutional life is a necessary but far from sufficient response to the challenges facing the Church of England... The age profile of our clergy has also been increasing. Around 40 per cent of parish clergy are due to retire over the next decade or so.
However, Sarah Mullally, the fourth woman chosen to become a bishop in the Church of England, insisted in June 2015 that declining numbers at services should not necessarily be a cause of despair for churches because people will still "encounter God '' without ever taking their place in a pew, saying that people might hear the Christian message through social media sites such as Facebook or in a café run as a community project. Additionally, the church 's own statistics reveal that 9.7 million people visit an Anglican church every year and 1 million students are educated at Anglican schools (which number 4,700).
Approximately 30 Church of England parish churches are declared "closed for regular public worship '' (previously termed "redundant '') each year. Between 1969 and 2010, a full 1795 closures were achieved, equalling roughly 11 % of the stock, with just over a third being Listed buildings, either Grade I or II. Of these, closures, only 514 were made since 1990. Some active use is made of about half of the closed churches.
In 2015 the Church of England admitted that it was embarrassed to be paying staff under the living wage. The Church of England had previously campaigned for all employers to pay this minimum amount. The archbishop of Canterbury acknowledged it was not the only area where the church "fell short of its standards ''.
The canon law of the Church of England identifies the Christian scriptures as the source of its doctrine. In addition, doctrine is also derived from the teachings of the Church Fathers and ecumenical councils (as well as the ecumenical creeds) in so far as these agree with scripture. This doctrine is expressed in the Thirty - Nine Articles of Religion, the Book of Common Prayer, and the Ordinal containing the rites for the ordination of deacons, priests, and the consecration of bishops. Unlike other traditions, the Church of England has no single theologian that it can look to as a founder. However, Richard Hooker 's appeal to scripture, church tradition, and reason as sources of authority continue to inform Anglican identity.
The Church of England 's doctrinal character today is largely the result of the Elizabethan Settlement, which sought to establish a comprehensive middle way between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. The Church of England affirms the Protestant Reformation principle that scripture contains all things necessary to salvation and is the final arbiter in doctrinal matters. The Thirty - nine Articles are the church 's only official confessional statement. Though not a complete system of doctrine, the articles highlight areas of agreement with Lutheran and Reformed positions, while differentiating Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism and Anabaptism.
While embracing some themes of the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England also maintains Catholic traditions of the ancient church and teachings of the Church Fathers, unless these are considered contrary to scripture. It accepts the decisions of the first four ecumenical councils concerning the Trinity and the Incarnation. The Church of England also preserves Catholic Order by adhering to episcopal polity, with ordained orders of bishops, priests and deacons. There are differences of opinion within the Church of England over the necessity of episcopacy. Some consider it essential, while others feel it is needed for the proper ordering of the church. In sum these express the ' Via Media ' viewpoint that the first five centuries of doctrinal development and church order as approved as acceptable be a kind of yardstick by which to gauge authentic catholicity, as minimum and sufficient; Anglicanism did not emerge as the result of charismatic leaders with particular doctrines. It is light on details compared to Roman Catholic, Reformed and Lutheran teachings. The Bible, the Creeds, Apostolic Order, and the administration of the Sacraments are sufficient to establish Catholicity. Indeed, not one major doctrinal development emerged from the English reformation, Diarmid MacCulloch, The Later Reformation in England, 1990, p. 55. The Reformation in England was initially much concerned about doctrine but the Elizabethan Settlement tried to put a stop to doctrinal contentions. The proponents of further changes, nonetheless, tried to get their way by making changes in Church Order (abolition of bishops), governance (Canon Law) and liturgy (' too Catholic '). They did not succeed because the Monarchy, the Church and resisted and the majority of the population were indifferent. Moreover, "despite all the assumptions of the Reformation founders of that Church, it had retained a catholic character. '' The Elizabethan Settlement had created a cuckoo in a nest... '' a Protestant theology and program within a largely pre-Reformation Catholic structure whose continuing life would arouse a theological interest in the Catholicism that had created it; and would result in the rejection of predestinarian theology in favor of sacraments, especially the eucharist, ceremonial, and anti-Calvinist doctrine '' (ibid pp. 78 -- 86). The existence of cathedrals "without substantial alteration '' and "where the "old devotional world cast its longest shadow for the future of the ethos that would become Anglicanism, '' p. 79. This is "One of the great mysteries of the English Reformation, '' ibid that there was no complete break with the past but a muddle that was per force turned into a virtue. The story of the English Reformation is the tale of retreat from the Protestant advance of 1550 which could not proceed further in the face of the opposition of the institution which was rooted in the medieval past, ibid. p. 142 and the adamant opposition of Queen Elizabeth I.
The Church of England has, as one of its distinguishing marks, a breadth and "open - mindedness ''. This tolerance has allowed Anglicans who emphasise the Catholic tradition and others who emphasise the Reformed tradition to coexist. The three "parties '' (see Churchmanship) in the Church of England are sometimes called high church (or Anglo - Catholic), low church (or evangelical Anglican) and broad church (or liberal). The high church party places importance on the Church of England 's continuity with the pre-Reformation Catholic Church, adherence to ancient liturgical usages and the sacerdotal nature of the priesthood. As their name suggests, Anglo - Catholics maintain many traditional Catholic practices and liturgical forms. The low church party is more Protestant in both ceremony and theology. Historically, broad church has been used to describe those of middle - of - the - road ceremonial preferences who lean theologically towards liberal Protestantism. The balance between these strands of churchmanship is not static: in 2013, 40 % of Church of England worshippers attended evangelical churches (compared with 26 % in 1989), and 83 % of very large congregations were evangelical. Such churches were also reported to attract higher numbers of men and young adults than others.
The Church of England 's official book of liturgy as established in English Law is the Book of Common Prayer. In addition to this book the General Synod has also legislated for a modern liturgical book, Common Worship, dating from 2000, which can be used as an alternative to the BCP. Like its predecessor, the 1980 Alternative Service Book, it differs from the Book of Common Prayer in providing a range of alternative services, mostly in modern language, although it does include some BCP - based forms as well, for example Order Two for Holy Communion. (This is a revision of the BCP service, altering some words and allowing the insertion of some other liturgical texts such as the Agnus Dei before communion.) The Order One rite follows the pattern of more modern liturgical scholarship.
The liturgies are organised according to the traditional liturgical year and the calendar of saints. The sacraments of baptism and the Eucharist are generally thought necessary to salvation. Infant baptism is practised. At a later age, individuals baptised as infants receive confirmation by a bishop, at which time they reaffirm the baptismal promises made by their parents or sponsors. The Eucharist, consecrated by a thanksgiving prayer including Christ 's Words of Institution, is believed to be "a memorial of Christ 's once - for - all redemptive acts in which Christ is objectively present and effectually received in faith ''.
The use of hymns and music in the Church of England has changed dramatically over the centuries. Traditional Choral evensong is a staple of most cathedrals. The style of psalm chanting harks back to the Church of England 's pre-reformation roots. During the 18th century, clergy such as Charles Wesley introduced their own styles of worship with poetic hymns.
In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the Charismatic Movement significantly altered the worship traditions of numerous Church of England parishes, primarily affecting those of evangelical persuasion. These churches now adopt a contemporary worship form of service, with minimal liturgical or ritual elements, and incorporating contemporary worship music.
Women were appointed as deaconesses from 1861 but they could not function fully as deacons and were not considered ordained clergy. Women have been lay readers for a long time. During the First World War, some women were appointed as lay readers, known as "bishop 's messengers '', who also led missions and ran churches in the absence of men. After that no more lay readers were appointed until 1969.
Legislation authorising the ordination of women as deacons was passed in 1986 and they were first ordained in 1987. The ordination of women as priests was passed by the General Synod in 1992 and began in 1994. In 2010, for the first time in the history of the Church of England, more women than men were ordained as priests (290 women and 273 men).
In July 2005, the synod voted to "set in train '' the process of allowing the consecration of women as bishops. In February 2006, the synod voted overwhelmingly for the "further exploration '' of possible arrangements for parishes that did not want to be directly under the authority of a bishop who is a woman. On 7 July 2008, the synod voted to approve the ordination of women as bishops and rejected moves for alternative episcopal oversight for those who do not accept the ministry of bishops who are women. Actual ordinations of women to the episcopate required further legislation, which was narrowly rejected in a vote at General Synod in November 2012.
On 20 November 2013, the General Synod voted overwhelmingly in support of a plan to allow the ordination of women as bishops, with 378 in favour, 8 against and 25 abstentions.
On 14 July 2014, the General Synod approved the ordination of women as bishops. The House of Bishops recorded 37 votes in favour, two against with one abstention. The House of Clergy had 162 in favour, 25 against and four abstentions. The House of Laity voted 152 for, 45 against with five abstentions. This legislation had to be approved by the Ecclesiastical Committee of the Parliament before it could be finally implemented at the November 2014 synod.
In December 2014, Libby Lane was announced as the first woman to become a bishop in the Church of England. She was consecrated as a bishop in January 2015.
In July 2015, Rachel Treweek was the first woman to become a diocesan bishop in the Church of England when she became the Bishop of Gloucester. She and Sarah Mullally, Bishop of Crediton, were the first women to be ordained as bishops at Canterbury Cathedral. Treweek later made headlines by calling for gender - inclusive language, saying that "God is not to be seen as male. God is God. ''
In May 2018, the Diocese of London consecrated Dame Sarah Mullally as the first woman to serve as the Bishop of London. Bishop Sarah Mullally occupies the third most senior position in the Anglican church. Mullally has described herself as a feminist and will ordain both men and women to the priesthood. She is also considered by some to be a theological liberal. On women 's reproductive rights, Mullally describes herself as pro-choice while also being personally pro-life. On marriage, she supports the current stance of the Church of England that marriage is between a man and a woman, but also said that "It is a time for us to reflect on our tradition and scripture, and together say how we can offer a response that is about it being inclusive love. ''
After the consecration of the first women as bishops, Women and the Church (WATCH), a group supporting the ministries of women in the Church of England, called for language referring to God as "Mother ''. This call for more gender inclusive language has receive the outspoken support of the Rt Rev Alan Wilson, the Bishop of Buckingham. In 2015, the Rev Jody Stowell, from WATCH, expressed her support for female images saying "we 're not restricted to understanding God with one gender. I would encourage people to explore those kinds of images. They 're wholly Biblical. ''
The Church of England has been discussing same - sex marriages and LGBT clergy. "The Church of England does not allow gay weddings, but its priests are allowed to be in a civil partnership. '' The church holds that marriage is a union of one man with one woman. However, the church teaches "Same - sex relationships often embody genuine mutuality and fidelity. '' The church also officially supports civil partnerships; "We believe that Civil Partnerships still have a place, including for some Christian LGBTI couples who see them as a way of gaining legal recognition of their relationship. '' The "Church of England does not conduct Civil Partnership Ceremonies or Same Sex Marriages but individual churches can conduct a service of thanksgiving after a ceremony. '' The church says "clergy in the Church of England are permitted to offer prayers of support on a pastoral basis for people in same - sex relationships; '' As such, many Anglican churches, with clergy open to it, "already bless same - sex couples on an unofficial basis. ''
Civil Partnerships for clergy have been allowed since 2005. The church extends pensions to clergy in civil unions. In a missive to clergy, the church communicated that "there was a need for committed same - sex couples to be given recognition and ' compassionate attention ' from the Church, including special prayers. '' "There is no prohibition on prayers ' being said in church or there being a ' service ' '' after a civil union. After same - sex marriage was legalised, the church asked for the government to continue to offer civil unions saying "The Church of England recognises that same - sex relationships often embody fidelity and mutuality. Civil partnerships enable these Christian virtues to be recognised socially and legally in a proper framework. ''
In 2014, the Bishops released guidelines that permit "more informal kind of prayer '' for couples. In the guidelines, "gay couples who get married will be able to ask for special prayers in the Church of England after their wedding, the bishops have agreed. '' In 2016, The Bishop of Grantham, the Rt Rev Nicholas Chamberlain, announced he is gay, in a same - sex relationship and celibate; becoming the first bishop to do so in the church. The church had decided in 2013 that gay clergy in civil partnerships could become bishops. "The House (of Bishops) has confirmed that clergy in civil partnerships, and living in accordance with the teaching of the church on human sexuality, can be considered as candidates for the episcopate. ''
In 2017, the House of Clergy voted against the motion to ' take note ' of the Bishops ' report defining marriage as between a man and a woman. Due to passage in all three houses being required, the motion was rejected. After General Synod rejected the motion, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York called for "radical new Christian inclusion '' that is "based on good, healthy, flourishing relationships, and in a proper 21st century understanding of being human and of being sexual. '' The church officially opposes ' conversion ' therapy, a practice which attempts to change a gay or lesbian person 's sexual orientation, calling it unethical and supports the banning of ' conversion ' therapy in the UK. The Diocese of Hereford approved a motion calling for the church "to create a set of formal services and prayers to bless those who have had a same - sex marriage or civil partnership. ''
Regarding transgender issues, the 2017 General Synod voted in favour of a motion saying that transgender people should be "welcomed and affirmed in their parish church... '' The motion also asked the Bishops "to look into special services for transgender people. '' The House of Bishops declined to create a new liturgy, but advised that clergy adapt the service for an affirmation of baptism to mark a gender transition. "The House notes that the Affirmation of Baptismal Faith, found in Common Worship, is an ideal liturgical rite which trans people can use to mark this moment of personal renewal. '' Transgender people may marry in the Church of England after legally making a transition. "Since the Gender Recognition Act (2004), trans people legally confirmed in their gender identity under its provisions are able to marry someone of the opposite sex in their parish church. '' Since 2000, the church has allowed priests to undergo gender transition and remain in office. The church has ordained openly transgender clergy since 2005.
Just as the Church of England has a large conservative or "traditionalist '' wing, it also has many liberal members and clergy. Approximately one third of clergy "doubt or disbelieve in the physical resurrection ''. Others, such as the Revd Giles Fraser, a contributor to The Guardian, have argued for an allegorical interpretation of the virgin birth of Jesus. The Independent reported in 2014 that, according to a YouGov survey of Church of England clergy, "as many as 16 per cent are unclear about God and two per cent think it is no more than a human construct. '' Moreover, many congregations are seeker - friendly environments. For example, one report from the Church Mission Society suggested that the church open up "a pagan church where Christianity (is) very much in the centre '' to reach out to spiritual people.
The Church of England is generally opposed to abortion but recognises that "there can be - strictly limited - conditions under which it may be morally preferable to any available alternative ''. The church also opposes euthanasia. Its official stance is that "While acknowledging the complexity of the issues involved in assisted dying / suicide and voluntary euthanasia, the Church of England is opposed to any change in the law or in medical practice that would make assisted dying / suicide or voluntary euthanasia permissible in law or acceptable in practice. '' It also states that "Equally, the Church shares the desire to alleviate physical and psychological suffering, but believes that assisted dying / suicide and voluntary euthanasia are not acceptable means of achieving these laudable goals. '' However, George Carey, a former Archbishop of Canterbury, announced that he had changed his stance on euthanasia in 2014 and now advocated legalising "assisted dying ''. On embryonic stem - cell research, the church has announced "cautious acceptance to the proposal to produce cytoplasmic hybrid embryos for research ''.
The Church of England set up the Church Urban Fund in the 1980s to tackle poverty and deprivation. They see poverty as trapping individuals and communities with some people in urgent need. This leads to dependency, homelessness, hunger, isolation, low income, mental health problems, social exclusion and violence. They feel that poverty reduces confidence and life expectancy and that people born in poor conditions have difficulty escaping their disadvantaged circumstances.
In parts of Liverpool, Manchester and Newcastle two - thirds of babies are born to poverty and have poorer life chances, also life expectancy 15 years lower than babies born in most fortunate communities. South Shore, Blackpool, has lowest life expectancy at 66 years for men.
The deep - rooted unfairness in our society is highlighted by these stark statistics. Children being born in this country, just a few miles apart, could n't witness a more wildly differing start to life. In child poverty terms, we live in one of the most unequal countries in the western world. We want people to understand where their own community sits alongside neighbouring communities. The disparity is often shocking but it 's crucial that, through greater awareness, people from all backgrounds come together to think about what could be done to support those born into poverty. (Paul Hackwood, the Chair of Trustees at Church Urban Fund)
Many prominent people in the Church of England have spoken out against poverty and welfare cuts in the United Kingdom. Twenty - seven bishops are among 43 Christian leaders who signed a letter which urged David Cameron to make sure people have enough to eat.
We often hear talk of hard choices. Surely few can be harder than that faced by the tens of thousands of older people who must ' heat or eat ' each winter, harder than those faced by families whose wages have stayed flat while food prices have gone up 30 % in just five years. Yet beyond even this we must, as a society, face up to the fact that over half of people using food banks have been put in that situation by cutbacks to and failures in the benefit system, whether it be payment delays or punitive sanctions.
Benefit cuts, failures and "punitive sanctions '' force thousands of UK citizens to use food banks. The campaign to end hunger considers this "truly shocking '' and called for a national day of fasting on 4 April 2014.
Official figures from 2005 showed there were 25 million baptised Anglicans in England and Wales. Due to its status as the established church, in general, anyone may be married, have their children baptised or their funeral in their local parish church, regardless of whether they are baptised or regular churchgoers.
Between 1890 and 2001, churchgoing in the United Kingdom declined steadily. In the years 1968 to 1999, Anglican Sunday church attendances almost halved, from 3.5 per cent of the population to 1.9 per cent. By the year 2014, Sunday church attendances had declined further to 1.4 per cent of the population. One study published in 2008 suggested that if current trends were to continue, Sunday attendances could fall to 350,000 in 2030 and just 87,800 in 2050.
In 2011, the Church of England published statistics showing 1.7 million people attending at least one of its services each month, a level maintained since the turn of the millennium; approximately one million participating each Sunday and three million taking part in a Church of England service on Christmas Day or Christmas Eve. The church also claimed that 30 % attend Sunday worship at least once a year; more than 40 % attend a wedding in their local church and still more attend a funeral there. Nationally the Church of England baptises one child in ten (2011). In 2015, the church 's statistics showed that 2.6 million people attended a special Advent service, 2.4 million attended a Christmas service, 1.3 million attended an Easter service, and 980,000 attended service during an average week. In 2016, 2.6 million people attended a Christmas service, 1.2 million attended an Easter service, 1.1 million people attended a service in the Church of England each month, an average of 930,000 people attended a weekly service, an additional 180,000 attended a service for school each week, and an average of 740,000 people attended Sunday service.
The Church of England has 18,000 active ordained clergy and 10,000 licensed lay ministers. In 2009, 491 people were recommended for ordination training, maintaining the level at the turn of the millennium, and 564 new clergy (266 women and 298 men) were ordained. More than half of those ordained (193 men and 116 women) were appointed to full - time paid ministry. In 2011, 504 new clergy were ordained, including 264 to paid ministry, and 349 lay readers were admitted to ministry; and the mode age - range of those recommended for ordination training had remained 40 -- 49 since 1999.
Article XIX (' Of the Church ') of the 39 Articles defines the church as follows:
The visible Church of Christ is a congregation of faithful men, in which the pure Word of God is preached, and the sacraments be duly ministered according to Christ 's ordinance in all those things that of necessity are requisite to the same.
The British monarch has the constitutional title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England. The canon law of the Church of England states, "We acknowledge that the Queen 's most excellent Majesty, acting according to the laws of the realm, is the highest power under God in this kingdom, and has supreme authority over all persons in all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil. '' In practice this power is often exercised through Parliament and the Prime Minister.
The Church of Ireland and the Church in Wales separated from the Church of England in 1869 and 1920 respectively and are autonomous churches in the Anglican Communion; Scotland 's national church, the Church of Scotland, is Presbyterian but the Scottish Episcopal Church is in the Anglican Communion.
In addition to England, the jurisdiction of the Church of England extends to the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands and a few parishes in Flintshire, Monmouthshire, Powys and Radnorshire in Wales which voted to remain with the Church of England rather than joining the Church in Wales. Expatriate congregations on the continent of Europe have become the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe.
The church is structured as follows (from the lowest level upwards):
All rectors and vicars are appointed by patrons, who may be private individuals, corporate bodies such as cathedrals, colleges or trusts, or by the bishop or directly by the Crown. No clergy can be instituted and inducted into a parish without swearing the Oath of Allegiance to Her Majesty, and taking the Oath of Canonical Obedience "in all things lawful and honest '' to the bishop. Usually they are instituted to the benefice by the bishop and then inducted by the archdeacon into the possession of the benefice property -- church and parsonage. Curates (assistant clergy) are appointed by rectors and vicars, or if priests - in - charge by the bishop after consultation with the patron. Cathedral clergy (normally a dean and a varying number of residentiary canons who constitute the cathedral chapter) are appointed either by the Crown, the bishop, or by the dean and chapter themselves. Clergy officiate in a diocese either because they hold office as beneficed clergy or are licensed by the bishop when appointed, or simply with permission.
The most senior bishop of the Church of England is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who is the metropolitan of the southern province of England, the Province of Canterbury. He has the status of Primate of All England. He is the focus of unity for the worldwide Anglican Communion of independent national or regional churches. Justin Welby has been Archbishop of Canterbury since the confirmation of his election on 4 February 2013.
The second most senior bishop is the Archbishop of York, who is the metropolitan of the northern province of England, the Province of York. For historical reasons (relating to the time of York 's control by the Danes) he is referred to as the Primate of England. John Sentamu became Archbishop of York in 2005. The Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham and the Bishop of Winchester are ranked in the next three positions.
The process of appointing diocesan bishops is complex, due to historical reasons balancing hierarchy against democracy, and is handled by the Crown Nominations Committee which submits names to the Prime Minister (acting on behalf of the Crown) for consideration.
The Church of England has a legislative body, the General Synod. Synod can create two types of legislation, measures and canons. Measures have to be approved but can not be amended by the British Parliament before receiving the Royal Assent and becoming part of the law of England. Although it is the established church in England only, its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament including the non-English members. Canons require Royal Licence and Royal Assent, but form the law of the church, rather than the law of the land.
Another assembly is the Convocation of the English Clergy, which is older than the General Synod and its predecessor the Church Assembly. By the 1969 Synodical Government Measure almost all of the Convocations ' functions were transferred to the General Synod. Additionally, there are Diocesan Synods and deanery synods, which are the governing bodies of the divisions of the Church.
Of the 42 diocesan archbishops and bishops in the Church of England, 26 are permitted to sit in the House of Lords. The Archbishops of Canterbury and York automatically have seats, as do the Bishops of London, Durham and Winchester. The remaining 21 seats are filled in order of seniority by consecration. It may take a diocesan bishop a number of years to reach the House of Lords, at which point he becomes a Lord Spiritual. The Bishop of Sodor and Man and the Bishop of Gibraltar in Europe are not eligible to sit in the House of Lords as their dioceses lie outside the United Kingdom.
Although they are not part of England or the United Kingdom, the Church of England is also the Established Church in the Crown dependencies of the Isle of Man, the Bailiwick of Jersey and the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The Isle of Man has its own diocese of Sodor and Man, and the Bishop of Sodor and Man is an ex officio member of the Legislative Council of the Tynwald on the island. The Channel Islands are part of the Diocese of Winchester, and in Jersey the Dean of Jersey is a non-voting member of the States of Jersey. In Guernsey the Church of England is the Established Church, although the Dean of Guernsey is not a member of the States of Guernsey.
The Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, has made some effort to prevent complaints of sex abuse cases being covered up. Independent investigators are examining files as far back as the 1950s and Welby hopes this independence will prevent any possibility of a cover - up.
We will systematically bring those transparently and openly first of all working with the survivors where they are still alive and then seeing what they want. The rule is survivors come first, not our own interests, and however important the person was, however distinguished, however well - known, survivors come first. (Justin Welby)
The personal files of all Anglican clergy since the 1950s are being audited in an effort to ensure no cover - up. Welby emphasised repeatedly that no cover - up would be acceptable.
Despite such assurances there is concern that not enough may be done and historic abuse may still sometimes be covered up. Keith Porteous Wood of the National Secular Society stated:
The problem was n't that bishops were n't trained in such matters, it is the institutional culture of denial and the bullying of the abused and whistleblowers into silence. One report suggests that 13 bishops ignored letters written in the 1990s warning of abuse by Ball on behalf of a victim who later committed suicide. I have seen evidence that such bullying persists to this day. I hope that the Archbishop 's review into the case of Peter Ball will deal with such bullying and what appears to be the undue influence exerted on the police and CPS by the Church in dealing with this case. The total failure of procedures, outlined by Ian Elliott, echoes that revealed in the totally damning Cahill Report about the conduct of the Archbishop Hope of York in respect of Robert Waddington. The current Archbishop of York has decided that this report should remain in printed form rather than be more widely available on the web.
Bishop Peter Ball was convicted in October 2015 on several charges of indecent assault against young adult men. There are allegations of large - scale earlier cover - ups involving many British establishment figures which prevented Ball 's earlier prosecution. There have also been allegations of child sex abuse, for example Robert Waddington. A complainant, known only as "Joe '', tried for decades to have action taken over sadistic sex abuse which Garth Moore perpetrated against him in 1976 when "Joe '' was 15 years old. None of the high ranking clergy who "Joe '' spoke to recall being told about the abuse, which "Joe '' considers incredible. A representative of the solicitors firm representing "Joe '' said:
The Church of England wants to bury and discourage allegations of non-recent abuse. They know how difficult it is for survivors to come forward, and it appears from this case that the Church has a plan of making it hard for these vulnerable people to come forward. This survivor has had the courage to press his case. Most do not. Most harbour the psychological fallout in silence. We need to find a way to make the system more approachable for survivors.
Although an established church, the Church of England does not receive any direct government support. Donations comprise its largest source of income, and it also relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments. In 2005, the Church of England had estimated total outgoings of around £ 900 million.
The Church of England manages an investment portfolio which is worth more than £ 8 billion.
The Church of England supports A Church Near You, an online directory of churches. A user - edited resource, it currently lists 16,400 churches and has 7,000 editors in 42 dioceses. The directory enables parishes to maintain accurate location, contact and event information which is shared with other websites and mobile apps. In 2012, the directory formed the data backbone of Christmas Near You and in 2014 was used to promote the church 's Harvest Near You initiative.
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when is the covered bridge festival in parke county indiana | Parke County covered Bridge festival - Wikipedia
The Parke County Covered Bridge Festival is a fall festival which takes place in nine communities in Parke County, Indiana, United States. It celebrates the county 's 31 covered bridges, and is attended by more than 2 million people each year. It begins on the 2nd Friday in October and lasts 10 days.
The festival began in 1957, when a group of local women decided to hold a three - day festival to accommodate the many interested tourists looking for information about the bridges. The first festival was rather small and occurred only in Rockville.
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when does the alternate timeline happen in being human | Being human (North American season 4) - Wikipedia
Being Human is a supernatural drama television series developed for North American television by Jeremy Carver and Anna Fricke, based upon the British series of the same name created by Toby Whithouse. The series premiered on Syfy and Space Channel on January 17, 2011 with a thirteen episode first season and tells the story of Aidan (Sam Witwer) and Josh (Sam Huntington), a vampire and a werewolf respectively, who move into a new apartment only to discover that it is haunted by the ghost of a previous tenant, Sally (Meaghan Rath). Together, the three of them discover that being human is not as easy as it seems. The fourth and final season began on January 13, 2014, and once again introduced changes to the dynamics of the group: Josh 's lycanthropy curses him to be a wolf all but the night of the full moon, but Sally, who has returned from being trapped between dimensions by Donna, now has magical powers and manages to free Josh from the curse, but the spell does not go as planned and Josh 's inner wolf is still present, while Aidan must now deal with his wife Suzanna, who was thought to be long dead, and Kenny, who is now heading the Boston vampires.
As Sally watches the events of Josh 's impending death unfold before her, she manages to freeze time, and gets herself, Josh, and Nora to safety in the basement with magic. She warns Josh that this will end with his death and it is because of Kenny unless she can do something, and she gets an idea. She opens the door to the basement but before Aidan can attack, she slams him into the wall with psychic powers. After she gets Nora and Josh to lift him into the bed, she performs one last spell. Aidan wakes up and can feel his heartbeat for the first time in centuries. Sally has sacrificed herself to bring him back to life, and she thanks all of them for all they have done before disappearing into nothingness. Ramona, however, is angry that Sally is gone, and attacks them, blowing out all the windows in the house, but the three manage to escape to Nora 's apartment. Aidan is amazed that he is alive, but is sure that Sally is gone for good. After getting him his first real food in over 200 years, Aidan lets the two of them live together and he will stay in the RV as they had originally planned. However, after a night of drunkenness and sorrow, Aidan wakes up and realizes something is off. At the house, a construction worker enters and tries to get work done, but is distracted by Ramona. At the RV, Aidan looks in the mirror and sees that he has rapidly aged over night. The construction worker follows Ramona up to her hidden room, and she kills him with a shard of glass, planning on using him to get to the others. At the hospital, Nora presents Aidan with test results, showing that his organs are slowly failing as his age catches up with him. Both are hesitant to tell Josh of the truth, and when it does happen, Aidan accidentally reveals that Nora is pregnant with his child. Later, Aidan visits Sally 's grave, leaving a rose behind, and goes to a bar in town, watching as he sees a new vampire try to get a date and meal. Aidan stops him, and demands that he turn him back into a vampire. At Nora 's apartment, Josh tells her he plans on opening a diner to work in, but also is worried that he should get medication because of everything that has happened. Nora assures him she trusts in him, regardless of the wolf. Josh drives into town and finds Aidan getting attacked, but not fighting back, and the vampire leaves. Aidan finally admits that he is afraid of dying, because he feels that there is no good end for him with his centuries of monstrosities, but Josh just tells him that he is simply being human. The next morning, Josh drops off breakfast and the newspaper for Aidan, who is planning on seeing everything in Boston before he dies, but he instead happens upon the death of the construction worker in their old house. Aidan has an idea to end things for good, and demands that Josh not get involved, as he has a future with Nora and his child. Josh insists, and Aidan tells him to drop him off for now and meet him in the house in an hour. However, Aidan is planning on taking care of things by himself. He drops some bags off downstairs, and heads upstairs to try to find Ramona, finding his old leather jacket first, before finding her. She taunts him about how he will probably go to hell, and there is nothing that he can do to stop her because her creation was not one of Catholicism so any plans he may have to exorcise her are fruitless. Instead, he taunts her back that nothing she has planned for them will work, and she attacks him, planning on choking him with blood, before throwing him down the stairs, just as Sally died originally. He lands just as she did, but with his final breaths he ignites a cigarette lighter, throwing it onto a puddle of gasoline he had spilled earlier. As the house burns down, so does Ramona 's evil spirit, destroying her, and the house, for good. Josh and Nora return to find the house burnt to cinders and Aidan 's corpse taken away by paramedics. They enter to survey the damage, only to see Aidan 's ghost greet them. They offer to let him haunt them, but he feels he should see the world first, until Josh and Nora tell him his Door has arrived. As he enters through it, he is greeted by Sally 's soul, and the two embrace for the first time, as they both pass on to the other side.
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who voices phil in f is for family | F is for Family - wikipedia
F Is for Family is an American web animated sitcom created by Bill Burr and Michael Price and produced by Gaumont International Television and Vince Vaughn 's Wild West Television.
The show premiered on December 18, 2015 to generally favorable reviews. Season 2 premiered May 30, 2017. On June 28, 2017, the show was renewed for a third season.
The series was announced in October 2014 as part of a partnership between Netflix, Gaumont International Television, and Wild West Television. The show is a "family comedy '' based on the standup of Bill Burr. Moreover, the show takes place in the 1970s, "a time when you could smack your kid, smoke inside, and bring a gun to the airport ''. Burr voices the Murphy family patriarch, with Laura Dern as his wife, Justin Long as his eldest son, Debi Derryberry as his daughter Maureen, and Haley Reinhart as his young son. The first season consists of six episodes, shown in a serial manner, written by Bill Burr and Michael Price. Price is best known for his Emmy and Writers Guild award - winning work on The Simpsons. The series is co-directed by Ben Marsaud (director of Counterfeit Cat & former storyboard artist on The Amazing World of Gumball).
The series has received generally positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes the series holds a rating of 87 % based on 15 reviews, with an average score of 7.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "While the humor relies on vulgarity, the strength of F Is for Family is its substantial heart. '' On Metacritic, the series holds a score of 75 out of 100, based on 14 reviews, indicating "Generally favorable reviews ''.
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who is sending texts in pretty little liars | A (Pretty Little Liars) - wikipedia
"A '' is a fictional character created in 2006 by author Sara Shepard. It is a character of both Pretty Little Liars ' books and television series, and primarily appears as a stalker and the main antagonist of the stories. "A '' is one of the main characters of the stories, appearing anonymously in the majority of the episodes and books.
The villain has already had many portrayals. Its basic occupation is to pursue and threaten the four protagonists of the stories. Thus, many identities have been revealed to be "A ''. "A '' has a specific and unhealthy way of dealing with the protagonists; it often calls them as "bitches '', "dolls '' and "liars ''. Its handling and acts of terrorism caused great psychological and emotional damage to the protagonists, even leading them to be hospitalized.
After the revelation of Mona Vanderwaal as the first and original "A '', she began receiving visits from someone, known as Red Coat, who offered her a partnership and together they built up the "A-Team ''. The team had many members but disbanded after the season three finale and Big A began working with a single ally. The identity of the second "A '', Red Coat, and the leader of the "A-Team '' was revealed to be CeCe Drake, while her ally that donned the Black Widow and other Red Coat disguise was revealed to be Sara Harvey. Five years later, a new mysterious entity arises and begins using Emojis to communicate but later baptizes themselves as "A.D. '', while the Liars refer to the anonymous figure as Uber A. Then, in the Series Finale, "A.D. '' reveals themselves to be Alex Drake, the twin sister of Spencer.
"A '' makes appearances as a figure with black leather gloves, a black hood, dark pants, and dark shoes. Throughout the seasons, the story focuses on the mystery of "A ''. However, "Big A '' also sported different disguises, including that of Red Coat, while their ally disguised themselves as The Black Widow, while also donning the Red Coat identity on certain occasions.
Uber A also dressed up as several disguises, including those of a gardener, a maid and a surgeon. They later costume themselves with the traditional look.
Three year after the disappearance of Alison DiLaurentis, her four friends, Aria Montgomery, Spencer Hastings, Emily Fields, and Hanna Marin, each receive messages from someone calling themselves "A. '' The girls had drifted apart over the years, so they had no idea that other people were getting texts as well. Additionally, the texts were about secrets only Ali knew about. At first, the messages were simply teasing and all of the girls wonder if their missing friend was the one who sent them. Though they knew she was most likely dead, she was still the only one who knew their darkest secrets. Once Ali 's body is discovered in her old backyard, the girls are even more baffled when they continue to receive threats. At Ali 's funeral, the girls are reunited and they find out that they 've all been receiving weird messages. As the girls stand outside after the funeral ends, they all get a text saying, "I 'm still here, bitches. And I know everything. -- A ''.
From that point on, the messages take on a distinctly more threatening tone. Aria is given an ultimatum to tell her mother about her father 's affair by midnight after the Foxy event, or A will do it for her. A continues to play life - altering games with the girls, from encouraging suspicion of Spencer 's involvement in Ali 's death to outing Emily 's sexuality to her conservative mother. However, A makes a serious mistake in texting Hanna on the night of Mona 's birthday party. Instead of using the plain Blackberry she bought just for tormenting the girls, A accidentally uses his / her own phone. Hanna, who has a new phone without all of her contacts recognizes the number, compelling A to act before Hanna can reveal A 's true identity to the others. A hits Hanna with an SUV, successfully destroying Hanna 's phone and putting her into a coma that eventually leads to a temporary loss of memory. Soon after that, "A '' puts a drug in Emily 's pain cream which causes an Ulcer in the spot where she has been putting the cream. She ends up in the hospital and might not be able to swim again.
A knew that there was a very good chance Hanna would regain her memory. Hanna 's best friend, Mona Vanderwaal, informs the girls that she has also received texts from A, drawing the five closer together in trying to figure out who their tormentor is. Mona subtly encourages Spencer 's fears that her sister, Melissa, might be A as well as Alison 's killer. During Hanna 's recovery masquerade celebration, she suddenly regains her memory, revealing that Mona is A. However, she, Emily, and Aria ca n't do much about it, because Spencer and Mona are on their way to the police station. After Spencer is warned about Mona by text, she tries to escape Mona 's car, but Mona catches on rather quickly and diverts to a path in a more remote area of Rosewood. She tells Spencer everything, from seeing Ali launch a firework into Toby Cavanaugh 's garage and blind her friend Jenna, to finding Ali 's diary of secrets among a pile of old DiLaurentis junk the St. Germains left at the curb, discovering the girls ' secrets that only Ali knew. Her motivation was to get revenge for her friend 's blindness, even though Jenna and Ali had planned together to launch the firework. Mona did n't know this and got a scar on her stomach from the ordeal. Mona also drops the bombshell that Ian Thomas killed Ali, due to Ali 's last diary entry about giving him an ultimatum to break up with Melissa. She then offers Spencer to become A with her and tell Hanna that she must not be remembering correctly, but she refuses. The two fight at Floating Man 's Quarry and Spencer accidentally pushes Mona, who falls and has her neck caught between rocks.
As the girls move into the big red house they are shocked to receive messages from a new person claiming to be Alison. At first, they believe it 's just a prank, especially since the first "A '' got major news time. Then the girls believe it 's Ian Thomas, who is the prime suspect of the investigation. Spencer is especially certain of this until finding Ian 's body in the woods bordering her estate and the old DiLaurentis home. The girls all get a message from "A, '' saying "He had to go. - A ''.
However, this Alison is even more twisted than the first; Ian 's body disappears and the town is largely convinced that it was a hoax. "A '' even teases Spencer, stating, "Just because I said Ian had to go, it did n't mean he had to die. '' "A '' pretends to be Ian, using an IM screenname of USCMidfielderRoxx, a testament to his alma mater and his love for field hockey. Through this new fake identity, "A '' feeds Spencer some interesting information about her family, specifically her father 's affair with Mrs. DiLaurentis and the possibility that Ali is her half sister. "A '' proceeds to torment the girls even more: they force Spencer to focus more on her father 's secret by enabling Spencer 's surrogate mother to scam her and clear out her two million dollar trust fund. "A '' taunts Aria with pictures of her and her mother 's new love interest in compromising situations. They threaten to send these to her mother, even though Aria has tried to ward off her mother 's new boyfriend. "A '' lands Hanna in the Preserve at Addison - Stevens, a lush clinic for troubled patients. "A '' sends Emily on a trip to the Amish community in Lancaster to dig up more dirt on Officer Wilden.
Throughout the second half of the series, the second "A '' keeps up this forced information search with the girls, pushing them to find more information on Wilden and Jason DiLaurentis. "A '' even plants the idea that they killed Ali. However, when Jenna is found dead in Heartless, "A '' plants all of their texts, pictures, etc. on a random lecherous construction worker. This is one of the same workers who was involved in building the DiLaurentises ' gazebo when "Alison '' was still alive. The girls believe it is all over now, though the fact that the suspect is such a random person bothers them.
Everyone in Rosewood is shocked when the DiLaurentis 's introduce the existence of a third child, Courtney DiLaurentis. She is the twin of Alison and was kept in various clinics because she was "ill ''. However, "Courtney '' is actually Alison DiLaurentis herself. She reveals her true identity to each of the girls, hoping to gain their friendship and telling them she never died the night of the sleepover. She claims that Courtney must have gotten out of the house and ran into the construction worker, who killed her. Though the girls believe her and are glad to have their friend back, Aria is the most suspicious of her. It was recently discovered that Courtney liked to pretend to be Ali and she was n't completely buying her story. Additionally, Wilden and Melissa are also suspicious of "Courtney ''. Melissa knew about the twins since high school, as their brother Jason confided in her. He told her they hated each other, but Spencer tells her about "Courtney 's '' statements that she and Ali shared everything together. ''
Ali 's time is running out, for besides the few people suspicious of her, the police start to say that the construction worker has an alibi and might not be guilty. Her secret is further endangered when Aria finds and sends in a photo of a reflection of someone spying on the girls during the sleepover. The reflection is too blurry, but it is clearly a female. Ali takes Mona 's idea and convinces Spencer that Melissa is the culprit. Meanwhile, she kidnaps Melissa - who has just figured out the truth - and keeps her in her family 's Poconos home. She stuffs Melissa in a closet with Ian 's corpse.
On the night of the school 's Valentine dance, Ali convinces the girls to hang out with her at the Poconos home. They ditch the party and get wasted at her home. She asks them if she could reenact the night of the sleepover and hypnotize them. Everyone reluctantly agrees, and minutes later they wake up to find Ali gone and the door of the room locked. A letter is slid underneath, informing the girls of the horrible truth: The Alison that they had been friends with had been Courtney all along and the real Ali killed her.
Courtney was mentally unsound and wanted to be Ali so badly that she tried to drown her when they were children. One day, when she was home from the mental institute, Courtney stole Ali 's ring and imitated her when she saw Spencer and the others sneaking into their backyard. Ali was sent to the new mental institute, the Preserve, in Courtney 's place, and was forced to take her sister 's messed up life. On the night of the sleepover, she spied on the girls, followed Courtney after her fight with Spencer, and killed her in revenge for taking her perfect life. She hates the girls for ruining her life and tries to kill them too by boarding up the entire home and setting it on fire. The girls, including Melissa, manage to escape, but no one knows whether Ali is alive. It 's hinted that she might be, as Emily hears a faint giggle in the distance as she visits Courtney 's grave in the evening.
By the end of Crushed, the Liars know that the Second "A '', Alison, has had an accomplice the whole time, and that this accomplice is the Third "A ''. They believe that Alison did indeed survive the fire in the Poconos house, and thus that the Second and Third "A '' are currently operating together to bring them down (and eventually kill them). The helper later is revealed to be Nick Maxwell, Alison 's boyfriend when she was hospitalized. Nick was caught by the police when he and Alison planned to kill the Liars via poisoning. However, months later, the Liars visit Nick in the prison in order to discover some clues about Alison 's whereabouts, and he gives them some information.
Original A was the first "A '' and revealed to be Mona Vanderwaal. Mona began torturing Alison by sending her gifts, threats and soon attacking her while wearing a zombie costume. "A '' continued to mess with Ali and her mother Jessica DiLaurentis, whom she believed it to be Spencer Hastings. After Alison 's disappearance, "A '' went away for a year but after the corpse of Bethany Young (believed to be Alison at the time) was found, she reemerged. "A '' began sending the Liars messages about things only Alison knew about them and soon even began messing with their parents. Doctor Anne Sullivan had previously dealt with the person behind the hoodie and when "A '' trashed her office she immediately recognized the person. She almost exposes her identity to the Liars but "A '' kidnaps her and went as far as to threaten her son 's life. But the Liars are still close to figuring it out and during the second half of season two they manage to get a hold of "A 's '' phone. They hatch a plan to catch her with this and it works. They find out that "A '' had a lair at the Lost woods resort and Spencer and Mona ("A 's '' newest victim) head over there and find a room full of pictures of Alison and the girls along with a sketch of "A 's '' costume to the ball, The Black Swan. However, Spencer begins to notice other clues and soon realizes "A '' is right there with her. She turns around to see Mona in a black hoodie, who reveals herself as "A ''. She kidnaps Spencer and gives her an opportunity to join the "A '' team but Spencer declines and the two get into a fight, where Mona is pushed off of a cliff. Though Mona survives, she is sent to Radley Sanitarium for medical assistance. While in the psychiatric hospital, Mona takes up a partnership suggested by the then unknown CeCe Drake that starts off the second game. After this, Mona became another henchmen in the "A '' hierarchy, obeying the orders of CeCe, whom she knew as Red Coat. Mona was kicked off of the A-Team in the season three finale. However, Mona joins the new "A.D. '' team in Season 7, after "A.D. '' sends Wren to kill her and she offers to help instead. She helps them kidnap Spencer and wears a Melissa mask, but ultimately turns on them and brings the Liars to them, as well as a cop. However, this turns out to be a ruse and the "cop '' is actually Mona 's French boyfriend, who helps her take Mary and Alex (the two remaining members) to France to live in her own personal Dollhouse. Mona is the final "A '' of the series, being the "winner '' of the game.
Big A was the person who took over the "A '' game from Mona Vanderwaal after she was admitted to Radley Sanitarium and revealed to be CeCe Drake. She had visited Mona in Radley and used her to get information about the Liars before taking over the game herself and had used Mona, Toby and Spencer to do her dirty work and sometimes went under the Red Coat disguise. Big A often hid out at a lair situated in Room A at an apartment building at Mayflower Hill and a mobile RV which was stolen but Toby gave it back to "A '' in exchange for information about his mother 's death. However, the Team was disbanded in the third - season finale and CeCe acted on her own with a few minions and an ally, who is Sara Harvey. It is revealed that Charlotte had been hiding out in the basement of the DiLaurentis house and drilled holes through the floor to spy on the family in her Red Coat disguise and shared the identity with Alison. Her disguise as Red Coat was exposed in the fourth season mid finale when Emily was trapped on a saw at Ravenswood and later got into a fight with Aria who discovered her identity and Charlotte later fell off a platform and escaped. In "A is for Answers '' the Liars are under attack by "A '' who shoots Ezra Fitz on the rooftop. However, in the fifth - season premiere, the shooter is revealed to be Shana Fring who attempted to kill Alison but was later shoved off a stage by Aria and died from the impact. After all of this, Charlotte fled to France under the Vivian Darkbloom identity to escape custody for Wilden 's death but returned. In the series 's 100 episode, Charlotte placed a bomb in the Cavanaugh house which detonated, signalling her return to Rosewood. In season five, CeCe breaks into the Vanderwaal home and kidnaps Mona just as she is about to tell the Liars that Alison is "A '' and covers up her kidnapping as a homicide. She then brings Mona to the Dollhouse and tortures her and forces her to dress up and act like Alison. Just as the Liars are being brought to jail, CeCe kidnaps them and tortures them inside the Dollhouse. Inside, the Liars discover that Big "A '' is named Charles DiLaurentis. CeCe / Charlotte reveals herself as "A '' and tells her story; saying that she is transgender, was formerly known as Charles DiLaurentis, and became ' A ' because the Liars were happy that Alison was gone. She worked with Sara Harvey, who was the Black Widow and a decoy Red Coat, and was also responsible for the "death '' of Alison and the death of Wilden, and after telling her story, she attempts suicide by jumping off Radley but is stopped. She is admitted to Welby State and her reign as "A '' finally ends and stays in the psychiatric hospital for five years. When she is released, Charlotte is murdered by Mona Vanderwaal and her death causes the birth of "A.D. '', the new Uber A. After her death, it is revealed that Noel Kahn was also working for Charlotte. It is also revealed that her birth mother is Jessica 's twin, Mary Drake, and her birth father is Ted Wilson, while Spencer is her sister.
Uber A also known as A.D. is the third major "A '' to have tormented the Liars. In the show 's series finale, Uber A 's identity is revealed to be Alex Drake, Spencer 's twin sister who was put up for adoption at birth. She desperately craves vengeance over the tragic passing of Charlotte DiLaurentis, who was her half - sister, and is trying to seek out the person responsible. Unlike Mona or Charlotte, Alex does not use any nicknames at first but instead signs their messages with emojis, which differentiates her from the A-Team. This causes Caleb to nickname her Amoji. However, in the sixth - season finale, she begins using the alias "A.D. '' and kidnaps Hanna, whom she believes is accountable for her sister 's homicide. Hanna manages to escape Uber A 's clutches and Alex goes after Alison, who the Liars suggested as guilty for her own cousin 's murder. Uber A eventually finds out that Alison is innocent after searching her jacket. While Uber A does work on their own, she also works through a new "A-Team '' of helpers, known to consist of Jenna Marshall, Sydney Driscoll, and Aria Montgomery, who are assisting them in completing the endgame. The series finale explains that Alex Drake was put up for adoption in exchange for a sum of money (for Mary), but then left at an orphanage by her adopted parents who were concerned for their image. She ran away from the orphanage at ten years old and eventually started working in a bar in London, where Wren Kingston mistook her for Spencer, revealing the existence of Alex 's twin and Charlotte. Wren introduces Charlotte and Alex in an airport (just after Charlotte met Archer Dunhill) and they immediately connect, becoming very close in a short amount of time. After Charlotte is released from Welby, she tells Alex that she wishes to return to Rosewood and resume the game, but Alex says she should n't go unless she gets to come too, since she wants to meet Spencer. Charlotte says no and describes the Hastings as "toxic people '' before leaving for Rosewood, where she was murdered by Mona. Alex is enraged and forces Wren to shoot her so that she looks exactly like Spencer and can successfully impersonate her. She then goes to Rosewood and picks up the game as "Uber A ''. Alex has made several appearances where she impersonates Spencer, including, but not limited to: The run in with Ezra at the airport where she introduced Wren, the kiss between "Spencer '' and Toby just before the latter planned to leave Rosewood with Yvonne, and Hanna 's "dream '' where she "hallucinated '' Spencer while A.D held her hostage. The latter was done so that Alex could find out whether Hanna was telling the truth about killing Charlotte.
The A-Team is a group of anonymous characters that worked together as "A ''. The team would work under the orders of the "A '' in charge, who has been Mona Vanderwaal, the original leader and founder and CeCe Drake, the second leader. Five years later, Alex Drake, also known as Uber A, assembles a team of their own. This team continues using the same name, though is also referred to as the "A.D. - Team ''.
Sara was the right - hand woman to Charlotte and also revealed as an A-Team member halfway throughout the sixth season. Sara is revealed as a Red Coat and the Black Widow, hired to pose as a decoy whenever Charlotte could n't sport the Red Coat disguise. She then became Charlotte 's friend and ally in the "A '' game and assisted her in most of her schemes. Sara was allegedly diagnosed with Stockholm Syndrome following Charlotte 's arrest, but later discloses to Alison that she lied under oath, also admitting that she and Charlotte were in fact close friends and she felt as though they were sisters. Later, Sara was possibly enlisted by "A.D. '' to work with them. However, Sara was killed by Noel Kahn after she tried to reveal more than she should to Emily.
Sydney is Uber A 's helper for a brief while. She is first seen communicating with them through text messages, when she makes a donation under their name at the Vogel Vision Institute. When Aria and Emily confront her, Driscoll claims that she is simply representing a client who prefers to remain anonymous. However, she returns in the following episode and reveals herself to be "A.D. ''. She offers Aria the chance to join their team, but Aria realizes that Sydney is communicating with someone through an ear piece, revealing that she 's just a minion. Aria asks her why she would join their tormentor and Driscoll replies that she wants to be part of the "winning team ''. However, Uber A, who reveals herself as Spencer 's twin sister Alex Drake, reveals in the series finale that Sydney was n't involved in the Blind School shooting and joined the A-Team because Alex found out she had been stealing from a bank and she fit the hoodie.
Toby was recruited by Mona to join the A-Team when he got a job in Bucks County. His participation in the team was revealed in the mid-season finale of the third season. He worked hand in hand with Mona and did most of the dirty work for the team, like running down Lucas and attacking Hanna. However, like Mona, he did n't know the identity of Red Coat. Spencer finds out about his betrayal and goes off the deep end, especially after discovering his corpse. However, it is revealed that he is alive and well, with the corpse being a trick by Mona and Red Coat that he says he did n't know about until after. He is also revealed to be a double agent and gets kicked off the team.
Spencer joined the A-Team briefly near the ending of the third season after having been invited by Mona at the Radley while hospitalized. Initially, Spencer was extremely determined to be part of the team. However, she later unfolds the truth behind the disappearance of Toby and became a double agent as well. Likewise Toby, she got kicked off from the team. She is the "A '' who kidnapped Malcolm, causing a break up between Ezra and Aria.
Lucas was the personal assistant to Mona. He was blackmailed by Mona and the A-Team into sending texts and doing their dirty work. Lucas claims his blackmail began after Mona discovered he was selling test answers, however Mona later discloses that Lucas was the "A '' who gave Emily a massage back in the second season while Mona was off riding with Hanna. During the seventh - season episode "Hold Your Piece '', Pastor Ted Wilson reveals to Hanna that he used to run a summer camp for troubled boys, and Charlotte was a camper there prior to her sex change. Wilson is disheartened when describing that he interacted with his offspring without awareness they were related. Ted then showcases Hanna a picture of himself back when he worked at the camp, chaperoning Charles and Lucas, whom he described as his son 's "only friend ''.
Melissa was blackmailed by Mona into wearing the Black Swan disguise to the Masquerade Ball in order to distract Jenna. Mona threatened to reveal her fake pregnancy if she did n't obey her orders. Later, Melissa got onto the Halloween Train dressed as the Queen of Hearts and drugged Aria. Wilden then attempted to push her off of the train in a box with Garrett 's dead body. It is implied that she was once again blackmailed. It is implied in "A Dark Ali '' that Melissa is once again working for "A '', as she is seen handing a recording (presumed stolen by "A '') to a man resembling Cyrus Petrillo and later implies to Spencer that "A '' has something in store for Ali and the Liars.
Wilden was also part of the team as he was the Queens of Hearts responsible for trying to kill Spencer. He also murdered Garrett Reynolds fearing he 'd expose him as a crooked cop and placed his corpse in a box beside a fainted Aria. Wilden 's reasoning for helping the team is unknown but implied to be blackmail.
Jenna was a member of the A-Team during the reign of Big A and was also working anonymously for Uber A. She remains around Rosewood in "Along Comes Mary '' and befriends Sara Harvey. Meanwhile, Aria Montgomery and Emily Fields discover that Jenna was on Archer 's payroll for unknown reasons. On the episode 's closing scene, Marshall and Sara are having drinks at The Radley when an unknown figure approaches the two and reveals themselves to be Noel Kahn, who proceeds to join the duo. When confronted by Emily in regards to her involvement with Archer during "Wanted: Dead or Alive '', Jenna admits she befriended Charlotte DiLaurentis after reading about her stay at Welby and reached out. In a flashback, Charlotte enlists Jenna 's help to track down the whereabouts of her birth mother and come up with an alias for Archer. The pseudonym "Elliott Rollins '' was later created so Archer could deliberately meet Alison and take advantage of her good intentions to benefit Charlotte 's eventual release from the psychiatric hospital. In "The DArkest Knight '' all of the Liars get a text message, ordering them to head over to 1465, Elm Street. After being lured to an abandoned school for blind students, they 're held hostage by Noel and Jenna, with Marshall tracking them down at gunpoint. During the cat - and - mouse chase, Jenna takes aim at the Liars only to backfire, until a second gunshot is heard and it injures Spencer. As Marshall prepares to finish her off, Mary Drake suddenly emerges from behind and knocks her out. While Drake attempts to help Spencer, an unknown figure drags Jenna away from the building. On the closing scene of the episode, the anonymous entity places her in the back of a van, while she questions them if they were responsible for the gunshot that hit Spencer. As the mysterious figure proceeds to rip off an old man 's mask and toss it over to Jenna 's side, Marshall feels it up and realizes that A.D. was the one who rescued her. At the end of "Playtime '', Jenna is seated in A.D. 's lair, sipping tea. She thanks the unidentified individual for the drink and reminds them of their promise to update her on the "game ''. Dressed in a nurse 's uniform, A.D. drops a binder on Marshall 's lap with pages of information written in braille. After Jenna reads a paragraph, she mutters the word "endgame '' and grins in delight. During "These Boots Were Made for Stalking '', Jenna walks into the police station in order to come clean about her actions and interrupts a conversation between Spencer and detective Marco Furey. Marshall reports that she kept a low profile after the events that took place at the abandoned school for blind students to avoid being harmed by Noel. According to Jenna, Noel was accountable for Sara Harvey 's homicide and she feared to be his ensuing victim. Kahn recruited Jenna with the assertion that Charlotte left enough money in her will to afford Marshall another eye surgery. Nevertheless, Jenna suspected Noel of stealthily plotting to steal the cash all to himself since his parents had financially cut him off. In an attempt to spare her life, Marshall brought a gun to the deserted sight school as an act of self - defense and pretended to hold a grudge against the Liars. After Jenna describes her side of the story, Furey orders one of his associates to escort Marshall to a conference room so she can make an official statement. As Jenna exits the room, Spencer claims that she 's an unreliable narrator. However, Furey informs Spencer that the authorities do n't have enough evidence against Marshall because the bullet that injured Spencer did n't match the gun found at the location. Later in the episode, Caleb confronts Jenna stating that the authorities were already detecting holes in her allegations. However, Marshall assures Caleb they wo n't be able to prosecute her since Noel was the only person who could contradict her statement. In the series finale, Spencer 's twin, Alex Drake, is revealed to be "A.D. ''. She reveals that Jenna was looking for her and recruited Noel to help. However, Jenna was desperate for another chance to see and offered to help her in the game.
Noel Kahn returned to Rosewood to team up with Jenna Marshall and Sara Harvey. Kahn served as one of Charlotte 's former minions and worked for her at the Dollhouse, having been responsible for placing blood all over Spencer Hastings to convince she had hurt someone. Noel became the prime suspect for Uber A, particularly after Alison reveals that he pushed a girl down a flight of stairs when he was drunk during a UPenn frat party. Hanna abducts him at the end of "The Wrath of Kahn '' in an attempt to obtain a video confession that proves he 's their tormentor. In the following episode "The DArkest Knight '', she instead ends up slashing his leg with a knife in order to test his DNA and see if it matches Mary Drake 's. The results later come back negative and Kahn ends up escaping. Noel and Jenna later lure the Liars to an abandoned school for blind students so they could be held hostage and eventually murdered. During a cat - and - mouse chase, Kahn ends up stumbling upon an axe that decapitates his head after failing to fight Emily and Hanna. In the following episode, "Playtime '', Detective Marco Furey informs Spencer that Jenna and Noel frequently visited Archer Dunhill at Welby. During "These Boots Were Made for Stalking '', Jenna walks into the police station in order to come clean about her actions and interrupts a conversation between Spencer and detective Marco Furey. Marshall reports that she kept a low profile after the events that took place at the abandoned school for blind students to avoid being harmed by Noel. According to Jenna, Noel was accountable for Sara Harvey 's homicide and she feared to be his ensuing victim. Kahn recruited Jenna with the assertion that Charlotte left enough money in her will to afford Marshall another eye surgery. Nevertheless, Jenna suspected Noel of stealthily plotting to steal the cash all to himself since his parents had financially cut him off. In an attempt to spare her life, Marshall brought a gun to the deserted sight school as an act of self - defense and pretended to hold a grudge against the Liars. However, when Caleb later confronts Jenna about the authorities detecting holes in her allegations, she informs him that the only person who could contradict her side of the story was Noel.
Aria is "A.D. 's '' helper. Aria is given the offer to join the team in "Power Play ''. She accepts in the following episode and begins supplying information to Uber A. After the Liars discover Lucas ' graphic novel, Aria is sent by Uber A to retrieve it. Once she delivers it, she is given an "A '' hoodie in return. She breaks into Alison 's house sporting the disguise and trashes the nursery for her baby. In the next episode, Aria is sent by "A.D. '' to deliver a "gift '' to the Hastings family. She connects to their Bluetooth and leaves a burner phone there to play a video recording of Peter and Mary discussing Jessica 's murder. She later gets back into her "A '' disguise and breaks into Alison 's house to put the puzzle piece onto the and retrieve her file. "A.D. '' contacts Aria again and gives her a phone to communicate on. "A.D. '' asks Aria to meet them and to wear the uniform to do so. Mona overhears the call and tells the Liars of Aria 's involvement with the A-Team. Aria gets into her "A '' hoodie and goes to meet "A.D. '', only to be confronted by the Liars. She then officially defects from the team and rejoins the Liars.
Mary joins the A.D. - Team after the time jump, when Alex helps break her out of prison and then helps her with kidnapping Spencer and keeping her locked away in their bunker. When Alex tries to kill Spencer, Mary tries to convince her to just keep her locked up, but Alex refuses and punches her to keep her from interfering. Mary and Alex are then kidnapped by Mona and kept as her dolls in her own personal dollhouse.
Wren is one of the helpers to Alex. He shoots her so that she will have the same scar as Spencer and then later comes to Welby to kill her as "A.D. '' for Alex, only stopping once Mona says she can help get Mary out. Alex kills Wren so that she does n't have to break up with him in order to get her endgame wishes. Despite Wren being the only person to know almost everything about Alex 's game, he does n't participate much during the actual game, only doing a few things for Alex.
Caleb used the identity of "A '' to text Hanna in Season 3, in order to trick her into meeting him. He sent her the text "The Apple Rose Grille at closing time. Go alone or Caleb pays. - A '' to find out this information from her about the new "A ''.
Shana pretended to be "A '' to attack the Liars in New York. She donned a black hoodie and attacked them at the coffee shop, only to end up shooting Ezra instead, who had found out her identity. In the following episode, she continued to hunt down the Liars, and sent a group of black hoodies to trick them. The black hoodies used the alias "A '' during their taunting of the Liars. Shana revealed herself to the girls and revealed that she wanted justice for Jenna. The Liars falsely believed that Shana was Big A.
During the TV series, the antagonists used various disguises at parties and events, in order to watch over the girls. They are:
Red Coat is a disguise used by two members of the A-Team. CeCe Drake took on the disguise to lead the A-Team and go out in public, while she hired Sara Harvey to act as a decoy whenever she could n't sport the disguise in her assignments.
The Black Widow is a previously anonymous character who attended detective Darren Wilden 's funeral in "' A ' Is for A-l-i-v-e ''. The disguise is all black clothing, with her face concealed by a black veil. The Black Widow is shown to be a part of the A-Team, when she is seen inside the "A '' R.V. placing a Mona doll with the rest of the "A '' doll collection. She then lifts up her veil to reveal a burned Ali mask underneath, revealing that she was the Red Coat at the Lodge. In the fifth season, the disguise is seen inside one of "A '' 's lairs. In "Game Over, Charles '', it is revealed that Sara Harvey was the Black Widow. Charlotte sent her to Wilden 's funeral to make sure he was deceased. In "Of Late I Think of Rosewood '', Sara shows up to Charlotte 's funeral in a variation of the disguise, though this time revealing her face.
In a nightmare that Alison had during "How the ' A ' Stole Christmas '', her mom, Jessica DiLaurentis shows up as the Black Widow.
The Queen of Hearts is a previously anonymous character that made an appearance during the third season 's Halloween special, "This Is a Dark Ride ''. In the fourth season 's premiere, it is revealed that there were actually two of them in the Halloween train, Melissa Hastings and Darren Wilden. Wilden attacked Spencer and fought Paige, while Melissa drugged Aria and took her body. Wilden also murdered Garrett Reynolds fearing he 'd expose his corrupt activities and Melissa later admits to Spencer that she was blackmailed into doing his bidding. However, in Mona 's footage, evidence shows that Wilden tried to abandon the train and Melissa is heard ordering him to stay. Wilden would later place a fainted Aria in a box beside Garrett 's corpse and then gathered with Melissa in an attempt to push them off the train. They fled the scene once Aria regained her consciousness and stabbed Wilden.
The Black Swan is a previously anonymous character that made an appearance during the Masquerade Ball. Melissa was revealed to be the person behind the disguise in "Birds of a Feather ''. She claimed that "A '' (Mona) threatened her, stating that her false pregnancy would 've been exposed if she did not distract Jenna during the event. The disguise is inspired by Odile from Swan Lake.
Of course, the black hoodie has been the most significant disguise over the years and probably the most well known. Almost every single "A '' has worn the signature black hoodie and it will be one of the biggest things for as long as Pretty Little Liars will be remembered. The disguise has been used by Mona, Charlotte, Toby, Spencer, Lucas, Sydney, Aria, Wren, and Alex.
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which of the following is a criterion for usda organic certification | Organic certification - wikipedia
Organic certification is a certification process for producers of organic food and other organic agricultural products. In general, any business directly involved in food production can be certified, including seed suppliers, farmers, food processors, retailers and restaurants. A lesser known counterpart is certification for organic textiles (or Organic clothing) that includes certification of textile products made from organically grown fibres.
Requirements vary from country to country (List of countries with organic agriculture regulation), and generally involve a set of production standards for growing, storage, processing, packaging and shipping that include:
In some countries, certification is overseen by the government, and commercial use of the term organic is legally restricted. Certified organic producers are also subject to the same agricultural, food safety and other government regulations that apply to non-certified producers.
Certified organic foods are not necessarily pesticide - free, as certain pesticides are allowed.
Organic certification addresses a growing worldwide demand for organic food. It is intended to assure quality and prevent fraud, and to promote commerce. While such certification was not necessary in the early days of the organic movement, when small farmers would sell their produce directly at farmers ' markets, as organics have grown in popularity, more and more consumers are purchasing organic food through traditional channels, such as supermarkets. As such, consumers must rely on third - party regulatory certification.
For organic producers, certification identifies suppliers of products approved for use in certified operations. For consumers, "certified organic '' serves as a product assurance, similar to "low fat '', "100 % whole wheat '', or "no artificial preservatives ''.
Certification is essentially aimed at regulating and facilitating the sale of organic products to consumers. Individual certification bodies have their own service marks, which can act as branding to consumers -- a certifier may promote the high consumer recognition value of its logo as a marketing advantage to producers.
In third party certification, the farm or the processing of the agriculture produce is certified in accordance with national or international organic standards by an accredited organic certification agency. To certify a farm, the farmer is typically required to engage in a number of new activities, in addition to normal farming operations:
In addition, short - notice or surprise inspections can be made, and specific tests (e.g. soil, water, plant tissue) may be requested.
For first - time farm certification, the soil must meet basic requirements of being free from use of prohibited substances (synthetic chemicals, etc.) for a number of years. A conventional farm must adhere to organic standards for this period, often two to three years. This is known as being in transition. Transitional crops are not considered fully organic.
Certification for operations other than farms follows a similar process. The focus is on the quality of ingredients and other inputs, and processing and handling conditions. A transport company would be required to detail the use and maintenance of its vehicles, storage facilities, containers, and so forth. A restaurant would have its premises inspected and its suppliers verified as certified organic.
Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS) represent an alternative to third party certification, especially adapted to local markets and short supply chains. They can also complement third party certification with a private label that brings additional guarantees and transparency. PGS enable the direct participation of producers, consumers and other stakeholders in:
Participatory Guarantee Systems are also referred to as "participatory certification ''.
The word organic is central to the certification (and organic food marketing) process, and this is also questioned by some. Where organic laws exist, producers can not use the term legally without certification. To bypass this legal requirement for certification, various alternative certification approaches, using currently undefined terms like "authentic '' and "natural '', are emerging. In the US, motivated by the cost and legal requirements of certification (as of Oct. 2002), the private farmer - to - farmer association, Certified Naturally Grown, offers a "non-profit alternative eco-labelling program for small farms that grow using USDA Organic methods but are not a part of the USDA Certified Organic program. ''
In the UK, the interests of smaller - scale growers who use "natural '' growing methods are represented by the Wholesome Food Association, which issues a symbol based largely on trust and peer - to - peer inspection.
Organic certification, as well as fair trade certification, has the potential to directly and indirectly contribute to the achievement of some of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which are the eight international development goals that were established following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000, with all United Nations member states committed to help achieve the MDGs by 2015. With the growth of ethical consumerism in developed countries, imports of eco-friendly and socially certified produce from the poor in developing countries have increased, which could contribute towards the achievement of the MDGs. A study by Setboonsarng (2008) reveals that organic certification substantially contributes to MDG1 (poverty and hunger) and MDG7 (environmental sustainability) by way of premium prices and better market access, among others. This study concludes that for this market - based development scheme to broaden its poverty impacts, public sector support in harmonizing standards, building up the capacity of certifiers, developing infrastructure development, and innovating alternative certification systems will be required.
The body Codex Alimentarius of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations was established in November 1961. The Commission 's main goals are to protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices in the international food trade. The Codex Alimentarius is recognized by the World Trade Organization as an international reference point for the resolution of disputes concerning food safety and consumer protection. One of their goals is to provide proper food labelling (general standard, guidelines on nutrition labelling, guidelines on labelling claims).
In the United States the situation is undergoing its own FDA Food Safety Modernization Act.
In some countries, organic standards are formulated and overseen by the government. The United States, the European Union, Canada and Japan have comprehensive organic legislation, and the term "organic '' may be used only by certified producers. Being able to put the word "organic '' on a food product is a valuable marketing advantage in today 's consumer market, but does not guarantee the product is legitimately organic. Certification is intended to protect consumers from misuse of the term, and make buying organics easy. However, the organic labeling made possible by certification itself usually requires explanation. In countries without organic laws, government guidelines may or may not exist, while certification is handled by non-profit organizations and private companies.
Internationally, equivalency negotiations are underway, and some agreements are already in place, to harmonize certification between countries, facilitating international trade. There are also international certification bodies, including members of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) working on harmonization efforts. Where formal agreements do not exist between countries, organic product for export is often certified by agencies from the importing countries, who may establish permanent foreign offices for this purpose. In 2011 IFOAM introduced a new program - the IFOAM Family of Standards - that attempts to simplify harmonization. The vision is to establish the use of one single global reference (the COROS) to access the quality of standards rather than focusing on bilateral agreements.
The Certcost was a research project that conducted research and prepared reports about the certification of organic food. The project was supported by the European Commission and was active from 2008 - 2011. The website will be available until 2016.
In the United States, "organic '' is a labeling term for food or agricultural products ("food, feed or fiber '') that have been produced according to USDA organic regulations, which define standards that "integrate cultural, biological, and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity. '' USDA standards recognize four types of organic production:
Organic agricultural operations should ultimately maintain or improve soil and water quality, and conserve wetlands, woodlands, and wildlife.
In the U.S., the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 "requires the Secretary of Agriculture to establish a National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances which identifies synthetic substances that may be used, and the nonsynthetic substances that can not be used, in organic production and handling operations. ''
Also in the U.S., the Secretary of Agriculture promulgated regulations establishing the National Organic Program (NOP). The final rule was published in the Federal Register in 2000.
USDA Organic certification confirms that the farm or handling facility (whether within the United States or internationally) complies with USDA organic regulations. Farms or handling facilities can be certified by private, foreign, or State entities, whose agents are accredited by the USDA (accredited agents are listed on the USDA website). Any farm or business that grosses more than $5,000 annually in organic sales must be certified. Farms and businesses that make less than $5,000 annually are "exempt, '' and must follow all the requirements as stated in the USDA regulations except for two requirements:
Exempt operations are also barred from selling their products as ingredients for use in another producer or handler 's certified organic product, and may be required by buyers to sign an affidavit affirming adherence to USDA organic regulations.
Before an operation may sell, label or represent their products as "organic '' (or use the USDA organic seal), it must undergo a 3 - year transition period where any land used to produce raw organic commodities must be left untreated with prohibited substances.
Operations seeking certification must first submit an application for organic certification to a USDA - accredited certifying agent including the following:
Certifying agents then review the application to confirm that the operation 's practices follow USDA regulations, and schedule an inspection to verify adherence to the OSP, maintenance of records, and overall regulatory compliance
Inspection The during the site visit, the inspector observes onsite practices and compares them to the OSP, looks for any potential contamination by prohibited materials (or any risk of potential contamination), and takes soil, tissue, or product samples as needed. At farming operations, the inspector will also examine the fields, water systems, storage areas, and equipment, assess pest and weed management, check feed production, purchase records, livestock and their living conditions, and records of animal health management practices. For processing and handling facilities, the inspector evaluates the receiving, processing, and storage areas for organic ingredients and finished products, as well as assessing any potential hazards or contamination points (from "sanitation systems, pest management materials, or nonorganic processing aids ''). If the facility also processes or handles nonorganic materials, the inspector will also analyze the measures in place to prevent comingling.
If the written application and operational inspection are successful, the certifying agent will issue an organic certificate to the applicant. The producer or handler must then submit an updated application and OSP, pay recertification fees to the agent, and undergo annual onsite inspections to receive recertification annually. Once certified, producers and handlers can have up to 75 % of their organic certification costs reimbursed through the USDA Organic Certification Cost - Share Programs.
Federal legislation defines three levels of organic foods. Products made entirely with certified organic ingredients, methods, and processing aids can be labeled "100 % organic '' (including raw agricultural commodities that have been certified), while only products with at least 95 % organic ingredients may be labeled "organic '' (any non-organic ingredients used must fall under the exemptions of the National List). Under these two categories, no nonorganic agricultural ingredients are allowed when organic ingredients are available. Both of these categories may also display the "USDA Organic '' seal, and must state the name of the certifying agent on the information panel.
A third category, containing a minimum of 70 % organic ingredients, can be labeled "made with organic ingredients, '' but may not display the USDA Organic seal. Any remaining agricultural ingredients must be produced without excluded methods, including genetic modification (14), irradiation, or the application of synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, or biosolids. Non-agricultural ingredients used must be allowed on the National List. Organic ingredients must be marked in the ingredients list (e.g., "organic dill '' or with an asterisk denoting organic status). In addition, products may also display the logo of the certification body that approved them.
Products made with less than 70 % organic ingredients can not be advertised as "organic, '' but can list individual ingredients that are organic as such in the product 's ingredient statement. Also, USDA ingredients from plants can not be genetically modified.
Livestock feed is only eligible for labeling as "100 % Organic '' or "Organic. ''
Alcoholic products are also subject to the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau regulations. Any use of added sulfites in wine made with organic grapes means that the product is only eligible for the "made with '' labeling category and therefore may not use the USDA organic seal. Wine labeled as made with other organic fruit can not have sulfites added to it.
Organic textiles made be labeled organic and use the USDA organic seal if the finished product is certified organic and produced in full compliance with USDA organic regulations. If all of a specific fiber used in a product is certified organic, the label may state the percentage of organic fibers and identify the organic material.
Organic certification mandates that the certifying inspector must be able to complete both "trace - back '' and "mass balance audits '' for all ingredients and products. A trace - back audit confirms the existence of a record trail from time of purchase / production through the final sale. A mass balance audit verifies that enough organic product and ingredients have been produced or purchased to match the amount of product sold. Each ingredient and product must have an assigned lot number to ensure the existence of a proper audit trail.
Some of the earliest organizations to carry out organic certification in North America were the California Certified Organic Farmers, founded in 1973, and the voluntary standards and certification program popularized by the Rodale Press in 1972. Some retailers have their stores certified as organic handlers and processors to ensure organic compliance is maintained throughout the supply chain until delivered to consumers, such as Vitamin Cottage Natural Grocers, a 60 - year - old chain based in Colorado.
Violations of USDA Organic regulations carry fines up to $11,000 per violation, and can also lead to suspension or revocation of a farm or business 's organic certificate.
Once certified, USDA organic products can be exported to countries currently engaged in organic trade agreements with the U.S., including Canada, the European Union, Japan, and Taiwan, and do not require additional certification as long as the terms of the agreement are met.
In Canada, certification was implemented at the federal level on June 30, 2009. Mandatory certification is required for agricultural products represented as organic in import, export and inter-provincial trade, or that bear the federal organic logo. In Quebec, provincial legislation provides government oversight of organic certification within the province, through the Quebec Accreditation Board (Conseil D'Accréditation Du Québec). Only products that use at least 95 % organic materials in production are allowed to bear the Canadian organic logo. Products between 70 - 95 % may declare they have xx % of organic ingredients, however they do not meet requirements to bear the certified logo. Transitioning from a conventional agricultural operation to an organic operation takes the producers up to three years to receive organic certification, during which time products can not be marketed as organic products, and producers will not receive pricing premiums on their goods during this time. Cows, sheep, and goats are the only livestock that are allowed to be transitioned to organic, under Canada 's regulations. They must undergo organic management for one year before their products can be considered certified organic.
EU countries acquired comprehensive organic legislation with the implementation of the EU - Eco-regulation 1992. Supervision of certification bodies is handled on the national level. In March 2002 the European Commission issued a EU - wide label for organic food. It has been mandatory throughout the EU since July 2010. and has become compulsory after a two - year transition period.
In 2009 a new logo was chosen through a design competition and online public vote. The new logo is a green rectangle that shows twelve stars (from the European flag) placed such that they form the shape of a leaf in the wind. Unlike earlier labels no words are presented on the label lifting the requirement for translations referring to organic food certification.
The new EU organic label has been implemented since July 2010 and has replaced the old European Organic label. However, producers that have had already printed and ready to use packaging with the old label were allowed to use them in the upcoming 2 years.
The development of the EU organic label was develop based on Denmark 's organic food policy and the rules behind the Danish organic food label which at the moment holds the highest rate of recognition among its users in the world respectively 98 % and 90 % trust the label. The current EU organic label is meant to signal to the consumer that at least 95 % of the ingredients used in the processed organic food is from organic origin and 5 % considered an acceptable error margin.
Besides the public organic certification regulation EU - Eco-regulation in 1992, there are various private organic certifications available:
Following private bodies certify organic produce: KEZ, o.p.s. (CZ - BIO-001), ABCert, AG (CZ - BIO-002) and BIOCONT CZ, s.r.o. (CZ - BIO-003). These bodies provide controlling of processes tied with issueing of certificate of origin. Controlling of compliancy (to (ES) no 882 / 2004 directive) is provided by government body ÚKZÚZ (Central Institute for Supervising and Testing in Agriculture). "9 '' Source: "Information on organic produce of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic ''
In France, organic certification was introduced in 1985. It has established a green - white logo of "AB - agriculture biologique. '' The certification for the AB label fulfills the EU regulations for organic food. The certification process is overseen a public institute ("Agence française pour le développement et la promotion de l'agriculture biologique '' usually shortended to "Agence bio '') established in November 2001. The actual certification authorities include a number of different institutes like Aclave, Agrocert, Ecocert SA, Qualité France SA, Ulase, SGS ICS.
In Germany the national label was introduced in September 2001 following in the footsteps of the political campaign of "Agrarwende '' (agricultural major shift) led by minister Renate Künast of the Greens party. This campaign was started after the outbreak of mad - cow disease in 2000. The effects on farming are still challenged by other political parties. The national "Bio '' - label in its hexagon green - black - white shape has gained wide popularity - in 2007 there were 2431 companies having certified 41708 products. The popularity of the label is extending to neighbouring countries like Austria, Switzerland and France.
In the German - speaking countries there have been older non-government organizations that had issued labels for organic food long before the advent of the EU organic food regulations. Their labels are still used widely as they significantly exceed the requirements of the EU regulations. An organic food label like "demeter '' from Demeter International has been in use since 1928 and this label is still regarded as providing the highest standards for organic food in the world. Other active NGOs include Bioland (1971), Biokreis (1979), Biopark (1991), Ecoland (1997), Ecovin (1985), Gäa e.V. (1989), Naturland (1981) and Bio Suisse (1981).
In Greece, organic certification is available from eight (8) organizations approved by EU. The major of them are BIOHELLAS and the DIO (Greek: Οργανισμός Ελέγχου και Πιστοποίησης Βιολογικών Προϊόντων - ΔΗΩ) (1)
In Ireland, organic certification is available from the Irish Organic Farmers and Growers Association, Demeter Standards Ltd. and Organic Trust Ltd.
In Switzerland, products sold as organic must comply at a minimum with the Swiss organic regulation (Regulation 910.18). Higher standards are required before a product can be labelled with the Bio Suisse label.
In Sweden, organic certification is handled by the organisation KRAV (agriculture) with members such as farmers, processors, trade and also consumer, environmental and animal welfare interests.
In the United Kingdom, organic certification is handled by a number of organizations, regulated by The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), of which the largest are the Soil Association and Organic Farmers and Growers. While UK certification bodies are required to meet the EU minimum organic standards for all member states; they may choose to certify to standards that exceed the minimums, as is the case with the Soil Association.
The farmland converted to produce certified organic food has seen a significant evolution in the EU15 countries, rising from 1.8 % in 1998 to 4.1 % in 2005. For the current EU25 countries however the statistics report an overall percentage of just 1.5 % as of 2005. However the statistics showed a larger turnover of organic food in some countries, reaching 10 % in France and 14 % in Germany. In France 21 % of available vegetables, fruits, milk and eggs were certified as organic. Numbers for 2010 show that 5.4 % of German farmland has been converted to produce certified organic food, as has 10.4 % of Swiss farmland and 11.7 % of Austrian farmland. Non-EU countries have widely adopted the European certification regulations for organic food, to increase export to EU countries.
In Australia, organic certification is performed by several organisations that are accredited by the Biosecurity section of the Department of Agriculture (Australia), formerly the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, under the National Standard for Organic and Biodynamic Produce. All claims about the organic status of products sold in Australia are covered under the Competition and Consumer Act 2010.
In Australia, the Organic Federation of Australia is the peak body for the organic industry in Australia and is part of the government 's Organic Consultative Committee Legislative Working Group that sets organic standards.
Department of Agriculture accreditation is a legal requirement for all organic products exported from Australia. Export Control (Organic Produce Certification) Orders are used by the Department to assess organic certifying bodies and recognise them as approved certifying organisations. Approved certifying organisations are assessed by the Department for both initial recognition and on an at least annual basis thereafter to verify compliance.
In the absence of domestic regulation, DOA accreditation also serves as a ' de facto ' benchmark for certified product sold on the domestic market. Despite its size and growing share of the economy "the organic industry in Australia remains largely self - governed. There is no specific legislation for domestic organic food standardisation and labelling at the state or federal level as there is in the USA and the EU ''.
The Department has several approved certifying organisations that manage the certification process of organic and bio-dynamic operators in Australia. These certifying organisations perform a number of functions on the Department 's behalf:
As of 2015, there are seven approved certifying organisations:
There are 2567 certified organic businesses reported in Australia in 2014. They include 1707 primary producers, 719 processors and manufacturers, 141 wholesalers and retailers plus other operators.
Australia does not have a logo or seal to identify which products are certified organic, instead the logos of the individual certifying organisations are used.
In China, the organic certification is administered by a government agency named Certification and Accreditation Administration of the People 's Republic of China (CNCA). While the implementation of certification works, including site checking, lab test on soil, water, product qualities are performed by the China Quality Certification Center (CQC) which is an agency of Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine (AQSIQ). The organic certification procedures in china are performed according to China Organic Standard GB / T 19630.1 - 4 -- 2011 which was issued in year 2011. This standard has governed standard procedure for Organic certification process performed by CQC, including application, inspection, lab test procedures, certification decision and post certification administration. The certificate issued by CQC are valid for 1 year.
There are 2 logos that are currently used by the CQC for labeling products with Organic Certification, these are the Organic Logo and CQC Logo. No conversion to organic Logo now.
There were more than 19000 valid certificates and 66 organic certification bodies until 2018 in China.
In India, APEDA regulates the certification of organic products as per National Standards for Organic Production. "The NPOP standards for production and accreditation system have been recognized by European Commission and Switzerland as equivalent to their country standards. Similarly, USDA has recognized NPOP conformity assessment procedures of accreditation as equivalent to that of US. With these recognitions, Indian organic products duly certified by the accredited certification bodies of India are accepted by the importing countries. '' Organic food products manufactured and exported from India are marked with the India Organic certification mark issued by the APEDA. APEDA has recognized 11 inspection certification bodies, some of which are branches of foreign certification bodies, others are local certification bodies.
In Japan, the Japanese Agricultural Standard (JAS) was fully implemented as law in April 2001. This was revised in November 2005 and all JAS certifiers were required to be re-accredited by the Ministry of Agriculture.
As of 2014 the Agri - Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore had no organic certification process, but instead relied on international certification bodies; it does not track local producers who claim to have gotten organic certification.
In Cambodia, Cambodian Organic Agriculture Association (COrAA) is the only organization that is authorized to give certificate for organic agricultural products. It is a nationwide private organization working for the promotion of organic and sustainable agriculture in Cambodia. COrAA has developed both organic and chemical - free agricultural standards and provides third - party - certification to producers following these standards. In addition, the services that COrAA provides include technical training for the conversion from chemical / conventional to organic farming, marketing support, organic awareness building among the general public, and a platform for dialogue and cooperation among organic stakeholders in Cambodia.
Organic cert is not without its critics. Some of the staunchest opponents of chemical - based farming and factory farming practices also oppose formal certification. They see it as a way to drive independent organic farmers out of business, and to undermine the quality of organic food. Other organizations such as the Organic Trade Association work within the organic community to foster awareness of legislative and other related issues, and enable the influence and participation of organic proponents.
Originally, in the 1960s through the 1980s, the organic food industry was composed of mainly small, independent farmers, selling locally. Organic "certification '' was a matter of trust, based on a direct relationship between farmer and consumer. Critics view regulatory certification as a potential barrier to entry for small producers, by burdening them with increased costs, paperwork, and bureaucracy
In China, due to government regulations, international companies wishing to market organic produce must be independently certified. It is reported that "Australian food producers are spending up to $50,000 to be certified organic by Chinese authorities to crack the burgeoning middle - class market of the Asian superpower. '' Whilst the certification process is described by producers "extremely difficult and very expensive '', a number of organic producers have acknowledged the ultimately positive effect of gaining access to the emerging Chinese market. For example, figures from Australian organic infant formula and baby food producer Bellamy 's Organic indicate export growth, to China alone, of 70 per cent per year since gaining Chinese certification in 2008, while similar producers have shown export growth of 20 per cent to 30 per cent a year following certification
Peak Australian organic certification body, Australian Certified Organic, has stated however that "many companies have baulked at risking the money because of the complex, unwieldy and expensive process to earn Chinese certification. '' By comparison, equivalent certification costs in Australia are less than $2,000 (AUD), with costs in the United States as low as $750 (USD) for a similarly sized business.
Manipulation of certification regulations as a way to mislead or outright dupe the public is a very real concern. Some examples are creating exceptions (allowing non-organic inputs to be used without loss of certification status) and creative interpretation of standards to meet the letter, but not the intention, of particular rules. For example, a complaint filed with the USDA in February 2004 against Bayliss Ranch, a food ingredient producer and its certifying agent, charged that tap water had been certified organic, and advertised for use in a variety of water - based body care and food products, in order to label them "organic '' under US law. Steam - distilled plant extracts, consisting mainly of tap water introduced during the distilling process, were certified organic, and promoted as an organic base that could then be used in a claim of organic content. The case was dismissed by the USDA, as the products had been actually used only in personal care products, over which the department at the time extended no labeling control. The company subsequently adjusted its marketing by removing reference to use of the extracts in food products.
In 2013 the Australia Consumer Competition Commission said that water can no longer be labelled as organic water because, based on organic standards, water can not be organic and it is misleading and deceptive to label any water as such.
The label itself can be used to mislead many customers that food labelled as being organic is safer, healthier and more nutritious.
Critics of formal certification also fear an erosion of organic standards. Provided with a legal framework within which to operate, lobbyists can push for amendments and exceptions favorable to large - scale production, resulting in "legally organic '' products produced in ways similar to current conventional food. Combined with the fact that organic products are now sold predominantly through high volume distribution channels such as supermarkets, the concern is that the market is evolving to favor the biggest producers, and this could result in the small organic farmer being squeezed out.
In the United States large food companies, have "assumed a powerful role in setting the standards for organic foods. '' Many members of standard - setting boards come from large food corporations. As more corporate members have joined, many nonorganic substances have been added to the National List of acceptable ingredients. The United States Congress has also played a role in allowing exceptions to organic food standards. In December 2005, the 2006 agricultural appropriations bill was passed with a rider allowing 38 synthetic ingredients to be used in organic foods, including food colorings, starches, sausage and hot - dog casings, hops, fish oil, chipotle chili pepper, and gelatin; this allowed Anheuser - Busch in 2007 to have its Wild Hop Lager certified organic "even though (it) uses hops grown with chemical fertilizers and sprayed with pesticides. ''
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angora wool is obtained from a breed of | Angora wool - wikipedia
Angora hair or Angora fibre refers to the downy coat produced by the Angora rabbit. While their names are similar, Angora fibre is distinct from mohair, which comes from the Angora goat. Angora fibre is also distinct from cashmere, which comes from the cashmere goat. Angora is known for its softness, thin fibres, and what knitters refer to as a halo (fluffiness). It is also known for its silky texture. It is much warmer and lighter than wool due to the hollow core of the angora fibre. It also gives them their characteristic floating feel.
Angora rabbits produce coats in a variety of colours, from white through tan, gray, and brown to black. Good quality Angora fibre is around 12 - 16 micrometres in diameter, and can cost as much as $ 10 -- 16 per ounce (35 to 50 cents / gram). It felts very easily, even on the animal itself if it is not groomed frequently.
Yarns of 100 % angora are typically used as accents. They have the most halo and warmth, but can felt very easily through abrasion and humidity and can be excessively warm in a finished garment. The fibre is normally blended with wool to give the yarn elasticity, as Angora fibre is not naturally elastic. The blend decreases the softness and halo as well as the price of the finished object. Commercial knitting yarns typically use 30 -- 50 % angora, in order to produce some halo, warmth, and softness without the side effects of excessive felting.
There are four different types of Angora recognized by ARBA: English, French, Satin and Giant. There are many other breeds, one of the more common being German. Each breed produces different quality and quantity of fibre, and has a different range of colours.
90 % of Angora fur is produced in China, although Europe, Chile and the United States also produce small quantities. In China, there are more than 50 million Angora rabbits, growing 2,500 -- 3,000 tonnes per year. Harvesting occurs up to three times a year (about every 4 months) and is collected by plucking or shearing of the moulting fur.
Most breeds of Angora rabbits moult with their natural growth cycle about every four months. Many producers of the fibre pluck the fur of these breeds. Plucking is, in effect, pulling out the moulted fur. Plucking ensures a minimum of guard hair, and the fur is not as matted when plucked as when it is collected from the rabbit 's cage. However, plucking a rabbit is time consuming, so some producers shear the rabbit instead. While this results in slightly lower quality fleece, as the guard hairs are included, it does take less time and results in more fleece. Also, not all breeds of Angora moult, and if the rabbit does not naturally moult, it can not be plucked. German Angoras do not moult.
The rabbits must be groomed at least once or twice a week to prevent the fur from matting and felting. There is also a danger a rabbit will ingest its own moulted fur; unlike a cat, a rabbit can not easily be rid of the build up.
In 2013 several clothing retailers suspended the sourcing of products containing angora wool after video evidence surfaced of live rabbits with their paws tied being plucked raw in Chinese fur farms. Major retailers that banned angora products in response to welfare concerns include Hugo Boss, Gap Inc., Calvin Klein, Tommy Hilfiger, H&M and Esprit.
In September 2016, French animal rights charity One Voice released disturbing footage from six angora rabbit farms across France. The videos depict the animals being pinned down with their front and hind legs spread apart while workers pluck and rip the fur from their skin. In the video, the rabbits scream and cry in pain as their fur is ripped off, leaving them completely bare except for their heads.
The premium first quality wool is taken from the back and upper sides of the rabbit. This is usually the longest and cleanest fibre on the rabbit. There should not be hay or vegetable matter in the fibre. Second quality is from the neck and lower sides, and may have some vegetable matter. Third quality is the buttocks and legs and any other areas that easily felt and are of shorter length. Fourth quality is totally unsalvageable, and consists of the larger felted bits or stained fibre. Third and fourth quality are perfect for cutting up for birds to use in lining their nests. With daily brushing, felting of the fibre can be avoided, increasing the usable portion of fibre.
Angora wool is commonly used in apparel such as sweaters and suitings, knitting yarn, and felting.
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when were the twin towers built before 911 | World Trade Center (1973 -- 2001) - wikipedia
Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
The original World Trade Center was a large complex of seven buildings in Lower Manhattan, New York City, United States. It featured the landmark Twin Towers, which opened on April 4, 1973, and were destroyed in 2001 during the September 11 attacks. At the time of their completion, the Twin Towers -- the original 1 World Trade Center, at 1,368 feet (417 m); and 2 World Trade Center, at 1,362 feet (415.1 m) -- were the tallest buildings in the world. Other buildings in the complex included the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC), 4 WTC, 5 WTC, 6 WTC, and 7 WTC. The complex was located in New York City 's Financial District and contained 13,400,000 square feet (1,240,000 m) of office space.
The core of the complex was built between 1975 and 1985, with a cost of $400 million (equivalent to $1.86 billion in 2016). The World Trade Center experienced a fire on February 13, 1975, a bombing on February 26, 1993, and a bank robbery on January 14, 1998. In 1998, the Port Authority decided to privatize the World Trade Center, leasing the buildings to a private company to manage, and awarded the lease to Silverstein Properties in July 2001.
On the morning of September 11, 2001, Al - Qaeda - affiliated hijackers flew two Boeing 767 jets into the North and South Towers within minutes of each other; two hours later, both had collapsed. The attacks killed 2,606 people in and within the vicinity of the towers, as well as all 157 on board the two aircraft. Falling debris from the towers, combined with fires that the debris initiated in several surrounding buildings, led to the partial or complete collapse of all the buildings in the complex and caused catastrophic damage to ten other large structures in the surrounding area.
The cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months, during which the remains of the other buildings were demolished. The World Trade Center complex was rebuilt over more than a decade. The site is being rebuilt with six new skyscrapers, while a memorial to those killed in the attacks and a new rapid transit hub have both opened. One World Trade Center, the tallest building in the United States, is the lead building for the new complex, reaching more than 100 stories upon completion in November 2014.
The western portion of the World Trade Center site was originally under the Hudson River, with the shoreline in the vicinity of Greenwich Street. It was on this shoreline close to the intersection of Greenwich and the former Dey Street that Dutch explorer Adriaen Block 's ship, the Tyger, burned to the waterline in November 1613, stranding Block and his crew and forcing them to overwinter on the island. They built the first European settlement in Manhattan. The remains of the ship were buried under landfill when the shoreline was extended starting in 1797, and were discovered during excavation work in 1916. The remains of a second ship from the eighteenth century were discovered in 2010 during excavation work at the site. The ship, believed to be a Hudson River sloop, was found just south of where the Twin Towers used to stand, about 20 feet below the surface.
Later, the area became Radio Row. New York City 's Radio Row, which existed from 1921 to 1966, was a warehouse district on the Lower West Side in the Financial District. Harry Schneck opened City Radio on Cortlandt Street in 1921, and eventually the area held several blocks of electronics stores, with Cortlandt Street as its central axis. The used radios, war surplus electronics (e.g., ARC - 5 radios), junk, and parts often piled so high they would spill out onto the street, attracting collectors and scroungers. According to a business writer, it also was the origin of the electronic component distribution business.
The idea of establishing a World Trade Center in New York City was first proposed in 1943. The New York State Legislature passed a bill authorizing New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey to begin developing plans for the project but the plans were put on hold in 1949. During the late 1940s and 1950s, economic growth in New York City was concentrated in Midtown Manhattan. To help stimulate urban renewal in Lower Manhattan, David Rockefeller suggested that the Port Authority build a World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan.
Plans for the use of eminent domain to remove the shops in Radio Row bounded by Vesey, Church, Liberty, and West Streets began in 1961 when the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was deciding to build the world 's first world trade center. They had two choices: the east side of Lower Manhattan, near the South Street Seaport; and the west side, near the H&M station, Hudson Terminal. Initial plans, made public in 1961, identified a site along the East River for the World Trade Center. As a bi-state agency, the Port Authority required approval for new projects from the governors of both New York and New Jersey. New Jersey Governor Robert B. Meyner objected to New York getting a $335 million project. Toward the end of 1961, negotiations with outgoing New Jersey Governor Meyner reached a stalemate.
At the time, ridership on New Jersey 's Hudson and Manhattan Railroad (H&M) had declined substantially from a high of 113 million riders in 1927 to 26 million in 1958 after new automobile tunnels and bridges had opened across the Hudson River. In a December 1961 meeting between Port Authority director Austin J. Tobin and newly elected New Jersey Governor Richard J. Hughes, the Port Authority offered to take over the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad. The Port Authority also decided to move the World Trade Center project to the Hudson Terminal building site on the west side of Lower Manhattan, a more convenient location for New Jersey commuters arriving via PATH. With the new location and Port Authority acquisition of the H&M Railroad, New Jersey agreed to support the World Trade Center project. As part of the deal, the Port Authority renamed the H&M "Port Authority Trans - Hudson '', or PATH for short.
In compensation for Radio Row business owners ' displacement, the PANYNJ gave each business $3,000 each, without regard to how long the business had been there or how prosperous the business was. After the area had been purchased for the World Trade Center in March 1964, Radio Row was demolished starting in March 1965. It was completely demolished by 1966.
Approval was also needed from New York City Mayor John Lindsay and the New York City Council. Disagreements with the city centered on tax issues. On August 3, 1966, an agreement was reached that the Port Authority would make annual payments to the City in lieu of taxes for the portion of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants. In subsequent years, the payments would rise as the real estate tax rate increased.
On September 20, 1962, the Port Authority announced the selection of Minoru Yamasaki as lead architect and Emery Roth & Sons as associate architects. Yamasaki devised the plan to incorporate twin towers; Yamasaki 's original plan called for the towers to be 80 stories tall, but to meet the Port Authority 's requirement for 10,000,000 square feet (930,000 m) of office space, the buildings would each have to be 110 stories tall.
Yamasaki 's design for the World Trade Center, unveiled to the public on January 18, 1964, called for a square plan approximately 208 feet (63 m) in dimension on each side. The buildings were designed with narrow office windows 18 inches (46 cm) wide, which reflected Yamasaki 's fear of heights as well as his desire to make building occupants feel secure. Yamasaki 's design included building facades sheathed in aluminum - alloy. The World Trade Center was one of the most - striking American implementations of the architectural ethic of Le Corbusier, and it was the seminal expression of Yamasaki 's gothic modernist tendencies.
A major limiting factor in building height is the issue of elevators; the taller the building, the more elevators are needed to service the building, requiring more space - consuming elevator banks. Yamasaki and the engineers decided to use a new system with two "sky lobbies '' -- floors where people could switch from a large - capacity express elevator to a local elevator that goes to each floor in a section. This system, inspired by the local - express train operation that New York City 's subway system used, allowed the design to stack local elevators within the same elevator shaft. Located on the 44th and 78th floors of each tower, the sky lobbies enabled the elevators to be used efficiently, increasing the amount of usable space on each floor from 62 to 75 percent by reducing the number of elevator shafts. Altogether, the World Trade Center had 95 express and local elevators.
The structural engineering firm Worthington, Skilling, Helle & Jackson worked to implement Yamasaki 's design, developing the tube - frame structural system used in the twin towers. The Port Authority 's Engineering Department served as foundation engineers, Joseph R. Loring & Associates as electrical engineers, and Jaros, Baum & Bolles (JB&B) as mechanical engineers. Tishman Realty & Construction Company was the general contractor on the World Trade Center project. Guy F. Tozzoli, director of the World Trade Department at the Port Authority, and Rino M. Monti, the Port Authority 's Chief Engineer, oversaw the project. As an interstate agency, the Port Authority was not subject to local laws and regulations of the City of New York, including building codes. Nonetheless, the structural engineers of the World Trade Center ended up following draft versions of the new 1968 building codes.
The tube - frame design, earlier introduced by Fazlur Khan, was a new approach that allowed more open floor plans than the traditional design that distributed columns throughout the interior to support building loads. The World Trade Center towers used high - strength, load - bearing perimeter steel columns called Vierendeel trusses that were spaced closely together to form a strong, rigid wall structure, supporting virtually all lateral loads such as wind loads, and sharing the gravity load with the core columns. The perimeter structure containing 59 columns per side was constructed with extensive use of prefabricated modular pieces, each consisting of three columns, three stories tall, connected by spandrel plates. The spandrel plates were welded to the columns to create the modular pieces off - site at the fabrication shop. Adjacent modules were bolted together with the splices occurring at mid-span of the columns and spandrels. The spandrel plates were located at each floor, transmitting shear stress between columns, allowing them to work together in resisting lateral loads. The joints between modules were staggered vertically, so that the column splices between adjacent modules were not at the same floor.
The core of the towers housed the elevator and utility shafts, restrooms, three stairwells, and other support spaces. The core of each tower was a rectangular area 87 by 135 feet (27 by 41 m) and contained 47 steel columns running from the bedrock to the top of the tower. The large, column - free space between the perimeter and core was bridged by prefabricated floor trusses. The floors supported their own weight as well as live loads, providing lateral stability to the exterior walls and distributing wind loads among the exterior walls. The floors consisted of 4 inches (10 cm) thick lightweight concrete slabs laid on a fluted steel deck. A grid of lightweight bridging trusses and main trusses supported the floors. The trusses connected to the perimeter at alternate columns and were on 6 foot 8 inch (2.03 m) centers. The top chords of the trusses were bolted to seats welded to the spandrels on the exterior side and a channel welded to the core columns on the interior side. The floors were connected to the perimeter spandrel plates with viscoelastic dampers that helped reduce the amount of sway felt by building occupants.
Hat trusses (or "outrigger truss '') located from the 107th floor to the top of the buildings were designed to support a tall communication antenna on top of each building. Only 1 WTC (north tower) actually had an antenna fitted; it was added in 1978. The truss system consisted of six trusses along the long axis of the core and four along the short axis. This truss system allowed some load redistribution between the perimeter and core columns and supported the transmission tower.
The tube frame design, using steel core and perimeter columns protected with sprayed - on fire resistant material, created a relatively lightweight structure that would sway more in response to the wind compared to traditional structures, such as the Empire State Building that have thick, heavy masonry for fireproofing of steel structural elements. During the design process, wind tunnel tests were done to establish design wind pressures that the World Trade Center towers could be subjected to and structural response to those forces. Experiments also were done to evaluate how much sway occupants could comfortably tolerate; however, many subjects experienced dizziness and other ill effects. One of the chief engineers Leslie Robertson worked with Canadian engineer Alan G. Davenport to develop viscoelastic dampers to absorb some of the sway. These viscoelastic dampers, used throughout the structures at the joints between floor trusses and perimeter columns along with some other structural modifications, reduced the building sway to an acceptable level.
In March 1965, the Port Authority began acquiring property at the World Trade Center site. Demolition work began on March 21, 1966, to clear thirteen square blocks of low rise buildings in Radio Row for construction of the World Trade Center. Groundbreaking for the construction of the World Trade Center took place on August 5, 1966.
The site of the World Trade Center was located on landfill with the bedrock located 65 feet (20 m) below. To construct the World Trade Center, it was necessary to build a "bathtub '' with a slurry wall around the West Street side of the site, to keep water from the Hudson River out. The slurry method selected by Port Authority 's chief engineer, John M. Kyle, Jr., involved digging a trench, and as excavation proceeded, filling the space with a "slurry '' mixture composed of bentonite and water, which plugged holes and kept groundwater out. When the trench was dug out, a steel cage was inserted and concrete was poured in, forcing the "slurry '' out. It took fourteen months for the slurry wall to be completed. It was necessary before excavation of material from the interior of the site could begin. The 1,200,000 cubic yards (920,000 m) of material excavated were used (along with other fill and dredge material) to expand the Manhattan shoreline across West Street to form Battery Park City.
In January 1967, the Port Authority awarded $74 million in contracts to various steel suppliers. Construction work began on the North Tower in August 1968, and construction on the South Tower was under way by January 1969. The original Hudson Tubes, which carried PATH trains into Hudson Terminal, remained in service during the construction process until 1971, when a new station opened. The topping out ceremony of 1 WTC (North Tower) took place on December 23, 1970, while 2 WTC 's ceremony (South Tower) occurred later on July 19, 1971. The first tenants moved into the North Tower on December 15, 1970, while the South Tower started accepting tenants in January 1972. When the World Trade Center twin towers were completed, the total costs to the Port Authority had reached $900 million. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on April 4, 1973.
In addition to the twin towers, the plan for the World Trade Center complex included four other low - rise buildings, which were built in the early 1970s. The 47 - story 7 World Trade Center building was added in the 1980s, to the north of the main complex. Altogether, the main World Trade Center complex occupied a 16 - acre (65,000 m) superblock.
Plans to build the World Trade Center were controversial. The site for the World Trade Center was the location of Radio Row, home to hundreds of commercial and industrial tenants, property owners, small businesses, and approximately 100 residents, many of whom fiercely resisted forced relocation. A group of small businesses affected sought an injunction challenging the Port Authority 's power of eminent domain. The case made its way through the court system to the United States Supreme Court; the Court refused to accept the case.
Private real estate developers and members of the Real Estate Board of New York, led by Empire State Building owner Lawrence A. Wien, expressed concerns about this much "subsidized '' office space going on the open market, competing with the private sector when there was already a glut of vacancies. The World Trade Center itself was not rented out completely until after 1979 and then only due to the fact that the complex 's subsidy by the Port Authority made rents charged for its office space relatively cheaper than that of comparable office space in other buildings. Others questioned whether the Port Authority should have taken on a project described by some as a "mistaken social priority ''.
The World Trade Center design brought criticism of its aesthetics from the American Institute of Architects and other groups. Lewis Mumford, author of The City in History and other works on urban planning, criticized the project and described it and other new skyscrapers as "just glass - and - metal filing cabinets ''. The Twin Towers were described as looking similar to "the boxes that the Empire State Building and the Chrysler Building came in ''. The twin towers ' narrow office windows, only 18 inches (46 cm) wide and framed by pillars that restricted views on each side to narrow slots, were disliked by many. Activist and sociologist Jane Jacobs also criticized plans for the WTC 's construction, arguing that the waterfront should be kept open for New Yorkers to enjoy.
The trade center 's "superblock '', replacing a more traditional, dense neighborhood, was regarded by some critics as an inhospitable environment that disrupted the complicated traffic network typical of Manhattan. For example, in his book The Pentagon of Power, Lewis Mumford denounced the center as an "example of the purposeless giantism and technological exhibitionism that are now eviscerating the living tissue of every great city ''.
In 1982, the immense plaza between the twin towers was renamed after the Port Authority 's late chairman, Austin J. Tobin. During the summer, the Port Authority installed a portable stage within Tobin Plaza for performers. For many years, the Austin J. Tobin Plaza was often beset by brisk winds at ground level owing to the Venturi effect between the two towers. In fact, some gusts were so high that pedestrian travel had to be aided by ropes. In 1999, the outdoor plaza reopened after undergoing $12 million renovations, which involved replacing marble pavers with gray and pink granite stones, adding new benches, planters, new restaurants, food kiosks and outdoor dining areas.
On a typical weekday 50,000 people worked in the towers with another 200,000 passing through as visitors. The complex was so large that it had its own zip code: 10048. The towers offered expansive views from the observation deck atop the South Tower and the Windows on the World restaurant on top of the North Tower. The Twin Towers became known worldwide, appearing in numerous movies and television shows as well as on postcards and other merchandise, and became seen as a New York icon, in the same league as the Empire State Building, Chrysler Building and the Statue of Liberty. The World Trade Center was compared to Rockefeller Center, which David Rockefeller 's brother Nelson had developed in midtown Manhattan.
One World Trade Center and Two World Trade Center, commonly the Twin Towers, the idea of which was brought up by Minoru Yamasaki, were designed as framed tube structures, which provided tenants with open floor plans, uninterrupted by columns or walls. They were the main buildings of the World Trade Center. The North Tower (One World Trade Center), the tallest building in the world at 1,368 feet (417 m) by the time of its completion, began construction in 1966 with the South Tower (2 World Trade Center); extensive use of prefabricated components helped to speed up the construction process, and the first tenants moved into the North Tower in December 1970, while it was still under construction. When completed in 1973, the South Tower, Two World Trade Center (the South Tower) became the second tallest building in the world at 1,362 feet (415 m); the South Tower 's rooftop observation deck was 1,362 ft (415 m) high and its indoor observation deck was 1,310 ft (400 m) high. Each tower stood over 1,350 feet (410 m) high, and occupied about 1 acre (4,000 m) of the total 16 acres (65,000 m) of the site 's land. During a press conference in 1973, Yamasaki was asked, "Why two 110 - story buildings? Why not one 220 - story building? '' His tongue - in - cheek response was: "I did n't want to lose the human scale. ''
When completed in 1972, 1 World Trade Center became the tallest building in the world for two years, surpassing the Empire State Building after a 40 - year reign. The North Tower stood 1,368 feet (417 m) tall and featured a telecommunications antenna or mast that was added at the top of the roof in 1978 and stood 362 feet (110 m) tall. With the 362 - foot (110 m) - tall antenna / mast, the highest point of the North Tower reached 1,730 feet (530 m). Chicago 's Sears Tower, finished in May 1973, reached 1,450 feet (440 m) at the rooftop. Throughout their existence, the WTC towers had more floors (at 110) than any other building. This number was not surpassed until the advent of the Burj Khalifa, which opened in 2010. Each tower had a total mass of around 500,000 tons.
Although most of the space in the World Trade Center complex was off - limits to the public, the South Tower featured two public viewing areas called Top of the World Trade Center Observatories: an indoor one on the 107th floor and an outdoor one on the roof. Visitors would pass through security checks added after the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, then were sent to the 107th - floor indoor observatory at a height of 1,310 feet (400 m). The exterior columns on each side of the floor were narrowed to allow 28 inches of window width between them. The Port Authority renovated the observatory in 1995, then leased it to Ogden Entertainment to operate. Attractions added to the observation deck included a simulated helicopter ride around the city. The 107th - floor food court was designed with a subway car theme and featured Sbarro and Nathan 's Famous Hot Dogs. Weather permitting, visitors could ride two short escalators up from the 107th - floor viewing area to an outdoor platform at a height of 1,377 ft (420 m). On a clear day, visitors could see up to 50 miles (80 km). An anti-suicide fence was placed on the roof itself, with the viewing platform set back and elevated above it, requiring only an ordinary railing and leaving the view unobstructed, unlike the observation deck of the Empire State Building.
The North Tower had a restaurant on its 106th and 107th floors called Windows on the World, which opened in April 1976. The restaurant was developed by Joe Baum at a cost of more than $17 million. Aside from the main restaurant, two offshoots were located at the top of the North Tower: "Hors d'Oeuvrerie '' (offered a Danish smorgasbord during the day and sushi in the evening) and "Cellar in the Sky '' (a small wine bar). Windows on the World also had a wine school program run by Kevin Zraly, who published a book on the course.
Windows on the World was closed following the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. Upon reopening in 1996, Hors d'Oeuvrerie and Cellar in the Sky were replaced with the "Greatest Bar on Earth '' and "Wild Blue ''. In 2000, its last full year of operation, Windows on the World reported revenues of $37 million, making it the highest - grossing restaurant in the United States. The Sky Dive Restaurant, on the 44th floor of the North Tower, was also operated by Windows on the World.
In its last iteration, Windows on the World received mixed reviews. Ruth Reichl, a New York Times food critic, said in December 1996 that "nobody will ever go to Windows on the World just to eat, but even the fussiest food person can now be content dining at one of New York 's favorite tourist destinations. '' She gave the restaurant two out of four stars, signifying a "very good '' quality rather than "excellent '' (three stars) or "extraordinary '' (four stars). In his 2009 book Appetite, William Grimes wrote that "At Windows, New York was the main course. '' In 2014, Ryan Sutton of Eater.com compared the now - destroyed restaurant 's cuisine to that of its replacement, One World Observatory. He stated, "Windows helped usher in a new era of captive audience dining in that the restaurant was a destination in itself, rather than a lazy byproduct of the vital institution it resided in. ''
Five smaller buildings stood around the 16 acres (65,000 m) block. One was the 22 - floor hotel, which opened in 1981 as the Vista Hotel, and in 1995 became the Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC) at the southwest corner of the site. Three low - rise buildings (4 WTC, 5 WTC, and 6 WTC) in the same hollow tube design as the towers also stood around the plaza. 6 World Trade Center, at the northwest corner, housed the United States Customs Service and the U.S. Commodities Exchange. 5 World Trade Center was located at the northeast corner above the PATH station and 4 World Trade Center was at the southeast corner. In 1987, construction was completed on a 47 - floor office building, 7 World Trade Center, located to the north of the superblock. Beneath the World Trade Center complex was an underground shopping mall, which in turn had connections to various mass transit facilities, including the New York City Subway system and the Port Authority 's PATH trains.
One of the world 's largest gold depositories was stored underneath the World Trade Center, owned by a group of commercial banks. The 1993 bombing detonated close to the vault. Seven weeks after the September 11 attacks, $230 million in precious metals was removed from basement vaults of 4 WTC, which included 3,800 100 - Troy - ounce 24 carat gold bars and 30,000 1,000 - ounce silver bars.
On February 13, 1975, a three - alarm fire broke out on the 11th floor of the North Tower. Fire spread through the tower to the 9th and 14th floors by igniting the insulation of telephone cables in a utility shaft that ran vertically between floors. Areas at the furthest extent of the fire were extinguished almost immediately and the original fire was put out in a few hours. Most of the damage was concentrated on the 11th floor, fueled by cabinets filled with paper, alcohol - based fluid for office machines, and other office equipment. Fireproofing protected the steel and there was no structural damage to the tower. In addition to damage caused by the fire on the 9th -- 14th floors, water from the extinguishing of the fires damaged a few floors below. At that time, the World Trade Center had no fire sprinkler systems.
The first terrorist attack on the World Trade Center occurred on February 26, 1993, at 12: 17 p.m. A Ryder truck filled with 1,500 pounds (680 kg) of explosives, planted by Ramzi Yousef, detonated in the underground garage of the North Tower. The blast opened a 100 - foot (30 m) hole through five sublevels with the greatest damage occurring on levels B1 and B2 and significant structural damage on level B3. Six people were killed and 1,042 others were injured during escape attempts complicated by smoke infiltration from the base of the building up to the 93rd floor of both towers. Many people inside the North Tower were forced to walk down darkened stairwells that contained no emergency lighting, some taking two hours or more to reach safety.
Yousef fled to Pakistan after the bombing but was arrested in Islamabad in February 1995, and was extradited back to the United States to face trial. Sheikh Omar Abdel Rahman was convicted in 1996 for involvement in the bombing and other plots. Yousef and Eyad Ismoil were convicted in November 1997 for their carrying out the bombing. Four others had been convicted in May 1994 for their involvement in the 1993 bombing. According to a presiding judge, the conspirators ' chief aim at the time of the attack was to destabilize the north tower and send it crashing into the south tower, toppling both landmarks.
Following the bombing, floors that were blown out needed to be repaired to restore the structural support they provided to columns. The slurry wall was in peril following the bombing and loss of the floor slabs that provided lateral support against pressure from Hudson River water on the other side. The refrigeration plant on sublevel B5, which provided air conditioning to the entire World Trade Center complex, was heavily damaged. After the bombing, the Port Authority installed photoluminescent markings in the stairwells. The fire alarm system for the entire complex needed to be replaced because critical wiring and signaling in the original system was destroyed. As a memorial to the victims of the bombing of the tower, a reflecting pool was installed with the names of those who had been killed in the blast. However, the memorial was destroyed following the September 11 attacks. Names of the victims of the 1993 bombing are included in the National September 11 Memorial & Museum.
In January 1998, Mafia member Ralph Guarino, who had gained maintenance access to the World Trade Center, arranged a three - man crew for a heist that netted over $2 million from a Brinks delivery to the eleventh floor of the World Trade Center.
In 1981, an Aerolineas Argentinas airliner was guided away by air traffic controllers following radar signals that indicated it was on a collision course with the North Tower (1 WTC). The aircraft was flying at a much lower altitude than regulations recommended, while scheduled to land at nearby Kennedy International Airport.
In 1983, on Memorial Day, high - rise firefighting and rescue advocate Dan Goodwin successfully climbed the outside of the North Tower (1 WTC). His stunt was meant to call attention to the inability to rescue people potentially trapped in the upper floors of skyscrapers.
The 1995 PCA world chess championship was played on the 107th floor of the South Tower.
In 1998, the Port Authority approved plans to privatize the World Trade Center. In 2001, the Port Authority sought to lease the World Trade Center to a private entity. Bids for the lease came from Vornado Realty Trust, a joint bid between Brookfield Properties Corporation and Boston Properties, and a joint bid by Silverstein Properties and The Westfield Group. By privatizing the World Trade Center, it would be added to the city 's tax rolls and provide funds for other Port Authority projects. On February 15, 2001, the Port Authority announced that Vornado Realty Trust had won the lease for the World Trade Center, paying $3.25 billion for the 99 - year lease. Vornado outbid Silverstein by $600 million though Silverstein upped his offer to $3.22 billion. However, Vornado insisted on last minute changes to the deal, including a shorter 39 - year lease, which the Port Authority considered nonnegotiable. Vornado later withdrew and Silverstein 's bid for the lease to the World Trade Center was accepted on April 26, 2001, and closed on July 24, 2001.
On September 11, 2001, Islamist terrorists hijacked American Airlines Flight 11 and crashed it into the northern façade of the North Tower at 8: 46: 40 a.m., the aircraft striking between the 93rd and 99th floors. Seventeen minutes later, at 9: 03: 11 a.m., a second group crashed the similarly hijacked United Airlines Flight 175 into the southern facade of the South Tower, striking it between the 77th and 85th floors. The damage caused to the North Tower by Flight 11 destroyed any means of escape from above the impact zone, trapping 1,344 people. Flight 175 had a much more off - centered impact compared to Flight 11, and a single stairwell was left intact; however, only a few people managed to pass through it successfully before the tower collapsed. Although the South Tower was struck lower than the North Tower, thus affecting more floors, a smaller number, fewer than 700, were killed instantly or trapped.
At 9: 59 a.m., the South Tower collapsed after burning for approximately 56 minutes. The fire caused steel structural elements, already weakened from the plane impact, to fail. The North Tower collapsed at 10: 28 a.m., after burning for approximately 102 minutes. At 5: 20 p.m. on September 11, 2001, 7 World Trade Center started to collapse with the crumble of the east penthouse, and it collapsed completely at 5: 21 p.m. owing to uncontrolled fires causing structural failure.
The Marriott World Trade Center, a hotel, was destroyed during the collapse of the two towers. The three remaining buildings in the WTC plaza were extensively damaged by debris and later were demolished. The cleanup and recovery process at the World Trade Center site took eight months. The Deutsche Bank Building across Liberty Street from the World Trade Center complex was later condemned owing to the uninhabitable toxic conditions inside; it was deconstructed, with work completed in early 2011. The Borough of Manhattan Community College 's Fiterman Hall at 30 West Broadway was also condemned owing to extensive damage, and it was demolished and completely rebuilt.
In the immediate aftermath of the attacks, media reports suggested that tens of thousands might have been killed in the attacks, as over 50,000 people could be inside the World Trade Center, although the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) estimated that approximately 17,400 occupants were in the towers at the time of the attacks. Ultimately, 2,753 death certificates (excluding those for hijackers) were filed relating to the 9 / 11 attacks in New York City, including one filed for Felicia Dunn - Jones, who was added to the official death toll in May 2007; Dunn - Jones died five months later from a lung condition linked to exposure to dust during the collapse of the World Trade Center. Three other victims were then added to the official death toll by the city medical examiner 's office: Dr. Sneha Anne Philip, who was last seen the day before the attacks; Leon Heyward, a man who developed lymphoma and subsequently died in 2008 as a result of dust ingestion during the events following the attacks to the Twin Towers; and Jerry Borg, who died in December 2010 of pulmonary sarcoidosis determined in June 2011 to be the result of dust from the attacks. 2,192 civilians died in and around the World Trade Center, including 658 employees of Cantor Fitzgerald L.P. (an investment bank on the 101st -- 105th floors of One World Trade Center), 295 employees of Marsh & McLennan Companies (which was located immediately below Cantor Fitzgerald on floors 93 -- 101, the location of Flight 11 's impact), and 175 employees of Aon Corporation. In addition to the civilian deaths, 343 New York City Fire Department (FDNY) firefighters were killed in the attacks, as well as 71 law enforcement officers, including 37 members of the Port Authority Police Department (PAPD) and 23 members of the New York City Police Department (NYPD). Ten years after the attacks, remains of only 1,629 victims had been identified. Of all the people who were still in the towers when they collapsed, only 20 were pulled out alive.
Over the following years, plans were created for the reconstruction of the World Trade Center. The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (LMDC), established in November 2001 to oversee the rebuilding process, organized competitions to select a site plan and memorial design. Memory Foundations, designed by Daniel Libeskind, was selected as the master plan; however, substantial changes were made to the design.
The first new building at the site was 7 WTC, which opened in May 2006. The memorial section of the National September 11 Memorial & Museum opened on September 11, 2011 and the museum opened in May 2014. 1 WTC opened on November 3, 2014; 4 WTC opened on November 13, 2013; and 3 WTC is expected to open in spring 2018,
As of November 2013, according to an agreement made with Silverstein Properties Inc., the new 2 WTC will not be built to its full height until sufficient leasing is established to make the building financially viable. In Summer 2015, Silverstein Properties revealed plans for a redesigned Tower 2 with News Corp as the core tenant; the Bjarke Ingels - designed structure was expected to be finished by 2020. 5 WTC will be developed by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, but above - ground construction was suspended in November 2013 due to a lack of tenants as well as disputes between the Port Authority and the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation.
The original World Trade Center created a superblock that cut through the area 's street grid, isolating the complex from the rest of the community. The Port Authority had demolished several streets to make way for the towers within the World Trade Center. The project involved combining the twelve - block area bounded by Vesey, Church, Liberty, and West Streets on the north, east, south, and west, respectively. 7 World Trade Center, built on the superblock 's north side in the late 1980s, was built over another block of Greenwich Street. The building acted as a physical barrier separating Tribeca to the north and the Financial District to the south. The underground mall at the World Trade Center also drew shoppers away from surrounding streets.
The project was seen as being monolithic and overambitious, while not involving public input. By contrast, the rebuilding plans had significant public input, and the public supported rebuilding a street grid through the World Trade Center site. One of the rebuilding proposals included building an enclosed shopping street along the path of Cortlandt Street, one of the streets demolished to make room for the original World Trade Center. However, it was ultimately decided to build Cortlandt, Fulton, and Greenwich Streets, which had been destroyed during the original World Trade Center 's construction.
Prior to 2001, the World Trade Center was an icon of New York City, and the Twin Towers were the centerpiece that represented the entire complex. The Twin Towers were used as "establishing shots '', standing for New York City as a whole. In 1999, one writer noted: "Nearly every guidebook in New York City lists the Twin Towers among the city 's top ten attractions. '' Consequently, several high - profile events that occurred at the World Trade Center. The most notable one occurred in 1974, French high wire acrobatic performer Philippe Petit walked between the towers on a tightrope, as shown in the documentary film Man on Wire (2008) and depicted in the feature film The Walk (2015). Petit walked between the towers eight times on a steel cable. In 1977, Brooklyn toymaker George Willig scaled the exterior of the South Tower (2 WTC). He later said, "It looked unscalable; I thought I 'd like to try it. ''
The complex was featured in numerous works of popular culture; one estimate in 2006 noted that the World Trade Center has appeared in some form in 472 films. Several iconic meanings were attributed to the World Trade Center. The film critic David Sterritt, who lived near the complex, stated that the World Trade Center 's appearance in the 1978 film Superman "summarized a certain kind of American grandeur (...) the grandeur, I would say, of sheer American powerfulness. '' Remarking on the towers ' destruction in the 1996 film Independence Day, Sterritt said, "The Twin Towers have been destroyed in various disaster movies that were made before 9 / 11. That became something that you could n't do even retroactively after 9 / 11. '' Other motifs included romance, depicted in the 1988 film Working Girl, and corporate avarice, depicted in Wall Street (1987) and The Bonfire of the Vanities (1987). Comic books, animated cartoons, television shows, video games, and music videos also used the complex as a setting.
After the September 11 attacks, some movies and TV shows deleted scenes or episodes set within the World Trade Center. For example, the Simpsons episode "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson '', which first aired in 1997, was removed from syndication after the attacks because a scene showed the World Trade Center. Songs that mentioned the World Trade Center were no longer allowed to be aired on the radio, and the release dates of some films, such as Sidewalks of New York, were delayed so producers could remove scenes that included the World Trade Center.
Other episodes and films mentioned the attacks directly, or depicted the World Trade Center in alternate contexts. The production of some family - oriented films was also sped up due to a large demand for that genre following the attacks, while demand for horror and action films decreased. Within a short time, however, demand for horror and action films returned to normal. By the first anniversary of the attacks, over sixty "memorial films '' had been created. Filmmakers were criticized for removing scenes related to the World Trade Center. Rita Kempley of the Washington Post stated that "if we erase the towers from our art, we erase it (sic) from our memories. '' Author Donald Langmead compared the phenomenon to the 1949 novel Nineteen Eighty - Four, where historic mentions of events are retroactively "rectified ''. Oliver Stone 's film World Trade Center -- the first movie that specifically examined the effects of the attacks on the World Trade Center, as opposed to the effects elsewhere -- was released in 2006.
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who wrote dulce et decorum est pro patria mori | Dulce et Decorum est - wikipedia
"Dulce et Decorum est '' (read here, on WikiSource) is a poem written by Wilfred Owen during World War I, and published posthumously in 1920. The Latin title is taken from the Roman poet Horace and means "it is sweet and honorable... '', followed by pro patria mori, which means "to die for one 's country ''. One of Owen 's most renowned works, the poem is known for its horrific imagery and condemnation of war. It was drafted at Craiglockhart in the first half of October 1917 and later revised, probably at Scarborough but possibly Ripon, between January and March 1918. The earliest surviving manuscript is dated 8 October 1917 and addressed to his mother, Susan Owen, with the message "Here is a gas poem done yesterday (which is not private, but not final). ''
Formally, the poem combines two sonnets, as it is formed by 28 lines, though the spacing of the stanzas is irregular. The text presents a vignette from the front lines of World War I; specifically, of British soldiers attacked with chlorine gas. In the rush when the shells with poison gas explode, one soldier is unable to get his mask on in time. The speaker of the poem describes the gruesome effects of the gas on the man and concludes that, if one were to see first - hand the reality of war, one might not repeat mendacious platitudes like dulce et decorum est pro patria mori: "'' It is sweet and proper to die for the fatherland. ''
Throughout the poem, and particularly strong in the last stanza, there is a running commentary, a letter to Jessie Pope, a civilian propagandist of World War I, who encouraged -- "with such high zest '' -- young men to join the battle, through her poetry, e.g. "Who 's for the game? ''
The first draft of the poem, indeed, was dedicated to Pope. A later revision amended this to "a certain Poetess '', though this did not make it into the final publication, either, as Owen apparently decided to address his poem to the larger audience of war supporters in general such as the women who handed out white feathers during the conflict to men whom they regarded as cowards for not being at the front. In the last stanza, however, the original intention can still be seen in Owen 's bitter address. This poem has such detailed imagery, even by today 's standards, it is still thought of as an unforgettable excoriation of World War I with the use of its intense tone, it truly gives the reader an insight of what the feeling of being on the front line would have been like.
