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when does ink master season 10 finale air | Ink Master (season 10) - wikipedia
Ink Master: Return of the Masters is the tenth season of the tattoo reality competition Ink Master that premiered on January 9 at 10 / 9c and concluded on April 24, 2018 with 16 episodes. The first two episodes of the season marked the series ' last to air on Spike prior to the network 's transition to Paramount Network nine days later on January 18. Despite this, the remaining episodes continued to air on the new channel. Host Dave Navarro returned alongside co-judges Oliver Peck and Chris Nunez.
Season 10 uses the same format from Season 8. But this time, six artists each were led by three Ink Master winners which includes Steve Tefft from Season 2, Anthony Michaels from Season 7, and Old Town Ink 's DJ Tambe from Season 9 as 24 artists compete to be one of the 18 artists which will then narrow down to the team 's six members who were drafted through the first day of competition. Several confirmed contestants competing in this season have already secured a spot for the first day of competition following their respective Angel Face Off win in the spin - off Ink Master: Angels. Those were Deanna Smith, Daniel Silva, Rachel Helmich, Sparks and Tim Furlow. But neither Helmich nor Furlow were chosen to be on one of the teams. The live finale featured the captains going head - to - head in the first ever Master Face Off. Team DJ became the only team to win two major prizes. Joshua Payne from Cortland, New York won the $100,000, plus a feature in Inked magazine and the title of "Ink Master. '' Payne 's coach DJ Tambe also won the $100,000, making him the first and only Ink Master to win two seasons in a row.
The judge listing types are:
24 artists arrive to Coney Island where they had six hours to impress the masters by tattooing a design in the style and subject of their choice. The judges and the masters then judged each tattoo in a blind critique without knowing who did what.
With nine artists remaining, they must compete in a marathon where they have to tattoo a different creature of land, sea or sky in each round.
Note: This episode was released online ahead of its respective airdate.
Dave welcomes the viewers to the live Ink Master finale from Las Vegas as the coaches put the final touches on their live finale tattoo. The coaches went first with their tattoo while the artists reveal their epic chestpiece. The judges also critiqued the coaches ' head tattoo. The eliminated artists get into a heated debate over who should advance to the top two. The judges then decide which of the top two artists will win the title of Ink Masters. Ink Master veterans Cleen Rock One and Christian Buckingham were introduced to plug the upcoming eleventh season that will finally see them settling the score with their rivalry, but as team captains.
In addition to one artist, the jury of peers also picked one coach to advance into the top two.
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what is the oldest company in the dow jones index | Dow Jones Industrial average - Wikipedia
The Dow Jones Industrial Average / ˌdaʊ ˈdʒoʊnz / (DJIA), or simply the Dow, is a stock market index that shows how 30 large publicly owned companies based in the United States have traded during a standard trading session in the stock market. The value of the Dow is not a weighted arithmetic mean and does not represent its component companies ' market capitalization, but rather the sum of the price of one share of stock for each component company. The sum is corrected by a factor which changes whenever one of the component stocks has a stock split or stock dividend, so as to generate a consistent value for the index.
It is the second - oldest U.S. market index after the Dow Jones Transportation Average, created by Wall Street Journal editor and Dow Jones & Company co-founder Charles Dow. Currently owned by S&P Dow Jones Indices, which is majority owned by S&P Global, it is the best known of the Dow Averages, of which the first (non-industrial) was originally published on February 16, 1885. The averages are named after Dow and one of his business associates, statistician Edward Jones. The industrial average was first calculated on May 26, 1896.
The Industrial portion of the name is largely historical, as many of the modern 30 components have little or nothing to do with traditional heavy industry. Since the divisor is currently less than one, the value of the index is larger than the sum of the component prices. Although the Dow is compiled to gauge the performance of the industrial sector within the American economy, the index 's performance continues to be influenced by not only corporate and economic reports, but also by domestic and foreign political events such as war and terrorism, as well as by natural disasters that could potentially lead to economic harm.
Since the close on September 1, 2017, the Dow Jones Industrial Average has consisted of the following 30 major companies:
The components of the DJIA have changed 51 times since its beginning in May 26, 1896. General Electric has had the longest continuous presence on the index, beginning in 1907. More recent changes to the index include the following:
In 1884, Charles Dow composed his first stock average, which contained nine railroads and two industrial companies that appeared in the Customer 's Afternoon Letter, a daily two - page financial news bulletin which was the precursor to The Wall Street Journal. On January 2, 1886, the number of stocks represented in what is now the Dow Jones Transportation Average dropped from 14 to 12, as the Central Pacific Railroad and Central Railroad of New Jersey were removed. Though comprising the same number of stocks, this index contained only one of the original twelve industrials that would eventually form Dow 's most famous index.