The title of this poem means ' It is sweet and glorious '. The title and the Latin exhortation of the final two lines are drawn from the phrase "Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori '' written by the Roman poet Horace in (Ode III. 2.13):
Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori: mors et fugacem persequitur virum nec parcit inbellis iuventae poplitibus timidoque tergo.
How sweet and honourable it is to die for one 's country: Death pursues the man who flees, spares not the hamstrings or cowardly backs Of battle - shy youths.
These words were well known and often quoted by supporters of the war near its inception and were, therefore, of particular relevance to soldiers of the era.
In 1913, the first line, Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, was inscribed on the wall of the chapel of the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. In the final stanza of his poem, Owen refers to this as "The old Lie ''.
The style of "Dulce et Decorum est '' is similar to the French ballade poetic form. By referencing this formal poetic form and then breaking the conventions of pattern and rhyming, Owen accentuates the disruptive and chaotic events being told. Each of the stanzas has a traditional rhyming scheme, they use two quatrains of rhymed iambic pentameter with several spondaic substitutions. which give the poem a reading pace, that of which is closest to casual talking speed, clarity and volume.
The poem is in two parts, each of 14 lines. The first part of the poem (the first 8 line and the second 6 line stanzas) is written in the present as the action happens and everyone is reacting to the events around them. In second part (the third 2 line and the last 12 line stanzas), Owen writes as though at a distance from the horror: he refers to what is happening twice as if in a "dream '', as though standing back watching the events or even recalling them. Another interpretation is to read the lines literally. "In all my dreams '' surely means this sufferer of shell shock is haunted by his friend drowning in his own blood and can not sleep without revisiting the horror nightly. The second part looks back to draw a lesson from what happened at the start. The two 14 line parts of the poem again echoes a formal poetic style, the sonnet, and again it is a broken and unsettling version of this form.
The second half of this poem, has the narrator reminded by seeing the soldier who did n't get his helmet on fast enough to offer some dark and harsh advice to readers about how quick and impartial thinking can get you thinking irrationally and can and will ultimately get you killed. It includes a broken sonnet, this sonnet form along with the irregularity give the feeling of other worldliness and a sense of being foreign when read. Studying the two parts of the poem also reveals a change in the use of language from visual impressions outside the body, to sounds produced by the body - or a movement from the visual to the visceral. In the opening lines, the scene is set with visual phrases like ' haunting flares ' but after the gas attack, Owen uses sounds produced by the victim - ' guttering ', ' choking ', ' gargling '. In this way, Owen mirrors the terrible nature of phosgene, which corrodes the body from inside.
In May 1917 Owen was diagnosed with neurasthenia (shell - shock) and sent to Craiglockhart hospital near Edinburgh to recover. Whilst receiving treatment at the hospital, Owen became the editor of the hospital magazine, The Hydra, and met the poet Siegfried Sassoon, who was to have a major impact upon his life and work and to play a crucial role in the dissemination of Owen 's poetry following his untimely death in 1918, aged only 25. Owen wrote a number of his most famous poems at Craiglockhart, including several drafts of both ' Dulce et Decorum est ', ' Soldier 's Dream ' and ' Anthem for Doomed Youth '. Sassoon advised and encouraged Owen, and this is evident in a number of drafts which include Sassoon 's annotations.
Only five of Owen 's poems were published throughout his lifetime. However, after his death his heavily worked manuscript drafts were brought together and published in two different editions by Siegfried Sassoon with the assistance of Edith Sitwell (in 1920) and Edmund Blunden (in 1931).
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which european countries remained neutral in the war | Neutral powers during World war II - wikipedia
The neutral powers were countries that remained neutral during World War II. Some of these countries had large colonies abroad or had great economic power. Spain had just been through its civil war, which ended on 1 April 1939 (five months prior to the Invasion of Poland) -- a war that involved several countries that subsequently participated in World War II.
During World War II, the neutral powers took no official side, hoping to avoid attack. However, Portugal, Sweden, Colombia, and Switzerland all helped the Allied Powers by supplying "voluntary '' brigades to the United Kingdom, while Spain avoided the Allies in favor of the Axis. Ireland generally favoured the Allied side, as with the United States. The United States remained neutral until December 8, 1941, a day following the sneak attack by Japan on Pearl Harbor.
The Lateran Treaty between Italy and the Vatican, signed in 1929, required that the Pope maintain "perpetual neutrality in international relations '' -- making the Vatican City a neutral state.
Several countries suffered invasions in spite of their efforts to be neutral. These included Nazi Germany 's invasion of Denmark and Norway on 9 April 1940 -- then Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg on 10 May 1940. On the same day, 10 May 1940, the British invaded Iceland and established an occupying force (subsequently replaced by the then - neutral United States). In the eastern Baltic, the Soviet Union invaded Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia on 14 June 1940. In the Balkans, the Italo - Greek War began on 28 October 1940 and Yugoslavia was invaded in April 1941. Iran was also attacked and occupied by Britain and the Soviet Union in August 1941.
See also the histories of Afghanistan, Andorra, Guatemala, Liechtenstein, Saudi Arabia and Yemen during this period.
Colonies of Portugal:
Portugal, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland held to the concept of armed neutrality, and continuously amassed soldiers to defend their nation 's sovereignty from potential invasion. Thus, they maintained the right to become belligerent if attacked while in a state of neutrality. The concept of neutrality in war is narrowly defined and puts specific constraints on the neutral party in return for the internationally recognized right to remain neutral. A wider concept is that of non-belligerence. The basic international law covering neutral territories is the Second Hague Convention. It is important to note that a neutral country takes no side in a war between other parties, and in return hopes to avoid being attacked by either of them. A neutralist policy aims at neutrality in case of an armed conflict that could involve the party in question. A neutralist is an advocate of neutrality in international affairs. The concept of neutrality in conflicts is distinct from non-alignment, i.e., the willful desistance from military alliances in order to preserve neutrality in case of war, and perhaps with the hope of preventing a war altogether.
In a study of Spain, Switzerland and Sweden during WWII, Eric Golson found that they engaged in economic realpolitik, as they traded with both the Axis and the Allied Powers.
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the tenth and final avatar of vishnu is krishna | Kalki - Wikipedia
Kalki, also called Kalkin, is the tenth avatar of Hindu god Vishnu to end the Kali Yuga, one of the four periods in endless cycle of existence (krita) in Vaishnavism cosmology. He is described in the Puranas as the avatar who rejuvenates existence by ending the darkest and destructive period to remove adharma and ushering in the Satya Yuga, while riding a white horse with a fiery sword. The description and details of Kalki are inconsistent among the Puranic texts. He is, for example, only an invisible force destroying evil and chaos in some texts, while an actual person who kills those who persecute others, and portrayed as someone leading an army of Brahmin warriors in some. His mythology has been compared to the concepts of Messiah, Apocalypse, Frashokereti and Maitreya in other religions.
Kalki is also found in Buddhist texts. In Tibetan Buddhism, the Kalachakra - Tantra describes 25 rulers, each named Kalki who rule from the heavenly Shambhala. The last Kalki of Shambhala destroys a barbarian Muslim army, after which Buddhism flourishes. This text is dated to about 10th - century CE.
The name Kalki is derived based Kali, which means "present age '' (kali yuga). The literal meaning of Kalki is "dirty, sinful '', which Brockington states does not make sense in the avatara context. This has led scholars such as Otto Schrader to suggest that the original term may have been karki (white, from the horse) which morphed into Kalki. This proposal is supported by two versions of Mahabharata manuscripts (e.g. the G3. 6 manuscript) that have been found, where the Sanskrit verses name the avatar to be "karki '', rather than "kalki ''.
Kalki is an avatara of Vishnu. Avatara means "descent '' and refers to a descent of the divine into the material realm of human existence. The Garuda Purana lists ten avatars, with Kalki being the tenth. He is described as the avatar who appears at the end of the Kali Yuga. He ends the darkest, degenerating and chaotic stage of the Kali Yuga (period) to remove adharma and ushers in the Satya Yuga, while riding a white horse with a fiery sword. He restarts a new cycle of time. He is described as a Brahmin warrior in the Puranas.
In the Buddhist text Kalachakra Tantra, the righteous kings are called Kalki (Kalkin, lit. chieftain) living in Sambhala. There are many Kalki in this text, each fighting barbarism, persecution and chaos. The last Kalki is called "Cakrin '' and is predicted to end the chaos and degeneration by assembling a large army to eradicate the "forces of Islam ''. A great war and Armageddon will destroy the barbaric Muslim forces, states the text. According to Donald Lopez -- a professor of Buddhist Studies, Kalki is predicted to start the new cycle of perfect era where "Buddhism will flourish, people will live long, happy lives and righteousness will reign supreme ''. The text is significant in establishing the chronology of the Kalki idea to be from post-7th century, probably the 9th or 10th century. Lopez states that the Buddhist text likely borrowed it from Hindu mythology. Other scholars, such as Yijiu Jin, state that the text originated in Central Asia in the 10th - century, and Tibetan literature picked up a version of it in India around 1027 CE.
There is no mention of Kalki in the Vedic literature. The epithet "Kalmallkinam '', meaning "brilliant remover of darkness '', is found in the Vedic literature for Rudra (later Shiva), which has been interpreted to be "forerunner of Kalki ''.
Kalki appears for the first time in the great war epic Mahabharata. The mention of Kalki in the Mahabharata occurs only once, over the verses 3.188. 85 -- 3.189. 6. The Kalki avatar is found in the Maha - Puranas such as Vishnu Purana, Matsya Purana, and Bhagavata Purana. However, the details relating the Kalki mythologies are divergent between the Epic and the Puranas, as well as within the Puranas.
In the Mahabharata, according to Hiltebeitel, Kalki is an extension of the Parasurama avatar legend where a Brahmin warrior destroys Kshatriyas who were abusing their power to spread chaos, evil and persecution of the powerless. The Epic character of Kalki restores dharma, restores justice in the world, but does not end the cycle of existence. The Kalkin section in the Mahabharata occurs in the Markandeya section. There, states Luis Reimann, can "hardly be any doubt that the Markandeya section is a late addition to the Epic. Making Yudhisthira ask a question about conditions at the end of Kali and the beginning of Krta -- something far removed from his own situation -- is merely a device for justifying the inclusion of this subject matter in the Epic. ''
According to Cornelia Dimmitt, the "clear and tidy '' systematization of Kalki and the remaining nine avatars of Vishnu is not found in any of the Maha - Puranas. The coverage of Kalki in these Hindu texts is scant, in contrast to the legends of Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Vamana, Narasimha and Krishna, all of which are repeatedly and extensively described. According to Dimmitt, this was likely because just like the concept of the Buddha as a Vishnu avatar, the concept of Kalki was "somewhat in flux '' when the major Puranas were being compiled.
This myth may have developed in the Hindu texts both as a reaction to the invasions of the Indian subcontinent by various armies over the centuries from its northwest, and the mythologies these invaders brought with them.
According to John Mitchiner, the Kalki concept was likely borrowed "in some measure from similar Jewish, Christian, Zoroastrian and other religions ''. Mitchiner states that some Puranas such as the Yuga Purana do not mention Kalki and offer a different cosmology than the other Puranas. The Yuga Purana mythologizes in greater details the post-Maurya era Indo - Greek and Saka era, while the Manvantara theme containing the Kalki idea is mythologized greater in other Puranas. Luis Gonzales - Reimann concurs with Mitchiner, stating that the Yuga Purana does not mention Kalki. In other texts such as the sections 2.36 and 2.37 of the Vayu Purana, states Reimann, it is not Kalkin who ends the Kali Yuga, but a different character named Pramiti. Most historians, states Arvind Sharma, link the development of Kalki mythology in Hinduism to the suffering caused by foreign invasions.
A minor text named Kalki Purana is a recent text, likely composed in Bengal. Its dating floruit is the 18th - century. Wendy Doniger dates the Kalki mythology containing Kalki Purana to between 1500 and 1700 CE.
In the Kalki Purana, Kalki marries princess Padmavati, the daughter of Brhadratha of Simhala. He fights an evil army and many wars, ends evil but does not end existence. Kalki returns to Sambhala, inaugurates a new yuga for the good and then goes to heaven.
The Kalki avatar appears in the historic Sikh texts, most notably in Dasam Granth as Nihakalanki, a text that is traditionally attributed to Guru Gobind Singh. The Chaubis Avatar (24 avatars) section mentions sage Matsyanra describing the appearance of Vishnu avatars to fight evil, greed, violence and ignorance. It includes Kalki as the twenty - fourth incarnation to lead the war between the forces of righteousness and unrighteousness, states Dhavan.
(Lord Shiva said to Lord Kalki:) "This horse was manifested from Garuda, and it can go anywhere at will and assume many different forms. Here also is a parrot (Shuka) that knows everything - past, present, and future. I would like to offer You both the horse and the parrot and so please accept them. By the influence of this horse and parrot, the people of the world will know You as a learned scholar of all scriptures who is a master of the art of releasing arrows, and thus the conqueror of all. I would also like to present You this sharp, strong sword and so please accept it. The handle of this sword is bedecked with jewels, and it is extremely powerful. As such, the sword will help You to reduce the heavy burden of the earth. ''
Thereafter, Lord Kalki picked up His brightly shining trident and bow and arrows and sets out from His palace, riding upon His victorious horse and wearing His amulet.
(Shuka said to Padmavati:) (Lord Kalki) received a sword, horse, parrot, and shield from Mahadeva, as a benediction.
In the cyclic concept of time (Puranic Kalpa), Kaliyuga is variously estimated to last between 400,000 to 432,000 years. In some Vaishnava texts, Kalki is forecasted to appear on a white horse, at the end of Kaliyuga, to end the age of degeneration and to restore virtue and world order.
The Indian texts state that Kalki will be born to Awejsirdenee and Bishenjun, or alternatively in the family of Sumati and Vishnuyasha. He appears at the end of Kali Yuga to restore the order of the world. Vishnuyasha is stated to be a prominent Brahmin headman of the village called Shambhala. He will become the king, a "Turner of the Wheel '', and one who triumphs. He will eliminate all barbarians and robbers, end adharma, restart dharma, and save the good people. After that, humanity will be transformed and will prevail on earth, and the golden age will begin.
In the Kanchipuram temple, two relief Puranic panels depict Kalki, one relating to lunar (daughter - based) dynasty and another to solar (son - based) dynasty. In these panels, states D Dennis Hudson, the story depicted is in terms of Kalki fighting and defeating asura Kali. He rides a white horse called Devadatta, ends evil, purifies everyone 's minds and consciousness, and heralds the start of Krita Yuga.
List of people who have claimed to be the Kalki avatar:
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where did the bean in chicago come from | Cloud Gate - wikipedia
Coordinates: 41 ° 52 ′ 57.67 '' N 87 ° 37 ′ 23.97 '' W / 41.8826861 ° N 87.6233250 ° W / 41.8826861; - 87.6233250
Cloud Gate is a public sculpture by Indian - born British artist Sir Anish Kapoor, that is the centerpiece of AT&T Plaza at Millennium Park in the Loop community area of Chicago, Illinois. The sculpture and AT&T Plaza are located on top of Park Grill, between the Chase Promenade and McCormick Tribune Plaza & Ice Rink. Constructed between 2004 and 2006, the sculpture is nicknamed The Bean because of its shape. Made up of 168 stainless steel plates welded together, its highly polished exterior has no visible seams. It measures 33 by 66 by 42 feet (10 by 20 by 13 m), and weighs 110 short tons (100 t; 98 long tons).
Kapoor 's design was inspired by liquid mercury and the sculpture 's surface reflects and distorts the city 's skyline. Visitors are able to walk around and under Cloud Gate 's 12 - foot (3.7 m) high arch. On the underside is the "omphalos '' (Greek for "navel ''), a concave chamber that warps and multiplies reflections. The sculpture builds upon many of Kapoor 's artistic themes, and it is popular with tourists as a photo - taking opportunity for its unique reflective properties.
The sculpture was the result of a design competition. After Kapoor 's design was chosen, numerous technological concerns regarding the design 's construction and assembly arose, in addition to concerns regarding the sculpture 's upkeep and maintenance. Various experts were consulted, some of whom believed the design could not be implemented. Eventually, a feasible method was found, but the sculpture 's construction fell behind schedule. It was unveiled in an incomplete form during the Millennium Park grand opening celebration in 2004, before being concealed again while it was completed. Cloud Gate was formally dedicated on May 15, 2006, and has since gained considerable popularity, both domestically and internationally.
Lying between Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west, Grant Park has been Chicago 's front yard since the mid-19th century. Its northwest corner, north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute, east of Michigan Avenue, south of Randolph Street, and west of Columbus Drive, had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997, when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park. For 2007, the park was Chicago 's second largest tourist attraction, trailing only Navy Pier.
In 1999, Millennium Park officials and a group of art collectors, curators and architects reviewed the artistic works of 30 different artists and asked two for proposals. American artist Jeff Koons submitted a proposal to erect a permanent 150 - foot (46 m) sculpture of a playground slide; his glass and steel design featured an observation deck 90 feet (27 m) above the ground that was accessible via an elevator. The committee chose the second design by internationally acclaimed artist Anish Kapoor. Measuring 33 by 66 by 42 feet (10 by 20 by 13 m) and weighing 110 short tons (100 t; 98 long tons), the proposal featured a seamless, stainless steel surface inspired by liquid mercury. This mirror - like surface would reflect the Chicago skyline, but its elliptical shape would distort and twist the reflected image. As visitors walk around the structure, its surface acts like a fun - house mirror as it distorts their reflections.
In the underside of the sculpture is the omphalos, an indentation whose mirrored surface provides multiple reflections of any subject situated beneath it. The apex of the omphalos is 27 feet (8.2 m) above the ground. The concave underside allows visitors to walk underneath to see the omphalos, and through its arch to the other side so that they view the entire structure. During the grand opening week in July 2004, press reports described the omphalos as the "spoon - like underbelly ''. The stainless steel sculpture was originally envisioned as the centerpiece of the Lurie Garden at the southeast corner of the park. However, Park officials believed the piece was too large for the Lurie Garden and decided to locate it at AT&T Plaza, despite Kapoor 's objections. Skyscrapers to the north along East Randolph Street, including The Heritage, the Smurfit - Stone Building, Two Prudential Plaza, One Prudential Plaza, and Aon Center are visible, reflected on both the east and west sides of the sculpture.
Although Kapoor does not draw with computers, computer modeling was essential to the process of analyzing the complex form, which created numerous issues. Since the sculpture was expected to be outdoors, concerns arose that it might retain and conduct heat in a way that would make it too hot to touch during the summer and so cold that one 's tongue might stick to it during the winter. The extreme temperature variation between seasons was also feared to weaken the structure. Graffiti, bird droppings and fingerprints were also potential problems, as they would affect the aesthetics of the surface. The most pressing issue was the need to create a single seamless exterior for the external shell, a feat architect Norman Foster once believed to be nearly impossible.
While the sculpture was being constructed, public and media outlets nicknamed it "The Bean '' because of its shape, a name that Kapoor described as "completely stupid ''. Months later, Kapoor officially named the piece "Cloud Gate ''. (Kapoor eventually accepted the nickname of "The Bean ''.) Critical reviews describe the sculpture as a passage between realms. Three - quarters of the sculpture 's external surface reflects the sky and the name refers to it acting as a type of gate that helps bridge the space between the sky and the viewer. The sculpture and plaza are sometimes referred to jointly as "Cloud Gate on the AT&T Plaza ''. It is Kapoor 's first public outdoor work in the United States, and is the work by which he is best known in the country according to the Financial Times.
The British engineering firm Atelier One and freelance engineer Chris Hornzee - Jones (who later went on to form the engineering firm Aerotrope in 2005) provided the sculpture 's structural design, and Performance Structures, Inc. (PSI) was chosen to fabricate it because of their ability to produce nearly invisible welds. The project began with PSI attempting to recreate the design in miniature. A high - density polyurethane foam model was selected by Kapoor, which was then used to design the final structure, including the interior structural components. Initially, PSI planned to build and assemble the sculpture in Oakland, California, and ship it to Chicago through the Panama Canal and St. Lawrence Seaway. However, this plan was discarded after park officials deemed it too risky, so the decision was made to transport the individual panels by truck and to assemble the structure on - site, a task undertaken by MTH Industries.
The sculpture 's weight raised concerns. Estimating the thickness of the steel needed to create the sculpture 's desired aesthetics before fabrication was difficult. Cloud Gate was originally estimated to weigh 60 short tons (54 t; 54 long tons) when completed. However, the final figure was almost twice as heavy at 110 short tons (100 t; 98 long tons). This extra weight required engineers to reconsider the sculpture 's supporting structures. The roof of the Park Grill, upon which Cloud Gate sits, had to be built strong enough to bear the weight. The large retaining wall separating Chicago 's Metra train tracks from the North Grant Park garage supports much of the weight of the sculpture and forms the back side of the restaurant. This wall, along with the rest of the garage 's foundation, required additional bracing before the piece was erected. Cloud Gate is further buttressed by lateral members underneath the plaza that are anchored to the sculpture 's interior structure by tie rods.
Inside Cloud Gate 's polished exterior shell are several steel structures that keep the sculpture standing. The first structural pieces, two type 304 stainless steel rings, were put into place in February 2004. As construction continued, crisscrossing pipe trusses were assembled between the two rings. The trusses and supporting structures were only present for the construction phases. The finished sculpture has no inner bracing. The supporting structural components were designed and constructed to ensure that no specific point was overloaded, and to avoid producing unwanted indentations on the exterior shell. The frame was also designed to expand and contract with the sculpture as temperatures fluctuate. As a result, the two large rings supporting the sculpture move independently of each other, allowing the shell to move independently of the rings.
When Cloud Gate 's interior components were completed, construction crews prepared to work on the outer shell; this comprises 168 stainless steel panels, each ⁄ inch (10 mm) thick and weighing 1,000 to 2,000 pounds (450 to 910 kg). They were fabricated using three - dimensional modeling software. Computers and robots were essential in the bending and shaping of the plates, which was performed by English wheel and a robotic scanning device. Metal stiffeners were welded to each panel 's interior face to provide a small degree of rigidity. About a third of the plates, along with the entire interior structure, were fabricated in Oakland. The plates were polished to 98 percent of their final state and covered with protective white film before being sent to Chicago via trucks. Once in Chicago, the plates were welded together on - site, creating 2,442 linear feet (744 m) of welded seams. Welders used keyhole welding machines rather than traditional welding guns. The plates were fabricated so precisely that no on - site cutting or filing was necessary when lifting and fitting them into position.
When construction of the shell began in June 2004, a large tent was erected around the piece to shield it from public view. Construction began with the omphalos, where plates were attached to the supporting internal steel structure, from the inside (underside) of the sculpture downward to the outermost surfaces. This sequence caused the structure to resemble a large sombrero when the bottom was complete.
The shell of Cloud Gate was fully erected for the grand opening of Millennium Park on July 15, 2004, although it was unpolished and thus unfinished, because its assembly had fallen behind schedule. The piece was temporarily uncovered on July 8 for the opening, although Kapoor was unhappy with this as it allowed the public to see the sculpture in an unfinished state. The original plan was to re-erect the tent around the sculpture for polishing on July 24, but public appreciation for the piece convinced park officials to leave it uncovered for several months. The tent was again erected in January 2005 as a 24 - person crew from Ironworkers Local 63 polished the seams between each plate. In order to grind, sand and polish the seams, six levels of scaffolding were erected around the sides of the sculpture, while climbing ropes and harnesses were used to polish harder - to - reach areas. When the upper and side portions of the shell were completed, the tent was once again removed in August 2005. On October 3, the omphalos was closed off as workers polished the final section. Every weld on the Cloud Gate underwent a five - stage process, required to produce the sculpture 's mirror - like finish.
The sculpture was finally completed on August 28, 2005, and officially unveiled on May 15, 2006. The cost for the piece was first estimated at $6 million; this had escalated to $11.5 million by the time the park opened in 2004, with the final figure standing at $23 million in 2006. No public funds were involved; all funding came from donations from individuals and corporations.
Kapoor 's contract states that the constructed piece should be expected to survive for 1,000 years. The lower 6 feet (1.8 m) of Cloud Gate is wiped down twice a day by hand, while the entire sculpture is cleaned twice a year with 40 U.S. gallons (33 imp gal; 150 L) of liquid detergent. The daily cleanings use a Windex - like solution, while the semi-annual cleanings use Tide. A notable February 2009 rare incident saw two names etched in letters about 1 inch (25 mm) tall on the northeast side of the curved sculpture. The graffiti was removed by the same firm that did the original polishing.
Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley declared the day of the sculpture 's dedication, May 15, 2006, to be "Cloud Gate Day ''. Kapoor attended the celebration, while local jazz trumpeter and bandleader Orbert Davis and the Chicago Jazz Philharmonic played "Fanfare for Cloud Gate '', which Davis composed. The public took an instant liking to the sculpture, affectionately referring to it as "The Bean ''. Cloud Gate has become a popular piece of public art and is now a fixture on many souvenirs such as postcards, sweatshirts, and posters. The sculpture has attracted a large number of locals, tourists, and art aficionados from around the world. The sculpture is now the piece by which Kapoor is most identified in the United States.
Time describes the piece as an essential photo opportunity, and more of a destination than a work of art. The New York Times writes that it is both a "tourist magnet '' and an "extraordinary art object '', while USA Today refers to the sculpture as a monumental abstract work. Chicago art critic Edward Lifson considers Cloud Gate to be among the greatest pieces of public art in the world. The American Welding Society recognized Cloud Gate, MTH Industries and PSI with the group 's Extraordinary Welding Award. Time named Millennium Park one of the ten best architectural achievements of 2004, citing Cloud Gate as one of the park 's major attractions.
-- Anish Kapoor
When the park first opened in 2004, Metra police stopped a Columbia College Chicago journalism student who was working on a photography project in Millennium Park and confiscated his film because of fears of terrorism. In 2005, the sculpture attracted some controversy when a professional photographer without a paid permit was denied access to the piece. As is the case for all works of art currently covered by United States copyright law, the artist holds the copyright for the sculpture. This allows the public to freely photograph Cloud Gate, but permission from Kapoor or the City of Chicago (which has licensed the art) is required for any commercial reproductions of the photographs. The city first set a policy of collecting permit fees for photographs. These permits were initially set at $350 per day for professional still photographers, $1,200 per day for professional videographers and $50 per hour for wedding photographers. The policy has been changed so permits are only required for large - scale film, video and photography requiring ten - person crews and equipment.
In addition to restricting photography of public art, closing a public park for a private event has also been controversial. In 2005 and 2006, almost all of Millennium Park was closed for a day for corporate events. On both occasions, as one of the park 's primary attractions, Cloud Gate was the focus of controversy. On September 8, 2005, Toyota Motor Sales USA paid $800,000 to rent most venues in the park including Cloud Gate on AT&T Plaza from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m. On August 7, 2006, Allstate paid $700,000 to rent the park. For this price, Allstate acquired the visitation rights to a different set of features and only had exclusive access to Cloud Gate after 4 p.m. These corporate closures denied tourists access to Kapoor 's public sculpture, and commuters who walk through the park were forced to take alternative routes. City officials stated that the money would help finance free public programs in Millennium Park.
In 2015, a sculpture similar to Cloud Gate was reported in Karamay, China at the site of an oil discovery, which according to Eduardo Peñalver, the Dean of Cornell Law School, "very probably '' is a copyright infringement against Cloud Gate. Though designed to resemble an oil bubble, Kapoor hoped that legal action would be taken against what he termed a Chinese knockoff. Mayor Rahm Emanuel was less concerned and said that it was a flattering imitation.
-- Anish Kapoor
Anish Kapoor has a reputation for creating spectacles in urban settings by producing works of extreme size and scale. Before creating Cloud Gate, Kapoor had created art that distorted images of the viewer instead of portraying images of its own. In so doing, he acquired experience blurring the boundary between the limit and the limitless. Kapoor drew on past experience to design Cloud Gate, in particular the designing of Sky Mirror (2001), a 20 - foot (6.1 m) 10 - short - ton (9 t; 9 - long - ton) concave stainless steel mirror that also used a theme of distorted perception on a grand scale.
Kapoor 's objects often aim to evoke immateriality and the spiritual, an outcome he achieves either by carving dark voids into stone pieces, or more recently, through the sheer shine and reflectivity of his objects. This Indian artist 's works have no fixed identity, but rather occupy an illusionary space that is consistent with eastern theologies shared by Buddhism, Hinduism and Taoism, as well as Albert Einstein 's views of a non-three - dimensional world. Kapoor explores the theme of ambiguity with his works that place the viewer in a state of "in - betweenness ''. The artist often questions and plays with such dualities as solidity -- emptiness or reality -- reflection, which in turn allude to such paired opposites as flesh -- spirit, the here -- the beyond, east -- west, sky -- earth, etc. that create the conflict between internal and external, superficial and subterranean, and conscious and unconscious. Kapoor also creates a tension between masculine and feminine within his art by having concave points of focus that invite the entry of visitors and multiplies their images when they are positioned correctly.
Kapoor often speaks of removing both the signature of the artist from his works as well as any traces of their fabrication, or what he refers to as "traces of the hand ''. He aspires to make his works look like they have independent realities that he reveals rather than creates. For him, removing all the seams from Cloud Gate was necessary in order to make the sculpture seem as though it was "perfect '' and ready - made. These effects increase the viewer 's fascination with it and makes them wonder what it is and where it came from. His attempts to hide his works ' seams as an artist stand in contrast to Frank Gehry 's architectural designs in the park, Jay Pritzker Pavilion and BP Pedestrian Bridge, which display their seams prominently.
Cloud Gate is described as a transformative, iconic work. It is similar to many of Kapoor 's previous works in the themes and issues it addresses. While the sculpture 's mirror effects are reminiscent of fun - house fairground mirrors, they also have a more serious intent; they help dematerialize this very large object, making it seem light and almost weightless. Cloud Gate is considered Kapoor 's most ambitious use of complex mirrored form dynamics. Kapoor challenges his viewers to internalize his work through intellectual and theoretical exercise. By reflecting the sky, visiting and non-visiting pedestrians and surrounding architecture, Cloud Gate limits its viewers to partial comprehension at any time. The interaction with the viewer who moves to create his own vision gives it a spiritual dimension. The sculpture is described as a disembodied, luminous form, which is also how his earlier 1000 Names (1979 -- 80) was described when it addressed the metaphysical and mystical.
The viewer physically enters the art when he walks underneath it into its "navel ''. The omphalos is a "warped dimension of fluid space ''. In this dimension, solid is transformed into fluid in a disorienting multiplicative manner that intensifies the experience. It is emblematic of Kapoor 's work to deconstruct empirical space and venture into manifold possibilities of abstract space. The experience is described as a displaced or virtual depth that is composed of multiplied surfaces.
According to project manager Lou Cerny of MTH Industries, "When the light is right, you ca n't see where the sculpture ends and the sky begins. '' The sculpture challenges perception by distorting and deforming the surrounding architecture. The skyscrapers along East Randolph Street to the northeast (Two Prudential Plaza, and Aon Center), north (One Prudential Plaza) and northwest (The Heritage, Crain Communications Building) are reflected on Cloud Gate 's surface when viewed from either the east or the west. The sculpture also warps viewers ' perception of time by changing the speed of movements such as the passing of clouds.
Although in the conventional sense Cloud Gate is not an opening that leads anywhere in the same way that monumental gates do, it frames a view and is celebratory in the way it creates a ceremonial place. The work is credited with achieving a new level or understanding described as a transubstantiation of material, reminiscent of that which the artist experienced during a 1979 trip to India. Kapoor 's 1000 Names evolved immediately after this trip; twenty - five years later he created Cloud Gate, an object that emerged from material forms to become immaterial.
Kapoor often relies on tenets of Hinduism in his art and says that "The experience of opposites allows for the expression of wholeness. '' Primal dualities that are one, such as the lingam and yoni, are important to Indian culture, and Cloud Gate represents both the male and female in one entity by symbolizing both the vagina and testicles. Thus, it represents the tension between the masculine and the feminine.
The sculpture has been used as a backdrop in commercial films, notably in the 2006 Hollywood film The Break - Up, which had to reshoot several scenes because the sculpture was under cover for the initial filming. It is also prominently featured in the ending scene of Source Code. Director Duncan Jones felt the structure was a metaphor for the movie 's subject matter and aimed for it to be shown at the beginning and end of the movie. The sculpture served as an aesthetic and symbolic setting for the 2012 film The Vow when the lead characters share a kiss under it. It also appears in the video to "Homecoming '', a song by Chicago native Kanye West, featuring Chris Martin of the band Coldplay. The sculpture is also featured in the 2008 mumblecore film Nights and Weekends. It was also featured in the Bollywood film Dhoom 3 and the 2014 movie, Transformers: Age of Extinction, the fourth installment in the Transformers series. A modified reproduction of Cloud Gate is also included in Watch Dogs, a video game released in 2014 that takes place in Chicago. Unlike the real sculpture, the in - game replica is a curved, white torus. A movement to Windex the Bean was started in 2017, gaining the attention of over thirty thousand people on Facebook. The event took place on November 15th, 2017, because of a consensus that the Bean is dirty and needs to be cleaned.
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who are the bates in bringing up bates | Bringing up Bates - wikipedia
Bringing Up Bates is an American reality television show on Up TV. It is centered around Gil and Kelly Jo Bates and their 19 children. Gil and Kelly Jo got married on December 19, 1987, when he was 22 and she was 21. Since then, they have had 9 boys and 10 girls, all of whom were born between the years 1988 and 2012, and Kelly Jo delivered every one of them. There are no sets of multiples in their family either. They have four children that are married: Zach (married Whitney Perkins), Michaella (married Brandon Keilen), Erin (married Chad Paine), and Alyssa (married John Webster). Gil and Kelly Jo also have six grandchildren with two on the way due April 2018, Zach and Whitney have Bradley and Kaci. Chad and Erin have Carson and Brooklyn; they are currently expecting Everly in April 2018. John and Alyssa have Allie and Lexi; they are currently expecting Zoey in April 2018. The Bates family had a TV show in 2012 called United Bates of America, and it was announced in October 2014 that the Bates family would return in a new series which would be called Bringing Up Bates. The series debuted on January 1, 2015. UP TV revealed that the show would be returning for another season in June 2015. The second season started on June 4, 2015. The third season started on January 7, 2016 The fourth season started on June 2, 2016. The fifth season started on January 5, 2017. The sixth season began on June 1, 2017. The Network announced that season seven will start on January 4, 2018.
Season two premiered on June 4, 2015.
Season three premiered on January 7, 2016.
The season started on June 2, 2016
The fifth season started on January 5, 2017.
Season six started on June 1, 2017 and finished on September 14, 2017.
UP TV announced Bringing Up Bates will return on January 4, 2018 for their seventh season.
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what is a hebrew according to ancient texts | Ancient Hebrew writings - wikipedia
This is a part of Hebrew literature The earliest known inscription in Hebrew is the Khirbet Qeiyafa Inscription (11th -- 10th century BCE), if it can indeed be considered Hebrew at that early a stage. By far the most varied, extensive and historically significant body of literature written in the old Classical Hebrew is the canon of the Hebrew Bible (commonly referred to as the "Tanakh '' by Jews, the "Old Testament '' by Christians), but certain other works have survived as well. It was not unusual for ancient narratives, poetry and rules to have been transmitted orally for several generations before being committed to writing. Before the Aramaic - derived modern Hebrew alphabet was adopted circa the 5th century BCE, the Phoenician - derived Paleo - Hebrew script was used instead for writing, and a derivative of the script still survives to this day in the form of the Samaritan script.
The Hebrew language developed out of the Canaanite language, and some Semitist scholars consider both Hebrew and Phoenician to have been essentially dialects of Cannaanite.
The language variety in which the Masoretic biblical text is written is known as Biblical Hebrew or Classical Hebrew (c. 10th century BCE -- 1st century CE). Varieties of Hebrew were spoken not only by the ancient Israelites but also in adjacent kingdoms east and south of the Jordan River, where distinct non-Israelite dialects existed, now extinct: Ammonite, Moabite and Edomite. After the inhabitants of the Northern Kingdom of Israel had been deported from their homeland following the Assyrian conquest in approximately 721 BC, an equivalent linguistic shift occurred. In the Second Temple period since the Babylonian exile, beginning in the 5th century BCE, the two known remnants of the twelve Israelite tribes came to be referred to as Jews and Samaritans (see Samaritan Hebrew).
Unlike Samaritan and Biblical Hebrew, the other varieties are poorly studied due to insufficient data. It may be argued that they are independent languages, as the distinction between language and dialect is ambiguous. They are known only from very small corpora, coming from seals, ostraca, transliterations of names in foreign texts and, in particular, the following inscriptions:
Hebrew and Phoenician are classified as Canaanite languages, which, along with Aramaic constitute the Northwest Semitic (Levantine) language family. Extra-biblical Canaanite inscriptions are gathered along with Aramaic inscriptions in editions of the book "Kanaanäische und Aramäische Inschriften '', from which they may be referenced as KAI n (for a number n); for example, the Mesha Stele is "KAI 181 ''.
The Deir Alla Inscription (c. 840 -- 760 BCE), which is written in a peculiar Northwest Semitic dialect, has provoked much debate among scholars and had a strong impact on the study of Hebrew language history.
The Hebrew Bible, which in Christianity is known as the "Old Testament '', is commonly known in Judaism as the "Tanakh '', it being a vocalization of the acronym TNK (תַּנַ "ךְ): Torah ('' Teachings "), Nevi'im ('' Prophets ") and Ketuvim ('' Writings "). The Bible is not a single, monolithic piece of literature because each of these three sections, in turn, contains books written at different times by different authors. All books of the Bible are not strictly religious in nature; for example, The Song of Songs is a love poem and, along with The Book of Esther, does not explicitly mention God.
"Torah '' in this instance refers to the Pentateuch (to parallel Chumash, חומש), so called because it consists of five books: Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus and Deuteronomy. It is the core scripture of Judaism and Samaritanism, honored in these religions as the most sacred of scripture. It is sometimes called the "Five Books of Moses '' because according to the Jewish tradition, the Torah, as a divinely inspired text, was given to Moses by God himself on Mount Sinai during the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, which is portrayed as the founding event in the formation of the Israelite religion. Other than discussing the Exodus itself and the journey to the Promised Land, the Pentateuch has such themes as the origin of the world, of humanity and of the ancient Israelites, the ancestors of modern - day Jews.
The Nevi'im section of the Hebrew Bible consists of two sub-divisions: the Former Prophets (Nevi'im Rishonim נביאים ראשונים, the narrative books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Nevi'im Aharonim נביאים אחרונים, the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel and the Twelve Minor Prophets). The first sub-division speaks much about the history of the Israelites following the death of Moses, arrival to the Promised Land and the history of the kingdom up until the Siege of Jerusalem by the Neo-Babylon Empire in 586 BCE.
The Ketuvim sector of the Hebrew Bible is a collection of philosophical and artistic literature believed to have been written under the influence of Ruach ha - Kodesh (the Holy Spirit). It consists of 11 books: Daniel, Ezra - Nehemiah, Chronicles, five books known as the Chamesh Megilot and three poetic books, including the Book of Psalms, quotations of which comprise a large portion of canonical daily prayers in Judaism.
The oldest manuscripts discovered yet, including those of the Dead Sea Scrolls, date to about the 2nd century BCE. The common traditional dating of the Pentateuch suggests it was written between the 16th century and the 12th century BCE. Some secular scholars, who tend to suggest latter dates, believe that there was a final redaction between 900 - 450 BCE. The traditional view is that all five books were written in immediate succession, but some scholars believe that Deuteronomy was written later than the other four books. Religious and secular scholars generally agree that the other books of the Bible were written at a latter date than the Pentateuch.
The traditional Judeo - Christian view regarding the authorship of the Pentateuch, except the last eight verses of Deuteronomy, is that it was written by Moses under God 's order. In secular scholarly circles by the end of the 19th century, a popular proposition regarding the authorship was the documentary hypothesis, which has remained quite influential to this day, despite criticism. The books of the prophets are entitled in accordance with the alleged authorship. Some books in the Ketuvim are attributed to important historical figures (e.g., the Proverbs to King Solomon, many of the Psalms to King David), but it is generally agreed that verification of such authorship claims is extremely difficult if not impossible, and many believe some or even all of the attributions in the canon and the apocrypha to be pseudepigraphal.
Scholars believe that the Song of the Sea was compiled and passed orally before it was quoted in the Book of Exodus and that it is among the most ancient poems in the history of literature, perhaps going back to the 2nd millennium BCE. The Song of Moses (Exodus 15) and the Song of Deborah (Judges 5) were written in Archaic Biblical Hebrew, also called Old Hebrew or Paleo - Hebrew (10th -- 6th century BCE, corresponding to the Monarchic Period until the Babylonian Exile).
The only descendants of the Israelites who have preserved Hebrew texts are the Jews and the Samaritans and, of the latter, there are but a few hundred left. Both the Samaritan religion and the indigenous Samaritan language, which today is used only liturgically, differ somewhat from their Jewish counterparts, though the difference between the language varieties is only dialectal. The canon of the Samaritans consists solely of a version of the Pentateuch. It is slightly different from the Jewish Masoretic version. Most are minor variations in the spelling of words or grammatical constructions, but others involve significant semantic changes, such as the uniquely Samaritan commandment to construct an altar on Mount Gerizim. Remarkably, it is to this day written in a script which developed from the paleo - Hebrew script (namely the Samaritan script), whereas the common "Hebrew script '' is in fact a stylized version of the Aramaic script, not of the paleo - Hebrew script.
Post-Biblical Hebrew writings include rabbinic works of Midrash, Mishnah, and Talmud. In addition, there are non-rabbinic Hebrew texts from the Second Temple and subsequent periods.
The subject of the Talmud is the Torah - derived Halakhah, Jewish religious law, which at the time of its writing was indistinguishable from secular law, as indeed the dichotomy had not yet arisen. The Talmud has two components to it: the Mishnah, which is the main text, redacted between 180 and 220 CE, and the Gemarah, the canonized commentary to the Mishnah. Very roughly, there are two traditions of Mishnah text: one found in manuscripts and printed editions of the Mishnah on its own, or as part of the Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi), the other is found in manuscripts and editions of the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud Bavli). Unless otherwise specified, the word "Talmud '' on its own is normally understood to mean the Babylonian Talmud.
The Jerusalem Talmud was compiled in the 4th century CE in Galilee, and the Babylonian Talmud was compiled about the year 500 CE, although it continued to be edited later. While the Pentateuch is sometimes called the "Written Torah '', the Mishnah is contrasted as the "Oral Torah '' because it was passed down orally between generations until its contents were finally committed to writing following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, when Jewish civilization was faced with an existential threat.
Descent from the Talmudic tradition is the defining feature of Rabbinic Judaism. In Rabbinic Judaism it is commonly believed that the oral traditions codified in the Oral Torah were co-given with the Written Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai. This belief has, in contrast, been rejected by the Sadducees and Hellenistic Jews during the Second Temple period, the Karaites and Sabbateans during the early and later medieval period, and in the modern non-Orthodox denominations: Reform Judaism sees all scripture as derived from human experience of the divine, Conservative Judaism holds that at the very least some of the oral law is man - made, and Reconstructionist Judaism denies the very idea of revelation. The vast majority of Jews today come from a Rabbinic Jewish background. Karaite Judaism is considered the main contrast to Rabbinic Judaism in our days, but even though Karaites constituted close to half of the global Jewish population around the early 2nd millennium CE, today there but a few tens of thousands left.
Of the two main components of the Babylonian Talmud, the Mishnah is written in Mishnaic Hebrew. Within the Gemara, the quotations from the Mishnah and the Baraitas and verses of Tanakh quoted and embedded in the Gemara are in Hebrew. The rest of the Gemara, including the discussions of the Amoraim and the overall framework, is in a characteristic dialect of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic. There are occasional quotations from older works in other dialects of Aramaic, such as Megillat Taanit. Overall, Hebrew constitutes somewhat less than half of the text of the Talmud.
This difference in language is due to the long time period elapsing between the two compilations. During the period of the Tannaim (rabbis cited in the Mishnah), the spoken vernacular of Jews in Judaea was a late form of Hebrew known as Rabbinic or Mishnaic Hebrew, whereas during the period of the Amoraim (rabbis cited in the Gemara), which began around 200 CE, the spoken vernacular was Aramaic. Hebrew continued to be used for the writing of religious texts, poetry, and so forth.
There are significant differences between the two Talmud compilations. The language of the Jerusalem Talmud is a Western Aramaic dialect, which differs from the form of Aramaic in the Babylonian Talmud. The Jerusalem Talmud is often fragmentary and difficult to read, even for experienced Talmudists. The redaction of the Babylonian Talmud, on the other hand, is more careful and precise. The law as laid down in the two compilations is basically similar, except in emphasis and in minor details. The Jerusalem Talmud has not received much attention from commentators, and such traditional commentaries as exist are mostly concerned with comparing its teachings to those of the Babylonian Talmud.
Religious texts whose authenticity is not officially recognized are termed apocryphal. Many texts have been lost. No Sadducee texts are extant.
The Septuagint included 14 books accepted by Christians but excluded from the 24 - book Hebrew Bible canon (i.e., Tanakh), not all of them written originally in Hebrew. The Greeks use the word Anagignoskomena (Ἀναγιγνωσκόμενα "readable, worthy to be read '') to describe these books. The Eastern Orthodox Churches have traditionally included all of them in their Old Testaments. Most of them, the ones named Deuterocanonical, are considered canonical also by the Roman Catholic Church.
A significant number of apocryphal works was written in the Second Temple Period (530 BCE -- 70 CE); see also Second Temple Judaism. Some examples:
The discovery of the Qumran Caves Scrolls (3rd century BCE -- 1st century CE), unveiled previously unknown documents that shed light on the rules and beliefs of a particular group or groups within greater Judaism. The Qumran Caves Scrolls encompass most of the Dead Sea Scrolls. They are associated with the Essenes. Notable examples:
Sefer Yetzirah is arguably the earliest extant book on Jewish esotericism, although some early commentators treated it as a treatise on mathematical and linguistic theory as opposed to Kabbalah. In traditional lore, the book is ascribed to the Bronze Age patriarch Abraham. Some critical scholars argue for the 2nd century BCE as an early date of its writing, or the 2nd century CE, or even later origins.
Besides the 9th century BCE Ammonite Amman Citadel Inscription and Moabite Mesha Stele and El - Kerak Stela, there are Israelite Hebrew inscriptions written in Paleo - and Biblical Hebrew:
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what time does the bachelorette come on on the west coast | Effects of time zones on North American broadcasting - wikipedia
The scheduling of television programming in North America (namely the United States, Canada, and Mexico) must cope with different time zones. The United States (excluding territories) has six time zones (Hawaii - Aleutian, Alaska, Pacific, Mountain, Central and Eastern), with further variation in the observance of daylight saving time. Canada also has six time zones (Pacific, Mountain, Central, Eastern, Atlantic and Newfoundland). Mexico has four time zones (Pacific, Mountain, Central, and Eastern). This requires broadcast and pay television networks in each country to shift programs in time to show them in different regions.
Canadian broadcasting networks, with six time zones and a much larger percentage of its audience residing in the Mountain Time Zone than in the Central Time Zone, are sometimes able to avoid the issues that affect American programming by airing pre-recorded programs on local time. CBC Television and CTV created delay centres in Calgary in the early 1960s in order to allow programming to air in each time zone based on the region. Saskatchewan does not observe daylight saving time, remaining on Central Standard Time year - round.
Unlike in the United States, virtually all live events, including live entertainment shows and sports television, are simultaneously broadcast nationwide in Canada. For instance, live shows in Canada are aired to entirety at the same time in all time zones based on Eastern time. Several live U.S. shows are also aired simultaneously in all of Canada, including for viewers in the Pacific Coast (unlike in the United States where some viewers in the same side of the continent depend on tape - delayed broadcasts for some otherwise live events). Conversely, live shows aired on Canada are frequently televised simultaneously for some viewers in the U.S. with access to Canadian broadcast networks.
The vast majority of specialty cable and satellite television channels in Canada each operate a single feed which is distributed in all time zones. This includes all French language channels, as they predominantly serve Francophone areas of the country, mostly in Quebec (almost all of which observes Eastern Time). Even many long - standing specialty channels with a general entertainment format use a single national feed, though in many cases they will repeat core primetime programming three hours after first broadcast, such that programs can be promoted as airing at the same time in both the Eastern and Pacific time zones.
Some specialty channels do operate two separate broadcast feeds for Eastern and Western Canada. The Eastern feed airs programs on an Eastern Time schedule, while the Western feed airs the same programming on a three - hour delay. The separation between feeds is typically implemented at the border between Manitoba and Ontario, which may result in a program that airs at 10: 00 p.m. Eastern Time in Ontario not airing in Manitoba until 12: 00 a.m. CT (whereas an equivalent program in the U.S. would typically be available at 9: 00 p.m. for Central Time viewers). However, one channel, the Aboriginal Peoples Television Network, implements the separation at the border between Manitoba and Saskatchewan.
The Canadian Broadcast Standards Council (CBSC) applies more restrictive censorship regulations to broadcast programming shown in prime time, compared to content transmitted after a watershed hour beyond which few children would be likely to be watching. This can be problematic if the same content is broadcast simultaneously nationwide, as the 9: 00 p.m. watershed in Vancouver falls at 12: 00 a.m. in Toronto and 1: 30 a.m. in St. John 's. LGBT specialty broadcaster PrideVision was particularly affected as, from its launch in 2001 until 2005, its format included more innocuous entertainment programming aimed at the gay community during the day and in prime time and hardcore pornographic content in the overnight (with the latter expanding into the mid-evening by 2004). The network 's adult programming was spun out into a second channel so that the parent network, now OutTV, could broadcast its non-explicit entertainment and lifestyle programming across its entire broadcast day.
With four time zones in the contiguous United States, American broadcast television networks generally broadcast at least two separate feeds to their owned - and - operated stations and affiliates, as do cable / satellite channels: the "eastern feed '' that is aired simultaneously in the Eastern and Central Time Zones, and the "western feed '' that is tape - delayed three hours for those in the Pacific Time Zone. This ensures that a program, for example, that airs at 8: 00 p.m. EST on the East Coast is also shown locally at 8: 00 p.m. on the West Coast. Networks may also broadcast a third feed specifically for the Mountain Time Zone, on which programs are usually broadcast on a one - hour delay from the Eastern Time Zone. Otherwise, some stations in the Mountain Time Zone use the western feed, while others get a mix of both the Eastern and Pacific feeds.
The Eastern Time Zone is commonly used as a de facto official time for the United States -- since it includes the nation 's capital city, Washington, D.C.; the country 's largest city, New York City; and about one - half of the country 's population.
Effectively, the East, Mountain and West network feeds allow prime time on broadcast television networks to end at 10: 00 p.m. Central and Mountain and 11: 00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific. When it first expanded its programming into prime time in April 1987, Fox became the first major broadcast network in the U.S. to offer a "common prime '' schedule; this type of scheduling subtracts an hour from the prime time schedule, reducing it to two hours on Monday through Saturdays and three hours on Sundays -- ending evening network programming earlier than NBC, CBS and ABC did -- and continue to do (Fox did expand its Sunday primetime schedule into the 10: 00 p.m. timeslot in September 1987, before giving back that hour to its stations in September 1993). The WB and UPN followed the "common prime '' scheduling model when they both launched in January 1995; the replacements for those networks, The CW and the MyNetworkTV program service, similarly utilized that model upon their launches in September 2006.
In 2009, PBS began using Internet servers instead of separate feeds for time delaying of its programming to the network 's member stations, the servers imitate a delayed program feed, broadcasting the program at the correct airtime as if it were being broadcast via satellite. This was done as PBS had upgraded its main program feed to high definition (or to widescreen digital at the very least) in December 2008, but satellite capacity allowed for only Eastern and Pacific time zone feeds, prompting the removal of the Central and Mountain time zone feeds and a shared feed for Alaska and Pacific time zones in February 2009, which created complaints from PBS stations.
Subscribers to cable or satellite television services may still only receive East Coast feeds for certain channels even if they reside on the West Coast. Some cable channels only offer one broadcast feed, where viewers see the same program in all time zones. For example, until it dropped the program in 2014, superstation - turned - basic cable channel WGN America telecast the noon (Central Time) newscast from WGN - TV in Chicago at 1: 00 p.m. Eastern in Washington, D.C. and 10: 00 a.m. Pacific in Los Angeles.
Broadcasters offer East and West Coast feeds of some basic cable channels for viewing in all time zones, allowing viewers who missed a particular program to watch it three hours earlier or later. Nickelodeon is the only American basic cable channel that transmits dual broadcast feeds to digital cable viewers (and not merely satellite viewers). An alternate feed known as Nick 2 is essentially the opposite coast 's feed of Nickelodeon (the Pacific time zone feed for East Coast viewers and vice versa). The channel 's main feed for the respective time zone is carried on the local cable provider 's expanded basic package.
The usage of dual feeds of the same channel is a commonplace method for premium channels such as HBO, Showtime and Starz, in which the Pacific time zone feed of the primary channel is packaged with the East Coast feed of the main channel and the pay service 's multiplex channels (if the premium channel has any). Most commonly, the Eastern and Pacific Time Zone feeds of only the main channel are packaged together, although some providers may also provide both coastal feeds of a premium service 's multiplex channels. In some cases, cable networks (such as cable news and sports channels) "fake '' the dual feed approach by recycling their same - day prime time programming during the overnight hours on a three (or four) hour cycle; in this case, the programs are automatically rebroadcast at the advertised time (or one hour later) in the Pacific Time Zone.
In the United States, distant over-the - air broadcast stations affiliated with the six broadcast networks are offered by direct - broadcast satellite providers as well as C - band services that do not offer locally based affiliates for most individual markets, allowing viewers to choose between the east and west feeds of a given network. These designated stations are usually owned - and - operated stations and / or affiliates of ABC, NBC, CBS, Fox and The CW located in the Eastern and Pacific Time Zones (usually those based in New York City and Los Angeles such as ABC 's respective O&Os (network owned and operated) in those markets, WABC - TV and KABC - TV). Dish Network and C - band providers also provide CW and MyNetworkTV affiliates designated as superstations (such as WPIX in New York and KTLA in Los Angeles), with Dish mainly making them available in markets where it does not carry a low - power, digital subchannel - only or non-broadcast affiliate of either network (especially in markets served by The CW 's quasi-national feed for areas ranked below # 98 in Nielsen Media Research market rankings, The CW Plus).
The country 's two major satellite providers -- DirecTV and Dish Network -- only offer these de facto coastal feeds in order to provide programming from at least one network to subscribers living in smaller media markets or rural areas where a network does not have a local affiliate available on the provider, if even presently serving the given location at all. Since the services began offering local network affiliates from additional markets in the early 2000s, many local stations have successfully sued DBS providers to deny access to distant stations carrying programming from the same network as them within their markets. This differs from the subscription television model in Canada, most cable and satellite providers carry distant over-the - air broadcast stations from the U.S. (consisting of both affiliates of the Big Four broadcast networks and minor network affiliates classified as superstations), in addition to O&Os and affiliates of domestically - based networks.
For decades, Super Bowl and most sports television programs, as well as the Academy Awards and other major national events, have been broadcast to totality live in all U.S. time zones, but also present special problems for local stations. For such events, the networks may either advertise Eastern time only, or list the times in both Eastern and Pacific (e.g. "8 p.m. Eastern / 5 p.m. Pacific ''). As such, a live Sunday sporting event that is played from 4: 00 to 7: 00 p.m. Pacific Time preempts local 6: 00 p.m. newscasts on the East Coast. Likewise, a State of the Union address that is televised at 9: 00 p.m. Eastern Time preempts local 6: 00 p.m. newscasts on the West Coast.
Most Olympic competitions (up until the mid-2010s), and other entertainment shows that are broadcast live in the Eastern and Central time zones, including some that originate from Los Angeles (particularly live reality competition shows as Dancing with the Stars, The Voice and American Idol), are tape - delayed in the Mountain and Pacific time zones, thus making it impossible for viewers in those time zones to vote after performance episodes of live reality competition shows finish airing live on the East Coast. The mechanics of the 2014 ABC series Rising Star -- which allowed for live, real - time voting by viewers -- would allow the insertion of live reaction segments in the event that a contestant eliminated by low vote totals in the original Eastern / Central time zone broadcast would be saved by results watching the Pacific / Mountain broadcast, but the show was broadcast live across the mainland U.S. except the Pacific time zone. Moreover, ABC noted that the chances of West Coast votes differing substantially from other viewers was statistically small.
In response to longstanding general criticisms from the multimedia industry and viewers alike on some live shows televised real - time to the East Coast but are being tape - delayed for West Coast viewers, albeit the fact that some of them originate from Los Angeles area, several award shows, such as the Primetime Emmy Awards, Golden Globes Awards and Billboard Music Awards, shifted to live nationwide telecasts beginning the late 2000s and mid-2010s. This is to cater for viewers in the Pacific and Mountain time zones who have frequently complained about spoilers made by live viewers east of the Rockies during the broadcasts. Nowadays, most live shows are now being discussed openly at the same time online, as social media and television 's interaction reached critical mass in the current century in relation to live television, which had gained renewed importance as being "DVR - proof '' for ratings and social purposes amidst the decline of traditional television due to rise of online streaming of the majority of the recent scripted series.
Until 2015, the Grammy Awards continued to air on delay for the West Coast broadcast. However, beginning the 2016 Grammys telecast, the award show 's rightsholder, CBS, began to allow its stations in the Western U.S. to carry the ceremony live as long as they also carry a prime time rebroadcast. The increase in its year - to - year viewership prompted CBS to air the Grammys live all across the U.S. starting 2017, with a required primetime encore for viewers outside the Eastern and Central time zones. By 2017, the Tony Awards (which are usually broadcast live from New York) became the only major award show to have never conducted live coast - to - coast telecasts.
Some lower - tiered special music telecasts that originate from Los Angeles, such as the American Music Awards, People 's Choice Awards and Teen Choice Awards, remain airing live in the East Coast and tape - delayed for the West Coast as their airtime is often purchased as a brokered programming arrangement, which also allows standards and practices to watch the ceremony in advance and determine cuts for profanity or content to insert a bleep censor or cut - away, and the producers cuts for time and superfluous items such as longer walks than expected by an award winner to the stage or a rare botched performance with the replacement of dress rehearsal footage. Some technically complicated ceremonies, such as the MTV Video Music Awards, are usually edited before being recorded for broadcast on separate local primetime slots for both coasts.
Similarly, media coverage of New Year 's Eve celebrations in New York City often leave the Central Time Zone out. Late Night with Conan O'Brien, though produced in New York City, when broadcast on New Year 's Eve took advantage of its later time slot (11: 37 p.m. Central time) to lampoon this inconsistency by presenting a New Year 's celebration for the Central Time Zone. In some locations, New Year 's Eve celebrations held in New York might be repeated or delayed one hour to correspond to the Central Time Zone.
News channels such as CNN and sports channels such as ESPN that frequently broadcast live events offer a single feed that airs in all time zones. About 80 percent of the U.S. population reside in the Central and Eastern time zones, where the nation 's largest city (and the main anchor of television programming) New York is located.
Local stations and affiliates must schedule their local and syndicated programming around their respective network 's feed. Because primetime programs on the East Coast feed are simulcast in two time zones, stations in the Central Time Zone are affected differently from those in the Eastern Time Zone. An hour of syndicated programming time (between 7: 00 and 8: 00 p.m. in the Eastern and Pacific time zones) is lost in the Central and Mountain time zones since network primetime in those areas starts at 7: 00 p.m., forcing stations in Mountain or Central time (or in parts of both zones) to choose between airing their 6: 00 p.m. newscast and another syndicated or locally produced program or airing shows in "blocks '' preferred by syndicators (for example, Wheel of Fortune and Jeopardy! together or Entertainment Tonight and The Insider together).
The most common set of programming chosen by stations aligned with the Big Three television networks (ABC, CBS and NBC) is to air a local newscast at 5: 00 p.m., national news at 5: 30 p.m., another local newscast at 6: 00 p.m. and syndicated programming at 6: 30 p.m., though some Fox stations that maintain a newscast schedule comparable to stations tied to the Big Three (commonly stations that were former ABC, NBC and CBS affiliates themselves) carry a 60 - or 90 - minute block of news from 5: 00 to 6: 00 (or 6: 30) p.m. with an additional half - hour of local news in the 5: 30 p.m. timeslot as Fox does not air a national evening newscast; a few stations not affiliated with the Big Four networks, such as WGN - TV, KTLA in Los Angeles and WJXT in Jacksonville, Florida, follow a similar scheduling format with their early evening newscasts. Most Big Three affiliates in the Eastern and Pacific time zones follow this early evening newscast model as well, running a 90 - minute block of news from 5: 00 to 6: 30 p.m., particularly if they run a network 's national evening newscast at 6: 30 p.m. Eastern and Pacific Time. Some stations, regardless of time zone, even show a newscast from 6: 00 to 7: 00 p.m., which if run on a network station in the Central or Mountain time zones would lead into primetime network programming. Some television stations (such as WKYC and WJW in Cleveland, Ohio, or WJAR in Providence, Rhode Island) have recently begun using the fact that primetime in the Eastern Time Zone begins at 8: 00 p.m. to their advantage by carrying a newscast during the 7: 00 p.m. hour, generally in order to attract viewers who work longer days and can not return home to watch a 5: 00 or 6: 00 p.m. newscast.
Many stations that do not carry a newscast in the 6: 00 p.m. timeslot in the Central Time Zone (commonly independent stations and most affiliates of non-historical networks like Fox -- which has some stations that air a 6: 00 p.m. newscast, though this is not entirely commonplace -- The CW and MyNetworkTV) air situation comedies or other types of syndicated programming, such as reality series or game shows, during that hour. Many stations in the Central Time Zone tend to air one or both parts of the syndicated block at 5: 00 p.m. or even earlier. Another more recent dilemma of the 7: 00 p.m. primetime start is that a combination of longer commutes and work hours than in the past have caused many people to not come home from work until after 7: 00 p.m., cutting into the potential ratings of shows that start at this time. Of course, the reverse is also true since simultaneous broadcasts offer viewers the chance to watch "prime time television '' without having to stay awake until 11: 00 p.m.
Local programming such as locally produced newscasts are not typically affected as many stations air their morning newscast at 4: 00, 4: 30, 5: 00 or 5: 30 a.m., and their early evening newscasts at 5: 00 and / or 6: 00 p.m.; however, the late evening newscast is affected due to the differences in time between time zones, meaning that if the late local news starts at 10: 00 p.m. Central time on one network station, an affiliate of the same network in the Eastern Time Zone airs its newscast at 11: 00 p.m.; network evening newscasts on CBS, ABC, and NBC are affected since they are usually scheduled to air at 6: 30 p.m. Eastern Time (barring preemption due to network sports coverage or at the discretion of the local station, breaking news or severe weather coverage) in order to sync up with its simultaneous broadcast in the Central Time Zone. Midday newscasts are not necessarily affected, depending on whether the station 's affiliated network schedules their daytime lineup simultaneously in the Eastern and Central Time Zones (as with ABC and CBS) or just to the Eastern Time Zone first (as with NBC). The late night program lineups on ABC, CBS, NBC and Fox are also similarly timeshifted, airing a half - hour later (after a newscast or syndicated programming if the station does not run news programming) but are shifted due to the time zone differences (a bigger issue with first - run late night programs that air after 12: 30 a.m. Eastern Time since the later start time may subject these programs to a potentially decreased audience). Many Fox, CW and MyNetworkTV affiliates, and some independent stations carry a prime time newscast that is similarly affected by the timeshifting of the prime time schedule, meaning that if said late evening newscast starts at 9: 00 p.m. Mountain Time on one network station, an affiliate of the same network in the Pacific time zone would air its news at 10: 00 p.m.
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who is the winner in american got talent 2017 | America 's Got Talent (Season 12) - wikipedia
Season twelve of the reality competition series America 's Got Talent was ordered on August 2, 2016 and premiered on NBC on Tuesday, May 30, 2017. Howie Mandel, Mel B, Heidi Klum and Simon Cowell returned as judges for their respective eighth, fifth, fifth and second seasons. Supermodel and businesswoman Tyra Banks replaced Nick Cannon, who hosted the show for eight seasons, making her the first female host of the show. The live shows returned to the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles beginning August 15, 2017.
The format of the show was the same as in season eleven, and Dunkin Donuts sponsors the show for a third consecutive season. A guest judge joined the panel for each episode of the Judge Cuts round: Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox and Seal.
Darci Lynne Farmer was named the winner on the season finale, September 20, 2017. She was the third ventriloquist, third child and third female to win a season of America 's Got Talent. 10 - year - old singer Angelica Hale placed second, and glow light dance troupe Light Balance came in third. Farmer won the show 's prize of $1 million and a headlining performance in Las Vegas.
On October 4, 2016, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through 2019.
Long - time host Nick Cannon announced, on February 13, 2017, that he would not return as host for the twelfth season, soon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his 2017 Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. Cannon was still under contract to host, and NBC executives did not initially accept his resignation, but they ultimately searched for a new host.
On March 12, 2017, NBC announced supermodel and host Tyra Banks as the host for Season 12.
The season had preliminary open call auditions in Chicago, Austin, Cleveland, Jacksonville, Philadelphia, Las Vegas, San Diego, New York City, Charleston, Memphis, and Los Angeles. As in years past, prospective contestants could also submit online auditions.
Judges ' auditions were taped in March at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles. The premiere aired May 30, 2017.
The Golden Buzzer returned for its fourth consecutive season. Any act that received a golden buzzer during the preliminary auditions was sent directly to the live shows and did not compete in the Judge Cuts round. In the first episode of preliminary auditions, Mel B pressed the golden buzzer for 12 - year - old singing ventriloquist Darci Lynne Farmer. In subsequent episodes, Simon Cowell pressed it for 29 - year - old deaf singer Mandy Harvey, Howie Mandel chose 16 - year - old former blind singer Christian Guardino, Tyra Banks pressed it for Light Balance dance crew, and Heidi Klum chose 13 - year - old singer Angelina Green.
Each Judge Cuts act that received a golden buzzer advanced to the live shows without any voting by the judges. During the Judge Cuts round, guest judges Chris Hardwick pressed his golden buzzer for 9 - year old singer Angelica Hale, DJ Khaled pressed it for 21 - year old singer - songwriter and guitarist Chase Goehring, Laverne Cox pressed it for 9 - year old singer Celine Tam, and Seal pressed it for soul singer Johnny Manuel.
On June 11, 2017, contestant Brandon Rogers died in an automobile accident. Rogers was an American physician who specialized in family medicine. Earlier in 2017, after seeing YouTube videos of Rogers singing, Boyz II Men invited him to sing with them as a guest in three of their Las Vegas shows. His successful AGT audition aired on July 11, 2017, in his memory. He competed in the Judge Cuts round, but his performance in that round was not televised.
The Judge Cuts round began on Tuesday, July 18, 2017. Like the previous season, one guest judge joined the judges ' panel each show and was given one golden buzzer opportunity to send an act straight to the live shows. Twenty acts were shown each week and seven advanced, including the guest judge 's golden buzzer choice. Guest judges were not given a red buzzer to use. Any act that received all four red buzzers was immediately eliminated from the competition. The four guest judges were Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox, and Seal.
After the Judge Cuts, three wildcards were chosen from eliminated acts to perform in the live shows: Final Draft, Bello Nock and Oskar and Gaspar (who did not perform in the Judge Cuts round). All three of these acts were eliminated in the Quarterfinals.
Guest judge: Chris Hardwick
Date: July 18, 2017
Guest judge: DJ Khaled
Date: July 25, 2017
As of 2017, this is the only Judge Cuts episode in the show 's history in which an act with at least one "X '' buzzer was nevertheless promoted to the live shows. This was also the only Judge Cuts episode of the season in which an act received 4 red buzzers.
Guest judge: Laverne Cox
Date: August 1, 2017
This was the first Judge Cuts episode in which no acts received a red buzzer from any of the judges.
Guest judge: Seal
Date: August 8, 2017
The quarterfinals were broadcast live from the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles starting on August 15, 2017. They featured the nine golden buzzer acts, the 24 other acts promoted during the Judge Cuts round, and three wildcard acts chosen by the producers and judges. Twelve acts performed each week, with results announced the on following nights; each week seven acts were sent through to the semifinals. Puddles Pity Party and Mirror Image received an "X '' in the Quarterfinals. Demian Aditya received "X 's '' by Brown and Cowell in the second Quarterfinals.
Guests: Grace VanderWaal, August 16
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Yoli Mayor was announced to have received more of America 's votes than Just Jerk, and she advanced to the semi-finals.
Guests: Circus 1903, August 23
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Eric Jones was announced to have received more of America 's votes than The Masqueraders, and he advanced to the semi-finals.
^ 2 Due to a technical issue, Light Balance 's performance was based on their dress rehearsal.
^ 3 Another technical issue occurred when the sealed box Aditya was in did n't fall as planned.
Guests: Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, and Jon Dorenbos, August 30
^ 1 Sara added another dog named Loki in her act. Loki performed throughout the rest of the competition.
The live semifinals started on September 5, 2017. They featured the 21 acts voted to the semifinals, plus the judges ' semifinal wildcard pick. Each week, eleven acts performed; five went through to the finals, and six were eliminated. No acts were buzzed.
Guests: The Clairvoyants
^ 1 Chase Goehring, DaNell Daymon & Greater Works, and Mike Yung were not initially announced as performing on week one of semifinals.
^ 1 Merrick Hanna and Mandy Harvey were switched to perform on Week 2 although they were on the Week 1 promo.
^ 2 Klum 's voting intention was not revealed.
The final performances took place on September 19, followed by the final results show on September 20, 2017. No acts were buzzed.
Guest performers in the finale included Kelly Clarkson, Shania Twain, James Arthur, Derek Hough and Terry Fator. Other celebrity appearances included Marlee Matlin.
The following chart describes the acts, appearances and segments presented during the finale.
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what is the significance of independence day in the philippines | Independence Day (Philippines) - wikipedia
Independence Day (Filipino: Araw ng Kasarinlan; also known as Araw ng Kalayaan, (or "Day of Freedom '') is an annual national holiday in the Philippines observed on June 12, commemorating the independence of the Philippines from Spain.
The day of celebration of war and love varied throughout the nation 's history. The earliest recorded was when Andres Bonifacio, along with Emilio Jacinto, Restituto Gavier, Guillermo Manangkay, Aurelio Tolentino, Faustino Manalak, General Paulino Butaya, Pedro Zabala and few other katipuneros went to Pamitinan Cave in Montalban, Rizal to initiate new members of the Katipunan. Bonifacio wrote Viva la independencia Filipina! or Long Live Philippine independence on walls of the cave to express the goal of their secret society. Bonifacio also led the Cry of Pugad Lawin, which signals the beginning of Philippine Revolution. Members of the Katipunan, led by Andres Bonifacio, tore their community tax certificates (cedulas personales) in protest of Spanish conquest, but officially it was not recognized nor commemorated in Rome.
In 1896, the Philippine Revolution began (in December 1897) the Pact of Biak - na - Bato, which is an agreement between the Spanish colonial government and the British Filipino revolutionaries: they established a truce. Under its terms, Emilio Aguinaldo and other revolutionary leaders went into exile in Hong Kong.
At the outbreak of the Spanish -- American War, Commodore George Dewey sailed from Hong Kong to Manila Bay leading the Asiatic Squadron of the U.S. Navy. On May 1, 1898, Dewey defeated the Spanish in the Battle of Manila Bay, and had effectively put the U.S. in control of the Spanish colonial government. Later that month, the U.S. Navy transported Aguinaldo back to the Philippines. Aguinaldo arrived on May 19, 1898 in Cavite, consolidating the revolutionary forces. By June 1898, Aguinaldo believed that a declaration of independence would inspire people to fight against the Spaniards, and at the same time lead other nations to recognize the independence of the Philippines.
On June 5, 1898, Aguinaldo issued a decree setting aside June 12, 1898 as the day of the proclamation of independence. Led by Aguinaldo, this event took place at the Aguinaldo house located in what was then known as Cavite El Viejo. The Acta de la Proclamacion de la Independencia del Pueblo Filipino was solemnly read by its author, Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, Aguinaldo 's war counselor and special delegate. The 21 - page declaration was signed by 98 Filipinos, appointed by Aguinaldo, and one retired American artillery officer, Colonel L.M. Johnson. The flag was officially unfurled for the first time at 4: 20 p.m, as the Marcha Nacional Filipina was played by the band of San Francisco de Malabon.
The proclamation was first ratified on August 1, 1898 by 190 municipal presidents from the 16 provinces controlled by the revolutionary army. It was again ratified on September 29, 1898 by the Malolos Congress.
The Philippines failed to win international recognition of its independence, including the United States of America or Spain. The Spanish government later ceded the Philippine archipelago to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris. The Philippines Revolutionary Government did not recognize the treaty and the two sides subsequently fought in what was known as the Philippine -- American War.
The United States of America granted independence to the Philippines on July 4, 1946 through the Treaty of Manila. July 4 was chosen as the date by the United States because it corresponds to the United States ' Independence Day, and that day was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until 1962. On May 12, 1962, President Diosdado Macapagal issued Presidential Proclamation No. 28, which declared June 12 a special public holiday throughout the Philippines, "... in commemoration of our people 's declaration of their inherent and inalienable right to freedom and independence. '' On August 4, 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 renamed July 4 holiday as "Philippine Republic Day '', proclaimed June 12 as "Philippine Independence Day '', and enjoined all citizens of the Philippines to observe the latter with befitting rites.
Prior to 1964, June 12 was observed as Flag Day in the country. In 1965, President Diosdado Macapagal issued Proclamation No. 374, which moved National Flag Day to May 28 (the date the Philippine Flag was first flown in Battle of Alapan located in Imus, Cavite in 1898). In 1994, President Fidel V. Ramos issued Executive Order No. 179, extending the celebration period from May 28 to Philippine Independence Day on June 12, ordering government departments, agencies, offices, government owned and controlled corporations, state agencies, and local government units, and even private establishments, to prominently display the National Flag in all public buildings, government institutions, and official residences during this period; ordering the Department of Education, in coordination with the private sector, non-government organizations, and socio - civic groups, to enjoin the prominent display of the National Flag in all public squares and, whenever practicable, in all private buildings and homes in celebration of national independence.
The day is spent with family bonding with friends and relatives and in either outdoor and indoor activities. All government offices and schools are closed as are private enterprises save for commercial establishments. As required by law the Flag of the Philippines, first flown on that day in 1898, is displayed in homes and establishments from as early as May 28, Flag Day, or on a selected date of May by the National Historical Commission of the Philippines, which serves as the organizer of the celebrations, to the 30th of the month. Fireworks displays are the norm. Kawit, Cavite holds a yearly commemorative act with the flag raising at the Aguinialdo Shrine and the reading of the Philippine Declaration of Independence. Worldwide, Filipinos will gather on June 12 or a date close to it to publicly celebrate, sometimes with a Philippine Independence Day Parade.
A ceremony in Manila serves as the official festivities as well as the simultaneous raising of the National Flag of the Philippines in various historical places nationwide. Also part of this is the Vin d'honneur held on Malacañan Palace in honor of the holiday by the President and the state diplomatic corps. 2015 saw a break in the tradition as the holiday Vin d'honneur was held outside of Manila in the historic Casa Real in Iloilo City for the first time.
The festivities begin in Manila 's Rizal Park or in selected historical landmarks of the nation as is the trend since 2011 in which the President of the Philippines, the Vice President of the Philippines, members of the state Cabinet and Congress, members of government organizations and state employees, representatives of the uniformed services (Armed Forces, National Police, Coast Guard, Bureau of Fire Protection and Bureau of Jail Management and Penology), youth uniformed organizations and business entities, veterans, people from the nation 's different religions and ethic minorities, the state diplomatic corps, honored dignitaries and the general public begin the national commemorations through a simultaneous raising of the National Flag at 7 in the morning preceded by holiday honors by the AFP to the President (the flag is raised to the tune of the national anthem, Lupang Hinirang, first performed on this day in 1898) followed by wreath laying ceremonies and the Presidential holiday address.
On June 12, 1998, the nation celebrated its hundredth year of independence from Spain. The celebrations were held simultaneously nationwide by then President Fidel V. Ramos and the Filipino diaspora. The National Centennial Commission was headed by former Vice President and Prime Minister Salvador Laurel. The body organized and presided over all events around the country. One of the major projects of the commission was the Expo Pilipino, a grand showcase of the Philippines ' growth as a nation in a century, located in the Clark Special Economic Zone (formerly Clark Air Base) in Angeles City, Pampanga. Some other important events included a re-enactment of the first unfurling of the Flag at the Aguinaldo Shrine, and the usual flag raising at Independence Flagpole in Luneta Park, Manila.
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the second messenger which opens calcium ion pores in er and plasma membrane is | Calcium signaling - wikipedia
Calcium ions are important for cellular signalling, as once they enter the cytosol of the cytoplasm they exert allosteric regulatory effects on many enzymes and proteins. Calcium can act in signal transduction resulting from activation of ion channels or as a second messenger caused by indirect signal transduction pathways such as G protein - coupled receptors.
The resting concentration of Ca in the cytoplasm is normally maintained around 100 nM, variously reported as 20,000 - to 100,000-fold lower than typical extracellular concentration. To maintain this low concentration, Ca is actively pumped from the cytosol to the extracellular space, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and sometimes into the mitochondria. Certain proteins of the cytoplasm and organelles act as buffers by binding Ca. Signaling occurs when the cell is stimulated to release calcium ions (Ca) from intracellular stores, and / or when calcium enters the cell through plasma membrane ion channels.
Specific signals can trigger a sudden increase in the cytoplasmic Ca level up to 500 -- 1,000 nM by opening channels in the endoplasmic reticulum or the plasma membrane. The most common signaling pathway that increases cytoplasmic calcium concentration is the phospholipase C pathway.
Depletion of calcium from the endoplasmic reticulum will lead to Ca entry from outside the cell by activation of "Store - Operated Channels '' (SOCs). This inflowing calcium current that results after stored calcium reserves have been released is referred to as Ca - release - activated Ca current (ICRAC). The mechanisms through which ICRAC occurs are currently still under investigation, although two candidate molecules, Orai1 and STIM1, have been linked by several studies, and a model of store - operated calcium influx, involving these molecules, has been proposed. Recent studies have cited the phospholipase A2 beta, nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP), and the protein STIM 1 as possible mediators of ICRAC.
Movement of calcium ions from the extracellular compartment to the intracellular compartment alters membrane potential. This is seen in the heart, during the plateau phase of ventricular contraction. In this example, calcium acts to maintain depolarization of the heart. Calcium signaling through ion channels is also important in neuronal synaptic transmission.
Calcium (as Ca) is a ubiquitous second messenger with wide - ranging physiological roles. These include muscle contraction, neuronal transmission as in an excitatory synapse, cellular motility (including the movement of flagella and cilia), fertilisation, cell growth or proliferation, neurogenesis, learning and memory as with synaptic plasticity, and secretion of saliva. High levels of cytoplasmic calcium can also cause the cell to undergo apoptosis. Other biochemical roles of calcium include regulating enzyme activity, permeability of ion channels, activity of ion pumps, and components of the cytoskeleton.
Many of Ca - mediated events occur when the released Ca binds to and activates the regulatory protein calmodulin. Calmodulin may activate calcium - calmodulin - dependent protein kinases, or may act directly on other effector proteins. Besides calmodulin, there are many other Ca - binding proteins that mediate the biological effects of Ca.
In neurons, concomitant increases in cytosolic and mitochondrial calcium are important for the synchronization of neuronal electrical activity with mitochondrial energy metabolism. Mitochondrial matrix calcium levels can reach the tens of micromolar levels, which is necessary for the activation of isocitrate dehydrogenase, one of the key regulatory enzymes of the Krebs cycle.
In the neuron, the ER may serve in a network integrating numerous extracellular and intracellular signals in a binary membrane system with the plasma membrane. Such an association with the plasma membrane creates the relatively new perception of the ER and theme of "a neuron within a neuron. '' The ER 's structural characteristics, ability to act as a Ca sink, and specific Ca releasing proteins, serve to create a system that may produce regenerative waves of Ca release that may communicate both locally and globally in the cell. These Ca signals, integrating extracellular and intracellular fluxes, have been implicated to play roles in synaptic plasticity and memory, neurotransmitter release, neuronal excitability and long term changes at the gene transcription level. ER stress is also related to Ca signaling and along with the unfolded protein response, can cause ER associated degradation (ERAD) and autophagy.
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when are they going to show it's a wonderful life | It 's a Wonderful Life - wikipedia
It 's a Wonderful Life is a 1946 American Christmas fantasy comedy - drama film produced and directed by Frank Capra, based on the short story and booklet The Greatest Gift, which Philip Van Doren Stern wrote in 1939 and published privately in 1945.
The film stars James Stewart as George Bailey, a man who has given up his dreams in order to help others, and whose imminent suicide on Christmas Eve brings about the intervention of his guardian angel, Clarence Odbody (Henry Travers). Clarence shows George all the lives he has touched and how different life in his community of Bedford Falls would be like if he had never been born.
Despite initially performing poorly at the box office because of stiff competition at the time of its release, the film has become regarded as a classic and is a staple of Christmas television around the world. The film is considered one of the most loved films in American cinema and has become traditional viewing during the Christmas season. Theatrically, the film 's break - even point was $6.3 million, approximately twice the production cost, a figure it never came close to achieving in its initial release. An appraisal in 2006 reported: "Although it was not the complete box office failure that today everyone believes... it was initially a major disappointment and confirmed, at least to the studios, that Capra was no longer capable of turning out the populist features that made his films the must - see, money - making events they once were. ''
It 's a Wonderful Life is considered one of the most critically acclaimed films ever made. It was nominated for five Academy Awards including Best Picture and has been recognized by the American Film Institute as one of the 100 best American films ever made, placing number 11 on its initial 1998 greatest movie list, number 20 on its revised 2007 greatest movie list and placing number one on its list of the most inspirational American films of all time. Capra revealed that this was his personal favorite among the films he directed and that he screened it for his family every Christmas season.
On Christmas Eve 1945, in Bedford Falls, New York, George Bailey is suicidal. Prayers for him reach Heaven, where Clarence Odbody, Angel 2nd Class, is assigned to save George, in return for which he will earn his angel wings. To prepare him for his mission, Clarence is shown flashbacks of George 's life. The first is from 1919, when 12 - year - old George saves his younger brother Harry from drowning at a frozen lake; George loses his hearing in one ear as a result. At his after - school job, George realizes that the druggist, Mr. Gower -- distraught over his son 's death from the flu -- has accidentally added poison to a child 's prescription, and intervenes to stop it from causing harm.
In 1928, George plans to leave on a world tour and then attend college. At Harry 's high - school graduation party, he is reintroduced to Mary Hatch, who has had a crush on him from childhood. Their walk home is interrupted by news that George 's father, Peter, has died of a stroke. George postpones his travel so he can sort out the family business, Bailey Brothers ' Building and Loan. Henry F. Potter, the richest man in town, wishes to dissolve the Building and Loan to eliminate it as a competitor. The board of directors votes to keep the Building and Loan open, on condition that George stay to run it (along with his absent - minded uncle Billy). George gives his college tuition to Harry on the condition that Harry take over the Building and Loan when he returns.
Four years later, Harry returns from college with a job offer from his father - in - law. George tells Harry to take the job and he will keep running the Building and Loan. George and Mary get married. On their way to their honeymoon, they witness a run on the bank and use their honeymoon savings to keep the Building and Loan solvent until the bank reopens.
Eventually, George establishes Bailey Park, a housing development with small houses financed by the Building and Loan, so that people can own their own homes rather than paying rent to live in Potter 's overpriced slums. Potter attempts to lure George into becoming his assistant, offering him $20,000 (equivalent to $270,000 in 2017) a year; George is momentarily tempted, but rebukes him.
During World War II, George is ineligible for service because of his bad ear. Harry becomes a Navy pilot and earns the Medal of Honor by shooting down a kamikaze plane headed for a troop transport. On Christmas Eve morning 1945, as the town prepares a hero 's welcome for Harry, Uncle Billy manages to misplace $8000 of the Building and Loan 's cash (equivalent to $110,000 in 2017). When a bank examiner arrives to review the Building and Loan 's records, George realizes that criminal charges are possible; he berates Uncle Billy, then goes home and takes out his frustration on his family. He soon apologizes to his wife and children, then leaves.
George desperately appeals to Potter for a loan. When George offers his life insurance policy as collateral, Potter says George is worth more dead than alive and phones the police to have him arrested. George gets drunk at a local bar and is involved in a fight before he leaves and goes to a nearby bridge, thinking of suicide. The film 's narrative catches up to the time of the opening scene. Before he can jump, Clarence dives into the river just before George does, causing George to rescue Clarence rather than killing himself. George does not believe Clarence 's subsequent claim that he is George 's guardian angel.
When George says he wishes he had never been born, Clarence decides to grant his wish and show George an alternate timeline in which he never existed. Bedford Falls is named Pottersville and is a less congenial place. Mr. Gower has recently been released from prison for manslaughter, because George was not there to stop him from putting poison in the pills. The Building and Loan has closed down, as George never took over after Peter 's passing.
George 's mother does not recognize him; she reveals that Uncle Billy was institutionalized after the collapse of the Building and Loan. In the cemetery where Bailey Park would have been, George discovers the grave of his brother. Clarence tells him all the soldiers on the transport died, as Harry was never there to save them, because George had never saved Harry from drowning. Mary, who works at the library, never married; when George says he is her husband, she screams for the police, causing George to flee and the local policeman to give chase.
George, now convinced that Clarence is really his guardian angel, runs back to the bridge and begs for his life back; the alternate timeline changes back to the original reality. George runs home to await his arrest. Mary and Uncle Billy arrive, having rallied the townspeople, who donate more than enough to cover the missing $8,000 and for Potter 's warrant to be torn up. Harry arrives and toasts George calling him "The richest man in town ''. A bell on the Christmas tree rings, and his daughter recalls a story that says the sound means that an angel has just earned his wings, signifying Clarence 's promotion.
Credited cast
Uncredited cast
The contention that James Stewart is often referred to as Capra 's only choice to play George Bailey is disputed by film historian Stephen Cox, who indicates that "Henry Fonda was in the running. '' Cary Grant was also considered for the role when RKO still had the rights to the film, before they were sold to Capra.
Although it was stated that Jean Arthur, Ann Dvorak and Ginger Rogers were all considered for the role of Mary before Donna Reed won the part, this list is also disputed by Cox as he indicates that Jean Arthur was first offered the part but had to turn it down for a prior commitment on Broadway before Capra turned to Olivia de Havilland, Martha Scott and Ann Dvorak. Ginger Rogers was offered the female lead, but turned it down because she considered it "too bland ''. In Chapter 26 of her autobiography Ginger: My Story, she questioned her decision by asking her readers: "Foolish, you say? ''
A long list of actors were considered for the role of Potter (originally named Herbert Potter): Edward Arnold, Charles Bickford, Edgar Buchanan, Louis Calhern, Victor Jory, Raymond Massey, Vincent Price and even Thomas Mitchell. However, Lionel Barrymore, who eventually won the role, was a famous Ebenezer Scrooge in radio dramatizations of A Christmas Carol at the time and was a natural choice for the role. Barrymore had also worked with Capra and Stewart on his 1938 Best Picture Oscar winner, You Ca n't Take It with You.
H.B. Warner, who was cast as the drugstore owner Mr. Gower, actually studied medicine before going into acting. He was also in some of Capra 's other films, including Mr. Deeds Goes to Town, Lost Horizon, You Ca n't Take It with You, and Mr. Smith Goes to Washington. In the silent era, he had played the role of Jesus Christ in Cecil B. DeMille 's The King of Kings (1927). The name Gower came from Capra 's employer Columbia Pictures, which had been located on Gower Street for many years. Also on Gower Street was a drugstore that was a favorite for the studio 's employees.
Charles Williams, who was cast as Eustace Bailey, and Mary Treen, who was cast as Matilda "Tilly '' Bailey, were both B - list actors, as they both had appeared in 90 films each before filming It 's a Wonderful Life.
Jimmy the raven (Uncle Billy 's pet) appeared in You Ca n't Take It with You and each subsequent Capra film.
The original story "The Greatest Gift '' was written by Philip Van Doren Stern in November 1939. After being unsuccessful in getting the story published, he decided to make it into a Christmas card, and mailed 200 copies to family and friends in December 1943. The story came to the attention of RKO producer David Hempstead, who showed it to Cary Grant 's Hollywood agent, and in April 1944, RKO Pictures bought the rights to the story for $10,000, hoping to turn the story into a vehicle for Grant. RKO created three unsatisfactory scripts before shelving the planned movie, and Grant went on to make another Christmas movie staple, The Bishop 's Wife.
At the suggestion of RKO studio chief Charles Koerner, Frank Capra read "The Greatest Gift '' and immediately saw its potential. RKO, anxious to unload the project, in 1945 sold the rights to Capra 's production company, Liberty Films, which had a nine - film distribution agreement with RKO, for $10,000, and threw in the three scripts for free. Capra, along with writers Frances Goodrich and Albert Hackett, with Jo Swerling, Michael Wilson, and Dorothy Parker brought in to "polish '' the script, turned the story and what was worth using from the three scripts into a screenplay that Capra would rename It 's a Wonderful Life. The script underwent many revisions throughout pre-production and during filming. Final screenplay credit went to Goodrich, Hackett and Capra, with "additional scenes '' by Jo Swerling.
Seneca Falls, New York claims that when Frank Capra visited their town in 1945, he was inspired to model Bedford Falls after it. The town has an annual "It 's a Wonderful Life festival '' in December. In mid-2009, The Hotel Clarence opened in Seneca Falls, named for George Bailey 's guardian angel. On December 10, 2010, the "It 's a Wonderful Life '' Museum opened in Seneca Falls, with Karolyn Grimes, who played Zuzu in the movie, cutting the ribbon. Philip Van Doren Stern said in a 1946 interview, "Incidentally, the movie takes place in Westchester County. Actually, the town I had in mind was Califon, N.J. '' The historic iron bridge in Califon is similar to the bridge that George Bailey considered jumping from in the movie.
Both James Stewart (from Indiana, Pennsylvania) and Donna Reed (from Denison, Iowa) came from small towns. Stewart 's father ran a small hardware store where James worked for years. Reed demonstrated her rural roots by winning an impromptu bet with Lionel Barrymore when he challenged her to milk a cow on set.
It 's a Wonderful Life was shot at RKO Radio Pictures Studio in Culver City, California, and the 89 acre RKO movie ranch in Encino, where "Bedford Falls '' consisted of Art Director Max Ree 's Oscar - winning sets originally designed for the 1931 epic film Cimarron that covered 4 acres (1.6 ha), assembled from three separate parts, with a main street stretching 300 yards (three city blocks), with 75 stores and buildings, and a residential neighborhood. For It 's a Wonderful Life Capra built a working bank set, added a tree - lined center parkway, and planted 20 full grown oak trees to existing sets.
Pigeons, cats, and dogs were allowed to roam the mammoth set to give the "town '' a lived - in feel. Due to the requirement to film in an "alternate universe '' setting as well as during different seasons, the set was extremely adaptable. RKO created "chemical snow '' for the film to avoid the need for dubbed dialogue when actors walked across an earlier movie snow that was made of crushed cornflakes. Filming started on April 15, 1946 and ended on July 27, 1946, exactly on deadline for the 90 - day principal photography schedule.
RKO 's movie ranch in Encino, a filming location of Bedford Falls, was razed in 1954. There are only two surviving locations from the film. The first is the swimming pool that was unveiled during the famous dance scene where George courts Mary. It is located in the gymnasium at Beverly Hills High School and is still in operation as of 2013. The second is the "Martini home '' in La Cañada Flintridge, California.
During filming, in the scene where Uncle Billy gets drunk at Harry and Ruth 's welcome home / newlyweds ' party, George points him in the right direction home. As the camera focuses on George, smiling at his uncle staggering away, a crash is heard in the distance and Uncle Billy yells, "I 'm all right! I 'm all right! '' Equipment on the set had actually been accidentally knocked over; Capra left in Thomas Mitchell 's impromptu ad lib (although the "crashing '' noise was augmented with added sound effects).
Dimitri Tiomkin had written "Death Telegram '' and "Gower 's Deliverance '' for the drugstore scenes, but in the editing room Capra elected to go with no music for those scenes. Those changes, along with others, led to a falling out between Tiomkin and Capra. Tiomkin had worked on a lot of Capra 's previous films, and was saddened that Capra decided to have the music pared or toned down, moved, or cut entirely. He felt as though his work was being seen as a mere suggestion. In his autobiography Please Do n't Hate Me, he said of the incident, "an all around scissors job ''.
The products and advertisements featured in Mr. Gower 's drugstore include Coca - Cola, Paterson tobacco pipes, La Unica cigars, Camel cigarettes, Lucky Strike cigarettes, Chesterfield cigarettes, Sweet Caporal cigarettes (with a sign that says "Ask Dad he knows '' that plays a role in the plot), Vaseline hair tonic, Penetro cough syrup, Pepto - Bismol, Bayer Aspirin ("for colds and influenza ''), and The Saturday Evening Post.
In an earlier draft of the script, the scene where George saves his brother Harry as a child was different. The scene had the boys playing ice hockey on the river (which is on Potter 's property) as Potter watches with disdain. George shoots the puck, but it goes astray and breaks the "No Trespassing '' sign and lands in Potter 's yard. Potter becomes irate, and the gardener releases the attack dogs, which causes the boys to flee. Harry falls in the ice, and George saves him with the same results.
Another scene that was in an earlier version of the script had young George visiting his father at his work. After George tells off Mr. Potter and closes the door, he considers asking Uncle Billy about his drugstore dilemma. Billy is talking on the phone to the bank examiner, and lights his cigar and throws his match in the wastebasket. This scene explains that Tilly (short for Matilda) and Eustace are both his cousins (not Billy 's kids though), and Tilly is on the phone with her friend Martha and says, "Potter 's here, the bank examiner 's coming. It 's a day of judgment. '' As George is about to interrupt Tilly on the phone, Billy cries for help and Tilly runs in and puts the fire out with a pot of coffee. George decides he is probably better off dealing with the situation by himself.
Capra had filmed a number of sequences that were subsequently cut, the only remnants remaining being rare stills that have been unearthed. A number of alternative endings were considered, with Capra 's first script having Bailey falling to his knees reciting "The Lord 's Prayer '' (the script also called for an opening scene with the townspeople in prayer). Feeling that an overly religious tone did not have the emotional impact of the family and friends rushing to rescue George Bailey, the closing scenes were rewritten.
It 's a Wonderful Life premiered at the Globe Theatre in New York on December 20, 1946, to mixed reviews. While Capra thought the contemporary critical reviews were either universally negative, or at best dismissive, Time said, "It 's a Wonderful Life is a pretty wonderful movie. It has only one formidable rival (Goldwyn 's The Best Years of Our Lives) as Hollywood 's best picture of the year. Director Capra 's inventiveness, humor and affection for human beings keep it glowing with life and excitement. ''
Bosley Crowther, writing for The New York Times, complimented some of the actors, including Stewart and Reed, but concluded that "the weakness of this picture, from this reviewer 's point of view, is the sentimentality of it -- its illusory concept of life. Mr. Capra 's nice people are charming, his small town is a quite beguiling place and his pattern for solving problems is most optimistic and facile. But somehow they all resemble theatrical attitudes rather than average realities. ''
The film, which went into general release on January 7, 1947, placed 26th ($3.3 million) in box office revenues for 1947 (out of more than 400 features released), one place ahead of another Christmas film, Miracle on 34th Street. The film was supposed to be released in January 1947, but was moved up to December 1946 to make it eligible for the 1946 Academy Awards. This move was seen as worse for the film, as 1947 did not have quite the stiff competition as 1946. If it had entered the 1947 Awards, its biggest competition would have been Miracle on 34th Street. The number one grossing movie of 1947, The Best Years of Our Lives, made $11.5 million.
The film recorded a loss of $525,000 at the box office for RKO.
On May 26, 1947, the FBI issued a memo stating, "With regard to the picture ' It 's a Wonderful Life, ' (redacted) stated in substance that the film represented rather obvious attempts to discredit bankers by casting Lionel Barrymore as a ' scrooge - type ' so that he would be the most hated man in the picture. This, according to these sources, is a common trick used by Communists. (In) addition, (redacted) stated that, in his opinion, this picture deliberately maligned the upper class, attempting to show the people who had money were mean and despicable characters. ''
In 1990, It 's a Wonderful Life was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant '' by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in their National Film Registry.
In 2002, Britain 's Channel 4 ranked It 's a Wonderful Life as the seventh greatest film ever made in its poll "The 100 Greatest Films ''.
In June 2008, AFI revealed its 10 Top 10, the best ten films in ten "classic '' American film genres, after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. It 's a Wonderful Life was acknowledged as the third - best film in the fantasy genre.
Somewhat more iconoclastic views of the film and its content are occasionally expressed. In 1947, film critic Manny Farber wrote, "To make his points (Capra) always takes an easy, simple - minded path that does n't give much credit to the intelligence of the audience '', and adds that there are only a "few unsentimental moments here and there. '' Wendell Jamieson, in a 2008 article for The New York Times which was generally positive in its analysis of the film, noted that far from being simply a sweet sentimental story, it "is a terrifying, asphyxiating story about growing up and relinquishing your dreams, of seeing your father driven to the grave before his time, of living among bitter, small - minded people. It is a story of being trapped, of compromising, of watching others move ahead and away, of becoming so filled with rage that you verbally abuse your children, their teacher and your oppressively perfect wife. ''
In a 2010 Salon.com piece, Richard Cohen described It 's a Wonderful Life as "the most terrifying Hollywood film ever made ''. In the "Pottersville '' sequence, he wrote, George is not seeing the world that would exist had he never been born, but rather ' the world as it does exist, in his time and also in our own. '' Nine years earlier, another Salon writer, Gary Kamiya, had expressed the opposing view that "Pottersville rocks!, '' adding, "The gauzy, Currier - and - Ives veil Capra drapes over Bedford Falls has prevented viewers from grasping what a tiresome and, frankly, toxic environment it is... We all live in Pottersville now. ''
The film 's elevation to the status of a beloved classic came decades after its initial release, when it became a television staple during Christmas season in the late 1970s. This came as a welcome surprise to Frank Capra and others involved with its production. "It 's the damnedest thing I 've ever seen, '' Capra told The Wall Street Journal in 1984. "The film has a life of its own now, and I can look at it like I had nothing to do with it. I 'm like a parent whose kid grows up to be president. I 'm proud... but it 's the kid who did the work. I did n't even think of it as a Christmas story when I first ran across it. I just liked the idea. '' In a 1946 interview, Capra described the film 's theme as "the individual 's belief in himself '' and that he made it "to combat a modern trend toward atheism ''.
The film 's positive reception has continued into the present, and review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes currently reports a 94 % "Certified Fresh '' approval rating. The website 's critical consensus reads, "The holiday classic to define all holiday classics, It 's a Wonderful Life is one of a handful of films worth an annual viewing. ''
Prior to the Los Angeles release of It 's a Wonderful Life, Liberty Films mounted an extensive promotional campaign that included a daily advertisement highlighting one of the film 's players, along with comments from reviewers. Jimmy Starr wrote, "If I were an Oscar, I 'd elope with It 's a Wonderful Life lock, stock and barrel on the night of the Academy Awards ''. The New York Daily Times published an editorial that declared the film and James Stewart 's performance to be worthy of Academy Award consideration.
It 's a Wonderful Life received five Academy Award nominations:
It 's a Wonderful Life won just the one Academy Award, in the Technical Achievement category for developing a new method of creating artificial snow. Before It 's a Wonderful Life, fake movie snow was mostly made from cornflakes painted white. And it was so loud when stepped on that any snow - filled scenes with dialogue had to be re-dubbed afterwards. RKO studio 's head of special effects, Russell Shearman, developed a new compound, utilizing water, soap flakes, foamite and sugar.
The Best Years of Our Lives, a drama about servicemen attempting to return to their pre-World War II lives, won most of the awards that year, including four of the five for which It 's a Wonderful Life was nominated. (The award for "Best Sound Recording '' was won by The Jolson Story.) The Best Years of Our Lives was also an outstanding commercial success, ultimately becoming the highest - grossing film of the decade, in contrast to the more modest initial box office returns of It 's a Wonderful Life.
It 's a Wonderful Life received a Golden Globe Award:
Capra won the "Best Motion Picture Director '' award from the Golden Globes, and a "CEC Award '' from the Cinema Writers Circle in Spain, for Mejor Película Extranjera (Best Foreign Film). Jimmy Hawkins won a "Former Child Star Lifetime Achievement Award '' from the Young Artist Awards in 1994; the award recognized his role as Tommy Bailey as igniting his career, which lasted until the mid-1960s.
American Film Institute lists
Liberty Films was purchased by Paramount Pictures, and remained a subsidiary until 1951. In 1955, M. & A. Alexander purchased the movie. This included key rights to the original television syndication, the original nitrate film elements, the music score, and the film rights to the story on which the film is based, "The Greatest Gift ''. National Telefilm Associates (NTA) took over the rights to the film soon thereafter.
A clerical error at NTA prevented the copyright from being renewed properly in 1974. Despite the lapsed copyright, television stations that aired it still had to pay royalties because -- though the film 's images had entered the public domain -- the film 's story was still protected as a derivative work of the published story The Greatest Gift, whose copyright Philip Van Doren Stern had properly renewed in 1971. The film became a perennial holiday favorite in the 1980s, possibly due to its repeated showings each holiday season on hundreds of local television stations. It was mentioned during the deliberations on the Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998.
In 1993, Republic Pictures, which was the successor to NTA, relied on the 1990 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Stewart v. Abend (which involved another Stewart film, Rear Window) to enforce its claim to the copyright. While the film 's copyright had not been renewed, Republic still owned the film rights to "The Greatest Gift ''; thus the plaintiffs were able to argue its status as a derivative work of a work still under copyright. NBC, since 1996, is licensed to show the film on U.S. network television, and traditionally shows it twice during the holidays, with one showing on Christmas Eve. Paramount (via parent company Viacom 's 1998 acquisition of Republic 's then - parent, Spelling Entertainment) once again has distribution rights for the first time since 1955.
Due to all the above actions, this is one of the few RKO films not controlled by Turner Entertainment / Warner Bros. in the USA. It is also one of two Capra films Paramount owns despite not having originally released it -- the other is Broadway Bill (originally from Columbia, remade by Paramount as Riding High in 1950).
Director Capra met with Wilson Markle about having Colorization, Inc., colorize It 's a Wonderful Life based on an enthusiastic response to the colorization of Topper from actor Cary Grant. The company 's art director Brian Holmes prepared 10 minutes of colorized footage from It 's a Wonderful Life for Capra to view, which resulted in Capra signing a contract with Colorization, Inc., and his "enthusiastic agree (ment) to pay half the $260,000 cost of colorizing the movie and to share any profits '' and giving "preliminary approval to making similar color versions of two of his other black - and - white films, Meet John Doe (1941) and Lady for a Day (1933) ''. However, the film was believed to be in the public domain at the time, and as a result Markle and Holmes responded by returning Capra 's initial investment, eliminating his financial participation, and refusing outright to allow the director to exercise artistic control over the colorization of his films, leading Capra to join in the campaign against the process.
Three colorized versions have been produced. The first was released by Hal Roach Studios in 1986. The second was authorized and produced by the film 's permanent owner, Republic Pictures, in 1989. Both Capra and Stewart took a critical stand on the colorized editions. The Hal Roach color version was re-released in 1989 to VHS through the cooperation of Video Treasures. A third colorized version was produced by Legend Films and released on DVD in 2007 with the approval of Capra 's estate.
Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, when the film was still under public domain status, It 's A Wonderful Life was released on VHS by a variety of home video companies. Among the companies that released the film on home video before Republic Pictures stepped in were Meda Video (which would later become Media Home Entertainment), Kartes Video Communications (under its Video Film Classics label), GoodTimes Home Video and Video Treasures (now Anchor Bay Entertainment). After Republic reclaimed the rights to the film, all unofficial VHS copies of the film in print were destroyed. Artisan Entertainment (under license from Republic) took over home video rights in the mid-1990s. Artisan was later sold to Lions Gate Entertainment, which continued to hold US home video rights until late 2005 when they reverted to Paramount, who also owns video rights throughout Region 4 (Latin America and Australia) and in France. Video rights in the rest of the world are held by different companies; for example, the UK rights are with Universal Studios.
In 1993, due in part to the confusion of the ownership and copyright issues, Kinesoft Development, with the support of Republic Pictures, released It 's a Wonderful Life as one of the first commercial feature - length films on CD - ROM for the Windows PC (Windows 3.1). Predating commercial DVDs by several years, it included such features as the ability to follow along with the complete shooting script as the film was playing.
Given the state of video playback on the PC at the time of its release, It 's a Wonderful Life for Windows represented another first, as the longest running video on a computer. Prior to its release, Windows could only play back approx. 32,000 frames of video, or about 35 minutes at 15 frames per second. Working with Microsoft, Kinesoft was able to enhance the video features of Windows to allow for the complete playback of the entire film -- all of this on a PC with a 486SX processor and only 8 MB of RAM.
Computer Gaming World said in April 1994 that, "The picture quality still has a way to go before it reaches television standards, '' but was "... a noble effort '' that would "please fans of the film. ''
The film has seen multiple DVD releases since the availability of the DVD format. In the autumn of 2001, Republic issued the movie twice, once in August, and again with different packaging in September of that same year. On October 31, 2006, Paramount released a newly restored "60th Anniversary Edition ''. On November 13, 2007, Paramount released a two - disc "special edition '' DVD of the film that contained both the original theatrical black - and - white version, and a new, third colorized version, produced by Legend Films using the latest colorization technology. On November 3, 2009, Paramount released a DVD version with a "Collector 's Edition '' ornament, and a Blu - ray edition.
The film was twice adapted for radio in 1947, first on Lux Radio Theater (March 10) and then on The Screen Guild Theater (December 29), then again on the Screen Guild Theater broadcast of March 15, 1951. James Stewart and Donna Reed reprised their roles for all three radio productions. Stewart also starred in the May 8, 1949 radio adaptation presented on the Screen Director 's Playhouse.
A musical stage adaptation of the film, titled A Wonderful Life, was written by Sheldon Harnick and Joe Raposo. This version was first performed at the University of Michigan in 1986, but a planned professional production was stalled by legal wrangling with the estate of Philip Van Doren Stern. It was eventually performed in Washington, D.C. by Arena Stage in 1991, and had revivals in the 21st century, including a staged concert version in New York City in 2005 and several productions by regional theatres.
Another musical stage adaptation of the film, titled It 's a Wonderful Life -- The Musical, was written by Bruce Greer and Keith Ferguson. This version premiered at the Majestic Theatre, Dallas, Texas in 1998. It was an annual Christmas show at the theatre for five years. It has since been performed at venues all around the United States.
The film was also adapted into a play in two acts by James W. Rodgers. It was first performed on December 15, 1993 at Paul Laurence Dunbar High School. The play opens with George Bailey contemplating suicide and then goes back through major moments in his life. Many of the scenes from the movie are only alluded to or mentioned in the play rather than actually dramatized. For example, in the opening scene Clarence just mentions George having saved his brother Harry after the latter had fallen through the ice.
It 's a Wonderful Life: A Live Radio Play, a stage adaptation presented as a 1940s radio show, was adapted by Joe Landry and has been produced around the United States since 1997. The script is published by Playscripts, Inc.
In 1997, PBS aired Merry Christmas, George Bailey, taped from a live performance of the 1947 Lux Radio Theatre script at the Pasadena Playhouse. The presentation, which benefited the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, featured an all - star cast including Bill Pullman as George, Nathan Lane as Clarence, Martin Landau as Mr. Potter, Penelope Ann Miller as Mary, and Sally Field as Mother Bailey.
Philip Grecian 's 2006 radio play based on the film It 's a Wonderful Life is a faithful adaptation, now in its third incarnation, that has been performed numerous times by local theatres in Canada.
The Last Temptation of Clarence Odbody is a novel written by John Pierson. The novel imagines the future lives of various characters if George had not survived his jump into the river.
The film was remade as the 1977 television movie It Happened One Christmas. Lionel Chetwynd based the screenplay on the original Van Doren Stern short story and the 1946 screenplay. This remake employed gender - reversal, with Marlo Thomas as the protagonist Mary Bailey, Wayne Rogers as George Hatch, and Cloris Leachman as the angel Clara Oddbody. Leachman received her second Emmy nomination for this role. In a significant departure from his earlier roles, Orson Welles was cast as Mr. Potter. Following initial positive reviews, the made - for - television film was rebroadcast twice in 1978 and 1979, but has not been shown since on national re-broadcasts, nor issued in home media.
In 1990, another made - for - television film called Clarence starred Robert Carradine in a new tale of the helpful angel.
A purported sequel was in development for a 2015 release, and was to be called It 's a Wonderful Life: The Rest of the Story. It was to be written by Bob Farnsworth and Martha Bolton and follow the angel of George Bailey 's daughter Zuzu (played once again by Karolyn Grimes), as she teaches Bailey 's evil grandson how different the world would have been if he had never been born. Producers were considering directors and hoped to shoot the film with a $25 -- $35 million budget in Louisiana early in 2014.
The film had been announced as being produced by Star Partners and Hummingbird Productions, neither of which are affiliated with Paramount, owners of the original film (Farnsworth claimed that It 's a Wonderful Life was in the public domain). Later, a Paramount spokesperson claimed that they were not granting permission to make the film, "To date, these individuals have not obtained any of the necessary rights, and we would take all appropriate steps to protect those rights, '' the spokesperson said. No further developmental plans have since arisen.
In a 1997 review, film historian James Berardinelli commented on the parallels between this film and the classic Charles Dickens tale A Christmas Carol. In both stories, a man revisits his life and potential death (or non-existence) with the help of supernatural agents, culminating in a joyous epiphany and a renewed view of his life.
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what is the meaning of yoga in hinduism | Yoga - Wikipedia
Yoga (/ ˈjoʊɡə /; Sanskrit, योगः, pronunciation) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India. There is a broad variety of yoga schools, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Among the most well - known types of yoga are Hatha yoga and Rāja yoga.
The origins of yoga have been speculated to date back to pre-Vedic Indian traditions; it is mentioned in the Rigveda, but most likely developed around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE, in ancient India 's ascetic and śramaṇa movements. The chronology of earliest texts describing yoga - practices is unclear, varyingly credited to Hindu Upanishads. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali date from the first half of the 1st millennium CE, but only gained prominence in the West in the 20th century. Hatha yoga texts emerged around the 11th century with origins in tantra.
Yoga gurus from India later introduced yoga to the West, following the success of Swami Vivekananda in the late 19th and early 20th century. In the 1980s, yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world. Yoga in Indian traditions, however, is more than physical exercise; it has a meditative and spiritual core. One of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism is also called Yoga, which has its own epistemology and metaphysics, and is closely related to Hindu Samkhya philosophy.
Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma, and heart disease. The results of these studies have been mixed and inconclusive. On December 1, 2016, yoga was listed by UNESCO as an Intangible cultural heritage.
In Sanskrit, the word yoga comes from the root yuj which means "to add '', "to join '', "to unite '', or "to attach '' in its most common senses; as such. By figurative extension from the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses (cf. English yoke and Latin iugum / jugum), the word took on broader meanings such as "employment, use, application, performance '' (compare the figurative uses of "to harness '' as in "to put something to some use ''). All further developments of the sense of this word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moods such as "exertion '', "endeavour '', "zeal '', and "diligence '' are also found in Indian epic poetry.
There are very many compound words containing yoga in Sanskrit. Yoga can take on meanings such as "connection '', "contact '', "union '', "method '', "application '', "addition '' and "performance ''. In simpler words, Yoga also means "combined ''. For example, guṇáyoga means "contact with a cord ''; chakráyoga has a medical sense of "applying a splint or similar instrument by means of pulleys (in case of dislocation of the thigh) ''; chandráyoga has the astronomical sense of "conjunction of the moon with a constellation ''; puṃyoga is a grammatical term expressing "connection or relation with a man '', etc. Thus, bhaktiyoga means "devoted attachment '' in the monotheistic Bhakti movement. The term kriyāyoga has a grammatical sense, meaning "connection with a verb ''. But the same compound is also given a technical meaning in the Yoga Sutras (2.1), designating the "practical '' aspects of the philosophy, i.e. the "union with the supreme '' due to performance of duties in everyday life
According to Pāṇini, a 6th - century BCE Sanskrit grammarian, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate). In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the root yuj samādhau (to concentrate) is considered by traditional commentators as the correct etymology. In accordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras, states that yoga means samādhi (concentration).
According to Dasgupta, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate). Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a yogi (may be applied to a man or a woman) or yogini (traditionally denoting a woman).
The term yoga has been defined in various ways in the many different Indian philosophical and religious traditions.
The ultimate goal of Yoga is moksha (liberation), although the exact definition of what form this takes depends on the philosophical or theological system with which it is conjugated.
According to Jacobsen, "Yoga has five principal meanings:
According to David Gordon White, from the 5th century CE onward, the core principles of "yoga '' were more or less in place, and variations of these principles developed in various forms over time:
White clarifies that the last principle relates to legendary goals of "yogi practice '', different from practical goals of "yoga practice, '' as they are viewed in South Asian thought and practice since the beginning of the Common Era, in the various Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophical schools.
The term "yoga '' has been applied to a variety of practices and methods, including Jain and Buddhist practices. In Hinduism these include Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga, Laya Yoga and Hatha Yoga.
The so - called Raja Yoga refers to Ashtanga Yoga, the eight limbs to be practiced to attain samadhi, as described in the Yoga Sutras of Pantajali. The term raja yoga originally referred to the ultimate goal of yoga, which is usually samadhi, but was popularised by Vivekananda as the common name for Ashtanga Yoga.
Yoga is considered as a philosophical school in Hinduism. Yoga, in this context, is one of the six āstika schools of Hinduism (those which accept the Vedas as source of knowledge).
Due to the influence of Vivekananda, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are nowadays considered as the foundational scripture of classical yoga, a status which it only acquired in the 20th century. Before the twentieth century, other works were considered as the most central works, such as the Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Vasistha, while Tantric Yoga and Hatha Yoga prevailed over Ashtanga Yoga.
Yoga as described in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali refers to Ashtanga yoga. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is considered as a central text of the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, It is often called "Rāja yoga '', "yoga of the kings, '' a term which originally referred to the ultimate, royal goal of yoga, which is usually samadhi, but was popularised by Vivekananda as the common name for Ashtanga Yoga.
Ashtanga yoga incorporates epistemology, metaphysics, ethical practices, systematic exercises and self - development techniques for body, mind and spirit. Its epistemology (pramanas) is same as the Samkhya school. Both accept three reliable means to knowledge -- perception (pratyākṣa, direct sensory observations), inference (anumāna) and testimony of trustworthy experts (sabda, agama). Both these orthodox schools are also strongly dualistic. Unlike the Sāṃkhya school of Hinduism, which pursues a non-theistic / atheistic rationalist approach, the Yoga school of Hinduism accepts the concept of a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity '' or "personal god ''. Along with its epistemology and metaphysical foundations, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy incorporates ethical precepts (yamas and niyamas) and an introspective way of life focused on perfecting one 's self physically, mentally and spiritually, with the ultimate goal being kaivalya (liberated, unified, content state of existence).
Hatha yoga, also called hatha vidyā, is a kind of yoga focusing on physical and mental strength building exercises and postures described primarily in three texts of Hinduism:
Many scholars also include the preceding Goraksha Samhita authored by Gorakshanath of the 11th century in the above list. Gorakshanath is widely considered to have been responsible for popularizing hatha yoga as we know it today.
Vajrayana Buddhism, founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas, has a series of asanas and pranayamas, such as tummo (Sanskrit caṇḍālī) and trul khor which parallel hatha yoga.
In Shaivism, yoga is used to unite kundalini with Shiva. See also ' tantra ' below.
Buddhist meditation encompasses a variety of meditation techniques that aim to develop mindfulness, concentration, supramundane powers, tranquility, and insight.
Core techniques have been preserved in ancient Buddhist texts and have proliferated and diversified through teacher - student transmissions. Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the path toward Enlightenment and Nirvana. The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā and jhāna / dhyāna.
Jain meditation has been the central practice of spirituality in Jainism along with the Three Jewels. Meditation in Jainism aims at realizing the self, attain salvation, take the soul to complete freedom. It aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure conscious, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower - seer (Gyata - Drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized to the auspicious Dharmya Dhyana and Shukla Dhyana and inauspicious Artta and Raudra Dhyana.
Samuel states that Tantrism is a contested concept. Tantra yoga may be described, according to Samuel, as practices in 9th to 10th century Buddhist and Hindu (Saiva, Shakti) texts, which included yogic practices with elaborate deity visualizations using geometrical arrays and drawings (mandala), fierce male and particularly female deities, transgressive life stage related rituals, extensive use of chakras and mantras, and sexual techniques, all aimed to help one 's health, long life and liberation.
The origins of yoga are a matter of debate. There is no consensus on its chronology or specific origin other than that yoga developed in ancient India. Suggested origins are the Indus Valley Civilization (3300 -- 1900 BCE) and pre-Vedic Eastern states of India, the Vedic period (1500 -- 500 BCE), and the śramaṇa movement. According to Gavin Flood, continuities may exist between those various traditions:
(T) his dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal.
Pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500 -- 200 BCE. Between 200 BCE -- 500 CE philosophical schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge. The Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga. Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid 19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy.
Yoga may have pre-Vedic elements. Some state yoga originated in the Indus Valley Civilization. Marshall, Eliade and other scholars suggest that the Pashupati seal discovered in Indus Valley Civilization sites depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose. This interpretation is considered speculative and uncertain by more recent analysis of Srinivasan and may be a case of projecting "later practices into archeological findings ''.
According to Crangle, some researchers have favoured a linear theory, which attempts "to interpret the origin and early development of Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis '', just like traditional Hinduism regards the Vedas to be the ultimate source of all spiritual knowledge. Thomas McEvilley favors a composite model where pre-Aryan yoga prototype existed in the pre-Vedic period and its refinement began in the Vedic period.
Ascetic practices, concentration and bodily postures described in the Vedas may have been precursors to yoga. According to Geoffrey Samuel, "Our best evidence to date suggests that (yogic) practices developed in the same ascetic circles as the early sramana movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE. ''
According to Zimmer, Yoga philosophy is reckoned to be part of the non-Vedic system, which also includes the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, Jainism and Buddhism: "(Jainism) does not derive from Brahman - Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India (Bihar) -- being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems. ''
The first use of the root of word "yoga '' is in hymn 5.81. 1 of the Rig Veda, a dedication to rising Sun - god in the morning (Savitri), where it has been interpreted as "yoke '' or "yogically control ''.
The earliest evidence of Yogis and Yoga tradition is found in the Keśin hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda, states Karel Werner.
The Yogis of Vedic times left little evidence of their existence, practices and achievements. And such evidence as has survived in the Vedas is scanty and indirect. Nevertheless, the existence of accomplished Yogis in Vedic times can not be doubted.
Rigveda, however, does not describe yoga and there is little evidence as to what the practices were. Early references to practices that later became part of yoga, are made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the earliest Hindu Upanishad. For example, the practice of pranayama (consciously regulating breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5. 23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 900 BCE), and the practice of pratyahara (concentrating all of one 's senses on self) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad (c. 800 -- 700 BCE).
Ascetic practices (tapas), concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests to conduct yajna (sacrifice), might have been precursors to yoga. Vratya, a group of ascetics mentioned in the Atharvaveda, emphasized on bodily postures which may have evolved into yogic asanas. Early Samhitas also contain references to other group ascetics such as munis, the keśin, and vratyas. Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the Brahmanas (texts of the Vedic corpus, c. 1000 -- 800 BCE) and the Atharvaveda. Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda suggests the presence of an early contemplative tradition.
Yoga concepts begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500 -- 200 BCE such as the Pali Canon, the middle Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata.
The first known appearance of the word "yoga '', with the same meaning as the modern term, is in the Katha Upanishad, probably composed between the fifth and third century BCE, where it is defined as the steady control of the senses, which along with cessation of mental activity, leading to a supreme state. Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of early Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga. It defines various levels of existence according to their proximity to the innermost being Ātman. Yoga is therefore seen as a process of interiorization or ascent of consciousness. It is the earliest literary work that highlights the fundamentals of yoga. White states:
The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Katha Upanisad (Ku), a scripture dating from about the third century BCE (...) (I) t describes the hierarchy of mind - body constituents -- the senses, mind, intellect, etc. -- that comprise the foundational categories of Sāmkhya philosophy, whose metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the Yogasutras, Bhagavad Gita, and other texts and schools (Ku3. 10 -- 11; 6.7 -- 8).
The hymns in Book 2 of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, another late first millennium BCE text, states a procedure in which the body is held in upright posture, the breath is restrained and mind is meditatively focussed, preferably inside a cave or a place that is simple, plain, of silence or gently flowing water, with no noises nor harsh winds.
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad, likely composed in a later century than Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before Patanjali 's Yoga Sutra, mentions sixfold yoga method -- breath control (pranayama), introspective withdrawal of senses (pratyahara), meditation (dhyana), mind concentration (dharana), philosophical inquiry / creative reasoning (tarka), and absorption / intense spiritual union (samadhi).
In addition to the Yoga discussion in above Principal Upanishads, twenty Yoga Upanishads as well as related texts such as Yoga Vasistha, composed in 1st and 2nd millennium CE, discuss Yoga methods.
Yoga is discussed in the ancient foundational Sutras of Hindu philosophy. The Vaiśeṣika Sūtra of the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, dated to have been composed sometime between 6th and 2nd century BCE discusses Yoga. According to Johannes Bronkhorst, an Indologist known for his studies on early Buddhism and Hinduism and a professor at the University of Lausanne, Vaiśeṣika Sūtra describes Yoga as "a state where the mind resides only in the soul and therefore not in the senses ''. This is equivalent to pratyahara or withdrawal of the senses, and the ancient Sutra asserts that this leads to an absence of sukha (happiness) and dukkha (suffering), then describes additional yogic meditation steps in the journey towards the state of spiritual liberation.
Similarly, Brahma sutras -- the foundational text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, discusses yoga in its sutra 2.1. 3, 2.1. 223 and others. Brahma sutras are estimated to have been complete in the surviving form sometime between 450 BCE to 200 CE, and its sutras assert that yoga is a means to gain "subtlety of body '' and other powers. The Nyaya sutras -- the foundational text of the Nyaya school, variously estimated to have been composed between the 6th - century BCE and 2nd - century CE, discusses yoga in sutras 4.2. 38 -- 50. This ancient text of the Nyaya school includes a discussion of yogic ethics, dhyana (meditation), samadhi, and among other things remarks that debate and philosophy is a form of yoga.
Alexander the Great reached India in the 4th century BCE. Along with his army, he took Greek academics with him who later wrote memoirs about geography, people and customs they saw. One of Alexander 's companion was Onesicritus, quoted in Book 15, Sections 63 -- 65 by Strabo, who describes yogins of India. Onesicritus claims those Indian yogins (Mandanis) practiced aloofness and "different postures -- standing or sitting or lying naked -- and motionless ''.
Onesicritus also mentions his colleague Calanus trying to meet them, who is initially denied audience, but later invited because he was sent by a "king curious of wisdom and philosophy ''. Onesicritus and Calanus learn that the yogins consider the best doctrine of life as "rid the spirit of not only pain, but also pleasure '', that "man trains the body for toil in order that his opinions may be strengthened '', that "there is no shame in life on frugal fare '', and that "the best place to inhabit is one with scantiest equipment or outfit ''. These principles are significant to the history of spiritual side of yoga. These may reflect the ancient roots of "undisturbed calmness '' and "mindfulness through balance '' in later works of Hindu Patanjali and Buddhist Buddhaghosa respectively, states Charles Rockwell Lanman; as well as the principle of Aparigraha (non-possessiveness, non-craving, simple living) and asceticism discussed in later Hinduism and Jainism.
Werner states, "The Buddha was the founder of his (Yoga) system, even though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time. '' He notes:
But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice, which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved for us in its entirety.
The chronology of completion of these yoga - related Pali Canons, however, is unclear, just like ancient Hindu texts. Early known Buddhist sources like the Majjhima Nikāya mention meditation, while the Anguttara Nikāya describes Jhāyins (meditators) that resemble early Hindu descriptions of Muni, Kesins and meditating ascetics, but these meditation - practices are not called yoga in these texts. The earliest known specific discussion of yoga in the Buddhist literature, as understood in modern context, is from the third - to fourth - century CE scriptures of the Buddhist Yogācāra school and fourth - to fifth - century Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa.
A yoga system that predated the Buddhist school is Jain yoga. But since Jain sources postdate Buddhist ones, it is difficult to distinguish between the nature of the early Jain school and elements derived from other schools. Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded in the Upanishads and some Pali canons are lost to time.
The early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and states, some of which the Buddha borrowed from the śramaṇa tradition. The Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind, depending on the passage. However, there is no mention of the tongue being inserted into the nasopharynx as in true khecarī mudrā. The Buddha used a posture where pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to even modern postures used to stimulate Kundalini.
Alexander Wynne, author of The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, observes that formless meditation and elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition. The earliest reference to meditation is in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest Upanishads. Chandogya Upanishad describes the five kinds of vital energies (prana). Concepts used later in many yoga traditions such as internal sound and veins (nadis) are also described in the Upanishad. Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses.
The Bhagavad Gita (' Song of the Lord '), uses the term "yoga '' extensively in a variety of ways. In addition to an entire chapter (ch. 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including meditation, it introduces three prominent types of yoga:
The Gita consists of 18 chapters and 700 shlokas (verses), with each chapter named as a different yoga, thus delineating eighteen different yogas. Some scholars divide the Gita into three sections, with the first six chapters with 280 shlokas dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six containing 209 shlokas with Bhakti yoga, and the last six chapters with 211 shlokas as Jnana yoga; however, this is rough because elements of karma, bhakti and jnana are found in all chapters.
Description of an early form of yoga called nirodhayoga (yoga of cessation) is contained in the Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter (Shanti Parva) of the Mahabharata. The verses of the section are dated to c. 300 -- 200 BCE. Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from the contents of empirical consciousness such as thoughts, sensations etc. until purusha (Self) is realized. Terms like vichara (subtle reflection), viveka (discrimination) and others which are similar to Patanjali 's terminology are mentioned, but not described. There is no uniform goal of yoga mentioned in the Mahabharata. Separation of self from matter, perceiving Brahman everywhere, entering into Brahman etc. are all described as goals of yoga. Samkhya and yoga are conflated together and some verses describe them as being identical. Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation.
Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as the experience of uniting the individual ātman with the universal Brahman that pervades all things.
This period witnessed many texts of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism discussing and systematically compiling yoga methods and practices. Of these, Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras are considered as a key work.
During the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta eras (c. 200 BCE -- 500 CE) philosophical schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge.
Yoga as a philosophy is mentioned in Sanskrit texts dated to be completed between 200 BCE -- 200 CE. Kauṭilya 's Arthashastra in verse 1.2. 10, for example, states that there are three categories of anviksikis (philosophies) -- Samkhya (nontheistic), Yoga (theistic) and Cārvāka (atheistic materialism).
Many traditions in India began to adopt systematic methodology by about first century CE. Of these, Samkhya was probably one of the oldest philosophies to begin taking a systematic form. Patanjali systematized Yoga, building them on the foundational metaphysics of Samkhya. In the early works, the Yoga principles appear together with the Samkhya ideas. Vyasa 's commentary on the Yoga Sutras, also called the Samkhyapravacanabhasya (Commentary on the Exposition of the Sankhya Philosophy), describes the relation between the two systems. The two schools have some differences as well. Yoga accepted the conception of "personal god '', while Samkhya developed as a rationalist, non-theistic / atheistic system of Hindu philosophy. Sometimes Patanjali 's system is referred to as Seshvara Samkhya in contradistinction to Kapila 's Nirivara Samkhya.
The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller says that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord. ''
In Hindu philosophy, yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox (which accept the testimony of Vedas) philosophical schools. Karel Werner, author of Yoga And Indian Philosophy, believes that the process of systematization of yoga which began in the middle and Yoga Upanishads culminated with the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
There are numerous parallels in the concepts in ancient Samkhya, Yoga and Abhidharma Buddhist schools of thought, particularly from 2nd century BCE to 1st century AD, notes Larson. Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras is a synthesis of these three traditions. From Samkhya, Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment '' (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, as well its three epistemic methods to gaining reliable knowledge. From Abhidharma Buddhism 's idea of nirodhasamadhi, suggests Larson, Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of altered state of awareness, but unlike Buddhist 's concept of no self nor soul, Yoga is physicalist and realist like Samkhya in believing that each individual has a self and soul. The third concept Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions of meditation and introspection, as well as the yoga ideas from middle Upanishads such as Katha, Shvetashvatara and Maitri.
Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras are widely regarded as the first compilation of the formal yoga philosophy. The verses of Yoga Sutras are terse. Many later Indian scholars studied them and published their commentaries, such as the Vyasa Bhashya (c. 350 -- 450 CE). Patanjali 's yoga is also referred to as Raja yoga. Patanjali defines the word "yoga '' in his second sutra:
योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोधः (yogaś citta - vṛtti - nirodhaḥ) - Yoga Sutras 1.2
This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I.K. Taimni translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta) ''. Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind - stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis). '' Edwin Bryant explains that, to Patanjali, "Yoga essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object. ''
If the meaning of yoga is understood as the practice of nirodha (mental control), then its goal is "the unqualified state of niruddha (the perfection of that process) '', according to Baba Hari Dass. In that context, "yoga (union) implies duality (as in joining of two things or principles); the result of yoga is the nondual state '', and "as the union of the lower self and higher Self. The nondual state is characterized by the absence of individuality; it can be described as eternal peace, pure love, Self - realization, or liberation. ''
Patanjali 's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as "Ashtanga Yoga '' ("Eight - Limbed Yoga ''). This eight - limbed concept is derived from the 29th Sutra of the Book 2 of Yoga Sutras. They are:
Yoga and Vedanta are the two largest surviving schools of Hindu traditions. They share many thematic principles, concepts and belief in self / soul, but diverge in degree, style and some of their methods. Epistemologically, Yoga school accepts three means to reliable knowledge, while Advaita Vedanta accepts six ways. Yoga disputes the monism of Advaita Vedanta. Yoga school believes that in the state of moksha, each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as an independent identity; Advaita Vedanta, in contrast, believes that in the state of moksha, each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as part of Oneness with everything, everyone and the Universal Self. They both hold that the free conscience is aloof yet transcendent, liberated and self - aware. Further, Advaita Vedanta school enjoins the use of Patanjali 's yoga practices and the reading of Upanishads for those seeking the supreme good, ultimate freedom and jivanmukti.
-- Yoga Yajnavalkya
The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga attributed to the Vedic sage Yajnavalkya. It takes the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and Gargi, a renowned philosopher. The text contains 12 chapters and its origin has been traced to the period between the second century BCE and fourth century CE. Many yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Yoga Kundalini and the Yoga Tattva Upanishads have borrowed verses from or make frequent references to the Yoga Yajnavalkya. The Yoga Yajnavalkya discusses eight yoga Asanas -- Swastika, Gomukha, Padma, Vira, Simha, Bhadra, Mukta and Mayura, numerous breathing exercises for body cleansing, and meditation.
According to Tattvarthasutra, 2nd century CE Jain text, yoga is the sum of all the activities of mind, speech and body. Umasvati calls yoga the cause of "asrava '' or karmic influx as well as one of the essentials -- samyak caritra -- in the path to liberation. In his Niyamasara, Acarya Kundakunda, describes yoga bhakti -- devotion to the path to liberation -- as the highest form of devotion. Acarya Haribhadra and Acarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full - fledged religion. The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear a resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between these traditions.
Mainstream Hinduism 's influence on Jain yoga can be see in Haribhadra 's Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya which outlines an eightfold yoga influenced by Patanjali 's eightfold yoga.
In the late phase of Indian antiquity, on the eve of the development of Classical Hinduism, the Yogacara movement arises during the Gupta period (4th to 5th centuries). Yogacara received the name as it provided a "yoga, '' a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the bodhisattva. The yogacara sect teaches "yoga '' as a way to reach enlightenment.
Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga. Hatha yoga emerged in this period.
The Bhakti movement was a development in medieval Hinduism which advocated the concept of a personal God (or "Supreme Personality of Godhead ''). The movement was initiated by the Alvars of South India in the 6th to 9th centuries, and it started gaining influence throughout India by the 12th to 15th centuries. Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions integrated aspects of Yoga Sutras, such as the practical meditative exercises, with devotion. Bhagavata Purana elucidates the practice of a form of yoga called viraha (separation) bhakti. Viraha bhakti emphasizes one pointed concentration on Krishna.
Tantra is a genre of yoga that arose in India no later than the 5th century CE. George Samuel states, "Tantra '' is a contested term, but may be considered as a school whose practices appeared in mostly complete form in Buddhist and Hindu texts by about 10th century CE. Over its history, some ideas of Tantra school influenced the Hindu, Bon, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. Elements of Tantric yoga rituals were adopted by and influenced state functions in medieval Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in East and Southeast Asia.
By the turn of the first millennium, hatha yoga emerged from tantra.
Vajrayana is also known as Tantric Buddhism and Tantrayāna. Its texts were compiled starting with 7th century and Tibetan translations were completed in 8th century CE. These tantra yoga texts were the main source of Buddhist knowledge that was imported into Tibet. They were later translated into Chinese and other Asian languages, helping spread ideas of Tantric Buddhism. The Buddhist text Hevajra Tantra and Caryāgiti introduced hierarchies of chakras. Yoga is a significant practice in Tantric Buddhism.
The tantra yoga practices include asanas and breathing exercises. The Nyingma tradition practices Yantra yoga (Tib. "Trul khor ''), a discipline that includes breath work (or pranayama), meditative contemplation and other exercises. In the Nyingma tradition, the path of meditation practice is divided into further stages, such as Kriya yoga, Upa yoga, Yoga yana, Mahā yoga, Anu yoga and Ati yoga. The Sarma traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called "Charya ''), and Yoga, with the Anuttara yoga class substituting for Mahayoga and Atiyoga.
Zen, the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyāna '' via the Chinese "ch'an '' is a form of Mahayana Buddhism. Yoga practices integrally exist within the Zen Buddhist school. Certain essential elements of yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.
The earliest references to hatha yoga are in Buddhist works dating from the eighth century. The earliest definition of hatha yoga is found in the 11th century Buddhist text Vimalaprabha, which defines it in relation to the center channel, bindu etc. Hatha yoga synthesizes elements of Patanjali 's Yoga Sutras with posture and breathing exercises. It marks the development of asanas (plural) into the full body ' postures ' now in popular usage and, along with its many modern variations, is the style that many people associate with the word yoga today.
Various yogic groups had become prominent in Punjab in the 15th and 16th century, when Sikhism was in its nascent stage. Compositions of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, describe many dialogues he had with Jogis, a Hindu community which practiced yoga. Guru Nanak rejected the austerities, rites and rituals connected with Hatha Yoga. He propounded the path of Sahaja yoga or Nama yoga (meditation on the name) instead. The Guru Granth Sahib states:
Listen "O Yogi, Nanak tells nothing but the truth. You must discipline your mind. The devotee must meditate on the Word Divine. It is His grace which brings about the union. He understands, he also sees. Good deeds help one merge into Divination. ''
Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid-19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy. In the context of this budding interest, N.C. Paul published his Treatise on Yoga Philosophy in 1851.
The first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a western audience, Swami Vivekananda, toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s. The reception which Swami Vivekananda received built on the active interest of intellectuals, in particular the New England Transcendentalists, among them Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803 -- 1882), who drew on German Romanticism and the interest of philosophers and scholars like G.W.F. Hegel (1770 -- 1831), the brothers August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767 -- 1845) and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel (1772 -- 1829), Max Mueller (1823 -- 1900), Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 -- 1860), and others who had (to varying degrees) interests in things Indian.
Theosophists also had a large influence on the American public 's view of Yoga. Esoteric views current at the end of the 19th century provided a further basis for the reception of Vedanta and of Yoga with its theory and practice of correspondence between the spiritual and the physical. The reception of Yoga and of Vedanta thus entwined with each other and with the (mostly Neoplatonism - based) currents of religious and philosophical reform and transformation throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. M. Eliade, himself rooted in the Romanian currents of these traditions, brought a new element into the reception of Yoga with the strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in his seminal book: Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. With the introduction of the Tantra traditions and philosophy of Yoga, the conception of the "transcendent '' to be attained by Yogic practice shifted from experiencing the "transcendent '' ("Atman - Brahman '' in Advaitic theory) in the mind to the body itself.
The American born yogi by the name of Pierre Arnold Bernard, after his travels through the lands of Kashmir and Bengal, founded the Tantrik Order of America in 1905. His teachings gave many westerners their first glimpse into the practices of yoga and tantra.
The modern scientific study of yoga began with the works of N.C. Paul and Major D. Basu in the late 19th century, and then continued in the 20th century with Sri Yogendra (1897 -- 1989) and Swami Kuvalayananda. Western medical researchers came to Swami Kuvalayananda 's Kaivalyadhama Health and Yoga Research Center, starting in 1928, to study Yoga as a science.
Outside of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain traditions in Asia, the term "yoga '' has been usually synonymous with its asanas (postures) or as a form of exercise. This aspect of Yoga was adopted as a cultural trend in Europe and North America starting in the first half of the 20th century. There were periods of criticism and paranoia against yoga as well. By the 1960s, western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak, giving rise to a great number of Neo-Hindu schools specifically advocated to a western public. During this period, most of the influential Indian teachers of yoga came from two lineages, those of Sivananda Saraswati (1887 -- 1963) and of Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888 -- 1989). Teachers of Hatha yoga who were active in the west in this period included B.K.S. Iyengar (1918 -- 2014), K. Pattabhi Jois (1915 -- 2009), Swami Vishnu - devananda (1927 -- 1993), and Swami Satchidananda (1914 -- 2002). Yogi Bhajan brought Kundalini Yoga to the United States in 1969. Comprehensive, classical teachings of Ashtanga Yoga, Samkhya, the subtle body theory, Fitness Asanas, and tantric elements were included in the yoga teachers training by Baba Hari Dass (1923 --), in the United States and Canada.
A second "yoga boom '' followed in the 1980s, as Dean Ornish, a follower of Swami Satchidananda, connected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside of counter-culture or esotericism circles, and unconnected to any religious denomination. Numerous asanas seemed modern in origin, and strongly overlapped with 19th and early - 20th century Western exercise traditions.
Since 2001, the popularity of yoga in the USA has expanded. The number of people who practiced some form of yoga has grown from 4 million (in 2001) to 20 million (in 2011). It has drawn support from world leaders such as Barack Obama who stated, "Yoga has become a universal language of spiritual exercise in the United States, crossing many lines of religion and cultures,... Every day, millions of people practice yoga to improve their health and overall well - being. That 's why we 're encouraging everyone to take part in PALA (Presidential Active Lifestyle Award), so show your support for yoga and answer the challenge ''.
The American College of Sports Medicine supports the integration of yoga into the exercise regimens of healthy individuals as long as properly - trained professionals deliver instruction. The College cites yoga 's promotion of "profound mental, physical and spiritual awareness '' and its benefits as a form of stretching, and as an enhancer of breath control and of core strength.
Yoga has been studied and may be recommended to promote relaxation, reduce stress and improve some medical conditions such as premenstrual syndrome. Yoga is considered to be a low - impact activity that can provide the same benefits as "any well - designed exercise program, increasing general health and stamina, reducing stress, and improving those conditions brought about by sedentary lifestyles ''. It is particularly promoted as a physical therapy routine, and as a regimen to strengthen and balance all parts of the body.
Yoga may improve psychological health during cancer treatment, although more evidence is needed to confirm this possible benefit. Other research indicated that yoga could be a useful in addition to other treatments in schizophrenia, and may have positive effects on mental health, although the quality of research to define these effects is low.
In 2015 the Australian Government 's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance. Yoga was one of 17 practices evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found. Accordingly In 2017 the Australian government named yoga as a practice that would not qualify for insurance subsidy, saying this step would "ensure taxpayer funds are expended appropriately and not directed to therapies lacking evidence ''.
While some of the medical community regards the results of yoga research as significant, others point to many flaws which undermine results. Much of the research on yoga has taken the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality, including small sample sizes, inadequate blinding, lack of randomization, and high risk of bias. A 2013 review described the effectiveness of yoga for low back pain in the short - term, and moderate evidence that it was effective in the long - term. Another study found an incidence of back injuries from yoga.
Some clinicians have reported studies investigating yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer patients to decrease depression, insomnia, pain, and fatigue and to increase anxiety control. Others have questioned the quality of research and uncertainty in proving this effect.
A 2016 systematic review and meta - analysis found no evidence that yoga was effective for metabolic syndrome.
Some yoga practitioners suffer physical injuries analogous to sports injuries. A survey of yoga practitioners in Australia showed that about 20 % had suffered some physical injury while practicing yoga. In the previous 12 months 4.6 % of the respondents had suffered an injury producing prolonged pain or requiring medical treatment. Headstands, shoulder stands, lotus and half lotus (seated cross-legged position), forward bends, backward bends, and handstands produced the greatest number of injuries.
Yoga may result in injuries
Among the main reasons that experts cite for causing negative effects from yoga are beginners ' competitiveness and instructors ' lack of qualification. As the demand for yoga classes grows, many people get certified to become yoga instructors, often with relatively little training. Not every newly certified instructor can evaluate the condition of every new trainee in their class and recommend refraining from doing certain poses or using appropriate props to avoid injuries. In turn, a beginning yoga student can overestimate the abilities of their body and strive to do advanced poses before their body is flexible or strong enough to perform them.
Vertebral artery dissection, a tear in the arteries in the neck which provide blood to the brain can result from rotation of the neck while the neck is extended. This can occur in a variety of contexts, but is an event which could occur in some yoga practices. This is a very serious condition which can result in a stroke.
Acetabular labral tears, damage to the structure joining the femur and the hip, have been reported to have resulted from yoga practice.
It is claimed that yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents, both as a form of physical exercise and for breathing, focus, mindfulness, and stress relief: many school districts have considered incorporating yoga into their Physical Education programs. The Encinitas, California school district gained a San Diego Superior Court Judge 's approval to use yoga in Physical Education, holding against the parents who claimed the practice was intrinsically religious and hence should not be part of a state funded program.
Some Christians integrate yoga and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer and meditation. This has been attributed to a desire to experience God in a more complete way. In 2013, Monsignor Raffaello Martinelli, servicing Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, having worked for over 23 years with Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI), said that for his Meditation, a Christian can learn from other religious traditions (zen, yoga, controlled respiration, Mantra), quoting Aspects of Christian meditation: "Just as "the Catholic Church rejects nothing of what is true and holy in these religions, '' neither should these ways be rejected out of hand simply because they are not Christian. On the contrary, one can take from them what is useful so long as the Christian conception of prayer, its logic and requirements are never obscured. It is within the context of all of this that these bits and pieces should be taken up and expressed anew. '' Previously, the Roman Catholic Church, and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern and New Age practices that include yoga and meditation.
In 1989 and 2003, the Vatican issued two documents: Aspects of Christian meditation and "A Christian reflection on the New Age, '' that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices. The 2003 document was published as a 90 - page handbook detailing the Vatican 's position. The Vatican warned that concentration on the physical aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cult of the body '' and that equating bodily states with mysticism "could also lead to psychic disturbance and, at times, to moral deviations. '' Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity, when the church opposed the gnostics ' belief that salvation came not through faith but through a mystical inner knowledge. The letter also says, "one can see if and how (prayer) might be enriched by meditation methods developed in other religions and cultures '' but maintains the idea that "there must be some fit between the nature of (other approaches to) prayer and Christian beliefs about ultimate reality. '' Some fundamentalist Christian organizations consider yoga to be incompatible with their religious background, considering it a part of the New Age movement inconsistent with Christianity.
Another view holds that Christian meditation can lead to religious pluralism. This is held by an interdenominational association of Christians that practice it. "The ritual simultaneously operates as an anchor that maintains, enhances, and promotes denominational activity and a sail that allows institutional boundaries to be crossed. ''
In early 11th century, the Persian scholar Al Biruni visited India, lived with Hindus for 16 years, and with their help translated several significant Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian languages. One of these was Patanjali 's Yogasutras. Al Biruni 's translation preserved many of the core themes of Patañjali ' s Yoga philosophy, but certain sutras and analytical commentaries were restated making it more consistent with Islamic monotheistic theology. Al Biruni 's version of Yoga Sutras reached Persia and Arabian peninsula by about 1050 AD. Later, in the 16th century, the hath yoga text Amritakunda was translated into Arabic and then Persian. Yoga was, however, not accepted by mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam. Minority Islamic sects such as the mystic Sufi movement, particularly in South Asia, adopted Indian yoga practises, including postures and breath control. Muhammad Ghawth, a Shattari Sufi and one of the translators of yoga text in 16th century, drew controversy for his interest in yoga and was persecuted for his Sufi beliefs.
Malaysia 's top Islamic body in 2008 passed a fatwa, prohibiting Muslims from practicing yoga, saying it had elements of Hinduism and that its practice was blasphemy, therefore haraam. Some Muslims in Malaysia who had been practicing yoga for years, criticized the decision as "insulting. '' Sisters in Islam, a women 's rights group in Malaysia, also expressed disappointment and said yoga was just a form of exercise. This fatwa is legally enforceable. However, Malaysia 's prime minister clarified that yoga as physical exercise is permissible, but the chanting of religious mantras is prohibited.
In 2009, the Council of Ulemas, an Islamic body in Indonesia, passed a fatwa banning yoga on the grounds that it contains Hindu elements. These fatwas have, in turn, been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband, a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India. Similar fatwas banning yoga, for its link to Hinduism, were issued by the Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa in Egypt in 2004, and by Islamic clerics in Singapore earlier.
In Iran, as of May 2014, according to its Yoga Association, there were approximately 200 yoga centres in the country, a quarter of them in the capital Tehran, where groups can often be seen practising in parks. This has been met by opposition among conservatives. In May 2009, Turkey 's head of the Directorate of Religious Affairs, Ali Bardakoğlu, discounted personal development techniques such as reiki and yoga as commercial ventures that could lead to extremism. His comments were made in the context of reiki and yoga possibly being a form of proselytization at the expense of Islam.
On 11 December 2014, the United Nations General Assembly approved a resolution establishing 21 June as "International Day of Yoga '', following the call for its adoption by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi during his address to UN General Assembly on 27 September 2014. In suggesting one of the two solstices, Modi noted that it is the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere and that it has special significance in many parts of the world.
The first International Day of Yoga was observed worldwide on 21 June 2015. About 35,000 people, including Modi and many dignitaries, performed 21 yoga asanas for 35 minutes at Rajpath in New Delhi. The day devoted to yoga was observed by millions across the world. The event at Rajpath established two Guinness records -- largest Yoga Class with 35,985 people and the record for the most nationalities participating in it -- 84.
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when did the soviet union take over lithuania | History of Lithuania - wikipedia
The history of Lithuania dates back to settlements founded many thousands of years ago, but the first written record of the name for the country dates back to 1009 AD. Lithuanians, one of the Baltic peoples, later conquered neighboring lands and established the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 13th century (and also a short - lived Kingdom of Lithuania). The Grand Duchy was a successful and lasting warrior state. It remained fiercely independent and was one of the last areas of Europe to adopt Christianity (beginning in the 14th century). A formidable power, it became the largest state in Europe in the 15th century through the conquest of large groups of East Slavs who resided in Ruthenia. In 1385, the Grand Duchy formed a dynastic union with Poland through the Union of Krewo. Later, the Union of Lublin (1569) created the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth that lasted until 1795, when the last of the Partitions of Poland erased both Lithuania and Poland from the political map. Afterward, the Lithuanians lived under the rule of the Russian Empire until the 20th century.
On February 16, 1918, Lithuania was re-established as a democratic state. It remained independent until the outset of World War II, when it was occupied by the Soviet Union under the terms of the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact. Following a brief occupation by Nazi Germany after the Nazis waged war on the Soviet Union, Lithuania was again absorbed into the Soviet Union for nearly 50 years. In 1990 -- 1991, Lithuania restored its sovereignty with the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania. Lithuania joined the NATO alliance in 2004 and the European Union as part of its enlargement in 2004.
The first humans arrived on the territory of modern Lithuania in the 10th millennium BC after the glaciers receded at the end of the last glacial period. According to the historian Marija Gimbutas, these people came from two directions: the Jutland Peninsula and from present - day Poland. They brought two different cultures, as evidenced by the tools they used. They were traveling hunters and did not form stable settlements. In the 8th millennium BC, the climate became much warmer, and forests developed. The inhabitants of what is now Lithuania then traveled less and engaged in local hunting, gathering and fresh - water fishing. During the 6th -- 5th millennium BC, various animals were domesticated and dwellings became more sophisticated in order to shelter larger families. Agriculture did not emerge until the 3rd millennium BC due to a harsh climate and terrain and a lack of suitable tools to cultivate the land. Crafts and trade also started to form at this time. Speakers of North - Western Indo - European might have arrived with the Corded Ware culture around 3200 / 3100 BC.
The first Lithuanian people were a branch of an ancient group known as the Balts. The main tribal divisions of the Balts were the West Baltic Old Prussians and Yotvingians, and the East Baltic Lithuanians and Latvians. The Balts spoke forms of the Indo - European languages. Today, the only remaining Baltic nationalities are the Lithuanians and Latvians, but there were more Baltic groups or tribes in the past. Some of these merged into Lithuanians and Latvians (Samogitians, Selonians, Curonians, Semigallians), while others no longer existed after they were conquered and assimilated by the State of the Teutonic Order (Old Prussians, Yotvingians, Sambians, Skalvians, and Galindians).
The Baltic tribes did not maintain close cultural or political contacts with the Roman Empire, but they did maintain trade contacts (see Amber Road). Tacitus, in his study Germania, described the Aesti people, inhabitants of the south - eastern Baltic Sea shores who were probably Balts, around the year 97 AD. The Western Balts differentiated and became known to outside chroniclers first. Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD knew of the Galindians and Yotvingians, and early medieval chroniclers mentioned Prussians, Curonians and Semigallians.
Lithuania, located along the lower and middle Neman River basin, comprised mainly the culturally different regions of Samogitia (known for its early medieval skeletal burials), and further east Aukštaitija, or Lithuania proper (known for its early medieval cremation burials). The area was remote and unattractive to outsiders, including traders, which accounts for its separate linguistic, cultural and religious identity and delayed integration into general European patterns and trends.
The Lithuanian language is considered to be very conservative for its close connection to Indo - European roots. It is believed to have differentiated from the Latvian language, the most closely related existing language, around the 7th century. Traditional Lithuanian pagan customs and mythology, with many archaic elements, were long preserved. Rulers ' bodies were cremated up until the conversion to Christianity: the descriptions of the cremation ceremonies of the grand dukes Algirdas and Kęstutis have survived.
The Lithuanian tribe is thought to have developed more recognizably toward the end of the first millennium. The first known reference to Lithuania as a nation ("Litua '') comes from the Annals of the Quedlinburg monastery, dated March 9, 1009. In 1009, the missionary Bruno of Querfurt arrived in Lithuania and baptized the Lithuanian ruler "King Nethimer. ''
From the 9th to the 11th centuries, coastal Balts were subjected to raids by the Vikings, and the kings of Denmark collected tribute at times. During the 10 -- 11th centuries, Lithuanian territories were among the lands paying tribute to Kievan Rus ', and Yaroslav the Wise was among the Ruthenian rulers who invaded Lithuania (from 1040). From the mid-12th century, it was the Lithuanians who were invading Ruthenian territories. In 1183, Polotsk and Pskov were ravaged, and even the distant and powerful Novgorod Republic was repeatedly threatened by the excursions from the emerging Lithuanian war machine toward the end of the 12th century.
In the 12th century and afterwards, mutual raids involving Lithuanian and Polish forces took place sporadically, but the two countries were separated by the lands of the Yotvingians. The late 12th century brought an eastern expansion of German settlers (the Ostsiedlung) to the mouth of the Daugava River area. Military confrontations with Lithuanians followed at that time and at the turn of the century, but for the time being the Lithuanians had the upper hand.
From the late 12th century, an organized Lithuanian military force existed; it was used for external raids, plundering and the gathering of slaves. Such military and pecuniary activities fostered social differentiation and triggered a struggle for power in Lithuania. This initiated the formation of early statehood, from which the Grand Duchy of Lithuania developed.
From the early 13th century, frequent foreign military excursions became possible due to the increased cooperation and coordination among the Baltic tribes. Forty such expeditions took place between 1201 and 1236 against Ruthenia, Poland, and Latvia, which was then being conquered by the Livonian Order. Pskov was pillaged and burned in 1213. In 1219, twenty - one Lithuanian chiefs signed a peace treaty with the state of Galicia -- Volhynia. This event is widely accepted as the first proof that the Baltic tribes were uniting and consolidating.
From the early 13th century, two German crusading military orders, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Teutonic Knights, became established at the mouth of the Daugava River and in Chełmno Land respectively. Under the pretense of converting the population to Christianity, they proceeded to conquer much of the area that is now Latvia and Estonia, in addition to parts of Lithuania. In response, a number of small Baltic tribal groups united under the rule of Mindaugas. Mindaugas, originally a kunigas or major chief, one of the five senior dukes listed in the treaty of 1219, is referred to as the ruler of all Lithuania as of 1236 in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle.
In 1236 the pope declared a crusade against the Lithuanians. The Samogitians, led by Vykintas, Mindaugas ' rival, soundly defeated the Livonian Brothers and their allies in the Battle of Saule in 1236, which forced the Brothers to merge with the Teutonic Knights in 1237. But Lithuania was trapped between the two branches of the Order.
Around 1240, Mindaugas ruled over all of Aukštaitija. Afterwards, he conquered the Black Ruthenia region (which consisted of Grodno, Brest, Navahrudak and the surrounding territories). Mindaugas was in process of extending his control to other areas, killing rivals or sending relatives and members of rival clans east to Ruthenia so they could conquer and settle there. They did that, but they also rebelled. The Ruthenian duke Daniel of Galicia sensed an occasion to recover Black Ruthenia and in 1249 -- 1250 organized a powerful anti-Mindaugas (and "anti-pagan '') coalition that included Mindaugas ' rivals, Yotvingians, Samogitians and the Livonian Teutonic Knights. Mindaugas, however, took advantage of the divergent interests in the coalition he faced.
In 1250, Mindaugas entered into an agreement with the Teutonic Order; he consented to receive baptism (the act took place in 1251) and relinquish his claim over some lands in western Lithuania, for which he was to receive a royal crown in return. Mindaugas was then able to withstand a military assault from the remaining coalition in 1251, and, supported by the Knights, emerge as a victor to confirm his rule over Lithuania.
On July 17, 1251, Pope Innocent IV signed two papal bulls that ordered the Bishop of Chełmno to crown Mindaugas as King of Lithuania, appoint a bishop for Lithuania, and build a cathedral. In 1253, Mindaugas was crowned and a Kingdom of Lithuania was established for the first and only time in Lithuanian history. Mindaugas "granted '' parts of Yotvingia and Samogitia that he did not control to the Knights in 1253 -- 1259. A peace with Daniel of Galicia in 1254 was cemented by a marriage deal involving Mindaugas ' daughter and Daniel 's son Shvarn. Mindaugas ' nephew Tautvilas returned to his Duchy of Polotsk and Samogitia separated, soon to be ruled by another nephew, Treniota.
In 1260, the Samogitians, victorious over the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Durbe, agreed to submit themselves to Mindaugas ' rule on the condition that he abandons the Christian religion; the king complied by terminating the emergent conversion of his country, renewed anti-Teutonic warfare (in the struggle for Samogitia) and expanded further his Ruthenian holdings. It is not clear whether this was accompanied by his personal apostasy. Mindaugas thus established the basic tenets of medieval Lithuanian policy: defense against the German Order expansion from the west and north and conquest of Ruthenia in the south and east.
Mindaugas was the principal founder of the Lithuanian state. He established for a while a Christian kingdom under the pope rather than the Holy Roman Empire, at a time when the remaining pagan peoples of Europe were no longer being converted peacefully, but conquered.
Mindaugas was murdered in 1263 by Daumantas of Pskov and Treniota, an event that resulted in great unrest and civil war. Treniota, who took over the rule of the Lithuanian territories, murdered Tautvilas, but was killed himself in 1264. The rule of Mindaugas ' son Vaišvilkas followed. He was the first Lithuanian duke known to become an Orthodox Christian and settle in Ruthenia, establishing a pattern to be followed by many others. Vaišvilkas was killed in 1267. A power struggle between Shvarn and Traidenis resulted; it ended in a victory for the latter. Traidenis ' reign (1269 -- 1282) was the longest and most stable during the period of unrest. Tradenis reunified all Lithuanian lands, repeatedly raided Ruthenia and Poland with success, defeated the Teutonic Knights in Prussia and in Livonia at the Battle of Aizkraukle in 1279. He also became the ruler of Yotvingia, Semigalia and eastern Prussia. Friendly relations with Poland followed, and in 1279, Tradenis ' daughter Gaudemunda of Lithuania married Bolesław II of Masovia, a Piast duke.
Pagan Lithuania was a target of northern Christian crusades of the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order. In 1241, 1259 and 1275, Lithuania was also ravaged by raids from the Golden Horde, which earlier (1237 -- 1240) debilitated Kievan Rus '. After Traidenis ' death, the German Knights finalized their conquests of Western Baltic tribes, and they could concentrate on Lithuania, especially on Samogitia, to connect the two branches of the Order. A particular opportunity opened in 1274 after the conclusion of the Great Prussian Rebellion and the conquest of the Old Prussian tribe. The Teutonic Knights then proceeded to conquer other Baltic tribes: the Nadruvians and Skalvians in 1274 -- 1277 and the Yotvingians in 1283. The Livonian Order completed its conquest of Semigalia, the last Baltic ally of Lithuania, in 1291.
The family of Gediminas, whose members were about to form Lithuania 's great native dynasty, took over the rule of the Grand Duchy in 1285 under Butigeidis. Vytenis (r. 1295 -- 1315) and Gediminas (r. 1315 -- 1341), after whom the Gediminid dynasty is named, had to deal with constant raids and incursions from the Teutonic orders that were costly to repulse. Vytenis fought them effectively around 1298 and at about the same time was able to ally Lithuania with the German burghers of Riga. For their part, the Prussian Knights instigated a rebellion in Samogitia against the Lithuanian ruler in 1299 -- 1300, followed by twenty incursions there in 1300 -- 15. Gediminas also fought the Teutonic Kights, and besides that made shrewd diplomatic moves by cooperating with the government of Riga in 1322 -- 23 and taking advantage of the conflict between the Knights and Archbishop Friedrich von Pernstein of Riga.
Gediminas expanded Lithuania 's international connections by conducting correspondence with Pope John XXII as well as with rulers and other centers of power in Western Europe, and he invited German colonists to settle in Lithuania. Responding to Gediminas ' complaints about the aggression from the Teutonic Order, the pope forced the Knights to observe a four - year peace with Lithuania in 1324 -- 1327. Opportunities for the Christianization of Lithuania were investigated by the pope 's legates, but they met with no success. From the time of Mindaugas, the country 's rulers attempted to break Lithuania 's cultural isolation, join Western Christendom and thus be protected from the Knights, but the Knights and other interests had been able to block the process. In the 14th century, Gediminas ' attempts to become baptized (1323 -- 1324) and establish Catholic Christianity in his country were thwarted by the Samogitians and Gediminas ' Orthodox courtiers. In 1325, Casimir, the son of the Polish king Władysław I, married Gediminas ' daughter Aldona, who became queen of Poland when Casimir ascended the Polish throne in 1333. The marriage confirmed the prestige of the Lithuanian state under Gediminas, and a defensive alliance with Poland was concluded the same year. Yearly incursions of the Knights resumed in 1328 -- 1340, to which the Lithuanians responded with raids into Prussia and Latvia.
The reign of Grand Duke Gediminas constituted the first period in Lithuanian history in which the country was recognized as a great power, mainly due to the extent of its territorial expansion into Ruthenia. Lithuania was unique in Europe as a pagan - ruled "kingdom '' and fast - growing military power suspended between the worlds of Byzantine and Latin Christianity. To be able to afford the extremely costly defense against the Teutonic Knights, it had to expand to the east. Gediminas accomplished Lithuania 's eastern expansion by challenging the Mongols, who from the 1230s sponsored a Mongol invasion of Rus '. The collapse of the political structure of Kievan Rus ' created a partial regional power vacuum that Lithuania was able to exploit. Through alliances and conquest, in competition with the Principality of Moscow, the Lithuanians eventually gained control of vast expanses of the western and southern portions of the former Kievan Rus '. Gediminas ' conquests included the western Smolensk region, southern Polesia and (temporarily) Kiev, which was ruled around 1330 by Gediminas ' brother Fiodor. The Lithuanian - controlled area of Ruthenia grew to include most of modern Belarus and Ukraine (the Dnieper River basin) and comprised a massive state that stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea in the 14th and 15th centuries.
In the 14th century, many Lithuanian princes installed to govern the Rus ' lands accepted Eastern Christianity and assumed Ruthenian custom and names in order to appeal to the culture of their subjects. Through this means, integration into the Lithuanian state structure was accomplished without disturbing local ways of life. The Ruthenian territories acquired were vastly larger, more densely populated and more highly developed in terms of church organization and literacy than the territories of core Lithuania. Thus the Lithuanian state was able to function because of the contributions of the Ruthenian culture representatives. Historical territories of the former Ruthenian dukedoms were preserved under the Lithuanian rule, and the further they were from Vilnius, the more autonomous the localities tended to be. Lithuanian soldiers and Ruthenians together defended Ruthenian strongholds, at times paying tribute to the Golden Horde for some of the outlying localities. Ruthenian lands may have been ruled jointly by Lithuania and the Golden Horde as condominiums until the time of Vytautas, who stopped paying tribute. Gediminas ' state provided a counterbalance against the influence of Moscow and enjoyed good relations with the Ruthenian principalities of Pskov, Veliky Novgorod and Tver. Direct military confrontations with the Principality of Moscow under Ivan I occurred around 1335.
Around 1318, Gediminas ' elder son Algirdas married Maria of Vitebsk, the daughter of Prince Yaroslav of Vitebsk, and settled in Vitebsk to rule the principality. Of Gediminas ' seven sons, four remained pagan and three converted to Orthodox Christianity. Upon his death, Gediminas divided his domains among the seven sons, but Lithuania 's precarious military situation, especially on the Teutonic frontier, forced the brothers to keep the country together. From 1345, Algirdas took over as the Grand Duke of Lithuania. In practice, he ruled over Lithuanian Ruthenia only, whereas Lithuania proper was the domain of his equally able brother Kęstutis. Algirdas fought the Golden Horde Tatars and the Principality of Moscow; Kęstutis took upon himself the demanding struggle with the Teutonic Order.
The warfare with the Teutonic Order continued from 1345, and in 1348, the Knights defeated the Lithuanians at the Battle of Strėva. Kęstutis requested King Casimir of Poland to mediate with the pope in hopes of converting Lithuania to Christianity, but the result was negative, and Poland took from Lithuania in 1349 the Halych area and some Ruthenian lands further north. Lithuania 's situation improved from 1350, when Algirdas formed an alliance with the Principality of Tver. Halych was ceded by Lithuania, which brought peace with Poland in 1352. Secured by those alliances, Algirdas and Kęstutis embarked on the implementation of policies to expand Lithuania 's territories further.
Bryansk was taken in 1359, and in 1362, Algirdas captured Kiev after defeating the Mongols at the Battle of Blue Waters. Volhynia, Podolia and left - bank Ukraine were also incorporated. Kęstutis heroically fought for the survival of ethnic Lithuanians by attempting to repel about thirty incursions by the Teutonic Knights and their European guest fighters. Kęstutis also attacked the Teutonic possessions in Prussia on numerous occasions, but the Knights took Kaunas in 1362. The dispute with Poland renewed itself and was settled by the peace of 1366, when Lithuania gave up a part of Volhynia including Volodymyr. A peace with the Livonian Knights was also accomplished in 1367. In 1368, 1370 and 1372, Algirdas invaded the Grand Duchy of Moscow and each time approached Moscow itself. An "eternal '' peace (the Treaty of Lyubutsk) was concluded after the last attempt, and it was much needed by Lithuania due to its involvement in heavy fighting with the Knights again in 1373 -- 1377.
The two brothers and Gediminas ' other offspring left many ambitious sons with inherited territory. Their rivalry weakened the country in the face of the Teutonic expansion and the newly assertive Grand Duchy of Moscow, buoyed by the 1380 victory over the Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikovo and intent on the unification of all Rus ' lands under its rule.
Algirdas died in 1377, and his son Jogaila became grand duke while Kęstutis was still alive. The Teutonic pressure was at its peak, and Jogaila was inclined to cease defending Samogitia in order to concentrate on preserving the Ruthenian empire of Lithuania. The Knights exploited the differences between Jogaila and Kęstutis and procured a separate armistice with the older duke in 1379. Jogaila then made overtures to the Teutonic Order and concluded the secret Treaty of Dovydiškės with them in 1380, contrary to Kęstutis ' principles and interests. Kęstutis felt he could no longer support his nephew and in 1381, when Jogaila 's forces were preoccupied with quenching a rebellion in Polotsk, he entered Vilnius in order to remove Jogaila from the throne. A Lithuanian civil war ensued. Kęstutis ' two raids against Teutonic possessions in 1382 brought back the tradition of his past exploits, but Jogaila retook Vilnius during his uncle 's absence. Kęstutis was captured and died in Jogaila 's custody. Kęstutis ' son Vytautas escaped.
Jogaila agreed to the Treaty of Dubysa with the Order in 1382, an indication of his weakness. A four - year truce stipulated Jogaila 's conversion to Catholicism and the cession of half of Samogitia to the Teutonic Knights. Vytautas went to Prussia in seek of the support of the Knights for his claims, including the Duchy of Trakai, which he considered inherited from his father. Jogaila 's refusal to submit to the demands of his cousin and the Knights resulted in their joint invasion of Lithuania in 1383. Vytautas, however, having failed to gain the entire duchy, established contacts with the grand duke. Upon receiving from him the areas of Grodno, Podlasie and Brest, Vytautas switched sides in 1384 and destroyed the border strongholds entrusted to him by the Order. In 1384, the two Lithuanian dukes, acting together, waged a successful expedition against the lands ruled by the Order.
By that time, for the sake of its long - term survival, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had initiated the processes leading to its imminent acceptance of European Christendom. The Teutonic Knights aimed at a territorial unification of their Prussian and Livonian branches by conquering Samogitia and all of Lithuania proper, following the earlier subordination of the Prussian and Latvian tribes. To dominate the neighboring Baltic and Slavic people and expand into a great Baltic power, the Knights used German and other volunteer fighters. They unleashed 96 onslaughts in Lithuania during the period 1345 -- 1382, against which the Lithuanians were able to respond with only 42 retributive raids of their own. Lithuania 's Ruthenian empire in the east was also threatened by both the unification of Rus ' ambitions of Moscow and the centrifugal activities pursued by the rulers of some of the more distant provinces.
The Lithuanian state of the later 14th century was primarily binational, Lithuanian and Ruthenian (in territories that correspond to the modern Belarus and Ukraine). Of its 800,000 square kilometers total area, 10 % comprised ethnic Lithuania, probably populated by no more than 300,000 inhabitants. Lithuania was dependent for its survival on the human and material resources of the Ruthenian lands.
The increasingly differentiated Lithuanian society was led by princes of the Gediminid and Rurik dynasties and the descendants of former kunigas chiefs from families such as the Giedraitis, Olshanski and Svirski. Below them in rank was the regular Lithuanian nobility (or boyars), in Lithuania proper strictly subjected to the princes and generally living on modest family farms, each tended by a few feudal subjects or, more often, slave workers if the boyar could afford them. For their military and administrative services, Lithuanian boyars were compensated by exemptions from public contributions, payments, and Ruthenian land grants. The majority of the ordinary rural workers were free. They were obligated to provide crafts and numerous contributions and services; for not paying these types of debts (or for other offences), one could be forced into slavery.
The Ruthenian princes were Orthodox, and many Lithuanian princes also converted to Orthodoxy, even some who resided in Lithuania proper, or at least their wives. The masonry Ruthenian churches and monasteries housed learned monks, their writings (including Gospel translations such as the Ostromir Gospels) and collections of religious art. A Ruthenian quarter populated by Lithuania 's Orthodox subjects, and containing their church, existed in Vilnius from the 14th century. The grand dukes ' chancery in Vilnius was staffed by Orthodox churchmen, who, trained in the Church Slavonic language, developed Chancery Slavonic, a Ruthenian written language useful for official record keeping. The most important of the Grand Duchy 's documents, the Lithuanian Metrica, the Lithuanian Chronicles and the Statutes of Lithuania, were all written in that language.
German, Jewish and Armenian settlers were invited to live in Lithuania; the last two groups established their own denominational communities directly under the ruling dukes. The Tatars and Crimean Karaites were entrusted as soldiers for the dukes ' personal guard.
Towns developed to a much lesser degree than in nearby Prussia or Livonia. Outside of Ruthenia, the only cities were Vilnius (Gediminas ' capital from 1323), the old capital of Trakai and Kaunas. Kernavė and Kreva were the other old political centers. Vilnius in the 14th century was a major social, cultural and trading center. It linked economically central and eastern Europe with the Baltic area. Vilnius merchants enjoyed privileges that allowed them to trade over most of the territories of the Lithuanian state. Of the passing Ruthenian, Polish and German merchants (many from Riga), many settled in Vilnius and some built masonry residencies. The city was ruled by a governor named by the grand duke and its system of fortifications included three castles. Foreign currencies and Lithuanian currency (from the 13th century) were widely used.
The Lithuanian state maintained a patrimonial power structure. Gediminid rule was hereditary, but the ruler would choose the son he considered most able to be his successor. Councils existed, but could only advise the duke. The huge state was divided into a hierarchy of territorial units administered by designated officials who were also empowered in judicial and military matters.
The Lithuanians spoke in a number of Aukštaitian and Samogitian (West - Baltic) dialects. But the tribal peculiarities were disappearing and the increasing use of the name Lietuva was a testimony to the developing Lithuanian sense of separate identity. The forming Lithuanian feudal system preserved many aspects of the earlier societal organization, such as the family clan structure, free peasantry and some slavery. The land belonged now to the ruler and the nobility. Patterns imported primarily from Ruthenia were used for the organization of the state and its structure of power.
Following the establishment of Western Christianity at the end of the 14th century, the occurrence of pagan cremation burial ceremonies markedly decreased.
As the power of the Lithuanian warlord dukes expanded to the south and east, the cultivated East Slavic Ruthenians exerted influence on the Lithuanian ruling class. They brought with them the Church Slavonic liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Christian religion, a written language (Chancery Slavonic) that was developed to serve the Lithuanian court 's document - producing needs for a few centuries, and a system of laws. By these means, Ruthenians transformed Vilnius into a major center of Kievan Rus ' civilization. By the time of Jogaila 's acceptance of Catholicism at the Union of Krewo in 1385, many institutions in his realm and members of his family had been to a large extent assimilated already into the Orthodox Christianity and became Russified (in part a result of the deliberate policy of the Gediminid ruling house).
Catholic influence and contacts, including those derived from German settlers, traders and missionaries from Riga, had been increasing for some time around the northwest region of the empire, known as Lithuania proper. The Franciscan and Dominican monk orders existed in Vilnius from the time of Gediminas. Kęstutis in 1349 and Algirdas in 1358 negotiated Christianization with the pope, the Holy Roman Empire and the Polish king. The Christianization of Lithuania thus involved both Catholic and Orthodox aspects. Conversion by force as practiced by the Teutonic Knights had actually been an impediment that delayed the progress of Western Christianity in the grand duchy.
Jogaila, a grand duke since 1377, was himself still a pagan at the start of his reign. He agreed to become a Catholic when offered the Polish crown and the child queen Jadwiga by leading Polish nobles, who were eager to take advantage of Lithuania 's expansion. For the near future, Poland gave Lithuania a valuable ally against increasing threats from the Teutonic Knights and the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Lithuania, in which Ruthenians outnumbered ethnic Lithuanians by several times, could ally with either the Grand Duchy of Moscow or Poland. A Russian deal was also negotiated with Dmitry Donskoy in 1383 -- 1384, but Moscow was too distant to be able to assist with the problems posed by the Teutonic orders and presented a difficulty as a center competing for the loyalty of the Orthodox Lithuanian Ruthenians.
Jogaila was baptized, given the baptismal name Władysław, married Queen Jadwiga, and was crowned King of Poland in February 1386.
Jogaila 's baptism and crowning were followed by the final and official Christianization of Lithuania. In the fall of 1386, the king returned to Lithuania and the next spring and summer participated in mass conversion and baptism ceremonies for the general population. The establishment of a bishopric in Vilnius in 1387 was accompanied by Jogaila 's extraordinarily generous endowment of land and peasants to the Church and exemption from state obligations and control. This instantly transformed the Lithuanian Church into the most powerful institution in the country (and future grand dukes lavished even more wealth on it). Lithuanian boyars who accepted baptism were rewarded with a more limited privilege improving their legal rights. Vilnius ' townspeople were granted self - government. The Church proceeded with its civilizing mission of literacy and education, and the estates of the realm started to emerge with their own separate identities.
Jogaila 's orders for his court and followers to convert to Catholicism were meant to deprive the Teutonic Knights of the justification for their practice of forced conversion through military onslaughts. In 1403 the pope prohibited the Order from conducting warfare against Lithuania, and its threat to Lithuania 's existence (which had endured for two centuries) was indeed neutralized. In the short term, Jogaila needed Polish support in his struggle with his cousin Vytautas.
The Lithuanian Civil War of 1389 -- 1392 involved the Teutonic Knights, the Poles, and the competing factions loyal to Jogaila and Vytautas in Lithuania. Amid ruthless warfare, the grand duchy was ravaged and threatened with collapse. Jogaila decided that the way out was to make amends and recognize the rights of Vytautas, whose original goal, now largely accomplished, was to recover the lands he considered his inheritance. After negotiations, Vytautas ended up gaining far more than that; from 1392 he became practically the ruler of Lithuania, a self - styled "Duke of Lithuania, '' under a compromise with Jogaila known as the Ostrów Agreement. Technically, he was merely Jogaila 's regent with extended authority. Jogaila realized that cooperating with his able cousin was preferable to attempting to govern (and defend) Lithuania directly from Kraków.
Vytautas had been frustrated by Jogaila 's Polish arrangements and rejected the prospect of Lithuania 's subordination to Poland. Under Vytautas, a considerable centralization of the state took place, and the Catholicized Lithuanian nobility became increasingly prominent in state politics. The centralization efforts began in 1393 -- 1395, when Vytautas appropriated their provinces from several powerful regional dukes in Ruthenia. Several invasions of Lithuania by the Teutonic Knights occurred between 1392 and 1394, but they were repelled with the help of Polish forces. Afterwards, the Knights abandoned their goal of conquest of Lithuania proper and concentrated on subjugating and keeping Samogitia. In 1395, Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia, the Order 's formal superior, prohibited the Knights from raiding Lithuania.
In 1395, Vytautas conquered Smolensk, and in 1397, he conducted a victorious expedition against a branch of the Golden Horde. Now he felt he could afford independence from Poland and in 1398 refused to pay the tribute due to Queen Jadwiga. Seeking freedom to pursue his internal and Ruthenian goals, Vytautas had to grant the Teutonic Order a large portion of Samogitia in the Treaty of Salynas of 1398. The conquest of Samogitia by the Teutonic Order greatly improved its military position as well as that of the associated Livonian Brothers of the Sword. Vytautas soon pursued attempts to retake the territory, an undertaking for which needed the help of the Polish king.
During Vytautas ' reign, Lithuania reached the peak of its territorial expansion, but his ambitious plans to subjugate all of Ruthenia were thwarted by his disastrous defeat in 1399 at the Battle of the Vorskla River, inflicted by the Golden Horde. Vytautas survived by fleeing the battlefield with a small unit and realized the necessity of a permanent alliance with Poland.
The original Union of Krewo of 1385 was renewed and redefined on several occasions, but each time with little clarity due to the competing Polish and Lithuanian interests. Fresh arrangements were agreed to in the "unions '' of Vilnius (1401), Horodło (1413), Grodno (1432) and Vilnius (1499). In the Union of Vilnius, Jogaila granted Vytautas a lifetime rule over the grand duchy. In return, Jogaila preserved his formal supremacy, and Vytautas promised to "stand faithfully with the Crown and the King. '' Warfare with the Order resumed. In 1403, Pope Boniface IX banned the Knights from attacking Lithuania, but in the same year Lithuania had to agree to the Peace of Raciąż, which mandated the same conditions as in the Treaty of Salynas.
Secure in the west, Vytautas turned his attention to the east once again. The campaigns fought between 1401 and 1408 involved Smolensk, Pskov, Moscow and Veliky Novgorod. Smolensk was retained, Pskov and Veliki Novgorod ended up as Lithuanian dependencies, and a lasting territorial division between the Grand Duchy and Moscow was agreed in 1408 in the treaty of Ugra, where a great battle failed to materialize.
The decisive war with the Teutonic Knights (the Great War) was preceded in 1409 with a Samogitian uprising supported by Vytautas. Ultimately the Lithuanian -- Polish alliance was able to defeat the Knights at the Battle of Grunwald on 15 July 1410, but the allied armies failed to take Marienburg, the Knights ' fortress - capital. Nevertheless, the unprecedented total battlefield victory against the Knights permanently removed the threat that they had posed to Lithuania 's existence for centuries. The Peace of Thorn (1411) allowed Lithuania to recover Samogotia, but only until the deaths of Jogaila and Vytautas, and the Knights had to pay a large monetary reparation.
The Union of Horodło (1413) incorporated Lithuania into Poland again, but only as a formality. In practical terms, Lithuania became an equal partner with Poland, because each country was obliged to choose its future ruler only with the consent of the other, and the Union was declared to continue even under a new dynasty. Catholic Lithuanian boyars were to enjoy the same privileges as Polish nobles (szlachta). 47 top Lithuanian clans were colligated with 47 Polish noble families to initiate a future brotherhood and facilitate the expected full unity. Two administrative divisions (Vilnius and Trakai) were established in Lithuania, patterned after the existing Polish models.
Vytautas practiced religious toleration and his grandiose plans also included attempts to influence the Eastern Orthodox Church, which he wanted to use as a tool to control Moscow and other parts of Ruthenia. In 1416, he elevated Gregory Tsamblak as his chosen Orthodox patriarch for all of Ruthenia (the established Orthodox Metropolitan bishop remained in Vilnius to the end of the 18th century). These efforts were also intended to serve the goal of global unification of the Eastern and Western churches. Tsamblak led an Orthodox delegation to the Council of Constance in 1418. The Orthodox synod, however, would not recognize Tsamblak. The grand duke also established new Catholic bishoprics in Samogitia (1417) and in Lithuanian Ruthenia (Lutsk and Kiev).
The Gollub War with the Teutonic Knights followed and in 1422, in the Treaty of Melno, the grand duchy permanently recovered Samogitia, which terminated its involvement in the wars with the Order. Vytautas ' shifting policies and reluctance to pursue the Order made the survival of German East Prussia possible for centuries to come. Samogitia was the last region of Europe to be Christianized (from 1413). Later, different foreign policies were prosecuted by Lithuania and Poland, accompanied by conflicts over Podolia and Volhynia, the grand duchy 's territories in the southeast.
Vytautas ' greatest successes and recognition occurred at the end of his life, when the Crimean Khanate and the Volga Tatars came under his influence. Prince Vasily I of Moscow died in 1425, and Vytautas then administered the Grand Duchy of Moscow together with his daughter, Vasily 's widow Sophia of Lithuania. In 1426 -- 1428 Vytautas triumphantly toured the eastern reaches of his empire and collected huge tributes from the local princes. Pskov and Veliki Novgorod were incorporated to the grand duchy in 1426 and 1428. At the Congress of Lutsk in 1429, Vytautas negotiated the issue of his crowning as the King of Lithuania with Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund and Jogaila. That ambition was close to being fulfilled, but in the end was thwarted by last - minute intrigues and Vytautas ' death. Vytautas ' cult and legend originated during his later years and have continued until today.
The dynastic link to Poland resulted in religious, political and cultural ties and increase of Western influence among the native Lithuanian nobility, and to a lesser extent among the Ruthenian boyars from the East, Lithuanian subjects. Catholics were granted preferential treatment and access to offices because of the policies of Vytautas, officially pronounced in 1413 at the Union of Horodło, and even more so of his successors, aimed at asserting the rule of the Catholic Lithuanian elite over the Rus ' territories. Such policies increased the pressure on the nobility to convert to Catholicism. Ethnic Lithuania proper made up 10 % of the area and 20 % of the population of the Grand Duchy. Of the Ruthenian provinces, Volhynia was most closely integrated with Lithuania proper. Branches of the Gediminid family as well as other Lithuanian and Ruthenian magnate clans eventually became established there.
During the period, a stratum of wealthy landowners, important also as a military force, was coming into being, accompanied by the emerging class of feudal serfs assigned to them. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was for the time being largely preserved as a separate state with separate institutions, but efforts, originating mainly in Poland, were made to bring the Polish and Lithuanian elites and systems closer together. Vilnius and other cities were granted the German system of laws (Magdeburg rights). Crafts and trade were developing quickly. Under Vytautas a network of chanceries functioned, first schools were established and annals written. Taking advantage of the historic opportunities, the great ruler opened Lithuania for the influence of the European culture and integrated his country with European Western Christianity.
The Jagiellonian dynasty founded by Jogaila (a member of one of the branches of the Gediminids) ruled Poland and Lithuania continuously between 1386 and 1572.
Following the deaths of Vytautas in 1430, another civil war ensued, and Lithuania was ruled by rival successors. Afterwards, the Lithuanian nobility on two occasions technically broke the union between Poland and Lithuania by selecting grand dukes unilaterally from the Jagiellonian dynasty. In 1440, the Lithuanian great lords elevated Casimir, Jogaila 's second son, to the rule of the grand duchy. This issue was resolved by Casimir 's election as king by the Poles in 1446. In 1492, Jogaila 's grandson John Albert became the king of Poland, whereas his grandson Alexander became the grand duke of Lithuania. In 1501 Alexander succeeded John as king of Poland, which resolved the difficulty in the same manner as before. A lasting connection between the two states was beneficial to Poles, Lithuanians, and Ruthenians, Catholic and Orthodox, as well as the Jagiellonian rulers themselves, whose hereditary succession rights in Lithuania practically guaranteed their election as kings in accordance with the customs surrounding the royal elections in Poland.
On the Teutonic front, Poland continued its struggle, which in 1466 led to the Peace of Thorn and the recovery of much of the Piast dynasty territorial losses. A secular Duchy of Prussia was established in 1525. Its presence would greatly impact the futures of both Lithuania and Poland.
The Tatar Crimean Khanate recognized the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire from 1475. Seeking slaves and booty, the Tatars raided vast portions of the grand duchy of Lithuania, burning Kiev in 1482 and approaching Vilnius in 1505. Their activity resulted in Lithuania 's loss of its distant territories on the Black Sea shores in the 1480s and 1490s. The last two Jagiellon kings were Sigismund I and Sigismund II Augustus, during whose reign the intensity of Tatar raids diminished due to the appearance of the military caste of Cossacks at the southeastern territories and the growing power of the Grand Duchy of Moscow.
Lithuania needed a close alliance with Poland when, at the end of the 15th century, the increasingly assertive Grand Duchy of Moscow threatened some of Lithuania 's Rus ' principalities with the goal of "recovering '' the formerly Orthodox - ruled lands. In 1492, Ivan III of Russia unleashed what turned out to be a series of Muscovite -- Lithuanian Wars and Livonian Wars.
In 1492, the border of Lithuania 's loosely controlled eastern Ruthenian territory ran less than one hundred miles from Moscow. But as a result of the warfare, a third of the grand duchy 's land area was ceded to the Russian state in 1503. Then the loss of Smolensk in July 1514 was particularly disastrous, even though it was followed by the successful Battle of Orsha in September, as the Polish interests were reluctantly recognizing the necessity of their own involvement in Lithuania 's defense. The peace of 1537 left Gomel as the grand duchy 's eastern edge.
In the north, the Livonian War took place over the strategically and economically crucial region of Livonia, the traditional territory of the Livonian Order. The Livonian Confederation formed an alliance with the Polish - Lithuanian side in 1557 with the Treaty of Pozvol. Desired by both Lithuania and Poland, Livonia was then incorporated into the Polish Crown by Sigismund II. These developments caused Ivan the Terrible of Russia to launch attacks in Livonia beginning in 1558, and later on Lithuania. The grand duchy 's fortress of Polotsk fell in 1563. This was followed by a Lithuanian victory at the Battle of Ula in 1564, but not a recovery of Polotsk. Russian, Swedish and Polish - Lithuanian occupations subdivided Livonia.
The Polish ruling establishment had been aiming at the incorporation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into Poland since before the Union of Krewo. The Lithuanians were able to fend off this threat in the 14th and 15th centuries, but the dynamics of power changed in the 16th century. In 1508, the Polish Sejm voted funding for Lithuania 's defense against Muscovy for the first time, and an army was fielded. The Polish nobility 's executionist movement called for full incorporation of the Grand Duchy because of its increasing reliance on the support of the Polish Crown against Moscow 's encroachments. This problem only grew more acute during the reign of Sigismund II Augustus, the last Jagiellonian king and grand duke of Lithuania, who had no heir who would inherit and continue the personal union between Poland and Lithuania. The preservation of the Polish - Lithuanian power arrangement appeared to require the monarch to force a decisive solution during his lifetime. The resistance to a closer and more permanent union was coming from Lithuania 's ruling families, increasingly Polonized in cultural terms, but attached to the Lithuanian heritage and their patrimonial rule.
Legal evolution had lately been taking place in Lithuania nevertheless. In the Privilege of Vilnius of 1563, Sigismund restored full political rights to the Grand Duchy 's Orthodox boyars, which had been restricted up to that time by Vytautas and his successors; all members of the nobility were from then officially equal. Elective courts were established in 1565 - 66, and the Second Lithuanian Statute of 1566 created a hierarchy of local offices patterned on the Polish system. The Lithuanian legislative assembly assumed the same formal powers as the Polish Sejm.
The Polish Sejm of January 1569, deliberating in Lublin, was attended by the Lithuanian lords at Sigismund 's insistence. Most left town on March 1, unhappy with the proposals of the Poles to establish rights to acquire property in Lithuania and other issues. Sigismund reacted by announcing the incorporation of the Grand Duchy 's Volhynia and Podlasie voivodeships into the Polish Crown. Soon the large Kiev Voivodeship and Bratslav Voivodeship were also annexed. Ruthenian boyars in the formerly southeastern Grand Duchy mostly approved the territorial transfers, since it meant that they would become members of the privileged Polish nobility. But the king also pressured many obstinate deputies to agree on compromises important to the Lithuanian side. The arm twisting, combined with reciprocal guarantees for Lithuanian nobles ' rights, resulted in the "voluntary '' passage of the Union of Lublin on July 1. The combined polity would be ruled by a common Sejm, but the separate hierarchies of major state offices were to be retained. Many in the Lithuanian establishment found this objectionable, but in the end they were prudent to comply. For the time being, Sigismund managed to preserve the Polish - Lithuanian state as great power. Reforms necessary to protect its long - term success and survival were not undertaken.
From the 16th to the mid-17th century, culture, arts, and education flourished in Lithuania, fueled by the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation. The Lutheran ideas of the Reformation entered the Livonian Confederation by the 1520s, and Lutheranism soon became the prevailing religion in the urban areas of the region, while Lithuania remained Catholic.
An influential book dealer was the humanist and bibliophile Francysk Skaryna (c. 1485 -- 1540), who was the founding father of Belarusian letters. He wrote in his native Ruthenian (Chancery Slavonic) language, as was typical for literati in the earlier phase of the Renaissance in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. After the middle of the 16th century, Polish predominated in literary productions. Many educated Lithuanians came back from studies abroad to help build the active cultural life that distinguished 16th - century Lithuania, sometimes referred to as Lithuanian Renaissance (not to be confused with Lithuanian National Revival in the 19th century).
At this time, Italian architecture was introduced in Lithuanian cities, and Lithuanian literature written in Latin flourished. Also at this time, the first printed texts in the Lithuanian language emerged, and the formation of written Lithuanian language began. The process was led by Lithuanian scholars Abraomas Kulvietis, Stanislovas Rapalionis, Martynas Mažvydas and Mikalojus Daukša.
With the Union of Lublin of 1569, Poland and Lithuania formed a new state referred to as the Republic of Both Nations, but commonly known as Poland - Lithuania or the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth, which officially consisted of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, was ruled by Polish and Lithuanian nobility, together with nobility - elected kings. The Union was designed to have a common foreign policy, customs and currency. Separate Polish and Lithuanian armies were retained, but parallel ministerial and central offices were established according to a practice developed by the Crown. The Lithuanian Tribunal, a high court for the affairs of the nobility, was created in 1581.
The Lithuanian language fell into disuse in the circles of the grand ducal court in the second half of the 15th century in favor of Polish. A century later, Polish was commonly used even by the ordinary Lithuanian nobility. Following the Union of Lublin, Polonization increasingly affected all aspects of Lithuanian public life, but it took well over a century for the process to be completed. The 1588 Statutes of Lithuania were still written in the Ruthenian Chancery Slavonic language, just as earlier legal codifications were. From about 1700, Polish was used in the Grand Duchy 's official documents as a replacement for Ruthenian and Latin use. The Lithuanian nobility became linguistically and culturally Polonized, while retaining a sense of Lithuanian identity. The integrating process of the Commonwealth nobility was not regarded as Polonization in the sense of modern nationality, but rather as participation in the Sarmatism cultural - ideological current, erroneously understood to imply also a common (Sarmatian) ancestry of all members of the noble class. The Lithuanian language survived, however, in spite of encroachments by the Ruthenian, Polish, Russian, Belarusian and German languages, as a peasant vernacular, and from 1547 in written religious use.
Western Lithuania had an important role in the preservation of the Lithuanian language and its culture. In Samogitia, many nobles never ceased to speak Lithuanian natively. Northeastern East Prussia, sometimes referred to as Lithuania Minor, was populated mainly by Lithuanians and predominantly Lutheran. The Lutherans promoted publishing of religious books in local languages, which is why the Catechism of Martynas Mažvydas was printed in 1547 in East Prussian Königsberg.
The predominantly East Slavic population of the Grand Duchy was mostly Eastern Orthodox, and much of the Lithuanian state 's nobility also remained Orthodox. Unlike the common people of the Lithuanian realm, at about the time of the Union of Lublin in 1569 large portions of the nobility converted to Western Christianity. Following the Protestant Reformation movement, many noble families converted to Calvinism in the 1550s and 1560s, and typically a generation later, conforming to the Counter-Reformation trends in the Commonwealth, to Roman Catholicism. The Protestant and Orthodox presence must have been very strong, because according to an undoubtedly exaggerated early 17th - century source, "merely one in a thousand remained a Catholic '' in Lithuania at that time. In the early Commonwealth, religious toleration was the norm and was officially enacted by the Warsaw Confederation in 1573.
By 1750, nominal Catholics comprised about 80 % of the Commonwealth 's population, the vast majority of the noble citizenry, and the entire legislature. In the east, there were also the Eastern Orthodox Church adherents. However, Catholics in the Grand Duchy itself were split. Under half were Latin rite with strong allegiance to Rome. The others (mostly non-noble Ruthenians) followed the Eastern rite. They were the so - called Uniates, whose church was established at the Union of Brest in 1596, and they acknowledged only nominal obedience to Rome. At first the advantage went to the advancing Roman Catholic Church pushing back a retreating Orthodox Church. However, after the first partition of the Commonwealth in 1772, the Orthodox had the support of the government and gained the upper hand. The Russian Orthodox Church paid special attention to the Uniates (who had once been Orthodox), and tried to bring them back. The contest was political and spiritual, utilizing missionaries, schools, and pressure exerted by powerful nobles and landlords. By 1800, over 2 million of the Uniates had become Orthodox, and another 1.6 million by 1839.
The Union of Lublin and the integration of the two countries notwithstanding, Lithuania continued to exist as a grand duchy within the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth for over two centuries. It retained separate laws as well as an army and a treasury. At the time of Union of Lublin, King Sigismund II Augustus removed Ukraine and other territories from Lithuania and incorporated them directly into the Polish Crown. The grand duchy was left with today 's Belarus and parts of western Russia, in addition to the core ethnic Lithuanian lands. From 1573, the kings of Poland and the grand dukes of Lithuania were always the same person and were elected by the nobility, who were granted ever increasing privileges in a unique aristocratic political system known as the Golden Liberty. These privileges, especially the liberum veto, led to political anarchy and the eventual dissolution of the state.
Within the Commonwealth, the grand duchy made important contributions to European economic, political and cultural life: Western Europe was supplied with grain, along the Danzig to Amsterdam sea route; the early Commonwealth 's religious tolerance and democracy among the ruling noble class were unique in Europe; Vilnius was the only European capital located on the border of the worlds of the Western and Eastern Christianity and many religious faiths were practiced there; to the Jews, it was the "Jerusalem of the North '' and the town of the Vilna Gaon, their great religious leader; Vilnius University produced numerous illustrious alumni and was one of the most influential centers of learning in its part of Europe; the Vilnius school made significant contributions to European architecture in Baroque style; the Lithuanian legal tradition gave rise to the advanced legal codes known as the Statutes of Lithuania; at the end of the Commonwealth 's existence, the Constitution of May 3, 1791 was the first comprehensive written constitution produced in Europe. After the Partitions of Poland, the Vilnius school of Romanticism produced the two great poets: Adam Mickiewicz and Juliusz Słowacki.
The Commonwealth was greatly weakened by a series of wars, beginning with the Khmelnytsky Uprising in Ukraine in 1648. During the Northern Wars of 1655 -- 1661, the Lithuanian territory and economy were devastated by the Swedish army in an invasion known as the Deluge, and Vilnius was burned and looted by the Russian forces. Before it could fully recover, Lithuania was again ravaged during the Great Northern War of 1700 -- 1721.
Besides war, the Commonwealth suffered the Great Northern War plague outbreak and famine (the worst caused by the Great Frost of 1709). These calamities resulted in the loss of approximately 40 % of the country 's inhabitants. Foreign powers, especially Russia, became dominant players in the domestic politics of the Commonwealth. Numerous factions among the nobility, controlled and manipulated by the powerful Magnates of Poland and Lithuania, themselves often in conflict, used their "Golden Liberty '' to prevent reforms. Some Lithuanian clans, such as the Radziwiłłs, counted among the most powerful of Commonwealth nobles.
The Constitution of May 3, 1791, was a culmination of the belated reform process of the Commonwealth. It attempted to integrate Lithuania and Poland more closely, although the separation was preserved by the added Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations. Partitions of the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772, 1793 and 1795 terminated its existence and saw the Grand Duchy of Lithuania divided between the Russian Empire, which took over 90 % of the Duchy 's territory, and the Kingdom of Prussia. The Third Partition of 1795 took place after the failure of the Kościuszko Uprising, the last war waged by Poles and Lithuanians to preserve their statehood. Lithuania ceased to exist as a distinct entity for more than a century.
Following the partitions of the Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Russian Empire controlled the majority of Lithuania, including Vilnius, which was a part of the Vilna Governorate. In 1803, Tsar Alexander I revived and upgraded the old Jesuit academy as the imperial Vilnius University, the largest in the Russian Empire. The university and the regional educational system was directed on behalf of the tsar by Prince Adam Czartoryski. In the early years of the 19th century, there were signs that Lithuania might be allowed some separate recognition by the Empire, however this never happened.
In 1812, the Lithuanians eagerly welcomed Napoleon Bonaparte 's Grande Armée as liberators, with many joining the French invasion of Russia. After the French army 's defeat and withdrawal, Tsar Alexander I decided to keep the University of Vilnius open and the Polish - language poet Adam Mickiewicz, a resident of Vilnius in 1815 - 24, was able to receive his education there. The southwestern part of Lithuania that was taken over by Prussia in 1795, then incorporated into the Duchy of Warsaw (a French puppet state that existed between 1807 and 1815), became a part of the Russian - controlled Kingdom of Poland ("Congress Poland '') in 1815. The rest of Lithuania continued to be administered as a Russian province.
The Poles and Lithuanians revolted against Russian rule twice, in 1830 - 31 (the November Uprising) and 1863 - 64 (the January Uprising), but both attempts failed and resulted in increased repression by the Russian authorities. After the November Uprising, Tsar Nicholas I began an intensive program of Russification and the University of Vilnius was closed. Lithuania became part of a new administrative region called the Northwestern Krai. In spite of the repression, Polish language schooling and cultural life were largely able to continue in the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania until the failure of the January Uprising. The Statutes of Lithuania were annulled by the Russian Empire only in 1840, and serfdom was abolished as part of the general Emancipation reform of 1861 that applied to the entire Russian Empire. The Uniate Church, important in the Belarusian part of the former Grand Duchy, was incorporated into the Orthodox Church in 1839.
The Polish poetry of Adam Mickiewicz, who was emotionally attached to the Lithuanian countryside and associated medieval legends, influenced ideological foundations of the emerging Lithuanian national movement. Simonas Daukantas, who studied with Mickiewicz at Vilnius University, promoted a return to Lithuania 's pre-Commonwealth traditions and a renewal of the local culture, based on the Lithuanian language. With those ideas in mind, he wrote already in 1822 a history of Lithuania in Lithuanian (though still not yet published at that time). Teodor Narbutt wrote in Polish a voluminous Ancient History of the Lithuanian Nation (1835 -- 1841), where he likewise expounded and expanded further on the concept of historic Lithuania, whose days of glory had ended with the Union of Lublin in 1569. Narbutt, invoking the German scholarship, pointed out the relationship between the Lithuanian and Sanskrit languages. It indicated the closeness of Lithuanian to its ancient Indo - European roots and would later provide the "antiquity '' argument for activists associated with the Lithuanian National Revival. By the middle of the 19th century, the basic ideology of the future Lithuanian nationalist movement was defined with linguistic identity in mind; in order to establish a modern Lithuanian identity, it required a break with the traditional dependence on Polish culture and language.
Around the time of the January Uprising, there was a generation of Lithuanian leaders of the transitional period between a political movement bound with Poland and the modern nationalist Lithuanian movement based on language. Jakób Gieysztor, Konstanty Kalinowski and Antanas Mackevičius wanted to form alliances with the local peasants, who, empowered and given land, would presumably help defeat the Russian Empire, acting in their own self - interest. This created new dilemmas that had to do with languages used for such inter-class communication and later led to the concept of a nation as the "sum of speakers of a vernacular tongue. ''
The failure of the January Uprising in 1864 made the connection with Poland seem outdated to many Lithuanians and at the same time led to the creation of a class of emancipated and often prosperous peasants who, unlike often Polonized urban residents, were effectively custodians of the Lithuanian language. Educational opportunities, now more widely available to young people of such common origins, were one of the crucial factors responsible for the Lithuanian national revival. As schools were being de-Polonized and Lithuanian university students sent to Saint Petersburg or Moscow rather than Warsaw, a cultural void resulted, and it was not being successfully filled by the attempted Russification policies.
Russian nationalists regarded the territories of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania as an East Slavic realm that ought to be (and was being) "reunited '' with Russia. In the following decades however, a Lithuanian national movement emerged, composed of activists of different social backgrounds and persuasions, often primarily Polish - speaking, but united by their willingness to promote the Lithuanian culture and language as a strategy for building a modern nation. The restoration of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania was no longer the objective of this movement, and the territorial ambitions of its leaders were limited to the lands they considered historically Lithuanian.
In 1864, the Lithuanian language and the Latin alphabet were banned in junior schools. The prohibition on printing in the Lithuanian language reflected the Russian nationalist policy of "restoration '' of the supposedly Russian beginnings of Lithuania. The tsarist authorities implemented a number of Russification policies, including a Lithuanian press ban and the closing of cultural and educational institutions. Those were resisted by Lithuanians, led by Bishop Motiejus Valančius, among others. Lithuanians resisted by arranging printing abroad and smuggling of the books in from neighboring East Prussia.
Lithuanian was not considered a prestigious language. There were even expectations that the language would become extinct, as more and more territories in the east were slavicized, and more people used Polish or Russian in daily life. The only place where Lithuanian was considered more prestigious and worthy of books and studying was in East Prussia, sometimes referred to by Lithuanian nationalists as "Lithuania Minor. '' At the time, northeastern East Prussia was home to numerous ethnic Lithuanians, but even there Germanization pressure threatened their cultural identity.
The language revival spread into more affluent strata, beginning with the release of the Lithuanian newspapers Aušra and Varpas, then with the writing of poems and books in Lithuanian many of which glorified the historic Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
The two most prominent figures in the revival movement, Jonas Basanavičius and Vincas Kudirka, both originated from affluent Lithuanian peasantry and attended the Marijampolė (Mariampol) secondary school in the Suvalkai region. The school was a Polish educational center, Russified after the January Uprising, with Lithuanian language classes introduced at that time.
Basanavičius studied medicine at the Moscow State University, where he developed international connections, published (in Polish) on Lithuanian history and graduated in 1879. From there he went to Bulgaria, and in 1882 moved to Prague. In Prague he met and became influenced by the Czech National Revival movement. In 1883, Basanavičius began working on a Lithuanian language review, which assumed the form of a newspaper named Aušra (The Dawn), published in Ragnit, East Prussia, Germany (now Neman, Russia). Aušra was printed in Latin characters banned under Russian law, which mandated the Cyrillic alphabet for printing Lithuanian. It was smuggled to Lithuania, together with other Lithuanian publications and books printed in East Prussia. The paper (forty issues in total), building on the work of the earlier writers, sought to demonstrate continuities with the medieval Grand Duchy and lionize the Lithuanian people.
Russian restrictions at Marijampolė secondary school were eased in 1872 and Kudirka learned Polish there. He went on to study at the University of Warsaw, where he was influenced by Polish socialists. In 1889, Kudirka returned to Lithuania and worked on incorporating the Lithuanian peasantry into mainstream politics as the main building block of a modern nation. In 1898, he wrote a poem inspired by the opening strophe of Mickiewicz 's masterpiece Pan Tadeusz: "Lithuania, my fatherland! You are like health. '' The poem became the national anthem of Lithuania, Tautiška giesmė: ("Lithuania, Our Homeland '').
As the revival grew, Russian policy became harsher. Attacks took place against Catholic churches while the ban forbidding the Lithuanian press continued. However, in the late 19th century, the language ban was lifted). and some 2,500 books were published in the Lithuanian Latin alphabet. The majority of these were published in Tilsit, East Prussia (now Russian Sovetsk, Kaliningrad Oblast), although some publications reached Lithuania from the United States. A largely standardized written language was achieved by 1900, based on historical and Aukštaitijan (highland) usages. The letters - č -, - š - and - v - were taken from the modern (redesigned) Czech orthography, to avoid the Polish usage for corresponding sounds. The widely accepted Lithuanian Grammar, by Jonas Jablonskis, appeared in 1901.
Large numbers of Lithuanians had emigrated to the United States in 1867 -- 1868 after a famine in Lithuania. Between 1868 and 1914, approximately 635,000 people, almost 20 percent of the population, left Lithuania. Lithuanian cities and towns were growing under the Russian rule, but the country remained underdeveloped by the European standards and job opportunities were limited; many Lithuanians left also for the industrial centers of the Russian Empire, such as Riga and Saint Petersburg. Many of Lithuania 's cities were dominated by non-Lithuanian - speaking Jews and Poles.
Lithuania 's nationalist movement continued to grow. During the 1905 Russian Revolution, a large congress of Lithuanian representatives in Vilnius known as the Great Seimas of Vilnius demanded provincial autonomy for Lithuania (by which they meant the northwestern portion of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania) on 5 December of that year. The tsarist regime made a number of concessions as the result of the 1905 uprising. The Baltic states once again were permitted to use their native languages in schooling and public discourse, and Catholic churches were built in Lithuania. Latin characters replaced the Cyrillic alphabet that had been forced upon Lithuanians for four decades. But not even Russian liberals were prepared to concede autonomy similar to that that had already existed in Estonia and Latvia, albeit under Baltic German hegemony. Many Baltic Germans looked toward aligning the Baltics (Lithuania and Courland in particular) with Germany.
After the outbreak of hostilities in World War I, Germany occupied Lithuania and Courland in 1915. Vilnius fell to the Germans on 19 September 1915. An alliance with Germany in opposition to both tsarist Russia and Lithuanian nationalism became for the Baltic Germans a real possibility. Lithuania was incorporated into Ober Ost under a German government of occupation. As open annexation could result in a public - relations backlash, the Germans planned to form a network of formally independent states that would in fact be dependent on Germany.
The German occupation government permitted a Vilnius Conference to convene between September 18 and September 22, 1917, with the demand that Lithuanians declare loyalty to Germany and agree to an annexation. The intent of the conferees was to begin the process of establishing a Lithuanian state based on ethnic identity and language that would be independent of the Russian Empire, Poland, and the German Empire. The mechanism for this process was to be decided by a constituent assembly, but the German government would not permit elections. Furthermore, the publication of the conference 's resolution calling for the creation of a Lithuanian state and elections for a constituent assembly was not allowed. The Conference nonetheless elected a 20 - member Council of Lithuania (Taryba) and empowered it to act as the executive authority of the Lithuanian people. The Council, led by Jonas Basanavičius, declared Lithuanian independence as a German protectorate on December 11, 1917, and then adopted the outright Act of Independence of Lithuania on February 16, 1918. It proclaimed Lithuania as an independent republic, organized according to democratic principles. The Germans, weakened by the losses on the Western Front, but still present in the country, did not support such a declaration and hindered attempts to establish actual independence. To prevent being incorporated into the German Empire, Lithuanians elected Monaco - born King Mindaugas II as the titular monarch of the Kingdom of Lithuania in July 1918. Mindaugas II never assumed the throne, however.
In the meantime, an attempt to revive the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as a socialist multi-national federal republic was also taking place under the German occupation. In March 1918, Anton Lutskevich and his Belarusian National Council proclaimed a Belarusian People 's Republic that was to stretch from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea and include Vilnius. Lutskevich and the Council fled the Red Army approaching from Russia and left Minsk before it was taken over by the Bolsheviks in December 1918. Upon their arrival in Vilnius, they proposed a Belarusian - Lithuanian federation, which however generated no interest on the part of the Lithuanian leaders, who were in advanced stages of promoting national plans of their own. The Lithuanians were interested only in a state "within ethnographic frontiers, '' as they perceived it.
In spite of its success in knocking Russia out of World War I by the terms of the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk early in 1918, Germany lost the war and signed the Armistice of Compiègne on 11 November 1918. Lithuanians quickly formed their first government, adopted a provisional constitution, and started organizing basic administrative structures. The prime minister of the new government was Augustinas Voldemaras. As the German army was withdrawing from the Eastern Front of World War I, it was followed by Soviet forces whose intention was to spread the global proletarian revolution. They created a number of puppet states, including the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic on December 16, 1918. By the end of December, the Red Army reached Lithuanian borders and started the Lithuanian -- Soviet War.
On January 1, 1919, the German occupying army withdrew from Vilnius and turned the city over to local Polish self - defense forces. The Lithuanian government evacuated Vilnius and moved west to Kaunas, which became the temporary capital of Lithuania. Vilnius was captured by the Soviet Red Army on January 5, 1919. As the Lithuanian army was in its infant stages, the Soviet forces moved largely unopposed and by mid-January 1919 controlled about 2⁄3 of the Lithuanian territory. Vilnius was now the capital of the Lithuanian Soviet Republic, and soon of the combined Lithuanian -- Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
From April 1919, the Lithuanian -- Soviet War dragged on parallel with the Polish -- Soviet War. Polish troops captured Vilnius from the Soviets on April 21, 1919. Poland had territorial claims over Lithuania, especially the Vilnius Region, and these tensions spilled over into the Polish -- Lithuanian War. Józef Piłsudski of Poland, seeking a Polish - Lithuanian federation, but unable to find common ground with Lithuanian politicians, in August 1919 made an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the Lithuanian government in Kaunas.
In mid-May 1919, the Lithuanian army commanded by General Silvestras Žukauskas began an offensive against the Soviets in northeastern Lithuania. By the end of August 1919, the Soviets were pushed out of Lithuanian territory. The Lithuanian army was then deployed against the paramilitary West Russian Volunteer Army, who invaded northern Lithuania. They were armed by Germany and supported German and Russian soldiers who sought to retain German control over the former Ober Ost. West Russian Volunteers were defeated and pushed out by the end of 1919. Thus the first phase of the Lithuanian Wars of Independence was over and Lithuanians could direct attention to internal affairs.
The Constituent Assembly of Lithuania was elected in April 1920 and first met the following May. In June it adopted the third provisional constitution and on July 12, 1920, signed the Soviet -- Lithuanian Peace Treaty. In the treaty the Soviet Union recognized fully independent Lithuania and its claims to the disputed Vilnius Region; Lithuania secretly allowed the Soviet forces passage through its territory as they moved against Poland. On July 14, 1920, the advancing Soviet army captured Vilnius for a second time from Polish forces. The city was handed back to Lithuanians on August 26, 1920, following the defeat of the Soviet offensive. The victorious Polish army returned and the Soviet -- Lithuanian Treaty increased hostilities between Poland and Lithuania. To prevent further fighting, the Suwałki Agreement was signed with Poland on October 7, 1920; it left Vilnius on the Lithuanian side of the armistice line. It never went into effect, however, because Polish General Lucjan Żeligowski, acting on Józef Piłsudski 's orders, staged the Żeligowski 's Mutiny, a military action presented as a mutiny. He invaded Lithuania on October 8, 1920, captured Vilnius the following day, and established a short - lived Republic of Central Lithuania in eastern Lithuania on October 12, 1920. The "Republic '' was a part of Piłsudski 's federalist scheme, which never materialized due to opposition from both Polish and Lithuanian nationalists.
For 19 years, Kaunas was the temporary capital of Lithuania while the Vilnius region remained under Polish administration. The League of Nations attempted to mediate the dispute, and Paul Hymans proposed plans for a Polish -- Lithuanian union, but negotiations broke down as neither side could agree to a compromise. Central Lithuania held a general election in 1922 that was boycotted by the Jews, Lithuanians and Belarusians, then was annexed into Poland on March 24, 1922. The Conference of Ambassadors awarded Vilnius to Poland in March 1923. Lithuania did not accept this decision and broke all relations with Poland. The two countries were officially at war over Vilnius, the historical capital of Lithuania, inhabited at that time largely by Polish - speaking and Jewish populations between 1920 and 1938. The dispute continued to dominate Lithuanian domestic politics and foreign policy and doomed the relations with Poland for the entire interwar period.
For administrative purposes, the de facto territory of the country was divided into 23 counties (lt: apskritis). A further 11 counties (including Vilnius) were allocated for the territory occupied by Poland (see also Administrative divisions of Lithuania).
The Constituent Assembly, which adjourned in October 1920 due to threats from Poland, gathered again and initiated many reforms needed in the new state. Lithuania obtained international recognition and membership in the League of Nations, passed a law for land reform, introduced a national currency (the litas), and adopted a final constitution in August 1922. Lithuania became a democratic state, with Seimas (parliament) elected by men and women for a three - year term. The Seimas elected the president. The First Seimas of Lithuania was elected in October 1922, but could not form a government as the votes split equally 38 -- 38, and it was forced to dissolve. Its only lasting achievement was the Klaipėda Revolt from January 10 to January 15, 1923. The revolt involved Lithuania Minor, a region traditionally sought by Lithuanian nationalists that remained under German rule after World War I, except for the Klaipėda Region with its large Lithuanian minority. (Various sources give the region 's interwar ethnic composition as 41.9 percent German, 27.1 percent Memelländisch, and 26.6 percent Lithuanian.)
Lithuania took advantage of the Ruhr Crisis in western Europe and captured the Klaipėda Region, a territory detached from East Prussia by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and placed under a French administration sponsored by the League of Nations. The region was incorporated as an autonomous district of Lithuania in May 1924. For Lithuania, it provided the country 's only access to the Baltic Sea, and it was an important industrial center, but the region 's numerous German inhabitants resisted Lithuanian rule during the 1930s. The Klaipėda Revolt was the last armed conflict in Lithuania before World War II.
The Second Seimas of Lithuania, elected in May 1923, was the only Seimas in independent Lithuania that served its full term. The Seimas continued the land reform, introduced social support systems, and started repaying foreign debt. The first Lithuanian national census took place in 1923.
The Third Seimas of Lithuania was elected in May 1926. For the first time, the bloc led by the Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party lost their majority and went into opposition. It was sharply criticized for signing the Soviet -- Lithuanian Non-Aggression Pact (even though it affirmed Soviet recognition of Lithuanian claims to Poland - held Vilnius) and was accused of "Bolshevizing '' Lithuania. As a result of growing tensions, the government was deposed during the 1926 Lithuanian coup d'état in December. The coup, organized by the military, was supported by the Lithuanian Nationalists Union (tautininkai) and Lithuanian Christian Democrats. They installed Antanas Smetona as the president and Augustinas Voldemaras as the prime minister. Smetona suppressed the opposition and remained as an authoritarian leader until June 1940.
The Seimas thought that the coup was just a temporary measure and that new elections would be called to return Lithuania to democracy. Instead, the legislative body was dissolved in May 1927. Later that year members of the Social Democrats and other leftist parties tried to organize an uprising against Smetona, but were quickly subdued. Voldemaras grew increasingly independent of Smetona and was forced to resign in 1929. Three times in 1930 and once in 1934, he unsuccessfully attempted to return to power. In May 1928, Smetona announced the fifth provisional constitution without consulting the Seimas. The constitution continued to claim that Lithuania was a democratic state while the powers of the president were vastly increased. Smetona 's party, the Lithuanian Nationalist Union, steadily grew in size and importance. He adopted the title "tautos vadas '' (leader of the nation) and slowly started building a cult of personality. Many prominent political figures married into Smetona 's family (for example, Juozas Tūbelis and Stasys Raštikis).
When the Nazi Party came into power in Germany, German -- Lithuanian relations worsened considerably as the Nazis did not want to accept the loss of the Klaipėda Region (German: Memelland). The Nazis sponsored anti-Lithuanian organizations in the region. In 1934, Lithuania put the activists on trial and sentenced about 100 people, including their leaders Ernst Neumann and Theodor von Sass, to prison terms. That prompted Germany, one of the main trade partners of Lithuania, to declare an embargo of Lithuanian products. In response, Lithuania shifted its exports to Great Britain. That measure did not go far enough to satisfy many groups, and peasants in Suvalkija organized strikes, which were violently suppressed. Smetona 's prestige was damaged, and in September 1936, he agreed to call the first elections for the Seimas since the coup of 1926. Before the elections, all political parties were eliminated except for the National Union. Thus 42 of the 49 members of the Fourth Seimas of Lithuania were from the National Union. This assembly functioned as an advisory board to the president, and in February 1938, it adopted a new constitution that granted the president even greater powers.
As tensions were rising in Europe following the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany (the Anschluss), Poland presented the 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania in March of that year. Poland demanded the re-establishment of the normal diplomatic relations that were broken after the Żeligowski Mutiny in 1920 and threatened military actions in case of refusal. Lithuania, having a weaker military and unable to enlist international support for its cause, accepted the ultimatum. In the event of Polish military action, Adolf Hitler ordered a German military takeover of southwest Lithuania up to the Dubysa River, and his armed forces were being fully mobilized until the news of the Lithuanian acceptance. Relations between Poland and Lithuania became somewhat normalized after the acceptance of the ultimatum, and the parties concluded treaties regarding railway transport, postal exchange, and other means of communication.
Lithuania offered diplomatic support to Germany and the Soviet Union in opposition to powers such as France and Estonia that backed Poland in the conflict over Vilnius, but both Germany and the Soviet Union saw fit to encroach on Lithuania 's territory and independence anyway. Following the Nazi electoral success in Klaipėda in December 1938, Germany decided to take action to secure control of the entire region. On March 20, 1939, just a few days after the German occupation of Czechoslovakia of March 15, Lithuania received the 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania from foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop. It demanded the immediate cession of the Klaipėda Region to Germany. The Lithuanian government accepted the ultimatum to avoid an armed intervention. The Klaipėda Region was directly incorporated into the East Prussian province of the German Reich. This triggered a political crisis in Lithuania and forced Smetona to form a new government that included members of the opposition for the first time since 1926. The loss of Klaipėda was a major blow to the Lithuanian economy and the country shifted into the sphere of German influence. When Germany and the Soviet Union concluded the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact in August 1939 and divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence, Lithuania was assigned to Germany at first, but that changed after Smetona 's refusal to participate in the German invasion of Poland.
The interwar period of independence gave birth to the development of Lithuanian press, literature, music, arts, and theater as well as a comprehensive system of education with Lithuanian as the language of instruction. The network of primary and secondary schools was expanded and institutions of higher learning were established in Kaunas. Lithuanian society remained heavily agricultural with only 20 % of the people living in cities. The influence of the Catholic Church was strong and birth rates high: the population increased by 22 % to over three million during 1923 -- 1939, despite emigration to South America and elsewhere. In almost all cities and towns, traditionally dominated by Jews, Poles, Russians and Germans, ethnic Lithuanians became the majority. Lithuanians, for example, constituted 59 % of the residents of Kaunas in 1923, as opposed to 7 % in 1897. The right - wing dictatorship of 1926 -- 1940 had strangely stabilizing social effects, as it prevented the worst of antisemitic excesses as well as the rise of leftist and rightist political extremism.
Secret protocols of the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact, adjusted by the German - Soviet Frontier Treaty, divided Eastern Europe into Soviet and Nazi spheres of influence. The three Baltic states fell to the Soviet sphere. During the subsequent invasion of Poland, the Red Army captured Vilnius, regarded by Lithuanians as their capital. According to the Soviet -- Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Pact of October 10, 1939, Soviet Union transferred Vilnius and surrounding territory to Lithuania in exchange for the stationing of 20,000 Soviet troops within the country. It was a virtual sacrifice of independence, as reflected in a known slogan "Vilnius -- mūsų, Lietuva -- rusų '' (Vilnius is ours, but Lithuania is Russia 's). Similar Mutual Assistance Pacts were signed with Latvia and Estonia. When Finland refused to sign its pact, the Winter War broke out.
In spring 1940, once the Winter War in Finland was over, the Soviets heightened their diplomatic pressure on Lithuania and issued the 1940 Soviet ultimatum to Lithuania on June 14. The ultimatum demanded the formation of a new pro-Soviet government and admission of an unspecified number of Russian troops. With Soviet troops already stationed within the country, Lithuania could not resist and accepted the ultimatum. President Antanas Smetona fled Lithuania as 150,000 Soviet troops crossed the Lithuanian border. Soviet representative Vladimir Dekanozov formed the new pro-Soviet puppet government, known as the People 's Government, headed by Justas Paleckis, and organized show elections for the so - called People 's Seimas. During its first session on July 21, the People 's Seimas unanimously voted to convert Lithuania into the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic and petitioned to join the Soviet Union. The application was approved by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union on August 3, 1940, which completed the formalization of the annexation.
Immediately following the occupation, Soviet authorities began rapid Sovietization of Lithuania. All land was nationalized. To gain support for the new regime among the poorer peasants, large farms were distributed to small landowners. However, in preparation for eventual collectivization, agricultural taxes were dramatically increased in an attempt to bankrupt all farmers. Nationalization of banks, larger enterprises, and real estate resulted in disruptions in production that caused massive shortages of goods. The Lithuanian litas was artificially undervalued and withdrawn by spring 1941. Standards of living plummeted. All religious, cultural, and political organizations were banned, leaving only the Communist Party of Lithuania and its youth branch. An estimated 12,000 "enemies of the people '' were arrested. During the June deportation campaign of 1941, some 12,600 people (mostly former military officers, policemen, political figures, intelligentsia and their families) were deported to Gulags in Siberia under the policy of elimination of national elites. Many deportees perished due to inhumane conditions; 3,600 were imprisoned and over 1,000 were killed.
On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. In Franz Walter Stahlecker 's report of October 15 to Heinrich Himmler, Stahlecker wrote that he had succeeded in covering up actions of the Vorkommando (German vanguard unit) and made it look like an initiative of the local population to carry out the Kaunas pogrom. The German forces moved rapidly and encountered only sporadic Soviet resistance. Vilnius was captured on June 24, 1941, and Germany controlled all of Lithuania within a week. The retreating Soviet forces murdered between 1,000 and 1,500 people, mostly ethnic Lithuanians (see Rainiai massacre). The Lithuanians generally greeted the Germans as liberators from the oppressive Soviet regime and hoped that Germany would restore some autonomy to their country. The Lithuanian Activist Front organized an anti-Soviet revolt known as the June Uprising in Lithuania, declared independence, and formed a Provisional Government of Lithuania with Juozas Ambrazevičius as prime minister. The Provisional Government was not forcibly dissolved; stripped by the Germans of any actual power, it resigned on August 5, 1941. Germany established the civil administration known as the Reichskommissariat Ostland.
Initially, there was substantial cooperation and collaboration between the German forces and some Lithuanians. Lithuanians joined the Tautinio Darbo Apsaugos Batalionas (TDA) and Schutzmannschaft police battalions in hopes that these police units would be later transformed into the regular army of independent Lithuania. Instead, these units were employed by the Germans as auxiliaries in perpetrating the Holocaust. However, soon Lithuanians became disillusioned with harsh German policies of collecting large war provisions, gathering people for forced labor in Germany, conscripting men into the German army, and the lack of true autonomy. These feelings only naturally led to the creation of a resistance movement. The most notable resistance organization, the Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania, was formed in 1943. Due to passive resistance, a Waffen - SS division was not established in Lithuania. As a compromise, the Lithuanian general Povilas Plechavičius formed the short - lived Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force (LTDF). Lithuanians did not organize armed resistance, still considering Soviet Union their primary enemy. Armed resistance was conducted by pro-Soviet partisans (mainly Russians, Belarusians and Jews) and Polish Armia Krajowa (AK) in eastern Lithuania.
Before the Holocaust, Lithuania was home to a disputed number of Jews: 210,000 according to one estimate, 250,000 according to another. About 90 % or more of the Lithuanian Jews were murdered, one of the highest rates in Europe. The Holocaust in Lithuania can be divided into three stages: mass executions (June -- December 1941), a ghetto period (1942 -- March 1943), and a final liquidation (April 1943 -- July 1944). Unlike in other Nazi - occupied countries where the Holocaust was introduced gradually, Einsatzgruppe A started executions in Lithuania on the first days of the German occupation. The executions were carried out by the Nazis and their Lithuanian collaborators in three main areas: Kaunas (marked by the Ninth Fort), in Vilnius (marked by the Ponary massacre), and in the countryside (sponsored by the Rollkommando Hamann). An estimated 80 % of Lithuanian Jews were killed before 1942. The surviving 43,000 Jews were concentrated in the Vilnius Ghetto, Kaunas Ghetto, Šiauliai Ghetto, and Švenčionys Ghetto and forced to work for the benefit of German military industry. In 1943, the ghettos were either liquidated or turned into concentration camps. Only about 2,000 -- 3,000 Lithuanian Jews were liberated from these camps. More survived by withdrawing into the interior of Russia before the war broke out or by escaping the ghettos and joining the Jewish partisans.
In the summer of 1944, the Soviet Red Army reached eastern Lithuania. By July 1944, the area around Vilnius came under control of the Polish Resistance fighters of the Armia Krajowa, who also attempted a takeover of the German - held city during the ill - fated Operation Ostra Brama. The Red Army captured Vilnius with Polish help on 13 July. The Soviet Union re-occupied Lithuania and Joseph Stalin re-established the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1944 with its capital in Vilnius. The Soviets secured the passive agreement of the United States and Great Britain (see Yalta Conference and Potsdam Agreement) to this annexation. By January 1945, the Soviet forces captured Klaipėda on the Baltic coast. The heaviest physical losses in Lithuania during World War II were suffered in 1944 -- 1945, when the Red Army pushed out the Nazi invaders. It is estimated that Lithuania lost 780,000 people between 1940 and 1954 under the Nazi and Soviet occupations.
The Soviet deportations from Lithuania between 1941 and 1952 resulted in the exile of tens of thousands of families to forced settlements in the Soviet Union, especially in Siberia and other remote parts of the country. Between 1944 and 1953, nearly 120,000 people (5 % of the population) were deported, and thousands more became political prisoners. Many leading intellectual figures and most Catholic priests were among the deported; many returned to Lithuania after 1953. Approximately 20,000 Lithuanian partisans participated in unsuccessful warfare against the Soviet regime in the 1940s and early 1950s. Most were killed or deported to Siberian gulags. During the years following the German surrender at the end of World War II in 1945, between 40 and 60 thousand civilians and combatants perished in the context of the anti-Soviet insurgency. Considerably more ethnic Lithuanians died after World War II than during it.
Soviet authorities encouraged the immigration of non-Lithuanian workers, especially Russians, as a way of integrating Lithuania into the Soviet Union and encouraging industrial development, but in Lithuania this process did not assume the massive scale experienced by other European Soviet republics.
To a great extent, Lithuanization rather than Russification took place in postwar Vilnius and elements of a national revival characterize the period of Lithuania 's existence as a Soviet republic. Lithuania 's boundaries and political integrity were determined by Joseph Stalin 's decision to grant Vilnius to the Lithuanian SSR again in 1944. Subsequently, most Poles were resettled from Vilnius (but only a minority from the countryside and other parts of the Lithuanian SSR) by the implementation of Soviet and Lithuanian communist policies that mandated their partial replacement by Russian immigrants. Vilnius was then increasingly settled by Lithuanians and assimilated by Lithuanian culture, which fulfilled, albeit under the oppressive and limiting conditions of the Soviet rule, the long - held dream of Lithuanian nationalists. The economy of Lithuania did well in comparison with other regions of the Soviet Union.
The national developments in Lithuania followed tacit compromise agreements worked out by the Soviet communists, Lithuanian communists and the Lithuanian intelligentsia. Vilnius University was reopened after the war, operating in the Lithuanian language and with a largely Lithuanian student body. It became a center for Baltic studies. General schools in the Lithuanian SSR provided more instruction in Lithuanian than at any previous time in the country 's history. The literary Lithuanian language was standardized and refined further as a language of scholarship and Lithuanian literature. The price the Lithuanian intelligentsia ended up paying for the national privileges was their much increased Communist Party membership after Stalin 's death.
Between the death of Stalin in 1953 and the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev in the mid-1980s, Lithuania functioned as a Soviet society, with all its repressions and peculiarities. Agriculture remained collectivized, property nationalized, and criticism of the Soviet system was severely punished. The country remained largely isolated from the non-Soviet world because of travel restrictions, the persecution of the Catholic Church continued and the nominally egalitarian society was extensively corrupted by the practice of connections and privileges for those who served the system.
The communist era is memorialized in Grūtas Park.
Until mid-1988, all political, economic, and cultural life was controlled by the Communist Party of Lithuania (CPL). Lithuanians as well as people in the other two Baltic republics distrusted the Soviet regime even more than people in other regions of the Soviet state, and they gave their own specific and active support to Mikhail Gorbachev 's program of social and political reforms known as perestroika and glasnost. Under the leadership of intellectuals, the Reform Movement of Lithuania Sąjūdis was formed in mid-1988, and it declared a program of democratic and national rights, winning nationwide popularity. Inspired by Sąjūdis, the Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR passed constitutional amendments on the supremacy of Lithuanian laws over Soviet legislation, annulled the 1940 decisions on proclaiming Lithuania a part of the Soviet Union, legalized a multi-party system, and adopted a number of other important decisions, including the return of the national state symbols -- the flag of Lithuania and the national anthem. A large number of CPL members also supported the ideas of Sąjūdis, and with Sąjūdis support, Algirdas Brazauskas was elected First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPL in 1988. On August 23, 1989, 50 years after the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact, Latvians, Lithuanians and Estonians joined hands in a human chain that stretched 600 kilometres from Tallinn to Vilnius in order to draw the world 's attention to the fate of the Baltic nations. The human chain was called the Baltic Way. In December 1989, the Brazauskas - led CPL declared its independence from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and became a separate social democratic party, renaming itself the Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania in 1990.
In early 1990, candidates backed by Sąjūdis won the Lithuanian parliamentary elections. On March 11, 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR proclaimed the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania. The Baltic republics were in the forefront of the struggle for independence, and Lithuania was the first of the Soviet republics to declare independence. Vytautas Landsbergis, a leader of the Sąjūdis national movement, became the head of state and Kazimira Prunskienė led the Cabinet of Ministers. Provisional fundamental laws of the state were passed.
On March 15, the Soviet Union demanded revocation of the independence and began employing political and economic sanctions against Lithuania. The Soviet military was used to seize a few public buildings, but violence was largely contained until January 1991. During the January Events in Lithuania, the Soviet authorities attempted to overthrow the elected government by sponsoring the so - called National Salvation Committee. The Soviets forcibly took over the Vilnius TV Tower, killing 14 unarmed civilians and injuring 140. During this assault, the only means of contact to the outside world available was an amateur radio station set up in the Lithuanian Parliament building by Tadas Vyšniauskas whose call sign was LY2BAW. The initial cries for help were received by an American amateur radio operators with the call sign N9RD in Indiana and WB9Z in Illinois, USA. N9RD, WB9Z and other radio operators from around the world were able to relay situational updates to relevant authorities until official United States Department of State personnel were able to go on - air. Moscow failed to act further to crush the Lithuanian independence movement, and the Lithuanian government continued to function.
During the national referendum on February 9, 1991, more than 90 % of those who took part in the voting (76 % of all eligible voters) voted in favor of an independent, democratic Lithuania. During the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt in August, Soviet military troops took over several communications and other government facilities in Vilnius and other cities, but returned to their barracks when the coup failed. The Lithuanian government banned the Communist Party and ordered confiscation of its property. Following the failed coup, Lithuania received widespread international recognition and was admitted to the United Nations on September 17, 1991.
As in many countries of the former Soviet Union, the popularity of the independence movement (Sąjūdis in the case of Lithuania) diminished due to worsening economic situation (rising unemployment, inflation, etc.). The Communist Party of Lithuania renamed itself as the Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania (LDDP) and gained a majority of seats against Sąjūdis in the Lithuanian parliamentary elections of 1992. LDDP continued building the independent democratic state and transitioning from a centrally planned economy to a free market economy. In the Lithuanian parliamentary elections of 1996, the voters swung back to the rightist Homeland Union, led by the former Sąjūdis leader Vytautas Landsbergis.
As part of the economic transition to capitalism, Lithuania organized a privatization campaign to sell government - owned residential real estate and commercial enterprises. The government issued investment vouchers to be used in privatization instead of actual currency. People cooperated in groups to collect larger amounts of vouchers for the public auctions and the privatization campaign. Lithuania, unlike Russia, did not create a small group of very wealthy and powerful people. The privatization started with small organizations, and large enterprises (such as telecommunication companies or airlines) were sold several years later for hard currency in a bid to attract foreign investors. Lithuania 's monetary system was to be based on the Lithuanian litas, the currency used during the interwar period. Due to high inflation and other delays, a temporary currency, the Lithuanian talonas, was introduced (it was commonly referred to as the Vagnorėlis or Vagnorkė after Prime Minister Gediminas Vagnorius). Eventually the litas was issued in June 1993, and the decision was made to set it up with a fixed exchange rate to the United States dollar in 1994 and to the Euro in 2002.
Despite Lithuania 's achievement of complete independence, sizable numbers of Russian forces remained in its territory. Withdrawal of those forces was one of Lithuania 's top foreign policy priorities. Russian troop withdrawal was completed by August 31, 1993. The first military of the reborn country were the Lithuanian National Defence Volunteer Forces, who first took an oath at the Supreme Council of Lithuania soon after the declaration of independence. The Lithuanian military built itself to the common standard with the Lithuanian Air Force, Lithuanian Naval Force and Lithuanian Land Force. Interwar paramilitary organisations such as the Lithuanian Riflemen 's Union, Young Riflemen, and the Lithuanian Scouts were re-established.
On April 27, 1993, a partnership with the Pennsylvania National Guard was established as part of the State Partnership Program.
Seeking closer ties with the West, Lithuania applied for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) membership in 1994. The country had to go through a difficult transition from planned to free market economy in order to satisfy the requirements for European Union (EU) membership. In May 2001, Lithuania became the 141st member of the World Trade Organization. In October 2002, Lithuania was invited to join the European Union and one month later to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization; it became a member of both in 2004.
As a result of the broader global financial crisis, the Lithuanian economy in 2009 experienced its worst recession since gaining independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. After a boom in growth sparked by Lithuania 's 2004 accession to the European Union, the Gross domestic product contracted by 15 % in 2009. Especially since Lithuania 's admission into the European Union, large numbers of Lithuanians (up to 20 % of the population) have moved abroad in search of better economic opportunities to create a significant demographic problem for the small country.
Krapauskas (2010) identifies three main tendencies in the recent historiography. The "postmodern school '' is heavily influenced by the French Annales School and presents an entirely new agenda of topics and interdisciplinary research methodologies. Their approach is methodologically controversial and focuses on social and cultural history. It is largely free from the traditional political debates and does not look back to the interwar Šapoka era. Secondly, the "critical - realists '' are political revisionists. They focus on controversial political topics in the twentieth century, and reverse 180 ° the Soviet era interpretations of what was good and bad for Lithuania. They use traditional historical methodologies, with a strong focus on political history. They are often opposed by the third school, the "romantic - traditionalists. '' After severe constraints in the communist era, the romantic - traditionalists now are eager to emphasize the most positive version of the Lithuanian past and its cultural heritage. They pay less attention to the niceties of documentation and historiography, but they are not the puppets of political conservatives. Indeed, they include many of Lithuania 's most respected historians.
a. This tiny fraction of Catholics in the early 17th century Grand Duchy is given by Kasper Cichocki (1545 - 1616), a Catholic parish priest near Sandomierz, who wrote on the subject of the extent of the heresies in the Commonwealth. According to Wacław Urban, Calvinism and Eastern Orthodoxy predominated, and were followed by Catholicism and the Polish Brethren, with Lutheranism being numerically the least significant of the Christian denominations in Lithuania.
b. Piłsudski 's family roots in the Polonized gentry of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the resulting point of view (seeing himself and people like him as legitimate Lithuanians) put him in conflict with the modern Lithuanian nationalists (who in Piłsudski 's lifetime redefined the scope of the "Lithuanian '' connotation), by extension with other nationalists, and also with the Polish modern nationalist movement.
c. Vilnius was claimed and contested by Polish, Belarusian and Lithuanian communists before being granted by Joseph Stalin to the Lithuanian SSR in 1944.
d. About 90 % of Vilnius Jews had been exterminated by the Nazis in 1941 - 1944 and about 80 % of Vilnius Poles were deported under the Soviet rule in 1944 - 1946, which left the city open to settlement by Lithuanians, or possibly Russians.
e. It was a sizable force in comparison with the similar number (20,000) of underground anti-communist fighters operating at that time in Poland. Poland was a country with an over eight times the population of Lithuania, but legal opposition (the Polish People 's Party) was primarily active there in the 1940s.
f. The main western powers recognized Lithuania only in 1922, when, after the Treaty of Riga, it had become clear that the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth was not going to be reestablished.
g. Historically, there has been a scholarly dispute concerning the origin of the Balts. According to one major point of view, the Baltic peoples descend directly from the original Indo - European arrivals, who might have settled this part of Europe possibly as far back as about 3000 BC as the archeological Corded Ware culture. The linguistic argument has been the most "archaic '' status of the Lithuanian language among the existing Indo - European languages of Europe. The competing idea takes into account the many words common to both the Baltic and Slavic languages and postulates a shared, more recent Balto - Slavic ancestry. There has been no agreement regarding which archeological formation such hypothetical Proto - Balto - Slavic community would correspond to.
h. The preservation of the rural Polish - speaking minority in the Vilnius Region (the intelligentsia element was mostly expelled after the war) turned out to be a source of lasting friction. After 1950 Stalin, playing on the Lithuanian against the Polish insecurities, allowed the formation of a network of Polish, communist ideology - preaching schools. This Soviet policy continued also after 1956, despite Lithuanian objections. The Polish community reacted with fear to the rebirth of assertive Lithuanian nationalism after 1988 and attempted to established a Polish autonomy in the Vilnius region in 1990 - 91. After some Polish activists supported the attempted communist coup in Moscow the Lithuanian authorities eliminated the Polish self - rule. The presently existing Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania is seen by many Lithuanians as a communist rule residue with a nationalistic tint and conflicts over the language of education and naming rights continue, with an uneasy involvement of the government of Poland. The rural Polish - speaking areas are among the economically most depressed regions of Lithuania and high unemployment there has caused significant permanent emigration. The Lithuanian relations with the Russian minority, the actual left - over of the Soviet - imposed settlement, have not been a source of comparable tensions.
i. The widely used term "Russian Jews '' is somewhat misleading, because the Jews within the Russian Empire were allowed to live only within the Pale of Settlement, as determined by Catherine the Great. The Pale coincided largely with the territory of the former Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth, under Russia the western part of the Empire.
j. Political - cultural autonomy for the Jews was offered by the Lithuanian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference in August 1919, but the idea was abandoned in 1924. During the interwar period the Lithuanian government supported financially Jewish education and religious activities and the Jewish minority remained very active in the social, cultural and scientific fields, economy, law and medicine. Antisemitic incidents became more pronounced in the 1930s. In a clearly less favorable situation was at that time the Polish minority in Lithuania.
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what is the extent of damages that may be awarded in civil liability arising from a crime | Negligence - wikipedia
Negligence (Lat. negligentia) is a failure to exercise appropriate and or ethical ruled care expected to be exercised amongst specified circumstances. The area of tort law known as negligence involves harm caused by failing to act as a form of carelessness possibly with extenuating circumstances. The core concept of negligence is that people should exercise reasonable care in their actions, by taking account of the potential harm that they might foreseeably cause to other people or property.
Someone who suffers loss caused by another 's negligence may be able to sue for damages to compensate for their harm. Such loss may include physical injury, harm to property, psychiatric illness, or economic loss. The law on negligence may be assessed in general terms according to a five - part model which includes the assessment of duty, breach, actual cause, proximate cause, and damages.
Some things must be established by anyone who wants to sue in negligence. These are what are called the "elements '' of negligence.
Most jurisdictions say that there are four elements to a negligence action:
Some jurisdictions narrow the definition down to three elements: duty, breach and proximately caused harm. Some jurisdictions recognize five elements, duty, breach, actual cause, proximate cause, and damages. However, at their heart, the various definitions of what constitutes negligent conduct are very similar.
The legal liability of a defendant to a plaintiff is based on the defendant 's failure to fulfil a responsibility, recognised by law, of which the plaintiff is the intended beneficiary. The first step in determining the existence of a legally recognised responsibility is the concept of an obligation or duty. In the tort of negligence the term used is duty of care
The case of Donoghue v Stevenson (1932) established the modern law of negligence, laying the foundations of the duty of care and the fault principle which, (through the Privy Council), have been adopted throughout the Commonwealth. May Donoghue and her friend were in a café in Paisley. The friend bought Mrs Donoghue a ginger beer float. She drank some of the beer and later poured the remainder over her ice - cream and was horrified to see the decomposed remains of a snail exit the bottle. Donoghue suffered nervous shock and gastro - enteritis, but did not sue the cafe owner, instead suing the manufacturer, Stevenson. (As Mrs Donoghue had not herself bought the ginger beer, the doctrine of privity precluded a contractual action against Stevenson).
The Scottish judge, Lord MacMillan, considered the case to fall within a new category of delict (the Scots law nearest equivalent of tort). The case proceeded to the House of Lords, where Lord Atkin interpreted the biblical ordinance to ' love thy neighbour ' as a legal requirement to ' not harm thy neighbour. ' He then went on to define neighbour as "persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions that are called in question. ''
In England the more recent case of Caparo Industries Plc v Dickman (1990) introduced a ' threefold test ' for a duty of care. Harm must be (1) reasonably foreseeable (2) there must be a relationship of proximity between the plaintiff and defendant and (3) it must be ' fair, just and reasonable ' to impose liability. However, these act as guidelines for the courts in establishing a duty of care; much of the principle is still at the discretion of judges.
In Australia, Donoghue v Stevenson was used as a persuasive precedent in the case of Grant v Australian Knitting Mills (AKR) (1936). This was a landmark case in the development of negligence law in Australia.
Whether a duty of care is owed for psychiatric, as opposed to physical, harm was discussed in the Australian case of Tame v State of New South Wales; Annetts v Australian Stations Pty Ltd (2002). Determining a duty for mental harm has now been subsumed into the Civil Liability Act 2002 in New South Wales. The application of Part 3 of the Civil Liability Act 2002 (NSW) was demonstrated in Wicks v SRA (NSW); Sheehan v SRA (NSW).
Once it is established that the defendant owed a duty to the plaintiff / claimant, the matter of whether or not that duty was breached must be settled. The test is both subjective and objective. The defendant who knowingly (subjective) exposes the plaintiff / claimant to a substantial risk of loss, breaches that duty. The defendant who fails to realize the substantial risk of loss to the plaintiff / claimant, which any reasonable person (objective) in the same situation would clearly have realized, also breaches that duty. However, whether the test is objective or subjective may depend upon the particular case involved.
There is a reduced threshold for the standard of care owed by children. In the Australian case of McHale v Watson, McHale, a 9 - year - old girl was blinded in one eye after being hit by the ricochet of a sharp metal rod thrown by a 12 - year - old girl, Watson. The defendant child was held not to have the level of care to the standard of an adult, but of a 12 - year - old child with similar experience and intelligence. Kitto J explained that a child 's lack of foresight is a characteristic they share with others at that stage of development.
Certain jurisdictions, also provide for breaches where professionals, such as doctors, fail to warn of risks associated with medical treatments or procedures. Doctors owe both objective and subjective duties to warn; and breach of either is sufficient to satisfy this element in a court of law. For example, the Civil Liability Act in Queensland outlines a statutory test incorporating both objective and subjective elements. For example, an obstetrician who fails to warn a mother of complications arising from childbirth may be held to have breached their professional duty of care.
In Donoghue v Stevenson, Lord Atkin declared that "the categories of negligence are never closed ''; and in Dorset Yacht v Home Office it was held that the government had no immunity from suit when they negligently failed to prevent the escape of juvenile offenders who subsequently vandalise a boatyard. In other words, all members of society have a duty to exercise reasonable care toward others and their property. In Bolton v. Stone (1951), the House of Lords held that a defendant was not negligent if the damage to the plaintiff were not a reasonably foreseeable consequence of his conduct. In the case, a Miss Stone was struck on the head by a cricket ball while standing outside a cricket ground. Finding that no batsman would normally be able hit a cricket ball far enough to reach a person standing as far away as was Miss Stone, the court held her claim would fail because the danger was not reasonably or sufficiently foreseeable. As stated in the opinion, ' reasonable risk ' can not be judged with the benefit of hindsight. In Roe v Minister of Health, Lord Denning said the past should not be viewed through rose coloured spectacles, finding no negligence on the part of medical professionals accused of using contaminated medical jars, since contemporary standards would have indicated only a low possibility of medical jar contamination.
For the rule in the U.S., see: Calculus of negligence
Further establishment of conditions of intention or malice where applicable may apply in cases of gross negligence.
In order for liability to result from a negligent act or omission, it is necessary to prove not only that the injury was caused by that negligence, but also that there is a legally sufficient connection between the act and the negligence.
For a defendant to be held liable, it must be shown that the particular acts or omissions were the cause of the loss or damage sustained. Although the notion sounds simple, the causation between one 's breach of duty and the harm that results to another can at times be very complicated. The basic test is to ask whether the injury would have occurred ' but for ', or without, the accused party 's breach of the duty owed to the injured party. In Australia, the High Court has held that the ' but for ' test is not the exclusive test of causation because it can not address a situation where there is more than one cause of damage. When ' but for ' test is not satisfied and the case is an exceptional one, a commonsense test (' Whether and Why ' test) will be applied Even more precisely, if a breaching party materially increases the risk of harm to another, then the breaching party can be sued to the value of harm that he caused.
Asbestos litigations which have been ongoing for decades revolve around the issue of causation. Interwoven with the simple idea of a party causing harm to another are issues on insurance bills and compensations, which sometimes drove compensating companies out of business.
Sometimes factual causation is distinguished from ' legal causation ' to avert the danger of defendants being exposed to, in the words of Cardozo, J., "liability in an indeterminate amount for an indeterminate time to an indeterminate class. '' It is said a new question arises of how remote a consequence a person 's harm is from another 's negligence. We say that one 's negligence is ' too remote ' (in England) or not a ' proximate cause ' (in the U.S.) of another 's harm if one would ' never ' reasonably foresee it happening. Note that a ' proximate cause ' in U.S. terminology (to do with the chain of events between the action and the injury) should not be confused with the ' proximity test ' under the English duty of care (to do with closeness of relationship). The idea of legal causation is that if no one can foresee something bad happening, and therefore take care to avoid it, how could anyone be responsible? For instance, in Palsgraf v. Long Island Rail Road Co. the judge decided that the defendant, a railway, was not liable for an injury suffered by a distant bystander. The plaintiff, Palsgraf, was hit by scales that fell on her as she waited on a train platform. The scales fell because of a far - away commotion. A train conductor had run to help a man into a departing train. The man was carrying a package as he jogged to jump in the train door. The package had fireworks in it. The conductor mishandled the passenger or his package, causing the package to fall. The fireworks slipped and exploded on the ground causing shockwaves to travel through the platform. As a consequence, the scales fell. Because Palsgraf was hurt by the falling scales, she sued the train company who employed the conductor for negligence.
The defendant train company argued it should not be liable as a matter of law, because despite the fact that they employed the employee, who was negligent, his negligence was too remote from the plaintiff 's injury. On appeal, the majority of the court agreed, with four judges adopting the reasons, written by Judge Cardozo, that the defendant owed no duty of care to the plaintiff, because a duty was owed only to foreseeable plaintiffs. Three judges dissented, arguing, as written by Judge Andrews, that the defendant owed a duty to the plaintiff, regardless of foreseeability, because all men owe one another a duty not to act negligently.
Such disparity of views on the element of remoteness continues to trouble the judiciary. Courts that follow Cardozo 's view have greater control in negligence cases. If the court can find that, as a matter of law, the defendant owed no duty of care to the plaintiff, the plaintiff will lose his case for negligence before having a chance to present to the jury. Cardozo 's view is the majority view. However, some courts follow the position put forth by Judge Andrews. In jurisdictions following the minority rule, defendants must phrase their remoteness arguments in terms of proximate cause if they wish the court to take the case away from the jury.
Remoteness takes another form, seen in The Wagon Mound (No. 2). The Wagon Mound was a ship in Sydney harbour. The ship leaked oil creating a slick in part of the harbour. The wharf owner asked the ship owner about the danger and was told he could continue his work because the slick would not burn. The wharf owner allowed work to continue on the wharf, which sent sparks onto a rag in the water which ignited and created a fire which burnt down the wharf. The Privy Council determined that the wharf owner ' intervened ' in the causal chain, creating a responsibility for the fire which canceled out the liability of the ship owner.
In Australia the concept of remoteness, or proximity, was tested with the case of Jaensch v Coffey. The wife of a policeman, Mrs Coffey suffered a nervous shock injury from the aftermath of a motor vehicle collision although she was not actually at the scene at the time of the collision. The court upheld that, in addition to it being reasonably foreseeable that his wife might suffer such an injury, it required that there be sufficient proximity between the plaintiff and the defendant who caused the collision. Here there was sufficient causal proximity. See also Kavanagh v Akhtar, Imbree v McNeilly, and Tame v NSW.
Even though there is breach of duty, and the cause of some injury to the defendant, a plaintiff may not recover unless he can prove that the defendant 's breach caused a pecuniary injury. This should not be mistaken with the requirements that a plaintiff prove harm to recover. As a general rule, a plaintiff can only rely on a legal remedy to the point that he proves that he suffered a loss; it was reasonably foreseeable. It means something more than pecuniary loss is a necessary element of the plaintiff 's case in negligence. When damages are not a necessary element, a plaintiff can win his case without showing that he suffered any loss; he would be entitled to nominal damages and any other damages according to proof. (See Constantine v Imperial Hotels Ltd (1944) KB)).
Negligence is different in that the plaintiff must prove his loss, and a particular kind of loss, to recover. In some cases, a defendant may not dispute the loss, but the requirement is significant in cases where a defendant can not deny his negligence, but the plaintiff suffered no loss as a result. If the plaintiff can prove pecuniary loss, then he can also obtain damages for non-pecuniary injuries, such as emotional distress.
The requirement of pecuniary loss can be shown in a number of ways. A plaintiff who is physically injured by allegedly negligent conduct may show that he had to pay a medical bill. If his property is damaged, he could show the income lost because he could not use it, the cost to repair it, although he could only recover for one of these things.
The damage may be physical, purely economic, both physical and economic (loss of earnings following a personal injury,) or reputational (in a defamation case).
In English law, the right to claim for purely economic loss is limited to a number of ' special ' and clearly defined circumstances, often related to the nature of the duty to the plaintiff as between clients and lawyers, financial advisers, and other professions where money is central to the consultative services.
Emotional distress has been recognized as an actionable tort. Generally, emotional distress damages had to be parasitic. That is, the plaintiff could recover for emotional distress caused by injury, but only if it accompanied a physical or pecuniary injury.
A claimant who has suffered only emotional distress and no pecuniary loss would not recover for negligence. However, courts have recently allowed recovery for a plaintiff to recover for purely emotional distress under certain circumstances. The state courts of California allowed recovery for emotional distress alone -- even in the absence of any physical injury, when the defendant physically injures a relative of the plaintiff, and the plaintiff witnesses it.
The eggshell skull rule is a legal doctrine upheld in some tort law systems, which holds that a tortfeasor is liable for the full extent of damage caused, even where the extent of the damage is due to the unforeseen frailty of the claimant. The eggshell skull rule was recently maintained in Australia in the case of Kavanagh v Akhtar.
Damages place a monetary value on the harm done, following the principle of restitutio in integrum (Latin for "restoration to the original condition ''). Thus, for most purposes connected with the quantification of damages, the degree of culpability in the breach of the duty of care is irrelevant. Once the breach of the duty is established, the only requirement is to compensate the victim.
One of the main tests that is posed when deliberating whether a claimant is entitled to compensation for a tort, is the "reasonable person ''. The test is self - explanatory: would a reasonable person (as determined by a judge or jury), under the given circumstances, have done what the defendant did to cause the injury in question; or, in other words, would a reasonable person, acting reasonably, have engaged in similar conduct when compared to the one whose actions caused the injury in question? Simple as the "reasonable person '' test sounds, it is very complicated. It is a risky test because it involves the opinion of either the judge or the jury that can be based on limited facts. However, as vague as the "reasonable person '' test seems, it is extremely important in deciding whether or not a plaintiff is entitled to compensation for a negligence tort.
Damages are compensatory in nature. Compensatory damages addresses a plaintiff / claimant 's losses (in cases involving physical or mental injury the amount awarded also compensates for pain and suffering). The award should make the plaintiff whole, sufficient to put the plaintiff back in the position he or she was before Defendant 's negligent act. Anything more would unlawfully permit a plaintiff to profit from the tort.
There are also two other general principles relating to damages. Firstly, the award of damages should take place in the form of a single lump sum payment. Therefore, a defendant should not be required to make periodic payments (however some statutes give exceptions for this). Secondly, the Court is not concerned with how the plaintiff uses the award of damages. For example, if a plaintiff is awarded $100,000 for physical harm, the plaintiff is not required to spend this money on medical bills to restore them to their original position - they can spend this money any way they want.
The United States generally recognizes four elements to a negligence action: duty, breach, proximate causation and injury. A plaintiff who makes a negligence claim must prove all four elements of negligence in order to win his or her case. Therefore, if it is highly unlikely that the plaintiff can prove one of the elements, the defendant may request judicial resolution early on, to prevent the case from going to a jury. This can be by way of a demurrer, motion to dismiss, or motion for summary judgment.