Dow calculated his first average purely of industrial stocks on May 26, 1896, creating what is now known as the Dow Jones Industrial Average. Of the original 12 industrials, only General Electric currently remains part of that index. The other 11 were:
When it was first published in the mid-1880s, the index stood at a level of 62.76. It reached a peak of 78.38 during the summer of 1890, but ended up hitting its all - time low of 28.48 in the summer of 1896 during the Panic of 1896. Many of the biggest percentage price moves in the Dow occurred early in its history, as the nascent industrial economy matured. The 1900s would see the Dow halt its momentum as it worked its way through two financial crises; the Panic of 1901 and the Panic of 1907. The Dow would remain stuck in a trading range between 53 and 103 points until late 1914. The negativity surrounding the 1906 San Francisco earthquake did little to improve the economic climate.
At the start of the 1910s, the decade would begin with the Panic of 1910 -- 1911 stifling economic growth for a lengthy period of time. History would later take its course on July 30, 1914; as the average stood at a level of 71.42 when a decision was made to close down the New York Stock Exchange, and suspend trading for a span of four and a half months. Some historians believe the exchange closed because of a concern that markets would plunge as a result of panic over the onset of World War I. An alternative explanation is that the Secretary of the Treasury, William Gibbs McAdoo, closed the exchange to conserve the U.S. gold stock in order to launch the Federal Reserve System later that year, with enough gold to keep the United States on par with the gold standard. When the markets reopened on December 12, 1914, the index closed at 74.56, a gain of 4.4 percent. This is frequently reported as a large drop, due to using a later redefinition. Reports from the time say that the day was positive. Following World War I, the United States would experience another economic downturn, the post-World War I recession. The Dow 's performance would remain unchanged from the closing value of the previous decade, adding only 8.26 %, from 99.05 points at the beginning of 1910, to a level of 107.23 points at the end of 1919.
During the 1920s, specifically In 1928, the components of the Dow were increased to 30 stocks near the economic height of that decade, which was nicknamed the Roaring Twenties. This period downplayed the influence of an early 1920s recession plus certain international conflicts such as the Polish - Soviet war, the Irish Civil War, the Turkish War of Independence and the initial phase of the Chinese Civil War. The Crash of 1929 and the ensuing Great Depression over the next several years returned the average to its starting point, almost 90 % below its peak. By July 8, 1932, following its intra-day low of 40.56, the Dow would end up closing the session at 41.22. The high of 381.17 on September 3, 1929, would not be surpassed until 1954, in inflation - adjusted numbers. However, the bottom of the 1929 Crash came just 21⁄2 months later on November 13, 1929, when intra-day it was at the 195.35 level, closing slightly higher at 198.69. For the decade, the Dow would end off with a healthy 131.7 % gain, from 107.23 points at the beginning of 1920, to a level of 248.48 points at the end of 1929, just before the Crash of 1929.
Marked by global instability and the Great Depression, the 1930s contended with several consequential European and Asian outbreaks of war, leading up to catastrophic World War II in 1939. Other conflicts during the decade which affected the stock market included the 1936 -- 1939 Spanish Civil War, the 1935 -- 1936 Second Italo - Abyssinian War, the Soviet - Japanese Border War of 1939 and the Second Sino - Japanese War from 1937. On top of that, the United States dealt with a painful recession in 1937 and 1938 which temporarily brought economic recovery to a halt. The largest one - day percentage gain in the index, 15.34 %, happened on March 15, 1933, in the depths of the 1930s bear market when the Dow gained 8.26 points to close at 62.10. However, as a whole throughout the Great Depression, the Dow posted some of its worst performances, for a negative return during most of the 1930s for new and old stock market investors. For the decade, the Dow Jones average was down from 248.48 points at the beginning of 1930, to a stable level of 150.24 points at the end of 1939, a loss of about 40 %.
Post-war reconstruction during the 1940s, along with renewed optimism of peace and prosperity, brought about a 39 % surge in the Dow from around the 148 level to 206. The strength in the Dow occurred despite a brief recession in 1949 and other global conflicts which started a short time later including the latter stages of the Chinese Civil War, the Greek Civil War, the Indo - Pakistani War of 1947 and the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War.