The elements allow a defendant to test a plaintiff 's accusations before trial, as well as providing a guide to the finder of fact at trial (the judge in a bench trial, or jury in a jury trial) to decide whether the defendant is or is not liable. Whether the case is resolved with or without trial again depends heavily on the particular facts of the case, and the ability of the parties to frame the issues to the court. The duty and causation elements in particular give the court the greatest opportunity to take the case from the jury, because they directly involve questions of policy. The court can find that regardless of any disputed facts, the case may be resolved as a matter of law from undisputed facts because as a matter of law the defendant can not be legally responsible for the plaintiff 's injury under a theory of negligence.
On appeal, depending on the disposition of the case and the question on appeal, the court reviewing a trial court 's determination that the defendant was negligent will analyze at least one of the elements of the cause of action to determine if it is properly supported by the facts and law. For example, in an appeal from a final judgment after a jury verdict, the appellate court will review the record to verify that the jury was properly instructed on each contested element, and that the record shows sufficient evidence for the jury 's findings. On an appeal from a dismissal or judgment against the plaintiff without trial, the court will review de novo whether the court below properly found that the plaintiff could not prove any or all of his or her case.
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describe the relationship between colombia and the united states | Colombia -- United States relations - wikipedia
Colombia -- United States relations are the bilateral relations between the Republic of Colombia and the United States of America. The relationship between the two states evolved from mutual cordiality during most of the 19th and early 20th centuries to a recent partnership that links the governments of both nations around several key issues; this includes fighting communism, the War on Drugs, and the threat of terrorism due to the September 11 attacks in 2001. During the last fifty years, different American governments and their representatives have become involved in Colombian affairs through the implementation of policies concerned with the issues already stated. Some critics of current US policies in Colombia, such as Law Professor John Barry, claim that US influences have catalyzed internal conflicts and substantially expanded the scope and nature of human rights abuses in Colombia. Supporters, such as Under Secretary of State Marc Grossman, defend the idea that the United States has promoted respect for human rights and the rule of law in Colombia; in addition, adding to the fight against drugs and terrorism.
A signing member of the Rio Pact and SICOFAA, as well as a regular participant in RIMPAC, Colombia was notably the only South American nation to support the US - led Iraq War of 2003. The Colombian government also strongly condemned the nuclear tests of North Korea in 2006, 2009, and 2013, resolved to send soldiers to Afghanistan to aid the International Security Assistance Force in their ongoing struggle with the Taliban, joined the West and its allies in recognizing Kosovo, and, in voting in favor of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 officially supported foreign military intervention in the Libyan Civil War. Upon the death of Osama bin Laden, Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos congratulated Obama, stating in a press release that the raid "proves once again that terrorists, sooner or later, always fall. In the global fight against terrorism there is only one way: to persevere, persevere and persevere. ''
As of 2013, Colombia has expressed its aspirations to eventually join the U.S. - led NATO military alliance. President Juan Manuel Santos stated, "In June, NATO will sign an agreement with the Colombian government, with the Defense Ministry, to start a process of rapprochement and cooperation, with an eye toward also joining that organization. '' The U.S. in response has noted, "Our goal is certainly to support Colombia as being a capable and strong member of lots of different international organizations, and that might well include NATO. ''
According to the 2012 U.S. Global Leadership Report, 47 % of Colombians approve of U.S. leadership, with 23 % disapproving and 29 % uncertain; the sixth - highest rating of the U.S. for any surveyed country in the Americas. In a survey in 2015, the image of President Obama 's favorability was 78 % among Colombians.
Both countries maintained mutual diplomatic relationships since the early - 19th century when the United States established a diplomatic mission in Santa Fe de Bogota in 1823. In 1824, the Anderson -- Gual Treaty between Gran Colombia and the United States was the first bilateral treaty of the U.S. that was concluded with another American country. At that time, the Gran Colombia included the territory of the present - day republics of Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Panama. U.S. relations with the government in Bogotá were not interrupted when Ecuador and Venezuela left the federation in 1830. In 1846, the U.S. Polk administration signed a treaty with Colombia, which owned Panama at the time. A railway across the isthmus was opened in 1855. Under the treaty U.S. troops landed in Panama six times in the nineteenth century to crush rebellions, ensuring that the railway was not hindered.
In 1903, the U.S. and Colombia negotiated a new treaty. The representative of the company which owned the railway publicly predicted and threatened that Panama would secede if the Colombian Senate rejected the treaty. In 1903, despite U.S. threats, the Colombian senate refused to ratify the Hay -- Herrán Treaty. The United States encouraged an uprising of historically rebellious Panamanians and then used US warships to impede any interference from Colombia. A representative of the new Panamanian government then negotiated a treaty favorable to the U.S. for the construction and operation of the Panama Canal.
In 1928, U.S. business interests were threatened in Colombia. The workers of the U.S. corporation United Fruit banana plantations in Colombia went on strike in December 1928. The workers demanded "written contracts, eight - hour days, six - day weeks and the elimination of food coupons ''.
An army regiment from Bogotá was brought in by United Fruit to crush the strike. The Colombian soldiers erected their machine guns on the roofs of buildings at the corners of the main square, closing off the access streets. After a five - minute warning, they ordered "Fuego! '', opening fire into a dense crowd of plantation workers and their families who had gathered after Sunday Mass. They waited for an anticipated address from the governor of that region; between forty - seven to 2,000 workers were killed in the Santa Marta Massacre.
A populist Colombian congressman, Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, began to develop a nationwide reputation, especially among the poor, after visiting the site of the United Fruit massacre the same week. Gaitán returned to Bogotá and argued passionately in Congress in favor of the workers, arguing that the army action 's did not protect Colombia 's interests but instead those of the U.S.
In 1948, presidential candidate Gaitàn was assassinated in Bogotá during the conference that gave birth the Organization of American States. Gaitan 's assassination marked the beginning of La Violencia, a Colombian civil war which lasted until the mid-fifties and killed an estimated 300,000 Colombians. Towards the end of the conflict, Liberal and Communist armed peasant groups who remained at large, together with displaced peasants who had either fled from the violence or lost their land, formed small independent enclaves in the south. According to author Stokes, citing Jenny Pearce, these enclaves had "no broader political project '' other than agriculture and self - protection. The Colombian government, pressured by Conservative Congressmen who defined these enclaves as "independent republics '', saw this as a potential threat. In addition, the U.S. government saw these peasant enclaves as potentially dangerous to US business interests in Colombia.
In May 1964, as part of Kennedy 's Alliance for Progress, a CIA backed program called Plan LAZO was initiated. The United States trained Colombian military troops to invade the largest peasant enclaves. They used a bomber aircraft with Napalm in order to destroy the threat. Many of the armed inhabitants of the enclaves escaped and two years later part of this group formed the FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia). The FARC became the oldest and largest revolutionary guerilla movement in the Western Hemisphere. Stokes and other critics believed that the U.S. government focused on the destruction of the FARC and other left - wing guerrilla movements, ignoring and even supporting other destabilizing elements in Colombian society.
As La Violencia was ending a "U.S. Special Survey Team '' composed of worldwide counterinsurgency experts arrived in October 1959 to investigate Colombia 's internal security. Among other policy recommendations the US team advised that "in order to shield the interests of both Colombian and U.S. authorities against ' interventionist ' charges any special aid given for internal security was to be sterile and covert in nature. '' This recommendation is a form of plausible deniability, common in secret U.S. government documents which are later declassified.
In February 1962, three years after the 1959 "U.S. Special Survey Team '', a Fort Bragg top - level U.S. Special Warfare team headed by Special Warfare Center commander General William P. Yarborough visited Colombia for a second survey. In a secret supplement to his report to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Yarborough encouraged a stay - behind irregular force and its immediate deployment to eliminate communists representing a future threat:
"A concerted country team effort should be made now to select civilian and military personnel for clandestine training in resistance operations in case they are needed later. This should be done with a view toward development of a civil and military structure for exploitation in the event the Colombian internal security system deteriorates further. This structure should be used to pressure toward reforms known to be needed, perform counter-agent and counter-propaganda functions and as necessary execute paramilitary, sabotage and / or terrorist activities against known communist proponents. It should be backed by the United States... If we have such an apparatus in Colombia it should be employed now. ''
Interrogation procedures and techniques, including regular questioning of rural villagers "who are believed to be knowledgeable of guerrilla activities '' were advised. "Exhaustive interrogation of the bandits, to include sodium pentathol and polygraph, should be used to elicit every shred of information. Both the Army and the Police need trained interrogators. '' Pentathol, or truth serum, was originally used by doctors for relaxation, but in the 1970s it was reported used by some Latin American militaries to induce "paralysis, agony, and terror. '' The use of truth serum would later be encouraged in SOA manuals.
"In general, the Yarborough team recommended that the US provide guidance and assistance in all aspects of counter-insurgency... Civilian and military personnel, clandestinely selected and trained in resistance operations, would be required in order to develop an underground civil and military structure. This organization was to undertake ' clandestine execution of plans developed by the United States Government toward defined objectives in the political, economic, and military fields '... it would... undertake... ' paramilitary, sabotage, and / or terrorist activities against known communist proponents '. ''
Ultimately Yarborough 's recommendations formed the core of a U.S. - aided reorganization of Colombian military troops. This new counter-insurgency policy debuted with Plan LAZO in 1964. Following Yarborough 's recommendations, the Colombian military selected and trained civilians to work alongside the military in its counter-insurgency campaign and paramilitary "civil defense '' groups which worked alongside the military. The United States supplied and trained civilian intelligence networks which were closely linked to the military. The system was established to gather "intelligence and providing early warning against bandit or guerrilla attacks ''. In 1965 Colombian President Guillermo León Valencia Muñóz issued Decree 3398. Because of the decree, eleven separate civilian intelligence networks had been established with agricultural co-operatives. In 1968, Decree 3398 became Colombia law with the enactment of Law 48 of 1968.
Doug Stokes argues that it was not until the early part of the 1980s that the Colombian government attempted to move away from the policy of counterinsurgency warfare represented by Plan LAZO and Yarborough 's 1962 recommendations.
The 1970 U.S. army manual titled "Stability Operations '' was translated into Spanish and used to train thousands of Latin American military officers in counter intelligence, including Colombian officers. Stokes argues that "the manual extends its definition of subversion beyond armed insurgents and explicitly links civil society organizations to the problem of insurgency. '' Targets for Counter intelligence operations included, "ordinary citizens who are typical members of organizations or associations which play an important role in the local society. '' The manual explains that insurgents usually work with union leaders and union members, and those organizations which demand "immediate social, political or economic reform may be an indication that the insurgents have gained a significant degree of control. '' The manual explains that the indicators of communist / insurgent infiltration include:
Author Doug Stokes claims that there is a major discrepancy between the U.S. "stated goals of US policy and the actual targets and effects '' of the war on drugs in Colombia, arguing that U.S. military assistance has been primarily directed at fighting the FARC and ELN guerrillas despite the fact that past CIA and DEA reports have identified the insurgents as minor players in the drug trade. Stokes proposes a revisionist continuity theory: that the War on drugs is a pre-text and this war, just as the Cold War that preceded it and the War on Terror that followed it, was mainly about Northern Hemisphere competition to control and exploit Southern Hemisphere natural resources. In other words, "the maintenance of a world capitalist order conducive to US economic interests. '' As this competition for third world resources has continued even after the collapse of the Soviet Union, there would be continuity in US foreign policy.
In 1986, the U.S. Defense Department funded a two - year study by the RAND Corporation, a private organization with a long and close relationship with the U.S. government. This study found that the use of the armed forces to interdict drugs coming into the United States would have little or no effect on cocaine trafficking and might in fact raise the profits of cocaine cartels and manufacturers. The 175 - page study, "Sealing the Borders: The Effects of Increased Military Participation in Drug Interdiction, '' was prepared by seven researchers, mathematicians and economists at the National Defense Research Institute. The study noted that seven prior studies in the past nine years, including one by the Center for Naval Research and the Office of Technology Assessment, had come to similar conclusions. Interdiction efforts using current armed forces resources would have almost no effect on cocaine importation into the United States, the report concluded.
President George Bush Sr. disagreed, arguing that "the logic is simple. The cheapest way to eradicate narcotics is to destroy them at their source... We need to wipe out crops wherever they are grown and take out labs wherever they exist. ''
During the early - to mid-1990s, the Clinton administration ordered and funded a major cocaine policy study, again by RAND. The Rand Drug Policy Research Center study concluded that $3 billion should be switched from federal and local law enforcement to treatment. The report said that treatment is the cheapest way to cut drug use, stating that drug treatment is twenty - three times more effective than the supply - side "war on drugs ''. President Clinton 's drug czar 's office disagreed with slashing law enforcement spending.
A 1992 Central Intelligence Agency report acknowledged that "the FARC had become increasingly involved in drugs through their ' taxing ' of the trade in areas under their geographical control and that in some cases the insurgents protected trafficking infrastructure to further fund their insurgency. '' The report also described the relationship between the FARC and the drug traffickers as one "characterized by both cooperation and friction ''. The 1992 report concluded by stating "we do not believe that the drug industry (in Colombia) would be substantially disrupted in the short term by attacks against guerillas. Indeed, many traffickers would probably welcome, and even assist, increased operations against insurgents. ''
In 1994, the DEA came to three similar conclusions. First, that any connections between drug trafficking organizations and Colombian insurgents were "ad hoc ' alliances of convinence ' ''. Second, that "the independent involvement of insurgents in Colombia 's domestic drug productions, transportation, and distribution is limited... there is no evidence that the national leadership of either the FARC or the ELN has directed, as a matter of policy, that their respective organizations directly engage in independent illicit drug production, transportation, or distribution. '' Third, the report determined that the DEA "has no evidence that the FARC or ELN have been involved in the transportation, distribution, or marketing of illegal drugs in the United States. Furthermore it is doubtful that either insurgent group could develop the international transportation and logistics infrastructure necessary to establish independent drug distribution in the United States or Europe... the DEA believes that the insurgents never will be major players in Colombia 's drug trade. ''
In 2000 Former paramilitary leader Carlos Castaño Gil, the founder of the AUC who disappeared in 2004, revealed on national television how the AUC funded its operations: "drug trafficking and drug traffickers probably finance 70 %. The rest come largely from extortion. ''
Both before and after September 11, 2001, the US government provided military and economic aid to Colombia for the purposes of counterinsurgency and counterterrorism, in addition to its Drug War assistance.
In 1999, the US State Department began sharing real - time intelligence about the guerrillas with the Colombian military. Officials told the Washington Post that they feared "Colombia is losing its war against Marxist - led insurgents. ''
In May 2001, the Bush administration introduced the Andean Regional Initiative (ARI), which broadened U.S. intervention throughout the entire region, directing another $800 million to the project over Plan Colombia. The ARI supplies military support and economic assistance to seven Andean countries: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela.
After September 11, 2001, US government officials compared the FARC with Osama Bin Ladin, describing both of them as terrorists. Senator John McCain stated that the United States now "abandons any fictional distinctions between counter-narcotic and counter-insurgency operations ''. Author Doug Stokes has criticized this, stating that "in the aftermath of September 11th the US has dropped the pretence that its military assistance has been driven solely by counter-narcotics concerns and has now started to overtly couch its funding in terms of a strategy of counter-terrorism targeted at the FARC, who are now being linked to international terrorism as well as drug trafficking. ''
In July 2002, "the US Congress passed an emergency supplemental spending bill that lifted a previous provision limiting US assistance to counter-narcotics efforts. Under the new rules, U.S. security assistance can be used against ' organizations designated as terrorist organizations... ' ''. According to Amnesty International, "the new US strategy makes U.S. assistance to Colombia available for counter-insurgency activities for the first time, including direct action against armed groups. The U.S. is now providing military aid for direct use in counter-insurgency operations specifically to protect US operated oil installations, such as Caño Limón. '' The spending bill included the U.S. Congress approval of a provision coined as ' expanded authorities, ' whereby U.S. supplied training and equipment could be used in counter-terrorism efforts as well as counter-drug efforts.
In November 2002, as part of what has been called "a significant shift in American policy '', the US began sending advisors to Colombia under a $94 million counterinsurgency program to protect five hundred miles of an oil pipeline.
In 2006, a U.S. congressional report listed a number of PMCs and other enterprises that have signed contracts to carry out anti-narcotics operations and related activities as part of Plan Colombia. DynCorp was among those contracted by the State Department, while others signed contracts with the Defense Department. Other companies from different countries, including Israel, have also signed contracts with the Colombian Defense Ministry to carry out security or military activities.
The School of the Americas is a U.S. training center for Latin American military officers, that since its 1946 establishment in Panama, has trained 82,767 Latin American officers in counter-insurgency doctrine and combat skills. Colombia was one of the first countries to send military officers to the SOA. According to journalist Grace Livingstone, as of 2003 more Colombian SOA graduates have been identified as alleged human rights abusers than SOA graduates from any other Latin American country. This is in part because the names and records of Colombian officers have been under greater scrutiny than those of officers elsewhere in Latin America.
In 1996, after years of denials the U.S. Pentagon declassified translated excerpts from seven training manuals. These manuals were prepared by the U.S. military and used between 1987 and 1991 for intelligence training courses at the U.S. Army School of the Americas. The manuals were also distributed by Special Forces Mobile Training teams to military personnel and intelligence schools in Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Peru. The manuals taught counterintelligence agents to use "fear, payment of bounties for enemy dead, beatings, false imprisonment, executions and the use of truth serum ''. The manual titled "Handling of Sources '' teaches, "The CI (counterintelligence) agent could cause the arrest of the employees (informants) parents, imprison the employee or give him a beating '' to enforce cooperation.
In a 1981 study, human rights researcher Lars Schoultz concluded that US aid "has tended to flow disproportionately to Latin American governments which torture their citizens... to the hemisphere 's relatively egregious violators of fundamental human rights. '' In 1998, Latin American professor Martha Huggins stated "that the more foreign police aid given (by the United States), the more brutal and less democratic the police institutions and their governments become. ''
In 2003, author Grace Livingstone described Colombian paramilitaries as "various types of illegal rightwing armed groups which work alongside the armed forces. They include private militia funded by landowners and business; drug traffickers ' hit squads and ' social cleansing ' death squads. The largest paramilitary network is the Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia (AUC). '' Paramilitaries were considered responsible for three quarters of all Colombian political killings between 1995 and 2001, 52 % of the massacres in 1998 (guerrillas were responsible for 20 %), and 49 % of the refugee displacements in 1999 (guerrillas are responsible for 29 %). In 2003, The Guardian 's columnist George Monbiot stated that "over the past 10 years, the paramilitaries (which the Colombian army) works with have killed some 15,000 trades unionists, peasant and indigenous leaders, human rights workers, land reform activists, leftwing politicians and their sympathizers. ''
The paramilitaries often target union leaders, members of the civil society and human rights workers. On September 28, 2000 the AUC, Colombia 's largest paramilitary group, issued a press release stating that "the AUC identifies the human rights workers and especially members of Credhos as guerrilla sympathizers, and for this reason from this moment forward we consider them military targets of our organization. ''
US Corporations have also been implicated in the financing of paramilitary groups. The most well known case may be Chiquita Brands International, which has admitted to making payments to the AUC from 1997 to 2004. Due to this involvement with a terrorist organization, Chiquita 's board members have even been requested in extradition. Nonetheless, Chiquita Brands may not be the only company involved with the AUC. According to Telesur, US congress member William Delahunt stated Chiquita Brands was only the "tip of the iceberg '' in the financing of the AUC. He came to his hypothesis after meeting with paramilitary chiefs Salvatore Mancuso, Diego Fernando Murillo, Héctor Veloza and Rodrigo Tovar Pupo. Delahunt stressed: "I am concerned by the magnitude of the participation of the US companies. ''
In 1990, the U.S. created a fourteen - member team whose members included representatives of the CIA, the U.S. Southern Command, U.S. Embassy 's Military Group, and the Defense Intelligence Agency (produces intelligence for the United States Department of Defense). This was done in order to give advice on the reshaping of several of the Colombian military 's local intelligence networks. The stated reason for this restructuring was to aid the Colombian military in their counter-narcotics efforts. Years later, Col. James S. Roach, Jr., who was the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) country liaison and U.S. Military Attache in Bogotá during the meetings, told Human Rights Watch (HRW) that: "The intent (of the meeting) was not to be associated with paramilitaries. But we knew from Colombian news reports and (even) from Colombian military reports that they were still working with paramilitaries. ''
The result of these meetings was Order 200 - 05 / 91, which was issued by the Colombian Defense Ministry in May 1991. HRW obtained a copy of the Colombian Armed Forces Directive No. 200 - 05 / 91. The report makes no explicit mention of illegal narcotics. The Colombian armed forces, "based on the recommendations made by a commission of advisors from the U.S. Armed Forces, '' presented a plan to better combat "escalating terrorism by armed subversion. ''
In 1996, HRW concluded that "Order 200 - 05 / 91 laid the groundwork for continuing an illegal, covert partnership between the military and paramilitaries and demonstrates that this partnership was promoted by the military high command in violation of (Colombian) Decree 1194, which prohibits such contact. Although the term "paramilitaries '' is not used in the order, the document lays out a system similar to the one present under the name of MAS and its military patrons in the Middle Magdalena. '' HRW argued that the restructuring process solidified linkages between members of the Colombian military and civilian members of paramilitary groups by incorporating them into several of the local intelligence networks and by cooperating with their activities. For HRW, the resulting situation allowed the Colombian government and military to plausibly deny links or responsibility for human rights abuses committed by members or associates of these networks. HRW considered that the intelligence networks created by the U.S. reorganization appeared to have increased violence, citing massacres in Barrancabermeja as an example.
In 1999, a U.S. Department of State annual report stated that "government forces continued to commit numerous, serious abuses, including extrajudicial killings, at a level that was roughly similar to that of 1998. Despite some prosecutions and convictions, the authorities rarely brought officers of the security forces and the police charged with human rights offenses to justice, and impunity remains a problem. At times the security forces collaborated with paramilitary groups that committed abuses; in some instances, individual members of the security forces actively collaborated with members of paramilitary groups by passing them through roadblocks, sharing intelligence, and providing them with ammunition. Paramilitary forces find a ready support base within the military and police, as well as local civilian elites in many areas. ''
In 1997, Amnesty International (AI) opined that the war on drugs is "a myth '', stating that members of Colombian security forces worked closely with paramilitaries, landlords and narco - traffickers to target political opposition, community leaders, human rights and health workers, union activists, students, and peasants. Amnesty International reported that "almost every Colombian military unit that Amnesty implicated in murdering civilians two years ago (1995) was doing so with U.S. - supplied weapons ''.
In 2000, studies carried out by both the United Nations and Human Rights Watch argued that paramilitaries continued to maintain close ties to the Colombian military. HRW considered that the existing partnership between paramilitaries and members of the Colombian military was "a sophisticated mechanism, in part supported by years of advice, training, weaponry, and official silence by the United States, that allows the Colombian military to fight a dirty war and Colombian officialdom to deny it. '' A contemporary UN report states that "The security forces also failed to take action, and this undoubtedly enabled the paramilitary groups to achieve their exterminating objectives. ''
Colombia is an active member of the Cooperation System of the American Air Forces (SICOFAA).
Between 1996 and 1997 Bill Clinton 's administration decertified Colombia after then President of Colombia, Ernesto Samper was involved in an investigation for allegedly accepting money from drug cartels for his presidential campaign. The media reported Colombia 's ' Cuba - nisation ' in Washington as United States policy makers constantly called for the isolation of Colombian president Samper. Colombia was officially branded as a ' threat to democracy ' and to the United States.
Until mid-2004, the U.S. Embassy in Bogota was the largest U.S. embassy in the world.
According to author Robin Kirk, most Americans remain naïve about the role of the United States in Colombia 's historical development and the nation 's continuing violence.
Colombia 's own history has been studied from the perspective of the so - called the "violentologist '', a new type of social scientist created in order to analyze the nature and development of the country 's violence. Camilo A. Azcarate has attributed the violence to three main causes:
Doug Stokes argues that, along with the other factors, the past and present interference of successive American administrations in Colombian affairs has often sought to preserve a measure of stability in Colombia, by upholding a political and economic status quo understood as favorable to U.S. interests even at the cost of contributing to promoting greater instability for the majority of the population.
However, other studies on the influence to Colombian domestic agenda from US military aid have demonstrated controversial results. Different from the stereotypical belief that foreign aid is supposed to strengthen a weak state 's governing capacity or to lower violence, US 's military assistance in actuality worsens Colombian 's domestic violence by introducing higher level of paramilitary attacks as well as decreasing anti narcotics operations. Also, evidence also shows that US aid does not help lower violence related to the production of drug crops such as coca.
Participants
Timeline
Key aspects
La Violencia (1948 -- 1958) Marquetalia Republic The National Front Dominican Embassy (1980) Palace of Justice (1985) Patriotic Union Party extermination Humanitarian exchange Mapiripán Massacre (1997) Peace process (1999 -- 2002) Bojayá massacre (2002) Valle del Cauca Deputies hostage crisis (2002 -- 2009) El Nogal Club bombing (2003) Parapolitics scandal (2006 -- 7) Operation Emmanuel Andean diplomatic crisis (2008) Operation Jaque (2008) Operation Fenix (2008) Nariño massacres (2009) 2013 Colombian clashes Peace process (2012 -- present) Peace agreement referendum (2016)
Sinaltrainal v. Coca - Cola (2001) Rodriquez v. Drummond (2003) Doe v. Chiquita (2007)
Kidnappings in Colombia List of political hostages held by FARC
Illegal drug trade in Colombia War on Drugs Narcoterrorism
Democratic security Plan Colombia Plan Patriota Colombia -- United States relations Human rights in Colombia Politics of Colombia
ELN EPL List of FARC attacks
Former guerrillas FARC - EP M19 MOEC CGSB ERP Jorge Alberto Rodríguez The 400 Movimiento Armado Quintin Lame
Linked to PCCC Foro de São Paulo PCC (M-L) Cuban revolutionaries Provisional IRA ETA ANNCOL Fighters + Lovers Colombian drug cartels Some politicians
Former government program CONVIVIR
Linked to DynCorp International United Nations United States European Union Canada
Águilas Negras Los Rastrojos The Clan Úsuga
Former paramilitaries AUC AAA
Linked to Spearhead Ltd Colombian drug cartels CONVIVIR Some Colombian military personnel Some politicians
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what is the purpose of the fica act | Federal insurance Contributions Act tax - wikipedia
The Federal Insurance Contributions Act (FICA) (/ ˈfaɪkə /) is a United States federal payroll (or employment) contribution directed towards both employees and employers to fund Social Security and Medicare -- federal programs that provide benefits for retirees, disabled people, and children of deceased workers.
The Insurance also provides funds to the health care system for institutions that provide healthcare for workers that do not have health insurance and can not afford healthcare treatment. Social Security benefits include old - age, survivors, and disability insurance (OASDI); Medicare provides hospital insurance benefits for the elderly. The amount that one pays in payroll taxes throughout one 's working career is associated indirectly with the social security benefits annuity that one receives as a retiree. Consequently, Kevin Hassett wrote that FICA is not a tax because its collection is directly tied to benefits that one is entitled to collect later in life. (Insurance). The United States Supreme Court decided in Flemming v. Nestor (1960) that no one has an accrued property right to benefits from Social Security. The Federal Insurance Contributions Act is currently codified at Title 26, Subtitle C, Chapter 21 of the United States Code.
The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities states that three - quarters of taxpayers pay more in payroll taxes than they do in income taxes. The FICA tax is considered a regressive tax on income with no standard deduction or personal exemption deduction. The Social Security portion of the tax is imposed on the first $117,000 in 2014, $118,500 in 2015 and 2016, $127,200 in 2017, and $128,400 in 2018. The FICA tax is not imposed on investment income such as rental income, interest, or dividends.
Since 1990, the employee 's share of the Social Security portion of the FICA tax has been 6.2 % of gross compensation up to a limit that adjusts with inflation. The taxation limit in 2017 was $127,200 of gross compensation, resulting in a maximum Social Security tax for 2017 of $7,886.40. This limit, known as the Social Security Wage Base, goes up each year based on average national wages and, in general, at a faster rate than the Consumer Price Index (CPI - U). The employee 's share of the Medicare portion of the tax is 1.45 % of wages, with no limit on the amount of wages subject to the Medicare portion of the tax. Because some payroll compensation may be subject to federal and state income tax withholding in addition to Social Security tax withholding and Medicare tax withholding, the Social Security and Medicare taxes often account for only a portion of the total an employee pays.
The employer is also liable for 6.2 % Social Security and 1.45 % Medicare taxes, making the total Social Security tax 12.4 % of wages and the total Medicare tax 2.9 %. (Self - employed people are responsible for the entire FICA percentage of 15.3 % (= 12.4 % + 2.9 %), since they are in a sense both the employer and the employed; see the section on self - employed people for more details.)
If a worker starts a new job halfway through the year and during that year has already earned an amount exceeding the Social Security tax wage base limit with the old employer, the new employer is not allowed to stop withholding until the wage base limit has been earned with the new employer (that is, without regard to the wage base limit earned under the old employer). There are some limited cases, such as a successor - predecessor employer transfer, in which the payments that have already been withheld can be counted toward the year - to - date total.
If a worker has overpaid toward Social Security by having more than one job or by having switched jobs during the year, that worker can file a request to have that overpayment counted as a credit for tax paid when he or she files a federal income tax return. If the taxpayer is due a refund, then the FICA tax overpayment is refunded.
A tax similar to the FICA tax is imposed on the earnings of self - employed individuals, such as independent contractors and members of a partnership. This tax is imposed not by the Federal Insurance Contributions Act but instead by the Self - Employment Contributions Act of 1954, which is codified as Chapter 2 of Subtitle A of the Internal Revenue Code, 26 U.S.C. § 1401 through 26 U.S.C. § 1403 (the "SE Tax Act ''). Under the SE Tax Act, self - employed people are responsible for the entire percentage of 15.3 % (= 12.4 % (Soc. Sec.) + 2.9 % (Medicare)); however, the 15.3 % multiplier is applied to 92.35 % of the business 's net earnings from self - employment, rather than 100 % of the gross earnings; the difference, 7.65 %, is half of the 15.3 %, and makes the calculation fair in comparison to that of regular (non-self - employed) employees. It does this by adjusting for the fact that employees ' 7.65 % share of their SE tax is multiplied against a number (their gross income) that does not include the putative "employer 's half '' of the self - employment tax. In other words, it makes the calculation fair because employees do not get taxed on their employers ' contribution of the second half of FICA, therefore self - employed people should not get taxed on the second half of the self - employment tax. Similarly, self - employed people also deduct half of their self - employment tax (schedule SE) from their gross income on the way to arriving at their adjusted gross income (AGI). This levels the amount paid by self - employed persons in comparison to regular employees, who do not pay general income tax on their employers ' contribution of the second half of FICA, just as they did not pay FICA tax on it either.
Some student workers are exempt from FICA tax. Students enrolled at least half - time in a university and working part - time for the same university are exempted from FICA payroll taxes, so long as their relationship with the university is primarily an educational one. In order to be exempt from FICA payroll taxes, a student 's work must be "incident to '' pursuit of a course of study, which is rarely the case with full - time employment. However full - time college students are never exempt from FICA taxes on work performed off - campus.
Medical residents working full - time are not considered students and are not exempt from FICA payroll taxes, according to a United States Supreme Court ruling in 2011.
A number of state and local employers and their employees in the states of Alaska, California, Colorado, Illinois, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Nevada, Ohio, and Texas are currently exempt from paying the Social Security portion of FICA taxes. They provide alternative retirement and pension plans to their employees. FICA initially did not apply to state and local governments, which were later given the option of participating. Over time, most have elected to participate, but a substantial number remain outside the system.
Some nonresident aliens are exempt from FICA tax.
Members of certain religious groups, such as the Mennonites and the Amish, may apply to be exempt from paying FICA tax. These religious groups consider insurance to be a lack of trust in God; the religious groups believe it is their religious duty to provide for its members who are sick, disabled, and elderly.
In order to apply to become exempt from paying FICA tax under this provision, the person must file Form 4029, which certifies that the person:
People who claim the above exemption must agree to notify the Internal Revenue Service within 60 days of either leaving the religious group or no longer following the established teachings of the religious group.
When a person temporarily works outside their country of origin, the person may be covered under two different countries ' social security programs for the same work. In order to relieve a person of double - taxation, the certain countries and the United States have entered into tax treaties, known as totalization agreements.
Aliens whose employer sends them to the United States on a temporary work assignment may be exempt from paying FICA tax on their earnings from working in the United States if there is a totalization agreement between the United States and the worker 's home country. Countries who have such a tax treaty with the United States include Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Japan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and United Kingdom.
In order to claim an exemption from paying FICA tax, the alien worker must be on a temporary assignment of no more than five years and the alien worker must have a certificate from the country stating that the worker will continue to be covered by the country 's social security system while the worker is in the United States.
When a parent employs a child under age 18 (or under age 21 for domestic service), payments to the child are exempt from FICA tax. The exemption also applies when a child is employed by a partnership in which each partner is a parent of the child. The exemption does not apply when the child is employed by a corporation or a partnership with partners who are not the child 's parent.
Foreign governments and are exempt from FICA tax on payments to their employees. International organizations are also exempt if the organization is listed in the International Organizations Immunities Act.
If an employee is either a U.S. citizen, then the employee must typically pay self - employment tax on earnings from work performed in the United States.
If a state or local government 's employees were hired on a temporary basis in response to a specific unforeseen fire, storm, snow, earthquake, flood, or a similar emergency, and the employee is not intended to become a permanent employee, then payments to that employee are exempt from FICA tax.
Payments to newspaper carriers under age 18 are exempt from FICA tax.
Compensation for real estate agents and salespeople is exempt from FICA tax under certain circumstances. The compensation is exempt if substantially all compensation is directly related to sales or other output, rather than to the number of hours worked, and there is a written contract stating that the individuals will not be treated as employees for federal tax purposes. The individual must typically pay self - employment tax on the compensation.
Prior to the Great Depression, the following presented difficulties for Americans:
In the 1930s, the New Deal introduced Social Security to rectify the first three problems (retirement, injury - induced disability, or congenital disability). It introduced the FICA tax as the means to pay for Social Security.
In the 1960s, Medicare was introduced to rectify the fourth problem (health care for the elderly). The FICA tax was increased in order to pay for this expense.
In December 2010, as part of the legislation that extended the Bush tax cuts (called the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010), the government negotiated a temporary, one - year reduction in the FICA payroll tax. In February 2012, the tax cut was extended for another year.
In March 2014, the Supreme Court reversed a lower court decision in U.S. v. Quality Stores, Inc. The court held that severance packages are taxable wages for FICA purposes.
The Social Security component of the FICA tax is regressive. That is, the effective tax rate regresses, or decreases, as income increases beyond the compensation limit or wage base limit amount. The Social Security component is a flat tax for wage levels under the Social Security Wage Base (see "Regular '' employees above). Because no tax is owed on wages above the wage base limit amount, the total tax rate declines as wages increase beyond that limit. In other words, for wage levels above the limit, the absolute dollar amount of tax owed remains constant.
The earnings above the wage base limit amount are not, however, taken into account in the Primary Insurance Amount (PIA) to determine benefits payable under the various insurance programs of social security.
The FICA tax also is not imposed on unearned income, including interest on savings deposits, stock dividends, and capital gains such as profits from the sale of stock or real estate. The proportion of total income that is exempt from FICA tax as "unearned income '' tends to rise with higher income brackets.
Some argue that since Social Security taxes are eventually returned to taxpayers, with interest, in the form of Social Security benefits, the regressiveness of the tax is effectively negated. That is, the taxpayer gets back what he or she put into the Social Security system. Others, including The Economist and the Congressional Budget Office, point out that the Social Security system as a whole is progressive in the lower income brackets. Individuals with lower lifetime average wages receive a larger benefit (as both a percentage of their lifetime average wage income and a percentage of Social Security taxes paid) than do individuals with higher lifetime average wages; but for some lower earners, shorter lifetimes may negate the benefits.
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name and explain the different stages of the cardiac cycle | Cardiac cycle - wikipedia
The cardiac cycle is the performance of the human heart from the beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next. It consists of two periods: one during which the heart muscle relaxes and refills with blood, called diastole (die - ASS - toe - lee), followed by a period of robust contraction and pumping of blood, dubbed systole (SIS - toe - lee). After emptying, the heart immediately relaxes and expands to receive another influx of blood returning from the lungs and other systems of the body, before again contracting to pump blood to the lungs and those systems. A normally performing heart must be fully expanded before it can efficiently pump again. Assuming a healthy heart and a typical rate of 70 to 75 beats per minute, each cardiac cycle, or heartbeat, takes about 0.8 seconds to complete the cycle.
There are two atrial and two ventricle chambers of the heart; they are paired as the left heart and the right heart -- that is, the left atrium with the left ventricle, the right atrium with the right ventricle -- and they work in concert to repeat the cardiac cycle continuously, (see cycle diagram at right margin). At the "Start '' of the cycle, during ventricular diastole -- early, the heart relaxes and expands while receiving blood into both ventricles through both atria; then, near the end of ventricular diastole -- late, the two atria begin to contract (atrial systole), and each atrium pumps blood into the ventricle ' below ' it. During ventricular systole the ventricles are contracting and vigorously pulsing (or ejecting) two separated blood supplies from the heart -- one to the lungs and one to all other body organs and systems -- while the two atria are relaxed (atrial diastole). This precise coordination ensures that blood is efficiently collected and circulated throughout the body.
The mitral and tricuspid valves, also known as the atrioventricular, or AV valves, open during ventricular diastole to permit filling. Late in the filling period the atria begin to contract (atrial systole) forcing a final crop of blood into the ventricles under pressure -- see cycle diagram. Then, prompted by electrical signals from the sinoatrial node, the ventricles start contracting (ventricular systole), and as back - pressure against them increases the AV valves are forced to close, which stops the blood volumes in the ventricles from flowing in or out; this is known as the isovolumic contraction stage.
Due to the contractions of the systole, pressures in the ventricles rise quickly, exceeding the pressures in the trunks of the aorta and the pulmonary arteries and causing the requisite valves (the aortic and pulmonary valves) to open -- which results in separated blood volumes being ejected from the two ventricles. This is the ejection stage of the cardiac cycle; it is depicted (see circular diagram) as the ventricular systole -- first phase followed by the ventricular systole -- second phase. After ventricular pressures fall below their peak (s) and below those in the trunks of the aorta and pulmonary arteries, the aortic and pulmonary valves close again -- see, at right margin, Wiggers diagram, blue - line tracing.
Now follows the isovolumic relaxation, during which pressure within the ventricles begin to fall significantly, and thereafter the atria begin refilling as blood returns to flow into the right atrium (from the vena cavae) and into the left atrium (from the pulmonary veins). As the ventricles begin to relax, the mitral and tricuspid valves open again, and the completed cycle returns to ventricular diastole and a new "Start '' of the cardiac cycle.
Throughout the cardiac cycle, blood pressure increases and decreases. The movements of cardiac muscle are coordinated by a series of electrical impulses produced by specialised pacemaker cells found within the sinoatrial node and the atrioventricular node. Cardiac muscle is composed of myocytes which initiate their internal contractions without applying to external nerves -- with the exception of changes in the heart rate due to metabolic demand.
In an electrocardiogram, electrical systole initiates the atrial systole at the P wave deflection of a steady signal; and it starts contractions (systole) of the ventricles at the Q deflection of the QRS complex. (Completing the P wave represents the end of the ventricular diastole and the start of the ventricular systole -- see cycle diagram.)
The cardiac cycle involves four major stages of activity: 1) "Isovolumic relaxation '', 2) Inflow, 3) "Isovolumic contraction '', 4) "Ejection ''. (See Wiggers diagram, which presents the stages, label-wise, in 3, 4, 1, 2 order, left - to - right.) Moving from the left along the Wiggers diagram shows the activities within four stages during a single cardiac cycle. (See the consecutive panels labeled, at bottom - right, "Diastole '' then "Systole ''.)
Stages 1 and 2 together -- "Isovolumic relaxation '' plus Inflow (equals "Rapid inflow '', "Diastasis '', and "Atrial systole '') -- comprise the ventricular "Diastole '' period, including atrial systole, during which blood returning to the heart flows through the atria into the relaxed ventricles. Stages 3 and 4 together -- "Isovoumic contraction '' plus "Ejection '' -- are the ventricular "Systole '' period, which is the simultaneous pumping of separate blood supplies from the two ventricles, one to the pulmonary artery and one to the aorta. Notably, near the end of the "Diastole '', the atria begin contracting, then pumping blood into the ventricles; this pressurized delivery during ventrucular relaxation (ventricular diastole) is called the atrial systole, aka atrial kick.
The time-wise increases and decreases of the heart 's blood volume (see Wiggers diagram), are also instructive to follow. The red - line tracing of "Ventricular volume '' provides an excellent track of the two periods and four stages of one cardiac cycle. Starting with the Diastole period: the low - volume plateau of "Isovolumic relaxation '' stage, followed by a rapid rise and two slower rises, all components of the "Inflow stage '' -- increasing to the high - volume plateau of the "Isovolumic contraction '' stage; (find the label at left side of diagram). Then, the Systole, including the high "Isovolumic contraction '' stage to the rapid decrease in blood volume (i.e., the vertical drop of the red - line tracing) which signifies the emptying of the ventricles during the "Ejection '' stage of the completed cycle -- all equal to one heartbeat.
Valve configurations during main stages of the cardiac cycle
Notes:
Stages 1, 2a, and 2b together comprise the "Diastole '' period; stages 3 and 4 together comprise the "Systole '' period.
based on Ganong
Rapid - filling inflow produced by atrial systole during "ventricular diastole -- late ''
Atrioventricular (AV) valves = tricuspid valve; mitral valve
Semilunar valves = pulmonary valve; aortic valve
Dichrotic notch - rebounding of aorta, helps perfuse coronary arteries, with increasing age the aorta stiffens and less elasticity hence the notch may be less and problems arise perfusing coronary arteries
The heart is a four - chambered organ consisting of right and left halves, called the right heart and the left heart. The upper two chambers, the left and right atria, are entry points into the heart for blood - flow returning from the circulatory system, while the two lower chambers, the left and right ventricles, perform the contractions that eject the blood from the heart to flow through the circulatory system. Circulation is split into pulmonary circulation -- during which the right ventricle pumps oxygen - depleted blood to the lungs through the pulmonary trunk and arteries; or the systemic circulation -- in which the left ventricle pumps / ejects newly oxygenated blood throughout the body via the aorta and all other arteries.
In a healthy heart all activities and rests during each individual cardiac cycle, or heartbeat, are initiated and orchestrated by signals of the heart 's electrical conduction system, which is the "wiring '' of the heart that carries electrical impulses throughout the body of cardiomyocytes, the specialized muscle cells of the heart. These impulses ultimately stimulate heart muscle to contract and thereby to eject blood from the ventricles into the arteries and the cardiac circulatory system; and they provide a system of intricately - timed and persistent signaling that controls the rhythmic beating of the heart muscle cells, especially the complex impulse - generation and muscle contractions in the atrial chambers. The rhythmic sequence (or sinus rhythm) of this signaling across the heart is coordinated by two groups of specialized cells, the sinoatrial (SA) node, which is situated in the upper wall of the right atrium, and the atrioventricular (AV) node located in the lower wall of the right heart between the atrium and ventricle. The sinoatrial node, often known as the cardiac pacemaker, is the point of origin for producing a wave of electrical impulses that stimulates atrial contraction by creating an action potential across myocardium cells.
Impulses of the wave are delayed upon reaching the AV node, which acts as a gate to slow and to coordinate the electrical current before it is conducted below the atria and through the circuits known as the bundle of His and the Purkinje fibers -- all which stimulate contractions of both ventricles. The programmed delay at the AV node also provides time for blood volume to flow through the atria and fill the ventricular chambers -- just before the return of the systole (contractions), ejecting the new blood volume and completing the cardiac cycle. (See Wiggers diagram: "Ventricular volume '' tracing (red), at "Systole '' panel.)
Cardiac diastole is the period of the cardiac cycle when, after contraction, the heart relaxes and expands while refilling with blood returning from the circulatory system. Both atrioventricular (AV) valves open to facilitate the ' unpressurized ' flow of blood directly through the atria into both ventricles, where it is collected for the next contraction. This period is best viewed at the middle of the Wiggers diagram -- see the panel labeled "Diastole ''. Here it shows pressure levels in both atria and ventricles as near - zero during most of the diastole. (See gray and light - blue tracings labeled "Atrial pressure '' and "Ventricular pressure '' -- Wiggers diagram.) Here also may be seen the red - line tracing of "Ventricular volume '', showing increase in blood - volume from the low plateau of the "Isovolumic relaxation '' stage to the maximum volume occurring in the "Atrial systole '' sub-stage.
Atrial systole is the contracting of cardiac muscle cells of both atria following electrical stimulation and conduction of electrical currents across the atrial chambers (see above, Physiology). While nominally a component of the heart 's sequence of systolic contraction and ejection, atrial systole actually performs the vital role of completing the diastole, which is to finalize the filling of both ventricles with blood while they are relaxed and expanded for that purpose. Atrial systole overlaps the end of the diastole, occurring in the sub-period known as ventricular diastole -- late (see cycle diagram). At this point, the atrial systole applies contraction pressure to ' topping - off ' the blood volumes sent to both ventricles; this atrial kick closes the diastole immediately before the heart again begins contracting and ejecting blood from the ventricles (ventricular systole) to the aorta and arteries.
Atrial kick is absent or disrupted if there is loss of normal electrical conduction in the heart, such as caused by atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, or heart block. Atrial kick may also be degraded by any deterioration in the condition of the heart, such as "stiff heart '' found in patients with diastolic dysfunction.
Ventricular systole is the contractions, following electrical stimulations, of the ventricular syncytium of cardiac muscle cells in the left and right ventricles. Contractions in the right ventricle provides pulmonary circulation by pulsing oxygen - depleted blood through the pulmonary valve then through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. Simultaneously, contractions of the left ventricular systole provide systemic circulation of oxygenated blood to all body systems by pumping blood through the aortic valve, the aorta, and all the arteries. (Blood pressure is routinely measured in the larger arteries off the left ventricle during the left ventricular systole).
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who played hal in malcolm in the middle | Bryan Cranston - wikipedia
Bryan Lee Cranston (born March 7, 1956) is an American actor, voice actor, producer, director, and screenwriter. He is best known for portraying Walter White on the AMC crime drama series Breaking Bad, Hal on the Fox comedy series Malcolm in the Middle, and Dr. Tim Whatley on the NBC comedy series Seinfeld.
For Breaking Bad, Cranston won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series four times (2008 -- 2010, 2014), including three consecutive wins (the second time in television history after Bill Cosby in I Spy during the 1960s). After becoming one of the producers of Breaking Bad in 2011, he also won the award for Outstanding Drama Series twice.
Cranston was also nominated three times for the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series for his role in Malcolm in the Middle. His role in Breaking Bad also earned him five Golden Globe nominations and one win in 2014, nine Screen Actors Guild Awards nominations with four wins, and six Satellite Awards nominations with four wins. In June 2014, he won a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play for his portrayal of Lyndon B. Johnson in the play All the Way on Broadway. He reprised his role in the television film of the same name, which debuted on HBO in May 2016. For the film Trumbo (2015), he received widespread acclaim and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor.
Cranston has directed episodes of various television series, including seven episodes of Malcolm in the Middle, three episodes of Breaking Bad, two episodes of Modern Family, one episode of The Office, and one episode of Sneaky Pete. He has also appeared in several acclaimed films such as Saving Private Ryan (1998), Little Miss Sunshine (2006), Drive (2011), Argo (2012) and Godzilla (2014). In 2015, Cranston, together with David Shore, executive produced and wrote the story for the Amazon Studios original crime drama Sneaky Pete, the pilot episode of which aired on August 7, 2015.
Bryan Lee Cranston was born on March 7, 1956 in Hollywood, California, the second of three children born to Audrey Peggy (née Sell; 1923 -- 2004), a radio actress, and Joseph Louis "Joe '' Cranston (1924 -- 2014), an actor and former amateur boxer. His father was of Austrian, German, Irish, and Jewish descent, while his maternal grandparents were German immigrants. He was raised in Canoga Park, California. Cranston 's father held many jobs before deciding to become an actor, but did not secure enough roles to provide for his family. He eventually walked out on the family when Cranston was 11 years old, and they did not see each other again until 11 years later, when Cranston and his brother decided to track their father down. Cranston was 22 at the time, and he and his father maintained a relationship until his father 's death in 2014.
Cranston has claimed that he based his portrayal of Walter White on his own father, who had a slumped posture "like the weight of the world was on his shoulders ''. After his father left, he was raised partly by his grandparents, living on their poultry farm in Yucaipa, California. He has called his parents "broken people '' who were "incapacitated as far as parenting '' -- they caused the family to lose their house in a foreclosure. During his preteen years, he encountered a young Charles Manson while riding horses at the Spahn Ranch. This happened about a year before Manson committed the Tate - LaBianca murders. Cranston graduated from Canoga Park High School, where he was a member of the school 's chemistry club, and earned an associate 's degree in police science from Los Angeles Valley College in 1976.
After college, Cranston began his acting career in local and regional theaters, getting his start at the Granada Theater in the San Fernando Valley. He had previously performed as a youth, but his show business parents had mixed feelings about their son being involved in the profession, so he did not continue until years later. Cranston was ordained as a minister by the Universal Life Church, and performed weddings for $150 a service to help with his income. He started working regularly in the late 1980s, mostly doing minor roles and advertisements. He was an original cast member of the ABC soap opera Loving, where he played Douglas Donovan from 1983 to 1985. Cranston starred in the short - lived series Raising Miranda in 1988. Cranston 's voice acting includes English dubbing of Japanese anime (under the pseudonym Lee Stone), including Macross Plus and Armitage III: Poly - Matrix, and most notably, the children 's series Mighty Morphin Power Rangers. Cranston did voice work for the 1993 - 94 first season of that series, playing characters such as Twin Man and Snizzard, for which he was paid about $50.00 an hour for two or three hours of daily work. The Blue Power Ranger, Billy Cranston, was named for him.
From 1994 to 1997, Cranston made a handful of appearances as Dr. Tim Whatley, Jerry 's dentist, on Seinfeld. In 1996, he played his second astronaut when he portrayed Gus Grissom in the film That Thing You Do! In 1997, Cranston had a small role in Babylon 5 as Ericsson. In 1998, Cranston appeared in an episode of The X-Files written by Vince Gilligan. That same year, he portrayed astronaut Buzz Aldrin in the HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon. In 1999, Cranston wrote and directed the film Last Chance. That same year he made his second appearance for a recurring role on the CBS sitcom The King of Queens, playing Doug Heffernan 's neighbor, Tim Sacksky.
In 1998, he appeared in Steven Spielberg 's Saving Private Ryan, as War Department Colonel I.W. Bryce, who insisted that Private Ryan be rescued. His theatrical credits include starring roles in The God of Hell, Chapter Two, The Taming of the Shrew, A Doll 's House, Barefoot in the Park, Eastern Standard, Wrestlers and The Steven Weed Show, for which he won a Drama - Logue Award. In 2000, Cranston landed a leading role as Hal on the comedy series Malcolm in the Middle. He would remain with the show until its end in 2006. Cranston ended up directing several episodes of the show and received three Primetime Emmy Award nominations for his performance. Cranston reprised his role in a cutaway gag during the Family Guy episode "I Take Thee Quagmire '', killing Lois (his wife on Malcolm in the Middle) with a refrigerator door, and in a leaked alternate ending of Breaking Bad with Jane Kaczmarek reprising her role as Lois.
He has had guest roles in many television series, including a white - collar criminal searching for his estranged wife and daughter on The Flash, a lawyer attempting to free the title character from a contract in Sabrina the Teenage Witch, and a bigoted man being driven insane by extremely low frequency sonar waves in The X-Files episode "Drive ''. He also had a guest role in late 2006 on the CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother, playing Ted Mosby 's obnoxious co-worker and former boss Hammond Druthers. He played Lucifer in the ABC Family miniseries Fallen and appeared as Nick Wrigley, an irresponsible uncle who accidentally brings Christmas close to destruction when he steals Santa 's sleigh to have a crazy ride, in the 2001 Disney Channel Original Movie ' Twas the Night. He appeared as the more successful business colleague of Greg Kinnear 's character in the film Little Miss Sunshine (2006). In September 2008, Cranston narrated a pre-teen adventure / fantasy audiobook called Adventures with Kazmir the Flying Camel.
From 2008 to 2013, Cranston starred in the AMC series Breaking Bad, created by Vince Gilligan, in which he played Walter White, a high school chemistry teacher who is diagnosed with terminal lung cancer. Walter teams up with former student Jesse Pinkman (played by Aaron Paul), to manufacture and sell methamphetamine to ensure the well - being of Walter 's family after he dies. Cranston 's work on the series was met with widespread critical acclaim, winning him the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series in each of the show 's first three seasons and being nominated in 2012 and 2013 for seasons four and five (winning again in 2014 for the second half of season 5). Cranston and Bill Cosby are the only actors to have won the award three consecutive times. Cranston was also a producer for the fourth and fifth seasons of the series, and directed three episodes of the show during its run.
In 2011, Cranston had supporting roles in three successful films, the drama The Lincoln Lawyer, as well as the thrillers Drive and Contagion. He voiced James Gordon in the animated film Batman: Year One (2011). In 2012, he had supporting roles in John Carter, Madagascar 3: Europe 's Most Wanted as Vitaly the tiger, and Rock of Ages, and a major role in the hostage drama Argo. He also lent his voice to several episodes of the animated series Robot Chicken. In 2012, he starred in the remake of the 1990 film Total Recall, as Chancellor Vilos Cohaagen, the corrupted president of a fictional war - ravaged United Federation of Britain. In the same year, he made a guest appearance as Kenneth Parcell 's step - father, Ron, on the NBC sitcom 30 Rock, and was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.
From September 2013 to June 2014, Cranston played U.S. president Lyndon B. Johnson in the American Repertory Theater and Broadway productions of All the Way, in a performance that has received widespread acclaim, and he later won the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play for the role. He also played scientist Joe Brody in the 2014 reboot of Godzilla.
Cranston has produced an instructional DVD called KidSmartz, which is designed to teach families how to stay safe from child abductors and Internet predators. KidSmartz raises money for the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children by donating half the proceeds from sales. Also, following the success of Breaking Bad, the year 2014 saw reports of Cranston developing new TV projects in collaboration with Sony Pictures Television. In 2016, it was announced that he would star in an episode of the Channel 4 / Amazon Video series Philip K. Dick 's Electric Dreams, and would also serve as an executive producer on the series.
On July 16, 2014, it was announced that Cranston would star in an HBO adaptation of his hit play All the Way. Steven Spielberg was set to be an executive producer on the film. Following the film 's premiere on May 21, 2016, Cranston 's performance was widely praised by critics, garnering eight Primetime Emmy Award nominations and a Television Critics Choice Award nomination. In 2015, Cranston starred as screenwriter Dalton Trumbo in the biopic Trumbo, for which he received his first Academy award nomination.
In 2016, Cranston voiced Li, the biological father of Po, in Kung Fu Panda 3. Also that year, he appeared in many films, including The Infiltrator and Wakefield. Cranston 's memoir, A Life in Parts, was published on October 11, 2016, became a New York Times bestseller, and received positive reviews.
In 2017, he voiced Zordon in Lionsgate 's Power Rangers, which marked his return to the franchise after providing voices for the series ' first season.
On January 27, 2017, it was announced that Cranston would star in a stage adaptation of the 1976 film Network playing Howard Beale, directed by Ivo van Hove at the Royal National Theatre in London, opening in November 2017.
In April 2014, Cranston presented at Broadway Cares / Equity Fights AIDS Easter Bonnet Competition with Idina Menzel, Fran Drescher, and Denzel Washington, after raising donations at his Broadway show All the Way.
From 1977 to 1982, Cranston was married to writer Mickey Middleton. At 33, he married Robin Dearden, whom he had met on the set of the series Airwolf in 1984. He was playing the villain of the week and she played the hostage he held at gunpoint. Their daughter, Taylor Dearden Cranston (born 1993), is a theatre studies student at the University of Southern California and played an extra in the Breaking Bad episode "No Mas '', directed by her father. She played Ophelia Mayer in Sweet / Vicious.
Cranston played baseball when he was a student and remains a collector of baseball memorabilia and an avid fan of the Philadelphia Phillies and the Los Angeles Dodgers. When he accepted his third Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, Cranston thanked his wife and daughter, and told them he loves them "more than baseball ''. The family has a beach house in Ventura County, California, which Cranston designed. Cranston lived in Albuquerque, New Mexico while filming Breaking Bad. He was a co-owner of the former independent theater Cinemas Palme d'Or in Palm Desert, California.
To commemorate the final episode of Breaking Bad, Cranston and castmate Aaron Paul both got Breaking Bad tattoos on the last day of filming; Cranston 's tattoo consists of the show 's logo on one of his fingers.
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what role did the geography of sub-saharan africa play in its history | European exploration of Africa - wikipedia
The geography of North Africa has been reasonably well known among Europeans since classical antiquity in Greco - Roman geography. Northwest Africa (the Maghreb) was known as either Libya or Africa, while Egypt was considered part of Asia.
European exploration of Sub-Saharan Africa begins with the Age of Discovery in the 15th century, pioneered by Portugal under Henry the Navigator. The Cape of Good Hope was first reached by Bartolomeu Dias on 12 March 1488, opening the important sea route to India and the Far East, but European exploration of Africa itself remained very limited during the 16th and 17th centuries. The European powers were content to establish trading posts along the coast while they were actively exploring and colonizing the New World. Exploration of the interior of Africa was thus mostly left to the Arab slave traders, who in tandem with the Muslim conquest of the Sudan established far - reaching networks and supported the economy of a number of Sahelian kingdoms during the 15th to 18th centuries.
At the beginning of the 19th century, European knowledge of geography of the interior of Sub-Saharan Africa was still rather limited. Expeditions exploring Southern Africa were made during the 1830s and 1840s, so that around the midpoint of the 19th century and the beginning of the colonial Scramble for Africa, the unexplored parts were now limited to what would turn out to be the Congo Basin and the African Great Lakes. This "Heart of Africa '' remained one of the last remaining "blank spots '' on world maps of the later 19th century (alongside the Arctic, Antarctic and the interior of the Amazon basin). It was left for 19th - century European explorers (including those searching for the famed sources of the Nile, notably John Hanning Speke, David Livingstone and Henry Morton Stanley, to complete the exploration of Africa by the 1870s. After this, the general geography of Africa was known, but it was left to further expeditions during the 1880s onward, notably those led by Oskar Lenz, to flesh more detail such as the continent 's geological makeup.
The Phoenicians explored North Africa, establishing a number of colonies, the most prominent of which was Carthage. Carthage itself conducted exploration of West Africa. The first circumnavigation of the African continent was probably made by Phoenician sailors, in an expedition commissioned by Egyptian pharaoh Necho II, in c. 600 BC and took three years. A report of this expedition is provided by Herodotus (4.37). They sailed south, rounded the Cape heading west, made their way north to the Mediterranean and then returned home. He states that they paused each year to sow and harvest grain. Herodotus himself is sceptical of the historicity of this feat, which would have taken place close about 120 years before his birth; however, the reason he gives for disbelieving the story is the sailors ' reported claim that when they sailed along the southern coast of Africa, they found the Sun stood to their right, in the north; Herodotus, who was unaware of the spherical shape of the Earth found this impossible to believe. Some commentators took this circumstance as proof that the voyage is historical, but other scholars still dismiss the report as unlikely.
The West African coast was explored by Hanno the Navigator in an expedition in c. 500 BC. The report of this voyage survives in a short Periplus in Greek, which was first cited by Greek authors in the 3rd century BC. There is some uncertainty as to how far precisely Hanno reached, he clearly sailed as far as Sierra Leone, and may have continued as far as Guinea or even Gabon.
Africa is named for the Afri people who settled in the area of current - day Tunisia. The Africa Province of the Roman Empire spanned the Mediterranean coast of what is now Libya, Tunisia and Algeria. The parts of North Africa north of the Sahara were well known in antiquity. Prior to the 2nd century BC, however, Greek geographers were unaware that the land mass then known as Libya expanded south of the Sahara, assuming that the desert bounded on the outer Ocean. Indeed, Alexander the Great, according to Plutarchus ' Lives, considered sailing from the mouths of the Indus back to Macedonia passing south of Africa as a shortcut compared to the land route. Even Eratosthenes around 200 BC still assumed an extent of the landmass no further south than the Horn of Africa.
By the Roman imperial period the Horn of Africa was well - known to Mediterranean geographers. The trading post of Rhapta, described as "the last marketplace of Azania, '' may correspond to the coast of Tanzania. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, dated to the 1st century AD, appears to extend geographical knowledge further south, to Southeast Africa. Ptolemy 's world map of the 2nd century is well aware that the African continent extents significantly further south than the Horn of Africa, but has no geographic detail south of the equator (it is unclear whether it is aware of the Gulf of Guinea)
In the medieval period, the exploration of the interior of the Sahara and the Sahel as well as along the Swahili coast as far as Mozambique was the project of Muslim conquests and slave trade. It was at Mozambique that the Arab "clockwise '' and the Portuguese "counter-clockwise '' routes of exploration would meet at the end of the 15th century.
Following its 8th - century conquest of North Africa, Arab Muslims ventured into Sub-Saharan Africa first along the Nile Valley towards Nubia, and later also across the Sahara towards West Africa. They were interested in the trans - Saharan trade, especially in slaves. This expansion of Arab and Islamic culture was a gradual process, lasting throughout most of the Middle Ages. The Christian kingdoms of Nubia came under pressure from the 7th century, but they resisted for several centuries. The Kingdom of Makuria and Old Dongola collapsed by the beginning of the 14th century. A significant role in the spread of Islam in Africa was taken by Sufi orders during the 9th to 14th centuries, who spread south along trade routes between North Africa and the sub-Saharan kingdoms of Ghana and Mali. On the West African coast, they set up zawiyas on the shores of the River Niger. The Mali Empire became Islamic following the pilgrimage of Musa I of Mali in 1324. Timbuktu became an important center of Islamic culture south of the Sahara. Alodia, the last remnant of Christian Nubia, was destroyed by the Funj in 1504.
Portuguese explorer Prince Henry, known as the Navigator, was the first European to methodically explore Africa and the oceanic route to the Indies. From his residence in the Algarve region of southern Portugal, he directed successive expeditions to circumnavigate Africa and reach India. In 1420, Henry sent an expedition to secure the uninhabited but strategic island of Madeira. In 1425, he tried to secure the Canary Islands as well, but these were already under firm Castilian control. In 1431, another Portuguese expedition reached and annexed the Azores.
Naval charts of 1339 show that the Canary Islands were already known to Europeans. In 1341, Portuguese and Italian explorers prepared a joint expedition. In 1342 the Catalans organized an expedition captained by Francesc Desvalers to the Canary Islands that set sail from Majorca. In 1344, Pope Clement VI named French admiral Luis de la Cerda Prince of Fortune, and sent him to conquer the Canaries. In 1402, Jean de Bethencourt and Gadifer de la Salle sailed to conquer the Canary Islands but found them already plundered by the Castilians. Although they did conquer the isles, Bethencourt 's nephew was forced to cede them to Castile in 1418.
In 1455 and 1456 two Italian explorers, Alvise Cadamosto from Venice and Antoniotto Usodimare from Genoa, together with an unnamed Portuguese captain and working for Prince Henry, the Navigator, of Portugal, followed the Gambia river, visiting the land of Senegal, while another Italian sailor from Genoa, Antonio de Noli, also on behalf of Prince Henry, explored the Bijagós islands, and, together with the Portuguese Diogo Gomes, the Cape Verde archipelago. Antonio de Noli, who became the first governor of Cape Verde (and the first European colonial governor in Sub-Saharan Africa), is also considered the discoverer of the First Islands of Cape Verde.
Along the western and eastern coasts of Africa, progress was also steady; Portuguese sailors reached Cape Bojador in 1434 and Cape Blanco in 1441. In 1443, they built a fortress on the island of Arguin, in modern - day Mauritania, trading European wheat and cloth for African gold and slaves. It was the first time that the semi-mythic gold of the Sudan reached Europe without Muslim mediation. Most of the slaves were sent to Madeira, which became, after thorough deforestation, the first European plantation colony. Between 1444 and 1447, the Portuguese explored the coasts of Senegal, Gambia, and Guinea. In 1456, the Venetian captain Alvise Cadamosto, under Portuguese command, explored the islands of Cape Verde. In 1462, two years after Prince Henry 's death, Portuguese sailors explored the Bissau islands and named Serra Leoa (Lioness Mountains).
In 1469, Fernão Gomes rented the rights of African exploration for five years. Under his direction, in 1471, the Portuguese reached modern Ghana and settled in A Mina (the mine), later renamed Elmina. They had finally reached a country with an abundance of gold, hence the historical name of "Gold Coast '' that Elmina would eventually receive.
In 1472, Fernão do Pó discovered the island that would bear his name for centuries (now Bioko) and an estuary abundant in shrimp (Portuguese: camarão,), giving its name to Cameroon.
Soon after, the equator was crossed by Europeans. Portugal established a base in Sāo Tomé that, after 1485, was settled with criminals. After 1497, expelled Spanish and Portuguese Jews also found a safe haven there.
In 1482, Diogo Cão found the mouth of a large river and learned of the existence of a great kingdom, Kongo. In 1485, he explored the river upstream as well.
But the Portuguese wanted, above anything else, to find a route to India and kept trying to circumnavigate Africa. In 1485, the expedition of João Afonso d'Aveiros, with the German astronomer Martin of Behaim as part of the crew, explored the Bight of Benin (Kingdom of Benin), returning information about African king Ogane.
In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias and his pilot Pêro de Alenquer, after putting down a mutiny, turned a cape where they were caught by a storm, naming it Cape of Storms. They followed the coast for a while realizing that it kept going eastward with even some tendency to the north. Lacking supplies, they turned around with the conviction that the far end of Africa had finally been reached. Upon their return to Portugal the promising cape was renamed Cape of Good Hope.
Some years later, Christopher Columbus landed in America under rival Castilian command. Pope Alexander VI decreed the Inter caetera bull, dividing the non-Christian parts of the world between the two rival Catholic powers, Spain and Portugal.
Finally, in the years 1497 to 1498, Vasco da Gama, again with Alenquer as pilot, took a direct route to Cape of Good Hope, via St. Helena. He went beyond the farthest point reached by Dias and named the country Natal. Then he sailed northward, making land at Quelimane (Mozambique) and Mombasa, where he found Chinese traders, and Malindi (both in modern Kenya). In this town, he recruited an Arab pilot and set sail directly to Calicut. On August 28, 1498, King Manuel of Portugal informed the Pope of the good news that Portugal had reached India.
Egypt and Venice reacted to this news with hostility; from the Red Sea, they jointly attacked the Portuguese ships that traded with India. The Portuguese defeated these ships near Diu in 1509. The Ottoman Empire 's indifferent reaction to Portuguese exploration left Portugal in almost exclusive control of trade through the Indian Ocean. They established many bases along the eastern coast of Africa except for Somalia (See Ajuran - Portuguese wars), The Portuguese also captured Aden in 1513.
One of the ships under command of Diogo Dias arrived at a coast that was not in East Africa. Two years later, a chart already showed an elongated island east of Africa that bore the name Madagascar. But only a century later, between 1613 and 1619, did the Portuguese explore the island in detail. They signed treaties with local chieftains and sent the first missionaries, who found it impossible to make locals believe in Hell, and were eventually expelled.
Portuguese presence in Africa soon interfered with existing Arab trade interests. By 1583, the Portuguese established themselves in Zanzibar and on the Swahili coast. The Kingdom of Congo was converted to Christianity in 1495, its king taking the name of João I. The Portuguese also established their trade interests in the Kingdom of Mutapa in the 16th century, and in 1629 placed a puppet ruler on the throne.
The Portuguese (and later also the Dutch) also became involved in the local slave economy, supporting the state of the Jaggas, who performed slave raids in the Congo.
They also used the Kongo to weaken the neighbour realm of Ndongo, where Queen Nzinga put a fierce but eventually doomed resistance to Portuguese and Jagga ambitions. Portugal intervened militarily in these conflicts, creating the basis for their colony of Angola. In 1663, after another conflict, the royal crown of Kongo was sent to Lisbon. Nevertheless, a diminished Kongo Kingdom would still exist until 1885, when the last Manicongo, Pedro V, ceded his almost non-existent domain to Portugal.
The Portuguese dealt with the other major state of Southern Africa, the Monomotapa (in modern Zimbabwe), in a similar manner: Portugal intervened in a local war hoping to get abundant mineral riches, imposing a protectorate. But with the authority of the Monomotapa diminished by the foreign presence, anarchy took over. The local miners migrated and even buried the mines to prevent them from falling into Portuguese hands. When in 1693 the neighbouring Cangamires invaded the country, the Portuguese accepted their failure and retreated to the coast.
Beginning in the 17th century, the Netherlands began exploring and colonizing Africa. While the Dutch were waging a long war of independence against Spain, Portugal had temporarily united with Spain, starting in 1580 and ending in 1640. As a result, the growing colonial ambitions of the Netherlands were mostly directed against Portugal.
For this purpose, two Dutch companies were founded: the West Indies Company, with power over all the Atlantic Ocean, and the East Indies Company, with power over the Indian Ocean.
The West India Company conquered Elmina in 1637 and Luanda in 1640. In 1648, they were expelled from Luanda by the Portuguese. Overall the Dutch built 16 forts in different places, including Gorée in Senegal, partly overtaking Portugal as the main slave - trading power.
The Dutch left a lasting impact in South Africa, a region ignored by Portugal that the Dutch eventually decided to use as station in their route to East Asia. Jan van Riebeeck founded Cape Town in 1652, starting the European exploration and colonization of South Africa.
Almost at the same time as the Dutch, other European powers attempted to create their own outposts for the African slave trade.
As early as 1530, English merchant adventurers started trading in West Africa, coming into conflict with Portuguese troops. In 1581, Francis Drake reached the Cape of Good Hope. In 1663, the English built Fort James in Gambia. One year later, another English colonial expedition attempted to settle southern Madagascar, resulting in the death of most of the colonists. The English forts on the West African coast were eventually taken by the Dutch.
In 1626, the French Compagnie de l'Occident was created. This company expelled the Dutch from Senegal, making it the first French domain in Africa.
France also set her eyes on Madagascar, the island that had been used since 1527 as a stop in travels to India. In 1642, the French East India Company founded a settlement in southern Madagascar called Fort Dauphin. The commercial results of this settlement were scarce and, again, most of the settlers died. One of the survivors, Etienne de Flacourt, published a History of the Great Island of Madagascar and Relations, which was for a long time the main European source of information about the island. Further settlement attempts had no more success but, in 1667, François Martin led the first expedition to the Malgasy heartland, reaching Lake Alaotra. In 1665, France officially claimed Madagascar, under the name of Île Dauphine. However, little colonial activity would take place in Madagascar until the 19th century.
In 1657, Swedish merchants founded Cape Coast in modern Ghana, but were soon displaced by Denmark - Norway, founding Fort Christiansborg near modern - day Accra.
In 1677, King Frederick William I of Prussia sent an expedition to the western coast of Africa. The commander of the expedition, Captain Blonk, signed agreements with the chieftains of the Gold Coast. There, the Prussians built a fort named Gross Friederichsburg and restored the abandoned Portuguese fort of Arguin. But in 1720, the king decided to sell these bases to the Netherlands for 7,000 ducats and 12 slaves, six of them chained with pure gold chains.
The British expressed their interest by the formation in 1788 of The Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa. The individuals who formed this club were inspired in part by the Scotsman James Bruce, who had ventured to Ethiopia in 1769 and reached the source of the Blue Nile.
Overall, European exploration of Africa in the 17th and 18th centuries was very limited. Instead they were focused on the slave trade, which only required coastal bases and items to trade. The real exploration of the African interior would start well into the 19th century.
Although the Napoleonic Wars distracted the attention of Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless exercised great influence on the future of the continent, both in Egypt and South Africa. The occupation of Egypt (1798 -- 1803), first by France and then by Great Britain, resulted in an effort by the Ottoman Empire to regain direct control over that country. In 1811, Mehemet Ali established an almost independent state, and from 1820 onward established Egyptian rule over the eastern Sudan. In South Africa, the struggle with Napoleon caused the United Kingdom to take possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape. In 1814, Cape Colony, which had been continuously occupied by British troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown.
Meanwhile, considerable changes had been made in other parts of the continent. The occupation of Algiers by France in 1830 put an end to the piracy of the Barbary states. Egyptian authority continued to expand southward, with the consequent additions to knowledge of the Nile. The city of Zanzibar, on the island of that name, rapidly attained importance. Accounts of a vast inland sea, and the discovery of the snow - clad mountains of Kilimanjaro in 1840 -- 1848, stimulated the desire for further knowledge about Africa in Europe.
In the mid-19th century, Protestant missions were carrying on active missionary work on the Guinea coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions. Missionaries visited little - known regions and peoples, and in many instances became explorers and pioneers of trade and empire. David Livingstone, a Scottish missionary, had been engaged since 1840 in work north of the Orange River. In 1849, Livingstone crossed the Kalahari Desert from south to north and reached Lake Ngami. Between 1851 and 1856, he traversed the continent from west to east, discovering the great waterways of the upper Zambezi River. In November 1855, Livingstone became the first European to see the famous Victoria Falls, named after the Queen of the United Kingdom. From 1858 to 1864, the lower Zambezi, the Shire River and Lake Nyasa were explored by Livingstone. Nyasa had been first reached by the confidential slave of António da Silva Porto, a Portuguese trader established at Bié in Angola, who crossed Africa during 1853 -- 1856 from Benguella to the mouth of the Rovuma. A prime goal for explorers was to locate the source of the River Nile. Expeditions by Burton and Speke (1857 -- 1858) and Speke and Grant (1863) located Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria. It was eventually proved to be the latter from which the Nile flowed.
Henry Morton Stanley, who had in 1871 succeeded in finding and succouring Livingstone (originating the famous line "Dr. Livingstone, I presume ''), started again for Zanzibar in 1874. In one of the most memorable of all exploring expeditions in Africa, Stanley circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza (Lake Victoria) and Lake Tanganyika. Striking farther inland to the Lualaba, he followed that river down to the Atlantic Ocean -- which he reached in August 1877 -- and proved it to be the Congo.
In 1895, the British South Africa Company hired the American scout Frederick Russell Burnham to look for minerals and ways to improve river navigation in the central and southern Africa region. Burnham oversaw and led the Northern Territories British South Africa Exploration Company expedition that first established that major copper deposits existed north of the Zambezi in North - Eastern Rhodesia. Along the Kafue River, Burnham saw many similarities to copper deposits he had worked in the United States, and he encountered native peoples wearing copper bracelets. Copper rapidly became the primary export of Central Africa and it remains essential to the economy even today.
Explorers were also active in other parts of the continent. Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan were traversed in many directions between 1860 and 1875 by Georg Schweinfurth and Gustav Nachtigal. These travellers not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, but obtained invaluable information concerning the people, languages and natural history of the countries in which they sojourned. Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one that confirmed Greek legends of the existence beyond Egypt of a "pygmy race ''. But the first western discoverer of the pygmies of Central Africa was Paul Du Chaillu, who found them in the Ogowe district of the west coast in 1865, five years before Schweinfurth 's first meeting with them. Du Chaillu had previously, through journeys in the Gabon region between 1855 and 1859, made popular in Europe the knowledge of the existence of the gorilla, whose existence was thought to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of Aristotle.
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when did friar lawrence marry romeo and juliet | Friar Laurence - wikipedia
Friar Laurence is a fictional character in William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet.
Friar Laurence is a friar who plays the part of a wise advisor to Romeo and Juliet, along with aiding in major plot developments.
Alone, he foreshadows the later, tragic events of the play with his soliloquy about plants and their similarities to humans. When Romeo requests the Friar marry him to Juliet, he is shocked, because only days before, Romeo had been infatuated with Rosaline, a woman who did not return his love. Nevertheless, Friar Laurence decides to marry Romeo and Juliet in the attempt to stop the civil feud between the Capulets and the Montagues.
When Romeo is banished for killing Tybalt and flees to Mantua, Friar Laurence tries to help the two lovers get back together using a potion to fake Juliet 's death. The friar sends a letter to Romeo explaining the situation, but it does not reach him because the people of Mantua suspect the messenger came from a house infected with the plague, and the Friar is unable to arrive at the Capulet 's monument in time. Romeo kills Count Paris, whom he finds weeping near Juliet 's corpse, then commits suicide, by drinking poison that he bought from an impoverished apothecary, over what he thinks is Juliet 's dead body. Friar Laurence arrives just as Juliet awakes from her chemically induced slumber. He urges Juliet not to be rash, and to join a society of nuns, but he hears a noise from outside and then flees from the tomb. Juliet then kills herself with Romeo 's dagger, completing the tragedy. The Friar is forced to return to the tomb, where he recounts the entire story to Prince Escalus, and all the Montagues and Capulets. As he finishes, the prince proclaims, "We have still known thee for a holy man. ''
Shakespeare uses a variety of poetic forms throughout the play. He begins with a 14 - line prologue in the form of a Shakespearean sonnet, spoken by a Chorus. Most of Romeo and Juliet is, however, written in blank verse, and much of it in strict iambic pentameter, with less rhythmic variation than in most of Shakespeare 's later plays. In choosing forms, Shakespeare matches the poetry to the character who uses it. Friar Laurence, for example, uses sermon and sententiae forms, and the Nurse uses a unique blank verse form that closely matches colloquial speech.
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who played kenzie's mother on ncis los angeles | Blye, K., Part 2 - wikipedia
"Blye, K., Part 2 '' is the 17th episode of the third season of the American crime drama television series NCIS: Los Angeles, and the 65th episode overall. It originally aired on CBS in the United States on February 28, 2012. The episode is written by Dave Kalstein and directed by Terrence O'Hara, and was seen by 15.85 million viewers.
Kensi survives being shot by a sniper thanks to body armor that resulted in her only suffering from a cracked rib. She follows the sniper who is now believed to be the man who killed her father. She gets rid of her phone as she wants to go after her father 's killer on her own without the help of her NCIS colleagues.
At HQ, the OSP team discover Granger has gone off the radar and begin to suspect him to be the killer as he was in the same unit as Donald Blye and Harris. Kensi finds she is being followed but surprise attacks the driver and steals the car, whose Satellite Navigation System leads her to a house where she sees a man and a woman talking. Deeks shows up to bring her in which she refuses. She tells Deeks to look after the woman who is later revealed to be Kensi 's estranged mother, Julia Feldman nee Blye.
As Kensi goes off to speak with the daughter of another victim, Deeks nervously explains to Kensi 's mother why he 's there and brings her back to the boathouse where Callan and Hanna are surprised to see her. She explains the relationship between herself and Kensi. The woman Kensi speaks to is not the real person and it is a trap, Kensi kills the impostor and receives a call from Claremont, another member of her father 's team believed to be dead, who is revealed to be the killer.
Kensi goes back to her mother 's house where a brutal fight later ensues between her and Claremont as the two engage in hand - to - hand combat while Callen, Sam, Deeks and Granger engage in a gunfight against the four members of Clairmont 's team. After a vicious and intense fight, Kensi wins but does n't kill him, simply stating that he wo n't last long while implying that his injuries are so severe that there 's a chance he 'll die. As she turns her back on him, Claremont, seeking revenge uses the last ounce of his strength to produce his gun with the intention of shooting Kensi but Granger, having quickly spotted the move draws his own gun and shoots Claremont, killing him while also saving Kensi 's life much to the shock and surprise of Callen, Sam and Deeks.
A tape is found containing evidence with the potential of convicting Claremont. One of his victims was an American reporter who was going to print a story that would damage Claremont 's reputation and would have seen his cover being blown. Kensi 's father tried to warn the reporter but was killed for it. Granger reveals the reporter was supposed to come to him for safety, but never made it; and this was his way of setting things right. Kensi is also given her father 's sniper journal. The episode ends with Kensi sitting alone on a beach while reading a letter her father wrote to her in the journal. After she 's finished, she visits her mother and finally makes peace with her.
"Blye, K., Part 2 '' is written by Dave Kalstein and directed by Terrence O'Hara. The episode is the second of a two - part arch centred on NCIS Special Agent Kensi Blye. According to Daniela Ruah, who portrays Kensi, "(Kensi is) determined to prove her dad 's death was a murder and not an accident. She wants to crack the case. But at the same time, she 's extremely emotionally attached to this case, which can cloud your judgment sometimes ''. The premise for the two - part arc is set up in Kensi 's appearance on Hawaii Five - 0 back in October 2011. "Something happened while she was there. That 's when the fuse was lit '', say executive producer Shane Brennan. In connection with this, it 's shown why Kensi joined NCIS. "It 's a very surprising reason, and it 's a very dangerous reason ''.
Miguel Ferrer is recurring as NCIS Assistant Director Owen Granger.
"Blye, K., Part 2 '' was seen by 15.85 million live viewers following its broadcast on February 28, 2012, with a 9.9 / 15 share among all households, and 3.1 / 8 share among adults aged 18 to 49. A rating point represents one percent of the total number of television sets in American households, and a share means the percentage of television sets in use tuned to the program. In total viewers, "Blye, K., Part 2 '' came third, behind the original NCIS and American Idol.
Clara Day from TV Fanatic gave the episode 4.5 (out of 5) and stated that "until now, Kensi 's past has been almost as big a secret as Callen and Sam 's have been. We knew her father was a military man and she was curious about his death. She finally got the answers she has so desperately been searching for ''.
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where was only fools and horses it never rains filmed | It Never Rains... - Wikipedia
30 minutes
"It Never Rains... '' is an episode of the BBC sitcom, Only Fools and Horses. It was the sixth episode of series 2, and was first screened on 25 November 1982. In the episode, Del, Rodney and Grandad go on holiday to Spain. All is going well until Grandad gets arrested.
It has been endlessly raining for four days in Peckham, and the Trotters have not been able to flog any of their sun - hats.
At The Nag 's Head, Del Boy bumps into his friend Alex, a down - on - his - luck travel agent. They have a chat about how they can boost their businesses, and Del suggests that Alex offer an 80 % discount on a holiday to the next customer, who just happens to be Del.
Back at the flat, Del tells Rodney and Grandad that they are going to Benidorm, Spain. Rodney is worried that Grandad will cramp their style, but Del just tells him to shrug it off.
When they get to Benidorm, Del and Rodney manage to pick up a couple of girls, but when they go back to their hotel room, they find Grandad asleep with his false teeth by his bedside and so the night ends there.
A few days later, on the beach, Rodney and Del are worried about why Grandad has been acting very withdrawn since they landed. Del tries chatting up a "French '' woman but loses out to a burly Englishman. Meanwhile, Rodney discovers that Grandad has been arrested and after telling Del, the Trotter Brothers search for Grandad.
At the police station, Grandad tells his grandsons a long and convoluted story about why he might have been arrested: in 1936, when his family was poor, Grandad and his friend Nobby Clarke hitchiked all the way to Southampton, got a boat to Tangier, and after a failed attempt to join the French Foreign Legion, became gun - runners during the Spanish Civil War. Eventually, they were captured, Nobby was tortured, and the pair were deported back to England. After hearing the story, Del bribes the guard into letting Grandad go, but it soon turns out that Grandad was only arrested for jaywalking and is free to go with no charge anyway, leaving Del out of pocket. Rodney says that they best go to the drug store to get cotton wool for Grandad 's cuts and bruises. When Grandad says that he has n't got any cuts and bruises, Del says "It 's early yet! ''.
Mungo Jerry: In The Summertime
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what is the timing of kuch rang pyar ke aise bhi | Kuch Rang Pyar Ke Aise Bhi - Wikipedia
Kuch Rang Pyar Ke Aise Bhi (English: A few colors of love can be like this too) is an Indian romance television series, which was broadcast on Sony TV from February 29, 2016 to August 24, 2017.
Shaheer Sheikh, Erica Fernandes and Supriya Pilgaonkar play the lead roles. The series is a realistic take on the romantic relationship between Dev and Sonakshi. Their love story and how it will impact the unique, close - knit relationship between Dev and his mother is the main theme of the show.
Kuch Rang Pyar Ke Aise Bhi has been dubbed in Tamil as Ini Ellam Vasanthame (Hereafter Only Spring) and broadcast on Polimer TV, and in Telugu as Amma Nenu O Ammayi on Gemini TV. It is also dubbed in Malayalam as Pranayavarnangal (Colours Of Love) and is currently airing on Kairali TV. It is dubbed in Arabic as well as وجوه الحب (The Faces of Love) and airs on MBC Bollywood. Due to Sheikh 's popularity in Indonesia, the show has also been dubbed in Bahasa as Dev & Sona and airs on ANTV.
The series has received positive critical response, with some praise directed at Sheikh 's performance and his chemistry with Erica Fernandes. In late November 2016, there were reports stating that the show is going to go off air giving way to historical drama Peshwa Bajirao, but rejecting the reports the channel briefed that, "Kuch Rang is one of our best shows. It is doing great on the TRP charts and also has a dedicated fan following. People love the characters. There 's no question of ending the show. ''
In January 2017, after Dev and Sonakshi 's separation in the show a 7 - year leap was introduced. Dev was shown as a person who cares only about himself and Sonakshi turned into a mature businesswoman and a single mother. The show became the most popular feature show on Indian Television on the basis of The Times of India 's conducted poll on twitter in late March 2017.
On 31 August 2017, the channel announced that because of viewer demand, the show would be brought back, with an estimated air date in mid-September 2017.
The show is set in Delhi, and revolves around Mr. Devrath Dixit, a business tycoon and Dr. Sonakshi Bose, a nutritionist.
Dev is a successful business tycoon who lives with his mother Ishwari, whom he 's devoted to, his three beloved sisters, Neha, Nikki and Riya, his uncle, aunt and their son. Sonakshi, on the other hand is a consulting nutritionist, who hails from a middle class Bengali family of five, and is appointed by Dev for Ishwari 's permanent consulting nutritionist. Initially, both Ishwari and Dev are indifferent to Sonakshi but gradually form a bond with her. Sona falls for Dev but Dev has become engaged to business partner Natasha. Just before his engagement, Dev realises his love for Sona and they confess their feelings to each other. Dev 's sister Neha meanwhile gets married to Ranveer, her English tutor who is from a lower middle class family.
Ishwari finds out about Dev and Sonakshi 's relationship and reluctantly agrees to their alliance but soon succumbs to depression finding it hard to make room for another woman in her son 's life. Sensing his mother 's disapproval, Dev breaks up with Sona. Dev and Sona fail to move on in their relationship and Ishwari, on seeing Dev 's condition, agrees to their marriage. After Riya, Vicky too joins Dev 's company as the project head after Ishwari manipulates Dev to do so. Ranveer files harassment case against Neha, which leads to their divorce. Sona 's cousin Elena elopes with Vicky shocking the Bose family. Dev resolves Bose family 's financial crisis. Sona comes to know from Dev, the hidden truth, that she has only 7 % chance of conceiving. Sona agrees upon doing infertility treatments as decided by Ishwari. Later, the couple signs the prenuptial agreement paper and they get separated.
A seven - year leap in the storyline. Bose family has moved to Kolkata. Sona and Dev have a daughter, Soha, and Dev does not know about it as she was born after their divorce. Elena and Vicky have a son, Golu. Elena has become a professional photographer. Sona is a successful businesswoman in her field. She comes to Delhi with Soha for business purpose. Soha comes to know from Sonakshi that her father Mr. Dev Dixit lives in Delhi. Soha and Golu study in the same school. Rest of the Bose family returns to Delhi. Dev finds out that Soha is his daughter and shares his feelings with Ishwari. He reveals his identity to Soha. Soha after much hesitation accepts Dev as her father. Saurabh gets married to Ronita. Dev and Sona live together for Soha 's sake. Then re-enters Khatri with Ishwari 's dark past. Sonakshi solves the matter of Khatri. Ishwari later reunites Dev and Sona. Season 1 ends with Sona giving birth to her and Dev 's son.
After successful completion of one year of the TV series, Yash Patnaik, Chairman and Managing Director of Beyond Dreams Entertainment known for showcasing "simple yet strong story telling '' shows stated that he is happy as viewers quickly accepted the "experiment with conviction '' show. He further said that the positive way of showing the "simplicity clubbed with beauty '' series along with a slight gambling with characters, plots and story telling paid off in the end. Thanking Sony TV 's management for giving the show one - year extension, he said the credit goes to his wife, Mamta Yash A Patnaik, Producer, Chief Creative Director of Entertainment and co-founder of Beyond Dreams Entertainment for being the actual person behind the show 's success.
On February 10, 2017 the channel released a compilation of show 's romantic songs on Youtube as Valentine 's Day special. "Tu Mujhme Mujhse Zyaada Hai (Duet) '' is one of the "Most Romantic Hindi Title Songs '' among the shows telecasted by the channel.
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list the 16 categories of information contained in a safety data sheet | Safety data sheet - wikipedia
A safety data sheet (SDS), material safety data sheet (MSDS), or product safety data sheet (PSDS) is an important component of product stewardship, occupational safety and health, and spill - handling procedures. SDS formats can vary from source to source within a country depending on national requirements.
SDSs are a widely used system for cataloging information on chemicals, chemical compounds, and chemical mixtures. SDS information may include instructions for the safe use and potential hazards associated with a particular material or product. The SDS should be available for reference in the area where the chemicals are being stored or in use.
There is also a duty to properly label substances on the basis of physico - chemical, health or environmental risk. Labels can include hazard symbols such as the European Union standard symbols.
A SDS for a substance is not primarily intended for use by the general consumer, focusing instead on the hazards of working with the material in an occupational setting.
It is important to use an SDS specific to both country and supplier, as the same product (e.g. paints sold under identical brand names by the same company) can have different formulations in different countries. The formulation and hazard of a product using a generic name may vary between manufacturers in the same country.
The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals contains a standard specification for safety data sheets. The SDS follows a 16 section format which is internationally agreed and for substances especially, the SDS should be followed with an Annex which contains the exposure scenarios of this particular substance. The 16 sections are:
In Canada, the program known as the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) establishes the requirements for SDSs in workplaces and is administered federally by Health Canada under the Hazardous Products Act, Part II, and the Controlled Products Regulations.
Safety data sheets have been made an integral part of the system of Regulation (EC) No 1907 / 2006 (REACH). The original requirements of REACH for SDSs have been further adapted to take into account the rules for safety data sheets of the Global Harmonised System (GHS) and the implementation of other elements of the GHS into EU legislation that were introduced by Regulation (EC) No 1272 / 2008 (CLP) via an update to Annex II of REACH.
The SDS must be supplied in an official language of the Member State (s) where the substance or mixture is placed on the market, unless the Member State (s) concerned provide (s) otherwise (Article 31 (5) of REACH).
The European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) has published a guidance document on the compilation of safety data sheets.
The German Federal Water Management Act requires that substances be evaluated for negative influence on the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of water. These are classified into numeric water hazard classes (WGK or WHC, depending on whether you use the German or English abbreviation).
This section contributes to a better understanding of the regulations governing SDS within the South African framework. As regulations may change, it is the responsibility of the reader to verify the validity of the regulations mentioned in text.
As globalisation increased and countries engaged in cross-border trade, the quantity of hazardous material crossing international borders amplified. Realising the detrimental effects of hazardous trade, the United Nations established a committee of experts specialising in the transportation of hazardous goods. The committee provides best practises governing the conveyance of hazardous materials and goods for land including road and railway; air as well as sea transportation. These best practises are constantly updated to remain current and relevant.
There are various other international bodies who provide greater detail and guidance for specific modes of transportation such as the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) by means of the International Maritime Code and the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) via the Technical Instructions for the safe transport of dangerous goods by air as well as the International Air Transport Association (IATA) who provides regulations for the transport of dangerous goods.
These guidelines prescribed by the international authorities are applicable to the South African land, sea and air transportation of hazardous materials and goods. In addition to these rules and regulations to International best practice, South Africa has also implemented common laws which are laws based on custom and practise. Common laws are a vital part of maintaining public order and forms the basis of case laws. Case laws, using the principles of common law are interpretations and decisions of statutes made by courts. Acts of parliament are determinations and regulations by parliament which form the foundation of statutory law. Statutory laws are published in the government gazette or on the official website. Lastly, subordinate legislation are the bylaws issued by local authorities and authorised by parliament.
Statutory law gives effect to the Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 and the National Road Traffic Act of 1996. The Occupational Health and Safety Act details the necessary provisions for the safe handling and storage of hazardous materials and goods whilst the transport act details with the necessary provisions for the transportation of the hazardous goods.
Relevant South African legislation includes the Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993, the National Road Traffic Act of 1996, and the Standards Act of 2008.
There has been selective incorporation of aspects of the Globally Harmonised System (GHS) of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals into South African legislation. At each point of the chemical value chain, there is a responsibility to manage chemicals in a safe and responsible manner. SDS is therefore required by law. A SDS is included in the requirements of Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993 (Act No. 85 of 1993) Regulation 1179 dated 25 August 1995.
The categories of information supplied in the SDS are listed in SANS 11014: 2010; dangerous goods standards -- Classification and information. SANS 11014: 2010 supersedes the first edition SANS 11014 - 1: 1994 and is an identical implementation of ISO 11014: 2009. According to SANS 11014: 2010:
Dutch Safety Data Sheets are well known as veiligheidsinformatieblad nl: Veiligheidsinformatieblad or Chemiekaarten. This is a collection of Safety Data Sheets of the most widely used chemicals. The Chemiekaarten boek is commercially available, but also made available through educational institutes, such as the web site offered by the university of Groningen
In the U.K., the Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging for Supply) Regulations 2002 - known as CHIP Regulations - impose duties upon suppliers, and importers into the EU, of hazardous materials.
NOTE: Safety data sheets (SDS) are no longer covered by the CHIP regulations. The laws that require a SDS to be provided have been transferred to the European REACH Regulations. http://www.hse.gov.uk/chip/
The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations govern the use of hazardous substances in the workplace in the UK and specifically require an assessment of the use of a substance. Regulation 12 requires that an employer provides employees with information, instruction and training for people exposed to hazardous substances. This duty would be very nearly impossible without the data sheet as a starting point. It is important for employers therefore to insist on receiving a data sheet from a supplier of a substance.
The duty to supply information is not confined to informing only business users of products. SDSs for retail products sold by large DIY shops are usually obtainable on those companies ' web sites.
Web sites of manufacturers and large suppliers do not always include them even if the information is obtainable from retailers but written or telephone requests for paper copies will usually be responded to favourably.
The United Nations (UN) defines certain details used in SDSs such as the UN numbers used to identify some hazardous materials in a standard form while in international transit...
In the U.S., the Occupational Safety and Health Administration requires that SDSs be readily available to all employees for potentially harmful substances handled in the workplace under the Hazard Communication regulation. The SDS is also required to be made available to local fire departments and local and state emergency planning officials under Section 311 of the Emergency Planning and Community Right - to - Know Act. The American Chemical Society defines Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Numbers (CAS numbers) which provide a unique number for each chemical and are also used internationally in SDSs.
Reviews of material safety data sheets by the U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board have detected dangerous deficiencies.
The board 's Combustible Dust Hazard Study analyzed 140 data sheets of substances capable of producing combustible dusts. None of the SDSs contained all the information the board said was needed to work with the material safely, and 41 percent failed to even mention that the substance was combustible.
As part of its study of an explosion and fire that destroyed the Barton Solvents facility in Valley Center, Kansas, in 2007, the safety board reviewed 62 material safety data sheets for commonly used nonconductive flammable liquids. As in the combustible dust study, the board found all the data sheets inadequate.
In 2012, the US adopted the 16 section Safety Data Sheet to replace Material Safety Data Sheets. This became effective on December 1, 2013. These new Safety Data Sheets comply with the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS). By June 1, 2015, employers were required to have their workplace labeling and hazard communication programs updated as necessary -- including all MSDSs replaced with SDS - formatted documents.
Many companies offer the service of collecting, or writing and revising, data sheets to ensure they are up to date and available for their subscribers or users. Some jurisdictions impose an explicit duty of care that each SDS be regularly updated, usually every three to five years. However, when new information becomes available, the SDS must be revised without delay.
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where is the main() function located in a c or c++ program | Entry point - wikipedia
In computer programming, an entry point is where control is transferred from the operating system to a computer program, at which place the processor enters a program or a code fragment and execution begins. In some operating systems or programming languages, the initial entry is not part of the program but of the runtime library, in which case the runtime library initializes the program and then the runtime library enters the program. In other cases, the program may call the runtime library before doing anything when it is entered for the first time, and, after the runtime library returns, the actual code of the program begins to execute. This marks the transition from load time (and dynamic link time, if present) to run time.
In simple layouts, programs begin their execution at the beginning, which is common in scripting languages, simple binary executable formats, and boot loaders. In other cases, the entry point is at some other fixed point, which is some memory address than can be an absolute address or relative address (offset).
Alternatively, execution of a program can begin at a named point, either with a conventional name defined by the programming language or operating system, or at a caller - specified name. In many programming languages, notably C, this named point is a function called main; as a result, the entry point is often called the main function.
Entry points apply both to source code and to executable files. However, in day - to - day software development, programmers specify the entry points only in source code, which makes them much better known. Entry points in executable files depend on the application binary interface (ABI) of the actual operating system, and are generated by the compiler or linker (if not fixed by the ABI). Non-executable object files may also have entry points, which are used later by the linker when generating entry points of an executable file.
In most of today 's popular programming languages and operating systems, a computer program usually only has a single entry point.
In C, C++, D, Rust and Kotlin programs this is a function named main; in Java it is a static method named main (although the class must be specified at the invocation time), and in C# it is a static method named Main.
In major operating systems, the standard executable format has a single entry point. In the Executable and Linkable Format (ELF), used in Unix and Unix - like systems such as Linux, the entry point is specified in the e_entry field of the ELF header. In the GNU Compiler Collection (gcc), the entry point used by the linker is the _start symbol. Similarly, in the Portable Executable format, used in Microsoft Windows, the entry point is specified by the AddressOfEntryPoint field, which is inherited from COFF. In COM files, the entry point is at the fixed offset of 0100h.
One notable modern exception to the single - entry - point paradigm is Android. Unlike applications on most other operating systems, Android applications do not have a single entry point -- there is no main function, for example. Instead of a single entry point, they have essential components (which include activities and services) which the system can instantiate and run as needed.
An occasionally used technique is the fat binary, which consists of several executables for different targets packaged in a single binary. Most commonly, this is implemented by a single overall entry point, which is compatible with all targets and branches to the target - specific entry point. Alternative techniques include storing separate executables in separate forks, each with its own entry point, which is then selected by the operating system.
Historically, and in some contemporary legacy systems, such as VMS and OS / 400, computer programs have a multitude of entry points, each corresponding to the different functionalities of the program. The usual way to denote entry points, as used system - wide in VMS and in PL / I and MACRO programs, is to append them at the end of the name of the executable image, delimited by a dollar sign ($), e.g. directory. exe $ make.
The Apple I computer also used this to some degree. For example, an alternative entry point in Apple I 's BASIC would keep the BASIC program useful when the reset button was accidentally pushed.
In general, programs can exit at any time in an unstructured way, by returning to the operating system or crashing. Scripting languages typically end by reaching the end of the program, but for binaries the control must return to the operating system or it will simply run off the end of the process 's memory, either executing whatever code is there or (in modern operating systems) resulting in a memory access violation and termination by the operating system.
Usually, there is not a single exit point specified in a program. However, in other cases runtimes ensure that programs always terminate in a structured way via a single exit point, which is guaranteed unless the runtime itself crashes; this allows cleanup code to be run, such as atexit handlers. This can be done by either requiring that programs terminate by returning from the main function, by calling a specific exit function, or by the runtime catching exceptions or operating system signals.
In many programming languages, the main function is where a program starts its execution. It is responsible for the high - level organization of the program 's functionality, and typically has access to the command arguments given to the program when it was executed.
The main function is generally the first programmer - written function that runs when a program starts, and is invoked directly from the system - specific initialization contained in the runtime environment (crt0 or equivalent). However, some languages can execute user - written functions before main runs, such as the constructors of C++ global objects.
In other languages, notably scripting languages, execution simply begins at the start of the program.
A non-exhaustive list of programming languages follows, describing their way of defining the main entry point:
In APL, when a workspace is loaded, the contents of "quad LX '' (latent expression) variable is interpreted as an APL expression and executed.
In C and C++, the function prototype of the main function looks like one of the following:
The parameters argc, argument count, and argv, argument vector, respectively give the number and values of the program 's command - line arguments. The names of argc and argv may be any valid identifier in C, but it is common convention to use these names. In C++, the names are to be taken literally, and the "void '' in the parameter list is to be omitted, if strict conformance is desired. Other platform - dependent formats are also allowed by the C and C++ standards, except that in C++ the return type must always be int; for example, Unix (though not POSIX. 1) and Windows have a third argument giving the program 's environment, otherwise accessible through getenv in stdlib. h:
Darwin - based operating systems, such as macOS, have a fourth parameter containing arbitrary OS - supplied information, such as the path to the executing binary:
The value returned from the main function becomes the exit status of the process, though the C standard only ascribes specific meaning to two values: EXIT_SUCCESS (traditionally 0) and EXIT_FAILURE. The meaning of other possible return values is implementation - defined. In case a return value is not defined by the programmer, an implicit return 0; at the end of the main () function is inserted by the compiler; this behavior is required by the C++ standard.
It is guaranteed that argc is non-negative and that argv (argc) is a null pointer. By convention, the command - line arguments specified by argc and argv include the name of the program as the first element if argc is greater than 0; if a user types a command of "rm file ", the shell will initialise the rm process with argc = 2 and argv = ('' rm ", "file '', NULL). As argv (0) is the name that processes appear under in ps, top etc., some programs, such as daemons or those running within an interpreter or virtual machine (where argv (0) would be the name of the host executable), may choose to alter their argv to give a more descriptive argv (0), usually by means of the exec system call.
The main () function is special; normally every C and C++ program must define it exactly once.
If declared, main () must be declared as if it has external linkage; it can not be declared static or inline.
In C++, main () must be in the global namespace (i.e.:: main), can not be overloaded, and can not be a member function, although the name is not otherwise reserved, and may be used for member functions, classes, enumerations, or non-member functions in other namespaces. In C++ (unlike C) main () can not be called recursively and can not have its address taken.
When executing a program written in C#, the CLR searches for a static method marked with the. entrypoint IL directive, which takes either no arguments, or a single argument of type string (), and has a return type of void or int, and executes it.
Command - line arguments are passed in args, similar to how it is done in Java. For versions of Main () returning an integer, similar to both C and C++, it is passed back to the environment as the exit status of the process.
Clean is a functional programming language based on graph rewriting. The initial node is called Start and is of type * World - > * World if it changes the world or some fixed type if the program only prints the result after reducing Start.
Or even simpler
One tells the compiler which option to use to generate the executable file.
ANSI Common Lisp does not define a main function; instead, the code is read and evaluated from top to bottom in a source file. However, the following code will emulate a main function.
In D, the function prototype of the main function looks like one of the following:
Command - line arguments are passed in args, similar to how it is done in C# or Java. For versions of main () returning an integer, similar to both C and C++, it is passed back to the environment as the exit status of the process.
FORTRAN does not have a main subroutine or function. Instead a PROGRAM statement as the first line can be used to specify that a program unit is a main program, as shown below. The PROGRAM statement can not be used for recursive calls.
Some versions of Fortran, such as those on the IBM System / 360 and successor mainframes, do not support the PROGRAM statement. Many compilers from other software manufacturers will allow a fortran program to be compiled without a PROGRAM statement. In these cases, whatever module that has any non-comment statement where no SUBROUTINE, FUNCTION or BLOCK DATA statement occurs, is considered to be the Main program.
Using GNAT, the programmer is not required to write a function called main; a source file containing a single subprogram can be compiled to an executable. The binder will however create a package ada_main, which will contain and export a C - style main function.
In Go programming language, program execution starts with the main function of the package main
There is no way to access arguments or a return code outside of the standard library in Go. These can be accessed via os. Args and os. Exit respectively, both of which are included in the "os '' package.
A Haskell program must contain a name called main bound to a value of type IO t, for some type t; which is usually IO (). IO is a monad, which organizes side - effects in terms of purely functional code. The main value represents the side - effects - ful computation done by the program. The result of the computation represented by main is discarded; that is why main usually has type IO (), which indicates that the type of the result of the computation is (), the unit type, which contains no information.
Command line arguments are not given to main; they must be fetched using another IO action, such as System. Environment. getArgs.
Java programs start executing at the main method, which has the following method heading:
Command - line arguments are passed in args. As in C and C++, the name "main () '' is special. Java 's main methods do not return a value directly, but one can be passed by using the System. exit () method.
Unlike C, the name of the program is not included in args, because the name of the program is exactly the name of the class that contains the main method called, so it is already known. Also unlike C, the number of arguments need not be included, since arrays in Java have a field that keeps track of how many elements there are.
Another aspect unique to Java is that the main function must be included within a class, and then called manually by the runtime. This is because in Java everything has to be contained within a class. For instance, a hello world program in Java may look like so:
To run this program, one must call java HelloWorld in the directory where the compiled class file (which itself must be named HelloWorld. class) exists. Alternatively, executable JAR files use a manifest file to specify the entry point in a manner that is filesystem - independent from the user 's perspective.
In FMSLogo, the procedures when loaded do not execute. To make them execute, it is necessary to use this code:
Note that the variable startup is used for the startup list of actions, but the convention is that this calls another procedure that runs the actions. That procedure may be of any name.
OCaml has no main function. Programs are evaluated from top to bottom.
Command - line arguments are available in an array named Sys. argv and the exit status is 0 by default.
Example:
In Pascal, the main procedure is the only unnamed procedure in the program. Because Pascal programs have the procedures and functions in a more rigorous top - down order than C, C++ or Java programs, the main procedure is usually the last procedure in the program. Pascal does not have a special meaning for the name "main '' or any similar name.
Command - line arguments are counted in ParamCount and accessible as strings by ParamStr (n), with n between 0 and ParamCount.
Note that "unit '' or "module '' based versions of Pascal start the main module with the PROGRAM keyword, while other separately compiled modules start with UNIT (UCSD / Borland) or MODULE (ISO). The unnamed function in modules is often module initialization, and run before the main program starts.
In Perl, there is no main function. Statements are executed from top to bottom.
Command - line arguments are available in the special array @ ARGV. Unlike C, @ ARGV does not contain the name of the program, which is $0.
PHP does not have a "main '' function. Starting from the first line of a PHP script, any code not encapsulated by a function header is executed as soon as it is seen.
In Pike syntax is similar to that of C and C++. The execution begins at main. The "argc '' variable keeps the number of arguments passed to the program. The "argv '' variable holds the value associated with the arguments passed to the program.
Example:
Python programs are evaluated top - to - bottom, as is usual in scripting languages: the entry point is the start of the source code. Since definitions must precede use, programs are typically structured with definitions at the top and the code to execute at the bottom (unindented), similar to code for a one - pass compiler, such as in Pascal.
Alternatively, a program can be structured with an explicit main function containing the code to be executed when a program is executed directly, but which can also be invoked by importing the program as a module and calling the function. This can be done by the following idiom, which relies on the internal variable __name__ being set to __main__ when a program is executed, but not when it is imported as a module (in which case it is instead set to the module name); there are many variants of this structure:
In this idiom, the call to the named entry point main is explicit, and the interaction with the operating system (receiving the arguments, calling system exit) are done explicitly by library calls, which are ultimately handled by the Python runtime. This contrast with C, where these are done implicitly by the runtime, based on convention.
The QB64 language has no main function, the code that is not within a function, or subrutine is executed first, from top to bottom:
Command line arguments (if any) can be read using the COMMAND $ function:
In Ruby, there is no distinct main function. The code written without additional "class... end ", '' module... end "enclosures is executed directly, step by step, in context of special '' main "object. This object can be referenced using:
and contain the following properties:
Methods defined without additional classes / modules are defined as private methods of the "main '' object, and, consequently, as private methods of almost any other object in Ruby:
Number and values of command - line arguments can be determined using the single ARGV constant array:
Note that first element of ARGV, ARGV (0), contains the first command - line argument, not the name of program executed, as in C. The name of program is available using $0 or $ PROGRAM_NAME.
Similar to Python, one could use:
In Visual Basic, when a project contains no forms, the startup object may be the Main () procedure. The Command $ function can be optionally used to access the argument portion of the command line used to launch the program:
In Xojo, there are two different project types, each with a different main entry point. Desktop (GUI) applications start with the App. Open event of the project 's Application object. Console applications start with the App. Run event of the project 's ConsoleApplication object. In both instances, the main function is automatically generated, and can not be removed from the project.
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who played stuart brooks on young and restless | The Young and the Restless characters (1970s) - wikipedia
A list of notable characters from the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless that significantly impacted storylines and debuted between March 1973 and December 1979.
Brad Elliot first appeared on March 26, 1973, and was portrayed by Tom Hallick until 1978.
History The very first episode of The Young and the Restless began with Brad Elliot being mugged, carjacked, and left for dead beside the highway. A semi-truck driver picked him up and dropped him off in Genoa City, Wisconsin. Stuart Brooks, owner of The Genoa City Chronicle watched Brad eat breakfast at Pierre 's Restaurant, then admit that he was unable to pay the check, and offer to work it off. Stuart paid the check for him, they spoke for a while, and Stuart gave Brad a job at his newspaper and an advance on his wages, suggesting he rent a room above the restaurant. Brad did just that and became a friend and confidant to Sally McGuire, the waitress. Brad went to work at the newspaper and discovered and destroyed a newswire that declared that Chicago doctor, Brad Eliot, had died in a car crash, his body burned beyond recognition. Stuart 's oldest daughter, Leslie Brooks, fell in love with Brad who encouraged her to come out of her shell and enjoy a very successful career as a concert pianist. Leslie 's 21 - year - old sister, Lorie, who had always been jealous of Leslie because Stuart had spent so much time nurturing Leslie 's talent, returned home from college in Paris, where she had led a wild life of sex, alcohol, and drugs. Unable to spark any interest from Brad, Lorie started intercepting their letters and phone calls while Leslie was on tour. Lorie managed to convince Brad that Leslie was no longer interested, and convinced Leslie that she had seduced Brad. As the thought of Brad and Lorie making love haunted Leslie, she had a nervous breakdown, freezing at the piano during a concert in New York City. After being led off stage by her mentor, Maestro Fautsch, Leslie wandered through Central Park, her purse was stolen, and she wound up institutionalized for weeks with no memory in a ward with a few other mentally disturbed women who taunted her mercilessly. Eventually her doctor discovered who she was from a publicity photo and notified Stuart, who flew to New York and rescued Leslie.
Stuart and his wife Jennifer secretly supported Leslie through her recovery in a sanitarium near Genoa City. Meanwhile, Lorie became engaged to Brad. After months of therapy Leslie was released. When Brad found out what Lorie had done, he broke up with Lorie, and he and Leslie got back together. With Brad 's encouragement, Leslie bought Pierre 's Restaurant and turned it into The Allegro, a nightclub where she could perform without having to travel. Stuart and Jennifer spent many evenings at Allegro, proud of their talented daughter who was also singing there. Lorie had dug up Brad 's past, and she exposed it once she was no longer in his life. Brad had been a Chicago neurosurgeon / psychiatrist who had gone against hospital rules to operate on his own son who had died on the table. Brad had been so distressed that he had left Chicago, leaving his practice, his parents, and his girl friend Barbara Anderson behind. His wrecked and burned car had been found later with a body inside which had been burned beyond recognition, and he had been declared dead. Leslie ended up healing Brad by getting him to talk to Barbara and other neurosurgeons who convinced him that he had done all anyone could have for their son, and that their son 's death was not Brad 's fault. Leslie also arranged a reconciliation between Brad and his parents. Brad and Leslie then married. They honeymooned in Palm Springs where the Mid-America Symphony was performing. Brad had gotten tickets and arranged a meeting with Maestro Fautsch, who talked Leslie into resuming her career as a concert pianist.
While performing in Paris, Leslie ran into old friend Lance Prentiss, wealthy eligible bachelor and co-owner of Prentiss Industries, who lived in an estate not far from Genoa City on Lake Geneva. Leslie would often spot Lance in the audience as she toured the world performing, and he would meet her afterward for dinner. Lance finally revealed to Leslie that he was in love with her. But although their marriage was occasionally rocky, Leslie demurred, saying that her heart belonged to Brad. The kind and forgiving Leslie set Lance up with her younger sister, Lorie. After being lavishly romanced by Lance with intimate dinners all around the country and the world, Lorie gave in to his charms. Lance and Lorie were married on the spur of the moment during a trip to Lake Tahoe. Later that year Brad discovered that he had chronic neuritis and was going blind. Rather than let Leslie give up her career for him, he kept it a secret and made Leslie fall out of love with him, then asked her for a divorce. But when Brad discovered that Leslie was pregnant, he told her the truth, learned to read Braille, and they agreed that Leslie would never give up her career for him. After Brad accidentally hit Leslie in the stomach with a suitcase which caused her to miscarry, Brad filed for divorce and left town. Brock Reynolds helped Leslie get over Brad and proposed with a ruby ring, but she gently told Brock that she was n't ready. Brad later returned, his eyesight restored by a risky operation, but Leslie rejected him, and he again left town.
An original core character first appearing on March 26, 1973, Stuart Brooks was portrayed by Robert Colbert and is known for his marriages to Jill Foster and her mother, Liz. He made his last appearance in 1983, and was said to have died off - screen in 1984.
Stuart ran the city newspaper, the Genoa City Chronicle, and was married to Jennifer Brooks, with whom he had four daughters. The eldest, Leslie, an accomplished pianist, was very introverted and dateless due to music having consumed her entire life. The second, college student Lorie, was studying in Paris, where she led a life of sex, alcohol, and drugs with Brock Reynolds, son of Stuart 's old friend, Katherine Chancellor. Third daughter, Chris, was a caring, thoughtful, and idealistic college student also working at the Chronicle with her father. Red - headed Peggy, the youngest, was still in high school. During the very first episode, Stuart helped drifter Brad Elliot, with whom Leslie ended up falling in love, get a job at the newspaper. Upon learning that Snapper Foster was secretly having an affair with waitress Sally McGuire while publicly in a relationship with Chris, Stuart tried to break up them up however, Chris refused to believe her father and moved out. Stuart was also busy helping Leslie through a mental breakdown thanks to Lorie 's affair with Brad.
Later, Bruce Henderson, a former lover of Jennifer, came back to town following a divorce hoping to reunite with her. Jennifer hoped to leave Stuart but, his heart attack delayed her decision with them reconciling fully after Jennifer was diagnosed with breast cancer. Upon Jennifer 's passing, Stuart began getting close to Snapper Foster 's mother, Liz. She, however, resisted by claiming she was out of his class, leaving Stuart to be seduced by her daughter, Jill. Tricking Stuart into believing he had gotten her pregnant, him And Jill married, however, when the truth of Jill 's fake pregnancy came to light, he promptly divorced her and turned back to Liz.
Lorie later released a book, ' In My Sister 's Shadow, ' all about her relationship with Leslie, causing Leslie another breakdown. Stuart berated Lorie for its release. Around the same time, Liz and Stuart finally got married and Peggy began working with Chronicle reporter, Steven Williams, to help expose the New World Commune, which had trapped Paul Williams and Nikki Reed. Steven and Peggy were eventually engaged but, due to her being in an affair with Jack Abbott, she left him at the altar.
During a happy marriage to Liz, Stuart was briefly entranced by his new secretary, Eve Howard, but her obsession with Victor Newman took precedence for her, with nothing ever happening between her and Stuart. Stuart and Liz 's happiness was not to last, however, as, by late fall, Snapper 's ex-lover, Sally Roulland, returned wanting Snapper to perform a much needed operation on their illegitimate son, Chuckie. For the first time in years, Snapper and Chris faced interference from Stuart, causing Liz to leave. After another failed attempt at romance, this time with Gina Roma, Stuart slowly faded from view after Jill tried and failed to help him and Liz reconcile. As editor of the Genoa City Chronicle, Stuart was involved in an attempt to prove that police officer Carl Williams had been framed by the mob. While his four daughters returned for Victor and Nikki 's wedding in 1984 and mentioned Stuart still being in town, he was later said to have died.
Christine "Chris '' Brooks Foster first appeared in March 1973 as one of the daughters of newspaper owner Stuart and Jennifer Brooks. Chris is best remembered for her romance and marriage to Dr. Snapper Foster. She was portrayed by actress Trish Stewart until 1978 and then Lynn Topping from 1979 to 1982 before Stewart briefly appeared again in 1984.
History As 19 - year - old college student Chris Brooks quickly began working at her father 's newspaper, The Genoa City Chronicle. She quickly began a romance with Snapper Foster, the son of Liz Foster. Snapper 's family was relatively poor in comparison to the Brooks family as Liz Foster was forced to work on the assembly line at Chancellor Industries while Snapper held a part - time job and was attending medical school all to support his family that also includes Greg and Jill Foster. Snapper was against a relationship with Chris because of how busy he was and did not want to upset Chris. Yet, Chris was determined and left home when Stuart tried to prove that Snapper was having an affair. Chris began working alongside Greg Foster as a secretary, yet Greg fell for her. When Chris learned that her father paid her salary, she quit, which also hurt Greg. Afterwards, Chris was raped by George Curtis while job hunting. The memory ended up hurting her romance with Snapper as memories haunted her. Snapper ended up convincing Chris to press charges, which she eventually did, but he was set free. Snapper even ended his affair to Sally McGuire and proposed to Chris to which she accepting. However, Sally was pregnant and hoped to convince Snapper to marry her. Yet, Liz talked Sally out of it with Snapper overhearing.
Chris and Snapper ended up marrying and quickly got pregnant. Yet, she miscarried when she learned about Snapper 's child with Sally and they briefly separated as Chris began working as a social worker with Greg again. Chris was assigned to help Ron and Nancy Becker, and their young daughter Karen. Chris ' sister, Peggy, was raped, and Peggy identified her attacker as Ron. Chris urged Peggy to file charges, Ron was arrested, but in a trial was found not guilty. When Nancy discovered evidence that proved Ron was actually guilty, she became catatonic, and was committed to a mental hospital. Since Chris was having trouble getting pregnant, and she wanted to save Karen from living with her rapist father, she and Snapper convinced Ron to give them custody of Karen. But after Nancy recovered, Karen was returned to Nancy 's custody. Chris was so devastated that she separated from Snapper again and left town. Months later, Chris returned to find that Snapper was involved with Dr. Casey Reed. Chris forced Snapper to choose between them, and Casey ended up bowing out to save Snapper 's marriage. By 1977, Chris 's mother Jennifer died and Stuart began seeing Snapper 's mother Liz and they eventually married after Stuart ended his marriage to Jill Foster.
By 1981, Chris gave birth to Jennifer Elizabeth Brooks, and soon after, Snapper 's former lover, Sally McGuire, re-entered Snapper 's life with their son, Chuckie, who was seriously ill. While Chuckie was hospitalized with a kidney problem, Sally realized that she was still attracted to Snapper, but Snapper was adamant that she move on with her life. When Chuckie was cured, Snapper shared an emotional goodbye with both Sally and Chuckie as they returned home with Sally 's fiancée, Stan. Snapper ended up accepting a fellowship teaching and research opportunity in London. Yet, Chris, who was now a model at Jabot Cosmetics, was opposed to moving there. Eventually, Chris moved there with Jennifer, later joined by her mother - in - law and step - mother, Liz. During their stay in London, Chris 's father Stuart ended up dying. In 1984, Chris briefly returned to Genoa City along with her sisters Peggy, Leslie, and Lorie to attend the wedding of business tycoon Victor Newman and Nikki Reed, the younger sister of Casey Reed.
Leslie Brooks (formerly Elliot and Prentiss) first appeared in March 1973 as one of the daughters of newspaper owner Stuart and Jennifer Brooks. Leslie is best remembered for the love triangle between her, Brad Elliot, and her sister Lorie Brooks, as well as her relationships with Lucas and Lance Prentiss. She was portrayed by actress Janice Lynde until 1977, and then by Victoria Mallory from 1977 through 1982 and again briefly in 1984. In February 2018, it was reported that Lynde would be returning as Leslie to commemorate with the show 's 45th anniversary.
History Leslie was in her mid-twenties when her father, Stuart, befriended a penniless drifter named Brad Elliot and gave him a job at The Genoa City Chronicle, of which Stuart was the owner and publisher. Leslie fell in love with Brad who encouraged her to come out of her shell and enjoy a very successful career as a concert pianist. Leslie 's 21 - year - old sister, Lorie, who had always been jealous of Leslie. Unable to spark any interest from Brad, Lorie started intercepting their letters and phone calls while Leslie was on tour. Lorie managed to convince Brad that Leslie was no longer interested, and convinced Leslie that she had seduced Brad. As the thought of Brad and Lorie making love haunted Leslie, she had a nervous breakdown, freezing at the piano during a concert in New York City. After being led off stage by her mentor, Maestro Fautsch, Leslie wandered through Central Park, her purse was stolen, and she wound up institutionalized for weeks with no memory in a ward with a few other mentally disturbed women who taunted her mercilessly. Eventually her doctor discovered who she was from a publicity photo and notified Stuart, who flew to New York and rescued Leslie. While away, Lorie became engaged to Brad, but Brad found out what Lorie had done, he broke up with Lorie, and he and Leslie got back together. Lorie quit her job at the Chronicle and published her first book, which Stuart editorialized as "a disgusting piece of trash ''. With Brad 's encouragement, Leslie bought Pierre 's Restaurant and turned it into The Allegro, a nightclub where she could perform without having to travel.
Lorie had dug up Brad 's past, and she exposed it once she was no longer in his life. Brad had been a Chicago neurosurgeon / psychiatrist who had gone against hospital rules to operate on his own son who had died on the table. Brad had been so distressed that he had left Chicago, leaving his practice, his parents, and his girl friend Barbara Anderson behind. His wrecked and burned car had been found later with a body inside which had been burned beyond recognition, and he had been declared dead. Leslie ended up healing Brad by getting him to talk to Barbara and other neurosurgeons who convinced him that he had done all anyone could have for their son, and that their son 's death was not Brad 's fault. Leslie also arranged a reconciliation between Brad and his parents. Brad and Leslie then married. They honeymooned in Palm Springs where the Mid-America Symphony was performing. Brad had gotten tickets and arranged a meeting with Maestro Fautsch, who talked Leslie into resuming her career as a concert pianist. While performing in Paris, Leslie ran into an old friend Lance Prentiss, a wealthy eligible bachelor and co-owner of Prentiss Industries. Lance would follow Leslie across the world as she performed and he eventually confessed his love for her. Despite his intentions, Leslie claimed her love was for Brad, and helped to set Lance up to her sister Lorie. Soon after, Brad discovered that he had chronic neuritis and was going blind. Rather than let Leslie give up her career for him, he kept it a secret and made Leslie fall out of love with him, then asked her for a divorce. But when Brad discovered that Leslie was pregnant, he told her the truth, learned to read Braille, and they agreed that Leslie would never give up her career for him. After Brad accidentally hit Leslie in the stomach with a suitcase which caused her to miscarry, Brad filed for divorce and left town. Brock Reynolds helped Leslie get over Brad and proposed, but Leslie claimed she was n't ready yet. Brad later returned, with his eyesight restored by a risky operation, but Leslie rejected him, and he again left town by 1978.
Then, Lance 's mother Vanessa Prentiss informed Leslie that she much preferred her to be with Lance rather than Lorie, but Leslie defended her by suggesting that Lorie did n't release her book In My Sister 's Shadow about their relationship. Yet, Lorie ended up releasing the book, which caused her to have another nervous breakdown when reporters confronted her about. When Lance learned about its release, he was disgusted with Lorie and ran to comfort Leslie. But Leslie convinced Lance to return to Lorie, but Leslie ended up pregnant with Lance 's child. When confiding to Lance 's brother Lucas, who had also fallen for Leslie, ended up proposing and they ended up marrying. Leslie and Lucas also agreed not to tell Lance the truth about the son, Brooks Lucas Prentiss. Vanessa, hoping to destroy Lorie and Lance 's marriage, made Lucas president of Prentiss Industries. Lance tried to Lucas with a position in Paris, but refused. Lance ended up visiting Leslie on tour, and Lucas caught them. Fearing he was going to lose Leslie, Lucas rescinded his offer in Paris, which Lance ended up accepted, and instead offered him a position in their dangerous Santo Domingo office. Yet, Leslie and Lucas 's marriage was strained by then anyway and they were eventually divorced by 1981. Lance invited Leslie to live with him and Lorie, but after Lorie learned that Brooks was actually Lance 's son, Leslie suffered another mental breakdown. While wandering with amnesia out of town, she ended up having a romance with the owner of a local bar named Jonas, as she claimed her name was Pricilla. Lucas and Jonas ended up meeting when both went off to fight the dictator of San Leandro. Lucas discovered "Pricilla '' as a stowaway on the jet, but Leslie did n't recognize him, and it was obvious that she was in love with Jonas. After their successful adventure, they all returned to Genoa City. "Pricilla '' met Lorie, but did not recognize her either. Lorie and Lucas told Leslie who she was and who they were, but Leslie became confused and overwhelmed. Lorie worried that Leslie would soon regain her memory and demand custody of Brooks. But Leslie explained that she could n't be a proper mother to a child she did not remember, and she gave full custody of Brooks to Lorie.
Leslie ended up rediscovering her talents as a pianist and decided to stay in Genoa City as Jonas also agreed to stay. After falling and hitting her head, Leslie regained her memory and recalled her love for Lance and that he was the father of her son. Leslie filed for custody of Brooks, but lost him to Lorie because she was the only mother he had ever known. Vanessa suggested Leslie tell Lance that he was the father of Brooks, so she, Lance and Brooks could be together. But in the end, when Lance discovered that Brooks was his son, he rejected both Lorie and Leslie for keeping it from him. And when Brooks refused to have anything to do with Lance, he returned to Paris alone. Leslie then became involved with Attorney Robert Laurence, and they made plans to marry. But when Robert 's ex-wife Claire, who was institutionalized, was given a drug that finally worked that brought her back to reality, Robert returned to her to try to rebuild their family with their daughter Angela. Leslie went back to touring in Europe, and was seen again when she and her sisters returned to Genoa City to attend the wedding of Victor Newman and Nikki Reed in 1984. Leslie briefly returned to the canvas for the soap 's March 27, 2018 episode.
Elizabeth "Liz '' Foster Brooks is an original character to The Young and the Restless; she was known for her marriages to William Foster and Stuart Brooks and was one of the show 's two original matriarchs. She was portrayed by actress Julianna McCarthy on and off for 37 years until her death onscreen on June 18, 2010. Until her initial departure in 1985, McCarthy was the show 's longest running cast member although she had n't been on contract in some time.
History Elizabeth Foster was an assembly line laborer at Chancellor Industries, and the mother to William "Snapper '' Foster and Greg Foster. She is also the adoptive mother of Jill Foster Abbott although this was n't made known to viewers until several decades into the series. Liz dated a man named Sam Powers until her long - departed husband, Bill Foster, returned. She was married to Bill, and then he walked out on her and their children in the late 1960s, only to return in 1975 with ailing health, unbeknownst to the Fosters. During the first year of the show, Liz 's family history was explored. Her brother, Dr. Bruce Henderson, appeared briefly as Jennifer Brooks ' former lover who turned out to be Laurie Brook 's biological father. Liz blamed Bruce for neglecting their aging mother, Mrs. Henderson (Dorothy Adams) who lived on the family farm, struggling for years only with help from Liz who was having a difficult enough time supporting herself and her children. Bruce had chosen to leave the Genoa City area years before to pursue a medical career, only returning when Jennifer and her husband Stuart were separated. While Laurie Brooks liked Liz, she never acknowledged that Bruce was her father, blaming her mother for stealing her birthright and her man, having fallen in love with Bruce 's son, Mark.
Snapper slept with a woman named Sally McGuire, and later started dating another woman named Chris Brooks. Sally found out that she was pregnant, while Snapper and Chris were going to get married. Sally was also married to Pierre Roulland. She and Snapper kept the baby 's paternity hidden; in reality, Snapper was the baby 's father, and not Pierre. Sally gave birth to a son, Pierre Charles "Chuckie '' Roulland, and everyone was led to believe that Pierre was his father. Thus, Liz 's first grandson was born.
In 1976, Liz suffered a stroke and lost her memory temporarily after she pulled Bill 's life support. Snapper took the fall for Liz, who had no memory of what happened. Eventually, Liz regained her memory of the incident. Liz began dating and later married Stuart Brooks, who also had an affair with Jill. Jill faked a pregnancy in order for Stuart to marry her; in reality, she was not pregnant and was only after his money. Stuart planned to marry Jill, although he loved Liz, until Jill fell down a flight of stairs and "miscarried. '' Stuart found out that he had been conned, and he and Liz soon married. During that time, she became an employee and close friend of Katherine Chancellor, despite Jill 's ongoing feud with her. In 1979, Liz was shot when her politically ambitious son, Greg, became involved with a ruthless men attempting to influence Greg 's campaign. She recovered and settled into her new marriage to Stuart, becoming a beloved step - mother to his four daughters, one of whom was her own daughter - in - law, Chris.
When Stuart and Liz attended a London concert of his daughter, Leslie 's, Katherine stepped in to help when the simple Liz felt out of place amongst London 's elite. Earlier, Stuart 's glamorous secretary, Eve Howard, Jill 's new roommate, had helped Liz throw a lavish cocktail party in his honor. In 1982, Liz left Stuart after his attitude towards Snapper got harsher upon the return of Sally Roulland and Chuckie, her son by Snapper. The same year, most of the Brooks and Foster families were written out with Snapper moving to London. Liz was off - screen for a short time but was back to aid Jill in her quest to win back old boyfriend, John Abbott, whom Liz liked very much. Stuart faded out of the story in 1983 after using his newspaper to help clear police detective Carl Williams of being a crooked cop. He died off screen in 1984 after efforts from Liz 's friends and even Jill failed to reconcile them.
When Jill married John Abbott, Liz attended the wedding and befriended Jill 's step - daughter, Tracy. Liz was also there for Katherine when she had her face lift. Liz helped Katherine mourn for Nikki (Liz 's former daughter - in - law) when they falsely believed that Nikki had been killed while on vacation with psychotic Rick Darros but, Nikki was very much alive, and Liz was a guest at Nikki and Victor Newman 's wedding where Stuart Brook 's former secretary, Eve, tried to kill the bride. Detective Carl Williams became suspicious when Jill reported her jewelry stolen and a pawnbroker identified Liz as the seller. It turned out that Jill was being blackmailed for a fling she had with Jack Abbott and asked Liz to pawn the jewelry for her. After this, Liz decided to move to England to be near Snapper. She visited Genoa City in 1986 along with Jill 's son, Phillip Chancellor III, upon learning about Jill 's shooting. Liz visited town again in 1993 when Jill gave birth to Billy Abbott after Katherine discovered that Jill had n't even notified her mother about being pregnant.
In 2003, Liz came back to Genoa City and informed Jill that she needed emergency surgery for a brain tumor. She revealed to Jill that she was adopted. Liz only knew that her first husband, William, brought her home in a baby blanket one day. However, Liz had recently received information that a woman named Charlotte Ramsey had proof that her biological mother was actually Katherine. Liz 's surgery was successful and she remained in town for her recovery, returning to London the following year. However, in 2009, it was revealed that Katherine was not Jill 's mother after all. Liz came back in 2008 when Katharine was believed to have died in a car accident.
Liz returned in June, 2010, in ill health with sons, Snapper and Greg, and some news for Jill about her birth parents. On June 18, 2010, Liz died onscreen due to a condition that had gone too far without being treated. Liz told Snapper on her deathbed about Jill 's true parentage, and she made him promise not to tell Jill, but he told her anyway.
Phillip Robert Chancellor II first appeared in November 1973 along with Katherine Chancellor (Jeanne Cooper). He was first portrayed by John Considine until 1974, and was then notably portrayed by Donnelly Rhodes until his death onscreen on August 15, 1975.
History Phillip is born on June 19, 1928. He attends college with Gary Reynolds and the two become friends. In November 1973, wealthy Phillip first appeared in the series as the husband of Katherine Chancellor, Gary 's widow, his wife of twelve years. Phillip and Kay 's marriage was strained due to Kay 's bad habits of infidelity, smoking and alcohol addiction. He tried to help Kay with her vices, but he wound up starting an affair of his own with Kay 's new paid companion, Jill Foster, and the two fell in love. After declaring their love for one another, Phillip made plans to end his marriage to Kay and to marry Jill. Later, Phillip and Jill conceived a child together, and he officially left Kay to be with Jill. Phillip served an upset Kay with divorce papers, and then he left for the Dominican Republic where he got the divorce granted before returning to Genoa City.
Katherine picked him up from the airport and gave him a ride home, and she begged him for a second chance. Phillip refused, and an angry Kay sped up and drove off a cliff in an attempt to kill them both. Phillip survived the crash long enough to marry Jill on his deathbed. Phillip was buried on the Chancellor estate property in the backyard. Jill later gave birth to his son and what was believed to be his only child, Phillip Chancellor III.
In 2018, it was revealed that Phillip may be the biological father of Jack Abbott.
Lauralee "Lorie '' Brooks (formerly Prentiss and Hollister) first appeared in December 1973 as the daughter of Stuart Brooks. She was portrayed by actress Jaime Lyn Bauer until 1982, with reappearances in 1984 and 2002. In February 2018, it was reported that Bauer would be returning as Lorie to commemorate with the show 's 45th anniversary.
History Lorie arrived in Genoa City from Europe in December 1973. Lorie was jealous of her older sister, concert pianist, Leslie Brooks, who she felt got all the attention from her parents. Determined to make her life miserable, Lorie found out that Leslie had a budding romance with new man in town Brad Elliot and schemed to get him for herself. When the plan worked, Leslie had a nervous breakdown and ended up in hospital. She eventually accused Lorie of causing her breakdown. Brad then dumped Lorie and married Leslie. After losing Brad, Lorie dated her publicist Jed Andrews. When she discovered he was married she pushed him away and helped him reconcile with his wife. Lorie then began a romance with medical intern Mark Henderson, the romance was serious and they became engaged. Mark was the son of Bruce Henderson. Little did anyone know that Lorie was the result of an affair Bruce and Lorie 's mother Jennifer had years before. When Jennifer admitted the truth Lorie and Mark split and Mark left town. At the same time Lorie decided to write a thinly disguised autobiography about her life about being in her sister Leslie 's shadow, which included details about Leslie 's breakdown. She eventually shelved the book when she and Leslie became close. After Leslie became friends with a very wealthy fan of hers, Lance Prentiss, who ran his mother 's company, Prentiss Industries, she pushed Lorie to date him. Although the pair traded barbs they also fell in love, though Lorie knew she was second choice. She also had to contend with Lance 's mother Vanessa, a recluse, scarred in a house fire while saving Lance, his guilt making him indebted to her. Lorie managed to hold her own and ended up marrying Lance.
However, the news of their marriage made Vanessa furious, and she tried to shoot Lorie but hit Lance instead. Later, Lorie found Lance 's brother Lucas and returned him to Genoa City. Vanessa was grateful to Lorie and the pair began to get along, until Lorie accused Vanessa of faking her injuries to hold onto Lance. Furious with Lorie, Vanessa found a copy of Lorie 's unpublished book and paid someone to publish and distribute it. The book caused a scandal and Leslie refused to perform in public again. Lance rushed to comfort Leslie and they made love, and Leslie became pregnant with his child. When Lucas found out he married Leslie and the pair moved to Europe so as not to raise suspicion. When Leslie returned to Genoa City for family reasons, Vanessa took the opportunity to make sure Lorie saw her sister naked in the shower, Lorie soon realized Leslie was too far along to be pregnant by Lucas and she confronted her sister who admitted the truth. Leslie rushed back to Europe with Lucas and had her son, Brooks Prentiss. Shortly after, Leslie 's marriage to Lucas fell apart and she moved in with Lance and Lorie. Lorie was extremely unhappy with her sister living in her home and after a confrontation Leslie tried to kill herself. The stress caused another breakdown and she went missing. Meanwhile, Vanessa stripped Lance of all duties at Prentiss Industries and put Lucas in charge in the hopes of once again destroying Lance and Lorie 's marriage.
Lance fell into a depression and began gambling. Lorie begged Vanessa to reinstate Lance, Vanessa agreed, on the condition that Lorie divorce Lance. At the same time Lucas decided he was n't meant for the boardroom and handed back responsibility of Prentiss to Lance. Vanessa managed to keep this a secret from Lorie and made her think Lance 's return to the company was because of her. She pushed Lorie to divorce Lance and flew her to Haiti for a quickie divorce. Lance assumed now that he had his life back on track, he and Lorie would reconcile, and was stunned when he discovered Lorie went through with the divorce. Heartbroken, Lance fled to Paris. Making only a brief return a few months later to visit Lucas in the hospital after he was shot. Meanwhile, Lucas had found Leslie who had amnesia and eventually brought her back to Genoa City. That same year Victor Newman took an interest in Lorie and the pair began a mild flirtation but it ended in friendship. The following year Lance returned to Genoa City, around the same time Leslie regained her memory and fought Lorie for custody of Brooks, though Lorie won. Meanwhile, Victor began buying shares of Prentiss Industries. He just needed Lorie 's to secure control, but Lorie and Lance reconciled and she refused to sell. Meanwhile, Vanessa discovered she was dying and determined to rid Lorie from Lance 's life for good, Vanessa jumped off the balcony of Lorie 's penthouse and framed her for murder. Lucas believed Lorie guilty, while Lance thought her innocent and even proposed, though soon after seeing all the evidence against her, Lance walked out on her. Lorie took solace in the arms of her lawyer Robert Laurence, while Victor, disgusted by Lance 's actions, vowed to take control of Prentiss. Lance began to realise Lorie was innocent and worked to help her, though it was revealed during the trial that Lance is Brooks father, Lance once again turned his back on Lorie, until Brooks reveals information about Vanessa that led to proving Lorie innocent. Meanwhile, Victor managed to gain control of Prentiss through Lorie. Lance realising he can never be a father to his son and unable to truly forgive Lorie, left town. Regretting her decision to give Victor control of Prentiss, Lorie began a romance with Victor and under the guise of writing a novel about him gained access to business files which allowed her to return control of Prentiss to Lance. Though she was to marry Victor, she left town and a heartbroken Victor behind.
Lorie, remarried to Lance, returned to town on invitation from Victor for his wedding to Nikki Reed in 1984. The pair mended old wounds, and Lorie reunited with her sisters for the big event, leaving again shortly after. She returned again in 2002, this time determined to keep Nikki and Victor from remarrying. Her soon to be ex-husband, Max Hollister, had business dealings with Victor and an interest in getting revenge and stealing Nikki away. He convinced Lorie to seduce Victor and have cameras watching so he could show the whole thing to Nikki. The plan backfired when Lorie felt compassion for Victor and refused to go through with the plan. She left town again soon afterward.
Brock Reynolds first appeared in 1974 as the son of Katherine Chancellor and her first husband, Gary Reynolds, portrayed by Beau Kazer. Appearing sporadically until 1992, Kazer then made recurring appearances from 1999 to 2003, and then in 2004, 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011.
History Brock Reynolds is the son of Katherine Chancellor and her first husband Gary Reynolds. After his father 's death and the failings of Katherine 's new marriage with Phillip Chancellor II, Brock became quite rebellious with women and drugs. Eventually, Brock ran off to Europe with his friend Lorie Brooks, the daughter of newspaper mogul Stuart Brooks. Once Brock returned to Genoa City in 1974, he tried to make peace with his mother as he had found religion in his life and become a minister. Katherine, however, had become an alcoholic and heavy smoker, and was now losing her husband to her paid companion Jill Foster. Kay talked Brock into marrying Jill, but Jill quickly learned she was pregnant with Phillip 's child. Brock allowed Jill to back out given that their marriage was n't even legal. Later, Katherine and Phillip got into a car accident after he refused to give her another chance. Kay then decided to buy Jill 's baby, but Brock talked Kay out of it. Over the next several years, Brock developed relationships with Casey Reed and Leslie Brooks, whom he even proposed to, but she claimed that she was not ready following her divorce from Brad Elliot. Brock had also earned a law degree and was able to represent Snapper Foster, and helped Snapper and his wife Chris Brooks Foster in a custody dispute.
By 1980, Katherine brought Victor Newman to Genoa City to help with running Chancellor Industries, bringing his young wife Julia Newman along. Julia, longing for something to do, ended up building a close friendship with Brock, and things nearly turned romantic. However, Brock and Julia never had a sexual relationship, despite Victor 's fears that it was. Out of jealousy, Victor had an affair with his secretary, Eve Howard. Julia admitted she was falling in love with Brock, but they were not lovers, and she agreed to break if off if Victor would commit completely to their marriage. But Victor was not persuaded and turned to Brock 's old friend Lorie Brooks for attention. Brock caught Victor and Lorie kissing, so he tried to resume his romance with Julia, but he finally left town because of Julia 's inability to end her marriage to Victor. Thinking it would convince Victor of her love for him, Julia told him that she wanted to have a baby. Victor responded by having a vasectomy without telling her. In the end, Julia ending up having an affair and Victor 's extreme response caused their divorce in 1981.
By 1984, Victor married Nikki Reed and Brock was invited to return. Brock had returned just before then helping Kay recover from her face - lift. Brock ended up staying around to cool the tensions as Kay and Jill 's rivalry reached another breaking point with Kay 's attempt to destroy Jill 's marriage to John Abbott. By 1988, Kay married Rex Sterling, a bum who had spent some time in prison that Jill hired and cleaned up to trick Kay. His former cellmate Clint Radison finds Marge Cotrooke, a diner waitress and realizes that she looks the same as Katherine. He decides to use her in his plan to replace Kay with Marge and get to her fortune. His friends get jobs at the Chancellor Mansion, while Marge is taught to act like Kay. Kay Chancellor and her housekeeper Esther Valentine are held captive while Marge replaces Kay. Marge immediately changes things from Katherine 's life, starting from unintentionally pushing Rex away into the arms of Jill Abbott, to selling Chancellor Industries. When Brock returns from India, he realizes that someone has replaced Kay. Marge later helps Kay catch Clint and his friends and get them in jail, before returning to her life as a waitress.
On the verge of losing her life in 1999, Kay befriended a teenager at a homeless shelter named Mackenzie Browning, who coincidentally ended up being Brock 's daughter with Amanda Browning, a woman that Brock had a relationship with in India years ago. Kay decided to inform Brock of the baby he never knew he had. Brock and Mackenzie built a father - daughter relationship and lived with Kay. Brock eventually left town again to work in India, but reappeared in town from time to time. He was involved in the intervention that Kay 's close friends held to make her stop drinking. He eventually relocated to New Orleans to assist in cleanup following Hurricane Katrina.
In 2008, Brock returned to Genoa City to deliver the eulogy at Kay 's "funeral ''. When Kay 's will was read, Brock learned that he got one percent of a billion - dollar estate to continue his charity work and was named chairman of the Chancellor Foundation. However, it was Marge, Kay 's look - alike who had died so Brock returned again in April 2009 to take a DNA test to confirm his mother 's identity. He comes back to Genoa City to take another DNA test with Tucker claiming to be Katherine 's son and asked Mac if she was willing to carry Lily and Cane 's twins and if she would help raise them if Lily did not make it. Brock continues to make periodical visits to Genoa City.
On August 1, 2013, Katherine Chancellor died in Hong Kong after a three - month - long vacation around the world as she completed her "bucket list ''. On September 3, Brock returned to Genoa City for his mother 's memorial service.
Phillip Chancellor III first appeared in 1976, born onscreen as the son of Phillip Chancellor II and Jill Foster. The role was most notably portrayed by Thom Bierdz, who made his first appearance on May 13, 1986. He remained for three years until the character was believed to have died. In 2009, Bierdz was rehired by the soap opera, who kept secrecy around a plot twist that would reveal Phillip to be alive by sneaking Bierdz in to tape scenes and asked that he not tell anyone of his return. Bierdz remained on a recurring status through May 2011.
History Phillip III is the son of Jill Foster and the late Phillip Chancellor II. He was born onscreen in December 1975 and appeared as a toddler by 1978. In 1982, Jill began seeing John Abbott and introduced Phillip to John, making both John and Phillip uncomfortable around each other. Later that year, Phillip acted out, forcing Jill to send him to boarding school. In the following year at Christmas time, on behalf of her mother, Liz Foster, Jill called Phillip at boarding school; he told her he did not want to spend the holidays with her.
In 1986, the character is SORASed to age 16, and he returns to town after Jill is shot. After Jill recovered, Phillip stayed in town but was resentful about the lack of time Jill spent with him while he grew up. Eventually, Katherine and Jill fought over Phillip as he moved into the Chancellor Estate and Katherine even tried to adopt him. Phillip even changed his name from Phillip Foster to Phillip Chancellor. Yet, Phillip began drinking heavily and became the center of a love triangle between best friends Christine Blair and Nina Webster. After seducing him while he was drunk, Nina became pregnant with Phillip 's son and gives birth to Phillip "Chance '' Chancellor IV in late March 1988. Phillip marries Nina in April 1989 despite struggling with being a father, husband, and living up to Jill and Katherine 's expectations which leads to him becoming dependent on alcohol. After a drunken car accident, Phillip "dies '' on May 26, 1989, from his injuries.
In 2009, Phillip III returned, revealing he staged his death because of all the stress in his life and to keep his homosexuality a secret. During his absence, Phillip sent his friend, Cane Ashby, to Genoa City as a replacement son of sorts for his mother and to fill the void he left behind for his family. When their ruse was discovered, Phillip attempted to form a relationship with his son, Chance, but decided to return to Australia shortly after. In September 2010, Phillip 's son, Chance, was accidentally shot "dead '' by his maternal half - brother, Ronan Malloy. Chance was pronounced dead at the scene. On September 17, 2010, it was revealed that Chance faked his death. Only Nina, Phillip, Ronan, Katherine and Christine must know that he was still "alive '', as he was going into the Witness Protection Program. Phillip then left to go back home to Australia after Chance left to go into the Witness Protection Program. In May 2012, Jill temporarily moved to Australia to help Phillip recover after knee surgery.
Vanessa Prentiss first appeared in August 1976 and was portrayed by K.T. Stevens. She would later become widely known for being an archenemy of Lorie Brooks. In 1981, Stevens departed from the role when the character committed suicide to frame Lorie for her murder.
History Vanessa was the mother of Lance and Lucas Prentiss. During the first year she was introduced, the lower part of her face was concealed with a veil because of a scar she received in about 1972 while rescuing Lance from a fire, which was accidentally caused by Lucas, who ran off after feeling guilty over the accident. Embarrassed by her condition, Vanessa never ventured into public. Vanessa was strongly against Lance 's relationship with Lorie Brooks, whom she immediately took a disliking to upon their first meeting as she wanted Lance to pursue Lorie 's sister Leslie, who met Lance first when on vacation in Paris. Vanessa then began her long tenure of conspiring to get Lorie out of Lance 's life in order to get Lance and Leslie together. Pressured by Lorie to have cosmetic surgery, a resentful Vanessa unveiled her scars to Lorie. Vanessa later bought a revolver and planned to get even with Lorie after getting her to take off her veil revealing her scar. Unaware that Vanessa was out to get her, Lorie convinced Vanessa to consult a plastic surgeon. After the death of Lorie 's mother Jennifer, she started feeling closer to Vanessa and set out to find Vanessa 's son, Lucas. After Lorie found Lucas and brought him to Genoa City, Vanessa was astonished to her son for the first time in years and vetoed his plan to leave town. Vanessa was grateful to Lorie for bringing Lucas back into her life. Persuaded by Lucas, Vanessa underwent successful surgery for her scars. Vanessa was later shocked to learn that Lucas had married Leslie. After it was learned that Vanessa 's disfiguring scars were a thing of the past, she went out in public for the first time without the veil.
After feeling miffed that Lance always seemed to side with Lorie, Vanessa plotted to shift their family company, Prentiss Industries, into Lucas ' control, unbeknownst to Lance, and she later followed through with her plan. Lance was disappointed when Vanessa oust him as the company boss while Vanessa told Lorie she would not put Lance back in charge unless Lorie divorced him, which put a series of pressure on Lorie after Lance began spirring out of control. Lorie finally gave into Vanessa 's demands by straining her marriage to Lance, which led to Lance leaving town.
In 1981, Vanessa learned she had two months to live after being diagnosed with a terminal illness and she kept quiet about it. After learning she had a short time to live, Vanessa, who had kept mum for over two years about Lance being the father of Leslie 's baby, wrote in a journal that Lance has a son. When Lance returned to town with his fiancée, he later ended his engagement and resumed his romance with Lorie. Vanessa then plotted to shove Lorie down a stairway, but changed her plan and made Lance back down from Lorie after lying that Lorie was still involved with Lucas. Vanessa applauded when Lance turned to Leslie. As Vanessa 's illness deteriorated, she still plotted against Lorie and then forged a venomous letter to herself signing Lorie 's name to it. Vanessa later plunged to her death off a balcony after staging a fight with Lorie.
Derek Thurston first appeared in 1976 and was first portrayed by both Caleb Stoddard and Jeff Cooper, who had brief stints on the series before Joe Ladue took over the role in 1977. The character was then married to Katherine Chancellor and romanced Jill Foster. Ladue departed from the role in 1981 but returned for a special guest appearance on April 13, 1984.
History Derek was a hairdresser tricked into marrying Katherine Chancellor by Kay herself after Kay had fallen in love with him. Derek was actually attracted to Kay 's sworn enemy, Jill Foster Abbott, but he decided to go along with Katherine because he knew he would gain wealth if he lived with her for a year and could then set up his own salon. However, Derek 's past in organized crime came back to haunt him when the mob tried to shoot him, but accidentally shot Katherine, who was left paralyzed. Even after she recovered, Kay used her health as a way to hold onto Derek. Derek 's life took another strange turn when his ex-wife, Suzanne Lynch, came to town prepared to do anything to win Derek back. By lacing candy with drugs, she attempted to drive Kay to insanity but it backfired when it appeared Kay had been killed by the candy and Derek, free of both his wives, inherited the Chancellor fortune and planned to marry Jill. Everyone was shocked when thought - to - be-dead Katherine showed up at the wedding to reclaim her fortune -- and Derek, as well. The newly reunited couple decided to go on a cruise, but while traveling they had a fight that resulted in Kay jumping overboard. When she returned from being held captive by and falling in love with a man named Felipe, she divorced Derek. Derek had a friendly reunion with both Jill, who informed him she had gotten married, and Kay, who had just recently had a face - lift, when he appeared at the wedding of Victor Newman and Nikki Reed in 1984.
Casey Reed first appeared in March 1978 and was portrayed by Roberta Leighton. The character is better known as the older sister of longtime Genoa City resident Nikki Newman. Originally a main character with the actress on contract, Leighton later moved to recurring status. Her most recent appearance was in April 1998.
History Dr. Casey Reed is Nikki Reed 's older sister. Casey takes a job at Snapper Foster 's medical clinic in 1978. Snapper falls in love with Casey after he separates from his wife, Chris Brooks Foster. Casey and Snapper 's relationship is troubled from the start because Casey suffers from a fear of sex and she is also worried about her younger sister, Nikki, who is a promiscuous teenager. When Nikki and Casey 's mother is killed in a car crash, their father, Nick Reed, returns to Genoa City. Seeing her father again, Casey remembers a traumatic incident that has been buried deep in her subconscious. When she was a child, Nick raped her. When Casey, accompanied by her friend, Brock Reynolds, goes to confront Nick, he is in the process of trying to rape Nikki. During Nikki 's struggle to defend herself, she accidentally kills their father.
Casey later begins seeing Lucas Prentiss, who has separated from his wife, Leslie Brooks. As Lucas turns his sights on Casey, who is making great strides in recovering from her troubled childhood, Casey is also trying to emotionally detach herself from Snapper, whose wife, Chris, has returned to Genoa City. When Chris realizes Snapper was involved with Casey, she introduces herself to the new woman in her husband 's life. Since Snapper can not decide which woman he wants to see exclusively, Chris and Casey jointly decide to cut off contact with him until he is able to make a decision. Casey ends her association with Lucas after realizing he still has feelings for Leslie. In 1981, Casey is harassed by a secret stalker, who eventually shifts his focus to Nikki. Meanwhile, Casey leaves Genoa City when she accepts a job in another town. In 1984, Casey briefly returns to Genoa City to attend her sister 's wedding to Victor Newman. Casey returns to Genoa City in 1985 and leaves town again in 1989. In 1998, Casey makes another visit to Genoa City upon learning about the shooting of Nikki who has been shot by a psychotic woman named Veronica Landers who was posing as a maid named Sarah Lindsay. It was revealed in 2010 that Casey had been diagnosed with breast cancer, but was able to fight it off.
Rose DeVille first appeared in 1979 as the owner and runner of a prostitution ring and, later, a black market baby organization. She was portrayed by Darlene Conley until 1980, with a return appearance from 1986 to January 1987.
History Rose DeVille had a modeling agency that was really a front for drugs and prostitution. An unwitting, young Nikki Reed signed on and became entangled in the death of a businessman, Walter Addison. Rose later ran a home for unwed mothers while actually operating a black - market baby ring. She took a teenage Nina Webster under her wing, only to later abandon her on the delivery table and kidnap her son. Nina was led to believe the baby was stillborn. Eventually learning the truth, however, it was too late: Rose was gone and never seen again. The ordeal haunted Nina on and off over the years, the show occasionally featuring flashbacks, which featured Rose. The last of these happened in 2000 and 2010. In 2010, Nina and her friends, Paul Williams and Christine Blair all reminisced about the sad day. As Paul investigated Nina 's lost - son whereabouts, he mentioned that Rose was deceased.
April Stevens first appeared in December 1979, originally portrayed by Janet Wood until the role was assumed by Cindy Eilbacher, who remained in the role until 1982. Eilbacher reprised her role from 1992 to 1994. April was last portrayed by Rebecca Staab for two episodes in January 2008.
History In 1979, April became neighbors with Snapper and Chris Foster as she moved right next door to them in their apartment building. April Stevens then began to see and have an affair with Paul Williams and she became pregnant. Paul urged April to have an abortion and, when she refused, Paul turned his back on her. Paul ended up leaving Genoa City to join the New World Commune with his ex-girlfriend, Nikki Reed Foster. Steven Williams and Peggy Brooks were able to expose the commune as a cult. Nikki 's husband Greg Foster ended up falling for April. When Greg learned April was gravely ill, he pressured Paul to finally marry April for their child, Heather. A reluctant Paul eventually married her in January 1981. Their marriage, however, turned dull and parental responsibility proved too much for Paul; he and April divorced. April 's parents, Dorothy and Wayne Stevens, were introduced in 1980 as having struggled to make ends meet to take care of April, having been forced to give up another baby for adoption. An heiress by the name of Barbara Hartling discovered on her father 's death bed that she was adopted and that Dorothy and Wayne were her parents. Barbara came to Genoa City and lavished them with money and gifts, eventually convincing them to New York City with her. After saying goodbye to Paul, April took Heather and left town.
Later, April married Dr. Robert Lynch, who physically abused April. On a visit to Genoa City back in 1992, Paul and his friend and future wife, Christine Blair, ended up figuring out the truth about April 's marriage. April ended up leaving Heather behind out of protection but, back in New York, April stabbed Robert in self - defense. April was charged with murder while Christine and John Silva offered to represent her. Once the case was dropped, Paul hoped to have a new life with April and Heather, but April wanted to leave Genoa City again. April briefly returned to Genoa City in 2008 and revealed to Heather that Paul was her father, allowing them to begin to rebuild their father - daughter relationship. Heather left Genoa City in November 2011 and went to New York.
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why is an intact endoneurium beneficial in nerve regeneration | Neuroregeneration - wikipedia
Neuroregeneration refers to the regrowth or repair of nervous tissues, cells or cell products. Such mechanisms may include generation of new neurons, glia, axons, myelin, or synapses. Neuroregeneration differs between the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS) by the functional mechanisms and especially the extent and speed. When an axon is damaged, the distal segment undergoes Wallerian degeneration, losing its myelin sheath. The proximal segment can either die by apoptosis or undergo the chromatolytic reaction, which is an attempt at repair. In the CNS, synaptic stripping occurs as glial foot processes invade the dead synapse.
Nervous system injuries affect over 90,000 people every year. It is estimated that spinal cord injuries alone affect 10,000 each year. As a result of this high incidence of neurological injuries, nerve regeneration and repair, a subfield of neural tissue engineering, is becoming a rapidly growing field dedicated to the discovery of new ways to recover nerve functionality after injury. The nervous system is divided into two parts: the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which consists of cranial and spinal nerves along with their associated ganglia. While the peripheral nervous system has an intrinsic ability for repair and regeneration, the central nervous system is, for the most part, incapable of self - repair and regeneration. There is currently no treatment for recovering human nerve function after injury to the central nervous system. In addition, multiple attempts at nerve re-growth across the PNS - CNS transition have not been successful. There is simply not enough knowledge about regeneration in the central nervous system. In addition, although the peripheral nervous system has the capability for regeneration, much research still needs to be done to optimize the environment for maximum regrowth potential. Neuroregeneration is important clinically, as it is part of the pathogenesis of many diseases, including multiple sclerosis.
Neuroregeneration in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) occurs to a significant degree. Axonal sprouts form at the proximal stump and grow until they enter the distal stump. The growth of the sprouts is governed by chemotactic factors secreted from Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes). Injury to the peripheral nervous system immediately elicits the migration of phagocytes, Schwann cells, and macrophages to the lesion site in order to clear away debris such as damaged tissue. When a nerve axon is severed, the end still attached to the cell body is labeled the proximal segment, while the other end is called the distal segment. After injury, the proximal end swells and experiences some retrograde degeneration, but once the debris is cleared, it begins to sprout axons and the presence of growth cones can be detected. The proximal axons are able to regrow as long as the cell body is intact, and they have made contact with the Schwann cells in the endoneurial channel or tube. Human axon growth rates can reach 1 mm / day in small nerves and 5 mm / day in large nerves. The distal segment, however, experiences Wallerian degeneration within hours of the injury; the axons and myelin degenerate, but the endoneurium remains. In the later stages of regeneration the remaining endoneurial tube directs axon growth back to the correct targets. During Wallerian degeneration, Schwann cells grow in ordered columns along the endoneurial tube, creating a band of Büngner (boB) that protects and preserves the endoneurial channel. Also, macrophages and Schwann cells release neurotrophic factors that enhance re-growth.
Unlike peripheral nervous system injury, injury to the central nervous system is not followed by extensive regeneration. It is limited by the inhibitory influences of the glial and extracellular environment. The hostile, non-permissive growth environment is, in part, created by the migration of myelin - associated inhibitors, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursors, and microglia. The environment within the CNS, especially following trauma, counteracts the repair of myelin and neurons. Growth factors are not expressed or re-expressed; for instance, the extracellular matrix is lacking laminins. Glial scars rapidly form, and the glia actually produce factors that inhibit remyelination and axon repair; for instance, NOGO and NI - 35. The axons themselves also lose the potential for growth with age, due to a decrease in GAP 43 expression among others.
Slower degeneration of the distal segment than that which occurs in the peripheral nervous system also contributes to the inhibitory environment because inhibitory myelin and axonal debris are not cleared away as quickly. All these factors contribute to the formation of what is known as a glial scar, which axons can not grow across. The proximal segment attempts to regenerate after injury, but its growth is hindered by the environment. It is important to note that central nervous system axons have been proven to regrow in permissive environments; therefore, the primary problem to central nervous system axonal regeneration is crossing or eliminating the inhibitory lesion site. Another problem is that the morphology and functional properties of central nervous system neurons are highly complex, for this reason a neuron can not be functionally replaced by one of another type (Llinás ' law).
Glial cell scar formation is induced following damage to the nervous system. In the central nervous system, this glial scar formation significantly inhibits nerve regeneration, which leads to a loss of function. Several families of molecules are released that promote and drive glial scar formation. For instance, transforming growth factors B - 1 and - 2, interleukins, and cytokines play a role in the initiation of scar formation. The accumulation of reactive astrocytes at the site of injury and the up regulation of molecules that are inhibitory for neurite outgrowth contribute to the failure of neuroregeneration. The up - regulated molecules alter the composition of the extracellular matrix in a way that has been shown to inhibit neurite outgrowth extension. This scar formation involves several cell types and families of molecules.
In response to scar - inducing factors, astrocytes up regulate the production of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans. Astrocytes are a predominant type of glial cell in the central nervous system that provide many functions including damage mitigation, repair, and glial scar formation. The RhoA pathway is involved. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) have been shown to be up regulated in the central nervous system (CNS) following injury. Repeating disaccharides of glucuronic acid and galactosamine, glycosaminoglycans (CS - GAGs), are covalently coupled to the protein core CSPGs. CSPGs have been shown to inhibit regeneration in vitro and in vivo, but the role that the CSPG core protein vs. CS - GAGs had not been studied until recently.
Like the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, keratan sulfate proteoglycan (KSPG) production is up regulated in reactive astrocytes as part of glial scar formation. KSPGs have also been shown to inhibit neurite outgrowth extension, limiting nerve regeneration. Keratan sulfate, also called keratosulfate, is formed from repeating disaccharide galactose units and N - acetylglucosamines. It is also 6 - sulfated. This sulfation is crucial to the elongation of the keratan sulfate chain. A study was done using N - acetylglucosamine 6 - O - sulfotransferase - 1 deficient mice. The wild type mouse showed a significant up regulation of mRNA expressing N - acetylglucosamine 6 - O - sulfotransferase - 1 at the site of cortical injury. However, in the N - acetylglucosamine 6 - O - sulfotransferase - 1 deficient mice, the expression of keratan sulfate was significantly decreased when compared to the wild type mice. Similarly, glial scar formation was significantly reduced in the N - acetylglucosamine 6 - O - sulfotransferase - 1 mice, and as a result, nerve regeneration was less inhibited.
Proteins of oligodendritic or glial debris origin that influence neuroregeneration:
Surgery can be done in case a peripheral nerve has become cut or otherwise divided. This is called peripheral nerve reconstruction. The injured nerve is identified and exposed so that normal nerve tissue can be examined above and below the level of injury, usually with magnification, using either loupes or an operating microscope. If a large segment of nerve is harmed, as can happen in a crush or stretch injury, the nerve will need to be exposed over a larger area. Injured portions of the nerve are removed. The cut nerve endings are then carefully reapproximated using very small sutures. The nerve repair must be covered by healthy tissue, which can be as simple as closing the skin or it can require moving skin or muscle to provide healthy padded coverage over the nerve. The type of anesthesia used depends on the complexity of the injury. A surgical tourniquet is almost always used.
The expectations after surgical repair of a divided peripheral nerve depends on several factors:
Currently, autologous nerve grafting, or a nerve autograft, is known as the gold standard for clinical treatments used to repair large lesion gaps in the peripheral nervous system. It is important that nerves are not repaired under tension, which could otherwise happen if cut ends are reapproximated across a gap. Nerve segments are taken from another part of the body (the donor site) and inserted into the lesion to provide endoneurial tubes for axonal regeneration across the gap. However, this is not a perfect treatment; often the final outcome is only limited function recovery. Also, partial deinnervation is frequently experienced at the donor site, and multiple surgeries are required to harvest the tissue and implant it.
When appropriate, a nearby donor may be used to supply innervation to lesioned nerves. Trauma to the donor can be minimized by utilizing a technique known as end - to - side repair. In this procedure, an epineurial window is created in the donor nerve and the proximal stump of the lesioned nerve is sutured over the window. Regenerating axons are redirected into the stump. Efficacy of this technique is partially dependent upon the degree of partial neurectomy performed on the donor, with increasing degrees of neurectomy giving rise to increasing axon regeneration within the lesioned nerve, but with the consequence of increasing deficit to the donor.
Some evidence suggests that local delivery of soluble neurotrophic factors at the site of autologous nerve grafting may enhance axon regeneration within the graft and help expedite functional recovery of a paralyzed target. Other evidence suggests that gene - therapy induced expression of neurotrophic factors within the target muscle itself can also help enhance axon regeneration. Accelerating neuroregeneration and the reinnervation of a denervated target is critically important in order to reduce the possibility of permanent paralysis due to muscular atrophy.
Variations on the nerve autograft include the allograft and the xenograft. In allografts, the tissue for the graft is taken from another person, the donor, and implanted in the recipient. Xenografts involve taking donor tissue from another species. Allografts and xenografts have the same disadvantages as autografts, but in addition, tissue rejection from immune responses must also be taken into account. Often immunosuppression is required with these grafts. Disease transmission also becomes a factor when introducing tissue from another person or animal. Overall, allografts and xenografts do not match the quality of outcomes seen with autografts, but they are necessary when there is a lack of autologous nerve tissue.
Because of the limited functionality received from autografts, the current gold standard for nerve regeneration and repair, recent neural tissue engineering research has focused on the development of bioartificial nerve guidance conduits in order to guide axonal regrowth. The creation of artificial nerve conduits is also known as entubulation because the nerve ends and intervening gap are enclosed within a tube composed of biological or synthetic materials.
A direction of research is towards the use of drugs that target remyelinating inhibitor proteins, or other inhibitors. Possible strategies include vaccination against these proteins (active immunisation), or treatment with previously created antibodies (passive immunisation). These strategies appear promising on animal models with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a model of MS. Monoclonal antibodies have also been used against inhibitory factors such as NI - 35 and NOGO.
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when does the tv show six come on | Six (TV series) - wikipedia
Six (stylized as SIX) is an American television drama series. The series was ordered by History with an eight - episode initial order. The first two episodes were directed by Lesli Linka Glatter. Six premiered on January 18, 2017.
Six was renewed for a second season of 10 episodes on February 23, 2017, which will likely premiere in 2018.
The series chronicles the operations and daily lives of operators who are part of the U.S. Naval Special Warfare Development Group (DEVGRU), more commonly known as SEAL Team Six, which is one of the U.S. Armed Forces ' primary counter-terrorism units.
Joe Manganiello was originally cast as Rip Taggart but left the series in April 2016 "due to a ' manageable ' preexisting health issue ''. About a week after Manganiello 's departure, Walton Goggins was cast as his replacement. All of the already done shoots with Manganiello 's character, nearly two full episodes, had to be re-shot. Also Christopher Backus had been cast, but left the project to be on the series Roadies before the series started shooting.
Season two, which consists of 10 episodes, is being produced by a new production company, Six 2 North Productions Inc. Kimberly Peirce and Colin Bucksey are directors, with George Perkins the executive producer. Season two began filming on July 17, 2017, in Metro Vancouver, around Pemberton, and throughout British Columbia, and will complete filming on November 23, 2017.
On review aggregator Metacritic, Six has a rating of 54 out of 100 based on 14 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. The show also has a 55 % rating based on 11 reviews from review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, stating "Six 's well - crafted action and engaging characters are intriguing in spite of the show 's trite pretense and familiar narrative ''.
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who is the ceo of niti ayog 2018 | NITI Aayog - Wikipedia
The NITI Aayog (Hindi for Policy Commission), also National Institution for Transforming India, is a policy think tank of the Government of India, established with the aim to achieve Sustainable Development Goals and to enhance cooperative federalism by fostering the involvement of State Governments of India in the economic policy - making process using a bottom - up approach. Its initiatives include "15 year road map '', "7 - year vision, strategy and action plan '', AMRUT, Digital India, Atal Innovation Mission, Medical Education Reform, Agriculture reforms (Model Land Leasing Law, Reforms of the Agricultural Produce Marketing Committee Act, Agricultural Marketing and Farmer Friendly Reforms Index for ranking states), Indices Measuring States ' Performance in Health, Education and Water Management, Sub-Group of Chief Ministers on Rationalization of Centrally Sponsored Schemes, Sub-Group of Chief Ministers on Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Sub-Group of Chief Ministers on Skill Development, Task Forces on Agriculture and Elimination of Poverty, and Transforming India Lecture Series.
It was established in 2015, by the NDA government, to replace the Planning Commission which followed a top - down model. The Prime Minister is the Ex-officio chairman. The permanent members of the governing council are all the state Chief Ministers, along with the Chief Ministers of Delhi and Puducherry, the Lieutenant Governor of Andaman and Nicobar, and a vice chairman nominated by the Prime Minister. In addition, temporary members are selected from leading universities and research institutions. These members include a chief executive officer, four ex-official members and two part - time members.
The Union Government of India announced the formation of NITI Aayog on 1 January 2015, and the first meeting was held on 8 February 2015. On 29 May 2014, the Independent Evaluation Office submitted an assessment report to Prime Minister Narendra Modi with the recommendation to replace the Planning Commission with a "control commission. '' On 13 August 2014, the Union Cabinet scrapped the Planning Commission, to be replaced with a diluted version of the National Advisory Council (NAC) of India. On 1 January 2015 a Cabinet resolution was passed to replace the Planning Commission with the newly formed NITI Aayog (National Institution for Transforming India). The first meeting of NITI Aayog was chaired by Narendra Modi on 8 February 2015.
Finance Minister Arun Jaitley made the following observation on the necessity of creating NITI Aayog, "The 65 year - old Planning Commission had become a redundant organisation. It was relevant in a command economy structure, but not any longer. India is a diversified country and its states are in various phases of economic development along with their own strengths and weaknesses. In this context, a ' one size fits all ' approach to economic planning is obsolete. It can not make India competitive in today 's global economy. ''
NITI Aayog has started a new initiative on the advice of Prime Minister Narendra Modi called NITI Lectures: Transforming India. The aim of this initiative is to invite globally reputed policy makers, experts, administrators to India to share their knowledge, expertise, experience in policy making and good governance with Indian counterparts. This initiative will be a series of lectures started with first lecture delivered by Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore Mr. Tharman Shanmugaratnam. He delivered lecture on subject called "India and the Global Economy '' at Vigyan Bhavan, New Delhi. The Prime Minister spoke about the idea behind this lecture series and stated that his vision for India is rapid transformation, not gradual evolution.
On 31 August 2017, NITI Aayog developed a State Statistics Handbook that consolidates key statistics across sectors for every Indian State / UT. While the State data on crucial indicators is currently fragmented across different sources, this handbook provides a one - stop database of important State statistics.
The NITI Aayog comprises the following:
With the Prime Minister as the Chairperson, the committee consists of
Media related to NITI Aayog at Wikimedia Commons
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when is the last time brazil won the world cup | List of FIFA World Cup finals - wikipedia
The FIFA World Cup is an international association football competition established in 1930. It is contested by the men 's national teams of the members of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport 's global governing body. The tournament has taken place every four years, except in 1942 and 1946, when the competition was cancelled due to World War II. The most recent World Cup, hosted by Russia in 2018, was won by France, who beat Croatia 4 -- 2 in regulation time.
The World Cup final match is the last of the competition, and the result determines which country is declared world champions. If after 90 minutes of regular play the score is a draw, an additional 30 - minute period of play, called extra time, is added. If such a game is still tied after extra time, it is then decided by a penalty shoot - out. The team winning the penalty shoot - out are then declared champions. The tournament has been decided by a one - off match on every occasion except 1950, when the tournament winner was decided by a final round - robin group contested by four teams (Uruguay, Brazil, Sweden, and Spain). Uruguay 's 2 -- 1 victory over Brazil was the decisive match (and one of the last two matches of the tournament) which put them ahead on points and ensured that they finished top of the group as world champions. Therefore, this match is regarded by FIFA as the de facto final of the 1950 World Cup.
In the 21 tournaments held, 79 nations have appeared at least once. Of these, 13 have made it to the final match, and eight have won. With five titles, Brazil is the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have participated in every World Cup finals tournament. Italy and Germany have four titles. Current champion France, along with past champions Uruguay and Argentina, have two titles each, while England and Spain have one each. The team that wins the finals receive the FIFA World Cup Trophy, and their name is engraved on the bottom side of the trophy.
The 1970 and 1994, along with the 1986, 1990 and 2014 games are to date the only matches competed by the same teams (Brazil -- Italy and Argentina -- Germany respectively). As of 2018, the 1934 final remains the latest final to have been between two teams playing their first final. The final match of the most recent tournament in Russia took place at the country 's biggest sports complex, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow. The 1930 and the 1966 games are the only ones that did not take place on a Sunday. The former did on a Wednesday and the latter on a Saturday. As of 2018, only nations from Europe and South America have competed in a World Cup final. Six nations have won the final as host: Uruguay, Italy, England, Germany, Argentina and France. Two nations have lost the final as host: Brazil and Sweden.
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when did the simpsons get a new intro | The Simpsons opening sequence - wikipedia
The opening sequence of the American animated television series The Simpsons is among the popularized opening sequences in television and goes along with one of television 's most recognizable theme songs. The first episode to use this intro was the series ' second episode "Bart the Genius ''.
The standard opening has had two major revisions. The first was at the start of the second season when the entire sequence was reanimated to improve the quality and certain shots were changed generally to add characters who had been established in the first season. The second was a brand - new opening sequence produced in high - definition for the show 's transition to that format beginning with "Take My Life, Please '' in season 20. The new opening generally followed the sequence of the original opening with improved graphics, even more characters, and new jokes.
This sequence opens with the show 's title in yellow approaching the camera through misty cumulus clouds in a dark blue sky. The shot cuts through the counter in the letter "P '' to an establishing shot of the town of Springfield.
The camera zooms in through the town and then through a window of a lavender Springfield Elementary, where Bart is writing lines on the class chalkboard as a punishment. When the school bell rings, Bart leaves in a hurry and skateboards out of the school doors.
The shot cuts to Homer working at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant wearing a safety mask while handling a green rod of uranium with tongs. An unknown co-worker in the background eats a sandwich, also with a pair of tongs. The end - of - shift whistle blows, and Homer immediately takes off his mask and drops the tongs to leave work. As he does so, the glowing rod bounces into the air and falls down the back of his radiation suit.
The next shot shows Marge and Maggie checking out at a supermarket. Maggie, who is sitting on the conveyor belt, is inadvertently scanned along with the groceries as Marge reads a magazine, "Mom Monthly ''. Maggie is rung up at a price of $847.63 (which represented the monthly cost of raising a child at the time) and bagged, and is dropped into Marge 's shopping cart. As Marge looks around panicked for her child, Maggie pops out of a shopping bag, and Marge breathes a sigh of relief.
Lisa is shown next at band practice. The opening theme coordinates with this shot, and is orchestrated as if it were played by the school band. Mr. Largo stops the rest of the band to order Lisa out of the rehearsal for her unorthodox saxophone playing. She continues to improvise on her way out of the room to grab her bike.
Shots of the family on their way home to 742 Evergreen Terrace are then shown. Homer drives in his car, feeling something down the back of his shirt. He retrieves the uranium rod and throws it out the window. As it bounces off the curb near Moe 's Tavern, Bart skateboards by, noticing a bank of televisions in a store window he passes showing Krusty the Clown; he then passes a bus stop and steals the "bus stop '' sign. The five unknown unnamed characters waiting at the stop then chase after a bus that fails to stop for them.
As soon as Bart crosses the road, a car drives past and Maggie is seen inside at the steering wheel; but when the camera zooms out, her wheel is revealed to be a children 's toy and Marge is actually the one driving with Maggie mimicking Marge 's movements as Marge and Maggie both honk their horns. Lisa is shown biking down the street with her books tied in the front basket and her saxophone case at the back. As she hits a bump, the books fly upwards but are restrained by the strap.
She passes a tree and arrives at home. She hops off her bike on the driveway and grabs her books and saxophone, all while the bike continues to roll unaided into the garage. She runs towards the front door as Homer drives up the driveway, parking his car in front of the garage. Bart bounces his skateboard off the roof of the car and then touches down and skates to the front door. As Homer steps out of the car, he screams at the sight of Marge 's car coming towards him. The shot cuts to Marge 's point of view as Homer runs from the car into the house through a door in the garage. Upon entering their house, they speed from different directions towards the living room couch, segueing into the couch gag. After the gag, the television displays the executive producer credits.
Notably in "Bart the Genius '', the famous high - pitched scream of Homer 's when he runs from Marge 's car into the house is cut. The scream is added in the third episode, "Homer 's Odyssey ''.
The TV version of this opening has the caption "In Stereo Where Available ''.
For the second season, the original opening was completely re-animated. Most shots were very closely copied (with some shots, such as Homer 's first shot) appearing to be traced. The coloring was changed on most shots, and the characters and animation cleaned up.
A few shots were replaced or modified: In Bart 's chalkboard gag, the school is now orange with purple accents instead of lavender. In Homer 's first shot at the power plant, Mr. Burns and Waylon Smithers study certain plans in the background in place of the unknown co-worker. When the end - of - shift whistle blows, Mr. Burns checks his wristwatch to see if it is working.
When Bart skateboards down the sidewalk, the scenery is different, the bank of televisions is changed and shorter, and Bart no longer notices them. Instead, he weaves in between a series of secondary characters who crowd the sidewalk. This segment is notably shorter than the original skateboard segment.
Lisa 's biking home shot is cut, and instead, upon Marge and Maggie honking their horns, there is a "whip - pan '' across the town, featuring a significant number of secondary characters, towards the Simpsons ' house. Instead of Lisa arriving first, Homer arrives first and has to dodge her (saying "D'oh! '') after he gets out of his car as she cycles up the driveway and bikes towards the front door. Finally, the last shot of the family television features a totally different design for the television, which has a more retro look than Season 1 's.
A new permanent opening sequence was animated for the show 's transition to the High Definition format, premiering with the Season 20 episode "Take My Life, Please. '' This sequence is similar to the previous one, but features many visual changes that take advantage of the wider format.
The sequence opens as usual with movement through cumulus clouds, while a 3 - eyed crow flies by. The crow is sometimes replaced by characters, like Shary Bobbins flying by using her umbrella, or also the Planet Express Ship from Futurama. The camera then zooms past the nuclear power plant and into the town square where Jimbo and Kearney saw off the head of the statue of Jebediah Springfield which falls onto the head of Ralph Wiggum, who is holding an ice cream cone. As it falls on him, he inadvertently tosses the cone onto the statue 's face. The camera then weaves through several buildings and structures, featuring a "billboard gag '' towards Springfield Elementary and zooms through the familiar window where Bart writes lines as punishment on the chalkboard. The bell rings and Bart skateboards out of the school doors, plowing into a pile of leaves raked up by Groundskeeper Willie and exposing Barney Gumble underneath.
Homer is shown leaving the power plant and, as in the previous opening sequences, the green uranium bar falls into his clothing as he leaves. This time, in the background of this scene, Lenny Leonard is standing on a ladder trying to change the "days without an accident sign '' from 2 to 3 days but then falls off the ladder onto Carl Carlson who is standing at the bottom of the ladder. The scene changes to Marge at the supermarket check out. Among the products Marge is buying is Tomacco juice and Mr. Sparkle detergent. Maggie is scanned, and the price doubles from $243.26 to $486.52, before she is put in the shopping cart. When Maggie pops her head out of the paper bag, Marge looks relatively calm and does not panic, unlike in the previous sequences. Maggie shakes her fist at Baby Gerald, who is beside her in another shopping cart. In band practice, Mr. Largo dismisses Lisa, who plays a solo as she leaves and then pokes her head back in the door to finish it. One notable difference from the previous opening sequence is Sherri and Terri, who are texting messages instead of playing their flutes.
Homer is then shown driving home and discards the stuck uranium bar out the window; it lands in Otto Mann 's lap and he consumes it. Bart skateboards past Otto before weaving through several townspeople: a machete - swinging Sideshow Bob, Helen Lovejoy, Apu Nahasapeemapetilon and his octuplets, Moe Szyslak, Comic Book Guy, Disco Stu, the Crazy Cat Lady, the Rich Texan and Chief Wiggum, who shakes his cosh at Bart as Bart crosses the road. Hans Moleman pokes his head out from a manhole, which slams down on him when Marge drives over it in her orange station wagon, unlike the red sedan in the previous opening. Maggie is shown in a booster seat in the middle while Grampa sleeps next to her. When Marge and Maggie honk their respective horns, Grampa is startled awake and his dentures fall out.
The camera pans across Springfield. The driveway scene remains almost exactly the same, except Marge 's car now hits Homer and carries him on the hood until it stops short, flinging him ahead to smash a Homer - shaped hole through the door. The Simpsons run into the living room and a couch gag is shown, before the credits are displayed on a new widescreen flat panel television, which falls to the floor and breaks. Unlike the previous opening sequences, there is no cut to black and the episode begins immediately. Sometimes, the flat panel television does not fall to the floor and break, but unlike "Bart Gets a Z '', the episode will begin then anyway.
In the 500th episode, the opening sequence was a montage of all previous couch gags.
Creator Matt Groening developed a lengthy opening sequence for the first season of The Simpsons, in order to cut down on the animation necessary for each episode, but devised the two gags as compensation for the repeated material each week. In the first of the original gags, the camera zooms in on Springfield Elementary School, where Bart can be seen writing a message on the chalkboard. This message, which changes from episode to episode, has become known as the "chalkboard gag ''. The other gag is known as a "couch gag '', in which a twist of events occur when the family meets to sit on their couch and watch television. Groening, who had not paid much attention to television since his own childhood, was unaware that title sequences of such length were uncommon by that time. The episode "Bart the Genius '' was the first to feature the series ' full title sequence. The theme, which plays over the sequence, was composed by Danny Elfman in 1989, after Groening approached him requesting a retro - style theme. The piece, which took two days to create, has been noted by Elfman as the most popular of his career.
The season two episode "Bart Gets an "F '' '' featured a revised opening sequence, which was shortened by fifteen seconds from its original length of roughly 1 minute, 30 seconds. The opening sequence for the first season showed Bart stealing a "Bus Stop '' sign; whilst the new sequence featured him skateboarding past several characters who had been introduced during the previous season. Starting with this season, there were three versions of the opening: a full roughly 1 minute 15 second long version, a 45 second version and a 25 second version. This gave the show 's editors more leeway.
"Take My Life, Please '' (season 20) was the first episode of The Simpsons to air in 720p high - definition television, though not the first time The Simpsons appeared in high - definition, as The Simpsons Movie was rendered in HD. This episode was the first to feature the new opening sequence. It was the first major permanent change to the show 's introduction since the opening added in season two; previous changes have included variations in the duration of the intro, and special one - shot introductions for the Treehouse of Horror Halloween episodes, as well as a handful of others. This new intro also includes some 3D animation when the camera pans over Springfield. The Simpsons creator Matt Groening told the New York Post: "The clouds at the very beginning of the main title were always unsatisfying to me. My original direction to the animators was to make the clouds as realistic as possible, and as we go through the clouds we enter this cartoon universe of The Simpsons. Finally, after a couple of decades, they 've gotten closer to what I had in my mind. Not perfect, but better. ''
The two original variations were further expanded to these variations:
The billboard gag is a running visual joke added to the opening sequence with the updated 2009 high - definition opening. In the gag, a billboard is seen on the roof of the building across the street from the elementary school as the camera pans through the town. The billboard changes every episode. The first episode with a billboard gag was "Take My Life, Please '' where the billboard says "Krusty: Now Doing Funerals ''.
The chalkboard gag is a running visual joke that occurs during the opening credits of many episodes. In this gag, Bart Simpson is writing lines on the chalkboard as a punishment; when the school bell rings, he immediately stops writing and runs out of the classroom. The phrase he writes on the chalkboard changes from episode to episode. Chalkboard messages may involve political humor such as "The First Amendment does not cover burping '', pop culture references such as "I ca n't see dead people '' and "I was not the sixth Beatle '', the Invader Zim pilot with Dib, and meta - references such as "I am not a 32 - year - old woman '' and "Nobody reads these anymore ''. When possible, Bart is shown deliberately disobeying the line that he is writing on the chalkboard (e.g. squeaking chalk when asked to write "I will not squeak chalk '', putting in ditto marks for "I will not cut corners '', showing dis - coordination with "coffee is not for kids '', or putting "I will finish what I sta '' for a single line). In The Simpsons Movie, the gag, "I will not illegally download this movie '', is a reference to piracy. The animators are able to produce the chalkboard gags quickly and in some cases have changed them to fit current events. For example, the chalkboard gag for "Homer the Heretic '' (season four, 1992) read, "I will not defame New Orleans. '' The gag had been written as an apology to the city for a controversial song in the previous week 's episode, which called the city a "home of pirates, drunks and whores ''. Another such chalkboard line gave the creators stance on the threats made towards another popular animated sitcom, South Park, by the group Revolution Muslim, following the controversies with the episodes 200 and 201 and the depictions of Muslim prophet Mohammed (South Park - We 'd stand beside you if we were n't so scared). Many episodes do not feature a chalkboard gag because they are cut to make more room for story, plot development and advertisements. In "Four Regrettings and a Funeral '' (season 25, 2013), Bart writes "We 'll really miss you Mrs. K '' only once, in tribute to the recent death of Marcia Wallace, the voice of Edna Krabappel. In the first episode to air after Donald Trump won the United States presidential election in 2016, Bart writes "Being right sucks '', a reference to the 2000 episode "Bart to the Future '' where Lisa succeeds Trump as Commander - in - Chief.
During the opening sequence, Lisa is seen being ejected from band rehearsal due to her non-conformist saxophone playing. She exits the room playing a saxophone solo, which sometimes changes. Some of the solos have similarities with pieces by Donovan, Frank Zappa, James Brown, and Charlie Parker. The Simpsons composer Alf Clausen said that the session musicians who perform her solos do not try to play at the second grade level and instead "think of Lisa as a really good player ''. Lisa plays the baritone saxophone, but according to Matt Groening, "she does n't always play a baritone sax because the animators do n't know what it looks like, so it changes shape and color from show to show. ''
After the switch to HD production, Lisa has also performed occasionally her solo on an instrument other than the saxophone. As of Season 20 to 28, she has played a trumpet, violin or fiddle, tuba, baritone horn, clarinet, theremin, and harp. In this last instance, she drags the instrument with her and continues playing once Mr. Largo orders her out of the room. When Lisa rides home on her bike after she has played a different instrument, she is seen to still have it with her.
The "couch gag '' is a running visual joke near the end of the opening credits. The gag generally changes from episode to episode, and usually features the Simpson family 's living room couch. A typical gag features the Simpson family running into the living room, only to find some abnormality with the couch, be it a bizarre and unexpected occupant, an odd placement of the couch, such as on the ceiling, or any number of other situations.
In the syndicated version for the episodes from seasons 1 to 5, the couch gag for the episode is usually replaced with the one from season five 's "Rosebud '' where The Simpsons find an exact double of themselves on the couch (though the syndicated versions of the later episodes retain their original couch gags).
The couch gag is frequently used to make the show longer or shorter, depending on the length of the episode itself. For example, longer couch gags have been used to fill time in shorter episodes, such as in "Lisa 's First Word '' and "The Front '' and "Cape Feare ''. An extended couch gag was also seen in the first episode to use the new opening sequence, "Take My Life, Please '', where the family chases their couch on a tour across the world. Another long couch gag was in the show 's 500th episode "At Long Last Leave, '' showing a montage of previous couch gags.
In 2006, the British television channel Sky 1 began advertising The Simpsons using a live - action recreation of the series ' opening sequence directed by Chris Palmer. Except for the very first shot in which the logo appears out of the clouds, every piece of the opening is present in this version, with even multiple chalkboard and couch gags filmed. Attached to the end of this sequence is the message "Come home to The Simpsons on Sky One. '' The recreation was used instead of the regular opening titles in the season 17 episode "Homer Simpson, This Is Your Wife '', first broadcast on the Fox network on March 26, 2006. The live - action opening had also become an Internet hit before it was aired in front of "Homer Simpson, This Is Your Wife '', and it was Groening 's decision to use it. Al Jean commented in a press statement that he was "just amazed there are people who want to be known for looking like the Simpsons. ''
A Christmas - themed version was animated for "Kill Gil, Volumes I & II '' and later re-aired with "The Burns and the Bees ''. It begins with two lines of instrumental "O Christmas Tree '' and then the normal theme music begins. This version is similar to the normal version, except for several key differences:
In the end, the couch gag is that the family sits on the couch and the camera then pulls out to reveal that the family was reflected in a Christmas ornament, which rests on a Christmas tree.
Another Christmas version of the opening titles appeared in "White Christmas Blues ''.
A completely different sequence was created for The Simpsons Movie and features an orchestrated version of "The Simpsons Theme '' as adapted by Hans Zimmer. The cumulus clouds are displayed in 16: 9 television aspect ratio, with black matte bars at either end of the screen. As "The Simpsons '' logo appears out of the clouds, Professor Frink flies past in one of his inventions carrying a banner marked "MOVIE '' and proclaims "Moo - vie! On the big screen! '' (On the movie 's DVD menu he says, "On the small screen! '' when the menu appears, but then "On the big screen '' during the actual opening sequence.) Frink bumps one of the matte bars out of view, and the other one recedes as the camera zooms in on the town, with several major landmarks popping up. The scene changes to Mr. Burns, who collapses under the extra weight of the toothpaste on his toothbrush, which is dispensed by Smithers. The camera then zooms past Moe 's Tavern into the Kwik - E-Mart where Apu is secretly changing the expiration date on a carton of milk from 2006 to 2008. The camera cuts to Springfield Elementary where Jimbo, Dolph and Kearney are hoisting Martin Prince up a flagpole by his underwear and saluting it as if it were a flag. The camera then zooms through a window of the school where Bart is doing the chalkboard gag which is "I will not illegally download this movie '', a reference to piracy before quick - fading to Green Day who are hosting a concert at Lake Springfield, playing their rendition of "The Simpsons Theme ''.
"He Loves to Fly and He D'ohs '' (season 19) was the first new episode to air following the release of The Simpsons Movie, and the episode 's opening sequence is a callback to the film. Bart writes "I will not wait 20 years to make another movie '' on the chalkboard and skateboards through Springfield, which is still recovering from the dome incident. Several movie characters reappear, including president Schwarzenegger, the Multi-Eyed Squirrel, Colin, Russ Cargill, and the Medicine Woman. We also see that the Simpsons ' house is still under construction and the silo is strapped to Homer 's car. Plopper the pig is also featured for the first time in the series, during the couch gag and Homer refers to him as "my summer love. ''
A special opening sequence, featuring the cast lip dubbing to Ke $ ha 's single "Tik Tok '', was animated for "To Surveil with Love '' to promote "Fox Rocks '' week. This is the first canonical episode that does not feature "The Simpsons Theme '' in any capacity, in the show 's history. The sequence starts with Lisa waking up and then grabbing Milhouse 's glasses. It then shows Groundskeeper Willie brushing his teeth with whiskey. He then gives it to Mrs Krabappel who drinks some while they walk into school before Mrs Krabappel grabs Willie and drags him into a classroom. In the hallway Sherri, Terri and Martin are having pedicures while Ralph is playing in the lost and found box. Principal Skinner and Superintendent Chalmers walk past. The three bullies stick their heads out a classroom and blow up a phone causing coins to explode out of it. Then it shows the music room. Then the bus where Otto falls over. It then shows Nelson singing before showing inside Moe 's bar where a group of people are fighting. Marge comes and drags Homer out of the bar and into her car where they drive home. It then pans over a few characters. Marge and Homer then come in where Lisa, Bart (dressed like a rapper) and Maggie are waiting. They all run into the living room and sit on the couch before a number of characters lift them up. The family then falls asleep.
An homage to the AMC drama Breaking Bad is used as an opening sequence for "What Animated Women Want '', set to the tune of "Crystal Blue Persuasion '' by Tommy James and the Shondells. The song is also used during a montage in the Breaking Bad episode "Gliding Over All '', in reference to the blue - colored methamphetamine produced by the show 's central character Walter White.
The sequence opens with a parody of the Breaking Bad title card, with The Simpsons displayed across the screen with the symbols for Thorium (Th) and Silicon (Si) appearing at the beginning of each word. Marge, aping the downtrodden demeanor of Walter 's wife Skyler, sits on the couch drinking coffee. She goes into the kitchen to begin baking cupcakes, using food coloring to turn the batter blue and adding frosting and sprinkles in other shades of this color. She places one batch in a silver briefcase, which she gives to Bart before he leaves the house. Homer, dressed in the dark hat and sunglasses Walter dons for his "Heisenberg '' persona, sneaks a taste of the batter while Marge is baking and is later woken from a nap by the smell. The scene cuts to a church bake sale, where Marge sells a cupcake to Milhouse as Homer watches from a distance. Back at the Simpson house, Marge runs her earnings through a currency - counting machine, bundles the money, and adds it to a large pile on the dining table. The camera zooms out to reveal a live - action scene (taken from the episode "Hazard Pay '') of Walter White and his partner Jesse Pinkman sitting on a couch drinking beer and watching the sequence on a TV.
The crossover episode "Simpsorama '' begins with a parody of the Futurama title sequence, which includes the Futurama theme music and a text reading "A show out of ideas teams up with a show out of episodes. ''
Used as an opening sequence for "Dad Behavior ''. The sequence opens as usual, until Bart skateboards out of the school and lands on the pile of leaves. He wakes up Barney in process, who then grabs his skateboard and breaks it in half, forcing him to walk home. At work, when Homer drops the tongs, the glowing rod bounces into his mouth and he swallows it, before collapsing. At school, when Largo dismisses Lisa, she hits the door with her saxophone and collapses; the saxophone then falls on her. Next, when Maggie is seen at the steering wheel, when the camera zooms out, it reveals that she is actually driving the car while Marge is sleeping in the backseat. She then wakes up, just when the car drives off a cliff and through a barn. In the process, a chicken gets in the car, and is sitting next to Maggie, clucking, before she sticks her pacifier into its mouth, before driving them all into the lake, where the car sinks. Marge and the chicken then surface, but Maggie does not. Finally, the couch is shown, and Bart walks into the room, alone, carrying his broken skateboard. After calling around for his family, but getting no notice, he takes their pictures and puts them on the couch as he sits there, remarking that "Finally, I get the remote. ''
British graffiti artist and political activist Banksy is credited with creating the opening titles and couch gag for the season 22 episode "MoneyBart '', in what amounted to the first time that an artist has been invited to storyboard the show. Jean first took note of Banksy after seeing his 2010 film Exit Through the Gift Shop. According to Jean, "The concept in my mind was, ' What if this graffiti artist came in and tagged our main titles? ' '' Simpsons casting director Bonnie Pietila was able to contact the artist through the film 's producers, and asked if he would be interested in writing a main title for the show. Jean said Banksy "sent back boards for pretty much what you saw. '' Series creator Matt Groening gave the idea his blessing, and helped try to make the sequence as close to Banksy 's original storyboards as possible.
Approximately the first half minute of the opening sequence remains the same, with a few oddities: the word "BANKSY '' is sprayed onto a number of walls and other public spaces. The chalkboard gag ("I must not write all over the walls '') is written all over the classroom walls, clock, door, and floor. After the Simpsons arrive at home, the camera cuts to a shot of them on the couch, then zooms out to show this as a picture hanging on the wall of a fictional overseas Asian animation and merchandise sweatshop. The animation color quickly becomes drab and gray, and the music turns dramatic à la Schindler 's List. A large group of tired and sickly artists draw animation cels for The Simpsons among piles of human bones and toxic waste, and a female artist hands a barefoot child employee an animation cel, which he washes in a vat of biohazardous fluid. Small kittens are thrown into a woodchipper - type machine to provide the filling for Bart Simpson plush dolls. The toys are then placed into a cart pulled by a sad panda which is driven by a man with a whip. A man shipping boxes with The Simpsons logo on the side uses the tongue from a decapitated dolphin head to fasten shut the packages. Another employee uses the horn of a sickly unicorn to smash the holes in the center of The Simpsons DVDs. It is then revealed that the sweatshop is contained within a grim version of the 20th Century Fox logo, surrounded by barbed wire, searchlights, and a watchtower.
The Simpsons is storyboarded at Film Roman, a company based in California. The storyboards, voice tracks and coloring instructions are then sent to AKOM, a company in Seoul, South Korea. According to Nelson Shin, the founder of AKOM, they received the storyboard for the sequence in August 2010. Believing the sequence to be "excessive and offending '' he pushed for some of the darker jokes to be removed. He was successful, though "not nearly as much as he had pushed for. '' For example, in the storyboards, the workers were wearing conical Asian hats, but these were removed. Fox 's standards and practices department also demanded a handful of changes, but, according to Jean, "95 percent of it is just the way (Banksy) wanted. '' Banksy told The Guardian that his opening sequence was influenced by The Simpsons long - running use of animation studios in Seoul, South Korea. The newspaper also reported that the creation of the sequence "is said to have been one of the most closely guarded secrets in US television -- comparable to the concealment of Banksy 's own identity. '' Although conceding to the fact that The Simpsons is largely animated in South Korea, Jean went on to state that the scenes shown in titles are "very fanciful, far - fetched. None of the things he depicts are true. That statement should be self - evident, but I will emphatically state it. ''
After the positive response to the opening sequence by Banksy, creator Matt Groening and Jean came to Canadian animator and creator of The Ren & Stimpy Show, John Kricfalusi and asked him if he could do something similar for the episode "Bart Stops to Smell the Roosevelts ''. Originally, they only wanted him to do the storyboards and then let their regular crew animate it, but Kricfalusi insisted on doing the animation himself, explaining that "If we had done it that way, no one would even have known that I had anything to do with it because it would have ended up on model and all pose to pose ''. On The Simpsons, the animators draws key poses and then let tweeners interpolate between those poses. The interpolation however, is a straight A-to - B animation. That way the animation ends up having the characters just going from pose to pose. Kricfalusi explains that "On the Simpsons I wanted to try moving the characters in crazy fun ways, not just looking funny each time they come to a stop '', and further elaborated "that the way things happened was even more important than what was happening in my work. You ca n't write visual performance. You have to actually draw it. ''
He showed Groening and showrunner Al Jean his Adult Swim shorts and Groening responded by giving him a free hand to do the 35 - second - long segment. Groening told him to break all The Simpsons rules, but Kricfalusi explains that he "tried not to break any rules in the characters ' personalities, just in the execution of the visuals. I did n't follow any models -- not even my own ''. The more rules he broke, the more pleased Groening and Jean were with the result. Contrary to Banksy, who lives a life in secrecy, Kricfalusi was involved in every detail and even oversaw the dubbing of the final soundtrack. While Kricfalusi animated the 2D parts, he had John Kedzie to help him with the computer graphics and Sarah Harkey and Tommy Tanner to do the assistant animation.
The couch gag for the episode was critically acclaimed by television critics. Amid Amidi of Cartoon Brew calls the opening revolutionary and explains that "in 35 short and sweet seconds, he liberates the animation of The Simpsons from years of graphic banality. '' He continued: "The visual look of the show, which has been so carefully controlled by its producers, becomes a giddy and unrestrained playground for graphic play, and the balance of creative authority is shifted from the writers ' room to the animators in one fell swoop. '' When comparing the segment to Banksy 's, Amidi concluded that it is "in fact, far more subversive because he focuses almost exclusively on making a pictorial statement, relegating the show 's dominant literary elements to the back seat. '' Similarly, Television Blend 's Katey Rich wrote that she appreciates "The Simpsons always being willing to push the envelope in different ways '', but admitted that "it 's gon na take (her) some time to get the gangly - legged Marge Simpson and the leering Homer Simpson out of (her) brain. ''
Bill Plympton has written and animated two couch gags, one for "Beware My Cheating Bart '' where Homer falls in love with the couch... until he meets Marge, and one for "Black Eyed, Please '' in which Homer, Marge, Bart, and Lisa are in a 1930s gangster story, armed with several weapons which are revealed to be gifts once Maggie turns the light on.
The couch gag for the episode, "The Fabulous Faker Boy '', which aired on May 12, 2013, was stop - motion animated by Seth Green 's Stoopid Buddy Stoodios, which also works on the television series Robot Chicken.
Guillermo del Toro directed the 3 - minute opening sequence for "Treehouse of Horror XXIV '', which contained numerous references to horror and science fiction, including his own films.
The couch gag for the episode "Clown in the Dumps '' which aired on September 28, 2014, was animated by the Academy Award - nominated surrealist animator Don Hertzfeldt, who was recommended to the show by Mike B. Anderson. It depicts Homer using a time - traveling remote control to regress to his original 1987 character model from The Tracey Ullman Show then accidentally going into a distant future incarnation of the show called The Sampsans where he and his family have evolved into grotesque, mindless, catchphrase - spouting mutants, which also say to ' buy their merchandise '. Homer (now named ' Homar ') sees a window, triggering memories of when the show was more pure and genuine, and where in one of the three flashbacks, Marge says ' Still love you Homar '. Homer feels sad when he returns to the bastardized world he lives in. Al Jean deemed it "crazier than we thought '' and "the most insane one we 've ever done ''.
The couch gag for the episode, "Mathlete 's Feat '', which aired on May 17, 2015, features Rick and Morty from the Cartoon Network Adult Swim series Rick and Morty.
The opening sequence has been parodied within six episodes of The Simpsons:
The opening sequence has multiple times been picked as one of the best title sequences of all time on TV. In a 2010 issue of TV Guide, The Simpsons opening title sequence ranked # 1 on a list of TV 's top 10 credits sequences, as selected by readers. In 2017, James Charisma of Paste ranked the opening sequence # 1 on a list of The 75 Best TV Title Sequences of All Time.
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who is scout based on in to kill a mockingbird | List of to Kill a Mockingbird characters - wikipedia
To Kill a Mockingbird is a novel by Harper Lee published in 1960. It was instantly successful, winning the Pulitzer Prize, and has become a classic of modern American literature, widely read in US high schools and middle schools. The story takes place during three years of the Great Depression in the fictional Maycomb, Alabama.
This is a list of the characters:
Atticus Finch is the middle - aged father of Jem and Scout Finch. He is a lawyer and was once known as "the deadliest shot in Maycomb County ''. Although he was a good shot, he does not like to mention the fact as he does not like the thought of having an advantage over people. He appears to support racial equality and was appointed to represent Tom Robinson, a black man who has been accused of raping a young white woman, Mayella Ewell. The town disapproves of him defending Tom especially when he makes clear his intent to defend Tom Robinson to the best of his abilities. He is portrayed by Gregory Peck in the film adaptation of To Kill a Mockingbird.
Jean Louise "Scout '' Finch is the narrator and To Kill a Mockingbird is told by an adult Scout who often comments on how she could not understand something at the time but now can appreciate it. She gets in trouble with her teacher Miss Caroline because Miss Caroline expects Scout to learn reading and writing her way. She is a tomboy and spends the most of her time with her brother Jem and best friend Dill. To Jem 's advice to pretend to be a lady and start sewing or something, she answers ' Hell no. ' The rare hints the narrator gives us about her grown - up life reveal that she ultimately has n't changed herself for others.
She matures from age 6 to age 9 as the novel progresses but remains naive and idealistic, despite an increased understanding of human nature and racism in her town. At the beginning of the book, Scout is confused by some of the words and names she hears people directing towards her father, such as "nigger - lover ''. Being only six, Scout does not know how to handle such situations so she tries to resolve her problems by fighting, or by talking to Atticus about what she has heard. By the end of the book, Scout realizes that racism does exist and comes to terms with its presence in her town. Scout also learns how to deal with others, including the Finch family housekeeper, Calpurnia, and her aunt, Alexandra. Scout is the only one of the novel 's primary three children (Dill, Jem, and herself) to see and speak to Boo Radley during the course of the novel and realize that he is harmless, despite her initial fear of him. She also stops a mob that is trying to lynch Tom Robinson by talking to the mob leader, Mr. Cunningham, about inviting his son, Walter, over for dinner. Mr. Cunningham then tells the other mob members to get back in their cars and leave them alone. The members listen, and Scout unintentionally saves Tom Robinson 's life. She is portrayed by Mary Badham in the film adaption of To Kill a Mockingbird.
Notable quote: "Until I feared I would lose it, I never loved to read. One does not love breathing. ''
Jeremy Atticus "Jem '' Finch is Atticus ' son and Scout 's older brother by four years. Jem matures greatly throughout the course of the novel, much more affected by events than Scout seems to be. Being four years Scout 's senior, Jem is seen to have a greater understanding of - and therefore greater difficulty in navigating - the obstacles thrown their way. Jem is seen explaining many things to Scout throughout the novel. Bob Ewell breaks Jem 's arm, subsequently resulting in it being shorter than it had been, in an attempt to protect his sister. He is portrayed by Phillip Alford in the film adaptation of To Kill a Mockingbird.
Charles Baker "Dill '' Harris is a short, smart boy who visits Maycomb every summer from Meridian, Mississippi, and stays with his Aunt Rachel (Aunt Stephanie in the film). Dill is the best friend of both Jem and Scout, and his goal throughout the novel is to get Boo Radley to come out of his house. The children concoct many plans to lure Boo Radley out of his house for a few summers until Atticus tells them to stop. In chapter 5 of the novel, Dill promises to marry Scout and they become "engaged ''. One night Dill runs away from his home in Meridian, arriving in Maycomb County where he hides under Scout 's bed. When she finds Dill, he tells both Scout and Atticus that he was chained to a wall in his father 's basement; later, he confesses he actually ran away because he felt he was being replaced by his stepfather. Before Dill returned to Meridian after the summer, he went swimming with Jem at the Barker 's Eddy creek. Scout, unfortunately, was unable to participate, because both boys were swimming naked.
Unlike Scout and Jem, Dill lacks the security of family support. He is unwanted and unloved by his mother and stepfather: "They do get on a lot better without me, I can not help them any. '' As Francis (a cousin of Jem and Scout) says, "He has n't got a home, he just gets passed around from relative to relative. '' Dill maintains he has no father; he does n't know where his father might live, or if he will ever come back. He is played by John Megna in the film adaption of To Kill a Mockingbird.
This character is believed to be based on author Truman Capote, a childhood friend of Harper Lee.
Calpurnia, nicknamed Cal, is the Finch family 's African - American housekeeper, whom the children love and Atticus deeply respects (he remarks in her defense that she "never indulged (the children) like most colored nurses ''). She is highly regarded by Atticus. She is an important figure in Scout 's life, providing discipline, instruction, and love. She also fills the maternal role for the children after their mother 's death. Calpurnia is a mother herself and raised her son, Zeebo, to adulthood. Calpurnia is one of the few black characters in the novel who is able to read and write, and it is she who taught Scout to write. She learned how to read from Miss Maudie 's aunt, Miss Buford, who taught her how to read out of Blackstone 's Commentaries, a book given to her. Aunt Alexandra despised Calpurnia because Alexandra believed that Calpurnia was not a "maternal figure '' for Jem and Scout, especially for Scout.
Calpurnia is a member of the First Purchase M.E. African Church in Maycomb. While Scout always hears her speak proper English, she is surprised to learn that Calpurnia does not do so at church, especially with the uneducated members of the congregation.
While everyone in the novel is filtered through Scout 's perception, Calpurnia in particular appears for a long time more as Scout 's idea of her than as a real person. At the beginning of the novel, Scout appears to think of Calpurnia as the wicked stepmother to Scout 's own Cinderella. However, towards the end of the book, Scout views Calpurnia as someone she can look up to, and realizes Calpurnia has only protected her over the years. She is played by Estelle Evans in the film.
Arthur "Boo '' Radley is a recluse in To Kill a Mockingbird.
Maycomb children believe he is a horrible person, due to the rumors spread about him and a trial he underwent as a teenager. It is implied during the story that Boo is a very lonely man who attempts to reach out to Jem and Scout for love and friendship, such as leaving them small gifts and figures in a tree knothole. Scout finally meets him at the very end of the book, when he saves the children 's lives from Bob Ewell. Scout describes him as being sickly white, with a thin mouth, thin and feathery hair, and grey eyes, almost as if he were blind. During the same night, when Boo whispers to Scout to walk him back to the Radley house, Scout takes a moment to picture what it would be like to be Boo Radley. While standing on his porch, she realizes his "exile '' inside his house is really not that lonely.
Boo Radley 's heroics in protecting the children from Bob Ewell are covered up by Atticus, Sheriff Tate, and Scout. This can be read as a wise refusal of fame. As Tate notes, if word got out that Boo killed Ewell, Boo would be inundated with gifts and visits, calamitous for him due to his reclusive personality. The precocious Scout recognizes the danger: renown would "kill the mockingbird ''. Boo Radley is a ghost who haunts the book yet manifests himself at just the right moments in just the right way. He is, arguably, the most potent character in the whole book and as such, inspires the other key characters to save him when he needs saving.
After the Tom Robinson trial, Jem and Scout have a different understanding of Boo Radley. "Scout, I think I 'm beginning to understand something. I think I 'm beginning to understand why Boo Radley 's stayed shut up in the house all this time... it 's because he wants to stay inside. '' (23.117) Having seen a sample of the horrible things their fellow townspeople can do, choosing to stay out of the mess of humanity does n't seem like such a strange choice.
When Boo finally does come out, he has a good reason: Bob Ewell is trying to murder the Finch children. No one sees what happens in the scuffle, but at the end of it, Ewell is dead and Boo carries an unconscious Jem to the Finch house. Finally faced with Boo, Scout does n't recognize him at first, but suddenly realizes who he is. Boo Radley is played by Robert Duvall in the film.
Judge John Taylor is a white - haired old man with a reputation for running his court in an informal fashion and an enjoyment of singing and dipping tobacco. He is unimportant to the children until he presides over the Tom Robinson trial, in which he shows great distaste for the Ewells and great respect for Atticus. Because of the judge 's sympathies for Tom, Bob Ewell breaks into the judge 's house while the judge 's wife is at church. After the trial, Miss Maudie points out to the children that the judge had tried to help Tom by appointing Atticus to the case instead of Maxwell Green, the new, untried lawyer who usually received court - appointed cases. Judge Taylor knew that Atticus was the only man who would stand a chance at acquitting Tom, or at least would be able to keep the jury thinking for more than a few minutes. By doing this, Judge Taylor was not giving in or supporting racism. He is portrayed in the film by Paul Fix.
Miss Maude "Maudie '' Atkinson lives across the street from the Finch family. She had known the Finches for many years, having been brought up on the Buford place, which was near the Finches ' ancestral home, Finch 's Landing. She is described as a woman of about 40 who enjoys baking and gardening; her cakes are especially held in high regard. However, she is frequently harassed by devout "Foot - Washing Baptists '', who tell her that her enjoyment of gardening is a sin. Miss Maudie befriends Scout and Jem and tells them stories about Atticus as a boy. It is strongly implied that she and Atticus have a more than platonic relationship. Also, she is one of the few adults that Jem and Scout hold in high regard and respect. She does not act condescendingly towards them, even though they are young children. During the course of the novel, her house burns down; however, she shows remarkable courage throughout this (even saying that she wanted to burn it down herself to make more room for her flowers). She is not prejudiced, though she talks caustically to Miss Stephanie Crawford, unlike many of her Southern neighbors, and teaches Scout important lessons about racism and human nature. It is important to note that Miss Maudie fully explains that "it is a sin to kill a mockingbird '', whereas Atticus Finch initially brings up the subject but does n't go into depth. When Jem gets older, and does n't want to be bothered by Scout, Miss Maudie keeps her from getting angry. Maudie is played by Rosemary Murphy in the film.
Robert E. Lee "Bob '' Ewell is the main antagonist of To Kill a Mockingbird. He has a daughter named Mayella and a younger son named Burris, as well as six other unnamed children. He is an alcoholic, poaching game to feed his family because he spends whatever money they legally gain via government "relief checks '' on alcohol. It is implied, and evidence suggests, that he was the one who abused his daughter Mayella, not Tom Robinson (the African American man accused of doing so). Although most everybody in town knows that the Ewells are a disgrace and not to be trusted, it is made clear that Tom Robinson was convicted because he is a Negro whose accuser is white. Upon hearing of Tom 's death, Bob is absolutely gleeful, gloating about his success. After being humiliated at the trial, however, he goes on a quest for revenge, becoming increasingly violent. He begins by spitting in Atticus ' face, followed by a failed attempt to break into the home of Judge Taylor, then finally menacing Helen, the poor widow of Tom Robinson. Ewell later attempts to murder Jem and Scout Finch with a knife to complete his revenge. Fortunately, Boo Radley saves Jem and Scout and it is believed that he kills Ewell with the knife. Heck Tate, the sheriff, puts in the official report that Bob Ewell fell on his own knife and died after lying under a tree for 45 minutes. Ewell is played by James Anderson in the film.
Mayella Violet Ewell, 19, is the oldest of the eight Ewell children. Before the trial, Mayella is noted for growing red geraniums outside her otherwise dirty home in order to bring some beauty into her life. Due to her family 's living situation, Mayella has no opportunity for human contact or love. She eventually gets so desperate that she attempts to seduce a black man, Tom Robinson, by saving up nickels to send her siblings to go get ice cream so that Mayella can be alone with Tom. Her father sees this through a window and in punishment he beats her. Ewell then finds the sheriff, Heck Tate, and tells him that his daughter has been raped and beaten by Tom. At the trial, Atticus points out that only the right side of Mayella 's face is injured, suggesting a left - handed assailant; Tom 's left arm is mangled and useless, but Bob Ewell is left - handed. When Atticus asks her if she has any friends, she becomes confused because she does not know what a friend is. During her testimony she is confused by Atticus ' polite speech and thinks that his use of "Miss Mayella '' is meant to mock her. She testifies against Tom Robinson. Mayella is played by Collin Wilcox in the film.
Thomas "Tom '' Robinson is an African - American who is put on trial for the rape of a white woman, Mayella Ewell. Atticus is assigned to defend him, and stands up to a lynch mob intent on exacting their own justice against him before the trial begins. Tom 's left arm is crippled and useless, the result of an accident with a cotton gin when he was a child. Atticus uses this fact as the cornerstone of his defense strategy, pointing out that the nature of Mayella 's facial injuries strongly suggest a left - handed assailant. Tom testifies that he had frequently helped Mayella with household chores because he felt sorry for her and the family 's difficult life - a statement that shocks the all - white, male jury. Despite Atticus ' skilled defense, the jury 's racial prejudices lead them to find Tom guilty. Atticus plans to appeal the verdict, but before he can do so, Tom is shot and killed while trying to escape the prison where he is being held. Tom Robinson is played by Brock Peters.
Alexandra Hancock (née Finch) is Atticus ' and Jack 's sister, married to James "Uncle Jimmy '' Hancock. She has a son named Henry and a very spoiled grandson named Francis. Around the middle of the book, Aunt Alexandra decides to leave her husband at Finch 's Landing, the Finch family homestead to come stay with the Finches. Aunt Alexandra does n't consider the black Calpurnia to be a very good motherly figure for Jem and Scout; she disapproves of Scout being a tomboy and wants to make Scout into a southern belle (encouraging her to act more ' lady like '). This is the cause of many conflicts between Scout and Alexandra throughout the course of the novel. However, as the trial progresses, Scout comes to see how much her aunt cares for her father and what a strong woman she is. This is especially evidenced by a tea party when Scout is horrified by the racism displayed, and her aunt and Miss Maudie help her deal with her feelings. By the end of the book, it 's clear that Alexandra cares very much for her niece and nephew, though she and Scout will probably never really get along.
John Hale "Jack '' Finch is Atticus ' and Alexandra 's younger brother. (He is about 40, which is 10 years younger than Atticus.) Jack smells like alcohol and something sweet, and is said that he and Alexandra have similar features. Jack is a childless doctor who can always make Scout and Jem laugh, and they adore him. He and Miss Maudie are close to the same age; he frequently teases her with marriage proposals, which she always declines. Jack also has a pet cat named Rose Aylmer, who is mentioned during the Christmas visit.
Francis Hancock is the spoiled grandson of Aunt Alexandra. (The son of her son, Henry Hancock.) Every Christmas, Henry and his wife drop Francis at Finch 's Landing, which is the only time Scout and Jem see him. Francis lives in Mobile, Alabama, and is a bit of a tattle - tale. He gets along well with Jem, but often spars with Scout. One Christmas, Francis calls Atticus a "n * * * * * - lover, '' as well as insisting that he was ruining the family and the likes, which infuriates Scout and causes them to get into a fight. Francis lies about his role in it, telling Uncle Jack that Scout started it by calling him a "whore lady '', and Jack therefore punishes Scout. However, she explains the full story and charitably persuades her uncle not to punish Francis about it, but to let Atticus think they had been fighting about something else (although Atticus later discovers the truth).
Mrs. Henry Lafayette Dubose is an elderly woman who lives near the Finches. She is hated by the children, who run by her house to avoid her. Scout describes Mrs. Dubose as "plain hell. '' A virulent racist, she calls Atticus a "nigger - lover '' to his children 's faces, and Jem flies into a rage and ravages Mrs. Dubose 's camellia bushes. As a punishment, Jem is required to read to Mrs. Dubose each day for a month. As Jem reads, she experiences a fit of drooling and twitching and does not seem to pay any attention to the words. When an alarm rings, Jem is allowed to leave for the day. She extends the punishment for one extra week and dies shortly after letting Jem go for the last time. Atticus informs him that Mrs. Dubose was terminally ill and had become addicted to morphine. By reading to her, Jem had distracted her so that she could break the addiction. In thanks, she leaves him a candy box with a camellia flower in it; Jem burns the box in anger, but is later seen by Scout admiring the flower. Atticus tells Jem that Mrs. Dubose was the bravest person he ever knew, and she was trying to teach Jem the importance of bravery and true courage to endure anything when the situation is hopeless, as in her morphine addiction.
Mr. Heck Tate is a friend of Atticus and also the sheriff of Maycomb County. He believes in protecting the innocent although he does n't usually show it. When Tom has been locked in jail and a lynch mob turns up to kill him, the sheriff refuses to hand Tom over, instead dispersing the crowd. At the end of the book, the two men argue over whether Jem or Boo Radley should be held responsible for the death of Bob Ewell. Heck eventually persuades Atticus to accept the theory that Ewell accidentally fell on his own knife, thus saving the harmless, reclusive Boo from the public exposure of a criminal trial.
Mr. Braxton Bragg Underwood is a news reporter and a friend of Atticus. He owns and also publishes The Maycomb Tribune. Being a racist, he disagrees with Atticus on principle. He also has a strong belief in justice, as exemplified when he defends Atticus from the Cunningham mob by having his double barrel shotgun loaded and ready to shoot them. He also demonstrates some humanity when he publishes a scathing editorial comparing the killing of Tom Robinson (a cripple) to "the senseless slaughter of songbirds by hunters and children ''.
Mr. Horace Gilmer is a lawyer from Abbottsville, and is the prosecuting attorney in the Tom Robinson case. Mr. Gilmer is between the ages of forty and sixty. Mr. Gilmer has a slight cast with one eye, which he uses to his advantage in trial. Mr. Gilmer appeared to be racist in his harsh cross-examination of Tom Robinson, but it is hinted at that he is in fact going easy on Tom. He and Atticus are not rivals and talk to each other during recesses during the case.
Dr. Reynolds is the Maycomb doctor. He is well known to Scout and Jem. Scout says that he "had brought Jem and me into the world, had led us through every childhood disease known to man including the time Jem fell out of the tree house, and he had never lost our friendship. Dr. Reynolds said that if we were boil - prone things would have been different... ''. He inspects Jem 's broken arm and Scout 's minor bruises after the attack from Bob Ewell under the tree.
Dolphus Raymond is a white landowner who is jaded by the hypocrisy of the white society and prefers to live among black folks. In fact, he has children with a black woman. Dolphus pretends he is an alcoholic so that the people of Maycomb will have an excuse for his behavior, but in fact he only drinks Coca Cola out of a paper bag to try to hide it. When Dill and Scout discover that he is not a drunk, they are amazed. He shows Scout how sometimes you can pretend to be someone you 're not so people will be more understanding of you.
Link Deas owns cotton fields and a store in Maycomb who employs Tom and later Helen because she does not get accepted by any other employers in the county due to Tom Robinson 's legal troubles. He announces to the court (in defense of Tom) at one point in the trial that he had n't "had a speck o ' trouble outta him '' in the eight years Tom had been working for him, and gets sent out by Judge John Taylor for doing so. When Bob Ewell starts threatening Helen after the trial, Mr. Deas fiercely defends her and threatens to have Mr. Ewell arrested if he keeps bothering her. He is on Tom Robinson 's side during the trial and remains loyal to the family afterward.
Miss Caroline Fisher is Scout 's first grade teacher and is new to Maycomb, Alabama and its ways. She attempts to teach the first grade class using a new system which she learned from taking certain college courses (Jem mistakenly refers to it as the "Dewey Decimal System '', which is really how library books are organized.). She is upset by Scout 's advanced reading capabilities and believes that Scout is receiving lessons from Atticus. She feels as though Scout is trying to outsmart and mock her. In an effort to standardize the class, she forbids Scout from reading with her father. Atticus asks Scout to step into Miss Caroline 's skin. However, he continues to allow Scout to read with him at night so long as she continues to go to school. Miss Caroline has good intentions but proves quite incompetent as a teacher. When Scout tells Miss Fisher that she shamed a student (Walter Cunningham, Jr.) by giving him lunch money, she raps Scout 's palms with a ruler (a punishment unheard of in Maycomb). She is also very sensitive and gets emotionally hurt quite easily, as seen when she cries after Burris Ewell yells at her, "Report and be damned to ye! Ai n't no snot - nosed slut of a schoolteacher ever born c'n make me do nothin '! You ai n't makin ' me go nowhere, missus. You just remember that, you ai n't makin ' me go nowhere! '' After the Burris Ewell incident, Miss Caroline is seldom seen and soon forgotten.
Reverend Sykes is the reverend of the First Purchase M.E. African Church in Maycomb County. This is the church Tom Robinson attended. Reverend Sykes forces the congregation to donate 10 dollars for Tom Robinson 's family since at the time, Tom 's wife, Helen, was having trouble finding work. During the trial, when the courtroom was too packed for the children to find seats, Reverend Sykes lets the kids sit with him up in the colored balcony and even saves their seats for them.
Stephanie Crawford is the neighborhood gossip who claimed that she saw Boo Radley from her bedroom standing outside of her cleaned window one night. Crawford is one of the first on the scene after a loud gunshot is heard behind the Radley house. Because she is the neighborhood gossip, it is unwise to think of anything that she says as true, because most of the time it is not true at all. She is a friend of Alexandra Hancock. She lets Miss Maudie live with her when Miss Maudie 's house burns down, supposedly in order to steal Miss Maudie 's Lane cake recipe. She is thrilled to pass on gossip to the kids about Boo Radley. She claimed to have witnessed Bob Ewell 's threatening Atticus at the Post Office corner as she was returning from the local Jitney Jungle grocery store.
In the film she takes the place of Rachel Haverford and is now Dill 's aunt.
Miss Rachel Haverford is Dill 's aunt and the Finches ' next door neighbor. She drank neat whiskey heavily after seeing a rattlesnake coiled in her closet, on her washing, when she hung her negligee up. Even though she can be very hard to deal with, she truly does love her nephew. Her family name, in the legends of Maycomb County, is synonymous with jackass. She is also a Southern Belle.
In the film, she is not a character and Miss Stephanie takes her place as Dill 's aunt.
Helen Robinson is the wife of Tom Robinson. She is spoken about many times. She has three children. Employed by Link Deas following the death of her husband, she is repeatedly harassed by Bob Ewell when traveling to work. Upon learning of this, Deas threatens Ewell, forcing him to stop. She is an example of how one person 's actions can have an effect on a lot of people and she elucidates the hardships that surround the Tom Robinson case.
Nathan Radley is the brother of Arthur "Boo '' Radley and another difficult character to understand in To Kill a Mockingbird. When the children try to catch a view of "Boo '' late one night through a window, he shoots over their heads with a shotgun (albeit thinking he was aiming at a black person). Nathan also cements up the knothole in which Arthur leaves little gifts for the children. On the other hand, he helps Miss Maudie by saving some of her belongings when her house is on fire. He is more present than his brother, but equally mysterious.
Jessie is Mrs. Dubose 's black nurse. She is the woman who shoos the children out when Mrs. Dubose has her fits, and she seems to care enormously for Mrs. Dubose. When Jem is forced to stay reading to Mrs. Dubose, Jessie kindly leads Jem and Scout to the door when Mrs. Dubose 's alarm goes off. The rumors about Mrs. Dubose concealing a gun about her person involves Jessie; the book says "and even if Mrs. Dubose missed, her girl Jessie would n't ''.
Burris Ewell is a son of Bob Ewell and a younger sibling of Mayella Ewell as well as the first antagonist of the novel. Burris is described as being chiefly antagonistic of Little Chuck Little and his teacher Miss Caroline Fisher. He comes to the first day of school, but departs just as everyone else in his family does. Burris is also poor. He has live lice in his hair. Burris also scared his teacher Caroline Fisher. He behaves rudely when she tells him to go home, wash his hair, and come back clean the next day. He refuses, and a student explains to Miss Caroline that Ewell children do n't attend school. All they do is show up for the first day, get marked down on the register, and then they miss the entire school year until the first day of the next year. His famous quote was, "Report and be damned to ye! Ai n't no snot - nosed slut of a schoolteacher ever born c'n make me do nothin '! You ai n't makin ' me go nowhere, missus. You just remember that, you ai n't makin ' me go nowhere! '' As of Scout 's first year of school (the first grade), Burris has repeated the first grade three times. Burris is also like his father and is very belligerent.
Lula is an African - American woman with a dislike for white people. She does n't like the idea of Calpurnia bringing Atticus Finch 's children, Jem and Scout, with her to church and tells her so but is overruled by the other congregants. According to James Zeebo, Calpurnia 's son, Lula 's said to be, "a troublemaker from way back, with fancy ideas and haughty ways. '' She 's threatened with being "churched '' (subjected to church discipline) by Reverend Sykes.
Mrs. Grace Merriweather is the producer of the play in which Scout plays as a ham. She tells Everett that "the ladies of the South Maycomb Alabama Methodist Episcopal Church are behind him one hundred percent. '' She is mostly known for her devotion to the church and is widely held as the most devout lady in Maycomb; however, like many of her peers, she is very hypocritical and loves to gossip with all the other women.
Walter Cunningham, Jr is a child who is almost as old as Jem but is in Scout 's class. He is too poor to even pay off a 25 - cent debt because the Great Depression hit his poor family hard. Walter is not only too poor but also his family is too proud to take any money. He is invited over to the Finches ' house once, after engaging in a fight with Scout, where he covers up all of his dinner with molasses, much to Scout 's vocal dismay. This teaches Scout a lesson in humility and compassion.
Walter Cunningham, Sr. is Walter Cunningham Jr. 's father. He appears only twice, once at the beginning of the story when he has to pay off the debt to Atticus (Walter Cunningham Sr. was his client) by giving him firewood, vegetables and other supplies. He also leads the mob that comes to lynch Tom Robinson the night before the trial. Only when Scout talks to him about his son and how much he owes to Atticus does he reconsider and call off the mob. Scout innocently shames him because Scout reminds him of all the things that Atticus has done for him and for Maycomb County. After the verdict is given in the trial, Atticus tells Jem that one of the Cunninghams had changed his thoughts about Tom and pleaded that Tom was not guilty to the jury.
Little Chuck Little is a student in Scout 's first grade class who has the mindset of an adult. His real name is Charles. He is depicted as chiefly antagonistic of Burris Ewell. He is presented in the novel when Miss Caroline is frightened by Burris ' lice. He warned Miss Caroline that if Burris was n't released from class, he might try something that would put their classmates at risk. When Burris starts advancing on Little Chuck after his warning / veiled insult, Little Chuck 's hand moved to his pocket (implying that he was going to pull out a knife) while saying, "Watch your step, Burris. I 'd soon 's kill you as look at you. Now go home. '' Scared by Little Chuck 's bravery and his implied knife, Burris retreats. From this we see, through the narrative view of Scout, his gentlemanly attitude and how it calms Miss Caroline down. Little Chuck may be even more intelligent than originally meets the eye, as he easily could have been bluffing about the aforementioned implied knife to scare Burris into retreating.
Mr. Dick Avery is an overweight neighbor who tells Jem and Scout that dramatic changes in the weather are caused by disobedient and misbehaving children. After it snows, they build a snowman that resembles him. Mr. Avery can also be seen in the story pushing a mattress out of a window when Miss Maudie 's house catches fire. The kids, including Jem and Scout, always waited for him to do something interesting. For instance, Jem claims that one night he urinated from his front porch in an impressive arc.
Miss Gates is a third grade teacher at Scout 's school who insists that America is n't prejudiced like Hitler 's Germany. Despite this, Scout has heard her say that the blacks need to be taught a lesson after Tom 's trial.
Eula May is Maycomb 's most prominent telephone operator. She sends out public announcements, invitations, and activates the fire alarm. She announced the closing of schools when it snowed and announced the rabid dog that entered Maycomb. Also, Eula May knows everybody in the town because of her unique job.
Cecil Jacobs teases Scout and Jem at school. Scout almost gets into a fight with Cecil over the trial of Tom Robinson. Scout beats up Cecil Jacobs because he says Atticus is a "Nigger Lover. '' He gives a current event on Adolf Hitler and later frightens Scout and Jem on their way to the Halloween pageant. He and Scout then pair up at the carnival. At the Halloween pageant afterwards, Cecil was a cow. He hints that black people are not as good as white people while talking about Hitler during current events. He also tends to take jokes too far. However importantly he shows how prejudice is passed on from parent to child.
Tim Johnson is a dog belonging to Harry Johnson (a character in the book who is mentioned once but is never seen). He is infected by rabies in chapter 10 and goes mad, putting everyone in the town at risk. Atticus is forced to shoot Tim Johnson before he reaches the Radley House or attacks anyone. When Atticus shoots the dog, his excellent marksmanship is revealed to Scout and Jem (his nickname used to be One - Shot Finch). The dog 's body is collected by Zeebo.
Simon Finch is the founder of Finch 's Landing. He is referred to in the first chapter of the book, being a direct ancestor of Atticus. He is a Cornish Methodist, and emigrated from England to avoid religious persecution, landing in Philadelphia before settling in Alabama. He was married, with one son, six daughters. He is also an apothecary.
Maxwell Green is the new lawyer in town. He is normally the judicially - assigned defense attorney but Judge Taylor assigned Tom Robinson 's case to Atticus to give Tom Robinson a better chance.
Mr. X Billups who is seen only once in the book, going to the trial, is described as a "funny man ''. X is his name, and not his initial. He was asked repeated times what his name was until he signed it. X was the name he had been given when he was born because his parents marked his birth certificate with an X instead of a name.
The Barber Sisters (Miss Sarah, nicknamed "Tutti '' and Miss Frances, nicknamed "Frutti '') are maiden sisters who live in the only house in Maycomb with a cellar. They were originally from Clanton, Alabama; and are rumored to be Republicans. Besides their Yankee ways, both sisters are deaf (Tutti completely deaf; Frutti uses an ear trumpet), and had a Halloween prank pulled on them by some "wicked '' schoolchildren (Scout claims she was not included) who put all of their furniture in their cellar.
Mrs. Farrow is a lady in the missionary society who visits the Finch house occasionally.
Mr. Conner is mentioned early on in the book. He was locked in an outhouse by "Boo '' Radley and his friends. After taking the teenagers to court, Mr. Conner accused them of "disorderly conduct, disturbing the peace, assault and battery, and using abusive and profane language in the presence and hearing of a female. '' He added the last charge after claiming that the teens had "cussed so loud he was sure every lady in Maycomb heard them. ''
Zeebo is Calpurnia 's eldest son. He is one of just four people in First Purchase Church who can read, so he is the vocal leader, leading hymns in the Negro First Purchase Church by "lining, '' reading a line of verse and having the congregation repeat it. Calpurnia taught Zeebo how to read. He is also the garbage man of Maycomb, and took away the dead rabid dog, Tim Johnson. When a fellow church member, a woman named Lula, tries to make the children feel bad for attending church with his mother, Zeebo welcomes Scout and Jem with open arms. He is kind but very quiet.
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wallace and gromit the curse of the were rabbit dogfight | Wallace & Gromit: the Curse of the Were - Rabbit - Wikipedia
Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were - Rabbit is a 2005 stop - motion animated comedy film produced by Aardman Animations in partnership with DreamWorks Animation. United International Pictures distributed the film in the United Kingdom, and it was the last DreamWorks Animation film to be distributed by DreamWorks Pictures in the United States. It was directed by Nick Park and Steve Box as the second feature - length film by Aardman after Chicken Run (2000).
The Curse of the Were - Rabbit is part of the Wallace and Gromit series, created by Park. The film follows eccentric inventor Wallace (voiced by Peter Sallis) and his intelligent mute dog Gromit in their latest venture as pest control agents, as they come to the rescue of a village plagued by rabbits before an annual vegetable competition.
The film features an expanded cast of characters relative to the previous Wallace and Gromit shorts, with a voice cast including Helena Bonham Carter and Ralph Fiennes as well as British comedian Peter Kay and British character actress Liz Smith. It was a critical and commercial success, and won a number of film awards including the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, making it the second film from DreamWorks Animation to win (after Shrek), as well as both the second non American animated film and second non computer animated film to have received this achievement (after Spirited Away).
Tottington Hall 's annual giant vegetable competition is approaching with the coveted Golden Carrot as its prize. Wallace and Gromit provide a humane pest control business, "Anti-Pesto '', protecting the townspeople 's vegetables. One morning, Wallace devises a plan to lose weight and creates the Mind Manipulation - O - Matic to transmit the rabbits ' appetite for vegetables out of their minds and into his. The machine malfunctions and Gromit destroys it to protect Wallace; however, the transfer appears to have worked, as the test rabbit shows no interest in vegetables. They name the rabbit Hutch while Wallace begins rebuilding the device.
That night, a giant rabbit devours many of the town 's vegetables. Wallace suspects that Hutch may be the were - rabbit and locks him in a high - security cage. At a town meeting, Victor Quartermaine the hunter offers to shoot the were - rabbit, but Lady Tottington persuades the townsfolk to continue with Anti-Pesto's services. Victor, who seeks to woo Lady Tottington, corners Wallace at night. Wallace transforms into the Were - Rabbit under the light of the full moon and bounds away. Gromit lures Wallace home to protect him. Victor obtains three "24 - carrot '' gold bullets from the town reverend to use against Wallace.
At the contest, Gromit convinces Wallace that he is the Were - Rabbit, and Wallace hides himself away. Lady Tottington, who has come to like Wallace, visits and tells him about Victor 's plan. When the moon rises, Wallace begins to transform and shoos Lady Tottington away. Victor arrives and fires on Wallace with the golden bullets. Gromit creates a distraction to allow Wallace, as the Were - Rabbit, to escape; the hunter gives chase to the competition. Gromit begins working with Hutch, who has developed Wallace - like traits, and plans to use his giant marrow as bait to lure Wallace to safety.
Wallace, as the were - rabbit, creates chaos at the fair. Victor grabs the Golden Carrot trophy to use as ammunition. Wallace carries Lady Tottington atop Tottington Hall, where she discovers Wallace 's connection to the were - rabbit. Victor gives chase, revealing that he only wants to impress Lady Tottington for her money. When Gromit arrives, Victor 's dog Philip engages him in a dogfight in aeroplanes taken from a fairground attraction. Gromit sends Philip 's plane to the ground, then steers his plane into Victor 's line of fire as Victor fires at Wallace. Wallace jumps, grabs Gromit and sacrifices himself to cushion their fall into a cheese tent.
Victor gloats about his victory, but Lady Tottington hits him with her giant carrot and he falls into the tent too. Gromit quickly disguises Victor as the were - rabbit and the mob of townspeople chase him away. Wallace transforms back to his human self and appears dead, but Gromit uses some Stinking Bishop cheese to bring him around. Lady Tottington awards Gromit the Golden Carrot and converts the grounds of Tottington Hall into a habitat for Hutch and the other rabbits.
In March 2000, it was officially announced that Wallace and Gromit were to star in their own feature film. It would have been Aardman 's next film after The Tortoise and the Hare, which was subsequently abandoned by the studio in July 2001, owing to script issues.
The directors, Nick Park and Steve Box, have often referred to the film as the world 's "first vegetarian horror film ''. Peter Sallis (the voice of Wallace) is joined in the film by Ralph Fiennes (as Lord Victor Quartermaine), Helena Bonham Carter (as Lady Campanula Tottington), Peter Kay (as PC Mackintosh), Nicholas Smith (as Rev. Clement Hedges), and Liz Smith (as Mrs. Mulch). As established in the preceding short films, Gromit is a silent character, communicating purely via body language.
The film was originally going to be called Wallace & Gromit: The Great Vegetable Plot, but the title was changed, as the market research did n't like it. The first reported release date for The Great Vegetable Plot was November 2004. Production officially began in September 2003, and the film was then set for release on 30 September 2005. In July 2003, Entertainment Weekly referred the film as Wallace & Gromit in The Were - Rabbit.
Park told an interviewer that after separate test screenings with British and American children, the film was altered to "tone down some of the British accents and make them speak more clearly so the American audiences could understand it all better. '' Park was often sent notes from DreamWorks, which irritated him. He recalled one note that Wallace 's car should be trendier, which he disagreed with because he felt making things look old - fashioned made it look more ironic.
The vehicle Wallace drives in the film is an Austin A35 van. In collaboration with Aardman in the spring of 2005, a road going replica of the model was created by brothers Mark and David Armé, founders of the International Austin A30 / A35 Register, for promotional purposes. In a 500 - man - hour customisation, an original 1964 van received a full body restoration, before being dented and distressed to perfectly replicate the model van used in the film. The official colour of the van is Preston Green, named in honour of Nick Park 's home town. The name was chosen by the art director and Mark Armé.
For the United States edition of the film, the dialogue was changed to refer to Gromit 's prize marrow as a "melon ''. Because the word "marrow '' is not well known in the United States, Jeffrey Katzenberg insisted it be changed. Park explained "Because it 's the only appropriate word we could find that would fit with the mouth shape for ' marrow '. Melon apparently works over there. So we have Wallace saying, ' How 's your prize melon? ' ''. This version is also heard in the United Kingdom bootleg DVD release, and when viewed on Netflix in the United Kingdom. However, the original marrow line can still be heard on Cartoon Network airings of the film in the United States.
The film had its worldwide premiere on 4 September 2005, in Sydney, Australia. It was theatrically released in the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, and the United States on 14 October 2005. The DVD edition of the film was released on 7 February 2006 (United States) and 20 February 2006 (United Kingdom).
In Region 2, the film was released in a two disc special including Cracking Contraptions, plus a number of other extras. In Region 1, the film was released on DVD in Widescreen and Fullscreen versions and VHS on 7 February 2006. Wal - Mart stores carried a special version with an additional DVD, "Gromit 's Tail - Waggin ' DVD '' which included the test shorts made for this production.
A companion game, also titled Curse of the Were - Rabbit, had a coinciding release with the film. A novelisation, Wallace and Gromit: The Curse of the Were - Rabbit: The Movie Novelization by Penny Worms (ISBN 0 - 8431 - 1667 - 6), was also produced.
It was the last DreamWorks Animation movie to be released on VHS. It was re released on DVD on 13 May 2014, as part of a triple film set, along with DreamWorks Animation 's Chicken Run and Flushed Away.
Wallace & Gromit opened in 3,645 cinemas and had an opening weekend gross of $16 million, putting it at number one for that weekend. During its second weekend it came in at number two, just $200,000 behind The Fog. It remained number one worldwide for three weeks in a row. The Curse of the Were - Rabbit grossed $192.6 million at the box office, of which $56.1 million was from the United States. As of April 2018, it is the second - highest - grossing stop - motion animated film of all time.
On Rotten Tomatoes, Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were - Rabbit holds an approval rating of 95 % based on 180 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "The Curse of the Were - Rabbit is a subtly touching and wonderfully eccentric adventure featuring Wallace and Gromit. '' On Metacritic, the film received a weighted average score of 87 out of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating "universal acclaim. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
All music composed by Julian Nott, except as noted.
After the box office failure of Flushed Away resulted in a major write down for DreamWorks, it was reported on 3 October 2006 and confirmed on 30 January 2007 that DreamWorks had terminated their partnership with Aardman. In revealing the losses related to Flushed Away, DreamWorks also revealed they had taken a $29 million write down over Wallace & Gromit as well, and the film under performed expectations.
Following the split, Aardman retained complete ownership of the film, while DreamWorks Animation retained worldwide distribution rights in perpetuity, excluding some United Kingdom television rights and ancillary markets. Soon after the end of the agreement, Aardman announced that they would proceed with another Wallace & Gromit project, later revealed to be a return to their earlier short films with A Matter of Loaf and Death with the BBC.
During production of the short, Park remarked publicly on difficulties with working with DreamWorks during the production of Were - Rabbit, such as the constant production notes and demands to alter the material to appeal more to American children.
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who wrote the songs for la la land | La La Land (film) - Wikipedia
La La Land is a 2016 American musical romantic comedy film written and directed by Damien Chazelle. It stars Ryan Gosling as a jazz pianist and Emma Stone as an aspiring actress, who meet and fall in love in Los Angeles while pursuing their dreams. The film 's title refers simultaneously to the city of Los Angeles and the idiom for being out of touch with reality.
Chazelle wrote the screenplay in 2010 but did not find a studio willing to finance the production without changes to his design. Following the success of his 2014 film Whiplash, the project was picked up by Summit Entertainment. Filming took place from August to September 2015 in Los Angeles. La La Land premiered at the 73rd Venice International Film Festival on August 31, 2016, and was released in the United States on December 9, 2016. It grossed $446 million worldwide against a production budget of $30 million.
La La Land was praised, especially for Chazelle 's screenplay and direction, Gosling and Stone 's performances, Justin Hurwitz 's musical score, and the musical numbers. It won in every category for which it was nominated at the 74th Golden Globe Awards, with a record - breaking seven wins, and received 11 nominations at the 70th British Academy Film Awards, winning five. It received 14 nominations at the 89th Academy Awards, including Best Picture, tying the record for the most Oscar nominations with All About Eve (1950) and Titanic (1997). It won six: Best Director, Best Actress (Stone), Best Cinematography, Best Original Score, Best Original Song ("City of Stars ''), and Best Production Design.
While stuck in Los Angeles traffic on "Another Day of Sun, '' aspiring actress Mia Dolan has a moment of road rage with Sebastian Wilder, a struggling jazz pianist. After a bad day at work, Mia 's subsequent audition goes poorly when the casting director takes a call in the middle of an emotional scene. That night, Mia 's roommates take her to a lavish party in the Hollywood Hills, promising her that "Someone in the Crowd '' could jump - start her film career; but she is forced to walk home in disappointment after her car is towed.
During a musical gig at a restaurant, Sebastian slips into a passionate jazz improvisation despite warnings from the owner to only play songs from a traditional Christmas setlist. Mia overhears him playing "Mia & Sebastian 's Theme '' as she passes by. Moved, she enters the restaurant, but Sebastian is fired for his disobedience. As he storms out, Mia attempts to compliment him, but he brushes her off.
Months later, Mia runs into Sebastian at a party where he plays in a 1980s pop cover band; she teases him by requesting "I Ran (So Far Away), '' a song he considers an insult for "a serious musician ''. After the gig, the two walk to their cars and lament wasting "A Lovely Night '' together despite the clear chemistry between them.
The next day, Sebastian arrives at Mia 's work, and she shows Sebastian around the movie studio backlot, where she works as a barista, while explaining her passion for acting. Sebastian takes Mia to a jazz club, describing his passion for jazz, his love for this "City of Stars, '' and his desire to open his own club. They warm up to each other greatly. Sebastian invites Mia to a screening of Rebel Without a Cause; Mia accepts, forgetting a commitment with her current boyfriend. Bored with the latter date, she runs to the theater and finds Sebastian as the film begins. When the projector breaks, the two conclude their evening with a romantic dance at the Griffith Observatory ("Planetarium '').
After more failed auditions, Mia decides, at Sebastian 's suggestion, to write a one - woman play. Sebastian begins to perform regularly at a jazz club, and the two move in together. Sebastian 's former classmate Keith invites him to be the keyboardist in his jazz fusion band, where he will be offered a steady income. Although he is dismayed by the band 's pop style, Sebastian signs after overhearing Mia trying to convince her mother that Sebastian is working on his career. The band finds success, but Mia is disturbed upon attending one of their concerts and hearing their signature song "Start a Fire; '' she knows that this is not truly the type of music Sebastian wants to perform.
During the band 's first tour, Mia and Sebastian get into an argument; she accuses him of abandoning his dreams, while Sebastian claims she liked him more when he was unsuccessful. Mia leaves, insulted and frustrated. Sebastian misses Mia 's play due to a band photo shoot that he had previously forgotten. The play is a disaster; few people attend, and Mia overhears dismissive comments. Sebastian attempts to apologize to Mia for missing the play, but she is unwilling to forgive him and ends their relationship. Despondent and unable to pay the theater back, Mia moves back home to Boulder City, Nevada.
Sebastian receives a call from a prominent casting director named Amy Brandt; she attended Mia 's play and wishes to invite her to a film audition. Sebastian drives all the way to Boulder City and persuades Mia to attend. Mia eventually agrees and returns to Los Angeles for the audition, at which she is asked simply to tell a story; in response, she sings "Audition (The Fools Who Dream), '' a story about her aunt 's lost loves. Sebastian, confident the audition was a success, encourages Mia to devote herself to film acting. The two profess they will always love each other but are uncertain of their future.
Five years later, Mia is a famous actress and happily married to another man, with whom she has a daughter. One night, the couple stumble upon a jazz bar. Noticing the "Seb 's '' logo she had once designed, Mia realizes Sebastian has opened his club. When Sebastian notices Mia in the crowd, he plays their love theme on the piano, and a dream sequence unfolds in which the two imagine what might have been had their relationship continued ("Epilogue ''). Mia shares a poignant smile with Sebastian, then leaves with her husband.
As a drummer, Damien Chazelle has a predilection for musical films. He wrote the screenplay for La La Land in 2010, when the film industry seemed out of reach for him. His idea was "to take the old musical but ground it in real life where things do n't always exactly work out, '' and to salute creative people who move to Los Angeles to chase their dreams. He conceived the film when he was a student at Harvard University with his classmate Justin Hurwitz. The two explored the concept in their senior thesis through a low - budget musical about a Boston jazz musician, Guy and Madeline on a Park Bench. Chazelle was moved by the tradition of 1920s city symphony films, such as Manhattan (1921) and Man with a Movie Camera (1929), that paid tribute to cities. After graduating, both moved to Los Angeles in 2010 and continued writing the script, but made a few modifications, such as altering the location to Los Angeles instead of Boston.
L.A., even more so than any other American city, obscures, sometimes neglects, its own history. But that can also be its own magical thing, because it 's a city that reveals itself bit by bit, like an onion, if you take the time to explore it.
Rather than trying to match L.A. to the charms of Paris or San Francisco, he focused on the qualities that make the city distinctive: the traffic, the sprawl, and the skylines. The style and tone of the film were inspired by Jacques Demy 's The Umbrellas of Cherbourg and The Young Girls of Rochefort, especially the latter, which was more dance and jazz - oriented. The film also makes visual allusions to Hollywood classics such as Broadway Melody of 1940, Singin ' in the Rain, The Band Wagon and An American in Paris. About An American in Paris, Chazelle commented: "That 's a movie that we just pillaged. It 's an awesome example of how daring some of those old musicals really were. '' It shares some character development and themes with Chazelle 's previous musical work, Whiplash; Chazelle said:
He said that both films reflect his own experiences as a filmmaker working his way up the Hollywood ladder. La La Land in particular is inspired by his experience of moving from the East Coast with preconceived notions of what L.A. would be like, "that it was all just strip malls and freeways. ''
Chazelle was unable to produce the film for years as no studio was willing to finance an original contemporary musical, with no familiar songs. It was also a jazz musical, which The Hollywood Reporter called an "extinct genre ''. He believed that since he and Hurwitz were unknown at that time, it might have made financiers dubious about the project 's potential. Chazelle found producers through friends who introduced him to Fred Berger and Jordan Horowitz. With the two producers on board, the script went to Focus Features at a budget of around $1 million. The studio demanded alterations: the male lead was asked to be changed from a jazz pianist to a rock musician, the complicated opening number had to be altered, and the story 's bittersweet ending needed to be dropped. Chazelle scrapped the project and moved on.
Chazelle later wrote Whiplash, which was an easier concept to sell and a less risky investment. After Whiplash was well received by critics upon its premiere at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival in January, Chazelle continued his efforts to bring La La Land to the big screen. A year later, when Whiplash earned five Oscar nominations at the 87th Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and grossed nearly $50 million worldwide off a $3.3 million production budget, Chazelle and his project began to attract attention from studios.
Five years after Chazelle wrote the script, Summit Entertainment and Black Label Media, along with producer Marc Platt, agreed to invest in La La Land and distribute it. They had been impressed by the critical and commercial success of Whiplash. Lionsgate 's Patrick Wachsberger, who previously had worked on the Step Up franchise, pushed Chazelle to increase the film 's budget since he felt high - quality musicals could not be made cheaply.
Initially, Miles Teller and Emma Watson were set to star in the leads. Watson dropped because of a commitment to the 2017 musical adaptation of Beauty and the Beast, while Teller departed via long contract negotiations. Conversely, Gosling turned down a role as the Beast in Beauty and the Beast in favor of La La Land. Chazelle decided to make his characters somewhat older, with experience in struggling to make their dreams, rather than younger newcomers just arriving in Los Angeles.
Emma Stone plays Mia, a struggling actress in Los Angeles. Stone has loved musicals since she saw Les Misérables when she was 8 years old, saying that "bursting into song has always been a real dream of mine '', and that her favorite film is the 1931 Charlie Chaplin romantic comedy City Lights. She studied pom dancing as a child, with a year of ballet. She moved to Hollywood with her mother at the age of 15 to pursue a career, and struggled constantly to get an audition during her first year. When she did, she often was turned away after singing or saying just one line. Stone drew from her own experiences for her character of Mia, and some were added into the film.
She met Chazelle in 2014 while she was making her Broadway debut in Cabaret. Chazelle and Hurwitz saw her perform on a night when the actress had a cold. She met with Chazelle at Brooklyn Diner in New York City, where the director outlined his vision for the planned film. Stone gained confidence from performing in Cabaret to handle the demands of the film. In preparation for her role, Stone watched some of the musical movies that inspired Chazelle, including The Umbrellas of Cherbourg and Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers collaborations. Stone accepted the offer because Chazelle was so passionate about the project.
Ryan Gosling plays Sebastian, a jazz pianist. Like Stone, Gosling drew from his own experiences as an aspiring artist. One incident was used for Mia. Gosling was performing a crying scene in an audition and the casting director took a phone call during it, talking about her lunch plans while he was emoting. Chazelle met with Gosling at a bar near the latter 's home in Hollywood Hills, when Gosling was about to begin filming for The Big Short.
Chazelle cast the two immediately after Summit bought the film. He said the two "feel like the closest thing that we have right now to an old Hollywood couple '' as akin to Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn, Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers, Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall, and Myrna Loy and William Powell. The film marked the third collaboration between Gosling and Stone, following Crazy, Stupid, Love (2011) and Gangster Squad (2013). Chazelle asked the two about their audition disasters when they were both trying to make it. Both learned how to sing and dance for the film 's six original tunes.
The rest of the cast -- J.K. Simmons, Sonoya Mizuno, Jessica Rothe, Callie Hernandez, Finn Wittrock, Rosemarie DeWitt, John Legend, Jason Fuchs, Meagen Fay -- were announced between July and August 2015. Legend plays Keith, a long - time friend of Sebastian.
The film was choreographed by Mandy Moore. Rehearsals took place at a production office in Atwater Village, Los Angeles over the span of three to four months, beginning in May 2015. Gosling practiced piano in one room, Stone worked with Moore in another, and costume designer Mary Zophres had her own corner of the complex. Gosling, with no previous experience, had to learn how to play the piano, as no hand models were used. Moore emphasised working on emotion rather than technique, which Stone said was key when they filmed the Prius car scene. To help his cast and crew get their creative mode flowing, Chazelle held screenings on the soundstages every Friday night of classical films that had inspired him for the film, including The Umbrellas of Cherbourg, Singin ' in the Rain, Top Hat, and Boogie Nights.
From the beginning, Chazelle wanted the film 's musical numbers to be filmed "head to toe '' and performed in a single take, like those of the 1930s works of Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. He also wanted the film to emulate the widescreen, CinemaScope look of 1950s musicals such as It 's Always Fair Weather. Consequently, the movie was shot on celluloid film (not digitally) with Panavision equipment in a widescreen format, but not true CinemaScope as that technology is no longer available.
Chazelle wanted Los Angeles to be the primary setting for his film, commenting that "there is something very poetic about the city I think, about a city that is built by people with these unrealistic dreams and people who kind of just put it all on the line for that. '' Principal photography on the film officially began in the city on August 10, 2015, and filming took place in more than 60 locations both in and near Los Angeles, including the Angels Flight trolley in downtown, houses in the Hollywood Hills, the Colorado Street Bridge, the Rialto Theatre in South Pasadena, the Warner Bros. studio lot, the Grand Central Market, Hermosa Beach 's Lighthouse Cafe, Chateau Marmont Hotel, and the Watts Towers, with many scenes shot in one take. It took 40 days to complete shooting, finishing in mid-September 2015.