During the 1950s, the Korean War, the Algerian War, the Cold War and other political tensions such as the Cuban Revolution, as well as widespread political and economic changes in Africa during the initial stages of European Decolonization, did not stop the Dow 's bullish climb higher. Additionally, the U.S. would also make its way through two grinding recessions; one in 1953 and another in 1958. A 200 % increase in the average from a level of 206 to 616 ensued over the course of that decade.
The Dow 's bullish behavior began to stall during the 1960s as the U.S. became entangled with foreign political issues such as U.S. military excursions including the Bay of Pigs Invasion involving Cuba, the Vietnam War, the Portuguese Colonial War, the Colombian civil war which the U.S. assisted with short - lived counter-guerrilla campaigns, as well as domestic issues such as the Civil Rights Movement and several influential political assassinations. For the decade though, and despite a mild recession between 1960 and 1961, the average still managed a respectable 30 % gain from the 616 level to 800.
The 1970s marked a time of economic uncertainty and troubled relations between the U.S. and certain Middle - Eastern countries. To begin with, the decade started off with the ongoing Recession of 1969 -- 70. Following that, the 1970s Energy Crisis ensued which included the 1973 -- 75 recession, the 1973 Oil Crisis as well as the 1979 energy crisis beginning as a prelude to a disastrous economic climate injected with stagflation; the combination between high unemployment and high inflation. However, on November 14, 1972, the average closed above the 1,000 mark (1,003.16) for the first time, during a brief relief rally in the midst of a lengthy bear market. Between January 1973 and December 1974, the average lost 48 % of its value in what became known as the 1973 -- 1974 Stock Market Crash; with the situation being exacerbated by the events surrounding the Yom Kippur War. The index closed at 577.60, on December 4, 1974. During 1976, the index went above 1000 several times, and it closed the year at 1,004.75. Although the Vietnam War ended in 1975, new tensions arose towards Iran surrounding the Iranian Revolution in 1979. Other notable disturbances such as the Lebanese Civil War, the Ethiopian Civil War, the Indo - Pakistani War of 1971 and the Angolan Civil War which the U.S. and Soviet Union considered critical to the global balance of power, seemed to have had little influence towards the financial markets. Performance-wise for the decade, gains remained virtually flat, rising less than 5 % from about the 800 level to 838.
The 1980s decade started with the early 1980s recession. In early 1981, it broke above 1000 several times, but then retreated. The largest one - day percentage drop occurred on Black Monday; October 19, 1987, when the average fell 22.61 %. There were no clear reasons given to explain the crash, but program trading may have been a major contributing factor. On October 13, 1989, the Dow stumbled into another downfall, the 1989 Mini-Crash which initiated the collapse of the junk bond market as the Dow registered a loss of almost 7 %.
For the decade, the Dow made a 228 % increase from the 838 level to 2,753; despite the market crashes, Silver Thursday, an early 1980s recession, the 1980s oil glut, the Japanese asset price bubble and other political distractions such as the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the Falklands War, the Iran -- Iraq War, the Second Sudanese Civil War and the First Intifada in the Middle East. The index had only two negative years, which were in 1981 and 1984.
The 1990s brought on rapid advances in technology along with the introduction of the dot - com era. To start off, the markets contended with the 1990 oil price shock compounded with the effects of the Early 1990s recession and a brief European situation surrounding Black Wednesday. Certain influential foreign conflicts such as the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt which took place as part of the initial stages of the Dissolution of the USSR and the Fall of Communism; the First and Second Chechen Wars, the Persian Gulf War and the Yugoslav Wars failed to dampen economic enthusiasm surrounding the ongoing Information Age and the "irrational exuberance '' (a phrase coined by Alan Greenspan) of the Internet Boom. Even the occurrences of the Rwandan Genocide and the Second Congo War, termed as "Africa 's World War '' that involved 8 separate African nations which together between the two killed over 5 million people, did n't seem to have any noticeable negative financial impact on the Dow either. Between late 1992 and early 1993, the Dow staggered through the 3,000 level making only modest gains as the Biotechnology sector suffered through the downfall of the Biotech Bubble; as many biotech companies saw their share prices rapidly rise to record levels and then subsequently fall to new all - time lows.