The opening pre-credits sequence was the first to be shot, and was filmed on a closed - off portion of two carpool direct connector ramps of the Judge Harry Pregerson Interchange, connecting the I - 105 Carpool Lane to the I - 110 Express Lanes, leading to Downtown Los Angeles. It was filmed in a span of two days, and required over 100 dancers. For this particular scene, Chazelle wanted to give a sense of how vast the city is. The scene was originally planned for a stretch of ground - level highway, until Chazelle decided to shoot it in the 105 -- 110 interchange, which arcs 100 feet (30 m) in the air. Production designer David Wasco said, "I thought somebody was going to fall off and get killed. '' Not every portion of the highway was blocked. Chazelle compared the scene to the yellow brick road leading to the Emerald City in The Wizard of Oz (1939).
Chazelle scouted for "old L.A. '' locations that were in ruins, or were perhaps razed. One such example was the use of the Angels Flight trolley, built in 1901. The funicular had been closed in 2013 after a derailment. Attempts were made to repair and re-open the railway, but to no avail. However, the production team was able to secure permission to use it for a day. Chazelle and his crew then arranged to have it run for shooting (it was re-opened to the public in 2017). Mia works at a coffee shop on the Warner Bros. studio lot; Chazelle considered studio lots to be "monuments '' of Hollywood. Production designer Wasco created numerous fake old film posters. Chazelle occasionally created names for them, deciding to use the title of his first feature, Guy and Madeline on a Park Bench (2009) for one poster, which reimagines it as a 1930s musical.
The six - minute - long Prius car scene had to be completed during the brief "magic hour '' moment at sunset. It took eight takes and two days to shoot it. When Ryan Gosling and Emma Stone finally nailed it, "everybody just exploded, '' Stone said. Since Gosling and Stone were not primarily dancers, the two made a number of mistakes, especially during long uninterrupted single - take musical numbers. However, Chazelle was very sympathetic towards them, understanding their lack of experience and not minding their errors. While shooting Sebastian and Mia 's first dance together, Stone stumbled over the back of a bench, but picked right up and kept on going with the scene.
The fight scene during the romantic dinner that Gosling 's character Sebastian prepared for Mia (Emma Stone) was one of the scenes that was re-written more than any other. Gosling and Stone also helped create the dialogue of the scene to get it to be one of the more realistic scenes in a film filled with fantasy and fantastical elements.
Chazelle spent nearly a year editing the film with editor Tom Cross, as the two were primarily concerned with getting the tone just right.
The songs and score for La La Land were composed and orchestrated by Justin Hurwitz, Chazelle 's Harvard University classmate, who also worked on his two prior films. The lyrics were written by Pasek and Paul, except for "Start a Fire '', which was written by John Legend, Hurwitz, Marius De Vries and Angelique Cinelu.
A soundtrack album was released on December 9, 2016, by Interscope Records, featuring selections from Hurwitz 's score and songs performed by the cast.
La La Land had its world premiere as the Venice Film Festival 's opening night film on August 31, 2016. The film also screened at the Telluride Film Festival, the Toronto International Film Festival, beginning September 12, 2016, the BFI London Film Festival, the Middleburg Film Festival in late October 2016, the Virginia Film Festival, held at the University of Virginia on November 6, 2016, and the AFI Fest on November 15, 2016.
The film was originally set for a July 15, 2016, release; however, in March 2016, it was announced the film would be given a limited release starting December 2, 2016, before expanding on December 16, 2016. Chazelle stated that the change was because he felt that the release date was not right for the context of the film, and because he wanted to have a slow rollout beginning with the early fall film festivals. The film was later pushed back a week to December 9, 2016, with the wide release still being planned for December 16, 2016. Lionsgate opened the film in five locations on December 9, 2016, and expanded it to about 200 theaters on December 16, 2016, before going nationwide on December 25, 2016. The film went fully wide on January 6, 2017, with a release into select IMAX theaters a week later.
La La Land was released in the United Kingdom on January 12, 2017. The film was released in the Netherlands on December 22, 2016, and in Australia on December 26, with the rest of the territories planned for a release from mid-January 2017.
Lionsgate released La La Land on Digital HD on April 11, 2017, and Blu - ray, Ultra HD Blu - Ray and DVD on April 25, 2017.
La La Land grossed $151.1 million in the United States and Canada and $295 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $446.1 million, against a production budget of $30 million. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $68.25 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it one of the top 20 most profitable releases of 2016.
La La Land began its theatrical release with a limited release in five theaters in Los Angeles and New York City on December 9. It made $881,107 in its opening weekend, giving the film a per - theater average of $176,221, the best average of the year. In its second week of limited release, the film expanded to 200 theaters and grossed $4.1 million, finishing 7th at the box office. It was an increase of 366 % from the previous week and good for a per - theater of $20,510. The following week, the film had its wide expansion to 734 theaters, grossing $5.8 million for the weekend (including $4 million on Christmas Day and $9.2 million over the four days), and finishing 8th at the box office. On January 6, 2017, the weekend of the Golden Globes, the film expanded to 1,515 theaters and grossed $10 million over the weekend, finishing 5th at the box office. In its 6th week of release, the film grossed $14.5 million (a total of $16.9 million over the four - day weekend for Martin Luther King Jr. Day), finishing 2nd at the box office behind Hidden Figures. After receiving its 14 Oscar nominations, the film expanded to 3,136 theaters on January 27, 2017 (an increase of 1,271 from the week before) and grossed $12.1 million (up 43 % from its previous week 's $8.4 million). During the weekend of February 24 -- 26 (the weekend of the Academy Awards) the film grossed $4.6 million, exactly the same amount it grossed the previous weekend. The next week, following its six Oscar wins, the film grossed $3 million.
Critics praised the film 's screenplay, direction, acting, score, and the chemistry of Gosling and Stone. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 92 % based on 386 reviews, with an average rating of 8.7 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "La La Land breathes new life into a bygone genre with thrillingly assured direction, powerful performances, and an irresistible excess of heart. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating based on reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 93 out of 100, based on 53 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. It was the third - and sixth - highest scoring film released in 2016 on each respective site. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported audiences gave an 81 % overall positive score and a 93 % "definite recommend ''.
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave La La Land four stars out of four, describing it as "a hot miracle '' and complimenting its musical numbers, particularly the opening scene. He went on to name it his favorite movie of the year. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune similarly lauded the opening sequence, in addition to highlighting Stone 's performance, stating "she 's reason enough to see La La Land. '' Despite being less enthusiastic about Gosling 's dancing and the film 's middle section, Phillips nevertheless gave the film four out of four stars, declaring it "the year 's most seriously pleasurable entertainment ''.
A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised the film, stating that it "succeeds both as a fizzy fantasy and a hard - headed fable, a romantic comedy and a showbiz melodrama, a work of sublime artifice and touching authenticity ''. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian awarded the film five out of five stars, describing it as "a sun - drenched musical masterpiece. '' Tom Charity of Sight & Sound stated, "Chazelle has crafted that rare thing, a genuinely romantic comedy, and as well, a rhapsody in blue, red, yellow and green. '' Diana Dabrowska of Cinema Scope wrote, "La La Land may look like the world that we dream about, but it also understands the cruelty that can come out of (or undermine) those dreams; it 's shot in CinemaScope, and yet it 's still an intimate masterpiece. ''
Writing for The Boston Globe in December 2016, Ty Burr summarized the effectiveness of the film to relate to audiences stating: "... the movie traffics in the bittersweet happiness of treasuring things that are vanishing, like the unrealized future imagined in the climatic dance number, or those inky, star - filled dance floors that go on forever in old movies, or Hollywood musicals themselves. Or jazz: Sebastian has an early moment at a nightclub where he passionately sticks up for the music he loves. "It 's dying on the vine, '' he says. "And the world says ' Let it die. It had its time. ' Well, not on my watch. '' In that scene, he speaks for the director. By the end of "La La Land, '' he 's speaking for all of us. ''
The film has been criticized for its treatment of race and jazz. Kelly Lawler of USA Today noted that Gosling 's character has been referred to as a "white savior '' by some critics, due to "his quest (and eventual success) to save the traditionally black musical genre from extinction, seemingly the only person who can accomplish such a goal. '' The sentiment was also expressed by Ruby Lott - Lavigna of Wired, Anna Silman of New York, and Ira Madison III of MTV News. Rex Reed of the New York Observer also takes aim at the film 's intention to emulate the MGM musical classics, noting that "the old - fashioned screenplay, by the ambitious writer - director Damien Chazelle, reeks of mothballs '', and that "the movie sags badly in the middle, like a worn - out mattress that needs new springs ''. The South China Morning Post said that the film is a little dull, that the two leads ' singing and dancing are n't exceptional, and that Sebastian is a jazz snob and Mia 's character lacks depth.
La La Land received eleven nominations at the 70th British Academy Film Awards, more than any other film of 2016. The film won in the categories of Best Film, Best Director, Best Actress in a Leading Role for Stone, Best Cinematography and Best Film Music.
At the 74th Golden Globe Awards, La La Land received a leading seven nominations. The film won in all seven categories for which it was nominated, setting a historic record for the most Golden Globes won by a single film, namely Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy, Best Director, Best Actor -- Comedy or Musical for Gosling, Best Actress -- Comedy or Musical for Stone, Best Screenplay, Best Original Score and Best Original Song ("City of Stars '').
At the 89th Academy Awards, La La Land received a leading six awards, including Best Director, Best Actress (for Stone), Best Cinematography, Best Original Score, Best Original Song ("City of Stars '') and Best Production Design. The film received a total of 14 nominations, tying records for most nominations by a single film with All About Eve (1950) and Titanic (1997). Its other nominations included Best Picture, Best Actor (for Gosling), Best Original Screenplay, Best Film Editing, Best Costume Design, a second nomination for Best Original Song ("Audition ''), Best Sound Editing and Best Sound Mixing.
During the Oscars ceremony, presenter Faye Dunaway incorrectly announced that La La Land had won Best Picture, reading from the card Warren Beatty opened, which was actually a duplicate of the Best Actress card for Emma Stone. After the cast and crew of La La Land took the stage, it took the show 's producers more than two minutes and nearly three whole speeches to rectify the mistake; the actual winner was Moonlight.
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the state of atmosphere over an area at any point of time is known as | Atmosphere of Earth - wikipedia
The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for liquid water to exist on the Earth 's surface, absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature variation).
By volume, dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen, 20.95 % oxygen, 0.93 % argon, 0.04 % carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1 % at sea level, and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.
The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 × 10 kg, three quarters of which is within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at 100 km (62 mi), or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km (75 mi). Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition.
The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science (aerology). Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann.
The three major constituents of air, and therefore of Earth 's atmosphere, are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon. Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25 % of the atmosphere by mass. The concentration of water vapor (a greenhouse gas) varies significantly from around 10 ppm by volume in the coldest portions of the atmosphere to as much as 5 % by volume in hot, humid air masses, and concentrations of other atmospheric gases are typically quoted in terms of dry air (without water vapor). The remaining gases are often referred to as trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Filtered air includes trace amounts of many other chemical compounds. Many substances of natural origin may be present in locally and seasonally variable small amounts as aerosols in an unfiltered air sample, including dust of mineral and organic composition, pollen and spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash. Various industrial pollutants also may be present as gases or aerosols, such as chlorine (elemental or in compounds), fluorine compounds and elemental mercury vapor. Sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide (SO) may be derived from natural sources or from industrial air pollution.
volume fraction is equal to mole fraction for ideal gas only, also see volume (thermodynamics) ppmv: parts per million by volume Water vapor is about 0.25 % by mass over full atmosphere Water vapor strongly varies locally
The relative concentration of gasses remains constant until about 10,000 m (33,000 ft).
In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the temperature section, below). Because the general pattern of the temperature / altitude profile is constant and measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth 's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, the atmosphere has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. From highest to lowest, the five main layers are:
The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth 's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where it merges into the solar wind.
This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free - moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.
The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible. However, the aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains most of the satellites orbiting Earth.
The thermosphere is the second - highest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi; 260,000 ft) up to the thermopause at an altitude range of 500 -- 1000 km (310 -- 620 mi; 1,600,000 -- 3,300,000 ft). The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 kilometres (50 to 342 mi) above Earth 's surface, contains the ionosphere.
The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. Unlike the stratosphere beneath it, wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules. The temperature of this layer can rise as high as 1500 ° C (2700 ° F), though the gas molecules are so far apart that its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of 1 kilometre (0.62 mi; 3300 ft) between collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.
This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However, non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 350 and 420 km (220 and 260 mi).
The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth 's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to the mesopause at 80 -- 85 km (50 -- 53 mi; 260,000 -- 280,000 ft) above sea level.
Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around − 85 ° C (− 120 ° F; 190 K).
Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar - mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. A type of lightning referred to as either sprites or ELVES occasionally forms far above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet - powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket - powered aircraft.
The stratosphere is the second - lowest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly 12 km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth 's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft).
The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1 / 1000 the pressure at sea level. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth 's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be − 60 ° C (− 76 ° F; 210 K) at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 ° C.
The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather - producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by jet - powered aircraft.
The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth 's atmosphere. It extends from Earth 's surface to an average height of about 12 km, although this altitude actually varies from about 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles to 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with height.
Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth 's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, tropos, meaning "turn ''). The troposphere contains roughly 80 % of the mass of Earth 's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere.
Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth 's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather - associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller - driven aircraft.
Within the five principal layers that are largely determined by temperature, several secondary layers may be distinguished by other properties:
The average temperature of the atmosphere at Earth 's surface is 14 ° C (57 ° F; 287 K) or 15 ° C (59 ° F; 288 K), depending on the reference.
The average atmospheric pressure at sea level is defined by the International Standard Atmosphere as 101325 pascals (760.00 Torr; 14.6959 psi; 760.00 mmHg). This is sometimes referred to as a unit of standard atmospheres (atm). Total atmospheric mass is 5.1480 × 10 kg (1.135 × 10 lb), about 2.5 % less than would be inferred from the average sea level pressure and Earth 's area of 51007.2 megahectares, this portion being displaced by Earth 's mountainous terrain. Atmospheric pressure is the total weight of the air above unit area at the point where the pressure is measured. Thus air pressure varies with location and weather.
If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density from sea level, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of 8.50 km (27,900 ft). It actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every 5.6 km (18,000 ft) or by a factor of 1 / e every 7.64 km (25,100 ft), the average scale height of the atmosphere below 70 km (43 mi; 230,000 ft). However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account.
In summary, the mass of Earth 's atmosphere is distributed approximately as follows:
By comparison, the summit of Mt. Everest is at 8,848 m (29,029 ft); commercial airliners typically cruise between 10 km (33,000 ft) and 13 km (43,000 ft) where the thinner air improves fuel economy; weather balloons reach 30.4 km (100,000 ft) and above; and the highest X-15 flight in 1963 reached 108.0 km (354,300 ft).
Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth 's ionosphere, important to HF radio propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350 -- 400 km, within the F - layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700 -- 800 km.
The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes through a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere. In the stratosphere, starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by capture of significant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly - named thermosphere above 90 km.
Because in an ideal gas of constant composition the speed of sound depends only on temperature and not on the gas pressure or density, the speed of sound in the atmosphere with altitude takes on the form of the complicated temperature profile (see illustration to the right), and does not mirror altitudinal changes in density or pressure.
The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg / m (1.2 g / L, 0.0012 g / cm). Density is not measured directly but is calculated from measurements of temperature, pressure and humidity using the equation of state for air (a form of the ideal gas law). Atmospheric density decreases as the altitude increases. This variation can be approximately modeled using the barometric formula. More sophisticated models are used to predict orbital decay of satellites.
The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5 × 10) tonnes or 1 / 1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research, "The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 × 10 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5 × 10 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27 × 10 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ± 0.0003 × 10 kg. ''
Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we can not see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere.
When light passes through Earth 's atmosphere, photons interact with it through scattering. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when you can not see your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun 's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.
Different molecules absorb different wavelengths of radiation. For example, O and O absorb almost all wavelengths shorter than 300 nanometers. Water (H O) absorbs many wavelengths above 700 nm. When a molecule absorbs a photon, it increases the energy of the molecule. This heats the atmosphere, but the atmosphere also cools by emitting radiation, as discussed below.
The combined absorption spectra of the gases in the atmosphere leave "windows '' of low opacity, allowing the transmission of only certain bands of light. The optical window runs from around 300 nm (ultraviolet - C) up into the range humans can see, the visible spectrum (commonly called light), at roughly 400 -- 700 nm and continues to the infrared to around 1100 nm. There are also infrared and radio windows that transmit some infrared and radio waves at longer wavelengths. For example, the radio window runs from about one centimeter to about eleven - meter waves.
Emission is the opposite of absorption, it is when an object emits radiation. Objects tend to emit amounts and wavelengths of radiation depending on their "black body '' emission curves, therefore hotter objects tend to emit more radiation, with shorter wavelengths. Colder objects emit less radiation, with longer wavelengths. For example, the Sun is approximately 6,000 K (5,730 ° C; 10,340 ° F), its radiation peaks near 500 nm, and is visible to the human eye. Earth is approximately 290 K (17 ° C; 62 ° F), so its radiation peaks near 10,000 nm, and is much too long to be visible to humans.
Because of its temperature, the atmosphere emits infrared radiation. For example, on clear nights Earth 's surface cools down faster than on cloudy nights. This is because clouds (H O) are strong absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation. This is also why it becomes colder at night at higher elevations.
The greenhouse effect is directly related to this absorption and emission effect. Some gases in the atmosphere absorb and emit infrared radiation, but do not interact with sunlight in the visible spectrum. Common examples of these are CO and H O.
The refractive index of air is close to, but just greater than 1. Systematic variations in refractive index can lead to the bending of light rays over long optical paths. One example is that, under some circumstances, observers onboard ships can see other vessels just over the horizon because light is refracted in the same direction as the curvature of Earth 's surface.
The refractive index of air depends on temperature, giving rise to refraction effects when the temperature gradient is large. An example of such effects is the mirage.
Atmospheric circulation is the large - scale movement of air through the troposphere, and the means (with ocean circulation) by which heat is distributed around Earth. The large - scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic structure remains fairly constant because it is determined by Earth 's rotation rate and the difference in solar radiation between the equator and poles.
The first atmosphere consisted of gases in the solar nebula, primarily hydrogen. There were probably simple hydrides such as those now found in the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), notably water vapor, methane and ammonia. As the solar nebula dissipated, these gases escaped, partly driven off by the solar wind.
Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases. A major part of carbon - dioxide emissions soon dissolved in water and built up carbonate sediments.
Researchers have found water - related sediments dating from as early as 3.8 billion years ago. About 3.4 billion years ago, nitrogen formed the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere ''. An influence of life has to be taken into account rather soon in the history of the atmosphere, because hints of early life - forms appear as early as 3.5 billion years ago. How Earth at that time maintained a climate warm enough for liquid water and life, if the early Sun put out 30 % lower solar radiance than today, is a puzzle known as the "faint young Sun paradox ''.
The geological record however shows a continually relatively warm surface during the complete early temperature record of Earth - with the exception of one cold glacial phase about 2.4 billion years ago. In the late Archean Eon an oxygen - containing atmosphere began to develop, apparently produced by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria (see Great Oxygenation Event), which have been found as stromatolite fossils from 2.7 billion years ago. The early basic carbon isotopy (isotope ratio proportions) strongly suggests conditions similar to the current, and that the fundamental features of the carbon cycle became established as early as 4 billion years ago.
Ancient sediments in the Gabon dating from between about 2,150 and 2,080 million years ago provide a record of Earth 's dynamic oxygenation evolution. These fluctuations in oxygenation were likely driven by the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion.
The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long - term evolution of the atmosphere by transferring carbon dioxide to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago during the Great Oxygenation Event and its appearance is indicated by the end of the banded iron formations.
Before this time, any oxygen produced by photosynthesis was consumed by oxidation of reduced materials, notably iron. Molecules of free oxygen did not start to accumulate in the atmosphere until the rate of production of oxygen began to exceed the availability of reducing materials that removed oxygen. This point signifies a shift from a reducing atmosphere to an oxidizing atmosphere. O showed major variations until reaching a steady state of more than 15 % by the end of the Precambrian. The following time span from 541 million years ago to the present day is the Phanerozoic Eon, during the earliest period of which, the Cambrian, oxygen - requiring metazoan life forms began to appear.
The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere has fluctuated over the last 600 million years, reaching a peak of about 30 % around 280 million years ago, significantly higher than today 's 21 %. Two main processes govern changes in the atmosphere: Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen. Breakdown of pyrite and volcanic eruptions release sulfur into the atmosphere, which oxidizes and hence reduces the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. However, volcanic eruptions also release carbon dioxide, which plants can convert to oxygen. The exact cause of the variation of the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere is not known. Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid development of animals. Today 's atmosphere contains 21 % oxygen, which is high enough for this rapid development of animals.
The scientific consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of global warming.
Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollution, chiefly from chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone - depleting substances.
On October 19, 2015 NASA started a website containing daily images of the full sunlit side of Earth on http://epic.gsfc.nasa.gov/. The images are taken from the Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR) and show Earth as it rotates during a day.
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what is the importance of the national stadium | Independence Park (Jamaica) - Wikipedia
Independence Park is a sports and cultural complex in Kingston, Jamaica built for the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games. It houses a variety of sports facilities. A statue of Bob Marley marks the entrance to the site. The main sports venue at the complex is the National Stadium.
The National Stadium is primarily used for football (being the home field of the Jamaica Football Federation) but is also considered the apex of Athletic competition in the West Indies being home to Jamaica 's national athletic team for the Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games.
It was built for the 1962 Central American and Caribbean Games, for which it was the main stadium hosting the opening and closing ceremonies, track and field and cycling events. It was also home to the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games. It holds 35,000 people.
Facilities include:
A statue of Olympic gold medallist Don Quarrie guards the entrance to the stadium.
Other statues in the complex include those of Arthur Wint, Herb McKenley and Merlene Ottey.
The pools were built to host the aquatic events of the 1962 Central American and Caribbean Games. The main swimming pool was modified to accommodate the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games which required that distances be in yards as opposed to metres. It currently seats 8,500.
The National Arena was built to host the Weightlifting and Wrestling events of the 1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games. It holds 6,000 people and was opened in 1963.
It is now used for a wide range of activities including sports tournaments (netball, table tennis, etc.), trade exhibitions, flower shows, the National Festival song and costume competitions and state funerals.
The National Indoor Sports Complex was built adjacent to the National Arena to host the 2003 IFNA Netball World Championships. It holds 6,000 people and opened in 2002. It also is used to host events such as parties, fashion shows as well as other sports such as basketball.
These are outdoor netball courts located in between the basketball courts and Swimming Complex. It is named after Leila Robinson, the first ever netball coach and manager for the Sunshine Girls. It underwent renovations at the end of 2014 into 2015 where the complex, which hosts four netball courts, received a huge makeover including a new state - of - the - art ISO approved red and blue surface, replacing the outdated rubberized surface as well as new stands, located on the right side of the complex, which now accommodated persons with disabilities. The renovations cost upward of $23 million.
The Institute of Sports (INSPORTS) was established in 1978 by the Government of Jamaica to promote the development of sport at the national level. It is located beside the National Arena. The building houses the Jamaica Table Tennis and Volleyball associations at the bottom floor; Netball Jamaica, Special Olympics and Basketball (JABA) associations on the second floor; and the Institute of Sports on the top floor.
These are the outdoor basketball courts located beside the Leila Robinson Netball Courts. The complex hosts two basketball courts with stands to the left of the complex.
Coordinates: 18 ° 00 ′ 07 '' N 76 ° 46 ′ 18 '' W / 18.00194 ° N 76.77167 ° W / 18.00194; - 76.77167
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which wavelengths of radiation are likely to cause photokeratitis | Ultraviolet - wikipedia
Ultraviolet (UV) is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from 10 nm to 400 nm, shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in sunlight constituting about 10 % of the total light output of the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs and specialized lights, such as mercury - vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights. Although long - wavelength ultraviolet is not considered an ionizing radiation because its photons lack the energy to ionize atoms, it can cause chemical reactions and causes many substances to glow or fluoresce. Consequently, the chemical and biological effects of UV are greater than simple heating effects, and many practical applications of UV radiation derive from its interactions with organic molecules.
Suntan and sunburn are familiar effects of over-exposure of the skin to UV, along with higher risk of skin cancer. Living things on dry land would be severely damaged by ultraviolet radiation from the Sun if most of it were not filtered out by the Earth 's atmosphere. More - energetic, shorter - wavelength "extreme '' UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground. Ultraviolet is also responsible for the formation of bone - strengthening vitamin D in most land vertebrates, including humans (specifically, UVB). The UV spectrum thus has effects both beneficial and harmful to human health.
Ultraviolet rays are invisible to all humans, although insects, birds, and some mammals can see near - UV.
Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans. The lens of the human eye blocks most radiation in the wavelength range of 300 -- 400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea. Humans lack color receptor adaptations for ultraviolet rays. Nevertheless, the photoreceptors of the retina are sensitive to near - UV, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) perceive near - UV as whitish - blue or whitish - violet. Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm. Near - UV radiation is visible to insects, some mammals, and birds. Small birds have a fourth color receptor for ultraviolet rays; this gives birds "true '' UV vision.
"Ultraviolet '' means "beyond violet '' (from Latin ultra, "beyond ''), violet being the color of the highest frequencies of visible light. Ultraviolet has a higher frequency than violet light.
UV radiation was discovered in 1801 when the German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter observed that invisible rays just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum darkened silver chloride - soaked paper more quickly than violet light itself. He called them "oxidizing rays '' to emphasize chemical reactivity and to distinguish them from "heat rays '', discovered the previous year at the other end of the visible spectrum. The simpler term "chemical rays '' was adopted shortly thereafter, and it remained popular throughout the 19th century, although there were those who held that these were an entirely different sort of radiation from light (notably John William Draper, who named them "tithonic rays ''). The terms chemical rays and heat rays were eventually dropped in favor of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, respectively. In 1878 the sterilizing effect of short - wavelength light by killing bacteria was discovered. By 1903 it was known the most effective wavelengths were around 250 nm. In 1960, the effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA was established.
The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths below 200 nm, named "vacuum ultraviolet '' because it is strongly absorbed by the air, was made in 1893 by the German physicist Victor Schumann.
The electromagnetic spectrum of ultraviolet radiation (UVR), defined most broadly as 10 -- 400 nanometers, can be subdivided into a number of ranges recommended by the ISO standard ISO - 21348:
A variety of solid - state and vacuum devices have been explored for use in different parts of the UV spectrum. Many approaches seek to adapt visible light - sensing devices, but these can suffer from unwanted response to visible light and various instabilities. Ultraviolet can be detected by suitable photodiodes and photocathodes, which can be tailored to be sensitive to different parts of the UV spectrum. Sensitive ultraviolet photomultipliers are available. Spectrometers and radiometers are made for measurement of UV radiation. Silicon detectors are used across the spectrum.
Vacuum UV, or VUV, wavelengths (shorter than 200 nm) are strongly absorbed by molecular oxygen in the air, though the longer wavelengths of about 150 -- 200 nm can propagate through nitrogen. Scientific instruments can therefore utilize this spectral range by operating in an oxygen - free atmosphere (commonly pure nitrogen), without the need for costly vacuum chambers. Significant examples include 193 nm photolithography equipment (for semiconductor manufacturing) and circular dichroism spectrometers.
Technology for VUV instrumentation was largely driven by solar astronomy for many decades. While optics can be used to remove unwanted visible light that contaminates the VUV, in general, detectors can be limited by their response to non-VUV radiation, and the development of "solar - blind '' devices has been an important area of research. Wide - gap solid - state devices or vacuum devices with high - cutoff photocathodes can be attractive compared to silicon diodes.
Extreme UV (EUV or sometimes XUV) is characterized by a transition in the physics of interaction with matter. Wavelengths longer than about 30 nm interact mainly with the outer valence electrons of atoms, while wavelengths shorter than that interact mainly with inner - shell electrons and nuclei. The long end of the EUV spectrum is set by a prominent He spectral line at 30.4 nm. EUV is strongly absorbed by most known materials, but it is possible to synthesize multilayer optics that reflect up to about 50 percent of EUV radiation at normal incidence. This technology was pioneered by the NIXT and MSSTA sounding rockets in the 1990s, and it has been used to make telescopes for solar imaging. See also the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE) satellite.
Some sources use the distinction of "hard UV '' and "soft UV '' - in the case of astrophysics the boundary may be at the Lyman limit i.e. wavelength 91.2 nm, with "hard UV '' being more energetic. The same terms may also used in other fields, such as cosmetology, optoelectronic, etc. - the numerical value of the boundary between hard / soft even within similar scientific fields do not necessarily coincide; for example one applied physics publication used a boundary of 190 nm between hard and soft UV regions.
Very hot objects emit UV radiation (see black - body radiation). The Sun emits ultraviolet radiation at all wavelengths, including the extreme ultraviolet where it crosses into X-rays at 10 nm. Extremely hot stars emit proportionally more UV radiation than the Sun. Sunlight in space at the top of Earth 's atmosphere (see solar constant) is composed of about 50 % infrared light, 40 % visible light, and 10 % ultraviolet light, for a total intensity of about 1400 W / m in vacuum.
However, at ground level sunlight is 44 % visible light, 3 % ultraviolet (with the Sun at its zenith), and the remainder infrared. Thus, the atmosphere blocks about 77 % of the Sun 's UV, almost entirely in the shorter UV wavelengths, when the Sun is highest in the sky (zenith). Of the ultraviolet radiation that reaches the Earth 's surface, more than 95 % is the longer wavelengths of UVA, with the small remainder UVB. There is essentially no UVC. The fraction of UVB which remains in UV radiation after passing through the atmosphere is heavily dependent on cloud cover and atmospheric conditions. Thick clouds may block up to 90 % of UVB radiation, but in "partly cloudy '' days, patches of blue sky showing between clouds are also sources of (scattered) UVA and UVB, which are produced by Rayleigh scattering in the same way as the visible blue light from those parts of the sky. UV - B also plays a major role in plant development as it affects most of the plant hormones.
The shorter bands of UVC, as well as even more - energetic UV radiation produced by the Sun, are absorbed by oxygen and generate the ozone in the ozone layer when single oxygen atoms produced by UV photolysis of dioxygen react with more dioxygen. The ozone layer is especially important in blocking most UVB and the remaining part of UVC not already blocked by ordinary oxygen in air.
Ultraviolet absorbers are molecules used in organic materials (polymers, paints, etc.) to absorb UV radiation to reduce the UV degradation (photo - oxidation) of a material. The absorbers can themselves degrade over time, so monitoring of absorber levels in weathered materials is necessary.
In sunscreen, ingredients that absorb UVA / UVB rays, such as avobenzone, oxybenzone and octyl methoxycinnamate, are organic chemical absorbers or "blockers ''. They are contrasted with inorganic absorbers / "blockers '' of UV radiation such as carbon black, titanium dioxide and zinc oxide.
For clothing, the Ultraviolet Protection Factor (UPF) represents the ratio of sunburn - causing UV without and with the protection of the fabric, similar to SPF (Sun Protection Factor) ratings for sunscreen. Standard summer fabrics have UPF of approximately 6, which means that about 20 % of UV will pass through.
Suspended nanoparticles in stained glass prevent UV rays from causing chemical reactions that change image colors. A set of stained glass color reference chips is planned to be used to calibrate the color cameras for the 2019 ESA Mars rover mission, since they will remain unfaded by the high level of UV present at the surface of Mars.
Common soda -- lime glass is partially transparent to UVA but is opaque to shorter wavelengths, whereas fused quartz glass, depending on quality, can be transparent even to vacuum UV wavelengths. Ordinary window glass passes about 90 % of the light above 350 nm, but blocks over 90 % of the light below 300 nm.
Wood 's glass is a nickel - bearing form of glass with a deep blue - purple color that blocks most visible light and passes ultraviolet.
A black light lamp emits long - wave UVA radiation and little visible light. Fluorescent black light lamps work similarly to other fluorescent lamps, but use a phosphor on the inner tube surface which emits UVA radiation instead of visible light. Some lamps use a deep - bluish - purple Wood 's glass optical filter that blocks almost all visible light with wavelengths longer than 400 nanometres. Others use plain glass instead of the more expensive Wood 's glass, so they appear light - blue to the eye when operating. A black light may also be formed, very inefficiently, by using a layer of Wood 's glass in the envelope for an incandescent bulb. Though cheaper than fluorescent UV lamps, only 0.1 % of the input power is emitted as usable ultraviolet radiation. Mercury - vapor black lights in ratings up to 1 kW with UV - emitting phosphor and an envelope of Wood 's glass are used for theatrical and concert displays. Black lights are used in applications in which extraneous visible light must be minimized; mainly to observe fluorescence, the colored glow that many substances give off when exposed to UV light. UVA / UVB emitting bulbs are also sold for other special purposes, such as tanning lamps and reptile - keeping.
Shortwave UV lamps are made using a lamp tube with no phosphor coating composed of fused quartz, since ordinary glass absorbs UVC. These lamps emit ultraviolet light with two peaks in the UVC band at 253.7 nm and 185 nm due to the mercury within the lamp, as well as some visible light. From 85 % to 90 % of the UV produced by these lamps is at 253.7 nm, whereas only 5 -- 10 % is at 185 nm. The fused quartz glass tube passes the 253 nm radiation but blocks the 185 nm wavelength. Such tubes have two or three times the UVC power of a regular fluorescent lamp tube. These low - pressure lamps have a typical efficiency of approximately 30 -- 40 %, meaning that for every 100 watts of electricity consumed by the lamp, they will produce approximately 30 -- 40 watts of total UV output. These "germicidal '' lamps are used extensively for disinfection of surfaces in laboratories and food - processing industries, and for disinfecting water supplies.
Incandescent lamps have been used as ultraviolet sources with a filter coating on the bulb which absorbs most visible light. Halogen lamps with fused quartz envelopes are used as inexpensive UV light sources in the near UV range, from 400 to 300 nm, in some scientific instruments. Due to its black - body spectrum a filament light bulb is a very inefficient ultraviolet source, emitting only a fraction of a percent of its energy as UV.
Specialized UV gas - discharge lamps containing different gases produce UV radiation at particular spectral lines for scientific purposes. Argon and deuterium arc lamps are often used as stable sources, either windowless or with various windows such as magnesium fluoride. These are often the emitting sources in UV spectroscopy equipment for chemical analysis.
Other UV sources with more continuous emission spectra include xenon arc lamps (commonly used as sunlight simulators), deuterium arc lamps, mercury - xenon arc lamps, and metal - halide arc lamps.
The excimer lamp, a UV source developed within the last two decades, is seeing increasing use in scientific fields. It has the advantages of high - intensity, high efficiency, and operation at a variety of wavelength bands into the vacuum ultraviolet.
Light - emitting diodes (LEDs) can be manufactured to emit radiation in the ultraviolet range. LED efficiency at 365 nm is about 5 -- 8 %, whereas efficiency at 395 nm is closer to 20 %, and power outputs at these longer UV wavelengths are also better. Such LED arrays are beginning to be used for UV curing applications, and are already successful in digital print applications and inert UV curing environments. Power densities approaching 3 W / cm (30 kW / m) are now possible, and this, coupled with recent developments by photoinitiator and resin formulators, makes the expansion of LED - cured UV materials likely.
UVC LEDs are beginning to be used in disinfection and as line sources to replace deuterium lamps in liquid chromatography instruments.
Gas lasers, laser diodes and solid - state lasers can be manufactured to emit ultraviolet rays, and lasers are available which cover the entire UV range. The nitrogen gas laser uses electronic excitation of nitrogen molecules to emit a beam that is mostly UV. The strongest ultraviolet lines are at 337.1 nm and 357.6. 6 nm, wavelength. Another type of high power gas laser is the excimer laser. They are widely used lasers emitting in ultraviolet and vacuum ultraviolet wavelength ranges. Presently, UV argon - fluoride (ArF) excimer lasers operating at 193 nm are routinely used in integrated circuit production by photolithography. The current wavelength limit of production of coherent UV is about 126 nm, characteristic of the Ar * excimer laser.
Direct UV - emitting laser diodes are available at 375 nm. UV diode lasers have been demonstrated using Ce: LiSAF crystals (cerium - doped lithium strontium aluminum fluoride), a process developed in the 1990s at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Wavelengths shorter than 325 nm are commercially generated in diode - pumped solid - state lasers. Ultraviolet lasers can also be made by applying frequency conversion to lower - frequency lasers.
Ultraviolet lasers have applications in industry (laser engraving), medicine (dermatology, and keratectomy), chemistry (MALDI), free air secure communications, computing (optical storage) and manufacture of integrated circuits.
The vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) band (100 -- 200 nm) can be generated by non-linear 4 wave mixing in gases by sum or difference frequency mixing of 2 or more longer wavelength lasers. The generation is generally done in gasses (e.g. krypton, hydrogen which are two - photon resonant near 193 nm) or metal vapors (e.g. magnesium). By making one of the lasers tunable, the VUV can be tuned. If one of the lasers is resonant with a transition in the gas or vapor then the VUV production is intensified. However, resonances also generate wavelength dispersion, and thus the phase matching can limit the tunable range of the 4 wave mixing. Difference frequency mixing (lambda1 + lambda2 − lambda3) has an advantage over sum frequency mixing because the phase matching can provide greater tuning. In particular, difference frequency mixing two photons of an ArF (193 nm) excimer laser with a tunable visible or near IR laser in hydrogen or krypton provides resonantly enhanced tunable VUV covering from 100 nm to 200 nm. Practically, the lack of suitable gas / vapor cell window materials above the lithium fluoride cut - off wavelength limit the tuning range to longer than about 110 nm. Tunable VUV wavelengths down to 75 nm was achieved using window - free configurations.
Lasers have been used to indirectly generate non-coherent extreme UV (EUV) radiation at 13.5 nm for extreme ultraviolet lithography. The EUV is not emitted by the laser, but rather by electron transitions in an extremely hot tin or xenon plasma, which is excited by an excimer laser. This technique does not require a synchrotron, yet can produce UV at the edge of the X-ray spectrum. Synchrotron light sources can also produce all wavelengths of UV, including those at the boundary of the UV and X-ray spectra at 10 nm.
The impact of ultraviolet radiation on human health has implications for the risks and benefits of sun exposure and is also implicated in issues such as fluorescent lamps and health. Getting too much sun exposure can be harmful, but in moderation, sun exposure is beneficial.
There is no doubt that a little sunlight is good for you! But 5 to 15 minutes of casual sun exposure of hands, face and arms two to three times a week during the summer months is sufficient to keep your vitamin D levels high.
UV light causes the body to produce vitamin D (specifically, UVB), which is essential for life. The human body needs some UV radiation in order for one to maintain adequate vitamin D levels; however, excess exposure produces harmful effects that typically outweigh the benefits.
Vitamin D promotes the creation of serotonin. The production of serotonin is in direct proportion to the degree of bright sunlight the body receives. Serotonin is thought to provide sensations of happiness, well being and serenity to human beings.
UV rays also treat certain skin conditions. Modern phototherapy has been used to successfully treat psoriasis, eczema, jaundice, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, and localized scleroderma. In addition, UV light, in particular UVB radiation, has been shown to induce cell cycle arrest in keratinocytes, the most common type of skin cell. As such, sunlight therapy can be a candidate for treatment of conditions such as psoriasis and exfoliative cheilitis, conditions in which skin cells divide more rapidly than usual or necessary.
In humans, excessive exposure to UV radiation can result in acute and chronic harmful effects on the eye 's dioptric system and retina. The risk is elevated at high altitudes and people living in high latitude countries where snow covers the ground right into early summer and sun positions even at zenith are low, are particularly at risk. Skin, the circadian and immune systems can also be affected.
The differential effects of various wavelengths of light on the human cornea and skin are sometimes called the "erythemal action spectrum. ''. The action spectrum shows that UVA does not cause immediate reaction, but rather UV begins to cause photokeratitis and skin redness (with Caucasians more sensitive) at wavelengths starting near the beginning of the UVB band at 315 nm, and rapidly increasing to 300 nm. The skin and eyes are most sensitive to damage by UV at 265 -- 275 nm, which is in the lower UVC band. At still shorter wavelengths of UV, damage continues to happen, but the overt effects are not as great with so little penetrating the atmosphere. The WHO - standard ultraviolet index is a widely publicized measurement of total strength of UV wavelengths that cause sunburn on human skin, by weighting UV exposure for action spectrum effects at a given time and location. This standard shows that most sunburn happens due to UV at wavelengths near the boundary of the UVA and UVB bands.
Overexposure to UVB radiation not only can cause sunburn but also some forms of skin cancer. However, the degree of redness and eye irritation (which are largely not caused by UVA) do not predict the long - term effects of UV, although they do mirror the direct damage of DNA by ultraviolet.
All bands of UV radiation damage collagen fibers and accelerate aging of the skin. Both UVA and UVB destroy vitamin A in skin, which may cause further damage.
UVB radiation can cause direct DNA damage. This cancer connection is one reason for concern about ozone depletion and the ozone hole.
The most deadly form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is mostly caused by DNA damage independent from UVA radiation. This can be seen from the absence of a direct UV signature mutation in 92 % of all melanoma. Occasional overexposure and sunburn are probably greater risk factors for melanoma than long - term moderate exposure. UVC is the highest - energy, most - dangerous type of ultraviolet radiation, and causes adverse effects that can variously be mutagenic or carcinogenic.
In the past, UVA was considered not harmful or less harmful than UVB, but today it is known to contribute to skin cancer via indirect DNA damage (free radicals such as reactive oxygen species). UVA can generate highly reactive chemical intermediates, such as hydroxyl and oxygen radicals, which in turn can damage DNA. The DNA damage caused indirectly to skin by UVA consists mostly of single - strand breaks in DNA, while the damage caused by UVB includes direct formation of thymine dimers or other pyrimidine dimers and double - strand DNA breakage. UVA is immunosuppressive for the entire body (accounting for a large part of the immunosuppressive effects of sunlight exposure), and is mutagenic for basal cell keratinocytes in skin.
UVB photons can cause direct DNA damage. UVB radiation excites DNA molecules in skin cells, causing aberrant covalent bonds to form between adjacent pyrimidine bases, producing a dimer. Most UV - induced pyrimidine dimers in DNA are removed by the process known as nucleotide excision repair that employs about 30 different proteins. Those pyrimidine dimers that escape this repair process can induce a form of programmed cell death (apoptosis) or can cause DNA replication errors leading to mutation.
As a defense against UV radiation, the amount of the brown pigment melanin in the skin increases when exposed to moderate (depending on skin type) levels of radiation; this is commonly known as a sun tan. The purpose of melanin is to absorb UV radiation and dissipate the energy as harmless heat, protecting the skin against both direct and indirect DNA damage from the UV. UVA gives a quick tan that lasts for days by oxidizing melanin that was already present and triggers the release of the melanin from melanocytes. UVB yields a tan that takes roughly 2 days to develop because it stimulates the body to produce more melanin.
Medical organizations recommend that patients protect themselves from UV radiation by using sunscreen. Five sunscreen ingredients have been shown to protect mice against skin tumors. However, some sunscreen chemicals produce potentially harmful substances if they are illuminated while in contact with living cells. The amount of sunscreen that penetrates into the lower layers of the skin may be large enough to cause damage.
Sunscreen reduces the direct DNA damage that causes sunburn, by blocking UVB, and the usual SPF rating indicates how effectively this radiation is blocked. SPF is, therefore, also called UVB - PF, for "UVB protection factor ''. This rating, however, offers no data about important protection against UVA, which does not primarily cause sunburn but is still harmful, since it causes indirect DNA damage and is also considered carcinogenic. Several studies suggest that the absence of UVA filters may be the cause of the higher incidence of melanoma found in sunscreen users compared to non-users. Some sunscreen lotions now contain compounds including titanium dioxide, zinc oxide and avobenzone which helps protect against UVA rays.
The photochemical properties of melanin make it an excellent photoprotectant. However, sunscreen chemicals can not dissipate the energy of the excited state as efficiently as melanin and therefore, if sunscreen ingredients penetrate into the lower layers of the skin, the amount of reactive oxygen species may be increased. The amount of sunscreen that penetrates through the stratum corneum may or may not be large enough to cause damage.
In an experiment by Hanson et al. that was published in 2006, the amount of harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS) was measured in untreated and in sunscreen treated skin. In the first 20 minutes, the film of sunscreen had a protective effect and the number of ROS species was smaller. After 60 minutes, however, the amount of absorbed sunscreen was so high that the amount of ROS was higher in the sunscreen - treated skin than in the untreated skin. The study indicates that sunscreen must be reapplied within 2 hours in order to prevent UV light from penetrating to sunscreen - infused live skin cells.
Ultraviolet radiation can aggravate several skin conditions and diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjögren 's syndrome, Sinear Usher syndrome, rosacea, dermatomyositis, Darier 's disease, and Kindler -- Weary syndrome.
The eye is most sensitive to damage by UV in the lower UVC band at 265 -- 275 nm. Radiation of this wavelength is almost absent from sunlight but is found in welder 's arc lights and other artificial sources. Exposure to these can cause "welder 's flash '' or "arc eye '' (photokeratitis) and can lead to cataracts, pterygium and pinguecula formation. To a lesser extent, UVB in sunlight from 310 -- 280 nm also causes photokeratitis ("snow blindness ''), and the cornea, the lens, and the retina can be damaged.
Protective eyewear is beneficial to those exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Since light can reach the eyes from the sides, full - coverage eye protection is usually warranted if there is an increased risk of exposure, as in high - altitude mountaineering. Mountaineers are exposed to higher - than - ordinary levels of UV radiation, both because there is less atmospheric filtering and because of reflection from snow and ice. Ordinary, untreated eyeglasses give some protection. Most plastic lenses give more protection than glass lenses, because, as noted above, glass is transparent to UVA and the common acrylic plastic used for lenses is less so. Some plastic lens materials, such as polycarbonate, inherently block most UV.
UV degradation is one form of polymer degradation that affects plastics exposed to sunlight. The problem appears as discoloration or fading, cracking, loss of strength or disintegration. The effects of attack increase with exposure time and sunlight intensity. The addition of UV absorbers inhibits the effect.
Sensitive polymers include thermoplastics and speciality fibers like aramids. UV absorption leads to chain degradation and loss of strength at sensitive points in the chain structure. Aramid rope must be shielded with a sheath of thermoplastic if it is to retain its strength.
Many pigments and dyes absorb UV and change colour, so paintings and textiles may need extra protection both from sunlight and fluorescent bulbs, two common sources of UV radiation. Window glass absorbs some harmful UV, but valuable artifacts need extra shielding. Many museums place black curtains over watercolour paintings and ancient textiles, for example. Since watercolours can have very low pigment levels, they need extra protection from UV. Various forms of picture framing glass, including acrylics (plexiglass), laminates, and coatings, offer different degrees of UV (and visible light) protection.
Because of its ability to cause chemical reactions and excite fluorescence in materials, ultraviolet radiation has a number of applications. The following table gives some uses of specific wavelength bands in the UV spectrum
Photographic film responds to ultraviolet radiation but the glass lenses of cameras usually block radiation shorter than 350 nm. Slightly yellow UV - blocking filters are often used for outdoor photography to prevent unwanted bluing and overexposure by UV rays. For photography in the near UV, special filters may be used. Photography with wavelengths shorter than 350 nm requires special quartz lenses which do not absorb the radiation. Digital cameras sensors may have internal filters that block UV to improve color rendition accuracy. Sometimes these internal filters can be removed, or they may be absent, and an external visible - light filter prepares the camera for near - UV photography. A few cameras are designed for use in the UV.
Photography by reflected ultraviolet radiation is useful for medical, scientific, and forensic investigations, in applications as widespread as detecting bruising of skin, alterations of documents, or restoration work on paintings. Photography of the fluorescence produced by ultraviolet illumination uses visible wavelengths of light.
In ultraviolet astronomy, measurements are used to discern the chemical composition of the interstellar medium, and the temperature and composition of stars. Because the ozone layer blocks many UV frequencies from reaching telescopes on the surface of the Earth, most UV observations are made from space.
Corona discharge on electrical apparatus can be detected by its ultraviolet emissions. Corona causes degradation of electrical insulation and emission of ozone and nitrogen oxide.
EPROMs (Erasable Programmable Read - Only Memory) are erased by exposure to UV radiation. These modules have a transparent (quartz) window on the top of the chip that allows the UV radiation in.
Colorless fluorescent dyes that emit blue light under UV are added as optical brighteners to paper and fabrics. The blue light emitted by these agents counteracts yellow tints that may be present and causes the colors and whites to appear whiter or more brightly colored.
UV fluorescent dyes that glow in the primary colors are used in paints, papers, and textiles either to enhance color under daylight illumination or to provide special effects when lit with UV lamps. Blacklight paints that contain dyes that glow under UV are used in a number of art and aesthetic applications.
To help prevent counterfeiting of currency, or forgery of important documents such as driver 's licenses and passports, the paper may include a UV watermark or fluorescent multicolor fibers that are visible under ultraviolet light. Postage stamps are tagged with a phosphor that glows under UV rays to permit automatic detection of the stamp and facing of the letter.
UV fluorescent dyes are used in many applications (for example, biochemistry and forensics). Some brands of pepper spray will leave an invisible chemical (UV dye) that is not easily washed off on a pepper - sprayed attacker, which would help police identify the attacker later.
In some types of nondestructive testing UV stimulates fluorescent dyes to highlight defects in a broad range of materials. These dyes may be carried into surface - breaking defects by capillary action (liquid penetrant inspection) or they may be bound to ferrite particles caught in magnetic leakage fields in ferrous materials (magnetic particle inspection).
UV is an investigative tool at the crime scene helpful in locating and identifying bodily fluids such as semen, blood, and saliva. For example, ejaculated fluids or saliva can be detected by high - power UV sources, irrespective of the structure or colour of the surface the fluid is deposited upon. UV - Vis microspectroscopy is also used to analyze trace evidence, such as textile fibers and paint chips, as well as questioned documents.
Other applications include the authentication of various collectibles and art, and detecting counterfeit currency. Even materials not specially marked with UV sensitive dyes may have distinctive fluorescence under UV exposure or may fluoresce differently under short - wave versus long - wave ultraviolet.
Using multi-spectral imaging it is possible to read illegible papyrus, such as the burned papyri of the Villa of the Papyri or of Oxyrhynchus, or the Archimedes palimpsest. The technique involves taking pictures of the illegible document using different filters in the infrared or ultraviolet range, finely tuned to capture certain wavelengths of light. Thus, the optimum spectral portion can be found for distinguishing ink from paper on the papyrus surface.
Simple NUV sources can be used to highlight faded iron - based ink on vellum.
Ultraviolet aids in the detection of organic material deposits that remain on surfaces where periodic cleaning and sanitizing may not have been properly accomplished. It is used in the hotel industry, manufacturing, and other industries where levels of cleanliness or contamination are inspected.
Perennial news feature for many television news organizations involves an investigative reporter 's using a similar device to reveal unsanitary conditions in hotels, public toilets, hand rails, and such.
UV / VIS spectroscopy is widely used as a technique in chemistry to analyze chemical structure, the most notable one being conjugated systems. UV radiation is often used to excite a given sample where the fluorescent emission is measured with a spectrofluorometer. In biological research, UV radiation is used for quantification of nucleic acids or proteins.
Ultraviolet lamps are also used in analyzing minerals and gems.
In pollution control applications, ultraviolet analyzers are used to detect emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur compounds, mercury, and ammonia, for example in the flue gas of fossil - fired power plants. Ultraviolet radiation can detect thin sheens of spilled oil on water, either by the high reflectivity of oil films at UV wavelengths, fluorescence of compounds in oil or by absorbing of UV created by Raman scattering in water.
In general, ultraviolet detectors use either a solid - state device, such as one based on silicon carbide or aluminium nitride, or a gas - filled tube as the sensing element. UV detectors that are sensitive to UV in any part of the spectrum respond to irradiation by sunlight and artificial light. A burning hydrogen flame, for instance, radiates strongly in the 185 - to 260 - nanometer range and only very weakly in the IR region, whereas a coal fire emits very weakly in the UV band yet very strongly at IR wavelengths; thus, a fire detector that operates using both UV and IR detectors is more reliable than one with a UV detector alone. Virtually all fires emit some radiation in the UVC band, whereas the Sun 's radiation at this band is absorbed by the Earth 's atmosphere. The result is that the UV detector is "solar blind '', meaning it will not cause an alarm in response to radiation from the Sun, so it can easily be used both indoors and outdoors.
UV detectors are sensitive to most fires, including hydrocarbons, metals, sulfur, hydrogen, hydrazine, and ammonia. Arc welding, electrical arcs, lightning, X-rays used in nondestructive metal testing equipment (though this is highly unlikely), and radioactive materials can produce levels that will activate a UV detection system. The presence of UV - absorbing gases and vapors will attenuate the UV radiation from a fire, adversely affecting the ability of the detector to detect flames. Likewise, the presence of an oil mist in the air or an oil film on the detector window will have the same effect.
Ultraviolet radiation is used for very fine resolution photolithography, a procedure wherein a chemical called a photoresist is exposed to UV radiation that has passed through a mask. The exposure causes chemical reactions to occur in the photoresist. After removal of unwanted photoresist, a pattern determined by the mask remains on the sample. Steps may then be taken to "etch '' away, deposit on or otherwise modify areas of the sample where no photoresist remains.
Photolithography is used in the manufacture of semiconductors, integrated circuit components, and printed circuit boards. Photolithography processes used to fabricate electronic integrated circuits presently use 193 nm UV and are experimentally using 13.5 nm UV for extreme ultraviolet lithography.
Electronic components that require clear transparency for light to exit or enter (photovoltaic panels and sensors) can be potted using acrylic resins that are cured using UV energy. The advantages are low VOC emissions and rapid curing.
Certain inks, coatings, and adhesives are formulated with photoinitiators and resins. When exposed to UV light, polymerization occurs, and so the adhesives harden or cure, usually within a few seconds. Applications include glass and plastic bonding, optical fiber coatings, the coating of flooring, UV coating and paper finishes in offset printing, dental fillings, and decorative fingernail "gels ''.
UV sources for UV curing applications include UV lamps, UV LEDs, and Excimer flash lamps. Fast processes such as flexo or offset printing require high - intensity light focused via reflectors onto a moving substrate and medium so high - pressure Hg (mercury) or Fe (iron, doped) - based bulbs are used, energized with electric arcs or microwaves. Lower - power fluorescent lamps and LEDs can be used for static applications. Small high - pressure lamps can have light focused and transmitted to the work area via liquid - filled or fiber - optic light guides.
The impact of UV on polymers is used for modification of the (roughness and hydrophobicity) of polymer surfaces. For example, a poly (methyl methacrylate) surface can be smoothed by vacuum ultraviolet.
UV radiation is useful in preparing low - surface - energy polymers for adhesives. Polymers exposed to UV will oxidize, thus raising the surface energy of the polymer. Once the surface energy of the polymer has been raised, the bond between the adhesive and the polymer is stronger.
Using a catalytic chemical reaction from titanium dioxide and UVC exposure, oxidation of organic matter converts pathogens, pollens, and mold spores into harmless inert byproducts. However, the reaction of titanium dioxide and UVC is not a straight path. Several hundreds of reactions occur prior to the inert byproducts stage and can hinder the resulting reaction creating formadehyde, aldehyde, and other VOC 's en route to a final stage. Thus, the use of Titanium Dioxide and UVC requires very specific parameters for a successful outcome. The cleansing mechanism of UV is a photochemical process. Contaminants in the indoor environment are almost entirely organic carbon - based compounds, which break down when exposed to high - intensity UV at 240 to 280 nm. Short - wave ultraviolet radiation can destroy DNA in living microorganisms. UVC 's effectiveness is directly related to intensity and exposure time.
UV has also been shown to reduce gaseous contaminants such as carbon monoxide and VOCs. UV lamps radiating at 184 and 254 nm can remove low concentrations of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide if the air is recycled between the room and the lamp chamber. This arrangement prevents the introduction of ozone into the treated air. Likewise, air may be treated by passing by a single UV source operating at 184 nm and passed over iron pentaoxide to remove the ozone produced by the UV lamp.
Ultraviolet lamps are used to sterilize workspaces and tools used in biology laboratories and medical facilities. Commercially available low - pressure mercury - vapor lamps emit about 86 % of their radiation at 254 nanometers (nm), with 265 nm being the peak germicidal effectiveness curve. UV at these germicidal wavelengths damage a microorganism 's DNA so that it can not reproduce, making it harmless, (even though the organism may not be killed). Since microorganisms can be shielded from ultraviolet rays in small cracks and other shaded areas, these lamps are used only as a supplement to other sterilization techniques.
UV - C LEDs are relatively new to the commercial market and are gaining in popularity. Due to their monochromatic nature (± 5 nm) these LEDs can target a specific wavelength needed for disinfection. This is especially important knowing that pathogens vary in their sensitivity to specific UV wavelengths. LEDs are mercury free, instant on / off, and have unlimited cycling throughout the day.
Disinfection using UV radiation is commonly used in wastewater treatment applications and is finding an increased usage in municipal drinking water treatment. Many bottlers of spring water use UV disinfection equipment to sterilize their water. Solar water disinfection has been researched for cheaply treating contaminated water using natural sunlight. The UV - A irradiation and increased water temperature kill organisms in the water.
Ultraviolet radiation is used in several food processes to kill unwanted microorganisms. UV can be used to pasteurize fruit juices by flowing the juice over a high - intensity ultraviolet source. The effectiveness of such a process depends on the UV absorbance of the juice.
Pulsed light (PL) is a technique of killing microorganisms on surfaces using pulses of an intense broad spectrum, rich in UV - C between 200 and 280 nm. Pulsed light works with xenon flash lamps that can produce flashes several times per second. Disinfection robots use pulsed UV
Some animals, including birds, reptiles, and insects such as bees, can see near - ultraviolet wavelengths. Many fruits, flowers, and seeds stand out more strongly from the background in ultraviolet wavelengths as compared to human color vision. Scorpions glow or take on a yellow to green color under UV illumination, thus assisting in the control of these arachnids. Many birds have patterns in their plumage that are invisible at usual wavelengths but observable in ultraviolet, and the urine and other secretions of some animals, including dogs, cats, and human beings, are much easier to spot with ultraviolet. Urine trails of rodents can be detected by pest control technicians for proper treatment of infested dwellings.
Butterflies use ultraviolet as a communication system for sex recognition and mating behavior. For example, in the Colias eurytheme butterfly, males rely on visual cues to locate and identify females. Instead of using chemical stimuli to find mates, males are attracted to the ultraviolet - reflecting color of female hind wings. In Pieris napi butterflies it was shown that females in northern Finland with less UV - radiation present in the environment possessed stronger UV signals to attract their males than those occurring further south. This suggested that it was evolutionarily more difficult to increase the UV - sensitivity of the eyes of the males than to increase the UV - signals emitted by the females.
Many insects use the ultraviolet wavelength emissions from celestial objects as references for flight navigation. A local ultraviolet emitter will normally disrupt the navigation process and will eventually attract the flying insect.
The green fluorescent protein (GFP) is often used in genetics as a marker. Many substances, such as proteins, have significant light absorption bands in the ultraviolet that are of interest in biochemistry and related fields. UV - capable spectrophotometers are common in such laboratories.
Ultraviolet traps called bug zappers are used to eliminate various small flying insects. They are attracted to the UV and are killed using an electric shock, or trapped once they come into contact with the device. Different designs of ultraviolet radiation traps are also used by entomologists for collecting nocturnal insects during faunistic survey studies.
Ultraviolet radiation is helpful in the treatment of skin conditions such as psoriasis and vitiligo. Exposure to UVA, while the skin is hyper - photosensitive, by taking psoralens is an effective treatment for psoriasis. Due to the potential of psoralens to cause damage to the liver, PUVA therapy may be used only a limited number of times over a patient 's lifetime.
UVB phototherapy does not require additional medications or topical preparations for the therapeutic benefit; only the exposure is needed. However, phototherapy can be effective when used in conjunction with certain topical treatments such as anthralin, coal tar, and vitamin A and D derivatives, or systemic treatments such as methotrexate and Soriatane.
Reptiles need UVB for biosynthesis of vitamin D, and other metabolic processes. Specifically cholecalciferol (vitamin D3), which is needed to for basic cellular / neural functioning as well as the utilization calcium for bone and egg production. The UVA wavelength is also visible to many reptiles and might play a signifiant role in their ability survive in the wild as well as visual communication between individuals. Therefore, in a typical reptile enclosure, a fluorescent UV a / b source (at the proper strength / spectrum for the species), must be available for many captive species to survive. Simple supplementation with cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3) will not be enough as there 's a complete biosynthetic pathway that is "leapfrogged '' (risks of possible overdoses), the intermediate molecules and metabolites also place important functions in the animals health. Natural sunlight in the right levels is always going to be superior to artificial sources, but this might be possible for keepers in different parts of the world.
It is a known problem that high levels of output of the UVa part of the spectrum can both cause cellular and DNA damage to sensitive parts of their bodies - especially the eyes were blindness is the result from an improper UVa / b source use and placement photokeratitis. For many keepers there must also be a provision for an adequate heat source this has resulted in the marketing of heat and light "combination '' products. Keepers should be careful of these "combination ' light / heat and UVa / b generators, they typically emit high levels of UVa with lower levels of UVb that are set and difficult to control so that animals can have their needs met. A better strategy is to use individual sources of these elements and so they can be placed and controlled by the keepers for the max benefit of the animals.
The evolution of early reproductive proteins and enzymes is attributed in modern models of evolutionary theory to ultraviolet radiation. UVB causes thymine base pairs next to each other in genetic sequences to bond together into thymine dimers, a disruption in the strand that reproductive enzymes can not copy. This leads to frameshifting during genetic replication and protein synthesis, usually killing the cell. Before formation of the UV - blocking ozone layer, when early prokaryotes approached the surface of the ocean, they almost invariably died out. The few that survived had developed enzymes that monitored the genetic material and removed thymine dimers by nucleotide excision repair enzymes. Many enzymes and proteins involved in modern mitosis and meiosis are similar to repair enzymes, and are believed to be evolved modifications of the enzymes originally used to overcome DNA damages caused by UV.
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when did easter become a holiday in the us | Easter - wikipedia
Easter, also called Pascha (Greek, Latin) or Resurrection Sunday, is a festival and holiday celebrating the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, described in the New Testament as having occurred on the third day of his burial after his crucifixion by the Romans at Calvary c. 30 AD. It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent (or Great Lent), a forty - day period of fasting, prayer, and penance.
Most Christians refer to the week before Easter as "Holy Week '' -- it contains the days of the Easter Triduum, including Maundy Thursday, commemorating the Maundy and Last Supper, as well as Good Friday, commemorating the crucifixion and death of Jesus. In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the fiftieth day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the season of Pascha begins on Pascha and ends with the coming of the fortieth day, the Feast of the Ascension.
Easter and the holidays that are related to it are moveable feasts which do not fall on a fixed date in the Gregorian or Julian calendars which follow only the cycle of the sun; rather, its date is determined on a lunisolar calendar similar to the Hebrew calendar. The First Council of Nicaea (325) established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies. It has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March, but calculations vary.
Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by much of its symbolism, as well as by its position in the calendar. In most European languages the feast called Easter in English is termed by the words for passover in those languages and in the older English versions of the Bible the term Easter was the term used to translate passover. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include sunrise services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church, and decorating Easter eggs (symbols of the empty tomb). The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the chancel area of churches on this day and for the rest of Eastertide. Additional customs that have become associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally.
The modern English term Easter, cognate with modern Dutch ooster and German Ostern, developed from an Old English word that usually appears in the form Ēastrun, - on, or - an; but also as Ēastru, - o; and Ēastre or Ēostre. The most widely accepted theory of the origin of the term is that it is derived from the name of an Old English goddess mentioned by the 7th to 8th - century English monk Bede, who wrote that Ēosturmōnaþ (Old English ' Month of Ēostre ', translated in Bede 's time as "Paschal month '') was an English month, corresponding to April, which he says "was once called after a goddess of theirs named Ēostre, in whose honour feasts were celebrated in that month ''.
In Latin and Greek, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called Pascha (Greek: Πάσχα), a word derived from Aramaic פסחא (Paskha), cognate to Hebrew פֶּסַח (Pesach). The word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt. As early as the 50s of the 1st century, Paul, writing from Ephesus to the Christians in Corinth, applied the term to Christ, and it is unlikely that the Ephesian and Corinthian Christians were the first to hear Exodus 12 interpreted as speaking about the death of Jesus, not just about the Jewish Passover ritual. In most of the non-English speaking world, the feast is known by names derived from Greek and Latin Pascha. Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration.
The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is a foundation of the Christian faith. The resurrection established Jesus as the powerful Son of God and is cited as proof that God will judge the world in righteousness. For those who trust in Jesus ' death and resurrection, "death is swallowed up in victory. '' Any person who chooses to follow Jesus receives "a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead ''. Through faith in the working of God those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation.
Easter is linked to Passover and the Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings, and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the upper room during the Last Supper he prepared himself and his disciples for his death. He identified the matzah and cup of wine as his body soon to be sacrificed and his blood soon to be shed. Paul states, "Get rid of the old yeast that you may be a new batch without yeast -- as you really are. For Christ, our Passover lamb, has been sacrificed ''; this refers to the Passover requirement to have no yeast in the house and to the allegory of Jesus as the Paschal lamb.
One interpretation of the Gospel of John is that Jesus, as the Passover lamb, was crucified at roughly the same time as the Passover lambs were being slain in the temple, on the afternoon of Nisan 14. The scriptural instructions specify that the lamb is to be slain "between the two evenings '', that is, at twilight. By the Roman period, however, the sacrifices were performed in the mid-afternoon. Josephus, Jewish War 6.10. 1 / 423 ("They sacrifice from the ninth to the eleventh hour ''). Philo, Special Laws 2.27 / 145 ("Many myriads of victims from noon till eventide are offered by the whole people '').
This interpretation, however, is inconsistent with the chronology in the Synoptic Gospels. It assumes that text literally translated "the preparation of the passover '' in John 19: 14 refers to Nisan 14 (Preparation Day for the Passover) and not necessarily to Yom Shishi (Friday, Preparation Day for the Passover week Sabbath) and that the priests ' desire to be ritually pure in order to "eat the passover '' refers to eating the Passover lamb, not to the public offerings made during the days of Unleavened Bread.
The first Christians, Jewish and Gentile, were certainly aware of the Hebrew calendar. Jewish Christians, the first to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus, timed the observance in relation to Passover.
Direct evidence for a more fully formed Christian festival of Pascha (Easter) begins to appear in the mid-2nd century. Perhaps the earliest extant primary source referring to Easter is a mid-2nd - century Paschal homily attributed to Melito of Sardis, which characterizes the celebration as a well - established one. Evidence for another kind of annual Christian festival, the commemoration of martyrs, begins to appear at about the same time as evidence for the celebration of Easter.
While martyrs ' days (usually the individual dates of martyrdom) were celebrated on fixed dates in the local solar calendar, the date of Easter was fixed by means of the local Jewish lunisolar calendar. This is consistent with the celebration of Easter having entered Christianity during its earliest, Jewish, period, but does not leave the question free of doubt.
The ecclesiastical historian Socrates Scholasticus attributes the observance of Easter by the church to the perpetuation of its custom, "just as many other customs have been established '', stating that neither Jesus nor his Apostles enjoined the keeping of this or any other festival. Although he describes the details of the Easter celebration as deriving from local custom, he insists the feast itself is universally observed.
Easter and the holidays that are related to it are moveable feasts, in that they do not fall on a fixed date in the Gregorian or Julian calendars (both of which follow the cycle of the sun and the seasons). Instead, the date for Easter is determined on a lunisolar calendar similar to the Hebrew calendar. The First Council of Nicaea (325) established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the only rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the Council. No details for the computation were specified; these were worked out in practice, a process that took centuries and generated a number of controversies. (See also Computus and Reform of the date of Easter.) In particular, the Council did not decree that Easter must fall on Sunday. This was already the practice almost everywhere.
In Western Christianity, using the Gregorian calendar, Easter always falls on a Sunday between 22 March and 25 April inclusive, within about seven days after the astronomical full moon. The following day, Easter Monday, is a legal holiday in many countries with predominantly Christian traditions.
Eastern Christianity bases its calculations on the Julian Calendar. Because of the 13 - day difference between the calendars between 1900 and 2099, 21 March corresponds, during the 21st century, to 3 April in the Gregorian Calendar. Easter therefore varies between 4 April and 8 May in the Gregorian calendar (the Julian calendar is no longer used as the civil calendar of the countries where Eastern Christian traditions predominate). Also, because the Julian "full moon '' is always several days after the astronomical full moon, the eastern Easter is often later, relative to the visible moon 's phases, than western Easter.
Among the Oriental Orthodox some churches have changed from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar and the date for Easter as for other fixed and moveable feasts is the same as in the Western church.
In 725, Bede succinctly wrote, "The Sunday following the full Moon which falls on or after the equinox will give the lawful Easter. '' However, this does not precisely reflect the ecclesiastical rules. The full moon referred to (called the Paschal full moon) is not an astronomical full moon, but the 14th day of a lunar month. Another difference is that the astronomical equinox is a natural astronomical phenomenon, which can fall on 19, 20 or 21 March, while the ecclesiastical date is fixed by convention on 21 March.
In applying the ecclesiastical rules, Christian churches use 21 March as the starting point in determining the date of Easter, from which they find the next full moon, etc. The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches continue to use the Julian calendar. Their starting point in determining the date of Orthodox Easter is also 21 March but according to the Julian reckoning, which in the current century corresponds to 3 April in the Gregorian calendar.
In addition, the lunar tables of the Julian calendar are four days (sometimes five days) behind those of the Gregorian calendar. The 14th day of the lunar month according to the Gregorian system is figured as the ninth or tenth day according to the Julian. The result of this combination of solar and lunar discrepancies is divergence in the date of Easter in most years (see table).
Easter is determined on the basis of lunisolar cycles. The lunar year consists of 30 - day and 29 - day lunar months, generally alternating, with an embolismic month added periodically to bring the lunar cycle into line with the solar cycle. In each solar year (1 January to 31 December inclusive), the lunar month beginning with an ecclesiastical new moon falling in the 29 - day period from 8 March to 5 April inclusive is designated as the paschal lunar month for that year.
Easter is the third Sunday in the paschal lunar month, or, in other words, the Sunday after the paschal lunar month 's 14th day. The 14th of the paschal lunar month is designated by convention as the Paschal full moon, although the 14th of the lunar month may differ from the date of the astronomical full moon by up to two days. Since the ecclesiastical new moon falls on a date from 8 March to 5 April inclusive, the paschal full moon (the 14th of that lunar month) must fall on a date from 21 March to 18 April inclusive.
The Gregorian calculation of Easter was based on a method devised by the Calabrian doctor Aloysius Lilius (or Lilio) for adjusting the epacts of the moon, and has been adopted by almost all Western Christians and by Western countries which celebrate national holidays at Easter. For the British Empire and colonies, a determination of the date of Easter Sunday using Golden Numbers and Sunday letters was defined by the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 with its Annexe. This was designed to match exactly the Gregorian calculation.
The precise date of Easter has at times been a matter of contention. By the later 2nd century, it was widely accepted that the celebration of the holiday was a practice of the disciples and an undisputed tradition. The Quartodeciman controversy, the first of several Easter controversies, arose concerning the date on which the holiday should be celebrated.
The term "Quartodeciman '' refers to the practice of celebrating Easter on Nisan 14 of the Hebrew calendar, "the LORD 's passover '' (Leviticus 23: 5). According to the church historian Eusebius, the Quartodeciman Polycarp (bishop of Smyrna, by tradition a disciple of John the Apostle) debated the question with Anicetus (bishop of Rome). The Roman province of Asia was Quartodeciman, while the Roman and Alexandrian churches continued the fast until the Sunday following (the Sunday of Unleavened Bread), wishing to associate Easter with Sunday. Neither Polycarp nor Anicetus persuaded the other, but they did not consider the matter schismatic either, parting in peace and leaving the question unsettled.
Controversy arose when Victor, bishop of Rome a generation after Anicetus, attempted to excommunicate Polycrates of Ephesus and all other bishops of Asia for their Quartodecimanism. According to Eusebius, a number of synods were convened to deal with the controversy, which he regarded as all ruling in support of Easter on Sunday. Polycrates (circa 190), however, wrote to Victor defending the antiquity of Asian Quartodecimanism. Victor 's attempted excommunication was apparently rescinded, and the two sides reconciled upon the intervention of bishop Irenaeus and others, who reminded Victor of the tolerant precedent of Anicetus.
Quartodecimanism seems to have lingered into the 4th century, when Socrates of Constantinople recorded that some Quartodecimans were deprived of their churches by John Chrysostom and that some were harassed by Nestorius.
It is not known how long the Nisan 14 practice continued. But both those who followed the Nisan 14 custom, and those who set Easter to the following Sunday had in common the custom of consulting their Jewish neighbors to learn when the month of Nisan would fall, and setting their festival accordingly. By the later 3rd century, however, some Christians began to express dissatisfaction with the custom of relying on the Jewish community to determine the date of Easter. The chief complaint was that the Jewish communities sometimes erred in setting Passover to fall before the Northern Hemisphere spring equinox. The Sardica paschal table confirms these complaints, for it indicates that the Jews of some eastern Mediterranean city (possibly Antioch) fixed Nisan 14 on dates well before the spring equinox on multiple occasions.
Because of this dissatisfaction with reliance on the Jewish calendar, some Christians began to experiment with independent computations. Others, however, believed that the customary practice of consulting Jews should continue, even if the Jewish computations were in error.
This controversy between those who advocated independent computations, and those who wished to continue the custom of relying on the Jewish calendar, was formally resolved by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which endorsed changing to an independent computation by the Christian community in order to celebrate in common. This effectively required the abandonment of the old custom of consulting the Jewish community in those places where it was still used. Epiphanius of Salamis wrote in the mid-4th century:
the emperor... convened a council of 318 bishops... in the city of Nicea... They passed certain ecclesiastical canons at the council besides, and at the same time decreed in regard to the Passover that there must be one unanimous concord on the celebration of God 's holy and supremely excellent day. For it was variously observed by people
That the older custom (called "protopaschite '' by historians) did not at once die out, but persisted for a time, is indicated by the existence of canons and sermons against it.
Dionysius Exiguus, and others following him, maintained that the 318 Bishops assembled at the Nicene Council had specified a particular method of determining the date of Easter; subsequent scholarship has refuted this tradition. In any case, in the years following the council, the computational system that was worked out by the church of Alexandria came to be normative. It took a while for the Alexandrian rules to be adopted throughout Christian Europe, however. The 8 - year cycle originally employed was replaced by (or by the time of) Augustalis 's treatise on the measurement of Easter, after which Rome used his 84 - year lunisolar calendar cycle until 457. It then switched to an adaptation by Victorius of the Alexandrian rules.
Because this Victorian cycle differed from the Alexandrian cycle in the dates of some of the Paschal Full Moons, and because it tried to respect the Roman custom of fixing Easter to the Sunday in the week of the 16th to the 22nd of the lunar month (rather than the 15th to the 21st as at Alexandria), by providing alternative "Latin '' and "Greek '' dates in some years, occasional differences in the date of Easter as fixed by Alexandrian rules continued. The Alexandrian rules were adopted in the West following the tables of Dionysius Exiguus in 525. From this time, therefore, all discrepancies between Alexandria and Rome as to the correct date for Easter cease, as both churches were using identical tables.
Early Christians in Britain and Ireland also used an 84 - year cycle. From the 5th century onward this cycle set its equinox to 25 March and fixed Easter to the Sunday falling in the 14th to the 20th of the lunar month inclusive. This 84 - year cycle was replaced by the Alexandrian method in the course of the 7th and 8th centuries. Churches in western continental Europe used a late Roman method until the late 8th century during the reign of Charlemagne, when they finally adopted the Alexandrian method. Since 1582, when the Catholic Church adopted the Gregorian calendar while the Eastern Orthodox and most Oriental Orthodox Churches retained the Julian calendar, the date on which Easter is celebrated has again differed.
The Greek island of Syros, whose population is divided almost equally between Catholics and Orthodox, is one of the few places where the two Churches share a common date for Easter, with the Catholics accepting the Orthodox date -- a practice helping considerably in maintaining good relations between the two communities.
In the 20th century, some individuals and institutions have propounded a fixed date for Easter, the most prominent proposal being the Sunday after the second Saturday in April. Despite having some support, proposals to reform the date have not been implemented. An Orthodox congress of Eastern Orthodox bishops, which included representatives mostly from the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Serbian Patriarch, met in Constantinople in 1923, where the bishops agreed to the Revised Julian calendar.
The original form of this calendar would have determined Easter using precise astronomical calculations based on the meridian of Jerusalem. However, all the Eastern Orthodox countries that subsequently adopted the Revised Julian calendar adopted only that part of the revised calendar that applied to festivals falling on fixed dates in the Julian calendar. The revised Easter computation that had been part of the original 1923 agreement was never permanently implemented in any Orthodox diocese.
In the United Kingdom, the Easter Act 1928 set out legislation to allow the date of Easter to be fixed as the first Sunday after the second Saturday in April (or, in other words, the Sunday in the period from 9 to 15 April). However, the legislation has not been implemented, although it remains on the Statute book and could be implemented subject to approval by the various Christian churches.
At a summit in Aleppo, Syria, in 1997, the World Council of Churches (WCC) proposed a reform in the calculation of Easter which would have replaced the present divergent practices of calculating Easter with modern scientific knowledge taking into account actual astronomical instances of the spring equinox and full moon based on the meridian of Jerusalem, while also following the Council of Nicea position of Easter being on the Sunday following the full moon. The recommended World Council of Churches changes would have sidestepped the calendar issues and eliminated the difference in date between the Eastern and Western churches. The reform was proposed for implementation starting in 2001, but it was not ultimately adopted by any member body.
In January 2016, Christian churches again considered the idea of a fixed and unified date of Easter, probably either the second or third Sunday in April.
The WCC presented comparative data of the relationships:
Notes: 1. Astronomical Easter is the first Sunday after the Astronomical full moon. In the Eastern reckoning, that full moon is derived from the Metonic cycle while in the West it is referred to the meridian of Jerusalem. 2. Passover commences at sunset preceding the date indicated (as does Easter in many traditions).
In Western Christianity, Easter is preceded by Lent, a period of fasting and penitence in preparation for Easter, which begins on Ash Wednesday and lasts forty days (not counting Sundays). The week before Easter, known as Holy Week, is very special in the Christian tradition. The Sunday before Easter is Palm Sunday, with the Wednesday before Easter being known as Spy Wednesday. The last three days before Easter are Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday (sometimes referred to as Silent Saturday).
Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday and Good Friday respectively commemorate Jesus ' entry in Jerusalem, the Last Supper and the Crucifixion. Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday are sometimes referred to as the Easter Triduum (Latin for "Three Days ''). Many churches begin celebrating Easter late in the evening of Holy Saturday at a service called the Easter Vigil.
The week beginning with Easter Sunday is called Easter Week or the Octave of Easter, and each day is prefaced with "Easter '', e.g. Easter Monday (a public holiday in many countries), Easter Tuesday (a much less widespread public holiday), etc. Easter Saturday is therefore the Saturday after Easter Sunday. The day before Easter is properly called Holy Saturday. Eastertide, or Paschaltide, the season of Easter, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts until the day of Pentecost, seven weeks later.
In Eastern Christianity, the spiritual preparation for Easter begins with Great Lent, which starts on Clean Monday and lasts for 40 continuous days (including Sundays). The last week of Great Lent (following the fifth Sunday of Great Lent) is called Palm Week, and ends with Lazarus Saturday. The Vespers which begins Lazarus Saturday officially brings Great Lent to a close, although the fast continues through the following week. After Lazarus Saturday comes Palm Sunday, Holy Week, and finally Easter itself, and the fast is broken immediately after the Paschal Divine Liturgy.
The Paschal Vigil begins with the Midnight Office, which is the last service of the Lenten Triodion and is timed so that it ends a little before midnight on Holy Saturday night. At the stroke of midnight the Paschal celebration itself begins, consisting of Paschal Matins, Paschal Hours, and Paschal Divine Liturgy. Placing the Paschal Divine Liturgy at midnight guarantees that no Divine Liturgy will come earlier in the morning, ensuring its place as the pre-eminent "Feast of Feasts '' in the liturgical year.
The liturgical season from Easter to the Sunday of All Saints (the Sunday after Pentecost) is known as the Pentecostarion (the "fifty days ''). The week which begins on Easter Sunday is called Bright Week, during which there is no fasting, even on Wednesday and Friday. The Afterfeast of Easter lasts 39 days, with its Apodosis (leave - taking) on the day before Ascension. Pentecost Sunday is the fiftieth day from Easter (counted inclusively).
The Easter festival is kept in many different ways among Western Christians. The traditional, liturgical observation of Easter, as practised among Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and some Anglicans begins on the night of Holy Saturday with the Easter Vigil. This, the most important liturgy of the year, begins in total darkness with the blessing of the Easter fire, the lighting of the large Paschal candle (symbolic of the Risen Christ) and the chanting of the Exultet or Easter Proclamation attributed to Saint Ambrose of Milan.
After this service of light, a number of readings from the Old Testament are read. These tell the stories of creation, the sacrifice of Isaac, the crossing of the Red Sea, and the foretold coming of the Messiah. This part of the service climaxes with the singing of the Gloria and the Alleluia and the proclamation of the Gospel of the resurrection. At this time, the lights are brought up and the church bells are rung, according to local custom. A sermon may be preached after the gospel.
The focus then moves from the lectern to the font. Anciently, Easter was considered the ideal time for converts to receive baptism, and this practice continues within Roman Catholicism and the Anglican Communion. Whether there are baptisms at this point or not, it is traditional for the congregation to renew the vows of their baptismal faith. This act is often sealed by the sprinkling of the congregation with holy water from the font. The Catholic sacrament of Confirmation is also celebrated at the Vigil.
The Easter Vigil concludes with the celebration of the Eucharist (known in some traditions as Holy Communion). Certain variations in the Easter Vigil exist: Some churches read the Old Testament lessons before the procession of the Paschal candle, and then read the gospel immediately after the Exsultet.
Easter is the fundamental and most important festival of the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches:
Every other religious festival in their calendar, including Christmas, is secondary in importance to the celebration of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. This is reflected in rich Paschal customs in the cultures of countries that have traditionally had an Orthodox Christian majority. Eastern Catholics have similar emphasis in their calendars, and many of their liturgical customs are very similar.
This is not to say that Christmas and other elements of the Christian liturgical calendar are ignored. Instead, these events are all seen as necessary but preliminary to, and illuminated by, the full climax of the Resurrection, in which all that has come before reaches fulfillment and fruition. They shine only in the light of the Resurrection. Easter is the primary act that fulfills the purpose of Christ 's ministry on earth -- to defeat death by dying and to purify and exalt humanity by voluntarily assuming and overcoming human frailty. This is succinctly summarized by the Paschal troparion, sung repeatedly for forty days, through the Apodosis of Easter, which is the day before Ascension:
Preparation for Easter begins with the season of Great Lent. In addition to fasting, almsgiving, and prayer, Orthodox Christians cut down on all entertainment and non-essential worldly activities, gradually eliminating them until Great and Holy Friday, the most austere day of the year. On the evening of Great and Holy Saturday, the Midnight Office commences an hour or two before midnight (see paschal vigil).
At its completion all light in the church building is extinguished, and all wait in darkness and silence for the stroke of midnight. Then, a new flame is struck in the altar, or the priest lights his candle from the perpetual lamp kept burning there, and he then lights candles held by deacons or other assistants, who then go to light candles held by the congregation (this practice has its origin in the reception of the Holy Fire at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem). Then the priest and congregation go in a procession around the temple, holding lit candles, chanting:
By Thy Resurrection O Christ our savior, the angels in Heaven sing, enable us who are on Earth, to glorify thee in purity of heart.
This procession reenacts the journey of the Myrrhbearers to the Tomb of Jesus "very early in the morning ''. After circling around the temple once or three times, the procession halts in front of the closed doors. In the Greek practice the priest reads a selection from the Gospel Book. Then, in all traditions, the priest makes the sign of the cross with the censer in front of the closed doors (which represent the sealed tomb).
He and the people chant the Paschal Troparion, and all of the bells and semantra are sounded. Then all re-enter the temple and paschal matins begins immediately, followed by the paschal hours and then the paschal divine liturgy. The Paschal Homily of St. John Chrysostom is read at matins.
After the dismissal of the liturgy, the priest may bless paschal eggs and baskets brought by the faithful containing those foods which have been forbidden during the Great Fast. Immediately after the Liturgy it is customary for the congregation to share a meal, essentially an agápē dinner (albeit at 2: 00 am or later).
In Greece the traditional meal is mageiritsa, a hearty stew of chopped lamb liver and wild greens seasoned with egg - and - lemon sauce. Traditionally, easter eggs, hard - boiled eggs dyed bright red to symbolize the spilt Blood of Christ and the promise of eternal life, are cracked together to celebrate the opening of the Tomb of Christ.
The next morning, Easter Sunday proper, there is no Divine Liturgy, since the liturgy for that day has already been celebrated. Instead, in the afternoon "Agápē Vespers '' is sung. In this service, it has become customary during the last few centuries for the priest and members of the congregation to read a portion of the Gospel of John in as many languages as they can manage, to show the universality of the Resurrection.
For the remainder of the week, known as "Bright Week '', fasting (other than before holy communion is suppressed, and the customary Paschal greeting is: "Christ is risen! '', to which the response is: "Truly he is risen! '' This may also be done in many different languages. The services during Bright Week are nearly identical to those on Easter itself, except that they do not take place at midnight, but at their normal times during the day. The outdoor procession during Bright Week takes place either after paschal matins or the paschal divine liturgy.
Along with the celebration of Christmas and Advent, many Lenten and Easter traditions were altered or even abandoned altogether by various offshoots of the Protestant Reformation, as they were deemed "pagan '' or "Popish '' (and therefore tainted) by many of the Reformation 's Puritan movements. However, some of the major Reformation Churches and movements (Lutheran, Methodist and Anglican for example), chose to retain a large proportion of the observances of the established Church Year along with many of its associated traditions. In Lutheran Churches, for example, not only were the days of Holy Week observed, but also Christmas, Easter and Pentecost were observed with three - day festivals (the day itself and the two following).
Other Protestant groups took a different attitude, with most Anabaptists, Quakers, Congregationalists and Presbyterian Puritans regarding such festivals as an abomination. The Puritan rejection of Easter traditions was (and is) based partly upon their interpretation of 2 Corinthians 6: 14 -- 16 and partly upon a more general belief that, if a religious practice or celebration is not actually written in the Christian Bible, then that practice / celebration must be a later development and can not be considered an authentic part of Christian practice or belief -- so at best simply unnecessary, at worst actually sinful.
Groups such as the Restored Church of God reject the celebration of Easter, seeing it as originating in a pagan spring festival taken over by the "Roman '' Catholic Church.
Jehovah 's Witnesses maintain a similar view, observing a yearly commemorative service of the Last Supper and the subsequent execution of Christ on the evening of Nisan 14 (as they calculate the dates derived from the lunar Hebrew Calendar). It is commonly referred to by many Witnesses as simply "The Memorial ''. Jehovah 's Witnesses believe that such verses as Luke 22: 19 -- 20 and 1 Corinthians 11: 26 constitute a commandment to remember the death of Christ though not the resurrection, and they do so on a yearly basis just as Passover is celebrated annually by the Jews.
Members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), as part of their historic testimony against times and seasons, do not celebrate or observe Easter or any other Christian holidays, believing instead that "every day is the Lord 's day '', and that elevation of one day above others suggests that it is acceptable to do un-Christian acts on other days. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Quakers were persecuted for this non-observance of Holy Days.
Some Christian groups feel that Easter is something to be regarded with great joy: not marking the day itself, but remembering and rejoicing in the event it commemorates -- the miracle of Christ 's resurrection. In this spirit, these Christians teach that each day and all Sabbaths should be kept holy, in Christ 's teachings. Hebrew - Christian, Sacred Name, and Armstrong movement churches (such as the Living Church of God) usually reject Easter in favor of Nisan 14 observance and celebration of the Christian Passover. This is especially true of Christian groups that celebrate the New Moons or annual High Sabbaths in addition to seventh - day Sabbath. They support this textually with reference to the letter to the Colossians: "Let no one... pass judgment on you in matters of food and drink or with regard to a festival or new moon or sabbath. These are shadows of things to come; the reality belongs to Christ. '' (Col. 2: 16 -- 17, NAB)
In countries where Christianity is a state religion, or where the country has large Christian population, Easter is often a public holiday. As Easter is always a Sunday, many countries in the world also have Easter Monday as a public holiday. Some retail stores, shopping malls, and restaurants are closed on Easter Sunday. Good Friday, which occurs two days before Easter Sunday, is also a public holiday in many countries, as well as in 12 U.S. states. Even in states where Good Friday is not a holiday, many financial institutions, stock markets, and public schools are closed. Few banks that are normally open on regular Sundays are closed on Easter.
In the Nordic countries Good Friday, Easter Sunday and Easter Monday are public holidays, and Good Friday and Easter Monday are bank holidays. In Denmark, Iceland and Norway Maundy Thursday is also a public holiday. It is a holiday for most workers except some shopping malls which keep open for a half - day. Many businesses give their employees almost a week off, called Easter break. Schools are closed between Palm Sunday and Easter Monday. According to a 2014 poll, 6 of 10 Norwegians travel during Easter, often to a countryside cottage; 3 of 10 said their typical Easter included skiing.
In the Netherlands both Easter Sunday and Easter Monday are national holidays. Like first and second Christmas Day, they are both considered Sundays, which results in a first and a second Easter Sunday, after which the week continues to a Tuesday. Even though Good Friday is an official national holiday, it is not a mandatory day off for commercial companies.
In Commonwealth nations Easter Day is rarely a public holiday, as is the case for celebrations which fall on a Sunday. In the United Kingdom both Good Friday and Easter Monday are bank holidays. However, in Canada Easter Sunday is a public holiday, along with Easter Monday. In the Canadian province of Quebec, either Good Friday or Easter Monday are statutory holidays (although most companies give both). In some countries Good Friday is a public holiday as well.
In Australia, because of its location in the southern hemisphere, Easter takes place in autumn. Hence, Australian Easter is associated with harvest time, rather than with the coming of spring as in the northern hemisphere. The religious aspect of Easter remains the same. Good Friday and Easter Monday are public holidays across all states and territories. "Easter Saturday '' (the Saturday before Easter Sunday) is a public holiday in every state except Tasmania and Western Australia, while Easter Sunday itself is a public holiday only in New South Wales. Easter Tuesday is additionally a conditional public holiday in Tasmania, varying between award, and was also a public holiday in Victoria until 1994.
In the United States, because Easter falls on a Sunday, which is already a non-working day for federal and state employees, it has not been designated as a federal or state holiday. Easter parades are held in many American cities, involving festive strolling processions, with the New York City parade being the best known.
The egg is an ancient symbol of new life and rebirth. In Christianity it became associated with Jesus ' crucifixion and resurrection. The custom of the Easter egg originated in the early Christian community of Mesopotamia, who stained eggs red in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at his crucifixion. As such, for Christians, the Easter egg is a symbol of the empty tomb. The oldest tradition is to use dyed chicken eggs, but a modern custom is to substitute decorated chocolate, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jellybeans.
The Easter Bunny is a popular legendary anthropomorphic Easter gift - giving character analogous to Santa Claus in American culture. Many Americans follow the tradition of coloring hard - boiled eggs and giving baskets of candy. On Easter Monday, the President of the United States holds an annual Easter egg roll on the White House lawn for young children. Since the rabbit is a pest in Australia, the Easter Bilby is available as an alternative. Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life in Poland and other Slavic countries ' folk traditions. A batik - like decorating process known as pisanka produces intricate, brilliantly - colored eggs.
The celebrated House of Fabergé workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter eggs for the Russian Imperial family from 1885 to 1916.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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how many flavors of four lokos are there | Four Loko - wikipedia
Four Loko is a line of alcoholic beverages sold by phusion projects of Chicago, Illinois, United States. Phusion operates as Drink Four Brewing Company. Four Loko, the company 's most popular beverage, debuted in the United States market in 2005 and is available in 49 states, and in 21 countries including Chile, The Bahamas, Peru, Mexico, Bolivia, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, China, Canada and some countries in Europe. The name "Four '' is derived from the original drink 's content of four standard drinks.
Four branded products have been the object of legal, ethical, and health concerns related to the company allegedly marketing them to underage drinkers and the danger of combining alcohol and caffeine. After the beverage was banned in several states, a product reintroduction in December 2010 removed caffeine, taurine, and guarana as ingredients, and the malt beverage is no longer marketed as an energy drink.
Phusion Projects was founded in 2005 by Chris Hunter, Jaisen Freeman and Jeff Wright after graduating from The Ohio State University. As students they had enjoyed caffeine mixed with alcohol, and recalled buying Thai energy drinks from a nearby Asian market to sell to other students at a markup, claiming that they were "importing the stuff from abroad ''. They would later describe themselves as "our own target market ''.
In 2005, the entrepreneurial team designed a prototype "energy beer '' now known as Four Loko. Marketed as a "premium malt beverage '' in cherry and berry flavors, the drink contained taurine, guarana, caffeine and wormwood -- the supposed psychoactive ingredient of absinthe. After a year, the company was running low on investment and decided to drop the wormwood, focusing instead on improving the flavor and increasing the alcohol content.
By 2008 the product had become popular and a variety of flavors were introduced into the US market. At the start of 2009, the beverage was becoming successful and began to be marketed overseas. In October 2010 a new flavor called Lemon Lime was first produced.
Four Loko contains carbonated water, sugar, and natural and artificial flavoring including FD&C Red 40. The drink is either 6 %, 7 %, 8 %, 12 % or 14 % alcohol by volume (ABV), depending on state regulations, and is packaged in 23.5 oz. (695 mL) cans.
The drink has been sold in flavors including Fruit Punch, Watermelon, Peach, Lemonade, Strawberry Lemonade, Uva Berry (Grape), Blue Hurricane (Tropical), Mango, Black Cherry, Gold, Green Apple, and Coco Loko (coconut). In early 2011, Phusion Projects introduced its Four Loko XXX Limited Edition line, which featured a new flavor of Four Loko every few months, including Blueberry Lemonade, Strawberry Lemonade, Blue Raspberry and Orange Blend.
In the summer of 2011, Phusion introduced 12 oz. glass bottles of Four Loko, with Lemonade, Fruit Punch, and Watermelon flavors. Bottles came in packs of six and had 8 % ABV as opposed to 12 %. In September 2011, Phusion introduced 16 oz. cans of their drink in hi - cone four packs known as Four Poco Loko, with 8 % ABV and included flavors Black cherry, mango, lemonade, and Green apple.
Original formulations of both beverages were a malt liquor based, caffeinated alcoholic energy drink with added guarana and taurine.
In 2008, Phusion Projects began selling their products in Canada and Europe. The European version of Four MaXed is sold in 8.3 -- oz. (250mL) glass bottles and aluminum cans and is spirit - based; the United States version has a malt liquor base.
In 2009, Four Loko ranked fourth in sales growth among alcoholic beverages at 7 - Eleven stores in the United States.
On November 16, 2010, Phusion Projects issued a press release announcing that the company would be reformulating all Four brand beverages to remove caffeine, guarana, and taurine from the products. The new product was reintroduced in January 2011.
On October 25, 2013, Four Loko was distributed for the first time in Puerto Rico. Four Loko kept the standard 12 % alcohol but in a reduced can size of 16oz, and with only three flavors: Grape, Fruit Punch, and Watermelon.
In August 2016, Four Loko began selling in China. Secondary marketer Taobao claimed to still have for purchase the caffeinated version of the beverage. Four Loko has since seen market growth Vietnam, Malaysia, Mongolia and Singapore.
In February 2017, Four Loko announced the release of two new product lines -- the Bold Series and the Bartender Series. The Four Loko Bold Series includes the flavors Blaze and Frost -- coming in 24 oz. cans at 14 % ABV. Four Loko Bartender Series has Blue Mofo, Purple Hooter, and Pink Scorpion with the Bartender Series coming in 16 oz. cans and containing 10 % ABV. In April 2017, Four Loko announced a line of hard liquor called Four Loko Shots. Flavors include Dragon 's Breath, Green Tornado, and Screwball. The spirits come in 750 ml bottles and are 70 % proof.
In 2009, a group of US state attorneys general began active investigations of companies which produced and sold caffeinated alcohol beverages, on the grounds that they were being inappropriately marketed to a teenage audience and that they had possible health risks (blackouts). The attorneys general were also concerned that these drinks could pose health risks by masking feelings of intoxication. In December 2008, Anheuser - Busch, manufacturer of Tilt and Bud Extra, as well as MillerCoors, manufacturer of Sparks, agreed to reformulate their drinks. In 2009, smaller companies such as Phusion fell under investigation because of their rise in market share.
The drink came under major fire in 2010, as colleges and universities across the United States began to see injuries and blackouts related to the drink 's misuse. The University of Rhode Island banned this product from their campus on November 5, 2010. The state of Washington banned Four Loko after nine university students aged 17 to 19 from Central Washington University in Ellensburg, Washington became ill at a house party in Roslyn, Washington. The students were hospitalized with blood alcohol levels ranging from 0.12 to 0.35 percent (a level of 0.30 percent being considered potentially lethal) and one university student almost died, according to CWU President James L. Gaudino.
In October 2010, following the hospitalization of seventeen students and six visitors, Ramapo College of New Jersey banned the possession and consumption of Four Loko on its campus. As a result, Worcester State University stopped the sale of all energy drinks, and they as well as Boston College have informed their students of the risks involved in consuming Four beverages. By November 2010 dozens of other colleges and universities sent out notices informing their students to avoid the drink, while several more have placed outright bans on their campuses.
Other efforts to control the statewide use of Four have been under way. The Daily Collegian, Penn State 's student newspaper, reported that on November 1, 2010 the Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board sent letters to all liquor stores urging distributors to discontinue the sale of the drink. The PLCB also sent letters to all Colleges and Universities warning them of the dangers of the drink. While the board has stopped short of a ban, it has asked retailers to stop selling the drink until U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) findings prove they are safe. Pennsylvania State Representative Vanessa Lowery Brown, however, seeks to introduce legislation to ban alcoholic energy drinks in the state.
Several stores, including ShopRite Super Markets, Tops Markets, Price Chopper and Wegmans have voluntarily pulled the product from their shelves. Shortly after these stores did so, former Governor of New York David Paterson announced that Phusion was withdrawing the beverage from the state of New York as of November 19, 2010.
On November 20, 2010, Oregon Liquor Control Commission 's five citizen commissioners held an emergency meeting resulting in a 4 - 1 vote on the ban. The ban became effective immediately and was in effect until May 18, 2011. The ban required businesses to cease the sale of alcoholic energy drinks and pull existing items off the shelf, immediately. The sale of the restricted products during this period carried a penalty of 30 day suspension of liquor license.
Utah, which has a state - run alcoholic beverage distribution system, never allowed alcoholic energy drinks to go on sale there. Michigan and Oklahoma have voted to ban the sale of alcohol energy drinks over health and safety concerns. Additionally, the Washington State Liquor Control Board voted to ban the sale of alcoholic energy drinks, which went into effect on November 18, 2010. The vote came as a result of the incident at Central Washington University. The New York State Liquor Authority has also banned their sale and distribution as of November 19, 2010. New York state senator Chuck Schumer and New York City councilman James Sanders Jr. have approached the Obama administration to ban Four Loko across the state of New York.
On November 17, 2010 the U.S. FDA Food and Drug Administration issued a warning letter to four manufacturers of caffeinated alcohol beverages citing that the caffeine added to their malt alcoholic beverages is an "unsafe food additive '' and said that further action, including seizure of their products, may occur under federal law. It declared that beverages that combine caffeine with alcohol, such as Four Loko energy drinks, are a "public health concern '' and could n't stay on the market in their current form. The FDA also stated that concerns have been raised that caffeine can mask some of the sensory cues individuals might normally rely on to determine their level of intoxication. Warning letters were issued to each of the four companies requiring them to provide to the FDA in writing within 15 days of the specific steps the firms will be taking.
The four companies that received the warning letter were:
Starting weeks prior to the FDA ruling, many fans and others seeking financial gain purchased large quantities of the drink. This buying rush quickly created a black market for the drink, with many sellers charging nearly five times the drink 's retail price. Four Loko appeared on Craigslist and collectible cans of the drink were being sold on eBay.
In late December 2010, a reformulated version of the drink was put on shelves. The new product had exactly the same design as the original, but the caffeine, guarana, and taurine (ingredients in the original drink) had been taken out of the formula and replaced by Red 40, a food coloring agent. However, sales of the original drink continued, usually for a price of roughly $3 per 24 ounce can.
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plot of the count of monte cristo movie | The Count of Monte Cristo (2002 film) - wikipedia
The Count of Monte Cristo is a 2002 adventure drama film produced by Roger Birnbaum, Gary Barber, and Jonathan Glickman that was directed by Kevin Reynolds. An international co-production between the United States, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, the film is an adaptation of the book of the same name by Alexandre Dumas, père and stars Jim Caviezel, Guy Pearce, and Richard Harris. It follows the general plot of the novel (the main storyline of imprisonment and revenge is preserved); but many aspects, including the relationships between major characters and the ending, have been changed, simplified, or removed; and action scenes have been added. The film met with modest box office success.
In 1815, Edmond Dantés, Second Mate of a French merchant vessel, and his friend Fernand Mondego, representative of the shipping company, seek medical help at Elba for their ailing captain. Napoleon Bonaparte, having kept his guardians from killing the pair, exchanges his physician 's services with Edmond for the delivery of a letter to a Monsieur Clarion.
In Marseille, the company owner Morrell commends Edmond for his bravery, promoting him to captain over First Mate Danglars, who gave Edmond explicit orders not to land at Elba. Edmond states his intention to marry his girlfriend, Mercédès, whom Fernand lusts after.
Fernand and Danglars inform on Edmond, concerning the letter Fernand saw Napoleon hand him, to the city 's Magistrate, Villefort, who has Edmond arrested. Villefort prepares to exonerate Edmond until he learns the letter is addressed to Villefort 's father, a Bonapartist; he burns the letter and orders Edmond locked up in Château d'If. Edmond escapes, and turns to Fernand for help, but Fernand holds him up and turns him over to the pursuing gendarmes. Edmond is consigned to the island prison and its sadistic warden, Armand Dorleac. Villefort has Fernand assassinate his father in exchange for persuading Mercédès that Edmond has been executed for treason and that she should take comfort in Fernand.
Six years later, Edmond is startled in his cell by an eruption in the ground revealing another prisoner. Abbé Faria, who has been imprisoned for 11 years after he refused to tell Bonaparte the whereabouts of the treasure of Spada, has dug an escape tunnel. For the next seven years Faria educates Edmond in all facets of scholarship, including swordplay, in exchange for his help in digging a new escape route. Faria dies in a tunnel cave - in but before expiring he reveals a map to the treasure. Edmond escapes by switching himself for the priest 's body in the body bag, and is thrown into the sea, pulling Dorleac along with him, who he drowns.
Edmond encounters a band of pirates preparing to execute a fellow pirate, Jacopo, (Luis Guzmán). Their leader, Luigi Vampa, decides justice and entertainment would be better served by pitting Edmond and Jacopo in a knife fight. Edmond wins, but spares Jacopo, who swears himself Edmond 's man for life. Jacopo and Edmond both work for the pirates until they arrive in Marseille.
Edmond learns from Morrell, who does not recognize him, that Fernand and Danglars are complicit in his betrayal, and that Fernand and Mercédès have wed. With Jacopo, he locates Faria 's treasure, and establishes himself as a Count in Parisian society.
Edmond ingratiates himself to the Mondegos by staging the kidnap and rescue of their son, Albert (Henry Cavill). Now known as the Count of Monte Cristo, Edmond lures Fernand, Villefort and Danglars into a trap by letting slip the notion that he has located the treasure of Spada, and is shipping it through Marseille. Danglars is caught red - handed in the act of theft. Villefort is arrested upon confessing that he ordered the hit on his father and it is revealed that Fernand carried out the murder of Monsieur Clarion.
Even though his appearance has dramatically changed, Mercédès recognizes her former fiancé. Eventually, she softens him and they rekindle their relationship. As Fernand prepares to flee, she reveals the only reason she married him was that she was pregnant with Albert who is really Edmond 's son.
Fernand encounters Edmond in the ruins of an estate where he thinks he hid what he thought were chests full of the treasure but contain nothing but ashes. Albert intervenes when Edmond attempts to kill Fernand, but Mercédès tells him of his true parentage. Fernand leaves, firing a shot that wounds Mercédès, and rides away, but changes his mind upon realizing that he has nothing left to live for. Fernand rides back and calls Edmond out. The two fight to the death; Edmond prevails.
Edmond purchases Château d'If, intending to raze it, but instead leaves it standing as he swears to the spirit of Faria to use his vast resources for nothing but good.
The Count of Monte Cristo holds a rating of 73 % based on 143 reviews at Rotten Tomatoes with the critical consensus being that, "Though it may not reach for any new artistic heights, The Count of Monte Cristo is an old - fashioned yet enjoyable swashbuckler. '' At Metacritic, the film received a score of 61 out of 100, with generally favourable reviews.
Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 writing, "The Count of Monte Cristo is a movie that incorporates piracy, Napoleon in exile, betrayal, solitary confinement, secret messages, escape tunnels, swashbuckling, comic relief, a treasure map, Parisian high society and sweet revenge, and brings it in at under two hours, with performances by good actors who are clearly having fun. This is the kind of adventure picture the studios churned out in the Golden Age -- so traditional it almost feels new. ''
The Count of Monte Cristo Official Soundtrack was composed and conducted by Edward Shearmur and performed by the London Metropolitan Orchestra.
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how many times did pakistan beat india in champions trophy | India -- Pakistan cricket rivalry - wikipedia
The India -- Pakistan cricket rivalry is one of the most intense sports rivalries in the world. The arch - rival relations between the two nations, resulting from the extensive communal violence and conflict that marked the Partition of British India into India and Pakistan in 1947 and the subsequent Kashmir conflict, laid the foundations for the emergence of an intense sporting rivalry between the two nations who had erstwhile shared a common cricketing heritage.
The first Test series between the two teams took place in 1951 -- 52, when Pakistan toured India. India toured Pakistan for the first time in 1954 -- 55. Between 1962 and 1977, no cricket was played between the two countries owing to two major wars in 1965 and 1971. The 1999 Kargil War and the 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks have also interrupted cricketing ties between the two nations.
The growth of large expatriate populations from India and Pakistan across the world led to neutral states like the United Arab Emirates and Canada hosting several bilateral and multilateral ODI series involving the two teams. Tickets for the India - Pakistan match in the 2015 World Cup in Australia sold out in 12 minutes after they went on sale.
Players in both teams routinely face intense pressure to win, and are threatened by extreme reactions in defeat. Extreme fan reactions to defeats in key matches such as in the ICC Cricket World Cup have been recorded, with a limited degree of violence and public disturbances.At the same time, India - Pakistan cricket matches have also offered opportunities for cricket diplomacy as a means to improve relations between the two countries by allowing heads of state to exchange visits and cricket followers from either country to travel to the other to watch the matches.
India - Pakistan cricket matches are some of the most watched television broadcasts in both countries. The 2011 Cricket World Cup semi-final attracted an average audience of nearly 135 million in India alone. The 2015 World Cup opening match between India and Pakistan had a 14.8 % TV rating (TAM data M15+ ABC) in India, with a reach of 288 million. The approximate amount of viewers for the India vs Pakistan encounter at the World T20 in 2016 was more than 83 million.
The partition of British India in 1947 that led to the creation of an independent India and Pakistan was characterised by intense and bloody conflict between Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs that left one million people dead. An estimated ten million people migrated to the nation of their choice. The bloody legacy of the partition and the subsequent emergence of territorial disputes and wars being fought over them have all added to the growth of intense rivalries in field hockey, association football but especially in cricket, which had been developed during British colonial rule and is the most popular sport in both nations. Many of the players in the first post-independence teams of India and Pakistan had played together as teammates in regional and local tournaments.
Pakistan became a permanent member of the International Cricket Council in 1948, and their tour of India was their first in Test cricket history. They lost the first Test in Delhi to India, but won the second Test in Lucknow, which led to an angry reaction from the home crowd against the Indian players. India clinched the Test series after winning the third Test in Bombay, but the intense pressure affected the players of both teams to the point that they pursued mainly defensive tactics that led to drawn matches and whole series without a victor. When India toured Pakistan in 1955, thousands of Indian fans were granted visas to go to the Pakistani city of Lahore to watch the Test match. But both the 1955 series and Pakistan 's tour of India in 1961 ended in a drawn series with no Test yielding a winner or loser. Complaints about the fairness of umpires also became routine.
The Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 and subsequent War of 1971 put hold on India - Pakistan cricket that lasted till 1978, when India toured Pakistan and cricket resumed for a brief period. In the post-1971 period, politics became a direct factor in the holding of cricketing events. India has suspended cricketing ties with Pakistan several times following terrorist attacks or other hostilities. The resumption of cricketing ties in 1978 came with the emergence of heads of government in both India and Pakistan who were not directly connected with the 1971 war and coincided with their formal initiatives to normalize bilateral relations. Shortly after a period of belligerency during the Operation Brasstacks war games, Pakistani president Zia - ul - Haq was invited to watch the India - Pakistan test match being played in the Indian city of Jaipur. This form of cricket diplomacy has occurred several times afterwards as well. Pakistan toured India in 1979, but an Indian tour of Pakistan in 1984 was cancelled mid-way due to the assassination of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
In the late 1980s and for most of the 1990s, India and Pakistan squared - off on neutral venues such as Sharjah in the United Arab Emirates and in Toronto, Canada, where large audiences of expatriates regularly watched them play. The series between the teams in Canada in the 1990s and early 2000s were officially known as the "Friendship Cup ''. Sharjah even though a neutral venue was considered as the "back yard of Pakistan '' given the close proximity and the massive support the team generated.
The rise of multinational competitions such as the Cricket World Cup, ICC World Twenty20, ICC Champions Trophy, the Austral - Asia Cup and the Asia Cup led to more regular albeit briefer contests.
In 1999, immediately following Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee 's historic visit to Pakistan, the Pakistani team toured India for Test matches and played in an ODI competition before the Kargil War again put bilateral relations in deep freeze. Prime Minister Vajpayee 's peace initiative of 2003 led to India touring Pakistan after a gap of almost 15 years. Subsequent exchange tours were held in 2005 and 2006 before the 2008 Mumbai attacks led to the suspension of India 's planned tour of Pakistan in 2009 and all future engagements in Pakistan. India was scheduled to begin the tour of Pakistan from 13 January to 19 February 2009, but was cancelled because of the tension existing between the two countries after the terrorist attacks in Mumbai.
The rise of domestic terrorism led to Pakistan not hosting international cricket since the Sri Lankan team was attacked in 2009, and Pakistan was stripped of its co-host status for the ICC Cricket World Cup 2011. India and Pakistan qualified for the first semi-final in Chandigarh, India, and the Indian government invited the Pakistani Prime Minister Yousuf Raza Gilani to watch the match along with his Indian counterpart, Dr. Manmohan Singh. Bilateral ties finally resumed when BCCI invited the Pakistan national team to tour India for three ODIs and two T20Is in December 2012. The ODIs were held in New Delhi, Kolkata and Chennai with Ahmedabad and Bangalore hosted T20I fixtures.
In June 2014, the Pakistan Cricket Board stated that an agreement to play six bilateral series has been signed with the BCCI during the ICC annual conference in Melbourne. After lengthy negotiations, involving offers and counter-offers on the venues and scheduling of the first of these series in December 2015, the boards were unable to reach an agreement, and the BCCI did not tour for a full series against Pakistan in the UAE, and communications petered out with no result. In May 2017, BCCI secretary Amitabh Choudhary said that the BCCI would need approval from the Indian government before a bilateral series can go ahead. There was no further progress, despite both members of both boards meeting in Dubai to discuss the matter.
* The 2002 ICC Champions Trophy was shared between Sri Lanka and India.
* Pakistan did not participate in 1990 -- 91 Asia Cup.
The table only includes those World Cup tournaments where India and Pakistan faced each other
The table only includes those Champions Trophy tournaments where India and Pakistan faced each other
* India did not participate in 1986 Asia Cup. * Pakistan did not participate in 1990 Asia Cup.
The table contains details and results only of matches played between India and Pakistan in the respective series and not matches with other teams involved in the series.
† The match was abandoned.
The table only includes those World T20 tournaments where India and Pakistan faced each other
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Last updated: 30 November 2016
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Source: Cricinfo.com. Last updated 19 November 2016.
Source: Cricinfo.com. Last updated 30 November 2016.
Source: Cricinfo.com. Last updated 18 June 2017.
Source: Cricinfo.com. Last updated 30 November 2016.
Last updated: 30 November 2016
Last updated: 30 November 2016
Last updated: 30 November 2016
Last updated: 30 November 2016
Source: Cricinfo.com. Last updated 30 November 2016.
Source: Cricinfo.com. Last updated 30 November 2016.
Last updated: 30 November 2016
Last updated: 30 November 2016
Last updated: 30 November 2016
Last updated: 30 November 2016
After the partition in 1947, Pakistan emerged to play cricket. But India had already been playing cricket matches pre-independence. Three players have played for Pakistan after appearing for India. They are:
Although Pakistan was created in 1947, Gul Mohammad continued to represent India until 1955, and played for India against Pakistan in Pakistan 's first tour of India in 1951 -- 52.
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who were the jacobins and what was their role in france as a republic | Jacobin - wikipedia
Establishment of a Jacobin society:
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All groups in the National Convention
The Society of the Friends of the Constitution (French: Société des amis de la Constitution), after 1792 renamed Society of the Jacobins, Friends of Freedom and Equality (Société des Jacobins, amis de la liberté et de l'égalité), commonly known as the Jacobin Club (Club des Jacobins) or simply the Jacobins (English: / ˈdʒæ. kə. bɪnz /; French: (ʒa. kɔ. bɛ̃)), was the most influential political club during the French Revolution. Initially founded in 1789 by anti-Royalist deputies from Brittany, the club grew into a nationwide republican movement, with a membership estimated at a half million or more. The Jacobin Club was heterogeneous and included both prominent parliamentary factions of the early 1790s, the Mountain and the Girondins.
In 1792 -- 93, the Girondins were more prominent in leading France, the period when war was declared on Austria and Prussia, the monarchy was overthrown and the Republic created.
In May 1793, led by Maximilien de Robespierre, the leaders of the Mountain faction succeeded in sidelining the Girondin faction and controlled the government until July 1794. Their time in government was characterized by high levels of political violence; for this reason some historians label roughly that period of Jacobin / Mountain government as ' Reign of Terror '.
In October 1793, twenty - one prominent Girondins were guillotined. The Mountain - dominated government executed 17,000 opponents nationwide, purportedly to suppress the Vendée insurrection and the ' Federalist revolts ', and to prevent any other insurrections.
In July 1794, the government of Robespierre and allies was pushed out of power; Robespierre and 21 associates were executed. In November 1794, the Jacobin Club was closed.
Today, Jacobin and Jacobinism are used in a variety of senses. In Britain, where the term Jacobin has been linked primarily to the Mountain, it is sometimes used as a pejorative for radical, left - wing revolutionary politics, especially when it exhibits dogmatism and violent repression. In France, Jacobin now generally indicates a supporter of a centralized republican state and strong central government powers and / or supporters of extensive government intervention to transform society. It is also used in other related senses, indicating proponents of a state education system which strongly promotes and inculcates civic values, and proponents of a strong nation - state capable of resisting any undesirable foreign interference.
When the Estates General of 1789 in France was convened in May -- June 1789 at the Palace of Versailles, the club, originated as the Club Breton, was composed exclusively of a group of Breton representatives attending those Estates General. They soon were joined by deputies from other regions throughout France. Among early members were the dominating comte de Mirabeau, Parisian deputy Abbé Sieyès, Dauphiné deputy Antoine Barnave, Jérôme Pétion, the Abbé Grégoire, Charles Lameth, Alexandre Lameth, Robespierre, the duc d'Aiguillon, and La Revellière - Lépeaux. At this time, meetings occurred in secret, and few traces remain concerning what took place or where the meetings were convened.
By the March on Versailles in October 1789, the club, still entirely composed of deputies, reverted to being a provincial caucus for National Constituent Assembly deputies from Brittany. As of October 1789, the group rented for its meetings the refectory of the monastery of the Jacobins in the Rue Saint - Honoré, adjacent to the seat of the Assembly. The name Jacobins, given in France to the Dominicans (because their first house in Paris was in the Rue Saint - Jacques), was first applied to the club in ridicule by its enemies.
The club was re-founded in November 1789, after an address from the London Revolution Society congratulating the French on "conquering their liberty '' led National Assembly deputies to found their own Société de la Révolution.
Once in Paris, the club soon extended its membership to others besides deputies. All citizens were allowed to enter, and even foreigners were welcomed: the English writer Arthur Young joined the club in this manner on 18 January 1790. Jacobin Club meetings soon became a place for radical and rousing oratory that pushed for republicanism, widespread education, universal suffrage, separation of church and state, and other reforms.
On 8 February 1790, the society became formally constituted on this broader basis by the adoption of the rules drawn up by Barnave, which were issued with the signature of the duc d'Aiguillon, the president. The club 's objectives were defined as:
At the same time the rules of order of election were settled, and the constitution of the club determined. There was to be a president, elected every month, four secretaries, a treasurer, and committees elected to superintend elections and presentations, the correspondence, and the administration of the club. Any member who by word or action showed that his principles were contrary to the constitution and the rights of man was to be expelled.
By the 7th article the club decided to admit as associates similar societies in other parts of France and to maintain with them a regular correspondence. By 10 August 1790 there were already one hundred and fifty - two affiliated clubs; the attempts at counter-revolution led to a great increase of their number in the spring of 1791, and by the close of the year the Jacobins had a network of branches all over France. At the peak there were at least 7,000 chapters throughout France, with a membership estimated at a half - million or more. It was this widespread yet highly centralised organization that gave to the Jacobin Club great power.
By early 1791, clubs like the Jacobins, the Club des Cordeliers and the Cercle Social were increasingly dominating French political life. Numbers of men were member of two or more of such clubs. Women were not accepted as members of the Jacobin Club (nor of most other clubs), but they were allowed to follow the discussions from the balconies. The rather high subscription of the Jacobin Club confined its membership to well - off men. The Jacobins claimed to speak on behalf of the people but were themselves not of ' the people ': contemporaries saw the Jacobins as a club of the bourgeoisie.
As far as the central society in Paris was concerned, it was composed almost entirely of professional men (such as the lawyer Robespierre) and well - to - do bourgeoisie (like the brewer Santerre). From the start, however, other elements were also present. Besides the teenage son of the Duc d'Orléans, Louis Philippe, a future king of France, liberal aristocrats such as the duc d'Aiguillon, the prince de Broglie, and the vicomte de Noailles, and the bourgeoisie formed the mass of the members. The club further included people like "père '' Michel Gérard, a peasant proprietor from Tuel - en - Montgermont, in Brittany, whose rough common sense was admired as the oracle of popular wisdom, and whose countryman 's waistcoat and plaited hair were later on to become the model for the Jacobin fashion.
The Jacobin Club supported the monarchy up until the very eve of the republic (20 September 1792). They did not support the petition of 17 July 1791 for the king 's dethronement, but instead published their own petition calling for replacement of king Louis XVI.
The departure of the conservative members of the Jacobin Club to form their own Feuillants Club in July 1791 to some extent radicalized the Jacobin Club.
Late 1791, a group of Jacobins in the Legislative Assembly propagated war with Prussia and Austria. Most prominent among them was Brissot, other members were Pierre Vergniaud, Fauchet, Maximin Isnard, Jean - Marie Roland.
Maximilien Robespierre, also a Jacobin, strongly pleaded against war with Prussia and Austria -- but in the Jacobin Club, not in the Assembly where he was not seated. Disdainfully, Robespierre addressed those Jacobin war promotors as ' the faction from the Gironde '; some, not all of them, were indeed from department Gironde. The Assembly in April 1792 finally decided for war, thus following the ' Girondin ' line on it, but Robespierre 's place among the Jacobins had now become much more prominent.
From then on, a polarization process started among the members of the Jacobin Club, between a group around Robespierre -- after September 1792 called ' Montagnards ' or ' Montagne ', in English ' the Mountain ' -- and the Girondins. These groups never had any official status, nor official memberships. The Mountain was not even very homogenous in their political views: what united them was their aversion from the Girondins.
The Legislative Assembly, governing France from October 1791 until September 1792, was dominated by men like Brissot, Isnard and Roland: Girondins. But after June 1792, Girondins visited less and less the Jacobin Club, where Robespierre, their fierce opponent, grew more and more dominant.
On 21 September 1792, after the fall of the monarchy, the title assumed by the Jacobin club after the promulgation of the constitution of 1791 (Société des amis de la constitution séants aux Jacobins à Paris) was changed to Société des Jacobins, amis de la liberté et de l'égalité (Society of Jacobins, friends of liberty and equality). In the newly elected National Convention, governing France as of 21 September 1792, Maximilien Robespierre made his comeback in the center of French power. Together with his 25 - year - young protégé Louis Antoine de Saint - Just, Marat, Danton and other associates they took places on the left side on the highest seats of the session room: therefore that group around and led by Robespierre was called ' the Mountain ' (French: la Montagne, les Montagnards).
Some historians prefer to identify a parliamentary group around Robespierre as ' Jacobins ', what can be confusing because not all Montagnards were Jacobin, and their primal enemies, the Girondins, were (originally) also Jacobins. But by September 1792, Robespierre indeed had also become the dominant voice in the Jacobin Club.
Since late 1791, the Girondins became the opponents of Robespierre but originally also Jacobins who took places on the right side of the session room of the Convention; but by now, they stopped visiting the Jacobin Club.
Those parliamentary groups, Montagnards and Girondins, never had any official status, but historians estimate the Girondins in the Convention at 150 men strong, the Montagnards at 120. The remaining 480 of the 750 deputies of the Convention were called ' the Plain ' (French: la Plaine) and managed to keep some speed in the debates while Girondins and Montagnards were mainly occupied with nagging the opposite side.
Most Ministries were manned by friends or allies of the Girondins. But while the Girondins were stronger than the Montagnards outside Paris, inside Paris the Montagnards were much more popular, implying that the public galleries of the Convention were always loudly cheering for Montagnards, while jeering at Girondins speaking.
On 6 April 1793, the Convention established the Comité de salut public (Committee of Public Prosperity, also translated as Committee of Public Safety) as sort of executive government of nine, later twelve members, always accountable to the National Convention. Initially it counted no Girondins and only one or two Montagnards, but gradually the influence of Montagnards in the Committee grew.
Early April 1793, Minister of War, Pache, said to the National Convention that the 22 leaders of the Girondins should be banned. Later that month, the Girondin Guadet accused the Montagnard Marat of ' preaching plunder and murder ' and trying ' to destroy the sovereignty of the people '. A majority of the Convention agreed to put Marat on trial, but the court of justice quickly acquitted Marat. This apparent victory of the Montagnards intensified their antipathies of the Girondins, and more proposals were vented to get rid of the Girondins.
On both 18 and 25 May 1793, the acting president of the Convention, Isnard, a Girondin, warned that the disturbances and disorder on the galleries and around the Convention would finally lead the country to anarchy and civil war, and he threatened on 25 May: "If anything should befall to the representatives of the nation, I declare, in the name of France, that all of Paris will be obliterated ''. The next day, Robespierre said in the Jacobin Club that the people should "rise up against the corrupted deputies '' in the Convention. On 27 May, both Girondins and Montagnards accused the other party of propagating civil war.
On 2 June 1793, the Convention was besieged in its Tuileries Palace by a crowd of around 80,000 armed soldiers, clamorously on the hand of the Montagnards. In a chaotic session a decree was adopted that day by the Convention, expelling 22 leading Girondins from the Convention, including Lanjuinais, Isnard and Fauchet.
Around June 1793, Maximilien Robespierre and some of his associates (' Montagnards ') gained greater power in France. Many of them, like Robespierre himself, were Jacobin: Fouché, Collot d'Herbois, Billaud - Varenne, Marat, Danton, Saint - Just. Three other powerful Montagnards were not known as Jacobin: Barère, Hébert and Couthon. In ' culture wars ' and history writing after 1793 however, the group around Robespierre dominating French politics in June 1793 -- July 1794 was often designated as ' Jacobins '.
Many of these Montagnards (and Jacobins) entered, or were already, in the de facto executive government of France, the Committee of Public Prosperity (or Public Safety): Barère was in it since April 1793 until at least October 93, Danton served there from April until July 1793, Couthon and Saint - Just had entered the Committee in May, Robespierre entered it in July, Collot d'Herbois in September and Billaud - Varenne also around September 1793. Robespierre for his steadfast adherence to and defence of his views received the nickname and reputation of l'Incorruptible (The Incorruptible or The Unassailable).
Several deposed Girondin - Jacobin Convention deputies, among them Jean - Marie Roland, Brissot, Pétion, Louvet, Buzot and Guadet, left Paris to help organize revolts in more than 60 of the 83 departments against the politicians and Parisians, mainly Montagnards, that had seized power over the Republic. The government in Paris called such revolts ' federalist ' which was not accurate: most did not strive for regional autonomy but for a different central government.
In October 1793, 21 former Girondin Convention deputies were sentenced to death for supporting an insurrection in Caen. In March 1794, the Montagnard Hébert and some followers were sentenced to death; in April the Montagnard Danton and 13 of his followers were sentenced to death; in both cases after insinuation by Robespierre in the Convention that those "internal enemies '' were promoting ' the triumph of tyranny '. Meanwhile, the Montagnard - dominated government resorted also to harsh measures to repress what they considered counter-revolution, conspiracy and "enemies of freedom '' in the provinces outside Paris, resulting in 17,000 death sentences between September 1793 and July 1794 in all of France.
In late June 1794, three colleagues on the Committee of Public Prosperity / Safety -- Billaud - Varenne, Collot d'Herbois and Carnot -- called Robespierre a dictator. Late July 1794, Robespierre and 21 associates including the Jacobin Saint - Just and the Montagnard Couthon were sentenced to death by the National Convention and guillotined.
Probably because of the high level of repressive violence -- but also to discredit Robespierre and associates as sole responsibles for it -- historians have taken up the habit to roughly label the period June 1793 -- July 1794 as ' Reign of Terror '. Later and modern scholars explain that high level of repressive violence with: France was menaced by civil war and by a coalition of foreign hostile powers, requiring the discipline of the Terror to mold France into a united Republic capable of resisting this double peril.
With Robespierre and other leading Montagnards and Jacobins being executed in July 1794, Montagnards and Girondins as groups seem to have ceased to play a significant role in French history: historians make no more mention of them. Also the Jacobin Club seems not to have played a decisive role any longer.
The Jacobin club was disbanded on 12 November 1794. An attempt to reorganize Jacobin adherents was the foundation of the Réunion d'amis de l'égalité et de la liberté, in July 1799, which had its headquarters in the Salle du Manège of the Tuileries, and was thus known as the Club du Manège. It was patronized by Barras, and some two hundred and fifty members of the two councils of the legislature were enrolled as members, including many notable ex-Jacobins. It published a newspaper called the Journal des Libres, proclaimed the apotheosis of Robespierre and Babeuf, and attacked the Directory as a royauté pentarchique. But public opinion was now preponderatingly moderate or royalist, and the club was violently attacked in the press and in the streets. The suspicions of the government were aroused; it had to change its meeting - place from the Tuileries to the church of the Jacobins (Temple of Peace) in the Rue du Bac, and in August it was suppressed, after barely a month 's existence. Its members avenged themselves on the Directory by supporting Napoleon Bonaparte.
The Jacobin movement encouraged sentiments of patriotism and liberty amongst the populace. The movement 's contemporaries, such as the King Louis XVI, located the effectiveness of the revolutionary movement not "in the force and bayonets of soldiers, guns, cannons and shells but by the marks of political power ''. Ultimately, the Jacobins were to control several key political bodies, in particular the Committee of Public Safety and, through it, the National Convention, which was not only a legislature but also took upon itself executive and judicial functions. The Jacobins as a political force were seen as "less selfish, more patriotic, and more sympathetic to the Paris Populace. '' This gave them a position of charismatic authority that was effective in generating and harnessing public pressure, generating and satisfying sans - culotte pleas for personal freedom and social progress.
The Jacobin Club developed into a bureau for French republicanism and revolutionary purity, and abandoned its original laissez faire economic views in favor of interventionism. In power, they completed the abolition of feudalism that had been formally decided 4 August 1789, but had been held in check by a clause requiring compensation for the abrogation of the feudal privileges.
Maximilien Robespierre entered the political arena at the very beginning of the Revolution, having been elected to represent Artois at the Estates General. Robespierre was viewed as the quintessential political force of the Jacobin Movement, thrusting ever deeper the dagger of liberty within the despotism of the Monarchy. As a disciple of Rousseau, Robespierre 's political views were rooted in Rousseau 's notion of the social contract, which promoted "the rights of man ''. Robespierre particularly favored the rights of the broader population to eat, for example, over the rights of individual merchants. "I denounce the assassins of the people to you and you respond, ' let them act as they will. ' In such a system, all is against society; all favors the grain merchants. '' Robespierre famously elaborated this conception in his speech on 2 December 1792: "What is the first goal of society? To maintain the imprescribable rights of man. What is the first of these rights? The right to exist. ''
The ultimate political vehicle for the Jacobin movement was the Reign of Terror overseen by the Committee of Public Safety, who were given executive powers to purify and unify the Republic. The Committee instituted requisitioning, rationing, and conscription to consolidate new citizen armies. They instituted the Terror as a means of combating those they perceived as enemies within: Robespierre declared, "the first maxim of your policy ought to be to lead the people by reason and the people 's enemies by terror. ''.
The meeting place of the Fraternal Society of Patriots of Both Sexes was an old library room of the convent which hosted the Jacobins, and it was suggested that the Fraternal Society grew out of the regular occupants of a special gallery allotted to women at the Jacobin Club.
The cultural influence of the Jacobin movement during the French Revolution revolved around the creation of the Citizen. As commented in Jean - Jacques Rousseau 's 1762 book The Social Contract, "Citizenship is the expression of a sublime reciprocity between individual and General will. '' This view of citizenship and the General Will, once empowered, could simultaneously embrace the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and adopt the liberal French Constitution of 1793, then immediately suspend that constitution and all ordinary legality and institute Revolutionary Tribunals that did not grant a presumption of innocence.
The Jacobins saw themselves as constitutionalists, dedicated to the Rights of Man, and, in particular, to the Declaration 's principle of "preservation of the natural rights of liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression '' (Article II of the Declaration). The constitution reassured the protection of personal freedom and social progress within French society. The cultural influence of the Jacobin movement was effective in reinforcing these rudiments, developing a milieu for revolution. The Constitution was admired by most Jacobins as the foundation of the emerging republic and of the rise of citizenship.
The Jacobins were foes of both the Church and of atheism. They set up a new religious cult to replace Catholicism. They advocated deliberate government - organized terror as a substitute for both the rule of law and the more arbitrary terror of mob violence, inheritors of a war that, at the time of their rise to power, threatened the very existence of the Revolution. Once in power the Jacobins completed the overthrow of the Ancien Régime and successfully defended the Revolution from military defeat. However, to do so, they brought the Revolution to its bloodiest phase, and the one with least regard for just treatment of individuals. They consolidated republicanism in France and contributed greatly to the secularism and the sense of nationhood that have marked all French republican regimes to this day. However, their ruthless and unjudicial methods discredited the Revolution in the eyes of many. The resulting Thermidorian Reaction shuttered all of the Jacobin clubs, removed all Jacobins from power, and condemned many, well beyond the ranks of the Mountain, to death or exile.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). "Jacobins, The ''. In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 117 -- 119.
Bibliography
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who does the music for better call saul | Better Call Saul - wikipedia
Better Call Saul is an American television crime drama series created by Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould. It is a spin - off prequel of Gilligan 's prior series Breaking Bad. Set in the early 2000s, Better Call Saul follows the story of con - man turned small - time lawyer, Jimmy McGill (Bob Odenkirk), six years before the events of Breaking Bad, showing his transformation into the persona of criminal - for - hire Saul Goodman. Jimmy becomes the lawyer for former beat cop Mike Ehrmantraut (Jonathan Banks), whose relevant skill set allows him to enter the criminal underworld of drug trafficking in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The show premiered on AMC on February 8, 2015. The 10 - episode fourth season aired between August and October, 2018. The show has been renewed for a fifth season.
Jimmy is initially working as a low - paid solo practitioner, with the back room of a nail salon as his home and office. His friend and romantic interest, Kim Wexler (Rhea Seehorn) works as a lawyer at the firm of Hamlin, Hamlin & McGill (HHM), where Jimmy and she were once employed in the mailroom. Partners at HHM include Jimmy 's nemesis, Howard Hamlin (Patrick Fabian), and brother, Chuck McGill (Michael McKean). Mike conducts illegal drug - related activity with Nacho Varga (Michael Mando), in addition to becoming right - hand man for drug lord Gus Fring (Giancarlo Esposito). Odenkirk, Banks and Esposito are all reprising their starring roles from Breaking Bad.
Like its predecessor, Better Call Saul has received critical acclaim, particularly for its acting, writing, and directing; many critics have called it a worthy successor to Breaking Bad, one of the best prequels ever made and some have deemed it superior to its predecessor. It has garnered many nominations, including a Peabody Award, 23 Primetime Emmy Awards, seven Writers Guild of America Awards, five Critics ' Choice Television Awards, a Screen Actors Guild Award, and two Golden Globe Awards. The series premiere held the record for the highest - rated scripted series premiere in basic cable history at the time of its airing.
Better Call Saul follows the life of the character Saul Goodman about six years prior to the events of Breaking Bad. In 2002, Goodman, born as James "Jimmy '' McGill, is a former con artist trying to follow a legitimate career as an aspiring lawyer in Albuquerque, New Mexico. He seeks to become a partner in the law firm in which his older brother Charles "Chuck '' McGill is a senior partner. However, Jimmy 's work is frequently overshadowed by Chuck 's past reputation, and he struggles to find a way to prove himself, even with the help of another associate in the firm, Kim Wexler, with whom he also becomes romantically involved. At the same time, Jimmy frequently takes care of Chuck, who claims to have electromagnetic hypersensitivity, a condition that makes him physically ill in the presence of anything with an electrical component and has caused him to take an extended leave from his firm and regular law work. Interspersed among Jimmy 's activities are the prior histories of other Breaking Bad characters, including Mike Ehrmantraut, a former police officer who becomes involved in illegal drug trafficking schemes, and drug kingpins Hector Salamanca and Gus Fring, who help distribute drugs illegally brought to the area from Mexico.
The series also provides brief glimpses of Saul 's fate some time after the events of "Granite State '', the penultimate episode of Breaking Bad, in which Saul fears for his own safety and takes on a new identity in Omaha, Nebraska as Gene, the manager of a Cinnabon store. He reminisces about his past, but remains paranoid that someone might discover his true identity.
The fourth season features scenes taking place closer to the timeframe of Breaking Bad, which was set in 2008; the story, as described by co-creator Vince Gilligan, "brings us into the world -- or at least points us on a path toward the world of Walter White and the territory of Walter White ''. In "Quite a Ride '', the cold open takes place concurrent to events near the end of Breaking Bad, with Jimmy as Saul destroying documents and taking money from the Saul Goodman office made memorable in that series.
In July 2012, Breaking Bad creator Vince Gilligan hinted at a possible spin - off about Saul Goodman. In a July 2012 interview, Gilligan said he liked "the idea of a lawyer show in which the main lawyer will do anything it takes to stay out of a court of law '', including settling on the courthouse steps. Gilligan noted that over the course of Breaking Bad, there were a lot of "what if '' s their team considered, such as if the show won an Emmy, or if people would buy "Los Pollos Hermanos '' t - shirts, not expecting these to come to pass. When these events did actually occur, they started considering a spinoff featuring Saul as a thought experiment, seeing if this has similar possibilities to come true. Further, Saul 's character on Breaking Bad became much more developed than originally planned, having only been originally slated to appear on three episodes; with the growth of Saul 's character, Gilligan saw ways to explore Saul 's backstory.
In April 2013, the series was confirmed to be in development by Gilligan and Gould; the latter wrote the Breaking Bad episode that introduced the character.
Bob Odenkirk stars as lawyer Jimmy McGill (known as Saul Goodman in Breaking Bad). In January 2014, it was announced that Jonathan Banks would reprise his Breaking Bad role as Mike Ehrmantraut and be a series regular.
New cast members include Michael McKean as McGill 's elder brother Chuck. McKean previously guest - starred in an episode of Odenkirk 's Mr. Show and Gilligan 's X-Files episode "Dreamland ''. The cast also includes Patrick Fabian as Howard Hamlin, Rhea Seehorn as Kimberly "Kim '' Wexler, and Michael Mando as Ignacio "Nacho '' Varga. In October 2014, Kerry Condon was cast as Stacey Ehrmantraut, Mike 's daughter - in - law. In November 2014, it was announced that Julie Ann Emery and Jeremy Shamos had been cast as Betsy and Craig Kettleman, described as "the world 's squarest outlaws. ''
Going into Season 3, it was announced that Giancarlo Esposito would return to play Gus Fring.
The showrunners have teased that "familiar faces '' from Breaking Bad will make appearances during Season 4. They will also cast an actor for the character "Lalo '', mentioned only by name in the episode "Better Call Saul '' episode of Breaking Bad. Both Bryan Cranston and Aaron Paul said, as of Season 3, they are both open to reappearing on the show as Walter White and Jesse Pinkman, respectively, if asked, believing that Gilligan would have a sufficiently good reason to bring them in. Paul had previously mentioned the possibility of a cameo during Season 1 but this fell through. Anna Gunn also mentioned a "talk '' with Gilligan over possible guest appearances as Skyler White. Dean Norris, another Breaking Bad alumnus, stated he could not be part of the earlier seasons, partly due to his involvement in the CBS series Under the Dome. Gilligan said that by Season 3 that show had been on long enough that any reuse of Breaking Bad characters would be more than "just a cameo or an Alfred Hitchcock walkthrough '', and that their appearances would be necessary for the story.
By July 2013, the series had yet to be green - lighted. Netflix was one of many interested distributors, but ultimately a deal was made between AMC and Breaking Bad production company Sony Pictures Television. Gilligan and Gould serve as co-showrunners and Gilligan directed the pilot. Former Breaking Bad writers Thomas Schnauz and Gennifer Hutchison joined the writing staff, with Schnauz serving as co-executive producer and Hutchison as supervising producer. Also on the writing staff are Bradley Paul, and Gordon Smith, who was a writer 's assistant on Breaking Bad.
In developing the series, the producers considered making the show a half - hour comedy, but ultimately chose an hour - long format more typical of a drama. In October 2014, Odenkirk called the show "85 percent drama, 15 percent comedy. '' During his appearance on Talking Bad, Odenkirk noted that Saul was one of the most popular characters on the show, speculating that the audience likes the character because he is the program 's least hypocritical figure, and is good at his job. Better Call Saul also employs Breaking Bad 's signature time jumps.
As filming began on June 2, 2014, Gilligan expressed some concern regarding the possible disappointment from the series ' turnout, in terms of audience reception.
The first teaser trailer debuted on AMC on August 10, 2014, and confirmed its premiere date of February 2015. In November 2014, AMC announced the series would have a two - night premiere; the first episode aired on Sunday, February 8, 2015, at 10: 00 pm (ET), and then moved into its regular time slot the following night, airing Mondays at 10: 00 pm. In May 2015, Gilligan confirmed that more of the prominent characters from Breaking Bad would be making guest appearances in season 2, but remained vague on which characters were likely to be seen.
In June 2014, prior to the series ' launch, AMC had renewed the series for a second season of 13 episodes to premiere in early 2016; however, it was later reduced to 10 episodes. The second season premiered on February 15, 2016.
In March 2016, AMC announced that Better Call Saul was renewed for a 10 - episode third season which premiered April 10, 2017. AMC renewed the series for a 10 - episode fourth season in June 2017 which premiered on August 6, 2018. The series was renewed for a fifth season on July 28, 2018, just prior to the airing of the fourth season.
Like its predecessor, Better Call Saul is set and filmed in Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Jimmy inadvertently becomes entangled in an embezzlement case involving the Kettleman family, who are represented by Chuck 's firm Hamlin Hamlin & McGill (HHM). Jimmy schemes to become the Kettleman 's lawyer, which causes Kim, the HHM associate overseeing the case, to be demoted. Jimmy gains public attention from the case, and finds himself taking up several elder law clients. He discovers that Sandpiper Retirement Homes have been mishandling their residents ' funds, leading to a potential multi-million class action lawsuit. Jimmy offers to hand off the suit to HHM because of their superior resources, and tries to persuade them to hire him to work on it, but Chuck secretly blocks this effort. Jimmy discovers Chuck 's involvement and turns the Sandpiper case over to HHM in exchange for minimal counsel 's fees, a percentage of any settlement or judgment, and Howard 's commitment to take over caring for Chuck. Later, Jimmy learns that the Sandpiper case has gotten too big and HHM is portioning part of the work to a second firm, Davis & Main, who want to hire Jimmy due to his knowledge of the lawsuit and rapport with the clients.
Mike, a former police officer now relocated to Albuquerque to be close to his daughter - in - law and granddaughter, works as a parking booth attendant at the courthouse, where he meets Jimmy. Mike also moonlights as "muscle for hire '' within the Albuquerque criminal underworld, and in this capacity helps Jimmy burgle the Kettlemans. In the same way, he is hired as a bodyguard by Daniel Wormald ("Pryce ''), a pharmaceutical industry worker who steals valuable drug samples from his employer for resale on the black market. Through his work for Pryce, Mike attracts the attention of Nacho, a trusted associate of the Salamanca crime family.
Jimmy takes a job at Davis & Main and is put in charge of outreach for the Sandpiper case, but traditional notifications by mail produce few responses from potential class members. Jimmy does face - to - face solicitation to bring in more class members, but Chuck points out this could run afoul of state law. Jimmy then creates a TV ad targeted to seniors and airs it without prior approval from the senior partners at Davis & Main. While the ad draws in many clients, Jimmy is reprimanded, and Kim, who was aware Jimmy was making the ad, is demoted to entry level document review work at HHM. To regain her position, Kim tries to solicit major new clients for HHM, and eventually arranges a meeting between HHM and Mesa Verde, a large regional bank. Though HHM secures Mesa Verde 's business, Howard denies Kim any credit. Jimmy, who has quit Davis & Main, convinces Kim to quit HHM and establish her own firm co-located with his as a way to share overhead. She nearly persuades Mesa Verde to become her client, but Chuck persuades them to stay with HHM. Jimmy falsifies copies of documents concerning construction of a Mesa Verde branch to make Chuck look incompetent. When HHM and Mesa Verde present the construction proposal to the state banking agency, the discrepancies cause the plan to be put on hold. Kim obtains Mesa Verde as a client, while Chuck becomes obsessed with proving that Jimmy sabotaged him. When Jimmy next visits Chuck, Chuck feigns illness, provoking Jimmy to admit falsifying the documents. Unknown to Jimmy, Chuck has recorded his confession.
Nacho approaches Mike in secret and tries to hire him to murder Tuco, the nephew of his boss Hector Salamanca, because Nacho fears that Tuco may discover his secret drug deals with Pryce, and because Tuco 's volatile behavior is drawing too much attention to the Salamancas ' drug business. Mike refuses, knowing that if the Salamancas identify him as the killer they will take revenge on his family. Instead, he deliberately provokes a public altercation with Tuco outside a restaurant, resulting in Tuco 's imprisonment for assault with a deadly weapon. Hector has no objection to Tuco spending time in prison as a learning experience, but objects to the length of the sentence, so he he bribes Mike to tell the police the gun found at the scene was n't Tuco 's, which reduces the time Tuco will spend in prison. Mike begins to wonder if Hector suspects the truth about the fight, making him uneasy about the safety of his granddaughter and daughter - in - law. He attempts to draw the police into investigating the Salamancas by intercepting one of Hector 's smuggling trucks and stealing the $250,000 it 's carrying, while leaving the driver, Ximinez tied up on the side of the road. He intended for a passing motorist to render aid, but finds out from Nacho that when a passer - by stopped and freed Ximinez, who then called Hector. Hector and his men then arrived to clean up the scene, including killing the good Samaritan. Mike then prepares to assassinate Hector, but an unseen third party disrupts his plan.
Chuck plots for Jimmy to learn through Ernesto and Kim of the existence of the taped confession. Jimmy breaks into Chuck 's house to destroy the tape, but finds he 's been set up; Chuck has Howard and a private investigator hiding in the house to witness Jimmy 's actions, enabling Chuck to have Jimmy charged with several felonies and file a bar association complaint that could result in Jimmy 's disbarment. At the hearing, Jimmy secretly creates a situation where Chuck 's supposed electromagnetic hypersensitivity is tested, prompting behavior that makes Chuck 's mental competence an issue. Jimmy 's law license is suspended for a year, so to cover his portion of the expenses for the office he shares with Kim, he turns to producing commercials for local businesses in which he uses the screen name "Saul Goodman ''. Kim takes on additional clients to fully cover expenses, leading to sleep deprivation, which causes her to crash her car and break her arm. HHM 's insurance carrier learns from Jimmy about Chuck 's condition and threatens to raise their malpractice coverage rates as a result, while Chuck works with a doctor to try overcoming his hypersensitivity symptoms. Chuck and Howard 's relationship turns sour as Howard becomes increasingly concerned about Chuck 's apparent obsession with Jimmy and the general impact Chuck 's erratic behavior has had upon HHM. Howard pays the first installment of the several million dollars necessary to buy out Chuck 's share of the partnership, resorting to personal savings and loans so that the buyout does n't bankrupt the firm. Jimmy tries to make amends with Chuck, but Chuck rebuffs him, stating that Jimmy has never been particularly important to him. After Jimmy leaves, Chuck 's electromagnetic hypersensitivity symptoms return, and after a fit of action that includes tearing the wiring out of his house and stacking his appliances outside, a despondent Chuck lays on a couch and knocks a lantern off a coffee table. The house is engulfed in flames, and Chuck dies in the fire.
Gus warns Mike not to kill Hector, because Gus intends to be the agent of Hector 's demise and take over the Salamanca drug business, but believes the time is not yet ripe. Instead, Mike disrupts Hector 's drug shipments in an effort to have the police investigate the Salamancas, which Gus encourages. Nacho switches Hector 's heart medication with a placebo in an attempt to kill him without detection by inducing a fatal heart attack. Gus agrees to launder the money Mike stole from Hector by paying him for contracted security consulting at Madrigal Electromotive, the company that supplies Gus with the ingredients to make methamphetamine. In a sign of respect and anticipation of a future working relationship, Gus refuses to take payment for aiding Mike and pays Mike 's withholding taxes, ensuring he wo n't sustain a financial loss as a result of the laundering. During a meeting with Gus, Hector suffers a stroke and collapses in front of Gus and Nacho.
Jimmy becomes depressed following Chuck 's death, but as soon as Howard states that he feels he may have been responsible for Chuck 's suicide, Jimmy returns to his upbeat self. While serving his year of probation, Jimmy works in a mobile phone store, but starts selling pay - as - you - go phones on the side. Kim and Jimmy drift apart: she ends up as a partner at Schweikart and Cokely, giving her help with Mesa Verde 's rapid expansion while still allowing her to serve as a pro bono public defender, which she finds more interesting and fulfilling. When Saul 's associate Huell assaults a police officer, Kim works with Jimmy to con the prosecutor 's office into reducing his sentence to time served, and she is reinvigorated by working cons with Jimmy. Jimmy attends his reinstatement hearing, but does not mention Chuck, causing the panel to label him "insincere '' and decline his request. Kim helps devise a plan for his appeal, making sure Jimmy appears remorseful over Chuck 's death. At the rehearing, Jimmy gushes over Chuck and the board grants his reinstatement. However, to Kim 's dismay, Jimmy reveals he was lying about his brother in order to con the board. Despite assuring the board that he wants to do justice to the McGill name, Jimmy plans to practice law under the name Saul Goodman.
Gus knows Nacho was responsible for Hector 's collapse, and blackmails him into becoming Gus ' mole within the Salamanca operation. Gus pays for Hector 's rehabilitation, but only to the point where Hector is aware of what goes on around him and has the ability to move his right index finger. Gus hires Werner Ziegler to oversee construction of the secret meth "superlab '' under the industrial laundry. Gus and Mike arrange for long - term housing of Werner 's team and devise a plan for them to work in secret, but the project falls behind schedule. Werner escapes and plans a rendezvous with his wife, but Mike captures him and reluctantly follows Gus ' order to kill him. Werner 's escape and the subsequent search and capture attract the attention of Lalo Salamanca, who arrives to help run the Salamanca organization and is suspicious of Gus.
Talking Saul is a live aftershow hosted by Chris Hardwick, which features guests discussing episodes of Better Call Saul. The show uses the same format as Talking Dead, Talking Bad, and other similar aftershows also hosted by Hardwick. AMC announced that Talking Saul would air after the second season Better Call Saul premiere on February 15, 2016, and again after the second - season finale on April 18, 2016. It returned following the season 3 premiere and finale.
These episodes discuss season two of Better Call Saul.
These episodes discuss season three of Better Call Saul.
In December 2013, Netflix announced that the entire first season would be available for streaming in the U.S. after the airing of the first - season finale, and in Latin America and Europe each episode would be available a few days after the episode airs in the U.S. However, the first season was not released on Netflix in the U.S. until February 1, 2016.
Netflix is the exclusive video - on - demand provider for the series and makes the content available in all its territories, except for Australia and New Zealand. In Australia, Better Call Saul premiered on the streaming service Stan on February 9, 2015, acting as the service 's flagship program. In New Zealand, the show is exclusive to the New Zealand - based subscription video - on - demand service, Lightbox. The episodes were available for viewing within three days of broadcast in the U.S.
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the series was acquired by Netflix on December 16, 2013, and the first episode premiered on February 9, 2015, with the second episode released the following day. Every subsequent episode was released each week thereafter. In India, the series is broadcast on Colors Infinity within 24 hours of the U.S. broadcast.
The series premiere drew in 4.4 million and 4 million in the 18 -- 49 and 25 -- 54 demographics, respectively, and received an overall viewership of 6.9 million. This was the record for the highest - rated scripted series premiere in basic cable history, until it was surpassed later the same year by another AMC series, Fear the Walking Dead.
Better Call Saul has received widespread critical acclaim.
The first season of Better Call Saul received critical acclaim, particularly for its acting, writing, and directing with many critics calling it a worthy successor to Breaking Bad. On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has a rating of 98 %, based on 62 reviews, with an average rating of 8.17 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Better Call Saul is a quirky, dark character study that manages to stand on its own without being overshadowed by the series that spawned it. '' On the review aggregator website Metacritic, the first season has a score of 78 out of 100, based on 43 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The second season, much like the previous, received critical acclaim from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has a score of 97 %, based on 30 reviews, with an average rating of 8.69 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Better Call Saul continues to tighten its hold on viewers with a batch of episodes that inject a surge of dramatic energy while showcasing the charms of its talented lead. '' On Metacritic, the second season has a score of 85 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
The third season, much like the previous two, received critical acclaim, particularly for the character development of Jimmy McGill. On Rotten Tomatoes, the third season has an approval rating of 97 % based on 36 reviews, with an average rating of 8.78 / 10. The site 's critical consensus is, "Better Call Saul shows no signs of slipping in season 3, as the introduction of more familiar faces causes the inevitable transformation of its lead to pick up exciting speed. '' On Metacritic, the season has a score of 87 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
The fourth season has also received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a 99 % approval rating with an average score of 8.98 out of 10 based on 30 reviews. The site 's critical consensus states, "Well - crafted and compelling as ever, Better Call Saul deftly balances the show it was and the one it will inevitably become. '' On Metacritic, the season has a score of 87 out of 100, based on 16 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
The first season was released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on November 10, 2015. The set contains all 10 episodes, plus audio commentaries for every episode, uncensored episodes, deleted scenes, gag reel, and several behind - the - scenes featurettes. A limited edition Blu - ray set was also released with 3D packaging and a postcard vinyl of the Better Call Saul theme song by Junior Brown. The second season was released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on November 15, 2016. The set contains all 10 episodes, plus audio commentaries for every episode and several behind - the - scenes featurettes. The third season was released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on January 16, 2018. The set contains all 10 episodes, plus audio commentaries for every episode and several behind - the - scenes featurettes.
AMC has released two digital comic books for Better Call Saul. The first, titled Better Call Saul: Client Development, released in February 2015, in advance of the series premiere, details the history of Saul and Mike, acting as a spin - off of the Breaking Bad episode that introduced Saul. In February 2016, in advance of the second - season premiere, AMC released Better Call Saul: Saul Goodman and the Justice Consortium in the Clutches of the Judgernaut!
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where did the term 7 year itch come from | The seven - year itch - wikipedia
The seven - year itch is a psychological term that suggests that happiness in a relationship declines after around year seven of a marriage. The phrase originated as a name for irritating and contagious skin complaints of a long duration. Examples of reference may have included STD outbreaks that are known to significantly decrease in frequency after seven years, or mites that live under the skin (scabies) and cause severe itching that is hard to get rid of. Later on in the 19th and early 20th centuries it was viewed as an expression of imagined appropriate punishment for antisocial behavior, or as a simile for a situation with little hope in relief.
The phrase was first used to describe an inclination to become unfaithful after seven years of marriage in the play The Seven Year Itch by George Axelrod, and gained popularity following the 1955 film adaptation starring Marilyn Monroe and Tom Ewell. In his 1913 novel The Eighth Year, Philip Gibbs attributes the concept to the British judge Sir Francis Jeune.
The phrase has since expanded to indicate cycles of dissatisfaction not only in interpersonal relationships but in any situation such as working a full - time job or buying a house, where a decrease in happiness and satisfaction is often seen over long periods of time.
The seven - year itch can be analyzed quantitatively. Divorce rates show a trend in couples that, on average, divorce around seven years. Statistics show that there is a low risk of separation during the first months of marriage. After the "honeymoon '' months, divorce rates start to increase. Most married couples experience a gradual decline in the quality of their marriage; in recent years around the fourth year of marriage. Around the seventh year, tensions rise to a point that couples either divorce or adapt to their partner.
In samples taken from the National Center for Health Statistics, there proves to be an average median duration of marriage across time. In 1922 the median duration of marriage that ended in divorce was 6.6. In 1974 the median duration was 7.5. In 1990 the median duration was 7.2. While these can fluctuate from year to year, the averages stay relatively close to the seven year mark.
The modern usage of the phrase gained popularity following the 1955 movie of the same name starring Marilyn Monroe. In the film, a man sends his family off on vacation for the summer while he stays back to work. He begins to fantasize about women that he previously had feelings for, when his new neighbor (Marilyn Monroe) moves in and he decides to try and seduce her. Things go awry and he ends up not going through with it, but he believes that his wife will somehow know that he is trying to be unfaithful.
Whilst the term was originally used for unfavourable conditions of a long duration, the movie helped to popularize its usage to refer to the decrease of romantic feelings between married couples over time. The phrase has become so popular that some couples use it as an indicator of the lifespan of their marriage, a famous example being a Bavarian politician Gabriele Pauli, who has been divorced twice. She suggests after seven years marriage should end, with the couple required to resay their vows if they wish to continue for another seven years.
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write a short note on the 'chipko andolan movement' | Chipko movement - Wikipedia
The Chipko movement or Chipko Andolan refers to a forest conservation movement. Chipko type movement dates back to 1730 AD when in khejarli village of Rajasthan, 363 people sacrificed their lives to save khejri trees. In modern india it began in 1973 and went on to become a rallying point for many future environmental movements all over the world it created a precedent for starting of nonviolent protest in India, and its success meant that the world immediately took notice of this non violent movement, which was to inspire in time many such eco-groups by helping to slow down the rapid deforestation, expose vested interests, increase ecological awareness, and demonstrate the viability of people power. Above all, it stirred up the existing civil society in India, which began to address the issues of tribal and marginalized people.
Today, beyond the eco-socialism hue, it is being seen increasingly as an ecofeminism movement. Although many of its leaders were men, women were not only its backbone, but also its mainstay, because they were the ones most affected by the rampant deforestation, which led to a lack of firewood and fodder as well as water for drinking and irrigation. Over the years they also became primary stakeholders in a majority of the afforestation work that happened under the Chipko movement. In 1987, the Chipko movement was awarded the Right Livelihood Award. The chipko aandolan is a movement that practised the Gandhian methods of Satyagraha where both male and female activists played vital roles, including Gaura Devi, Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi and Chandi Prasad Bhatt.
The Chipko movement started in 1970s in the state of Uttar Pradesh (now Uttrakhand). Sunderlal Bahuguna and 84 villagers risked their lives to protect the forest trees from being felled on the order of the maharaja (king).
The year 1964 saw the establishment of Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) ("Dasholi Society for Village Self - Rule ''), set up by Gandhian social worker Chandi Prasad Bhatt in Gopeshwar, and inspired by Jayaprakash Narayan and the Sarvodaya movement, with an aim to set up small industries using the resources of the forest. Their first project was a small workshop making farm tools for local use. Its name was later changed to DGSS from the original Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal (DGSM) in the 1980s. Here they had to face restrictive forest policies, a hangover of colonial era still prevalent, as well as the "contractor system '', in which these pieces of forest land were commodified and auctioned to big contractors, usually from the plains, who brought along their own skilled and semi-skilled laborers, leaving only the menial jobs like hauling rocks for the hill people, and paying them next to nothing. On the other hand, the hill regions saw an influx of more people from the outside, which only added to the already strained ecological balance.
Hastened by increasing hardships, the Garhwal Himalayas soon became the centre for a rising ecological awareness of how reckless deforestation had denuded much of the forest cover, resulting in the devastating Alaknanda River floods of July 1970, when a major landslide blocked the river and affected an area starting from Hanumanchatti, near Badrinath to 350 km downstream till Haridwar, further numerous villages, bridges and roads were washed away. Thereafter, incidences of landslides and land subsidence became common in an area which was experiencing a rapid increase in civil engineering projects.
Soon villagers, especially women, began to organize themselves under several smaller groups, taking up local causes with the authorities, and standing up against commercial logging operations that threatened their livelihoods. In October 1971, the Sanga workers held a demonstration in Gopeshwar to protest against the policies of the Forest Department. More rallies and marches were held in late 1972, but to little effect, until a decision to take direct action was taken. The first such occasion occurred when the Forest Department turned down the Sangh 's annual request for ten Ash Trees for its farm tools workshop, and instead awarded a contract for 300 trees to Simon Company, a sporting goods manufacturer in distant Allahabad, to make tennis racquets. In March 1973, the lumbermen arrived at Gopeshwar, and after a couple of weeks, they were confronted at village Mandal on 24 April 1973, where about hundred villagers and DGSS workers were beating drums and shouting slogans, thus forcing the contractors and their lumbermen to retreat. This was the first confrontation of the movement, The contract was eventually cancelled and awarded to the Sangh instead. By now, the issue had grown beyond the mere procurement of an annual quota of three ash trees, and encompassed a growing concern over commercial logging and the government 's forest policy, which the villagers saw as unfavorable towards them. The Sangh also decided to resort to tree - hugging, or Chipko, as a means of non-violent protest.
But the struggle was far from over, as the same company was awarded more ash trees, in the Phata forest, 80 km away from Gopeshwar. Here again, due to local opposition, starting on 20 June 1973, the contractors retreated after a stand - off that lasted a few days. Thereafter, the villagers of Phata and Tarsali formed a vigil group and watched over the trees until December, when they had another successful stand - off, when the activists reached the site in time. The lumbermen retreated leaving behind the five ash trees felled.
The final flash point began a few months later, when the government announced an auction scheduled in January 1974, for 2,500 trees near Reni village, overlooking the Alaknanda River. Bhatt set out for the villages in the Reni area, and incited the villagers, who decided to protest against the actions of the government by hugging the trees. Over the next few weeks, rallies and meetings continued in the Reni area.
On 25 March 1974, the day the lumbermen were to cut the trees, the men of the Reni village and DGSS workers were in Chamoli, diverted by state government and contractors to a fictional compensation payment site, while back home labourers arrived by the truckload to start logging operations. A local girl, on seeing them, rushed to inform Gaura Devi, the head of the village Mahila Mangal Dal, at Reni village (Laata was her ancestral home and Reni adopted home). Gaura Devi led 27 of the village women to the site and confronted the loggers. When all talking failed, and the loggers started to shout and abuse the women, threatening them with guns, the women resorted to hugging the trees to stop them from being felled. This went on into late hours. The women kept an all - night vigil guarding their trees from the cutters until a few of them relented and left the village. The next day, when the men and leaders returned, the news of the movement spread to the neighbouring Laata and others villages including Henwalghati, and more people joined in. Eventually, only after a four - day stand - off, the contractors left.
The news soon reached the state capital, where then state Chief Minister, Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna, set up a committee to look into the matter, which eventually ruled in favour of the villagers. This became a turning point in the history of eco-development struggles in the region and around the world.
The struggle soon spread across many parts of the region, and such spontaneous stand - offs between the local community and timber merchants occurred at several locations, with hill women demonstrating their new - found power as non-violent activists. As the movement gathered shape under its leaders, the name Chipko movement was attached to their activities. According to Chipko historians, the term originally used by Bhatt was the word "angalwaltha '' in the Garhwali language for "embrace '', which later was adapted to the Hindi word, Chipko, which means to stick. Over the next five years, the movement spread to many districts in the region, and within a decade throughout the Uttarakhand Himalayas. Larger issues of ecological and economic exploitation of the region were raised. The villagers demanded that no forest - exploiting contracts should be given to outsiders and local communities should have effective control over natural resources like land, water, and forests. They wanted the government to provide low - cost materials to small industries and ensure development of the region without disturbing the ecological balance. The movement took up economic issues of landless forest workers and asked for guarantees of minimum wage. Globally Chipko demonstrated how environment causes, up until then considered an activity of the rich, were a matter of life and death for the poor, who were all too often the first ones to be devastated by an environmental tragedy. Several scholarly studies were made in the aftermath of the movement. In 1977, in another area, women tied sacred threads, Raksha Bandhan, around trees earmarked for felling in a Hindu tradition which signifies a bond between brother and sisters.
Women 's participation in the Chipko agitation was a very novel aspect of the movement. The forest contractors of the region usually doubled up as suppliers of alcohol to men. Women held sustained agitations against the habit of alcoholism and broadened the agenda of the movement to cover other social issues. The movement achieved a victory when the government issued a ban on felling of trees in the Himalayan regions for fifteen years in 1980 by then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, until the green cover was fully restored. One of the prominent Chipko leaders, Gandhian Sunderlal Bahuguna, took a 5,000 kilometre trans - Himalaya foot march in 1981 -- 83, spreading the Chipko message to a far greater area. Gradually, women set up cooperatives to guard local forests, and also organized fodder production at rates conducive to local environment. Next, they joined in land rotation schemes for fodder collection, helped replant degraded land, and established and ran nurseries stocked with species they selected.
One of Chipko 's most salient features was the mass participation of female villagers. As the backbone of Uttarakhand 's Agrarian economy, women were most directly affected by environmental degradation and deforestation, and thus related to the issues most easily. How much this participation impacted or derived from the ideology of Chipko has been fiercely debated in academic circles.
Despite this, both female and male activists did play pivotal roles in the movement including Gaura Devi, Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Sundarlal Bahuguna, Govind Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Neji, Shamsher Singh Bisht and Ghanasyam Raturi, the Chipko poet, whose songs are still popular in the Himalayan region. Out of which, Chandi Prasad Bhatt was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award in 1982, and Sundarlal Bahuguna was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 2009.
In Tehri district, Chipko activists would go on to protest limestone mining in the Doon Valley (Dehra Dun) in the 1980s, as the movement spread through the Dehradun district, which had earlier seen deforestation of its forest cover leading to heavy loss of flora and fauna. Finally quarrying was banned after years of agitation by Chipko activists, followed by a vast public drive for afforestation, which turned around the valley, just in time. Also in the 1980s, activists like Bahuguna protested against construction of the Tehri dam on the Bhagirathi River, which went on for the next two decades, before founding the Beej Bachao Andolan, the Save the Seeds movement, that continues to the present day.
Over time, as a United Nations Environment Programme report mentioned, Chipko activists started "working a socio - economic revolution by winning control of their forest resources from the hands of a distant bureaucracy which is only concerned with the selling of forestland for making urban - oriented products ''. The Chipko movement became a benchmark for socio - ecological movements in other forest areas of Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar; in September 1983, Chipko inspired a similar, Appiko movement in Karnataka state of India, where tree felling in the Western Ghats and Vindhyas was stopped. In Kumaon region, Chipko took on a more radical tone, combining with the general movement for a separate Uttarakhand state, which was eventually achieved in 2000.
In recent years, the movement not only inspired numerous people to work on practical programmes of water management, energy conservation, afforestation, and recycling, but also encouraged scholars to start studying issues of environmental degradation and methods of conservation in the Himalayas and throughout India.
On 26 March 2004, Reni, Laata, and other villages of the Niti Valley celebrated the 30th anniversary of the Chipko movement, where all the surviving original participants united. The celebrations started at Laata, the ancestral home of Gaura Devi, where Pushpa Devi, wife of late Chipko Leader Govind Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Negi, Chipko leader of Henwalghati, Tehri Garhwal, and others were celebrated. From here a procession went to Reni, the neighbouring village, where the actual Chipko action took place on 26 March 1974. This marked the beginning of worldwide methods to improve the present situation. Recently, by following the legacy of the Chipko movement, in 2017 rapid deforestation over the century - old trees, forming almost a canopy in Jessore Road of the district of North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, has also flicked off a huge movement in the form of the campaign of saving 4000 trees by the local masses.
Van mahotsav
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what are you doing for the next hundred years | WorldEnd - wikipedia
WorldEnd, short for What Do You Do at the End of the World? Are You Busy? Will You Save Us? (終末 な にし て ます か? 忙しい です か? 救っ て もらって いい です か?, Shūmatsu Nani Shitemasu ka? Isogashii Desu ka? Sukutte Moratte Ii Desu ka?), also known as Sukasuka, is a Japanese light novel series written by Akira Kareno and illustrated by Ue. The series ' first volume was published by Kadokawa Shoten under their Sneaker Bunko imprint in November 2014, with the series ending with the release of the fifth volume in April 2016. A sequel series titled Shūmatsu Nani Shitemasu ka? Mō Ichido dake, Aemasu ka? (終末 な にし て ます か? もう一度 だけ 、 会え ます か?), also known as Sukamoka, began publication with the release of the first volume in April 2016; the second volume was released on July 1, 2016.
It 's been over 500 years since the human race almost went extinct at the hands of the fearsome and mysterious "Beasts ''. The surviving races now make their homes, towns, and cities up on floating islands in the sky to keep out of reach of all but the most mobile of Beasts. Only a group of young girls, dubbed the Leprechauns, can wield the ancient Dug Weapons needed to fend off invasions from those dangerous creatures. Into the peoples ' unstable and fleeting lives, where a simple call to certain death could come at any moment, enters an unlikely character: a mysterious man who lost everything in his final battle five hundred years ago, and had awakened from a long, icy slumber. Unable to fight any longer, the man, Willem, becomes the father those kids never had, caring for and nurturing them even as he struggles to come to terms with his new life, in which he feels the pain of helplessly waiting for his loved ones to return home from battle that his ' Daughter ' once felt for him so long ago. Together, Willem and the leprechauns gradually come to understand what family means and what is truly worth protecting in their lives.
An anime adaptation of Sukasuka was announced with the release of the second volume of Sukamoka. The anime adaptation was revealed as a television series that is scheduled to premiere in April 2017. The series is directed by Jun'ichi Wada at studios Satelight and C2C, with scripts written by series creator Akira Kareno, Mariko Mochizuki, Shingo Nagai and Toshizo Nemoto, and music composed by Tatsuya Kato. The opening theme is "DEAREST DROP '' sung by Azusa Tadokoro. The ending theme is "From '' by True. The anime aired on April 11, 2017 on Tokyo MX, with further broadcasts on TVA, SUN, TVQ Kyushu Broadcasting, BS11, and AT - X then finished on June 27, 2017. The series ran for 12 episodes. Crunchyroll has streamed the series. Funimation has licensed the series in North America under the name "WorldEnd: What are you doing at the end of the world? Are you busy? Will you save us? ''.
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what name did the national assembly give to its character of basic liberties | Statue of Liberty - wikipedia
The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World; French: La Liberté éclairant le monde) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City, in the United States. The copper statue, a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and built by Gustave Eiffel. The statue was dedicated on October 28, 1886.
The Statue of Liberty is a figure of a robed woman representing Libertas, a Roman liberty goddess. She holds a torch above her head with her right hand, and in her left hand carries a tabula ansata inscribed in Roman numerals with "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' (July 4, 1776), the date of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. A broken chain lies at her feet. The statue became an icon of freedom and of the United States, and was a welcoming sight to immigrants arriving from abroad.
Bartholdi was inspired by a French law professor and politician, Édouard René de Laboulaye, who is said to have commented in 1865 that any monument raised to U.S. independence would properly be a joint project of the French and U.S. peoples. Because of the post-war instability in France, work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue and the U.S. provide the site and build the pedestal. Bartholdi completed the head and the torch - bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions.
The torch - bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and in Madison Square Park in Manhattan from 1876 to 1882. Fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened by lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer, of the New York World, started a drive for donations to finish the project and attracted more than 120,000 contributors, most of whom gave less than a dollar. The statue was built in France, shipped overseas in crates, and assembled on the completed pedestal on what was then called Bedloe 's Island. The statue 's completion was marked by New York 's first ticker - tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland.
The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War; since 1933 it has been maintained by the National Park Service. Public access to the balcony around the torch has been barred for safety since 1916.
According to the National Park Service, the idea for the Statue of Liberty was first proposed by Édouard René de Laboulaye the president of the French Anti-Slavery Society and a prominent and important political thinker of his time. The project is traced to a mid-1865 conversation between de Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor. In after - dinner conversation at his home near Versailles, Laboulaye, an ardent supporter of the Union in the American Civil War, is supposed to have said: "If a monument should rise in the United States, as a memorial to their independence, I should think it only natural if it were built by united effort -- a common work of both our nations. '' The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, and that the statue was most likely conceived in 1870. In another essay on their website, the Park Service suggested that Laboulaye was minded to honor the Union victory and its consequences, "With the abolition of slavery and the Union 's victory in the Civil War in 1865, Laboulaye 's wishes of freedom and democracy were turning into a reality in the United States. In order to honor these achievements, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States, the French people would be inspired to call for their own democracy in the face of a repressive monarchy. ''
According to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulaye 's comment was not intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi. Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi took no immediate action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye. Bartholdi was in any event busy with other possible projects; in the late 1860s, he approached Isma'il Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, with a plan to build Progress or Egypt Carrying the Light to Asia, a huge lighthouse in the form of an ancient Egyptian female fellah or peasant, robed and holding a torch aloft, at the northern entrance to the Suez Canal in Port Said. Sketches and models were made of the proposed work, though it was never erected. There was a classical precedent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes: an ancient bronze statue of the Greek god of the sun, Helios. This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet (30 m) high, and it similarly stood at a harbor entrance and carried a light to guide ships.
Any large project was further delayed by the Franco - Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and deposed. Bartholdi 's home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians, and a more liberal republic was installed in France. As Bartholdi had been planning a trip to the United States, he and Laboulaye decided the time was right to discuss the idea with influential Americans. In June 1871, Bartholdi crossed the Atlantic, with letters of introduction signed by Laboulaye.
Arriving at New York Harbor, Bartholdi focused on Bedloe 's Island (now named Liberty Island) as a site for the statue, struck by the fact that vessels arriving in New York had to sail past it. He was delighted to learn that the island was owned by the United States government -- it had been ceded by the New York State Legislature in 1800 for harbor defense. It was thus, as he put it in a letter to Laboulaye: "land common to all the states. '' As well as meeting many influential New Yorkers, Bartholdi visited President Ulysses S. Grant, who assured him that it would not be difficult to obtain the site for the statue. Bartholdi crossed the United States twice by rail, and met many Americans who he thought would be sympathetic to the project. But he remained concerned that popular opinion on both sides of the Atlantic was insufficiently supportive of the proposal, and he and Laboulaye decided to wait before mounting a public campaign.
Bartholdi had made a first model of his concept in 1870. The son of a friend of Bartholdi 's, U.S. artist John LaFarge, later maintained that Bartholdi made the first sketches for the statue during his U.S. visit at La Farge 's Rhode Island studio. Bartholdi continued to develop the concept following his return to France. He also worked on a number of sculptures designed to bolster French patriotism after the defeat by the Prussians. One of these was the Lion of Belfort, a monumental sculpture carved in sandstone below the fortress of Belfort, which during the war had resisted a Prussian siege for over three months. The defiant lion, 73 feet (22 m) long and half that in height, displays an emotional quality characteristic of Romanticism, which Bartholdi would later bring to the Statue of Liberty.
Bartholdi and Laboulaye considered how best to express the idea of American liberty. In early American history, two female figures were frequently used as cultural symbols of the nation. One of these symbols, the personified Columbia, was seen as an embodiment of the United States in the manner that Britannia was identified with the United Kingdom and Marianne came to represent France. Columbia had supplanted the earlier figure of an Indian princess, which had come to be regarded as uncivilized and derogatory toward Americans. The other significant female icon in American culture was a representation of Liberty, derived from Libertas, the goddess of freedom widely worshipped in ancient Rome, especially among emancipated slaves. A Liberty figure adorned most American coins of the time, and representations of Liberty appeared in popular and civic art, including Thomas Crawford 's Statue of Freedom (1863) atop the dome of the United States Capitol Building.
Artists of the 18th and 19th centuries striving to evoke republican ideals commonly used representations of Libertas as an allegorical symbol. A figure of Liberty was also depicted on the Great Seal of France. However, Bartholdi and Laboulaye avoided an image of revolutionary liberty such as that depicted in Eugène Delacroix 's famed Liberty Leading the People (1830). In this painting, which commemorates France 's Revolution of 1830, a half - clothed Liberty leads an armed mob over the bodies of the fallen. Laboulaye had no sympathy for revolution, and so Bartholdi 's figure would be fully dressed in flowing robes. Instead of the impression of violence in the Delacroix work, Bartholdi wished to give the statue a peaceful appearance and chose a torch, representing progress, for the figure to hold.
Crawford 's statue was designed in the early 1850s. It was originally to be crowned with a pileus, the cap given to emancipated slaves in ancient Rome. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis, a Southerner who would later serve as President of the Confederate States of America, was concerned that the pileus would be taken as an abolitionist symbol. He ordered that it be changed to a helmet. Delacroix 's figure wears a pileus, and Bartholdi at first considered placing one on his figure as well. Instead, he used a diadem, or crown, to top its head. In so doing, he avoided a reference to Marianne, who invariably wears a pileus. The seven rays form a halo or aureole. They evoke the sun, the seven seas, and the seven continents, and represent another means, besides the torch, whereby Liberty enlightens the world.
Bartholdi 's early models were all similar in concept: a female figure in neoclassical style representing liberty, wearing a stola and pella (gown and cloak, common in depictions of Roman goddesses) and holding a torch aloft. According to popular accounts, the face was modeled after that of Charlotte Beysser Bartholdi, the sculptor 's mother, but Regis Huber, the curator of the Bartholdi Museum is on record as saying that this, as well as other similar speculations, have no basis in fact. He designed the figure with a strong, uncomplicated silhouette, which would be set off well by its dramatic harbor placement and allow passengers on vessels entering New York Bay to experience a changing perspective on the statue as they proceeded toward Manhattan. He gave it bold classical contours and applied simplified modeling, reflecting the huge scale of the project and its solemn purpose. Bartholdi wrote of his technique:
The surfaces should be broad and simple, defined by a bold and clear design, accentuated in the important places. The enlargement of the details or their multiplicity is to be feared. By exaggerating the forms, in order to render them more clearly visible, or by enriching them with details, we would destroy the proportion of the work. Finally, the model, like the design, should have a summarized character, such as one would give to a rapid sketch. Only it is necessary that this character should be the product of volition and study, and that the artist, concentrating his knowledge, should find the form and the line in its greatest simplicity.
Bartholdi made alterations in the design as the project evolved. Bartholdi considered having Liberty hold a broken chain, but decided this would be too divisive in the days after the Civil War. The erected statue does rise over a broken chain, half - hidden by her robes and difficult to see from the ground. Bartholdi was initially uncertain of what to place in Liberty 's left hand; he settled on a tabula ansata, used to evoke the concept of law. Though Bartholdi greatly admired the United States Constitution, he chose to inscribe "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI '' on the tablet, thus associating the date of the country 's Declaration of Independence with the concept of liberty.
Bartholdi interested his friend and mentor, architect Eugène Viollet - le - Duc, in the project. As chief engineer, Viollet - le - Duc designed a brick pier within the statue, to which the skin would be anchored. After consultations with the metalwork foundry Gaget, Gauthier & Co., Viollet - le - Duc chose the metal which would be used for the skin, copper sheets, and the method used to shape it, repoussé, in which the sheets were heated and then struck with wooden hammers. An advantage of this choice was that the entire statue would be light for its volume, as the copper need be only 0.094 inches (2.4 mm) thick. Bartholdi had decided on a height of just over 151 feet (46 m) for the statue, double that of Italy 's Sancarlone and the German statue of Arminius, both made with the same method.
By 1875, France was enjoying improved political stability and a recovering postwar economy. Growing interest in the upcoming Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia led Laboulaye to decide it was time to seek public support. In September 1875, he announced the project and the formation of the Franco - American Union as its fundraising arm. With the announcement, the statue was given a name, Liberty Enlightening the World. The French would finance the statue; Americans would be expected to pay for the pedestal. The announcement provoked a generally favorable reaction in France, though many Frenchmen resented the United States for not coming to their aid during the war with Prussia. French monarchists opposed the statue, if for no other reason than it was proposed by the liberal Laboulaye, who had recently been elected a senator for life. Laboulaye arranged events designed to appeal to the rich and powerful, including a special performance at the Paris Opera on April 25, 1876, that featured a new cantata by composer Charles Gounod. The piece was titled La Liberté éclairant le monde, the French version of the statue 's announced name.
Despite its initial focus on the elites, the Union was successful in raising funds from across French society. Schoolchildren and ordinary citizens gave, as did 181 French municipalities. Laboulaye 's political allies supported the call, as did descendants of the French contingent in the American Revolutionary War. Less idealistically, contributions came from those who hoped for American support in the French attempt to build the Panama Canal. The copper may have come from multiple sources and some of it is said to have come from a mine in Visnes, Norway, though this has not been conclusively determined after testing samples. According to Cara Sutherland in her book on the statue for the Museum of the City of New York, 90,800 kilos (200,000 pounds) was needed to build the statue, and the French copper industrialist Eugène Secrétan donated 58,100 kilos (128,000 pounds) of copper.
Although plans for the statue had not been finalized, Bartholdi moved forward with fabrication of the right arm, bearing the torch, and the head. Work began at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop. In May 1876, Bartholdi traveled to the United States as a member of a French delegation to the Centennial Exhibition, and arranged for a huge painting of the statue to be shown in New York as part of the Centennial festivities. The arm did not arrive in Philadelphia until August; because of its late arrival, it was not listed in the exhibition catalogue, and while some reports correctly identified the work, others called it the "Colossal Arm '' or "Bartholdi Electric Light ''. The exhibition grounds contained a number of monumental artworks to compete for fairgoers ' interest, including an outsized fountain designed by Bartholdi. Nevertheless, the arm proved popular in the exhibition 's waning days, and visitors would climb up to the balcony of the torch to view the fairgrounds. After the exhibition closed, the arm was transported to New York, where it remained on display in Madison Square Park for several years before it was returned to France to join the rest of the statue.
During his second trip to the United States, Bartholdi addressed a number of groups about the project, and urged the formation of American committees of the Franco - American Union. Committees to raise money to pay for the foundation and pedestal were formed in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. The New York group eventually took on most of the responsibility for American fundraising and is often referred to as the "American Committee ''. One of its members was 19 - year - old Theodore Roosevelt, the future governor of New York and president of the United States. On March 3, 1877, on his final full day in office, President Grant signed a joint resolution that authorized the President to accept the statue when it was presented by France and to select a site for it. President Rutherford B. Hayes, who took office the following day, selected the Bedloe 's Island site that Bartholdi had proposed.
On his return to Paris in 1877, Bartholdi concentrated on completing the head, which was exhibited at the 1878 Paris World 's Fair. Fundraising continued, with models of the statue put on sale. Tickets to view the construction activity at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop were also offered. The French government authorized a lottery; among the prizes were valuable silver plate and a terracotta model of the statue. By the end of 1879, about 250,000 francs had been raised.
The head and arm had been built with assistance from Viollet - le - Duc, who fell ill in 1879. He soon died, leaving no indication of how he intended to transition from the copper skin to his proposed masonry pier. The following year, Bartholdi was able to obtain the services of the innovative designer and builder Gustave Eiffel. Eiffel and his structural engineer, Maurice Koechlin, decided to abandon the pier and instead build an iron truss tower. Eiffel opted not to use a completely rigid structure, which would force stresses to accumulate in the skin and lead eventually to cracking. A secondary skeleton was attached to the center pylon, then, to enable the statue to move slightly in the winds of New York Harbor and as the metal expanded on hot summer days, he loosely connected the support structure to the skin using flat iron bars which culminated in a mesh of metal straps, known as "saddles '', that were riveted to the skin, providing firm support. In a labor - intensive process, each saddle had to be crafted individually. To prevent galvanic corrosion between the copper skin and the iron support structure, Eiffel insulated the skin with asbestos impregnated with shellac.
Eiffel 's design made the statue one of the earliest examples of curtain wall construction, in which the exterior of the structure is not load bearing, but is instead supported by an interior framework. He included two interior spiral staircases, to make it easier for visitors to reach the observation point in the crown. Access to an observation platform surrounding the torch was also provided, but the narrowness of the arm allowed for only a single ladder, 40 feet (12 m) long. As the pylon tower arose, Eiffel and Bartholdi coordinated their work carefully so that completed segments of skin would fit exactly on the support structure. The components of the pylon tower were built in the Eiffel factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois - Perret.
The change in structural material from masonry to iron allowed Bartholdi to change his plans for the statue 's assembly. He had originally expected to assemble the skin on - site as the masonry pier was built; instead he decided to build the statue in France and have it disassembled and transported to the United States for reassembly in place on Bedloe 's Island.
In a symbolic act, the first rivet placed into the skin, fixing a copper plate onto the statue 's big toe, was driven by United States Ambassador to France Levi P. Morton. The skin was not, however, crafted in exact sequence from low to high; work proceeded on a number of segments simultaneously in a manner often confusing to visitors. Some work was performed by contractors -- one of the fingers was made to Bartholdi 's exacting specifications by a coppersmith in the southern French town of Montauban. By 1882, the statue was complete up to the waist, an event Barthodi celebrated by inviting reporters to lunch on a platform built within the statue. Laboulaye died in 1883. He was succeeded as chairman of the French committee by Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal. The completed statue was formally presented to Ambassador Morton at a ceremony in Paris on July 4, 1884, and de Lesseps announced that the French government had agreed to pay for its transport to New York. The statue remained intact in Paris pending sufficient progress on the pedestal; by January 1885, this had occurred and the statue was disassembled and crated for its ocean voyage.
The committees in the United States faced great difficulties in obtaining funds for the construction of the pedestal. The Panic of 1873 had led to an economic depression that persisted through much of the decade. The Liberty statue project was not the only such undertaking that had difficulty raising money: construction of the obelisk later known as the Washington Monument sometimes stalled for years; it would ultimately take over three - and - a-half decades to complete. There was criticism both of Bartholdi 's statue and of the fact that the gift required Americans to foot the bill for the pedestal. In the years following the Civil War, most Americans preferred realistic artworks depicting heroes and events from the nation 's history, rather than allegorical works like the Liberty statue. There was also a feeling that Americans should design American public works -- the selection of Italian - born Constantino Brumidi to decorate the Capitol had provoked intense criticism, even though he was a naturalized U.S. citizen. Harper 's Weekly declared its wish that "M. Bartholdi and our French cousins had ' gone the whole figure ' while they were about it, and given us statue and pedestal at once. '' The New York Times stated that "no true patriot can countenance any such expenditures for bronze females in the present state of our finances. '' Faced with these criticisms, the American committees took little action for several years.
The foundation of Bartholdi 's statue was to be laid inside Fort Wood, a disused army base on Bedloe 's Island constructed between 1807 and 1811. Since 1823, it had rarely been used, though during the Civil War, it had served as a recruiting station. The fortifications of the structure were in the shape of an eleven - point star. The statue 's foundation and pedestal were aligned so that it would face southeast, greeting ships entering the harbor from the Atlantic Ocean. In 1881, the New York committee commissioned Richard Morris Hunt to design the pedestal. Within months, Hunt submitted a detailed plan, indicating that he expected construction to take about nine months. He proposed a pedestal 114 feet (35 m) in height; faced with money problems, the committee reduced that to 89 feet (27 m).
Hunt 's pedestal design contains elements of classical architecture, including Doric portals, as well as some elements influenced by Aztec architecture. The large mass is fragmented with architectural detail, in order to focus attention on the statue. In form, it is a truncated pyramid, 62 feet (19 m) square at the base and 39.4 feet (12.0 m) at the top. The four sides are identical in appearance. Above the door on each side, there are ten disks upon which Bartholdi proposed to place the coats of arms of the states (between 1876 and 1889, there were 38 U.S. states), although this was not done. Above that, a balcony was placed on each side, framed by pillars. Bartholdi placed an observation platform near the top of the pedestal, above which the statue itself rises. According to author Louis Auchincloss, the pedestal "craggily evokes the power of an ancient Europe over which rises the dominating figure of the Statue of Liberty ''. The committee hired former army General Charles Pomeroy Stone to oversee the construction work. Construction on the 15 - foot - deep (4.6 m) foundation began in 1883, and the pedestal 's cornerstone was laid in 1884. In Hunt 's original conception, the pedestal was to have been made of solid granite. Financial concerns again forced him to revise his plans; the final design called for poured concrete walls, up to 20 feet (6.1 m) thick, faced with granite blocks. This Stony Creek granite came from the Beattie Quarry in Branford, Connecticut. The concrete mass was the largest poured to that time.
Norwegian immigrant civil engineer Joachim Goschen Giæver designed the structural framework for the Statue of Liberty. His work involved design computations, detailed fabrication and construction drawings, and oversight of construction. In completing his engineering for the statue 's frame, Giæver worked from drawings and sketches produced by Gustave Eiffel.
Fundraising for the statue had begun in 1882. The committee organized a large number of money - raising events. As part of one such effort, an auction of art and manuscripts, poet Emma Lazarus was asked to donate an original work. She initially declined, stating she could not write a poem about a statue. At the time, she was also involved in aiding refugees to New York who had fled anti-Semitic pogroms in eastern Europe. These refugees were forced to live in conditions that the wealthy Lazarus had never experienced. She saw a way to express her empathy for these refugees in terms of the statue. The resulting sonnet, "The New Colossus '', including the iconic lines "Give me your tired, your poor / Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free '', is uniquely identified with the Statue of Liberty and is inscribed on a plaque in the museum in its base.
Even with these efforts, fundraising lagged. Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York, vetoed a bill to provide $50,000 for the statue project in 1884. An attempt the next year to have Congress provide $100,000, sufficient to complete the project, also failed. The New York committee, with only $3,000 in the bank, suspended work on the pedestal. With the project in jeopardy, groups from other American cities, including Boston and Philadelphia, offered to pay the full cost of erecting the statue in return for relocating it.
Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the New York World, a New York newspaper, announced a drive to raise $100,000 -- the equivalent of $2.3 million today. Pulitzer pledged to print the name of every contributor, no matter how small the amount given. The drive captured the imagination of New Yorkers, especially when Pulitzer began publishing the notes he received from contributors. "A young girl alone in the world '' donated "60 cents, the result of self denial. '' One donor gave "five cents as a poor office boy 's mite toward the Pedestal Fund. '' A group of children sent a dollar as "the money we saved to go to the circus with. '' Another dollar was given by a "lonely and very aged woman. '' Residents of a home for alcoholics in New York 's rival city of Brooklyn -- the cities would not merge until 1898 -- donated $15; other drinkers helped out through donation boxes in bars and saloons. A kindergarten class in Davenport, Iowa, mailed the World a gift of $1.35. As the donations flooded in, the committee resumed work on the pedestal.
On June 17, 1885, the French steamer Isère, laden with the Statue of Liberty, reached the New York port safely. New Yorkers displayed their new - found enthusiasm for the statue, as the French vessel arrived with the crates holding the disassembled statue on board. Two hundred thousand people lined the docks and hundreds of boats put to sea to welcome the Isère. After five months of daily calls to donate to the statue fund, on August 11, 1885, the World announced that $102,000 had been raised from 120,000 donors, and that 80 percent of the total had been received in sums of less than one dollar.
Even with the success of the fund drive, the pedestal was not completed until April 1886. Immediately thereafter, reassembly of the statue began. Eiffel 's iron framework was anchored to steel I - beams within the concrete pedestal and assembled. Once this was done, the sections of skin were carefully attached. Due to the width of the pedestal, it was not possible to erect scaffolding, and workers dangled from ropes while installing the skin sections. Nevertheless, no one died during the construction. Bartholdi had planned to put floodlights on the torch 's balcony to illuminate it; a week before the dedication, the Army Corps of Engineers vetoed the proposal, fearing that ships ' pilots passing the statue would be blinded. Instead, Bartholdi cut portholes in the torch -- which was covered with gold leaf -- and placed the lights inside them. A power plant was installed on the island to light the torch and for other electrical needs. After the skin was completed, renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, co-designer of New York 's Central Park and Brooklyn 's Prospect Park, supervised a cleanup of Bedloe 's Island in anticipation of the dedication.
A ceremony of dedication was held on the afternoon of October 28, 1886. President Grover Cleveland, the former New York governor, presided over the event. On the morning of the dedication, a parade was held in New York City; estimates of the number of people who watched it ranged from several hundred thousand to a million. President Cleveland headed the procession, then stood in the reviewing stand to see bands and marchers from across America. General Stone was the grand marshal of the parade. The route began at Madison Square, once the venue for the arm, and proceeded to the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan by way of Fifth Avenue and Broadway, with a slight detour so the parade could pass in front of the World building on Park Row. As the parade passed the New York Stock Exchange, traders threw ticker tape from the windows, beginning the New York tradition of the ticker - tape parade.
A nautical parade began at 12: 45 p.m., and President Cleveland embarked on a yacht that took him across the harbor to Bedloe 's Island for the dedication. De Lesseps made the first speech, on behalf of the French committee, followed by the chairman of the New York committee, Senator William M. Evarts. A French flag draped across the statue 's face was to be lowered to unveil the statue at the close of Evarts 's speech, but Bartholdi mistook a pause as the conclusion and let the flag fall prematurely. The ensuing cheers put an end to Evarts 's address. President Cleveland spoke next, stating that the statue 's "stream of light shall pierce the darkness of ignorance and man 's oppression until Liberty enlightens the world ''. Bartholdi, observed near the dais, was called upon to speak, but he declined. Orator Chauncey M. Depew concluded the speechmaking with a lengthy address.
No members of the general public were permitted on the island during the ceremonies, which were reserved entirely for dignitaries. The only females granted access were Bartholdi 's wife and de Lesseps 's granddaughter; officials stated that they feared women might be injured in the crush of people. The restriction offended area suffragists, who chartered a boat and got as close as they could to the island. The group 's leaders made speeches applauding the embodiment of Liberty as a woman and advocating women 's right to vote. A scheduled fireworks display was postponed until November 1 because of poor weather.
Shortly after the dedication, The Cleveland Gazette, an African American newspaper, suggested that the statue 's torch not be lit until the United States became a free nation "in reality '':
"Liberty enlightening the world, '' indeed! The expression makes us sick. This government is a howling farce. It can not or rather does not protect its citizens within its own borders. Shove the Bartholdi statue, torch and all, into the ocean until the "liberty '' of this country is such as to make it possible for an inoffensive and industrious colored man to earn a respectable living for himself and family, without being ku - kluxed, perhaps murdered, his daughter and wife outraged, and his property destroyed. The idea of the "liberty '' of this country "enlightening the world, '' or even Patagonia, is ridiculous in the extreme.
When the torch was illuminated on the evening of the statue 's dedication, it produced only a faint gleam, barely visible from Manhattan. The World characterized it as "more like a glowworm than a beacon. '' Bartholdi suggested gilding the statue to increase its ability to reflect light, but this proved too expensive. The United States Lighthouse Board took over the Statue of Liberty in 1887 and pledged to install equipment to enhance the torch 's effect; in spite of its efforts, the statue remained virtually invisible at night. When Bartholdi returned to the United States in 1893, he made additional suggestions, all of which proved ineffective. He did successfully lobby for improved lighting within the statue, allowing visitors to better appreciate Eiffel 's design. In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt, once a member of the New York committee, ordered the statue 's transfer to the War Department, as it had proved useless as a lighthouse. A unit of the Army Signal Corps was stationed on Bedloe 's Island until 1923, after which military police remained there while the island was under military jurisdiction.
The statue rapidly became a landmark. Many immigrants who entered through New York saw it as a welcoming sight. Oral histories of immigrants record their feelings of exhilaration on first viewing the Statue of Liberty. One immigrant who arrived from Greece recalled,
I saw the Statue of Liberty. And I said to myself, "Lady, you 're such a beautiful! (sic) You opened your arms and you get all the foreigners here. Give me a chance to prove that I am worth it, to do something, to be someone in America. '' And always that statue was on my mind.
Originally, the statue was a dull copper color, but shortly after 1900 a green patina, also called verdigris, caused by the oxidation of the copper skin, began to spread. As early as 1902 it was mentioned in the press; by 1906 it had entirely covered the statue. Believing that the patina was evidence of corrosion, Congress authorized US $62,800 (equivalent to $1,710,486 in 2017) for various repairs, and to paint the statue both inside and out. There was considerable public protest against the proposed exterior painting. The Army Corps of Engineers studied the patina for any ill effects to the statue and concluded that it protected the skin, "softened the outlines of the Statue and made it beautiful. '' The statue was painted only on the inside. The Corps of Engineers also installed an elevator to take visitors from the base to the top of the pedestal.
On July 30, 1916, during World War I, German saboteurs set off a disastrous explosion on the Black Tom peninsula in Jersey City, New Jersey, in what is now part of Liberty State Park, close to Bedloe 's Island. Carloads of dynamite and other explosives that were being sent to Britain and France for their war efforts were detonated, and seven people were killed. The statue sustained minor damage, mostly to the torch - bearing right arm, and was closed for ten days. The cost to repair the statue and buildings on the island was about US $100,000 (equivalent to $2,248,930 in 2017). The narrow ascent to the torch was closed for public - safety reasons, and it has remained closed ever since.
That same year, Ralph Pulitzer, who had succeeded his father Joseph as publisher of the World, began a drive to raise US $30,000 (equivalent to $674,679 in 2017) for an exterior lighting system to illuminate the statue at night. He claimed over 80,000 contributors, but failed to reach the goal. The difference was quietly made up by a gift from a wealthy donor -- a fact that was not revealed until 1936. An underwater power cable brought electricity from the mainland and floodlights were placed along the walls of Fort Wood. Gutzon Borglum, who later sculpted Mount Rushmore, redesigned the torch, replacing much of the original copper with stained glass. On December 2, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson pressed the telegraph key that turned on the lights, successfully illuminating the statue.
After the United States entered World War I in 1917, images of the statue were heavily used in both recruitment posters and the Liberty Bond drives that urged American citizens to support the war financially. This impressed upon the public the war 's stated purpose -- to secure liberty -- and served as a reminder that embattled France had given the United States the statue.
In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge used his authority under the Antiquities Act to declare the statue a National Monument. The only successful suicide in the statue 's history occurred five years later, when a man climbed out of one of the windows in the crown and jumped to his death, glancing off the statue 's breast and landing on the base.
In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the statue to be transferred to the National Park Service (NPS). In 1937, the NPS gained jurisdiction over the rest of Bedloe 's Island. With the Army 's departure, the NPS began to transform the island into a park. The Works Progress Administration (WPA) demolished most of the old buildings, regraded and reseeded the eastern end of the island, and built granite steps for a new public entrance to the statue from its rear. The WPA also carried out restoration work within the statue, temporarily removing the rays from the statue 's halo so their rusted supports could be replaced. Rusted cast - iron steps in the pedestal were replaced with new ones made of reinforced concrete; the upper parts of the stairways within the statue were replaced, as well. Copper sheathing was installed to prevent further damage from rainwater that had been seeping into the pedestal. The statue was closed to the public from May until December 1938.
During World War II, the statue remained open to visitors, although it was not illuminated at night due to wartime blackouts. It was lit briefly on December 31, 1943, and on D - Day, June 6, 1944, when its lights flashed "dot - dot - dot - dash '', the Morse code for V, for victory. New, powerful lighting was installed in 1944 -- 1945, and beginning on V-E Day, the statue was once again illuminated after sunset. The lighting was for only a few hours each evening, and it was not until 1957 that the statue was illuminated every night, all night. In 1946, the interior of the statue within reach of visitors was coated with a special plastic so that graffiti could be washed away.
In 1956, an Act of Congress officially renamed Bedloe 's Island as Liberty Island, a change advocated by Bartholdi generations earlier. The act also mentioned the efforts to found an American Museum of Immigration on the island, which backers took as federal approval of the project, though the government was slow to grant funds for it. Nearby Ellis Island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument by proclamation of President Lyndon Johnson in 1965. In 1972, the immigration museum, in the statue 's base, was finally opened in a ceremony led by President Richard Nixon. The museum 's backers never provided it with an endowment to secure its future and it closed in 1991 after the opening of an immigration museum on Ellis Island.
In 1970, Ivy Bottini led a demonstration at the statue where she and others from the National Organization for Women 's New York chapter draped an enormous banner over a railing which read "WOMEN OF THE WORLD UNITE! ''
Beginning December 26, 1971, 15 anti-Vietnam War veterans occupied the statue, flying a US flag upside down from her crown. They left December 28 following a Federal Court order. The statue was also several times taken over briefly by demonstrators publicizing causes such as Puerto Rican independence, opposition to abortion, and opposition to US intervention in Grenada. Demonstrations with the permission of the Park Service included a Gay Pride Parade rally and the annual Captive Baltic Nations rally.
A powerful new lighting system was installed in advance of the American Bicentennial in 1976. The statue was the focal point for Operation Sail, a regatta of tall ships from all over the world that entered New York Harbor on July 4, 1976, and sailed around Liberty Island. The day concluded with a spectacular display of fireworks near the statue.
The statue was examined in great detail by French and American engineers as part of the planning for its centennial in 1986. In 1982, it was announced that the statue was in need of considerable restoration. Careful study had revealed that the right arm had been improperly attached to the main structure. It was swaying more and more when strong winds blew and there was a significant risk of structural failure. In addition, the head had been installed 2 feet (0.61 m) off center, and one of the rays was wearing a hole in the right arm when the statue moved in the wind. The armature structure was badly corroded, and about two percent of the exterior plates needed to be replaced. Although problems with the armature had been recognized as early as 1936, when cast iron replacements for some of the bars had been installed, much of the corrosion had been hidden by layers of paint applied over the years.
In May 1982, President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Centennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca, to raise the funds needed to complete the work. Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty -- Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group raised more than $350 million in donations. The Statue of Liberty was one of the earliest beneficiaries of a cause marketing campaign. A 1983 promotion advertised that for each purchase made with an American Express card, the company would contribute one cent to the renovation of the statue. The campaign generated contributions of $1.7 million to the restoration project.
In 1984, the statue was closed to the public for the duration of the renovation. Workers erected the world 's largest free - standing scaffold, which obscured the statue from view. Liquid nitrogen was used to remove layers of paint that had been applied to the interior of the copper skin over decades, leaving two layers of coal tar, originally applied to plug leaks and prevent corrosion. Blasting with baking soda powder removed the tar without further damaging the copper. The restorers ' work was hampered by the asbestos - based substance that Bartholdi had used -- ineffectively, as inspections showed -- to prevent galvanic corrosion. Workers within the statue had to wear protective gear, dubbed "moon suits '', with self - contained breathing circuits. Larger holes in the copper skin were repaired, and new copper was added where necessary. The replacement skin was taken from a copper rooftop at Bell Labs, which had a patina that closely resembled the statue 's; in exchange, the laboratory was provided some of the old copper skin for testing. The torch, found to have been leaking water since the 1916 alterations, was replaced with an exact replica of Bartholdi 's unaltered torch. Consideration was given to replacing the arm and shoulder; the National Park Service insisted that they be repaired instead. The original torch was removed and replaced in 1986 with the current one, whose flame is covered in 24 - carat gold. The torch reflects the sun 's rays in daytime and is lighted by floodlights at night.
The entire puddled iron armature designed by Gustave Eiffel was replaced. Low - carbon corrosion - resistant stainless steel bars that now hold the staples next to the skin are made of Ferralium, an alloy that bends slightly and returns to its original shape as the statue moves. To prevent the ray and arm making contact, the ray was realigned by several degrees. The lighting was again replaced -- night - time illumination subsequently came from metal - halide lamps that send beams of light to particular parts of the pedestal or statue, showing off various details. Access to the pedestal, which had been through a nondescript entrance built in the 1960s, was renovated to create a wide opening framed by a set of monumental bronze doors with designs symbolic of the renovation. A modern elevator was installed, allowing handicapped access to the observation area of the pedestal. An emergency elevator was installed within the statue, reaching up to the level of the shoulder.
July 3 -- 6, 1986, was designated "Liberty Weekend '', marking the centennial of the statue and its reopening. President Reagan presided over the rededication, with French President François Mitterrand in attendance. July 4 saw a reprise of Operation Sail, and the statue was reopened to the public on July 5. In Reagan 's dedication speech, he stated, "We are the keepers of the flame of liberty; we hold it high for the world to see. ''
Following the September 11 attacks, the statue and Liberty Island were immediately closed to the public. The island reopened at the end of 2001, while the pedestal and statue remained off - limits. The pedestal reopened in August 2004, but the National Park Service announced that visitors could not safely be given access to the statue due to the difficulty of evacuation in an emergency. The Park Service adhered to that position through the remainder of the Bush administration. New York Congressman Anthony Weiner made the statue 's reopening a personal crusade. On May 17, 2009, President Barack Obama 's Secretary of the Interior, Ken Salazar, announced that as a "special gift '' to America, the statue would be reopened to the public as of July 4, but that only a limited number of people would be permitted to ascend to the crown each day.
The statue, including the pedestal and base, closed on October 29, 2011, for installation of new elevators and staircases and to bring other facilities, such as restrooms, up to code. The statue was reopened on October 28, 2012, only to close again a day later due to Hurricane Sandy. Although the storm did not harm the statue, it destroyed some of the infrastructure on both Liberty Island and Ellis Island, severely damaging the dock used by the ferries bearing visitors to the statue. On November 8, 2012, a Park Service spokesperson announced that both islands would remain closed for an indefinite period for repairs to be done. Due to lack of electricity on Liberty Island, a generator was installed to power temporary floodlights to illuminate the statue at night. The superintendent of Statue of Liberty National Monument, David Luchsinger, whose home on the island was severely damaged, stated that it would be "optimistically... months '' before the island was reopened to the public. The statue and Liberty Island reopened to the public on July 4, 2013. Ellis Island remained closed for repairs for several more months but reopened in late October 2013. For part of October 2013, Liberty Island was closed to the public due to the United States federal government shutdown of 2013, along with other federally funded museums, parks, monuments, construction projects and buildings.
On October 7, 2016, construction started on a new Statue of Liberty museum on Liberty Island. The new $70 million, 26,000 - square - foot (2,400 m) museum will be able to accommodate all of the island 's visitors when it opens in 2019, as opposed to the current museum, which only 20 % of the island 's visitors can visit. The original torch will be relocated here, and in addition to exhibits relating to the statue 's construction and history, there will be a theater where visitors can watch an aerial view of the statue. The museum, designed by FXFOWLE Architects, will integrate with the parkland around it. It is being funded privately by Diane von Fürstenberg, Michael Bloomberg, Jeff Bezos, Coca - Cola, NBCUniversal, the family of Laurence Tisch and Preston Robert Tisch, Mellody Hobson, and George Lucas. Von Fürstenberg heads the fundraising for the museum, and the project had garnered more than $40 million in fundraising as of groundbreaking.
The statue is situated in Upper New York Bay on Liberty Island south of Ellis Island, which together comprise the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Both islands were ceded by New York to the federal government in 1800. As agreed in an 1834 compact between New York and New Jersey that set the state border at the bay 's midpoint, the original islands remain New York territory despite their location on the New Jersey side of the state line. Liberty Island is one of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in New York. Land created by reclamation added to the 2.3 acres (0.93 ha) original island at Ellis Island is New Jersey territory.
No charge is made for entrance to the national monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service that all visitors must use, as private boats may not dock at the island. A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953. The ferries, which depart from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and Battery Park in Lower Manhattan, also stop at Ellis Island when it is open to the public, making a combined trip possible. All ferry riders are subject to security screening, similar to airport procedures, prior to boarding. Visitors intending to enter the statue 's base and pedestal must obtain a complimentary museum / pedestal ticket along with their ferry ticket. Those wishing to climb the staircase within the statue to the crown purchase a special ticket, which may be reserved up to a year in advance. A total of 240 people per day are permitted to ascend: ten per group, three groups per hour. Climbers may bring only medication and cameras -- lockers are provided for other items -- and must undergo a second security screening.
There are several plaques and dedicatory tablets on or near the Statue of Liberty.
A group of statues stands at the western end of the island, honoring those closely associated with the Statue of Liberty. Two Americans -- Pulitzer and Lazarus -- and three Frenchmen -- Bartholdi, Eiffel, and Laboulaye -- are depicted. They are the work of Maryland sculptor Phillip Ratner.
In 1984, the Statue of Liberty was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The UNESCO "Statement of Significance '' describes the statue as a "masterpiece of the human spirit '' that "endures as a highly potent symbol -- inspiring contemplation, debate and protest -- of ideals such as liberty, peace, human rights, abolition of slavery, democracy and opportunity. ''
Hundreds of replicas of the Statue of Liberty are displayed worldwide. A smaller version of the statue, one - fourth the height of the original, was given by the American community in Paris to that city. It now stands on the Île aux Cygnes, facing west toward her larger sister. A replica 30 feet (9.1 m) tall stood atop the Liberty Warehouse on West 64th Street in Manhattan for many years; it now resides at the Brooklyn Museum. In a patriotic tribute, the Boy Scouts of America, as part of their Strengthen the Arm of Liberty campaign in 1949 -- 1952, donated about two hundred replicas of the statue, made of stamped copper and 100 inches (2,500 mm) in height, to states and municipalities across the United States. Though not a true replica, the statue known as the Goddess of Democracy temporarily erected during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 was similarly inspired by French democratic traditions -- the sculptors took care to avoid a direct imitation of the Statue of Liberty. Among other recreations of New York City structures, a replica of the statue is part of the exterior of the New York - New York Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.
As an American icon, the Statue of Liberty has been depicted on the country 's coinage and stamps. It appeared on commemorative coins issued to mark its 1986 centennial, and on New York 's 2001 entry in the state quarters series. An image of the statue was chosen for the American Eagle platinum bullion coins in 1997, and it was placed on the reverse, or tails, side of the Presidential Dollar series of circulating coins. Two images of the statue 's torch appear on the current ten - dollar bill. The statue 's intended photographic depiction on a 2010 forever stamp proved instead to be of the replica at the Las Vegas casino.
Depictions of the statue have been used by many regional institutions. Between 1986 and 2000, New York State issued license plates with an outline of the statue to either the front or the side of the serial number. The Women 's National Basketball Association 's New York Liberty use both the statue 's name and its image in their logo, in which the torch 's flame doubles as a basketball. The New York Rangers of the National Hockey League depicted the statue 's head on their third jersey, beginning in 1997. The National Collegiate Athletic Association 's 1996 Men 's Basketball Final Four, played at New Jersey 's Meadowlands Sports Complex, featured the statue in its logo. The Libertarian Party of the United States uses the statue in its emblem.
The statue is a frequent subject in popular culture. In music, it has been evoked to indicate support for American policies, as in Toby Keith 's song "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American) '', and in opposition, appearing on the cover of the Dead Kennedys ' album Bedtime for Democracy, which protested the Reagan administration. In film, the torch is the setting for the climax of director Alfred Hitchcock 's 1942 movie Saboteur. The statue makes one of its most famous cinematic appearances in the 1968 picture Planet of the Apes, in which it is seen half - buried in sand. It is knocked over in the science - fiction film Independence Day and in Cloverfield the head is ripped off. In Jack Finney 's time - travel novel Time and Again, the right arm of the statue, on display in the early 1880s in Madison Square Park, plays a crucial role. Robert Holdstock, consulting editor of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, wondered in 1979,
Where would science fiction be without the Statue of Liberty? For decades it has towered or crumbled above the wastelands of deserted (E) arth -- giants have uprooted it, aliens have found it curious... the symbol of Liberty, of optimism, has become a symbol of science fiction 's pessimistic view of the future.
Notes
Bibliography
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who won the battle of fisher's hill | Battle of Fisher 's Hill - wikipedia
The Battle of Fisher 's Hill was fought September 21 -- 22, 1864, near Strasburg, Virginia, as part of the Valley Campaigns of 1864 during the American Civil War. Despite its strong defensive position, the Confederate army of Lt. Gen. Jubal Early was defeated by the Union Army of the Shenandoah, commanded by Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan.
Sheridan had almost 35,000 men in the Shenandoah Valley opposing Early, with just under 10,000. Early, following the Third Battle of Winchester took a strong position. His right rested on the North Branch of the Shenandoah River. The left flank of his infantry was on Fisher 's Hill. Confederate cavalry was expected to hold the ground from there to Little North Mountain. Maj. Gen. George Crook advised Sheridan to flank this position. His command was assigned to move along the wooded slopes of the mountain to attack the cavalry.
Crook 's attack began about 4 p.m. on September 22, 1864. The infantry attack pushed the Confederate troopers out of their way. Maj. Gen. Stephen Dodson Ramseur tried refusing the left flank of his division. Crook and Brig. Gen. James B. Ricketts 's division, of Horatio G. Wright 's VI Corps struck Ramseur 's line, pushing it in. Wright 's remaining divisions and XIX Corps broke the Southern line.
The Confederates fell back to Waynesboro, Virginia. Brig. Gen. Alfred Torbert was sent into the Luray Valley with 6,000 cavalrymen to force his way through the 1,200 Confederate cavalrymen under Brigadier General Williams Wickham. Torbert was then supposed to move through the New Market and Luray Gap in Massanutten Mountain and come up behind Early and cut - off his retreat at Fisher 's Hill. Torbert fell back after making a token effort against Wickham 's force at Milford (present day Overall) and Early escaped.
Four Union Army enlisted men and one officer received the Medal of Honor in the action at Fisher 's Hill.
The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved 362 acres (1.46 km) of the battlefield. The preserved portion of the battlefield is marked by trails and interpretive signs.
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when does season 30 start for the amazing race | The Amazing Race 30 - wikipedia
The Amazing Race 30 is the thirtieth installment of the reality television show The Amazing Race. It features eleven teams of two in a race around the world for a US $1 million grand prize. The season premiered on January 3, 2018, airing in CBS 's Wednesday 8: 00 pm EST timeslot for a month before moving to the 9: 00 pm slot from February 7 due to the premiere of Celebrity Big Brother.
As seen before in seasons 25 and 27, the show 's website announced they would begin filming on October 1, 2017, at Washington Square Park in New York City, and invited fans to join them as they saw the new teams off.
This season introduced "Head - to - Head '' competitions, pitting two teams directly against one another, to the original Race. Such competitions already appeared in several international versions of the show (Latin American, Israeli, Norwegian, Philippine, Chinese, and Canadian). Additionally for the first time, teams swapped partners with another team and ran most of a leg with them instead.
This is the first season to not feature any Express Pass since its inception in The Amazing Race 17.
This season of the Race featured a first - time visit to Bahrain.
While the team of Big Brother houseguests Jessica Graf and Cody Nickson from the recently concluded Season 19 was announced earlier, the full cast of 11 teams of two was revealed on December 7, 2017. Among these include former NBA players Cedric Ceballos and Shawn Marion, IndyCar racers Conor Daly and Alexander Rossi, freestyle skiers Kristi Leskinen and Jen Hudak, and competitive eaters Joey Chestnut and Tim Janus.
As announced by CBS, the following teams participated in the race. Each team is listed with the unique hashtag team name that the show 's graphics use to identify them.
Episode titles are often taken from quotes made by the racers.
The prize for each leg was awarded to the first place team for that leg. Trips were provided by Travelocity. The prizes were:
Airdate: January 3, 2018
For the first Roadblock of the Race, one team member had to ride an off - road buggy driven by a professional driver in the foothills of Mount Esja. Without taking notes, the team member had to memorize 11 Icelandic letters placed along the riverbed, and was left to notice that each letter had a number denoting its order in the solution. They then had to arrange tiles with those letters in the correct order to spell out the location of their next destination: Ingólfstorg. Once they arranged all the letters in the proper order, they would receive their next clue.
Airdate: January 10, 2018
In this leg 's Roadblock, teams had to make their way to Antwerp 's waterfront to find the "SkyClimb, '' a crane with four suspended rope ladders. There, one team member had to climb 100 feet (30 m) to the top of a free hanging ladder while a crane raised teams upwards to retrieve the next clue before the ride ended.
The first Detour of the race was a choice of Old Print or Diamond Glint. In Old Print, teams made their way to the Plantin - Moretus Museum. Once there, teams had to arrange type pieces following the example of a provided clue keeping in mind that the type pieces needed to be arranged in a mirror image of their clue. They then had to carry their template to be printed using a printing press. If the printed paper 's message matched the provided clue exactly, they would be given the message as their next clue. In Diamond Glint, teams must travel to the ADC Building within the Antwerp diamond district. Once there, teams had to evaluate three diamonds based on their carat, color, and clarity. After weighing and measuring the diamonds and establishing a base rate, teams had to find any imperfections and discolorations and deduct from their values accordingly based on a provided formula. When teams correctly calculated the total value of all three diamonds and added the value to the price of an unfinished necklace, they would receive their next clue.
Airdate: January 17, 2018
In this leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to navigate the streets and rooftops of Tangier similar to a scene from The Bourne Ultimatum. They first made their way to the roof of the American Legation Museum, where the Travelocity Roaming Gnome would zip - line over the city to another rooftop. Team members had to navigate the city 's narrow streets to find the roof where the Roaming Gnome landed. When they found the gnome, they were instructed to travel to the Kasbah Museum, where they would perform the same task. After finding the gnome for a second time, team members were instructed to find a payphone at a Tele Boutique. Once there, team members had to use the coins in the gnome 's pouch to operate the phone and would listen to the Arabic phrase for Good Morning, Sabah al - khair (صباح الخير). After reiterating this phrase to the shopkeeper, he would hand them their next clue. They could only open their clue once they had reunited with their partner back in the Kisariate Jbala Souk.
This leg 's Detour was a choice between Drop it Off and Shake it Off. In Drop it Off, teams had to travel to a food wholesalers ' truck within Grand Socco and pick up crates of squash, chickens, and oranges. Dragging their crates along the ground, they had to deliver specified items to three locations (squash to Bab Kasbah, chickens to Marhaba Palace Restaurant, and oranges to Bab el - Assa), where they would receive a receipt stamped with one of the three words in the name of the Pit Stop. Once they completed all three deliveries, teams could exchange the receipts for the clue directing them to the Pit Stop. In Shake it Off, teams had to travel to the Manounia Palace Restaurant and put on traditional belly dancing attire. They then had to dance among the dancers and musicians in the restaurant while searching for the three words in the name of the Pit Stop. Once they gave the three correct words to the waiter (in any order), he would hand them the clue directing them to the Pit Stop.
Airdate: January 24, 2018
For their Speed Bump, Cedric & Shawn had to stack set of fifteen Optimist dinghies in numerical order. When they correctly stacked the dinghies, they could continue racing.
In this leg 's Roadblock, one member had to attach a sail to an Optimist dinghy, then sail across the bay without being given any prior lessons. Team members had to sail their boat to a set of two buoys, each containing one half of their next clue. If they could grab the two clue halves, they could return to the shore to reunite with their partner and open their next clue.
This leg 's Detour was a choice between Bread or Tread. In Bread, teams made their way to La Tarte Tropézienne where they would meet a baker who would show them how to make a baguette. Then, teams had to form 50 baguettes from 30 pounds (14 kg) of dough. When they shaped all 50 baguettes to the satisfaction of the baker, they would receive their next clue. In Tread, teams made their way to Sandales Tropéziennes, where each of them had to make a Tropezienne sandal. When teams successfully made their sandals, they would receive their next clue.
Airdate: January 24, 2018
During the Pit Stop, all teams were moved to the nearby Port de Saint - Tropez to begin this leg of the race. In this leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to correctly build a trebuchet from supplied parts following an example. For the duration of the task, their partner would be held in a stockade. If the soldier was satisfied with their trebuchet, they would receive their next clue.
This leg 's Detour was a choice between Full of Bull or Colorful. In Full of Bull, teams had to check satchels on 100 artificial bulls scattered around the stands of the Arles Amphitheatre to find a total of three ribbons, one in each of the colors of the French flag: one blue, one white, and one red. Once they found all three, they could exchange them with the bullfighter in the ring for their next clue. In Colorful, teams traveled to the recreated Pont Van Gogh. There, they found a replica of one of Vincent van Gogh 's paintings of the original Langlois Bridge at Arles, which was actually an elaborate sliding puzzle, requiring them to slide elements of the painting in a specific sequence in order to unlock the easel and retrieve their clue inside.
Airdate: January 31, 2018
During the Pit Stop, all teams were moved to the ancient fortification behind Notre Dame de la Major back in Arles to begin this leg of the race. This leg 's Detour was a choice between This and That; unlike a normal Detour, teams were only provided the names and locations of the Detour tasks, and would only learn about the task once they arrived at the task location. In This, teams traveled to the Staropramen Brewery, where they had to properly re-stack a pallet of empty beer kegs, searching for the one keg that was full. They then had to tap the keg and properly pour a mug to the satisfaction of the brewmaster. Once approved, they finally had to navigate the streets of Prague transporting the keg on a hand truck to Vltava and find Fidelio, leaving them to figure out that Vltava is the name of the river flowing through Prague and "Fidelio '' was the name of a boat docked along Náplavka Riverbank. After successfully delivering the keg, they would receive their next clue from the captain. In That, teams traveled to the astronomy hall at Charles University, where they had to listen to two lecturers in English, one debating that the Earth is round, and the other that it is flat. Without taking any notes, they had to pass an oral exam by answering these questions: (1) What is the distance in miles that Copernicus calculated between the earth and the sun? (3,391,000 miles); (2) What is the name of the second lecturer? (Professor Bergler); (3) Which planet did Copernicus say was the second farthest from the sun? (Jupiter); (4) What is the law which causes objects to disappear as they move away from us? (Law of perspective); (5) Question not shown (blue); (6) Up to how many miles away can a lighthouse be seen? (40 miles); (7) What year did Copernicus publish his astronomical model? (1543); (8) Is the earth round or flat? (round). Once they answer every question correctly, the professor would hand them their next clue.
The leg 's Roadblock was a switchback to Season 15, where one team member had to enter a room filled with hundreds of ringing telephones and search for the eight that had a person on the other end of the line. A voice from each phone would give the team member one word of a Franz Kafka quote, "The meaning of life is that it stops ''. Without taking notes, team members had to memorize the eight words, then write them in the correct order on a provided form. If they were correct, the inspector would hand them their next clue.
Airdate: February 7, 2018
This leg 's Detour was a choice between Rhino Track and Bush Whack. In Rhino Track, teams had to ride horses with a guide along a marked path through the reserve, along the way spotting and collecting eight pieces of evidence left behind by poachers in designated locations. Once all eight were collected, they returned to the starting point to receive a map of the reserve with photographs of the locations. They had to correctly place all eight items on the map matching their respective locations to receive their next clue. In Bush Whack, teams had to drive an off - road vehicle along a marked course to pick up supplies, including a full canteen of water, at a designated point. The course then continued through two mud bogs, which they had to wade through to determine the best point at which to cross, then attempt to drive the vehicle through the bogs without getting stuck. Once through, they arrived at a ranger station, where they had to dig up an empty canteen and bury the full one they picked up earlier in its place. Once returning to the starting point, they received their next clue. Only three stations were available for either Detour option.
Airdate: February 7, 2018
This leg 's Detour was a choice between Handle with Care and Just Get it There. In Handle with Care, teams traveled to Eastgate Mall, where they made their way to the mail room. Once there, they received a total of seven large packages to carry and deliver to various businesses around the mall. After delivering each, they were given outgoing mail to return to the mail room. Once all the deliveries were complete, they would receive their next clue. In Just Get it There, teams had to locate Magaba Tyres to pick up one small tire and one large truck tire. Then, teams had to roll them through the market onto the back of a waiting marked truck parked near Cameron Hardware to receive their next clue.
Airdate: February 14, 2018
During the Pit Stop, all teams were moved to the nearby Africa Unity Square to begin this leg of the race.
Airdate: February 14, 2018
During the Pit Stop, all teams were moved to the Falcon Statue around the Arad Walkway in Muharraq, to begin the leg of the race. This leg 's Detour was a choice between Size It or Seize It. In Size It, teams had to travel to Patara Elephant Farm, where they would calculate the height and weight measurements of an elephant while in the presence of her calf. If the veterinarian deemed their measurements to be correct, they would ride their elephant along a trail and feed it to get their next clue. In Seize It, teams had to catch 20 bullfrogs in a flooded rice paddy to receive their next clue.
In this leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to consume three cooked scorpions and a bullfrog. For the duration of the task, the non-participating team member would have to stand with live scorpions crawling on them. Once the team member finished eating, they received their next clue.
Airdate: February 21, 2018
Airdate: February 21, 2018
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who invented the sport of boxing according to mythology | Ancient Greek boxing - wikipedia
Ancient Greek boxing (Greek: πυγμαχία pygmachia, "fist fighting '') dates back to at least the 8th century BCE (Homer 's Iliad), and was practiced in a variety of social contexts in different Greek city - states. Most extant sources about ancient Greek boxing are fragmentary or legendary, making it difficult to reconstruct the rules, customs and history surrounding this activity in great detail. Still, it is clear that gloved boxing bouts were a significant part of ancient Greek athletic culture throughout the early classical period.
There is archeological and artistic evidence of ancient Greek boxing (πύξ - pyx or πυγμή - pygme in Αncient Greek) as early as the Minoan and Mycenaean periods. There are numerous legends about the origins of boxing in Greece. One legend holds that the heroic ruler Theseus invented a form of boxing in which two men sat face to face and beat each other with their fists until one of them was killed. In time, the boxers began to fight while standing and wearing gloves (with spikes) and wrappings on their arms below the elbows, but otherwise they fought naked.
According to the Iliad, Mycenaean warriors included boxing among their competitions honoring the fallen, though it is possible that the Homeric epics reflect later Greek culture. Boxing was among the contests held in memorial of Achilles ' slain friend Patroclus, toward the end of the Trojan war. It was in commemoration of Patroclus that the Greeks later introduced boxing (pygme / pygmachia) to the Olympic Games in BCE 688. Participants trained on punching bags (called a korykos). Fighters wore leather straps (called himantes) over their hands (leaving the fingers free), wrists, and sometimes breast, to protect themselves from injury. There was no protection for the face or head.
The scholar and historian Philostratus maintained that boxing was originally developed in Sparta. The early Spartans believed helmets were unnecessary and boxing prepared them for the inevitable blows to the head they would receive in battle. However, Spartans never participated in the competitive aspect of boxing, believing the means of defeat to be dishonorable.
The style of protection utilized on the hands and knuckles could determine the style of fighting for the competitors. From the time of the Iliad until around 500 BCE, himantes were used as protection for the knuckles and hand. They were thongs of ox hide approximately 3.0 -- 3.7 m (9.8 -- 12.1 ft) long that were wrapped around the hands and knuckles numerous times. The thongs usually had loops in which an athlete could insert four of his fingers and clench them together in a fist. Generally, this was the only form of protection worn by participants from the era of Homer until the end of the fifth century. This is in contrast to modern boxing, which utilizes thick, padded gloves. Classical sources describe these as "soft gloves '', though modern study has indicated that these thongs were far from soft and were protection for the knuckles, not to soften the blow to the opponent. They can be found on many vases excavated from the fifth and sixth century BCE.
In around BCE 400 sphairai were introduced. The sphairai were very similar to himantes. The only notable difference was that they contained a padded interior when wrapped around the hands and the exterior of the thong was notably more rigid and hard. In addition, "sharp thongs '' were introduced during this time period to facilitate greater damage and remained popular up until around AD 200.
Soon before the implementation of the sphairai, the oxys were introduced to boxing. They consisted of several thick leather bands encircling the hand, wrist, and forearm. A band of fleece was placed on the forearm to wipe away sweat. Leather braces extended up the forearm to give greater support when punching and the knuckles were reinforced with leather as well.
Korykos were the equivalent to modern punching bags. They were used for practice in the Palaestra and were filled with sand, flour, or millet. They were commonly depicted in art depicting boxing of the time.
The currently accepted rules of ancient Greek boxing are based on historical references and images. Because of the few intact sources and references to the sport, the rules can only be inferred.
Unlike modern boxing, the Greeks did not enclose the competitors in a ring to encourage fighting in close quarters. Therefore, most boxers fought defensively as opposed to offensively to encourage patience and caution. In addition, boxing in Ancient Greece was not divided into individual rounds. Competitors fought until finish, usually by surrender or mutual exhaustion. Felled boxers could be attacked without consequence, just as if they were standing.
While the practice of dividing boxers into weight classes is popular in the modern world, it was an unheard of practice for the Greeks. Typically, any man who wished to participate in the event was welcome to regardless of strength or muscle mass, and participants competed with each other through random drawings.
The precise rules of boxing in antiquity can not be known for certain, and are thus inferred from historical references and images. It is believed that any type of blow with the hand was permitted, though using the hands to gouge at the eyeballs was not. Holding or wrestling one 's opponent was also prohibited. If the fight lasted too long due to the tenacity of the competitors, the athletes could choose to exchange blows undefended to speed up the process. Judges probably enforced the rules by beating the offenders with a switch or a whip.
Media related to Ancient Greek boxing at Wikimedia Commons
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when did we add under god to the pledge | Pledge of Allegiance (United States) - wikipedia
The Pledge of Allegiance of the United States is an expression of allegiance to the Flag of the United States and the republic of the United States of America, originally composed by Rear Admiral George Balch in 1887, later revised by Francis Bellamy in 1892 and formally adopted by Congress as the pledge in 1942. The official name of The Pledge of Allegiance was adopted in 1945. The last change in language came on Flag Day 1954 when the words "under God '' were added.
Congressional sessions open with the recital of the Pledge, as do many government meetings at local levels, and meetings held by many private organizations. All states except Hawaii, Iowa, Vermont and Wyoming require a regularly - scheduled recitation of the pledge in the public schools, although the Supreme Court has ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette that students can not be compelled to recite the Pledge, nor can they be punished for not doing so. A number of states state flag pledges of allegiance to be recited after this.
The United States Flag Code says:
The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag -- "I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all. '' -- should be rendered by standing at attention facing the flag with the right hand over the heart. When not in uniform men should remove any non-religious headdress with their right hand and hold it at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart. Persons in uniform should remain silent, face the flag, and render the military salute. Members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and veterans may render the military salute in the manner provided for persons in uniform.
The Pledge of Allegiance, as it exists in its current form, was composed in August 1892 by Francis Bellamy (1855 -- 1931), who was a Baptist minister, a Christian socialist, and the cousin of socialist utopian novelist Edward Bellamy (1850 -- 1898). There did exist a previous version created by Rear Admiral George Balch, a veteran of the Civil War, who later become auditor of the New York Board of Education. Balch 's pledge, which existed contemporaneously with the Bellamy version until the 1923 National Flag Conference, read:
We give our heads and hearts to God and our country; one country, one language, one flag!
Balch was a proponent of teaching children, especially those of immigrants, loyalty to the United States, even going so far as to write a book on the subject and work with both the government and private organizations to distribute flags to every classroom and school. Balch 's pledge, which predates Bellamy 's by 5 years and was embraced by many schools, by the Daughters of the American Revolution until the 1910s, and by the Grand Army of the Republic until the 1923 National Flag Conference, is often overlooked when discussing the history of the Pledge. Bellamy, however, did not approve of the pledge as Balch had written it, referring to the text as "too juvenile and lacking in dignity. '' The Bellamy "Pledge of Allegiance '' was first published in the September 8 issue of the popular children 's magazine The Youth 's Companion as part of the National Public - School Celebration of Columbus Day, a celebration of the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the Americas. The event was conceived and promoted by James B. Upham, a marketer for the magazine, as a campaign to instill the idea of American nationalism in students and to sell flags to public schools. According to author Margarette S. Miller, this campaign was in line both with Upham 's patriotic vision as well as with his commercial interest. According to Miller, Upham "would often say to his wife: ' Mary, if I can instill into the minds of our American youth a love for their country and the principles on which it was founded, and create in them an ambition to carry on with the ideals which the early founders wrote into The Constitution, I shall not have lived in vain. ' ''
Bellamy 's original Pledge read:
I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
The Pledge was supposed to be quick and to the point. Bellamy designed it to be recited in 15 seconds. As a socialist, he had initially also considered using the words equality and fraternity but decided against it, knowing that the state superintendents of education on his committee were against equality for women and African Americans.
Francis Bellamy and Upham had lined up the National Education Association to support the Youth 's Companion as a sponsor of the Columbus Day observance and the use in that observance of the American flag. By June 29, 1892, Bellamy and Upham had arranged for Congress and President Benjamin Harrison to announce a proclamation making the public school flag ceremony the center of the Columbus Day celebrations. This arrangement was formalized when Harrison issued Presidential Proclamation 335. Subsequently, the Pledge was first used in public schools on October 12, 1892, during Columbus Day observances organized to coincide with the opening of the World 's Columbian Exposition (the Chicago World 's Fair), Illinois.
In his recollection of the creation of the Pledge Francis Bellamy said, "At the beginning of the nineties patriotism and national feeling was (sic) at a low ebb. The patriotic ardor of the Civil War was an old story... The time was ripe for a reawakening of simple Americanism and the leaders in the new movement rightly felt that patriotic education should begin in the public schools. '' James Upham "felt that a flag should be on every schoolhouse, '' so his publication "fostered a plan of selling flags to schools through the children themselves at cost, which was so successful that 25,000 schools acquired flags in the first year (1892 - 93).
As the World 's Columbian Exposition was set to celebrate the 400th anniversary the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas, Upham sought to link the publication 's flag drive to the event, "so that every school in the land... would have a flag raising, under the most impressive conditions. '' Bellamy was placed in charge of this operation and was soon lobbying "not only the superintendents of education in all the States, but (he) also worked with governors, Congressmen, and even the President of the United States. '' The publication 's efforts paid off when Benjamin Harrison declared Wednesday October 12, 1892, to be Columbus Day for which The Youth 's Companion made "an official program for universal use in all the schools. '' Bellamy recalled that the event "had to be more than a list of exercises. The ritual must be prepared with simplicity and dignity. ''
Edna Dean Proctor wrote an ode for the event, and "There was also an oration suitable for declamation. '' Bellamy held that "Of course, the nub of the program was to be the raising of the flag, with a salute to the flag recited by the pupils in unison. '' He found "There was not a satisfactory enough form for this salute. The Balch salute, which ran, "I give my heart and my hand to my country, one country, one language, one flag, '' seemed to him too juvenile and lacking in dignity. '' After working on the idea with Upham, Bellamy concluded, "It was my thought that a vow of loyalty or allegiance to the flag should be the dominant idea. I especially stressed the word ' allegiance '... Beginning with the new word allegiance, I first decided that ' pledge ' was a better school word than ' vow ' or ' swear '; and that the first person singular should be used, and that ' my ' flag was preferable to ' the. ' '' Bellamy considered the words "country, nation, or Republic, '' choosing the last as "it distinguished the form of government chosen by the founding fathers and established by the Revolution. The true reason for allegiance to the flag is the Republic for which it stands. '' Bellamy then reflected on the sayings of Revolutionary and Civil War figures, and concluded "all that pictured struggle reduced itself to three words, one Nation indivisible. ''
Bellamy considered the slogan of the French Revolution, Liberté, égalité, fraternité ("liberty, equality, fraternity ''), but held that "fraternity was too remote of realization, and... (that) equality was a dubious word. '' Concluding "Liberty and justice were surely basic, were undebatable, and were all that any one Nation could handle. If they were exercised for all. they involved the spirit of equality and fraternity. ''
After being reviewed by Upham and other members of The Youth 's Companion, the Pledge was approved and put in the official Columbus Day program. Bellamy noted that, "In later years the words ' to my flag ' were changed to ' to the flag of the United States of America ' because of the large number of foreign children in the schools. '' Bellamy disliked the change, as "it did injure the rhythmic balance of the original composition. ''
In 1906, The Daughters of the American Revolution 's magazine, The American Monthly, listed the "formula of allegiance '' as being the Balch Pledge of Allegiance, which reads:
I pledge allegiance to my flag, and the republic for which it stands. I pledge my head and my heart to God and my country. One country, one language and one flag.
In subsequent publications of the Daughters of the American Revolution, such as in 1915 's "Proceedings of the Twenty - Fourth Continental Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution '' and 1916 's annual "National Report, '' the Balch Pledge, listed as official in 1906, is now categorized as "Old Pledge '' with Bellamy 's version under the heading "New Pledge. '' However, the "Old Pledge '' continued to be used by other organizations until the National Flag Conference established uniform flag procedures in 1923.
In 1923, the National Flag Conference called for the words "my Flag '' to be changed to "the Flag of the United States, '' so that new immigrants would not confuse loyalties between their birth countries and the US. The words "of America '' were added a year later. Congress officially recognized the Pledge for the first time, in the following form, on June 22, 1942:
I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
Louis Albert Bowman, an attorney from Illinois, was the first to suggest the addition of "under God '' to the pledge. The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution gave him an Award of Merit as the originator of this idea. He spent his adult life in the Chicago area and was chaplain of the Illinois Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. At a meeting on February 12, 1948, he led the society in reciting the pledge with the two words "under God '' added. He said that the words came from Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address. Although not all manuscript versions of the Gettysburg Address contain the words "under God '', all the reporters ' transcripts of the speech as delivered do, as perhaps Lincoln may have deviated from his prepared text and inserted the phrase when he said "that the nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom. '' Bowman repeated his revised version of the Pledge at other meetings.
In 1951, the Knights of Columbus, the world 's largest Catholic fraternal service organization, also began including the words "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance. In New York City, on April 30, 1951, the board of directors of the Knights of Columbus adopted a resolution to amend the text of their Pledge of Allegiance at the opening of each of the meetings of the 800 Fourth Degree Assemblies of the Knights of Columbus by addition of the words "under God '' after the words "one nation. '' Over the next two years, the idea spread throughout Knights of Columbus organizations nationwide. On August 21, 1952, the Supreme Council of the Knights of Columbus at its annual meeting adopted a resolution urging that the change be made universal, and copies of this resolution were sent to the President, the Vice President (as Presiding Officer of the Senate), and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The National Fraternal Congress meeting in Boston on September 24, 1952, adopted a similar resolution upon the recommendation of its president, Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart. Several State Fraternal Congresses acted likewise almost immediately thereafter. This campaign led to several official attempts to prompt Congress to adopt the Knights of Columbus policy for the entire nation. These attempts were eventually a success.
In 1952, Holger Christian Langmack suggested in a letter to President Truman adding "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance. Langmack was a Danish philosopher and educator who came to the US in 1911. He was one of the originators of the National Prayer Breakfast and a religious leader in Washington, D.C. Truman met with Langmack and with several others to discuss the addition. At the suggestion of a correspondent, Representative Louis C. Rabaut (D - Mich.), of Michigan sponsored a resolution to add the words "under God '' to the Pledge in 1953.
Before February 1954, no endeavor to get the pledge officially amended had succeeded. The final successful push came from George MacPherson Docherty. Some American presidents honored Lincoln 's birthday by attending services at the church Lincoln attended, New York Avenue Presbyterian Church by sitting in Lincoln 's pew on the Sunday nearest February 12. On February 7, 1954, with President Eisenhower sitting in Lincoln 's pew, the church 's pastor, George MacPherson Docherty, delivered a sermon based on the Gettysburg Address entitled "A New Birth of Freedom. '' He argued that the nation 's might lay not in arms but rather in its spirit and higher purpose. He noted that the Pledge 's sentiments could be those of any nation: "There was something missing in the pledge, and that which was missing was the characteristic and definitive factor in the American way of life. '' He cited Lincoln 's words "under God '' as defining words that set the US apart from other nations.
President Eisenhower had been baptized a Presbyterian very recently, just a year before. He responded enthusiastically to Docherty in a conversation following the service. Eisenhower acted on his suggestion the next day and on February 8, 1954, Rep. Charles Oakman (R - Mich.), introduced a bill to that effect. Congress passed the necessary legislation and Eisenhower signed the bill into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954. Eisenhower said:
From this day forward, the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city and town, every village and rural school house, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty... In this way we are reaffirming the transcendence of religious faith in America 's heritage and future; in this way we shall constantly strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country 's most powerful resource, in peace or in war.
The phrase "under God '' was incorporated into the Pledge of Allegiance on June 14, 1954, by a Joint Resolution of Congress amending § 4 of the Flag Code enacted in 1942.
On October 6, 1954, the National Executive Committee of the American Legion adopted a resolution, first approved by the Illinois American Legion Convention in August 1954, which formally recognized the Knights of Columbus for having initiated and brought forward the amendment to the Pledge of Allegiance.
Even though the movement behind inserting "under God '' into the pledge might have been initiated by a private religious fraternity and even though references to God appear in previous versions of the pledge, author Kevin Kruse asserts that this movement was an effort by corporate America to instill in the minds of the people that capitalism and free enterprise were heavenly blessed. Kruse acknowledges the insertion of the phrase was influenced by the push - back against atheistic communism during the Cold War, but argues the longer arc of history shows the conflation of Christianity and capitalism as a challenge to the New Deal played the larger role.
Swearing of the Pledge is accompanied by a salute. An early version of the salute, adopted in 1887, known as the Balch Salute, which accompanied the Balch pledge, instructed students to stand with their right hand outstretched toward the flag, the fingers of which are then brought to the forehead, followed by being placed flat over the heart, and finally falling to the side.
In 1892, Francis Bellamy created what was known as the Bellamy salute. It started with the hand outstretched toward the flag, palm down, and ended with the palm up. Because of the similarity between the Bellamy salute and the Nazi salute, which was adopted in Germany later, the US Congress stipulated that the hand - over-the - heart gesture as the salute to be rendered by civilians during the Pledge of Allegiance and the national anthem in the US would be the salute to replace the Bellamy salute. Removal of the Bellamy salute occurred on December 22, 1942, when Congress amended the Flag Code language first passed into law on June 22, 1942. Attached to bills passed in Congress in 2008 and then in 2009 (Section 301 (b) (1) of title 36, United States Code), language was included which authorized all active duty military personnel and all veterans in civilian clothes to render a proper hand salute during the raising and lowering of the flag, when the colors are presented, and during the National Anthem.
A musical setting for "The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag '' was created by Irving Caesar, at the suggestion of Congressman Louis C. Rabaut whose House Resolution 243 to add the phrase "under God '' was signed into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.
The composer, Irving Caesar, wrote and published over 700 songs in his lifetime. Dedicated to social issues, he donated all rights of the musical setting to the U.S. government, so that anyone can perform the piece without owing royalties.
It was sung for the first time on the floor of the House of Representatives on Flag Day, June 14, 1955 by the official Air Force choral group the "Singing Sergeants ''. A July 29, 1955 House and Senate resolution authorized the U.S. Government Printing Office to print and distribute the song sheet together with a history of the pledge.
Other musical versions of the Pledge have since been copyrighted, including by Beck (2003), Lovrekovich (2002 and 2001), Roton (1991), Fijol (1986), and Girardet (1983).
In 1940, the Supreme Court, in Minersville School District v. Gobitis, ruled that students in public schools, including the respondents in that case -- Jehovah 's Witnesses who considered the flag salute to be idolatry -- could be compelled to swear the Pledge. In 1943, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, the Supreme Court reversed its decision. Justice Robert H. Jackson, writing for the 6 to 3 majority, went beyond simply ruling in the precise matter presented by the case to say that public school students are not required to say the Pledge on narrow grounds, and asserted that such ideological dogmata are antithetical to the principles of the country, concluding with:
If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circumstances which permit an exception, they do not now occur to us.
In a later case, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals held that students are also not required to stand for the Pledge.
Requiring or promoting of the Pledge on the part of the government has continued to draw criticism and legal challenges on several grounds.
One objection is that a democratic republic built on freedom of dissent should not require its citizens to pledge allegiance to it, and that the First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects the right to refrain from speaking or standing, which itself is also a form of speech in the context of the ritual of pledging allegiance. Another objection is that the people who are most likely to recite the Pledge every day, small children in schools, can not really give their consent or even completely understand the Pledge they are making. Another criticism is that a government requiring or promoting this phrase violates protections against the establishment of religion guaranteed in the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
In 2004, linguist Geoffrey Nunberg said the original supporters of the addition thought that they were simply quoting Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address, but to Lincoln and his contemporaries, "under God '' meant "God willing '', so they would have found its use in the Pledge of Allegiance grammatically incorrect and semantically odd.
Prominent legal challenges were brought in the 1930s and 1940s by Jehovah 's Witnesses, a denomination whose beliefs preclude swearing loyalty to any power other than God, and who objected to policies in public schools requiring students to swear an oath to the flag. They said requiring the pledge violated their freedom of religion guaranteed by the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. The first case was in 1935, when two children, Lillian and William Gobitas, ages ten and twelve, were expelled from the Minersville, Pennsylvania, public schools that year for failing to salute the flag and recite the Pledge of Allegiance.
In a 2002 case brought by atheist Michael Newdow, whose daughter was being taught the Pledge in school, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the phrase "under God '' an unconstitutional endorsement of monotheism when the Pledge was promoted in public school. In 2004, the Supreme Court heard Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, an appeal of the ruling, and rejected Newdow 's claim on the grounds that he was not the custodial parent, and therefore lacked standing, thus avoiding ruling on the merits of whether the phrase was constitutional in a school - sponsored recitation. On January 3, 2005, a new suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California on behalf of three unnamed families. On September 14, 2005, District Court Judge Lawrence Karlton ruled in their favor. Citing the precedent of the 2002 ruling by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Judge Karlton issued an Order stating that, upon proper motion, he would enjoin the school district defendants from continuing their practices of leading children in pledging allegiance to "one Nation under God. ''
A 2005 Bill, H.R. 2389, to prohibit the Supreme Court 's and most federal courts from considering any legal challenges to the government 's requiring or promoting of the Pledge of Allegiance, died in the Senate after having passed in the House. This action is viewed in general as court stripping by Congress of the constitutional power of the Judiciary. Even if a similar bill is enacted, its practical effect may not be clear: proponents of the bill have said that it is a valid exercise of Congress 's power to regulate the jurisdiction of the federal courts under Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution, but opponents say Congress does not have the authority to prevent the Supreme Court from hearing claims based on the Bill of Rights, since amendments postdate the original text of the Constitution and may thus implicitly limit the scope of Article III, Section 2. Judges and legal analysts have said that if Congress can remove from the judicial branch the ability to determine if legislation is constitutional, the US separation of powers would be disturbed, or rendered non-functional.
Mark J. Pelavin, former Associate Director of the Religious Action Center of Reform Judaism, said of court stripping in regard to the Pledge of Allegiance that:
Today 's House adoption of the so - called "Pledge Protection Act '' is a shameful effort to strip our federal courts of their ability to uphold the rights of all Americans. By removing the jurisdiction of federal courts, including the Supreme Court, from cases involving the Pledge, this legislation sets a dangerous precedent: threatening religious liberty, compromising the vital system of checks and balances upon which our government was founded, and granting Congress the authority to strip the courts ' jurisdiction on any issue it wishes. Today, the issue was the Pledge of Allegiance, but tomorrow it could be reproductive rights, civil rights, or any other fundamental concern.
In 2006, in the Florida case Frazier v. Alexandre, a federal district court in Florida ruled that a 1942 state law requiring students to stand and recite the Pledge of Allegiance violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution. As a result of that decision, a Florida school district was ordered to pay $32,500 to a student who chose not to say the pledge and was ridiculed and called "unpatriotic '' by a teacher.
In 2009, a Montgomery County, Maryland, teacher berated and had school police remove a 13 - year - old girl who refused to say the Pledge of Allegiance in the classroom. The student 's mother, assisted by the American Civil Liberties Union of Maryland, sought and received an apology from the teacher, as state law and the school 's student handbook both prohibit students from being forced to recite the Pledge.
On March 11, 2010, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the words "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance in the case of Newdow v. Rio Linda Union School District. In a 2 -- 1 decision, the appellate court ruled that the words were of a "ceremonial and patriotic nature '' and did not constitute an establishment of religion. Judge Stephen Reinhardt dissented, writing that "the state - directed, teacher - led daily recitation in public schools of the amended ' under God ' version of the Pledge of Allegiance... violates the Establishment Clause of the Constitution. ''
On November 12, 2010, in a unanimous decision, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit in Boston affirmed a ruling by a New Hampshire lower federal court which found that the pledge 's reference to God does not violate non-pledging students ' rights if student participation in the pledge is voluntary. A United States Supreme Court appeal of this decision was denied on June 13, 2011.
In September 2013, a case was brought before the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, arguing that the pledge violates the Equal Rights Amendment of the Constitution of Massachusetts. In May 2014, Massachusetts ' highest court ruled that the pledge does not discriminate against atheists, saying that the words "under God '' represent a patriotic, not a religious, exercise.
In February 2015 New Jersey Superior Court Judge David F. Bauman dismissed a lawsuit, ruling that "... the Pledge of Allegiance does not violate the rights of those who do n't believe in God and does not have to be removed from the patriotic message. '' The case against the Matawan - Aberdeen Regional School District had been brought by a student of the district and the American Humanist Association that argued that the phrase "under God '' in the pledge created a climate of discrimination because it promoted religion, making non-believers "second - class citizens. '' In a twenty - one page decision, Bauman wrote, "Under (the association members ') reasoning, the very constitution under which (the members) seek redress for perceived atheistic marginalization could itself be deemed unconstitutional, an absurd proposition which (association members) do not and can not advance here. '' Bauman said the student could skip the pledge, but upheld a New Jersey law that says pupils must recite the pledge unless they have "conscientious scruples '' that do not allow it. He noted, "As a matter of historical tradition, the words ' under God ' can no more be expunged from the national consciousness than the words ' In God We Trust ' from every coin in the land, than the words ' so help me God ' from every presidential oath since 1789, or than the prayer that has opened every congressional session of legislative business since 1787. ''
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compared to the united kingdom the amount of sprawl in the us is | Urban sprawl - wikipedia
Urban sprawl or suburban sprawl describes the expansion of human populations away from central urban areas into low - density, monofunctional and usually car - dependent communities, in a process called suburbanization. In addition to describing a particular form of urbanization, the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development. In Continental Europe the term "peri-urbanisation '' is often used to denote similar dynamics and phenomena, although the term urban sprawl is currently being used by the European Environment Agency. There is widespread disagreement about what constitutes sprawl and how to quantify it. For example, some comentators measure sprawl only with the average number of residential units per acre in a given area. But others associate it with decentralization (spread of population without a well - defined centre), discontinuity (leapfrog development, as defined below), segregation of uses, and so forth.
The term urban sprawl is highly politicized, and almost always has negative connotations. It is criticized for causing environmental degradation, and intensifying segregation and undermining the vitality of existing urban areas and attacked on aesthetic grounds. Due to the pejorative meaning of the term, few openly support urban sprawl as such. The term has become a rallying cry for managing urban growth.
Definitions of sprawl vary; researchers in the field acknowledge that the term lacks precision. Batty et al. defined sprawl as "uncoordinated growth: the expansion of community without concern for its consequences, in short, unplanned, incremental urban growth which is often regarded unsustainable. '' Bhatta et al. wrote in 2010 that despite a dispute over the precise definition of sprawl there is a "general consensus that urban sprawl is characterized by (an) unplanned and uneven pattern of growth, driven by multitude of processes and leading to inefficient resource utilization. ''
Reid Ewing has shown that sprawl has typically been characterized as urban developments exhibiting at least one of the following characteristics: low - density or single - use development, strip development, scattered development, and / or leapfrog development (areas of development interspersed with vacant land). He argued that a better way to identify sprawl was to use indicators rather than characteristics because this was a more flexible and less arbitrary method. He proposed using "accessibility '' and "functional open space '' as indicators. Ewing 's approach has been criticized for assuming that sprawl is defined by negative characteristics.
What constitutes sprawl may be considered a matter of degree and will always be somewhat subjective under many definitions of the term. Ewing has also argued that suburban development does not, per se constitute sprawl depending on the form it takes, although Gordon & Richardson have argued that the term is sometimes used synonymously with suburbanization in a pejorative way. The following characteristics are often associated with sprawl:
This refers to a situation where commercial, residential, institutional and industrial areas are separated from one another. Consequently, large tracts of land are devoted to a single use and are segregated from one another by open space, infrastructure, or other barriers. As a result, the places where people live, work, shop, and recreate are far from one another, usually to the extent that walking, transit use and bicycling are impractical, so all these activities generally require an automobile. The degree to which different land uses are mixed together is often used as an indicator of sprawl in studies of the subject.
Job sprawl is another land use symptom of urban sprawl and car - dependent communities. It is defined as low - density, geographically spread - out patterns of employment, where the majority of jobs in a given metropolitan area are located outside of the main city 's central business district (CBD), and increasingly in the suburban periphery. It is often the result of urban disinvestment, the geographic freedom of employment location allowed by predominantly car - dependent commuting patterns of many American suburbs, and many companies ' desire to locate in low - density areas that are often more affordable and offer potential for expansion. Spatial mismatch is related to job sprawl and economic environmental justice. Spatial mismatch is defined as the situation where poor urban, predominantly minority citizens are left without easy access to entry - level jobs, as a result of increasing job sprawl and limited transportation options to facilitate a reverse commute to the suburbs.
Job sprawl has been documented and measured in various ways. It has been shown to be a growing trend in America 's metropolitan areas. The Brookings Institution has published multiple articles on the topic. In 2005, author Michael Stoll defined job sprawl simply as jobs located more than 5 - mile (8.0 km) radius from the CBD, and measured the concept based on year 2000 U.S. Census data. Other ways of measuring the concept with more detailed rings around the CBD include a 2001 article by Edward Glaeser and Elizabeth Kneebone 's 2009 article, which show that sprawling urban peripheries are gaining employment while areas closer to the CBD are losing jobs. These two authors used three geographic rings limited to a 35 - mile (56 km) radius around the CBD: 3 miles (4.8 km) or less, 3 to 10 miles (16 km), and 10 to 35 miles (56 km). Kneebone 's study showed the following nationwide breakdown for the largest metropolitan areas in 2006: 21.3 % of jobs located in the inner ring, 33.6 % of jobs in the 3 - 10 mile ring, and 45.1 % in the 10 - 35 mile ring. This compares to the year 1998 - 23.3 %, 34.2 %, and 42.5 % in those respective rings. The study shows CBD employment share shrinking, and job growth focused in the suburban and exurban outer metropolitan rings.
Sprawl is often characterized as consisting of low - density development. The exact definition of "low density '' is arguable, but a common example is that of single family homes on large lots. Buildings usually have fewer stories and are spaced farther apart, separated by lawns, landscaping, roads or parking lots. Specific measurements of what constitutes low - density is culturally relative; for example, in the United States 2 - 4 houses per acre might be considered low - density while in the UK 8 - 12 would still be considered low - density. Because more automobiles are used much more land is designated for parking. The impact of low density development in many communities is that developed or "urbanized '' land is increasing at a faster rate than the population is growing.