On November 21, 1995, the DJIA closed above the 5,000 level (5,023.55) for the first time. Over the following two years, the Dow would rapidly tower above the 6,000 level during the month of October in 1996, and the 7,000 level in February 1997. On its march higher into record territory, the Dow easily made its way through the 8,000 level in July 1997. However, later in that year during October, the events surrounding the Asian Financial Crisis plunged the Dow into a 554 - point loss to a close of 7,161.15; a retrenchment of 7.18 % in what became known as the 1997 Mini-Crash. Although internationally there was negativity surrounding the 1998 Russian financial crisis along with the subsequent fallout from the 1998 collapse of the derivatives Long - Term Capital Management hedge fund involving bad bets placed on the movement of the Russian ruble, the Dow would go on to surpass the 9,000 level during the month of April in 1998, making its sentimental push towards the symbolic 10,000 level. On March 29, 1999, the average closed above the 10,000 mark (10,006.78) after flirting with it for two weeks. This prompted a celebration on the trading floor, complete with party hats. The scene at the exchange made front - page headlines on many U.S. newspapers such as The New York Times. On May 3, 1999, the Dow achieved its first close above the 11,000 mark (11,014.70). Total gains for the decade exceeded 315 %; from the 2,753 level to 11,497.
The Dow averaged a 5.3 % return compounded annually for the 20th century, a record Warren Buffett called "a wonderful century ''; when he calculated that to achieve that return again, the index would need to close at about 2,000,000 by December 2099. During the height of the dot - com era, authors James K. Glassman and Kevin A. Hassett went so far as to publish a book entitled Dow 36,000: The New Strategy for Profiting From the Coming Rise in the Stock Market. Their theory was to imply that stocks were still cheap and it was not too late to benefit from rising prices during the Internet boom.
Characterized by fear on the part of newer investors, the uncertainty of the 2000s (decade) brought on a significant bear market. There was indecision on whether the cyclical bull market represented a prolonged temporary bounce or a new long - term trend. Ultimately, there was widespread resignation and disappointment as the lows were revisited, and in some cases, surpassed near the end of the decade.
The fourth largest one - day point drop in DJIA history, and largest at the time, occurred on September 17, 2001, the first day of trading after the September 11, 2001 attacks, when the Dow fell 684.81 points, or 7.1 %. However, the Dow had been in a downward trend for virtually all of 2001 prior to September 11, losing well over 1000 points between January 2 and September 10, and had lost 187.51 points on September 6, followed by losing 235.4 points on September 7. By the end of that week, the Dow had fallen 1,369.70 points, or 14.3 %. However, the Dow began an upward trend shortly after the attacks, and quickly regained all lost ground to close above the 10,000 level for the year.
During 2002, the average remained subdued without making substantial gains due to the stock market downturn of 2002 as well as the lingering effects of the dot - com bubble. In 2003, the Dow held steady within the 7,000 to 9,000 - point level range by the early 2000s recession, the Afghan War and the Iraq War. But by December of that year, the Dow remarkably returned to the 10,000 mark. In October 2006, four years after its bear market low, the DJIA set fresh record theoretical, intra-day, daily close, weekly, and monthly highs for the first time in almost seven years, closing above the 12,000 level for the first time on the 19th anniversary of Black Monday (1987). On February 27, 2007, the Dow Jones Industrial Average fell 3.3 % (415.30 points), its biggest point drop since 2001. The initial drop was caused by a global sell - off after Chinese stocks experienced a mini-crash, yet by April 25, the Dow passed the 13,000 level in trading and closed above that milestone for the first time. On July 19, 2007, the average passed the 14,000 level, completing the fastest 1,000 - point advance for the index since 1999. One week later, a 450 - point intra-day loss, owing to turbulence in the U.S. sub-prime mortgage market and the soaring value of the yuan, initiated another correction falling below the 13,000 mark, about 10 % from its highs.
On October 9, 2007, the Dow Jones Industrial Average closed at a record high of 14,164.53. Two days later on October 11, the Dow traded at an intra-day level high of 14,198.10, a mark which would not be matched until March 2013. In what would normally take many years to accomplish; numerous reasons were cited for the Dow 's extremely rapid rise from the 11,000 level in early 2006, to the 14,000 level in late 2007. They included future possible takeovers and mergers, healthy earnings reports particularly in the tech sector, and moderate inflationary numbers; fueling speculation the Federal Reserve would not raise interest rates.
On September 15, 2008, a wider financial crisis became evident when Lehman Brothers filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy along with the economic effect of record high oil prices which reached almost $150 per barrel two months earlier. When opening that morning, it immediately lost 300 points and overall the DJIA lost more than 500 points for only the sixth time in history, returning to its mid-July lows below the 11,000 level. A series of "bailout '' packages, including the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, proposed and implemented by the Federal Reserve and U.S. Treasury, as well as FDIC - sponsored bank mergers, did not prevent further losses. After nearly six months of extreme volatility during which the Dow experienced its largest one - day point loss, largest daily point gain, and largest intra-day range (more than 1,000 points), the index closed at a new twelve - year low of 6,547.05 on March 9, 2009 (after an intra-day low of 6,469.95 during the March 6 session), its lowest close since April 1997, and had lost 20 % of its value in only six weeks.