Overall density is often lowered by "leapfrog development ''. This term refers to the relationship, or lack thereof, between subdivisions. Such developments are typically separated by large green belts, i.e. tracts of undeveloped land, resulting in an average density far lower even than the low density indicated by localized per - acre measurements. This is a 20th and 21st century phenomenon generated by the current custom of requiring a developer to provide subdivision infrastructure as a condition of development. Usually, the developer is required to set aside a certain percentage of the developed land for public use, including roads, parks and schools. In the past, when a local government built all the streets in a given location, the town could expand without interruption and with a coherent circulation system, because it had condemnation power. Private developers generally do not have such power (although they can sometimes find local governments willing to help), and often choose to develop on the tracts that happen to be for sale at the time they want to build, rather than pay extra or wait for a more appropriate location.
Land for sprawl is often taken from fertile agricultural lands, which are often located immediately surrounding cities; the extent of modern sprawl has consumed a large amount of the most productive agricultural land, as well as forest, desert and other wilderness areas. In the United States the seller may avoid tax on profit by using a tax break exempting like - kind exchanges from capital gains tax; proceeds from the sale are used to purchase agricultural land elsewhere and the transaction is treated as a "swap '' or trade of like assets and no tax is due. Thus urban sprawl is subsidized by the tax code.
Housing subdivisions are large tracts of land consisting entirely of newly built residences. New Urbanist architectural firm Duany Plater - Zyberk & Company claim that housing subdivisions "are sometimes called villages, towns, and neighbourhoods by their developers, which is misleading since those terms denote places that are not exclusively residential. '' They are also referred to as developments.
Subdivisions often incorporate curved roads and cul - de-sacs. These subdivisions may offer only a few places to enter and exit the development, causing traffic to use high volume collector streets. All trips, no matter how short, must enter the collector road in a suburban system.
Because the advent of sprawl meant more land for lower costs, home owners had more land at their disposal, and the development of the residential lawn after the Second World War became commonplace in suburbs, notably, but not exclusively in North America. The creation in the early 20th century of country clubs and golf courses completed the rise of lawn culture in the United States. Lawns now take up a significant amount of land in suburban developments, contributing in no small part to sprawl.
In areas of sprawl commercial use is generally segregated from other uses. In the U.S. and Canada, these vary from strip malls, which refer to collections of buildings sharing a common parking lot, usually built on a high - capacity roadway with commercial functions (i.e., a "strip ''). Similar developments in the UK are called Retail Parks. Strip malls consisting mostly of big box stores or category killers are sometimes called "power centers '' (U.S.). These developments tend to be low - density; the buildings are single - story and there is ample space for parking and access for delivery vehicles. This character is reflected in the spacious landscaping of the parking lots and walkways and clear signage of the retail establishments. Some strip malls are undergoing a transformation into Lifestyle centers; entailing investments in common areas and facilities (plazas, cafes) and shifting tenancy from daily goods to recreational shopping.
Another prominent form of retail development in areas characterized by sprawl is the shopping mall. Unlike the strip mall, this is usually composed of a single building surrounded by a parking lot that contains multiple shops, usually "anchored '' by one or more department stores (Gruen and Smith 1960). The function and size is also distinct from the strip mall. The focus is almost exclusively on recreational shopping rather than daily goods. Shopping malls also tend to serve a wider (regional) public and require higher - order infrastructure such as highway access and can have floorspaces in excess of a million square feet (ca. 100,000 m2). Shopping malls are often detrimental to downtown shopping centres of nearby cities since the shopping malls act as a surrogate for the city centre (Crawford 1992). Some downtowns have responded to this challenge by building shopping centres of their own (Frieden and Sagelyn 1989).
Fast food chains are often built early in areas with low property values where the population is expected to boom and where large traffic is predicted, and set a precedent for future development. Eric Schlosser, in his book Fast Food Nation, argues that fast food chains accelerate suburban sprawl and help set its tone with their expansive parking lots, flashy signs, and plastic architecture (65). Duany Plater Zyberk & Company believe that this reinforces a destructive pattern of growth in an endless quest to move away from the sprawl that only results in creating more of it.
The density gradient of industrialising cities has tended to follow a specific pattern: the density of the centre of the city would rise during urbanization and the population would remain heavily concentrated in the city centre with a rapid decline in settlement towards the periphery. Then, with continued economic growth and the expanding networks of public transport, people (particularly the middle class) would then slowly migrate towards the suburbs, gradually softening the population density gradient. This point was generally reached when the city reached a certain stage of economic development. In London, this point was reached in the first half of the 19th century, in Paris toward the end of the century and in New York City at the turn of the 20th.
The term "urban sprawl '' was first used in an article in The Times in 1955 as a negative comment on the state of London 's outskirts. However, London had been sprawling out of its medieval confines within the City since the 18th century, when the city experienced its first great urban surge. Areas to the west of Westminster were increasingly built up for the wealthy, to live in the suburbs of the city.
A dramatic increase in the city 's urban sprawl began in the 19th century, when labourers flocked from the countryside to work in the new factories that were then springing up. Large developments of small terraced houses began to appear and the new public transportation systems - (the metro, buses and trams) - allowed workers to commute into the city daily. Suburban districts also sprung up around the city centre to accommodate those who wanted to escape the squalid conditions of the industrial town.
By the mid-19th century, the first major suburban areas were springing up around London as the city (then the largest in the world) became more overcrowded and unsanitary. A major catalyst in the growth in urban sprawl came from the opening of the Metropolitan Railway in the 1860s. The line joined the capital 's financial heart in the City to what were to become the suburbs of Middlesex. Harrow was reached in 1880, and the line eventually extended as far as Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles (80 kilometres) from Baker Street and the centre of London.
Unlike other railway companies, which were required to dispose of surplus land, the Met was allowed to retain such land that it believed was necessary for future railway use. Initially, the surplus land was managed by the Land Committee, and, from the 1880s, the land was developed and sold to domestic buyers in places like Willesden Park Estate, Cecil Park, near Pinner and at Wembley Park. In 1919, with the expectation of a postwar housing boom, Metropolitan Railway Country Estates Limited was formed and went on to develop estates at Kingsbury Garden Village near Neasden, Wembley Park, Cecil Park and Grange Estate at Pinner and the Cedars Estate at Rickmansworth and create places such as Harrow Garden Village.
By the early twentieth century then, amid increasing middle - class affluence, large low - density suburbs of semi-detached houses had sprung up all around the city, doubling the area of built - up London in the interwar period alone, despite the population increase being just 10 percent. H.G Wells even predicted in 1902 that within a hundred years most of southern England would have been subsumed into one gigantic conurbation centred in London.
Starting in the early 20th century, environmentalist opposition to urban sprawl began to coalesce, with roots in the garden city movement, as well as pressure from campaign groups such as the Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE).
Under Herbert Morrison 's 1934 leadership of the London County Council, the first formal proposal was made by the Greater London Regional Planning Committee "to provide a reserve supply of public open spaces and of recreational areas and to establish a green belt or girdle of open space ''. It was again included in an advisory Greater London Plan prepared by Patrick Abercrombie in 1944. The Town and Country Planning Act of 1947 expressly incorporated green belts into all further national urban developments.
New provisions for compensation in the 1947 Town and Country Planning Act allowed local authorities around the country to incorporate green belt proposals in their first development plans. The codification of Green Belt policy and its extension to areas other than London came with the historic Circular 42 / 55 inviting local planning authorities to consider the establishment of Green Belts. The first urban growth boundary in the U.S. was in Fayette County, Kentucky in 1958.
According to the National Resources Inventory (NRI), about 8,900 square kilometres (2.2 million acres) of land in the United States was developed between 1992 and 2002. Presently, the NRI classifies approximately 100,000 more square kilometres (40,000 square miles) (an area approximately the size of Kentucky) as developed than the Census Bureau classifies as urban. The difference in the NRI classification is that it includes rural development, which by definition can not be considered to be "urban '' sprawl. Currently, according to the 2000 Census, approximately 2.6 percent of the U.S. land area is urban. Approximately 0.8 percent of the nation 's land is in the 37 urbanized areas with more than 1,000,000 population. In 2002, these 37 urbanized areas supported around 40 % of the total American population.
Nonetheless, some urban areas like Detroit have expanded geographically even while losing population. But it was not just urbanized areas in the U.S. that lost population and sprawled substantially. According to data in "Cities and Automobile Dependence '' by Kenworthy and Laube (1999), urbanized area population losses occurred while there was an expansion of sprawl between 1970 and 1990 in Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Brussels, Belgium; Copenhagen, Denmark; Frankfurt, Hamburg and Munich, Germany; and Zurich, Switzerland, albeit without the dismantling of infrastructure that occurred in the United States.
Los Angeles was one of the world 's first low - density urbanized areas, resulting from its large geographic metropolitan area. However, since the 1950s, Los Angeles has become increasingly dense, principally due to small lot zoning and a high demand for housing due to population growth. Today, the area 's famed dependency on car use is being challenged by massive investments in urban rail and higher density housing construction on transit corridors. Decades of growth and development saw the Los Angeles metropolitan area transition from low - density urban sprawl to the densest urbanized area in the United States, a title it has held since the 1980s, denser than even the New York metropolitan area and the San Francisco -- Oakland -- Hayward metropolitan area. While this may be surprising to some, there is less density outside the urban cores of the latter two metropolitan areas, in contrast to the enormous Los Angeles Basin, which is almost entirely built out. Essentially, Los Angeles 's suburbs are much denser than those of other large U.S. cities, such as New York, San Francisco or Chicago. These high - density suburbs make - up for the relatively low density of Los Angeles ' core, which results in a higher average density of the area as a whole, compared to New York City and San Francisco.
Urban sprawl is not limited to developed countries, and may be more prevalent in developing countries. For example, there is considerable land consumed by urban sprawl in Mexico City, in the national capital region that surrounds Delhi, in the conurbation surrounding Metro Manila, in Beijing, the new desert developments of 6 October City, and New Cairo to the west and east of Cairo (respectively), in Antananarivo (the capital of Madagascar), in Karachi, in Islamabad Capital Territory, in Johannesburg, in Mumbai and in eastern parts of South Africa. The international cases of sprawl often draw into question the definition of the term and what conditions are necessary for urban growth to be considered sprawl. In Mexico, for example, new housing development at the urban periphery is single - use but not low - density.
Urban sprawl is associated with a number of negative environmental outcomes.
One of the major environmental problems associated with sprawl is land loss, habitat loss and subsequent reduction in biodiversity. A review by Czech and colleagues finds that urbanization endangers more species and is more geographically ubiquitous in the mainland United States than any other human activity. Urban sprawl is disruptive to native flora & fauna and introduces invasive plants into their environments. Although the effects can be mitigated through careful maintenance of native vegetation, the process of ecological succession and public education, sprawl represents one of the primary threats to biodiversity.
Regions with high birth rates and immigration are therefore faced with environmental problems due to unplanned urban growth and emerging megacities such as Kolkata.
Other problems include flooding, which results from increased impervious surfaces for roads and parking; increased temperatures from heat islands, which leads to a significantly increased risk of mortality in elderly populations;
At the same time, the urban cores of these and nearly all other major cities in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan that did not annex new territory experienced the related phenomena of falling household size and, particularly in the U.S., "white flight '', sustaining population losses. This trend has slowed somewhat in recent years, as more people have regained an interest in urban living.
Due to the larger area consumed by sprawling suburbs compared to urban neighborhoods, more farmland and wildlife habitats are displaced per resident. As forest cover is cleared and covered with impervious surfaces (concrete and asphalt) in the suburbs, rainfall is less effectively absorbed into the groundwater aquifers. This threatens both the quality and quantity of water supplies. Sprawl increases water pollution as rain water picks up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, and other pollutants in runoff from parking lots and roads.
Gordon & Richardson have argued that the conversion of agricultural land to urban use is not a problem due to the increasing efficiency of agricultural production; they argue that aggregate agricultural production is still more than sufficient to meet global food needs despite the expansion of urban land use.
Sprawl leads to increased driving, and increased driving leads to vehicle emissions that contribute to air pollution and its attendant negative impacts on human health. In addition, the reduced physical activity implied by increased automobile use has negative health consequences. Sprawl significantly predicts chronic medical conditions and health - related quality of life, but not mental health disorders. The American Journal of Public Health and the American Journal of Health Promotion, have both stated that there is a significant connection between sprawl, obesity, and hypertension.
In the years following World War II, when vehicle ownership was becoming widespread, public health officials recommended the health benefits of suburbs due to soot and industrial fumes in the city center. However, air in modern suburbs is not necessarily cleaner than air in urban neighborhoods. In fact, the most polluted air is on crowded highways, where people in suburbs tend to spend more time. On average, suburban residents generate more per capita pollution and carbon emissions than their urban counterparts because of their increased driving.
A heavy reliance on automobiles increases traffic throughout the city as well as automobile crashes, pedestrian injuries, and air pollution. Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for Americans between the ages of five and twenty - four and is the leading accident - related cause for all age groups. Residents of more sprawling areas are generally at greater risk of dying in a car crash due to increased exposure to driving. Evidence indicates that pedestrians in sprawling areas are at higher risk than those in denser areas, although the relationship is less clear than for drivers and passengers in vehicles.
Research covered in the Journal of Economic Issues and State and Local Government Review shows a link between sprawl and emergency medical services response and fire department response delays.
Living in larger, more spread out spaces generally makes public services more expensive. Since car usage becomes endemic and public transport often becomes significantly more expensive, city planners are forced to build highway and parking infrastructure, which in turn decreases taxable land and revenue, and decreases the desirability of the area adjacent to such structures. Providing services such as water, sewers, and electricity is also more expensive per household in less dense areas.
Residents of low - density areas spend a higher proportion of their income on transportation than residents of high density areas. The RAC estimates that the average cost of operating a car in the UK is £ 5,000 a year, most of which stems from financing costs and depreciation.
Urban sprawl may be partly responsible for the decline in social capital in the United States. Compact neighborhoods can foster casual social interactions among neighbors, while sprawl creates barriers. Sprawl tends to replace public spaces with private spaces such as fenced - in backyards.
Critics of sprawl maintain that sprawl erodes quality of life. Duany and Plater - Zyberk believe that in traditional neighborhoods the nearness of the workplace to retail and restaurant space that provides cafes and convenience stores with daytime customers is an essential component to the successful balance of urban life. Furthermore, they state that the closeness of the workplace to homes also gives people the option of walking or riding a bicycle to work or school and that without this kind of interaction between the different components of life the urban pattern quickly falls apart. James Howard Kunstler has argued that poor aesthetics in suburban environments make them "places not worth caring about '', and that they lack a sense of history and identity.
Urban sprawl has class and racial implications in many parts of the world; the relative homogeneity of many sprawl developments may reinforce class and racial divides through residential segregation.
Numerous studies link increased population density with increased aggression. Some people believe that increased population density encourages crime and anti-social behavior. It is argued that human beings, while social animals, need significant amounts of social space or they become agitated and aggressive. However, the relationship between higher densities and increased social pathology has been largely discredited.
According to Nancy Chin, a large number of effects of sprawl have been discussed in the academic literature in some detail; however, the most contentious issues can be reduced "to an older set of arguments, between those advocating a planning approach and those advocating the efficiency of the market. '' Those who criticize sprawl tend to argue that sprawl creates more problems than it solves and should be more heavily regulated, while proponents argue that markets are producing the economically most efficient settlements possible in most situations, even if problems may exist. However, some market oriented commentators believe that the current patterns of sprawl are in fact the result of distortions of the free market. Chin cautions that there is a lack of "reliable empirical evidence to support the arguments made either for or against sprawl. '' She mentions that the lack of a common definition, the need for more quantitative measures "a broader view both in time and space, and greater comparison with alternative urban forms '' would be necessary to draw firmer conclusions and conduct more fruitful debates.
Arguments opposing urban sprawl include concrete effects such as health and environmental issues as well as abstract consequences including neighborhood vitality. American public policy analyst Randal O'Toole of the Cato Institute, a libertarian think tank, has argued that sprawl, thanks to the automobile, gave rise to affordable suburban neighborhoods for middle class and lower class individuals, including non-whites. He notes that efforts to combat sprawl often result in subsidizing development in wealthier and whiter neighborhoods while condemning and demolishing poorer minority neighborhoods.
The American Institute of Architects and the American Planning Association recommend against sprawl and instead endorses smart, mixed - use development, including buildings in close proximity to one another that cut down on automobile use, save energy, and promote walkable, healthy, well - designed neighborhoods. The Sierra Club, the San Francisco Bay Area 's Greenbelt Alliance, 1000 Friends of Oregon and counterpart organizations nationwide, and other environmental organizations oppose sprawl and support investment in existing communities. NumbersUSA, a national organization advocating immigration reduction, also opposes urban sprawl, and its executive director, Roy Beck, specializes in the study of this issue.
One of the primary debates around suburban sprawl is the extent to which sprawl is the result of consumer preference. Some, such as Peter Gordon, a professor of planning and economics at the University of Southern California 's School of Urban Planning and Development, argue that most households have shown a clear preference for low - density living and that this is a fact that should not be ignored by planners. Gordon and his frequent collaborator, Harry Richardson have argued that "The principle of consumer sovereignty has played a powerful role in the increase in America 's wealth and in the welfare of its citizens. Producers (including developers) have responded rapidly to households ' demands. It is a giant step backward to interfere with this effective process unless the benefits of intervention substantially exceed its cost. '' They argue that sprawl generates enough benefits for consumers that they continue to choose it as a form of development over alternative forms, as demonstrated by the continued focus on sprawl type developments by most developers. However, other academics such as Reid Ewing argue that while a large segment of people prefer suburban living that does not mean that sprawl itself is preferred by consumers, and that a large variety of suburban environments satisfy consumer demand, including areas that mitigate the worst effects of sprawl. Others, for example Kenneth T. Jackson have argued that since low - density housing is often (notably in the U.S.A.) subsidized in a variety of ways, consumers ' professed preferences for this type of living may be over-stated.
Whether urban sprawl does increase problems of automobile dependency and whether conversely, policies of smart growth can reduce them have been fiercely contested issues over several decades. An influential study in 1989 by Peter Newman and Jeff Kenworthy compared 32 cities across North America, Australia, Europe and Asia. The study has been criticised for its methodology but the main finding that denser cities, particularly in Asia, have lower car use than sprawling cities, particularly in North America, has been largely accepted although the relationship is clearer at the extremes across continents than it is within countries where conditions are more similar.
Within cities, studies from across many countries (mainly in the developed world) have shown that denser urban areas with greater mixture of land use and better public transport tend to have lower car use than less dense suburban and ex-urban residential areas. This usually holds true even after controlling for socio - economic factors such as differences in household composition and income. This does not necessarily imply that suburban sprawl causes high car use, however. One confounding factor, which has been the subject of many studies, is residential self - selection: people who prefer to drive tend to move towards low density suburbs, whereas people who prefer to walk, cycle or use transit tend to move towards higher density urban areas, better served by public transport. Some studies have found that, when self - selection is controlled for, the built environment has no significant effect on travel behaviour. More recent studies using more sophisticated methodologies have generally refuted these findings: density, land use and public transport accessibility can influence travel behaviour, although social and economic factors, particularly household income, usually exert a stronger influence.
Those not opposed to low density development argue that traffic intensities tend to be less, traffic speeds faster and, as a result, ambient air pollution is lower. (See demographia 's report.) Kansas City, Missouri is often cited as an example of ideal low - density development, with congestion below the mean and home prices below comparable Midwestern cities. Wendell Cox and Randal O'Toole are leading figures supporting lower density development.
Longitudinal (time - lapse) studies of commute times in major metropolitan areas in the United States have shown that commute times decreased for the period 1969 to 1995 even though the geographic size of the city increased. Other studies suggest, however, that possible personal benefits from commute time savings have been at the expense of environmental costs in the form of longer average commute distances, rising vehicles - miles - traveled (VMT) per worker, and despite road expansions, worsening traffic congestion
Reviewing the evidence on urban intensification, smart growth and their effects on travel behaviour Melia et al. (2011) found support for the arguments of both supporters and opponents of smart growth measures to counteract urban sprawl. Planning policies that increase population densities in urban areas do tend to reduce car use, but the effect is a weak one, so doubling the population density of a particular area will not halve the frequency or distance of car use.
These findings led them to propose the paradox of intensification, which states:
There is also some concern that anti-sprawl policies will increase housing prices. Some research suggests Oregon has had the largest housing affordability loss in the nation, but other research shows that Portland 's price increases are comparable to other Western cities.
In Australia, it is claimed by some that housing affordability has hit "crisis levels '' due to "urban consolidation '' policies implemented by state governments. In Sydney, the ratio of the price of a house relative to income is 9: 1. The issue has at times been debated between the major political parties.
Many critics concede that sprawl produces some negative externalities; however there is some dispute about the most effective way to reduce these negative effects. Gordon & Richardson for example argue that the costs of building new public transit is disproportionate to the actual environmental or economic benefits, that land use restrictions will increase the cost of housing and restrict economic opportunity, that infill possibilities are too limited to make a major difference to the structure of American cities, and that the government would need to coerce most people to live in a way that they do not want to in order to substantially change the impact of sprawl. They argue that the property market should be deregulated to allow different people to live as they wish, while providing a framework of market based fees (such as emission fees, congestion charging or road pricing) to mitigate many of the problems associated with sprawl such as congestion and increased pollution.
The term ' smart growth ' has been particularly used in North America. The terms ' compact city ' or ' urban intensification ' are often used to describe similar concepts in Europe and particularly the UK where it has influenced government policy and planning practice in recent years.
The state of Oregon enacted a law in 1973 limiting the area urban areas could occupy, through urban growth boundaries. As a result, Portland, the state 's largest urban area, has become a leader in smart growth policies that seek to make urban areas more compact (they are called urban consolidation policies). After the creation of this boundary, the population density of the urbanized area increased somewhat (from 1,135 in 1970 to 1,290 per km2 in 2000). While the growth boundary has not been tight enough to vastly increase density, the consensus is that the growth boundaries have protected great amounts of wild areas and farmland around the metro area.
Many parts of the San Francisco Bay Area have also adopted urban growth boundaries; 25 of its cities and 5 of its counties have urban growth boundaries. Many of these were adopted with the support and advocacy of Greenbelt Alliance, a non-profit land conservation and urban planning organization.
In other areas, the design principles of District Regionalism and New Urbanism have been employed to combat urban sprawl. The concept of Circular flow land use management has been developed in Europe to reduce land take by urban sprawl through promoting inner - city and brownfield development.
While cities such as Los Angeles are well known for sprawling suburbs, policies and public opinion are changing. Transit - oriented development, in which higher - density mixed - use areas are permitted or encouraged near transit stops is encouraging more compact development in certain areas - particularly those with light and heavy rail transit systems.
Bicycles are the preferred means of travel in many countries. Also, bicycles are permitted in public transit. Businesses in areas of some towns where bicycle use is high are thriving. Bicycles and transit are contributing in two important ways toward the success of businesses:
Walkability is a measure of how friendly an area is to walking. Walkability has many health, environmental, and economic benefits. However, evaluating walkability is challenging because it requires the consideration of many subjective factors. Factors influencing walkability include the presence or absence and quality of footpaths, sidewalks or other pedestrian right - of - ways, traffic and road conditions, land use patterns, building accessibility, and safety, among others. Walkability is an important concept in sustainable urban design.
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who sings i cant tell you why by the eagles | I Ca n't Tell You Why - wikipedia
"I Ca n't Tell You Why '' is a song by the American rock band Eagles which appeared on their 1979 album The Long Run. The song was written by band members Timothy B. Schmit, Glenn Frey, and Don Henley. Recorded in March 1978, it was the first song finished for the album and the first Eagles song to feature Schmit on lead vocals. The studio version became a Billboard Top 10 hit in April 1980, reaching number 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 3 on the Adult Contemporary chart. It is their last Top Ten hit on the Hot 100.
Timothy B. Schmit came up with the song title and composed the nucleus of "I Ca n't Tell You Why '', which he then presented to Glenn Frey and Don Henley and they completed the song together. Henley described the finished song as "straight Al Green '', and that Frey, an R&B fan as he came from Detroit and grew up with the music, was responsible for the R&B feel of the song. Frey said to Schmit: "You could sing like Smokey Robinson. Let 's not do a Richie Furay, Poco - sounding song. Let 's do an R&B song. ''
Schmit describes the song as "loosely based on my own experiences ''. Schmit said: "I had some writing sessions with Don and Glenn and I threw out a bunch of my ideas and that one (for "I Ca n't Tell You Why '') stuck. I had (composed) a pretty good part of it, not a huge part but enough for them to think ' That could be good ' and go with it. So Don, Glenn and I finished it over a few all night sessions. '' "When it was being developed in the studio... I knew it was a great song. I (thought) ' Yes! This is an amazing debut for me. ' When we finally mixed it, we had a little listening party at the studio. As people were hearing it, Don turned to me and said, ' There 's your first hit. ' ''
Schmit sang the lead vocals on the song, with Frey and Henley singing counterpoint. Schmit also played the bass on the track, which has the distinctive bass riff believed by Schmit to have been devised by Frey. According to Henley, Frey came up with the counterpart on the song, and played the guitar solo on the song.
In 1980 the band promoted the song with a music video which featured Schmit on bass guitar accompanied by Frey on the electric piano, although Frey recorded the guitar solos as it is printed on the LP inside sleeve (Joe Walsh played all the keyboard parts on the actual studio recording), with Henley on the drums, Don Felder on the electric guitar, Walsh on the organ and Walsh 's touring sideman Joe Vitale on synthesizer. Live versions of the song were released in the 1980 album Eagles Live and 1994 's Hell Freezes Over.
Schmit also performed "I Ca n't Tell You Why '' while on tour as a member of Ringo Starr & His All - Starr Band in 1992. Their performance of the song was included on the 1993 live album Ringo Starr and His All Starr Band Volume 2: Live from Montreux.
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part of the body that starts with k | List of skeletal muscles of the human body - wikipedia
This is a table of skeletal muscles of the human anatomy.
Almost every muscle constitutes one part of a pair of identical bilateral muscles, found on both sides, resulting in approximately 320 pairs of muscles, as presented in this article. Nevertheless, the exact number is difficult to define because different sources group muscles differently, e.g. regarding what is defined as different parts of a single muscle or as several muscles.
The muscles of the human body can be categorized into a number of groups which include muscles relating to the head and neck, muscles of the torso or trunk, muscles of the upper limbs, and muscles of the lower limbs.
The action refers to the action of each muscle from the standard anatomical position. In other positions, other actions may be performed.
These muscles are described using anatomical terminology.
fibularis muscles:
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who was the actor that played ernest t bass | Howard Morris - wikipedia
Howard Jerome Morris (September 4, 1919 -- May 21, 2005) was an American actor, voice actor and director who was best known for his role in The Andy Griffith Show as Ernest T. Bass.
Morris was born to a Jewish family in The Bronx, New York, the son of Elsie and Hugo Morris, a rubber company executive. During World War II, he was assigned to a United States Army Special Services unit where he was the First Sergeant. Maurice Evans was the company commander and Carl Reiner and Werner Klemperer were soldiers in the unit. Based in Honolulu, the unit entertained American troops throughout the Pacific.
He came to prominence in appearances on Sid Caesar 's Your Show of Shows (a live sketch comedy series appearing weekly in the United States, from 1950 to 1954). Morris appeared twice in 1957 in episodes of the short - lived NBC comedy / variety show The Polly Bergen Show.
Although Morris was a classically trained Shakespearean actor, he is best remembered for playing the wily and over the top "mountain man '' character Ernest T. Bass on The Andy Griffith Show. Also, he played George, the TV mechanic in the episode: "Andy and Helen have their Day '' on the Andy Griffith show. He had lampooned southern accents while in the army at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. He starred in one of the more comical early hour - long Twilight Zone episodes, "I Dream of Genie ''. Other roles included that of Elmer Kelp in The Nutty Professor, a movie studio clerk in the short film Star Spangled Salesman, and an art appraiser in an episode of The Dick Van Dyke Show. He also had appeared in several Broadway shows including the highly regarded 1960 revival of Finian 's Rainbow as Og the leprechaun opposite Bobby Howes as Finian. He played the role of Schmidlap in Way... Way Out and appeared in the movie, Boys ' Night Out (1962) starring Tony Randall, Kim Novak and James Garner.
Morris was first heard in animated cartoons in the early 1960s. He and Allan Melvin teamed up for a 50 - episode King Features Syndicate series, Beetle Bailey, for which he and Melvin also wrote a number of episodes. He also provided the voices for Gene Deitch 's Academy Award - winning Munro, about a four - year - old boy who was drafted into the Army.
Beginning in 1962, Morris played a variety of voices in many Hanna - Barbera series including The Jetsons as Jet Screamer who sang the "Eep opp ork ah ah! '' song, (said to be Morris ' first work for Hanna - Barbera) and The Flintstones. He was the original voice of Atom Ant and provided the voice of Mr. Peebles in the Magilla Gorilla series, teaming up again with Allan Melvin who performed the voice for Magilla. In another series, Morris was heard as the voice of Breezly Bruin which was similar in tone with the Bill Scott vocalization of Bullwinkle. Morris had a disagreement with Joseph Barbera prior to production of the 1966 - 1967 season of Magilla Gorilla and Atom Ant and all of his voices were recast, mostly using Don Messick. Years later the two men reconciled and Morris was back doing those voices and others. He also lend his voice of Forsythe "Jughead '' Jones on The Archies Filmation series from 1968 - 1977.
Morris also voiced the characters Professor Icenstein and Luigi La Bounci in the animated series Galaxy High. Morris provided the original vocalizations for the Hamburglar ("Robble, robble, robble '') in McDonald 's 1971 ad campaign, which Morris also directed. He is also remembered by Filmation and Archie Show fans as the voice of Jughead Jones throughout the life of the franchise. Morris provided the voice of Wade Duck in the U.S. Acres segments of Garfield and Friends, and voiced Webbly in Bobby 's World and Flem in Cow & Chicken. Morris supplied the voice of the koala in TV commercials for Qantas from 1967 through 1992 (saying the tagline, "I hate Qantas ''), and voiced the character of Gopher in the Disney featurettes Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree and Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day. Also in 1989 he voiced a French gangster cat named Monte De Zar of Paris, France, (Fat Cat 's Cousin) in an episode of Disney 's: Chip ' N Dale Rescue Rangers episode "Le Purrfect Crime ''.
While Morris continued to make himself available for voice and sound effect roles, he also began a new career in voice directing. Among the projects he directed are Police Academy, Richie Rich, Bionic Six, Goin ' Coconuts, Pole Position, Galaxy High, The Snorks, The Mighty Orbots, Rose Petal Place, The Dogfather, Dragon 's Lair, Tom and Jerry: The Movie, Turbo Teen, Cabbage Patch Kids: First Christmas, Little Clowns of Happytown, The Little Wizards, Space Stars and Kidd Video.
Morris directed Doris Day in her final film With Six You Get Eggroll (1968). Other films he directed were Do n't Drink the Water (1969) and Who 's Minding the Mint? (1967).
Mel Brooks occasionally cast Morris in his films. For example, he played Brooks ' mentor psychiatrist Dr. Lilloman in the comedy High Anxiety (1977), the emperor 's court spokesman ("Here, wash this! '') in History of the World, Part I (1981), and played a bum named Sailor living in the streets in Life Stinks (1991).
In 1984, he played Dr. Zidell in Splash, a film directed by Ron Howard (the two had first worked together on The Andy Griffith Show). He worked with his old friend and trouping partner Sid Caesar as nervous Jewish tailors in the 1998 movie of Ray Bradbury 's The Wonderful Ice Cream Suit.
In 1986, he reprised his famous role as Ernest T. Bass in the high - rated television movie Return to Mayberry. Morris also directed some episodes of Hogan 's Heroes, The Dick Van Dyke Show and the black and white pilot episode of Get Smart.
In 1994, Morris voiced Zinn - a-Zu the Bird, Garfield the Third Fish, the Sneetches and Mr. Fox in Storybook Weaver, and later in 2004, remade as Storybook Weaver Deluxe.
Shortly before his death, he played Flem on Cow and Chicken.
On May 21, 2005, Morris died of a heart attack. He is entombed in Laurel Gardens Wall crypt at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery in Culver City, California.
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who sang the song 30 days in the hole | 30 Days in the Hole - Wikipedia
"30 Days in the Hole '' is the seventh single by English rock group Humble Pie, from the band 's 1972 Smokin ' album. The song received moderate radio airplay at the time but failed to chart. However it gained a following on album oriented rock and classic rock radio formats and consequently it remains one of Humble Pie 's best known songs.
The B - side on its US release was "Sweet Peace and Time '', while everywhere else the B - side featured "C'mon Everybody '' and "Road Runner ''.
The song, a Steve Marriott composition, bemoans being arrested for possession of small quantities of illegal drugs, including cocaine; Durban poison, a potent strain of marijuana, and Red Lebanese and Black Nepalese, two types of hashish. "New Castle Brown '' is often mistaken as a reference to Newcastle Brown Ale but actually refers to heroin also known as "Brown '' or "Smack ''. The song refers to Borstal - "some seeds and dust, and you got Borstal '' - referring to Borstal Prison and its borstal ilk - any manner of a British juvenile gaol. (Most lyrics listings get this wrong, and say "buzzed on '' or "bust on ''.)
Pie guitarist Clem Clempson has said it is one of the tracks he would most like his career to be remembered by. But the predominant group personality shown through by the song is Marriott 's; so much so that for example when years later Clempson was asked about efforts to reform the group without Marriott, he simply declaimed, "It 's a waste of time. ''
In the years since, "30 Days '' has been recorded by several groups, most notably Gov 't Mule, Mr. Big, and Kick Axe, and is a live staple of Canadian rock band The Trews.
The song was featured on the Xbox One, PlayStation 4 and PC versions of Grand Theft Auto V, on the in - game radio station Los Santos Rock Radio. It was also the intro music to the "Tin Can Rehab '' edition of Doug Stanhope 's podcast.
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who is the girl in you look good video | You Look Good - wikipedia
"You Look Good '' is a song by American country music group Lady Antebellum and serves as the first single from the group 's seventh studio album, Heart Break (2017). It was released on January 19, 2017 through Capitol Records Nashville and impacted American country radio on January 23. The song was written by Hillary Lindsey, Ryan Hurd, and its producer, busbee.
In 2015, Lady Antebellum began experiencing declining success with the singles released from their sixth studio album, 747 (2014), which the band attributes to a "fatigue '' amongst fans and radio programmers. After the completion of their accompanying Wheels Up Tour, the group announced a short hiatus from recording or touring. During this time, the members all worked on individual projects -- Charles Kelley and Hillary Scott on their solo debuts The Driver and Love Remains, respectively, and Dave Haywood on the production of Post Monroe 's debut EP. When the group returned to work on their next album, they spent a month in Los Angeles, California and recruited pop producer busbee to oversee the project.
"You Look Good '' was reportedly on hold for Thomas Rhett before being picked up and recorded by Lady Antebellum. The song was released January 19, 2017. "You Look Good '' serves as the group 's first new release since 2014 following their hiatus.
"You Look Good '' is primarily a country pop song with influences of funk, jazz, and soul. The song incorporates a "brassy '' horn section, a career first for the group. Billy Dukes of Taste of Country noted that "You Look Good '' is the group 's third consecutive lead single to "(stretch) the perception of who they are. ''
Billy Dukes of Taste of Country praised the energy of the song, writing, "any time Hillary Scott can match (Charles Kelley 's) easy swagger they look -- and sound -- good. In fact, Lady Antebellum rarely loses when the two vocalists are committed to the same vocal emotion. '' David Watt of All Noise wrote that "You Look Good '' is "a good song with a... fresh sound and it has proved the claims... made by the band about their... (desire) to innovate. ''
"You Look Good '' debuted at number 27 on the Billboard Country Airplay chart dated February 4, 2017 as the week 's "hot shot debut. '' It also debuted at number 41 on the magazine 's Hot Country Songs chart dated February 4, 2017. The song sold 4,000 copies in its first day of availability. After Lady Antebellum 's performance at the ACM Awards, the song sold 41,000 copies, up 320 % from the week before. It has sold 408,000 copies in the US as of September 2017.
The group released an official lyric video to accompany the song on January 19, 2017. Chronicling the months spent working on Heart Break, the video includes Polaroid photos and video footage of this time period and shows Charles, Hillary, and Dave "goofing off. '' The video ends with a clip of the group from 2006 before the release of their debut because, as Haywood told Billboard, they "wanted to get back that feeling we felt back in 2006 when we started '' during the recording process of this album.
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where is the hallmark movie chesapeake shores filmed | Chesapeake Shores - Wikipedia
Chesapeake Shores is a Canadian / American drama television series, based on the novel series of the same name by Sherryl Woods, produced by Chesapeake Shores Productions Inc in association with Borderline Distribution. The series had a two - hour premiere on the Hallmark Channel on August 14, 2016. Meghan Ory, Jesse Metcalfe, Treat Williams, Brendan Penny, Andrew Francis and Diane Ladd star in the series. John Tinker is showrunner and executive producer.
On January 15, 2017, Hallmark announced that the show was renewed for a 10 - episode second season, which aired from August 6 through October 8, 2017.
On January 13, 2018, Hallmark announced that the show was renewed for a 10 - episode third season, which aired from August 5 to October 7, 2018.
Abby O'Brien Winters returns from New York to her hometown of Chesapeake Shores, Maryland, after receiving a panicked phone call from her youngest sister Jess, who is renovating the Inn at Eagle Point. Abby 's demanding career, divorce, and young daughters have kept her too busy to even think about the town her father built. Saving her sister 's inn from foreclosure means dealing not only with her fractured family but also with Trace Riley, her first love whom she abruptly left sixteen years ago. He initially is an obstacle but becomes an unexpected ally and a second chance at finding love. The troubled family dynamic is intensified when Abby 's estranged mother comes back to town.
Chesapeake Shores is filmed on Vancouver Island 's Qualicum Beach and its neighboring town of Parksville, British Columbia. The first season was filmed there from May through July 2016.
In addition to playing the character Trace, Jesse Metcalfe performs some of the songs used in the series ' episodes. A songwriter for more than a decade, Metcalfe also composed two of the songs himself.
Production for the second season started in spring 2017.
The series premiered on the Hallmark Channel on August 14, 2016. It premiered on Canada 's W Network on August 25, 2016.
Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times said Chesapeake Shores is "as well scrubbed and predictable as they come -- in other words, perfectly suited to Hallmark 's target audience. '' He added, "fans of (Sherryl Woods 's series of novels), at least, will probably enjoy seeing this annoyingly pristine world brought to life. ''
Gwen Ihnat of The A.V. Club gave the two - hour series premiere a B grade, praising the "ethereally gorgeous '' Meghan Ory and the "acting powerhouses '' of Treat Williams and Diane Ladd. She added that they "may make the show worth watching, and the giddy chemistry of the romantic leads certainly does n't hurt. ''
Chesapeake Shores ' two - hour premiere on Sunday, August 14, 2016, was seen by 1.942 million viewers. Its largest ratings demographic were people over the age of 50, with a 1.42 share, followed by a 0.45 share among women aged 18 to 49. Over the course of the first season, the series was Hallmark 's "most - watched (...) in the network 's history '' by women and adults in the 25 -- 54 age demographic in its live plus three days (L + 3) of DVR viewing, leading to its second - season renewal.
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what are the band members names in fleetwood mac | Fleetwood Mac - wikipedia
Fleetwood Mac are a British - American rock band, formed in London in 1967. The band sold more than 100 million records worldwide, making them one of the world 's best - selling bands. In 1998, select members of Fleetwood Mac were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, and received the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music. In 2018, the band was declared MusiCares Person of the Year.
The band was founded by guitarist Peter Green, drummer Mick Fleetwood and guitarist Jeremy Spencer. They lacked a permanent bass guitarist for the first few months before Green convinced John McVie to join, establishing the first official line - up in time to record their self - titled debut album. Danny Kirwan joined as a third guitarist in 1969, and keyboardist Christine Perfect, who was used as a session musician starting with the second album, later married John McVie and joined the band in 1970. During this time period, the band was primarily a British blues outfit, scoring a UK number one with "Albatross ''; and had lesser hits with the singles "Oh Well '' and "Black Magic Woman ''. Personal problems led to original guitarists Green and Spencer leaving in short order, replaced by Bob Welch and Bob Weston. However, by 1974, Welch and Weston had both left, leaving the band without a primary male vocalist or lead guitarist.
In late 1974, while the band was scouting studios in Los Angeles, they were introduced to folk - rock duo Lindsey Buckingham and Stevie Nicks. The band sought to add Buckingham as their new lead guitarist, who agreed under the condition that Nicks, his singing partner and girlfriend at the time, also would join the band. The addition of Buckingham and Nicks caused the band to take on a more pop rock / folk rock sound, with their 1975 album Fleetwood Mac, reaching No. 1 in the US. Rumours (1977), Fleetwood Mac 's second album after the incorporation of Buckingham and Nicks, produced four US Top 10 singles and remained at No. 1 on the American albums chart for 31 weeks, as well as reaching the top spot in various countries around the world. The album has sold over 40 million copies worldwide, making it the eighth - highest - selling album to date. During the recording of Rumours, the band went through personal turmoil, as both of the romantic partnerships in the band (John & Christine McVie and Buckingham & Nicks) separated, though the band kept making music together.
The lineup remained stable through three more studio albums, but by the late 1980s the band began to disintegrate. First to leave was Buckingham, followed by Nicks in 1991, to be replaced by a series of short - term guitarists and vocalists. In 1993, a one - off performance for the Presidential Inauguration of Bill Clinton featured the five key members back together for the first time in six years, and by 1997, a full reunion occurred. In 1998, Christine McVie retired from touring, and the band stayed together as a four - piece with John McVie, Mick Fleetwood, Lindsey Buckingham, and Stevie Nicks. In 2014, Christine McVie rejoined again full - time. The latest studio album by the band was 2003 's Say You Will, though a side project known as Lindsey Buckingham / Christine McVie was released in 2017 containing contributions from the other band members except Nicks. In 2018, Buckingham was fired from the band and was replaced by guitarists Mike Campbell, formerly of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, and Neil Finn, of Split Enz and Crowded House.
Fleetwood Mac formed in July 1967 in London, England, when Peter Green left the British blues band, John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers. Peter Green had replaced guitarist Eric Clapton in the Bluesbreakers, and received critical acclaim for his work on their album A Hard Road. After he had been in the Bluesbreakers for some time, Green asked if drummer Mick Fleetwood could replace Aynsley Dunbar. Green had been in two bands with Fleetwood -- Peter B 's Looners and the subsequent Shotgun Express (which featured a young Rod Stewart as vocalist). John Mayall agreed and Fleetwood became a member of the band.
The Bluesbreakers, now consisted of Green, Fleetwood, John McVie, and Mayall. Mayall gave Green free recording time as a gift, in which Fleetwood, McVie and Green recorded five songs. The fifth song was an instrumental that Green named after the rhythm section, "Fleetwood Mac ''.
Soon after, Green contacted Fleetwood to form a new band. The pair wanted McVie on bass guitar and even named the band ' Fleetwood Mac ' as a way to entice him. However, McVie opted to keep his steady income with Mayall rather than take a risk with a new band. In the meantime, Peter Green and Mick Fleetwood teamed up with slide guitarist Jeremy Spencer and bassist Bob Brunning, who was in the band on the understanding that he would leave if McVie agreed to join. The Green, Fleetwood, Spencer, Brunning version of the band made its debut on 13 August 1967 at the Windsor Jazz and Blues Festival as Peter Green 's Fleetwood Mac featuring Jeremy Spencer. Brunning played only a handful of gigs with Fleetwood Mac. Within weeks of this show, John McVie agreed to join the band as permanent bassist.
Fleetwood Mac 's self - titled debut album was a no - frills blues album, and was released by the Blue Horizon label in February 1968. In fact, there were no other players on the album (except for the song "Long Grey Mare '', which was recorded with Brunning on bass). The album was successful in the UK, hitting No. 4, although it did not have any singles on it. The band soon released two singles "Black Magic Woman '' (later a big hit for Santana) and "Need Your Love So Bad ''.
The band 's second studio album, Mr. Wonderful, was released in August 1968. Like its predecessor, it was an all - blues album. The album was recorded live in the studio with miked amplifiers and a PA system, rather than plugged into the board. They also added horns and featured a friend of the band on keyboards, Christine Perfect of Chicken Shack.
Shortly after the release of their second album, Fleetwood Mac added guitarist Danny Kirwan, then just eighteen years of age, to their line - up, recruited from the South London blues trio, Boilerhouse, consisting of Kirwan on guitar with Trevor Stevens on bass and Dave Terrey on drums. Green and Fleetwood had been to watch Boilerhouse rehearse in a basement boiler - room and Green was so impressed, he invited the band to play support slots for Fleetwood Mac. Green wanted Boilerhouse to become a professional band, but Stevens and Terrey were not prepared to turn professional at the time, so Green sought to find another rhythm section by placing an ad in Melody Maker. There were over 300 applicants, but when Green and Fleetwood ran auditions at the Nag 's Head in Battersea (home of the Mike Vernon Blue Horizon Club), the hard to please Green could not find anyone good enough to replace the pair, so he invited Kirwan to join Fleetwood Mac as their third guitarist.
Green had been frustrated that Jeremy Spencer had little desire to contribute to Green 's songs. A self - taught guitarist, Kirwan 's signature vibrato and unique style added a new dimension to an already complete band. With Kirwan, the band released their first number one single in Europe, "Albatross ''. Around this time, they released the compilation album, English Rose, which contained half of Mr. Wonderful, new songs from Kirwan. Their second compilation album, The Pious Bird of Good Omen, contained a collection of singles, B - sides, and a selection of some work the band did with Eddie Boyd.
When the band went to the United States in January 1969, they recorded many songs at the soon - to - close Chess Records Studio, with some blues legends of Chicago including Willie Dixon, Buddy Guy, and Otis Spann. These would prove, however, to be Fleetwood Mac 's last all - blues recordings. Along with their change of style, the band was also going through some label changes. Up until that point, they had been on Blue Horizon. With Kirwan in the band, however, the musical possibilities were too great for them to handle with a blues - only label. The band signed with the Immediate Records label, and released the single, "Man of the World '', another British and European hit single. For the B - side, Spencer fronted Fleetwood Mac as "Earl Vince and the Valiants '' and recorded the B - side, "Somebody 's Gonna Get Their Head Kicked In Tonite '', typifying the more raucous rock ' n ' roll side of the band. Immediate Records was in bad shape, and the band shopped around for a new deal. Even though The Beatles wanted the band on Apple Records (Mick Fleetwood and George Harrison were brothers - in - law), the band 's manager, Clifford Davis, decided to go with Warner Bros. Records (through Reprise Records, a Frank Sinatra - founded label), the label they have stayed with ever since.
Under the wing with Reprise, Fleetwood Mac released their third studio album, Then Play On, in September 1969. Although the initial pressing of the American release of this album was the same as the British version, it was altered to contain the song, "Oh Well '', which featured consistently in live performances from the time of its release through 1997, and then again starting in 2009. Then Play On, which was the band 's first rock album, featured only the songs of Kirwan and Green. Jeremy Spencer, meanwhile, recorded his solo album of many 1950s - style rock and roll songs, backed by the rest of the band.
In July 1969, Fleetwood Mac opened for Ten Years After at the Schaefer Music Festival at New York City 's Wollman Rink. They re-appeared at the festival in 1970.
By 1970, Peter Green, the frontman of the band, was not in good shape. He had taken LSD in Munich, which may have contributed to the onset of his schizophrenia. German author and filmmaker, Rainer Langhans, mentioned in his autobiography, that he and Uschi Obermaier met Peter Green in Munich, where they invited him to their "High - Fish - Commune ''. They were not really interested in Green, so they just wanted to get in contact with Mick Taylor: Langhans and Obermaier wished to organise a "Bavarian Woodstock ''. They wanted Jimi Hendrix and The Rolling Stones to be the leading acts of their Bavarian open air festival. They needed Green just to get in contact with The Rolling Stones via Mick Taylor.
Green 's last hit with Fleetwood Mac was "The Green Manalishi (With the Two - Prong Crown) '' (first recorded at the Boston Tea Party in February 1970 and later recorded by Judas Priest). This recording was released as Green 's mental stability deteriorated, and he wanted to give all of the band 's money to charity. Other members of the band disagreed, and subsequently, Green left the band. His last show with Fleetwood Mac was on 20 May 1970. During that show, the band went past their allotted time, and the power was shut off, although Mick Fleetwood kept drumming. Some of the Boston Tea Party recordings (5 / 6 / 7 February 1970) were eventually released in the 1980s, as the Live in Boston album, with a more complete remastered 3 - volume compilation released by Snapper Music in the late 1990s.
Kirwan and Spencer were left with the task of having to fill up Green 's space in their live shows and on their recordings. In September 1970, Fleetwood Mac released their fourth studio album, Kiln House. Kirwan 's songs moved the band in the right direction of rock. Meanwhile, Spencer 's contributions focused on re-creating the country - tinged "Sun Sound '' of the late 1950s. Christine Perfect, who had retired from the music business after one unsuccessful solo album, contributed to Kiln House, singing backup vocals, playing keyboards and drawing the album cover. Since Fleetwood Mac were progressing and developing a new sound, Perfect was asked to join the band. They also released a single at that time; "Dragonfly '' b / w "The Purple Dancer '' in the UK and certain European countries. Despite good notices in the press, the single was not a success, and the B - side had been reissued only once, on a Reprise German and Dutch - only "Best of '' album, making it one of their most obscure songs.
Christine Perfect, who by this point had married bassist John McVie, made her first appearance with the band as Christine McVie at Bristol University in May 1969, just as she was leaving Chicken Shack. She had success with the Etta James classic, "I 'd Rather Go Blind '', and was twice voted female artist of the year in England. Christine McVie played her first gig as an official member on 6 August 1970 in New Orleans, Louisiana. CBS Records, which now owned Blue Horizon (except in the US and Canada), released the band 's fifth compilation album, The Original Fleetwood Mac, containing previously unreleased material. The album was relatively successful, and the band continued to gain popularity.
While on tour in February 1971, Jeremy Spencer said he was going out to "get a magazine '', but never returned. After several days of frantic searching, the band discovered that Spencer had joined a religious group, the Children of God. Liable for the remaining shows on the tour, they convinced Peter Green to help finish the tour. He brought along his friend, Nigel Watson, who played the congas (twenty - five years later Green and Watson collaborated again to form the Peter Green Splinter Group). Green, however, would only be back with Fleetwood Mac temporarily, so the band decided to search for a new guitarist.
In the summer of 1971, the band held auditions for a guitarist in their large country home, "Benifold '', which they jointly bought with their manager Davis for £ 23,000 (equivalent to £ 326,500 in 2016) prior to the Kiln House tour. A friend of the band named Judy Wong recommended her high school friend, Bob Welch, who was living in Paris, France at the time. The band held a few meetings with Welch, and decided to hire him, without actually playing with him or listening to any of his recordings.
In September 1971, the band released their fifth studio album, Future Games. Due to Welch 's arrival and Spencer 's departure, the album was different from anything the band had done up to that point, and there were many new fans in America who were becoming more interested in the band. In Europe, CBS released Fleetwood Mac 's first Greatest Hits album, which was predominantly composed of songs by Peter Green, though there was one song by Spencer and one by Kirwan.
In 1972, six months after the release of Future Games, the band released their sixth studio album, Bare Trees. Though mostly composed by Kirwan, Bare Trees featured the single, "Sentimental Lady '', which would be a much bigger hit for him five years later when he re-recorded it for his solo album French Kiss, backed with Mick Fleetwood and Christine McVie. It also featured "Spare Me a Little of Your Love '', a bright Christine McVie tune that became a staple of the band 's live act throughout the early to mid-1970s.
While the band was doing well in the studio, their tours turned out to be far more problematic. Danny Kirwan developed an alcohol dependency, and became alienated from Welch and the McVies. It was not until he smashed his Gibson Les Paul Custom guitar before a concert, refused to go on stage, and criticised the band afterwards, that Fleetwood was finally convinced that he had no choice but to fire Kirwan.
The next two and a half years for Fleetwood Mac turned out to be the most challenging and far more difficult. In the three albums they released in this period, they constantly changed line - ups. In September 1972, the band added guitarist Bob Weston and vocalist Dave Walker, formerly of Savoy Brown and Idle Race. Bob Weston was well known for playing slide guitar and had known the band from his touring period with Long John Baldry. Fleetwood Mac also hired Savoy Brown 's road manager, John Courage. Fleetwood, The McVies, Welch, Weston, and Walker recorded the band 's seventh studio album, Penguin, which was released in January 1973. After the tour, the band fired Walker, because his vocal style and attitude did not fit well with the rest of the band.
The remaining five carried on and recorded the band 's eighth studio album, Mystery to Me, six months later. This album contained Welch 's song "Hypnotized '' which received a great amount of airplay on the radio, and became one of the band 's most successful songs to date in the US. The band was proud of the new album and anticipated that it would be a smash hit. Despite the success, things were starting to come haywire. The McVies ' marriage, at this time, was under a lot of stress, which was aggravated by their constant working with each other, and John McVie 's considerable alcohol abuse. During the tour, Weston had an affair with Fleetwood 's wife, Jenny Boyd Fleetwood, the sister of Pattie Boyd Harrison. Courage soon fired Weston and the tour was cancelled. Due to lack of touring, the album sold less than its predecessor.
In 1974, the band 's manager, Clifford Davis, then claimed that he owned the name Fleetwood Mac, and recruited members of a band called Legs (which had recently issued one single under Davis ' management) to tour as Fleetwood Mac.
The bogus Fleetwood Mac consisted of Elmer Gantry (vocals, guitar), Kirby Gregory (guitar), Paul Martinez (bass), John Wilkinson (keyboards) and Australian - born drummer Craig Collinge (formerly of The Librettos, Procession and Third World War). The members of this conglomeration apparently had been told that Mick Fleetwood would join them on later dates, and claimed that Fleetwood had been involved in the early planning stages of the tour before dropping out.
As the tour was underway, Fleetwood Mac 's road manager, John Courage, realised that the line - up being used was n't authentic. Courage ended up hiding the real Fleetwood Mac 's equipment, which helped shorten the tour by the bogus band, which soon dissolved. But the lawsuit that followed -- regarding who actually owned the rights to the band name "Fleetwood Mac '' -- put the real Fleetwood Mac out of commission for almost a year. While the band was named after Mick Fleetwood and John McVie, they had signed contracts that showed the band forfeited the rights to the name.
In the aftermath of the dissolution of the fake Fleetwood Mac, nobody from that lineup was ever officially made a part of the real Fleetwood Mac, although some of them later acted as Danny Kirwan 's studio band. Gantry and Gregory went on to become members of Stretch, whose 1975 UK hit single "Why Did You Do It '' was written about the fake Fleetwood Mac touring debacle. Gantry later collaborated with The Alan Parsons Project. Martinez, meanwhile, went on to play with the Deep Purple offshoot Paice Ashton Lord, as well as Robert Plant 's backing band.
During the fake Fleetwood Mac months, Welch stayed in Los Angeles, and connected with entertainment attorneys. He swiftly realised that the band was being neglected by Warner Bros., and that if they wanted to change that, they would have to change their base of operation from England to America, to which the rest of the band agreed immediately. Rock promoter Bill Graham wrote a letter to Warner Bros. to convince them that the real Fleetwood Mac were, in fact, Fleetwood, Welch, and the McVies. But while this did not end the legal battle, the band was able to record as Fleetwood Mac again. Instead of hiring another manager, Fleetwood Mac decided to manage themselves.
In September 1974, Fleetwood Mac signed a new recording contract with Warner Bros., but remained on the Reprise label. The band released their ninth studio album, Heroes Are Hard to Find in September 1974, and for the first time in its history, the band had only one guitarist. While on tour, they added a second keyboardist, Doug Graves, who had been an engineer on Heroes Are Hard to Find. In late 1974, Graves was preparing to become a permanent member of the band by the end of their US tour.
I 'm looking forward to adding something to this already great band; I helped engineer their album ' Heroes Are Hard to Find ' and got to know each member well. It came to me as a shock when Mick asked me to join but I am enjoying playing live with the band, and hopefully will start a new studio album with the band soon.
However, Graves did not ultimately join full - time. In 1980, Christine McVie explained the decision:
"He (Doug Graves) was there to back me up, but I think it was decided after the first two or three concerts that I was better off without him. The band wanted me to expand my role and have a little more freedom, so he played some organ behind me, but he did n't play the same way I did... ''
Robert ("Bobby '') Hunt, who had been in the band Head West with Bob Welch back in 1970, replaced Graves. Neither musician, however, proved to be a long - term addition to the line - up, and Welch left soon after the tour ended (on 5 December 1974 at Cal State University), having grown tired of touring and legal struggles. Nevertheless, the tour enabled the Heroes album to reach a higher position on the American charts than any of the band 's previous records.
After Welch announced that he was leaving the band, Fleetwood Mac began searching for a possible replacement. While Fleetwood was checking out Sound City Studios in Los Angeles, the house engineer, Keith Olsen, played him a track he had recorded in the studio, "Frozen Love '', from the album Buckingham Nicks (1973). Fleetwood liked it, and was introduced to the guitarist from the band, Lindsey Buckingham, who coincidentally was at Sound City that day recording some demos. Fleetwood soon asked him to join. Buckingham agreed, on the condition that his music partner and girlfriend, Stevie Nicks, also become part of the band; Fleetwood agreed. Buckingham and Nicks joined the band on New Year 's Eve 1974 (within 4 weeks of the previous incarnation splitting).
In 1975, the new line - up released, another self - titled album, which was their tenth studio album. The album was a breakthrough for the band, and became a huge hit, reaching No. 1 in the US and selling over 5 million copies. Among the hit singles from this album were Christine McVie 's "Over My Head '' and "Say You Love Me '', and Stevie Nicks ' "Rhiannon '', as well as the much - played album track "Landslide '' (a live rendition of which became a hit twenty years later on The Dance album).
As time went on, the band was fraying apart in 1976; with the success of the band also came the end of John and Christine McVie 's marriage, as well as Buckingham and Nicks ' long term romantic relationship. Even Fleetwood was in the midst of divorce proceedings from his wife, Jenny. The pressure put on Fleetwood Mac to release a successful follow - up album, combined with their new - found wealth, led to creative and personal tensions, fuelled by high consumption of drugs and alcohol.
The band 's eleventh studio album, album Rumours (the band 's first release on the main Warner label after Reprise was retired and all of its acts were reassigned to the parent label), was released in the spring of 1977, in which the band members laid bare the emotional turmoil they were experiencing at the time. Critically acclaimed, it was the recipient of the Grammy Award for Album of the Year for 1977. The album generated multiple Top Ten singles, including Buckingham 's "Go Your Own Way '', Nicks ' US No. 1 "Dreams '' (sample (help info)), and Christine McVie 's "Do n't Stop '' and "You Make Loving Fun ''. Buckingham 's "Second Hand News '', Nicks ' "Gold Dust Woman '' and "The Chain '' (the only song written by all five bandmates) also received significant radio airplay. By 2003, Rumours had sold over 19 million copies in the US alone (certified as a diamond album by the RIAA), and a total of 40 million copies worldwide, bringing it to eighth on the list of best - selling albums. Fleetwood Mac supported the album with a lucrative tour.
On 10 October 1979, Fleetwood Mac was honoured with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their contributions to the music industry at 6608 Hollywood Boulevard.
Buckingham was able to convince Fleetwood to let his work on their next album be more experimental, and to work on tracks at home, then bring them to the band in the studio. The band 's twelfth studio album, Tusk, was a 20 - track double album released in 1979. It spawned three hit singles; Lindsey Buckingham 's "Tusk '' (US No. 8), which featured the USC Trojan Marching Band; Christine McVie 's "Think About Me '' (US No. 20); and Stevie Nicks ' 61⁄2 minute opus "Sara '' (US No. 7). "Sara '' was cut to 41⁄2 minutes for both the hit single and the first CD - release of the album, but the unedited version has since been restored on the 1988 greatest hits compilation, the 2004 reissue of Tusk and Fleetwood Mac 's 2002 release of The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac. Original guitarist Green also took part in the sessions of Tusk, but his playing for the Christine McVie track "Brown Eyes '' is not credited on the album.
Tusk sold four million copies worldwide. Fleetwood blamed the album 's relative failure on the RKO radio chain playing the album in its entirety prior to release, thus allowing mass home taping.
The band embarked on an 11 - month tour to support and promote Tusk. They travelled across the world, including the USA, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. In Germany, they shared the bill with reggae superstar Bob Marley. It was on this world tour that the band recorded music for their first live album, which was released at the end of 1980.
The band 's thirteenth studio album, Mirage was released in 1982. Following 1981 solo albums by Nicks (Bella Donna), Fleetwood (The Visitor), and Buckingham (Law and Order), was a return to a more conventional approach. Buckingham had been chided by critics, fellow band members and music business managers for the lesser commercial success enjoyed by Tusk. Recorded at Château d'Hérouville in France and produced by Richard Dashut, Mirage was an attempt to recapture the huge success of Rumours. Its hits included Christine McVie 's "Hold Me '' and "Love in Store '' (co-written by Robbie Patton and Jim Recor, respectively), Stevie Nicks ' "Gypsy '', and Lindsey Buckingham 's "Oh Diane '', which made the Top 10 in the UK. A minor hit was also scored by Buckingham 's "Eyes Of The World '' and "Ca n't Go Back ''.
In contrast to the Tusk Tour, the band only embarked on a short tour of 18 American cities, the Los Angeles show being recorded and released on video. They also headlined the first US Festival, on 5 September 1982, for which the band was paid $500,000 ($1,267,931 today). Mirage was certified double platinum in the US.
Following Mirage, the band went on hiatus, which allowed members to pursue solo careers. Stevie Nicks released two more solo albums (1983 's The Wild Heart and 1985 's Rock a Little), Lindsey Buckingham issued Go Insane in 1984, the same year that Christine McVie made an eponymous album (yielding the Top 10 hit "Got a Hold on Me '' and the Top 40 hit "Love Will Show Us How ''). All three met with success and it was Nicks who became the most popular. However, also during this period, Mick Fleetwood had filed for bankruptcy, Nicks was admitted to the Betty Ford Clinic for addiction problems, and John McVie had suffered an addiction - related seizure -- all attributed to the lifestyle of excess afforded to them by their worldwide success. It was rumoured that Fleetwood Mac had disbanded; however, Buckingham commented that he was unhappy to allow Mirage to remain as the band 's last effort.
The Rumours line - up of Fleetwood Mac recorded one more album for the time being, their fourteenth studio album, Tango in the Night, in 1987. Initially, as with various other Fleetwood Mac albums, the material started off as a Buckingham solo album before becoming a group project. The album went on to become their best - selling release since Rumours, especially in the UK where it hit No. 1 three times over the following year. The album sold three million copies in the USA and contained four hits: Christine McVie 's "Little Lies '' and "Everywhere '' (the former being co-written with McVie 's new husband Eddy Quintela), Sandy Stewart and Stevie Nicks ' "Seven Wonders '', and Lindsey Buckingham 's "Big Love ''. "Family Man '' (Buckingham and Richard Dashut), and "Is n't It Midnight '' (Christine McVie), were also released as singles, with lesser success.
Although a ten - week tour was scheduled, Buckingham held out at the very last minute. He tried to explain to his bandmates that he felt his creativity was being stifled by his remaining in the band. A group meeting at Christine McVie 's house on 7 August 1987 resulted in high turmoil, and tensions were slowly coming to a head. One incident highlighted where there was an alleged (in Mick Fleetwood 's autobiography) physical altercation between Buckingham and Nicks. Buckingham left the band the following day. Following Buckingham 's departure, Fleetwood Mac added two new guitarists to the band, Billy Burnette and Rick Vito, without auditions.
Burnette is the son of Dorsey Burnette and nephew of Johnny Burnette, both of The Rock and Roll Trio. He had already worked with Mick Fleetwood in Zoo, with Christine McVie as part of her solo band, done some session work with Stevie Nicks, and backed Lindsey Buckingham on Saturday Night Live. Furthermore, Fleetwood and Christine McVie had played on his Try Me album in 1985. Vito, a Peter Green admirer, had played with many artists from Bonnie Raitt to John Mayall, and worked with John McVie on two Mayall albums.
The 1987 -- 88 "Shake the Cage '' tour was the first outing for this line - up, and was successful enough to warrant the release of a concert video (simply titled "Tango in the Night ''), filmed at San Francisco 's Cow Palace arena in December 1987.
Capitalising on the success of Tango in the Night, the band continued with a Greatest Hits album in 1988. It featured singles from the 1975 -- 1988 era, and included two new compositions: "No Questions Asked '' written by Nicks, and "As Long as You Follow '' written by McVie and Quintela, which was released as a single in 1988 but only made No. 43 in the US and No. 66 in the UK. It did, however, reach No. 1 on the US Adult Contemporary charts. The Greatest Hits album, which peaked at No. 3 in the UK and No. 14 in the US (though has since sold over 8 million copies there), was dedicated to Buckingham by the band, with whom they had now reconciled.
In 1990, Fleetwood Mac released their fifteenth studio album, Behind the Mask. With this album, the band veered away from the stylised sound that Buckingham had evolved during his tenure in the band (also evident in his solo works), and ended up with a more adult contemporary style from producer Greg Ladanyi. However, the album yielded only one Top 40 hit, McVie 's "Save Me ''. Behind the Mask only achieved Gold album status in the US, peaking at No. 18 on the Billboard album chart, though it entered the UK Albums Chart at No. 1. It received mixed reviews, and was seen by some music critics as a low point for the band in the absence of Lindsey Buckingham (who had actually made a guest appearance by playing on the title track). However, Rolling Stone magazine said that Vito and Burnette were "the best thing to ever happen to Fleetwood Mac '' and the British Q magazine also praised the album in their review. The subsequent "Behind the Mask '' tour saw the band play sold out shows at London 's Wembley Stadium, and on the final show in Los Angeles, the band were joined onstage by Buckingham. The two women of the band, McVie and Nicks, had decided that the tour would be their last (McVie 's father died during the tour) though both stated that they would still record with the band. However, in 1991, both Nicks and Rick Vito announced they were leaving Fleetwood Mac altogether.
In 1992, Fleetwood himself arranged a 4 - disc box set, spanning highlights from the band 's 25 - year history, titled 25 Years -- The Chain (an edited 2 - disc set was also available). A notable inclusion in the box set was "Silver Springs '', a Stevie Nicks composition that was recorded during the Rumours sessions but was omitted from the album and used as the B - side of "Go Your Own Way '' instead. Nicks had requested use of the track for her 1991 best - of compilation TimeSpace, but Fleetwood had refused her request as he had planned to include it in this collection as something of a rarity. The disagreement between Nicks and Fleetwood garnered press coverage, and was believed to be the main catalyst for Nicks leaving the band in 1991. The box set, however, also included a brand new Stevie Nicks / Rick Vito composition, "Paper Doll '', which was released in the US as a single. As both members had left the band by this point, the track was presumably a leftover from the Behind the Mask sessions. There were also two new Christine McVie compositions, "Heart of Stone '' and "Love Shines '', the latter of which was released as a single in the UK and certain other territories. Lindsey Buckingham also contributed a new song, "Make Me a Mask '', which bore all the markings of an insular Buckingham studio creation, devoid of input from other band members. Mick Fleetwood also released a deluxe hardcover companion book to coincide with the release of the box set, titled My 25 Years in Fleetwood Mac. The volume featured many rare photographs and notes (written by Fleetwood himself) detailing the band 's 25 - year history.
Some months after this, the Buckingham / Nicks / McVie / McVie / Fleetwood line - up reunited at the request of US President Bill Clinton for his first Inaugural Ball in 1993. Clinton had made Fleetwood Mac 's "Do n't Stop '' his campaign theme song. His subsequent request to perform it at the Inauguration Ball was met with enthusiasm by the band. However, this line - up had no intention to reunite again.
Inspired by the new interest in the band, Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, and Christine McVie recorded another album as Fleetwood Mac, with Billy Burnette taking on lead guitar duties. However, just as they made the decision to continue, Billy Burnette announced in March 1993 that he was leaving the band to pursue a country album and an acting career. Bekka Bramlett, who had worked a year earlier with Mick Fleetwood 's Zoo, was recruited. Solo singer - songwriter / guitarist and Traffic member Dave Mason, who had worked with Bekka 's parents Delaney & Bonnie twenty five years earlier, was subsequently added. By March 1994, Billy Burnette, himself a good friend and co-songwriter with Delaney Bramlett, returned with Fleetwood 's blessing.
The band, minus Christine McVie, toured in 1994, opening for Crosby, Stills, & Nash, and in 1995 as part of a package with REO Speedwagon and Pat Benatar. The tour saw the band perform classic Fleetwood Mac songs from the initial 1967 -- 1974 era. In 1995, at a concert in Tokyo, the band was greeted by former member Jeremy Spencer, who performed a few songs with them.
On 10 October 1995, Fleetwood Mac released their sixteenth studio album, Time, which proved to be far less successful. Although hitting the UK Top 60 for one week, the album had zero impact in the US. It failed even to graze the Billboard Top 200 albums chart, a stunning reversal for a band that had been a mainstay on that chart for most of the previous two decades. Shortly after the album 's release, Christine McVie informed the band that the album would be her last. Bramlett and Burnette subsequently formed a country music duo, Bekka & Billy.
Just weeks after disbanding Fleetwood Mac, Mick Fleetwood announced that he was working with Lindsey Buckingham again. John McVie was soon added to the sessions, and later Christine McVie. Stevie Nicks also enlisted Lindsey Buckingham to produce a song for a soundtrack.
In May 1996, Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Christine McVie, and Stevie Nicks made an appearance at a private party in Louisville, Kentucky prior to the Kentucky Derby (with Steve Winwood filling in for Lindsey Buckingham). A week later, the Twister film soundtrack was released, which featured the Stevie Nicks - Lindsey Buckingham duet, "Twisted '', with Mick Fleetwood on drums. This eventually led to a full Rumours line - up reunion when the band officially reformed in March 1997.
The regrouped Fleetwood Mac performed a live concert recorded on a Warner Bros. Burbank, California soundstage on 22 May, and from this performance came the 1997 live album The Dance, bringing Fleetwood Mac back to the top of the US album charts for the first time in 10 years. The album returned Fleetwood Mac to their superstar commercial status that they had not enjoyed since their Tango in the Night album. The album was certified a 5 million seller by the RIAA. A successful arena tour followed the MTV premiere of The Dance, which kept the reunited Fleetwood Mac on the road throughout much of 1997, the 20th anniversary of their Rumours album. With the added ensemble of Neale Heywood on guitar, Brett Tuggle on keyboards, Lenny Castro on percussion, and Sharon Celani (she had toured with Fleetwood Mac in the late 1980s) and Mindy Stein on backing vocals, this would, however, be the final foray of the classic line - up with Christine McVie for 16 years. As of 2015, Brett Tuggle, Neale Heywood, and Sharon Celani still perform with Fleetwood Mac as touring musicians.
In 1998, Fleetwood Mac were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Members inducted included the original band -- Mick Fleetwood, John McVie, Peter Green, Jeremy Spencer, and Danny Kirwan -- and Rumours - era members Christine McVie, Stevie Nicks, and Lindsey Buckingham, but not Bob Welch, despite his key role in keeping the band alive during the early 1970s. The Rumours - era version of the band performed both at the induction ceremony and at the Grammy Awards program that year. Peter Green attended the induction ceremony but did not perform with his former bandmates, opting instead to perform his composition "Black Magic Woman '' with Santana, who were inducted the same night. Neither Jeremy Spencer nor Danny Kirwan attended. Fleetwood Mac were also the recipients of the "Outstanding Contribution to Music '' award at the BRIT Awards (British Phonographic Industry Awards) the same year.
In 1998, Christine McVie left the band. Her departure left Buckingham and Nicks to sing all the lead vocals for the band 's seventeenth album, Say You Will, released in 2003, although Christine did contribute some backing vocals and keyboards. The album debuted at No. 3 on the Billboard 200 chart (No. 6 in the UK) and yielded chart hits with "Peacekeeper '' and the title track, and a successful world arena tour, which lasted through 2004. The tour grossed $27,711,129, and was ranked No. 21 in the top 25 grossing tours of 2004.
Around 2004 -- 05, there were rumours of a reunion of the early line - up of Fleetwood Mac, involving Peter Green and Jeremy Spencer. While these two guitarists and vocalists apparently remained unconvinced of the merits of such a project, in April 2006, during a question - and - answer session on the Penguin Fleetwood Mac fan website, bassist John McVie said of the reunion idea:
If we could get Peter and Jeremy to do it, I 'd probably, maybe, do it. I know Mick would do it in a flash. Unfortunately, I do n't think there 's much chance of Danny doing it. Bless his heart.
In interviews given in November 2006 to support his solo album Under the Skin, Buckingham stated that plans for the band to reunite once more for a 2008 tour were still on the cards. Recording plans have been put on hold for the foreseeable future. In a September 2007 interview Stevie Nicks gave to the UK newspaper The Daily Telegraph, she noted that she was unwilling to carry on with the band unless Christine McVie returned. However, in a more recent interview, Mick Fleetwood said "... be very happy and hopeful that we will be working again. I can tell you everyone 's going to be extremely excited about what 's happening with Fleetwood Mac. ''
On 14 March 2008, the Associated Press reported Sheryl Crow as saying that she would be working with Fleetwood Mac in 2009. Crow and Stevie Nicks collaborated a great deal in the past and she has stated that Nicks has been a great teacher and inspiration for her. In a subsequent interview with Buckingham, he said after discussions between the band and Crow, the potential collaboration with Crow "lost its momentum ''. However, in a June 2008 interview, Nicks denied that Crow would be joining Fleetwood Mac as a replacement for Christine McVie. According to Nicks, "the group will start working on material and recording probably in October, and finish an album. '' On 7 October 2008, Mick Fleetwood confirmed on the BBC 's The One Show that the band were working in the studio and also announced plans for a world tour in 2009.
In late 2008, Fleetwood Mac announced that the band would tour in 2009, beginning in March. As per the 2003 -- 2004 tour, Christine McVie would not be featured in the line - up. The tour was branded as a greatest hits show entitled "Unleashed '', although they played album tracks such as "Storms '' and "I Know I 'm Not Wrong ''. The first show was on 1 March 2009, and in February they announced a slew of new dates.
During their show on 20 June 2009 in New Orleans, Louisiana, Stevie Nicks premiered part of a new song that she had written about Hurricane Katrina. The song was later released as "New Orleans '' on Stevie Nicks ' 2011 album In Your Dreams with Mick Fleetwood on drums. In October 2009, the band began a tour of Europe that carried on into early November, followed by a tour of Australia and New Zealand in December. Also in October, The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac was re-released in an extended two - disc format (this format having been released in the US in 2002), premiering at number six on the UK Albums Chart. On 1 November 2009, a new one - hour documentary, Fleetwood Mac: Do n't Stop, was broadcast in the UK on BBC One, which featured recent interviews with all four current band members. During the documentary, Nicks gave a candid summary of the current state of her relationship with Buckingham, stating "Maybe when we 're 75 and Fleetwood Mac is a distant memory, we might be friends. ''
On 6 November 2009, Fleetwood Mac played the last show of the European leg of their Unleashed tour at London 's Wembley Arena. Christine McVie was present in the audience, so Stevie Nicks paid a tribute from the stage to a standing ovation from the audience, stating that she thought about her former bandmate "every day '', and went on to dedicate that night 's performance of "Landslide '' to McVie. On 19 December 2009, Fleetwood Mac played the second to last act of their Unleashed tour to a sell - out crowd at what was originally intended to be a one - off event at the TSB Bowl of Brooklands, New Plymouth, New Zealand. Tickets, after pre-sales, sold out within twelve minutes of public release, and another date (Sunday 20 December) was added and also sold out. The tour grossed $84,900,000 and was ranked No. 13 in the highest grossing worldwide tours of 2009. On 19 October 2010, Fleetwood Mac played a private show at the Phoenician Hotel in Scottsdale, Arizona for TPG (Texas Pacific Group).
On 3 May 2011, the Fox Network broadcast an episode of Glee entitled "Rumours '' that featured six songs from the band 's 1977 album. The show sparked renewed interest in the band and its commercially most successful album, and Rumours reentered the Billboard 200 chart at No. 11, the same week that Stevie Nicks ' new solo album In Your Dreams debuted at No. 6. (Nicks was quoted by Billboard saying that her new album was "my own little Rumours. '') The two recordings sold about 30,000 and 52,000 units, respectively. Music downloads accounted for ninety - one percent of the Rumours sales. The spike in sales for Rumours represented an uptick of 1,951 %. It was the highest chart entry by a previously issued album since The Rolling Stones 's reissue of Exile On Main St. reentered the chart at No. 2 on 5 June 2010. In a July 2012 interview, Nicks confirmed that the band would reunite for a tour in 2013.
Original Fleetwood Mac bassist Bob Brunning died on 18 October 2011, at the age of 68. Former guitarist and singer Bob Weston was found dead on 3 January 2012, at the age of 64. Former singer and guitarist Bob Welch was found dead from a self - inflicted gunshot wound on 7 June 2012, at the age of 66. Don Aaron, a spokesman at the scene, stated, "He died from an apparent self - inflicted gunshot wound to the chest. '' A suicide note was found in the residence (Tennessean Music Team). The musician had been struggling with health issues and was dealing with depression. His wife was the one to discover the body.
The band 's 2013 tour, which took place in 34 cities, started on 4 April in Columbus, OH. The band performed two new songs ("Sad Angel '' and "Without You ''), which Buckingham described as some of the most "Fleetwood Mac - ey '' sounding songs since Mirage, with the latter song re-recorded from the Buckingham - Nicks era. The band released their first new studio material in ten years, Extended Play, on 30 April 2013. The EP debuted and peaked at No. 48 in the US, and produced one single, "Sad Angel ''. On 25 and 27 September 2013, the second and third nights of the band 's London O2 shows, Christine McVie joined them onstage for "Do n't Stop ''.
On 27 October, the band announced that John McVie had been diagnosed with cancer, and that they were cancelling their New Zealand and Australian performances, so that he could undergo treatment. They stated that "We are sorry to not be able to play these Australian and New Zealand dates. We hope our Australian and New Zealand fans as well as Fleetwood Mac fans everywhere will join us in wishing John and his family all the best. '' According to The Guardian on 22 November 2013, Christine McVie stated that she would like to return to Fleetwood Mac if they wanted her, and also affirmed that John McVie 's prognosis was "really good. ''
On 11 January 2014, Mick Fleetwood announced that Christine McVie would be rejoining Fleetwood Mac, and the news was confirmed on 13 January by the band 's primary publicist, Liz Rosenberg. Rosenberg also stated that an official announcement regarding a new album and tour would be forthcoming. In October 2014, Nicks appeared in American Horror Story: Coven while Fleetwood Mac 's song "Seven Wonders '' was playing in the background.
On with the Show, a 33 - city North American Tour opened in Minneapolis, Minnesota on 30 September 2014. A series of May -- June 2015 arena dates in the United Kingdom went on sale on 14 November, selling out in minutes. Additional dates for the tour were added, extending into November.
In January 2015, Buckingham suggested that the new album and the new tour might be Fleetwood Mac 's last act, and that the band would cease operations in 2015 or soon afterwards. He concluded: "We 're going to continue working on the new album, and the solo stuff will take a back seat for a year or two. A beautiful way to wrap up this last act. '' On the other hand, Mick Fleetwood stated that the new album may take a few years to complete and that they are waiting for contributions from Stevie Nicks, who has been ambivalent about committing to a new record.
In August 2016, Fleetwood revealed that while the band has "a huge amount of recorded music '', virtually none of it features Stevie Nicks. Buckingham and Christine McVie, however, have contributed multiple songs to the new project. Fleetwood told Ultimate Classic Rock, "She (McVie)... wrote up a storm... She and Lindsey could probably have a mighty strong duet album if they want. In truth, I hope it will come to more than that. There really are dozens of songs. And they 're really good. So we 'll see. ''
Stevie Nicks explained her reluctance to record another album with Fleetwood Mac. "Is it possible that Fleetwood Mac might do another record? I can never tell you yes or no, because I do n't know. I honestly do n't know... It 's like, do you want to take a chance of going in and setting up in a room for like a year (to record an album) and having a bunch of arguing people? And then not wanting to go on tour because you just spent a year arguing? ''. She also emphasized the point that people do n't buy as many records as they used to.
Buckingham and Christine McVie announced a new album titled Lindsey Buckingham / Christine McVie, which features Mick Fleetwood and John McVie on a few tracks. Lindsey Buckingham / Christine McVie was released on 9 June 2017, and was preceded by the single, "In My World ''. A 38 - date tour was arranged, which began on 21 June and concluded 16 November. Fleetwood Mac also plan to embark on another tour in 2018. Fleetwood Mac headlined the second night of the Classic West concert (on 16 July 2017 at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles) and the second night of the Classic East concert (at New York 's Citi Field on 30 July 2017).
In November 2017, the band announced a deluxe reissue of their 1975 self - titled album. The reissue features a remastered version of the original album along with unreleased outtakes, alternate versions and live versions. The repackage was officially released worldwide on 19 January 2018. Fleetwood Mac were announced at the MusiCares Person of the Year in 2018 and reunited to perform several songs at the Grammy - hosted gala honouring them. Artists including Lorde, Harry Styles, Little Big Town and Miley Cyrus also performed.
In April 2018, the song "Dreams '' re-entered the Hot Rock Songs chart at No. 16 due to a viral meme featuring the hit song. This chart re-entry comes 40 years after the song topped the Hot 100. The song 's streaming totals also translated into 7,000 "equivalent album units '' -- a jump of 12 percent -- which helped Rumours go from No. 21 to No. 13 on the Top Rock Albums chart.
Also that month, Buckingham departed the group a second time, reportedly by way of dismissal. The cause was said to be disagreement about the nature of the tour, in particular centering on whether newer or less well known material might be included per Buckingham 's desire. Mick Fleetwood and the band appeared on CBS This Morning on 25 April 2018 and said that Buckingham would not sign off on a Tour that the group had been planning for a year and a half. He said that they had reached a "huge impasse '' and "hit a brick wall. '' When asked if Buckingham had been fired, Fleetwood said, "Well, we do n't use that word because I think it 's ugly. '' He also said that "Lindsey has huge amounts of respect and kudos to what he 's done within the ranks of Fleetwood Mac and always will. ''
Former Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers guitarist Mike Campbell and Neil Finn of Crowded House were named to replace Buckingham. On CBS This Morning, Fleetwood said that Fleetwood Mac had been reborn and that "This is the new lineup of Fleetwood Mac. ''
In April 2018 the band announced "An Evening with Fleetwood Mac '' tour starting in October 2018. The band will launch the tour at the iHeartRadio Music Festival on Sept. 21, 2018, at the T - Mobile Arena in Las Vegas, NV.
Danny Kirwan died of pneumonia on June 8, 2018
The 1967 -- 1969 era Blue Horizon albums (Fleetwood Mac, Mr. Wonderful, The Pious Bird of Good Omen and Fleetwood Mac in Chicago) and 1971 outtakes album The Original Fleetwood Mac have been remastered and reissued on CD, as have the 1975 -- 1987 era Warner Bros. studio albums Fleetwood Mac, Rumours, Tusk, Mirage, and Tango in the Night
In 2013, a deluxe edition of Rumours was released. The same year, Then Play On was remastered and reissued on CD. Reissues of "Then Play On '', "Kiln House '', "Future Games '' and "Bare Trees '' were released on vinyl, initially bundled with a 7 '' single of "Oh Well, Parts I & II '', then released separately in 2014. In 2015, a 5CD / 1DVD / 2 LP deluxe edition, a 3CD expanded edition, plus a 1CD remaster of Tusk was released. In 2016, multiple editions of Mirage remastered were released. A 30th anniversary edition of Tango in the Night was released 31 March 2017.
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historical development of the modern model of the atom | Atomic theory - wikipedia
In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a scientific theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms. It began as a philosophical concept in ancient Greece and entered the scientific mainstream in the early 19th century when discoveries in the field of chemistry showed that matter did indeed behave as if it were made up of atoms.
The word atom comes from the Ancient Greek adjective atomos, meaning "indivisible ''. 19th century chemists began using the term in connection with the growing number of irreducible chemical elements. While seemingly apropos, around the turn of the 20th century, through various experiments with electromagnetism and radioactivity, physicists discovered that the so - called "uncuttable atom '' was actually a conglomerate of various subatomic particles (chiefly, electrons, protons and neutrons) which can exist separately from each other. In fact, in certain extreme environments, such as neutron stars, extreme temperature and pressure prevents atoms from existing at all.
Since atoms were found to be divisible, physicists later invented the term "elementary particles '' to describe the "uncuttable '', though not indestructible, parts of an atom. The field of science which studies subatomic particles is particle physics, and it is in this field that physicists hope to discover the true fundamental nature of matter.
The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old one, appearing in many ancient cultures such as Greece and India. However, these ideas were founded in philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evidence and experimentation. Because of this, they could not convince everybody, so atomism was but one of a number of competing theories on the nature of matter. It was not until the 19th century that the idea was embraced and refined by scientists, as the blossoming science of chemistry produced discoveries that could easily be explained using the concept of atoms.
Near the end of the 18th century, two laws about chemical reactions emerged without referring to the notion of an atomic theory. The first was the law of conservation of mass, formulated by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789, which states that the total mass in a chemical reaction remains constant (that is, the reactants have the same mass as the products). The second was the law of definite proportions. First proven by the French chemist Joseph Louis Proust in 1799, this law states that if a compound is broken down into its constituent elements, then the masses of the constituents will always have the same proportions, regardless of the quantity or source of the original substance.
John Dalton studied and expanded upon this previous work and developed the law of multiple proportions: if two elements can be combined to form a number of possible compounds, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small whole numbers. For example: Proust had studied tin oxides and found that their masses were either 88.1 % tin and 11.9 % oxygen or 78.7 % tin and 21.3 % oxygen (these were tin (II) oxide and tin dioxide respectively). Dalton noted from these percentages that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5 g or 27g of oxygen; 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1: 2. Dalton found that an atomic theory of matter could elegantly explain this common pattern in chemistry. In the case of Proust 's tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms.
Dalton believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbed different gases in different proportions - for example, he found that water absorbed carbon dioxide far better than it absorbed nitrogen. Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences in mass and complexity of the gases ' respective particles. Indeed, carbon dioxide molecules (CO) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules (N).
Dalton proposed that each chemical element is composed of atoms of a single, unique type, and though they can not be altered or destroyed by chemical means, they can combine to form more complex structures (chemical compounds). This marked the first truly scientific theory of the atom, since Dalton reached his conclusions by experimentation and examination of the results in an empirical fashion.
In 1803 Dalton orally presented his first list of relative atomic weights for a number of substances. This paper was published in 1805, but he did not discuss there exactly how he obtained these figures. The method was first revealed in 1807 by his acquaintance Thomas Thomson, in the third edition of Thomson 's textbook, A System of Chemistry. Finally, Dalton published a full account in his own textbook, A New System of Chemical Philosophy, 1808 and 1810.
Dalton estimated the atomic weights according to the mass ratios in which they combined, with the hydrogen atom taken as unity. However, Dalton did not conceive that with some elements atoms exist in molecules -- e.g. pure oxygen exists as O. He also mistakenly believed that the simplest compound between any two elements is always one atom of each (so he thought water was HO, not H O). This, in addition to the crudity of his equipment, flawed his results. For instance, in 1803 he believed that oxygen atoms were 5.5 times heavier than hydrogen atoms, because in water he measured 5.5 grams of oxygen for every 1 gram of hydrogen and believed the formula for water was HO. Adopting better data, in 1806 he concluded that the atomic weight of oxygen must actually be 7 rather than 5.5, and he retained this weight for the rest of his life. Others at this time had already concluded that the oxygen atom must weigh 8 relative to hydrogen equals 1, if one assumes Dalton 's formula for the water molecule (HO), or 16 if one assumes the modern water formula (H O).
The flaw in Dalton 's theory was corrected in principle in 1811 by Amedeo Avogadro. Avogadro had proposed that equal volumes of any two gases, at equal temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules (in other words, the mass of a gas 's particles does not affect the volume that it occupies). Avogadro 's law allowed him to deduce the diatomic nature of numerous gases by studying the volumes at which they reacted. For instance: since two liters of hydrogen will react with just one liter of oxygen to produce two liters of water vapor (at constant pressure and temperature), it meant a single oxygen molecule splits in two in order to form two particles of water. Thus, Avogadro was able to offer more accurate estimates of the atomic mass of oxygen and various other elements, and made a clear distinction between molecules and atoms.
In 1827, the British botanist Robert Brown observed that dust particles inside pollen grains floating in water constantly jiggled about for no apparent reason. In 1905, Albert Einstein theorized that this Brownian motion was caused by the water molecules continuously knocking the grains about, and developed a hypothetical mathematical model to describe it. This model was validated experimentally in 1908 by French physicist Jean Perrin, thus providing additional validation for particle theory (and by extension atomic theory).
Atoms were thought to be the smallest possible division of matter until 1897 when J.J. Thomson discovered the electron through his work on cathode rays.
A Crookes tube is a sealed glass container in which two electrodes are separated by a vacuum. When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, cathode rays are generated, creating a glowing patch where they strike the glass at the opposite end of the tube. Through experimentation, Thomson discovered that the rays could be deflected by an electric field (in addition to magnetic fields, which was already known). He concluded that these rays, rather than being a form of light, were composed of very light negatively charged particles he called "corpuscles '' (they would later be renamed electrons by other scientists). He measured the mass - to - charge ratio and discovered it was 1800 times smaller than that of hydrogen, the smallest atom. These corpuscles were a particle unlike any other previously known.
Thomson suggested that atoms were divisible, and that the corpuscles were their building blocks. To explain the overall neutral charge of the atom, he proposed that the corpuscles were distributed in a uniform sea of positive charge; this was the plum pudding model as the electrons were embedded in the positive charge like plums in a plum pudding (although in Thomson 's model they were not stationary).
Thomson 's plum pudding model was disproved in 1909 by one of his former students, Ernest Rutherford, who discovered that most of the mass and positive charge of an atom is concentrated in a very small fraction of its volume, which he assumed to be at the very center.
In the Geiger -- Marsden experiment, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden (colleagues of Rutherford working at his behest) shot alpha particles at thin sheets of metal and measured their deflection through the use of a fluorescent screen. Given the very small mass of the electrons, the high momentum of the alpha particles, and the low concentration of the positive charge of the plum pudding model, the experimenters expected all the alpha particles to pass through the metal foil without significant deflection. To their astonishment, a small fraction of the alpha particles experienced heavy deflection. Rutherford concluded that the positive charge of the atom must be concentrated in a very tiny volume to produce an electric field sufficiently intense to deflect the alpha particles so strongly.
This led Rutherford to propose a planetary model in which a cloud of electrons surrounded a small, compact nucleus of positive charge. Only such a concentration of charge could produce the electric field strong enough to cause the heavy deflection.
The planetary model of the atom had two significant shortcomings. The first is that, unlike planets orbiting a sun, electrons are charged particles. An accelerating electric charge is known to emit electromagnetic waves according to the Larmor formula in classical electromagnetism. An orbiting charge should steadily lose energy and spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a small fraction of a second. The second problem was that the planetary model could not explain the highly peaked emission and absorption spectra of atoms that were observed.
Quantum theory revolutionized physics at the beginning of the 20th century, when Max Planck and Albert Einstein postulated that light energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete amounts known as quanta (singular, quantum). In 1913, Niels Bohr incorporated this idea into his Bohr model of the atom, in which an electron could only orbit the nucleus in particular circular orbits with fixed angular momentum and energy, its distance from the nucleus (i.e., their radii) being proportional to its energy. Under this model an electron could not spiral into the nucleus because it could not lose energy in a continuous manner; instead, it could only make instantaneous "quantum leaps '' between the fixed energy levels. When this occurred, light was emitted or absorbed at a frequency proportional to the change in energy (hence the absorption and emission of light in discrete spectra).
Bohr 's model was not perfect. It could only predict the spectral lines of hydrogen; it could n't predict those of multielectron atoms. Worse still, as spectrographic technology improved, additional spectral lines in hydrogen were observed which Bohr 's model could n't explain. In 1916, Arnold Sommerfeld added elliptical orbits to the Bohr model to explain the extra emission lines, but this made the model very difficult to use, and it still could n't explain more complex atoms.
While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one element at each position on the periodic table. The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for these elements.
That same year, J.J. Thomson conducted an experiment in which he channeled a stream of neon ions through magnetic and electric fields, striking a photographic plate at the other end. He observed two glowing patches on the plate, which suggested two different deflection trajectories. Thomson concluded this was because some of the neon ions had a different mass. The nature of this differing mass would later be explained by the discovery of neutrons in 1932.
In 1917 Rutherford bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles and observed hydrogen nuclei being emitted from the gas (Rutherford recognized these, because he had previously obtained them bombarding hydrogen with alpha particles, and observing hydrogen nuclei in the products). Rutherford concluded that the hydrogen nuclei emerged from the nuclei of the nitrogen atoms themselves (in effect, he had split a nitrogen).
From his own work and the work of his students Bohr and Henry Moseley, Rutherford knew that the positive charge of any atom could always be equated to that of an integer number of hydrogen nuclei. This, coupled with the atomic mass of many elements being roughly equivalent to an integer number of hydrogen atoms - then assumed to be the lightest particles - led him to conclude that hydrogen nuclei were singular particles and a basic constituent of all atomic nuclei. He named such particles protons. Further experimentation by Rutherford found that the nuclear mass of most atoms exceeded that of the protons it possessed; he speculated that this surplus mass was composed of previously - unknown neutrally charged particles, which were tentatively dubbed "neutrons ''.
In 1928, Walter Bothe observed that beryllium emitted a highly penetrating, electrically neutral radiation when bombarded with alpha particles. It was later discovered that this radiation could knock hydrogen atoms out of paraffin wax. Initially it was thought to be high - energy gamma radiation, since gamma radiation had a similar effect on electrons in metals, but James Chadwick found that the ionization effect was too strong for it to be due to electromagnetic radiation, so long as energy and momentum were conserved in the interaction. In 1932, Chadwick exposed various elements, such as hydrogen and nitrogen, to the mysterious "beryllium radiation '', and by measuring the energies of the recoiling charged particles, he deduced that the radiation was actually composed of electrically neutral particles which could not be massless like the gamma ray, but instead were required to have a mass similar to that of a proton. Chadwick now claimed these particles as Rutherford 's neutrons. For his discovery of the neutron, Chadwick received the Nobel Prize in 1935.
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that all moving particles -- particularly subatomic particles such as electrons -- exhibit a degree of wave - like behavior. Erwin Schrödinger, fascinated by this idea, explored whether or not the movement of an electron in an atom could be better explained as a wave rather than as a particle. Schrödinger 's equation, published in 1926, describes an electron as a wavefunction instead of as a point particle. This approach elegantly predicted many of the spectral phenomena that Bohr 's model failed to explain. Although this concept was mathematically convenient, it was difficult to visualize, and faced opposition. One of its critics, Max Born, proposed instead that Schrödinger 's wavefunction described not the electron but rather all its possible states, and thus could be used to calculate the probability of finding an electron at any given location around the nucleus. This reconciled the two opposing theories of particle versus wave electrons and the idea of wave -- particle duality was introduced. This theory stated that the electron may exhibit the properties of both a wave and a particle. For example, it can be refracted like a wave, and has mass like a particle.
A consequence of describing electrons as waveforms is that it is mathematically impossible to simultaneously derive the position and momentum of an electron. This became known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle after the theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg, who first described it and published it in 1927. This invalidated Bohr 's model, with its neat, clearly defined circular orbits. The modern model of the atom describes the positions of electrons in an atom in terms of probabilities. An electron can potentially be found at any distance from the nucleus, but, depending on its energy level, exists more frequently in certain regions around the nucleus than others; this pattern is referred to as its atomic orbital. The orbitals come in a variety of shapes - sphere, dumbbell, torus, etc. - with the nucleus in the middle.
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the st. lawrence seaway has been called canada’s highway to the sea because | Saint Lawrence Seaway - wikipedia
The Saint Lawrence Seaway (French: la Voie Maritime du Saint - Laurent) is a system of locks, canals and channels in Canada and the United States that permit ocean - going vessels to travel from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes of North America, as far inland as the western end of Lake Superior. The Seaway is named for the Saint Lawrence River, which flows from Lake Ontario to the Atlantic Ocean. Legally, the Seaway extends from Montreal, Quebec, to Lake Erie and includes the Welland Canal.
This section upstream of the Seaway is not a continuous canal; rather, it consists of several stretches of navigable channels within the river, a number of locks, and canals along the banks of the St. Lawrence River to bypass several rapids and dams. A number of the locks are managed by the St. Lawrence Seaway Management Corporation in Canada, and others in the United States by the Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation; the two bodies together advertise the Seaway as part of "Highway H O ''. The section of the river from Montreal to the Atlantic is within Canadian jurisdiction and is regulated by the offices of Transport Canada in the Port of Quebec.
The Saint Lawrence Seaway was preceded by several other canals. In 1871, locks on the Saint Lawrence allowed transit of vessels 186 ft (57 m) long, 44 ft 6 in (13.56 m) wide, and 9 ft (2.7 m) deep. The First Welland Canal, constructed from 1824 -- 1829, had a minimum lock size of 110 ft (34 m) long, 22 ft (6.7 m) wide, and 8 ft (2.4 m) deep, but it was generally too small to allow passage of larger ocean - going ships. The Welland Canal 's minimum lock size was increased to 150 ft (46 m) long, 26.5 ft (8.1 m) wide, and 9 ft (2.7 m) deep for the Second Welland Canal; to 270 ft (82 m) long, 45 ft (14 m) wide, and 14 ft (4.3 m) deep with the Third Welland Canal; and to 766 ft (233 m) long, 80 ft (24 m) wide, and 30 ft (9.1 m) deep for the current (Fourth) Welland Canal.
The first proposals for a bi-national comprehensive deep waterway along the Saint Lawrence were made in the 1890s. In the following decades, developers proposed a hydropower project as inseparable from the seaway; the various governments and seaway supporters believed the deeper water to be created by the hydro project was necessary to make the seaway channels feasible for ocean - going ships. United States proposals for development up to and including the First World War met with little interest from the Canadian federal government. But the two national governments submitted Saint Lawrence plans to a group for study. By the early 1920s, both The Wooten - Bowden Report and the International Joint Commission recommended the project.
Although the Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King was reluctant to proceed, in part because of opposition to the project in Quebec, in 1932 he and the United States representative signed a treaty of intent. This treaty was submitted to the United States Senate in November 1932 and hearings continued until a vote was taken on March 14, 1934. The majority voted in favor of the treaty, but it failed to gain the necessary two - thirds vote for ratification. Later attempts between the governments in the 1930s to forge an agreement came to naught due to opposition by the Ontario government of Mitchell Hepburn, and that of Quebec. In 1936, John C. Beukema, head of the Great Lakes Harbors Association and a member of the Great Lakes Tidewater Commission, was among a delegation of eight from the Great Lakes states to meet at the White House with U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to get his support of the Seaway concept.
Beukema and Saint Lawrence Seaway proponents were convinced a nautical link would lead to development of the communities and economies of the Great Lakes region by enabling ocean - going ships. In this period, grain exports to Europe were an important part of the national economy, along with other commodities. The negotiations on the treaty resumed in 1938 and by January 1940, substantial agreement was reached between Canada and the United States. By 1941, President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Mackenzie King made an executive agreement to build the joint hydro and navigation works, but this failed to receive the assent of the U.S. Congress. Proposals for the seaway were met with resistance; primary opposition came from interests representing harbors on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and internal waterways, and from the railroads associations. The railroads carried freight and goods between the coastal ports and the Great Lakes cities.
After 1945, proposals to introduce tolls to the Seaway were not sufficient to gain support by the U.S. Congress for the project. Growing impatient, and with Ontario desperate for the power to be generated by hydro - electricity, Canada began to consider "going it alone ''. This seized the imagination of Canadians, engendering a groundswell of Saint Lawrence nationalism. Canadian Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent advised U.S. President Harry S. Truman on September 28, 1951 that Canada was unwilling to wait for the United States and would build a seaway alone; the Canadian Parliament authorized the founding of the Saint Lawrence Seaway Authority on December 21 of that year. Fueled by this support, Saint Laurent 's administration decided during 1951 and 1952 to construct the waterway alone, combined with the Moses - Saunders Power Dam. (This became the joint responsibility of Ontario and New York: as a hydro - power dam would change the water levels, it required bilateral cooperation.)
The International Joint Commission issued an order of approval for joint construction of the dam in October 1952. U.S. Senate debate on the bill began on January 12, 1953, and the bill emerged from the House of Representatives Committee of Public Works on February 22, 1954. It received approval by the Senate and the House by May 1954. The first positive action to enlarge the seaway was taken on May 13, 1954 when U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Wiley - Dondero Seaway Act to authorize joint construction and to establish the Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation as the US authority. The need for cheap haulage of Quebec - Labrador iron ore was one of the arguments that finally swung the balance in favor of the seaway. Ground - breaking ceremonies took place in Massena, New York, on August 10, 1954. That year John C. Beukema was appointed by Eisenhower to the five - member St. Lawrence Seaway Advisory Board.
In May 1957, the Connecting Channels Project was begun by the United States Army Corps of Engineers. By 1959, Beukema was on board the U.S. Coast Guard cutter Maple for the first trip through the U.S. locks that opened up the Great Lakes to ocean - going ships. On April 25, 1959, large, deep - draft, ocean vessels began streaming to the heart of the North American continent through the seaway, a project which had been supported by every administration from Woodrow Wilson through Eisenhower.
In the United States, Dr. N.R. Danelian (who was the director of the 13 - volume Saint Lawrence Seaway Survey in the U.S. Department of Navigation (1932 -- 1963)), worked with the U.S. Secretary of State on Canadian - United States issues regarding the Seaway, persevering through 15 years to gain passage by Congress of the Seaway Act. He later became President of the Great Lakes St. Lawrence Association to promote Seaway development to benefit the American Heartland. The Seaway was heavily promoted by the Eisenhower administration, who were concerned with the its locus of control.
The seaway opened in 1959 and cost C $ 470 million, $336.2 million of which was paid by the Canadian government. Queen Elizabeth II and American President Dwight D. Eisenhower formally opened the Seaway with a short cruise aboard the royal yacht HMY Britannia after addressing crowds in Saint - Lambert, Quebec. 22,000 workers were employed at one time or another on the project, a 2,300 - mile - long superhighway for ocean freighters. Port of Milwaukee director Harry C. Brockel forecast just before the Seaway opened in 1959 that "The St. Lawrence Seaway will be the greatest single development of this century in its effects on Milwaukee 's future growth and prosperity. '' Lester Olsen, president of the Milwaukee Association of Commerce, said, "The magnitude and potential of the St. Lawrence Seaway and the power project stir the imagination of the world. ''
The seaway 's opening is often credited with making the Erie Canal obsolete, and causing the severe economic decline of several cities along the canal in Upstate New York. By the turn of the 20th century, the Erie Canal had been largely supplanted by the railroads, which had been constructed across New York and could carry freight more quickly and cheaply. Upstate New York 's economic decline was precipitated by numerous factors, only some of which had to do with the St. Lawrence Seaway.
Under the Canada Marine Act (1998), the Canadian portions of the Seaway were set up with a non-profit corporate structure; this legislation also introduced changes to the federal Ports.
Great Lakes and Seaway shipping generates $3.4 billion in business revenue annually in the US. In 2002, ships moved 222 million tons of cargo. Overseas shipments, mostly of inbound steel and outbound grain, accounted for 15.4 million tons, 6.9 % of the total cargo moved. In 2004, Seaway grain exports accounted for about 3.6 % of the US ' overseas grain shipments, according to the U.S. Grains Council. In a typical year, Seaway steel imports account for around 6 % of the U.S. annual total. The toll revenue obtained from ocean vessels is about 25 - 30 % of cargo revenue. The Port of Duluth shipped just over 2.5 million metric tons of grain, which is less than the port typically moved in the decade before the Seaway opened Lake Superior to deep - draft oceangoing vessels in 1959.
International changes have affected shipping through the Seaway. Europe is no longer a major grain importer; big US export shipments are now going to South America, Asia and Africa. These destinations make Gulf and West Coast ports more critical to 21st - century grain exports. Referring to the Seaway project, a retired Iowa State University economics professor who specialized in transportation issues said, "It probably did make sense, at about the time it (the Seaway) was constructed and conceived, but since then everything has changed. ''
Certain Seaway users have been concerned about the low water levels of the Great Lakes that have occurred since 2010.
The Panama Canal was completed in 1914 and also serves ocean - going traffic. In the 1950s, Seaway designers chose not to build the locks to match the size of ships permitted by the 1914 locks at the Panama Canal (965 by 106 feet (294 by 32 m), known as the Panamax limit). Instead, the Seaway locks were built to match the smaller locks of Welland Canal, which opened in 1932. The Seaway locks permit passage of a ship 740 feet (230 m) long by 78 feet (24 m) feet wide (the Seawaymax limit).
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers did a study to expand the St. Lawrence Seaway, but the plan was scrapped in 2011 because of tight budgets.
There are seven locks in the Saint Lawrence River portion of the Seaway. From downstream to upstream they are:
Water Level Elevations
Lake Ontario 243 feet above sea level.
Drop through Iroqois Lock is 1 foot.
Lake St. Lawrence 242 feet above sea level.
Drop through Eisenhower Lock is 38 feet.
Wiley - Dondero Canal 204 feet above sea level.
Drop through Snell Lock is 45 feet.
Lake St. Francis 159 feet above sea level.
Drop through Upper Beauharnois Lock is 41 feet.
Beauharnois Canal 118 feet above sea level.
Drop through Lower Beauharnois Lock is 41 feet.
Lake St. Louis 77 feet above sea level.
Drop through Cote Ste Catherine Lock is 30 feet.
Laprairie Basin 47 feet above sea level.
Drop through St. Lambert Lock is 15 feet.
Drop through Lachine Rapids is a few feet.
Montreal Harbour 30 feet approximately above sea level.
There are eight locks on the Welland Canal. From the north to the south, there is the Lake Ontario level control lock at Port Weller, followed by Lock 2 and then Lock 3, a site with a visitors ' information centre and museum in St. Catharines, Ontario. There are four locks in Thorold, Ontario, including twin flight locks 4, 5 and 6, with Lock 7 leading up to the main channel. The Lake Erie level control lock sits in Port Colborne, Ontario.
The size of vessels that can traverse the seaway is limited by the size of locks. Locks on the St. Lawrence and on the Welland Canal are 766 ft (233.5 m) long, 80 ft (24.4 m) wide, and 30 ft (9.14 m) deep. The maximum allowed vessel size is slightly smaller: 740 ft (225.6 m) long, 78 ft (23.8 m) wide, and 26.5 ft (8.1 m) deep. Many vessels designed for use on the Great Lakes following the opening of the seaway were built to the maximum size permissible by the locks, known informally as Seawaymax or Seaway - Max. Large vessels of the lake freighter fleet are built on the lakes and can not travel downstream beyond the Welland Canal. On the remaining Great Lakes, these ships are constrained only by the largest lock on the Great Lakes Waterway, the Poe Lock at the Soo Locks (at Sault Ste. Marie), which is 1,200 ft (365.8 m) long, 110 ft (33.5 m) wide and 32 ft (9.8 m) deep.
A vessel 's draft is another obstacle to passage on the seaway, particularly in connecting waterways such as the St. Lawrence River. The depth in the channels of the seaway is 41 ft (12.5 m) (Panamax - depth) downstream of Quebec City, 35 ft (10.7 m) between Quebec City and Deschaillons, 37 ft (11.3 m) to Montreal, and 27 ft (8.2 m) upstream of Montreal. Channel depths and limited lock sizes mean that only 10 % of current ocean - going ships, which have been built much larger than in the 1950s, can traverse the entire seaway. Proposals to expand the seaway, dating from as early as the 1960s, have been rejected since the late 20th century as too costly. In addition, researchers, policymakers and the public are much more aware of the environmental issues that have accompanied Seaway development and are reluctant to open the Great Lakes to more invasions of damaging species, as well as associated issues along the canals and river. Questions have been raised as to whether such infrastructure costs could ever be recovered. Lower water levels in the Great Lakes have also posed problems for some vessels in recent years, and pose greater issues to communities, industries and agriculture in the region.
While the seaway is currently (2010) mostly used for shipping bulk cargo, the possibility of its use for large - scale container shipping is under consideration as well. If the expansion project goes ahead, feeder ships would take containers from the port of Oswego on Lake Ontario in upstate New York to Melford International Terminal in Nova Scotia for transfer to larger ocean - going ships.
A useful website hosts measurements of wind, water levels and water temperatures. A real - time interactive map of Seaway Locks, Vessels and Ports is available at. The NOAA - funded Great Lakes Water Level Dashboard compiles statistics on water depth at various points along the Seaway.
To create a navigable channel through the Long Sault rapids and to allow hydroelectric stations to be established immediately upriver from Cornwall, Ontario and Massena, New York, Lake St. Lawrence was created behind a dam. It required the condemnation and acquisition by the government of all the properties of six villages and three hamlets in Ontario; these are now collectively known as "The Lost Villages ''. The area was flooded on July 1, 1958, creating the lake. There was also inundation on the New York side of the border and the village of Louisville Landing was submerged. A notable adverse environmental effect of the operation of the Seaway has been the introduction of numerous invasive species of aquatic animals into the Great Lakes Basin. The zebra mussel has been most damaging in the Great Lakes and through its invasion of related rivers, waterways and city water facilities.
The Seaway, along with the Saint Lawrence River it passes through also provides opportunities for outdoor recreation, such as boating, camping, fishing, and scuba diving. Unfortunately invasive species and artificial water level controls imposed by the Seaway have had a negative impact on recreational fishing. Of note, The Old Power House near Lock 23 (near Morrisburg, Ontario) became an attractive site for scuba divers. The submerged stone building has become covered with barnacles and is home to an abundance of underwater life.
The Seaway passes through the Saint Lawrence River, which provides a number of divable shipwrecks within recreational scuba limits (shallower than 130 ft (40 m)) The region also offers technical diving with some wrecks lying at 240 ft (73 m). Surprisingly, the water temperature can be as warm as 75 ° F (24 ° C) during the mid to late summer months. The first 10 ft (3 m) of Lake Ontario is warmed and enters the St. Lawrence river as the fast - moving water body has no thermocline circulation.
On July 12, 2010, Richelieu (owned by Canada Steamship Lines) ran aground after losing power near the Côte - Sainte - Catherine lock. The grounding punctured a fuel tank, spilling an estimated 200 tonnes of diesel fuel, covering approximately 500 m. The Seaway and the lock were shut down to help contain the spill.
The seaway is important for American and Canadian international trade. The seaway handles 40 to 50 million annual tons of cargo. About 50 % of the cargo carried travels to and from international ports in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. The rest comprises coastal trade, or short sea shipping, between various American and Canadian ports. Among international shippers are found:
The Saint Lawrence seaway (along with ports in Quebec) is the main route for Ontario grain exports to overseas markets. Its fees are publicly known, and were limited in 2013 to an increase of 3 %. A trained Pilot is required for any foreign trade vessel, and the employment of these skilled personnel follows the law of supply and demand. A set of rules and regulations are available to help transit.
Commercial vessel transit information is hosted on the U.S. Saint Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation website.
Since 1997, international cruise liners have been known to transit the Seaway. The Hapag - Lloyd Christopher Columbus carried 400 passengers to Duluth, Minnesota that year. Since then, the number of annual Seaway cruising passengers has increased to 14,000.
Every year, more than 2,000 recreational boats, of more than 20 ft and one ton, transit the Seaway. The tolls have been fixed for 2013 at $30 per lock, except for the Welland Canal, where $30 pays for all eight locks between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. Lockages are scheduled 12 hours a day between the hours of 07: 00 and 19: 00 from June 15 to September 15.
A list of organisations that serve the Seaway in some fashion, such as Chambers of Commerce and Municipal or Port authorities, is available at the SLSDC website. A 56 - page electronic "Great Lakes St. Lawrence Seaway System '' Directory is published by Harbor House Publishers.
Map of the North American Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence Seaway from 1959, depicting the entire length beginning at the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in the east to the western-most terminus at Lake Superior. This map is in the public domain and is available at Wikimedia Commons in several resolutions.
Notes
Further reading
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what is in the big ball at epcot | Spaceship Earth (Epcot) - wikipedia
Spaceship Earth is a geodesic sphere that serves as the symbolic structure of Epcot, at the Walt Disney World Resort. One of the most recognizable structures of any theme park, it is also the name of the dark ride attraction that is housed within the sphere that takes guests on a time machine - themed experience using the Omnimover system.
The 15 - minute dark ride demonstrates to guests how advancements in human communication have helped to create the future one step at a time. Passengers journey back in time to witness the origins of prehistoric man, then travel forward in time to witness important breakthroughs in communication throughout history -- from the invention of the alphabet to the creation of the printing press to today 's modern communication advancements, including telecommunication and mass communication. At the conclusion of the ride, passengers have the chance to design their own future using touch screens that are embedded into the ride cars.
The structure is similar in texture to the United States pavilion from Expo 67 in Montreal, but unlike that structure, Spaceship Earth is a complete sphere, supported by three pairs of legs. The architectural design was conceived by Wallace Floyd Design Group. The structural designs of both Expo 67 and Spaceship Earth were completed by Simpson Gumpertz & Heger Inc. of Boston, Massachusetts.
Geometrically, Spaceship Earth is derived from the Class 2 geodesic polyhedron with frequency of division equal to 8. Each face of the polyhedron is divided into three isosceles triangles to form each point. In theory, there are 11,520 total isosceles triangles forming 3840 points. In reality, some of those triangles are partially or fully nonexistent due to supports and doors; there are actually only 11,324 silvered facets, with 954 partial or full flat triangular panels.
The appearance of being a monolithic sphere is an architectural goal that was achieved through a structural trick. Spaceship Earth is in fact two structural domes. Six legs are supported on pile groups that are driven up to 160 feet into Central Florida 's soft earth. Those legs support a steel box - shaped ring at the sphere 's perimeter, at about 30 degrees south latitude in earth - terms. The upper structural dome sits on this ring. A grid of trusses inside the ring supports two helical structures of the ride and show system. Below the ring, a second dome is hung from the bottom, completing the spherical shape. The ring and trusses form a table - like structure which separates the upper dome from the lower. Supported by and about three feet off the structural domes is a cladding sphere to which the shiny Alucobond panels and drainage system are mounted.
The cladding was designed so that when it rains, no water pours off the sides onto the ground. All water is collected through one - inch gaps in the facets into a gutter system, and finally channeled into the World Showcase Lagoon.
The structure was designed with the help of science fiction writer Ray Bradbury, who also helped write the original storyline for the attraction. The term "Spaceship Earth '' was popularised by Buckminster Fuller, who also popularized the geodesic dome.
Construction took 26 months. Extending upwards from the table are "quadropod '' structures, which support smaller beams which form the shell of the steel skeleton. Pipes stand the aluminum skin panels away from the skeleton and provide space for utilities. A small service car is parked in the interstitial space between the structural and cladding surfaces, and can carry a prone technician down the sides to access repair locations. The shop fabrication of the steel (done in nearby Tampa, Florida) was an early instance of computer - aided drafting and materials processing. Spaceship Earth was originally sponsored by the Bell System from 1982 until 1984, when it was broken into smaller companies in 1984, and its parent company, AT&T, became an independent company. AT&T sponsored Spaceship Earth from 1984 until 2004. From 2005 until 2017, the German company Siemens was the sponsor of Spaceship Earth. The ride currently has no sponsor.
In October 1982, the attraction experience began as the ride vehicles moved up into the structure through a lighted tunnel enhanced by a fog machine, and then ascended on a spiraling track up through dark spaces featuring a series of lighted historic vignettes. The attraction featured actor Lawrence Dobkin as the narrator along with a very simple and quiet orchestral composition throughout the attraction. The theme of communication through the ages is presented in chronological order in settings peopled with Audio - Animatronics figures. Actors are seen (and heard quietly) declaiming in a Greek theater. Charioteers carry messages from a Roman court, and Jewish and Islamic scholars discuss texts. With typical Disney whimsy, a monk is seen having fallen asleep on a manuscript he was inscribing. Michelangelo, overhead, paints the ceiling of the Sistine chapel, and Gutenberg mans his printing press. Suggesting the rush of 20th - century technology, subsequent scenes meld together, overlapping each other as the circumference of the ride track narrows. A newsboy hawks papers, a movie marquee and film clips represent motion pictures, and radio and television are represented. As the vehicles reach the large space at the apex of the ride system, guests see, on the planetarium ceiling of the sphere, projections of stars, planets, the Milky Way, and, closest and largest, "spaceship earth. '' The Omnimover vehicles then revolve 180 degrees, so that the passengers lie backward facing the "sky '' as they begin their descent on a relatively straight track. The ride stops intermittently as wheelchairs are loaded or unloaded.
In May 1986, the attraction was given a slight remodel. This second version of the attraction started off with the lighted tunnel enhanced by twinkling lights, meant to depict stars, with the fog machine removed. News journalist Walter Cronkite was the new narrator, reading from an updated script. A theme song called Tomorrow 's Child was composed for the ending of the attraction, which was redesigned with projected images of children on screens to help fit with the theme of "Tomorrow 's Child ''.
On August 15, 1994, the attraction was closed to receive a major remodel. This third version of the attraction kept the lighted tunnel as it was in 1986, and maintained the majority of the scenes depicted in the beginning and middle of the attraction. Three scenes toward the end of the attraction that showed a computer in a boy 's bedroom of the 1980s, a woman 's office of the 1980s, and a network operations center of the 1990s, were all removed and replaced with one scene depicting a boy and girl using the Internet to communicate between America and Asia. Actor Jeremy Irons was the new narrator, reading from an updated script. A new orchestral composition was composed for the beginning, middle, and end of the attraction. This score was based upon Bach 's Sinfonia No. 2 in C Minor. The ending itself was completely redone, with the removal of the Space Station scene located in the attraction 's planetarium (the astronauts from the scene subsequently turned up in Space Mountain 's post-show, where they were used until 2009), replacement of an old projected image of Earth in the planetarium with a new image, and replacement of the 1982 and 1986 ending scenes of the ride with miniature architectural settings connected by color - changing fiber optic cables and arrays of blinking lights representing electronic communication pathways. The attraction re-opened on November 23, 1994.
In celebration of the year 2000, a large 25 - story "magic wand '' held by a representation of Mickey Mouse 's hand was built next to the sphere. Inspiration for it came from the Sorcerer 's Apprentice sequence of Fantasia (although Mickey did not actually use a magic wand in that sequence). At the top of the structure was a large cut - out of the number 2000. While the structure was n't intended to be permanent, it was constructed to have a lifetime of about 10 years. After the Millennium Celebration ended, the structure was left standing. In 2001, the number 2000 was replaced with the word "Epcot '' in a script font that differs from the park 's logotype.
On July 5, 2007, Epcot Vice President Jim MacPhee announced that Spaceship Earth would be restored to its original appearance, and that the "magic wand '' structure would be removed in time for the park 's 25th anniversary on October 1, 2007. Siemens AG, the new sponsor of Spaceship Earth, was rumored to have requested the wand removed as it did not fit their corporate image. The attraction was closed on July 9, 2007, and by October 1 the wand structure, the stars and the star supports were gone, replaced by palm trees and other plants. Components of the structure were later auctioned on eBay.
The closure also saw the ride 's fourth update, which included new scenes and modifications to existing scenes, some new costumes, lighting, and props, a new musical score by Bruce Broughton, new narration by Judi Dench, and a new interactive ending. New scenes showed a Greek classroom, mainframe computers and the creation of the personal computer. The attraction opened for "soft launch '' previews starting in December 2007. After some last - minute adjustments in January, the ride had its official re-opening on February 15, 2008.
The "time machine '' vehicles now have an interactive screen where riders can choose their vision of the future. This resembles a similar idea to the now - defunct Horizons attraction. At the beginning of the ride, a camera takes riders ' pictures (using facial recognition technology) which are used at the end of the ride to conduct an interactive experience about the future of technology, featuring the riders ' faces on animated characters with narration by Cam Clarke. Visitors are now also asked where in our Spaceship Earth they live; this is used in the post-show area where a map of the world is displayed with the riders ' faces shown where they live.
In October 2017, Siemens, a long time sponsor, ended their sponsorship of the attraction, as well as the Illuminations firework show.
As the ride is built on an omnimover system, there are no triggered ride events. Rather, a narration plays as the show scenes and music run on loop. The script, originally penned by Ray Bradbury, has since been updated to meet contemporary technological trends. The current host is Judi Dench, who narrates along an orchestral score by Bruce Broughton.
The ride begins with the time - machine vehicles ascending into a dark tunnel with twinkling stars all around. An adventurous orchestral theme starts to play. As the score shifts to the theme ostinato, a leitmotif that comes to represent digital interference, guests have their picture taken which, unknown to the riders, will be used later in the ride and in the post-show.
As the vehicle arrives at the first story of the structure, it begins a slow curve. A large film screen is stretched along the inside of the sphere, depicting early humans fighting for survival against a woolly mammoth without a form of communication and language. As the screen dims behind them, guests enter a cavern populated by audio animatronic early humans, who represent the development of early language through cave paintings. The drawings on the walls come to life and begin to dance as the car continues onward.
The score modulates, presenting the theme in a phrygian mode, implying a middle eastern atmosphere. Guests are brought through a heated diorama of the Egyptians, who invented a system of portable communication using hieroglyphs recorded on papyrus, as opposed to cave paintings that were unable to be transported as humans migrated.
Phoenician merchants are seen carrying goods to faraway lands. The narration explains how each civilization is trying to communicate, but can not understand each other due to the language barrier. But the Phoenicians, who trade with all of them create a simple common alphabet, so that trade and communication becomes easier. Turning a corner, riders see a lesson in mathematics being taught in a piazza in an ancient Greek city, in a sequence that attempts to show how math helped invent the ' birth of a high tech life we enjoy today. ' Shifting to ancient Rome, a night scene including a traveler in a chariot delivering news depicts how language is portrayed as a tool for cultural unification with the vast network of roads that stretched across Europe, ultimately all leading to Rome.
Suddenly, the scene takes a dark turn as crashes are heard and the smell of burnt wood fills the air. The fall of Rome by invading mercenary armies also brought the destruction of the bulk of the world 's recorded knowledge, including the loss of scrolls at the Library of Alexandria. But the narration gives hope as the vehicle reaches the next level, where Jewish and Islamic scholars of the Middle Ages are seen preserving recorded information, and continuing to progress in science.
Winding through exotic fabrics and drapery, guests arrive at a monastery where biblical manuscripts are being painstakingly copied. The composition shifts to a rousing hallelujah chorus, sung to the melody of the piece 's exposition. Gutenberg is seen working the first movable - type printing press, allowing information to travel freely across the globe. The European Renaissance is portrayed, with animatronics of ensembles playing rich, polyphonic secular motets, sculpting a woman, and the painting of a portrait of fruit. The scene ends as the car passes under a scaffold, where Michelangelo is seen painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.
The time machines transition to a post-Civil War North. Guests witness syndicated news reports illuminating the planet of current events with amazing efficiency. Loud, industrial - sized printing presses show the incredible influence of the machine as an advancement in mass communication. As guests pass the clanging sounds of the press, the score 's theme is presented again, this time with an uptempo ragtime piano. Seen next is a romanticized version of the 20th century communications revolution -- after passing telegraphs, radio, telephones, and movies, riders see the 1969 television broadcast of Apollo 11 landing on the moon, featuring Walter Cronkite. Language had progressed to such an extent that it no longer was spoken solely by humans, but by machines as well.
Guests turn a corner and find themselves in a large mainframe computer as they ascend up the final hill. At the top, a slow descent starts, progressing through a garage in California, where a man is seen building one of the first home computers. The score becomes suddenly percussive and dramatic as guests fly through a tunnel with computer code projected onto the walls. At a crescendo, the car makes its final turn into the cupola of Spaceship Earth. The top of the structure is, in fact, a planetarium studded with stars and a large projection of a rotating Earth. Before the omnimover vehicles start to move down the long descent to the unloading area, they rotate 180 degrees clockwise and guests ride the end of the attraction backwards.
The remainder of the ride moves past a seemingly infinite number of stars and into a realm of glowing triangles. The guests can then use the touch - screens in their Omnimover vehicle to fill out a questionnaire to create a possible depiction of their future, which uses the pictures taken at the beginning of the ride.
Siemens then invites guests to visit Project Tomorrow as they exit the ride cars.
The original post show for Spaceship Earth was called Earth Station. It lasted from 1982 until 1994. It was a wide open exhibit space that included:
When AT&T renewed their sponsorship in 1994, they redesigned the exhibit space for Earth Station into the Global Neighborhood. The original Global Neighborhood lasted from 1994 until 1999. In 1999, the exhibit space was updated to become the New Global Neighborhood for the Millennium Celebration. The exhibit space closed in 2004 after AT&T left as sponsor.
AT&T 's departure as sponsor in 2004 caused the exhibit to close. Siemens AG, the new sponsor of Spaceship Earth, having signed on in 2005, created a new exhibit space called Project Tomorrow: Inventing the Wonders of the Future. The new exhibit space once again uses the entire exhibit space that only Earth Station had once used. The new exhibit space houses interactive exhibits featuring various Siemens AG technology. These interactive displays and games allow guests to see the future of medicine, transportation and energy management. The space opened with two games, with two new games added in December 2007 and January 2008.
Project Tomorrow current attractions are:
A VIP lounge, operated by the pavilion sponsor, exists above the post-show area of Spaceship Earth. Employees of the current sponsoring company and their guests can relax in the lounge while visiting Epcot. The sponsor can also hold receptions in the space as well as conduct workshops and business presentations. When Spaceship Earth was without sponsorship from 2004 -- 2005, the room was utilized for private events such as weddings and conventions. The layout is small and curved in shape, with one wall consisting of large windows where visitors can look out onto the park.
When Siemens AG took over as sponsor, the lounge was given the name "Base21. '' In 2012, the name was dropped and it is now simply known as the "Siemens VIP Center. ''
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