Towards the latter half of 2009, the average rallied towards the 10,000 level amid optimism that the Late - 2000s (decade) Recession, the United States Housing Bubble and the Global Financial Crisis of 2008 -- 2009, were easing and possibly coming to an end. For the decade, the Dow saw a rather substantial pullback for a negative return from the 11,497 level to 10,428, a loss of a little over 9 %.
During the early part of the 2010s, aided somewhat by the loose monetary policy practiced by the Federal Reserve, the Dow made a notable rally attempt, though with significant volatility due to growing global concerns such as the 2010 European sovereign debt crisis, the Dubai debt crisis, and the United States debt ceiling crisis. On May 6, 2010, the index lost around 400 points over the day, then just after 2: 30 pm EDT, it lost about 600 points in just a few minutes, and gained the last amount back about as quickly. The intra-day change at the lowest point was 998.50 points, representing an intra-day loss of 9.2 %. The event, during which the Dow bottomed out at 9,869 before recovering to end with a 3.2 % daily loss at 10,520.32, became known as the 2010 Flash Crash. The index closed the half - year at 9,774.02 for a loss of 7.7 %.
In the midst of the decade, the Dow rallied its way above the peak from October 2007. On May 3, 2013, the Dow surpassed the 15,000 mark for the first time before towering above the next few millenary milestones thanks to commendable economic reports. The index closed 2014 at 17,823.07 for a gain of 71 % for the five years before progress became minimal the next year. However, the overwhelming economic factors exhibited in 2015 caused the Dow to plunge into correction territory for the first time since 2011. By October, the Dow had exited correction rallying 14 % from its August lows, but failed to hit a record high set back in May. In November and December, the Dow continued to retreat from the 14 % rally in October, leading some to call it a bear market. This led to the Dow closing at 17,425.03 for 2015, the first annual loss since 2008. After nearly 14 months since the last record close, the Dow finally achieved a fresh new, central - bank debt fueled record close on July 20, 2016 at 18,595.03 along with an intraday high of 18,622.01.
During the late part of the 2010s, despite anticipations of post-election selloffs, the Dow rallied significantly after Donald Trump was elected President. On January 25, 2017, the Dow hit a record high of 20,000, an increase of 1,667 points since his election in November 2016. Throughout the course of the rest of 2017 and January 2018, the Dow skyrocketed past a few millenary milestones, including the symbolic 25,000 on January 4, 2018. The current record high of 26,616.71 was achieved on Jan. 26, 2018. However, on February 2, 2018, the Dow suffered its biggest loss since Brexit on June 24, 2016. As volatility made its return for next week, the largest intraday point drop of 1,597.08 points and largest closing point drop of 1,175.21 points were both set on February 5, 2018 although percentage changes were not as extreme as some past stock market crashes.
Investing in the DJIA is made widely accessible in equities through exchange - traded funds (ETFs) as well as in derivatives through option contracts and futures contracts.
Several ETFs follow the Dow Jones Industrial Average, including with short or leverage strategies. The biggest has assets under management in the tens of billions dollars as of 2017.
Due to the advent of pre-market trading, the ETFs provide a very accurate opening value for the average.
In the derivatives market, the CME Group through its subsidiaries the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) and the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), issues Futures Contracts; the E-mini Dow ($5) Futures (YM), which track the average and trade on their exchange floors respectively. Trading is typically carried out in an Open Outcry auction, or over an electronic network such as CME 's Globex platform. Dow Futures is one of the most important premarket tool and reflect the mood in which DJIA will open.
The Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE) issues Options Contracts on the Dow through the root symbol DJX in combination with long - term expiration options called DJX LEAPS. There are also options on the various ETFs; Performance ETFs, Inverse Performance ETFs, 2x Performance ETFs, Inverse 2x Performance ETFs, 3x Performance ETFs, and Inverse 3x Performance ETFs.
To calculate the DJIA, the sum of the prices of all 30 stocks is divided by a divisor, the Dow Divisor. The divisor is adjusted in case of stock splits, spinoffs or similar structural changes, to ensure that such events do not in themselves alter the numerical value of the DJIA. Early on, the initial divisor was composed of the original number of component companies; which made the DJIA at first, a simple arithmetic average. The present divisor, after many adjustments, is less than one (meaning the index is larger than the sum of the prices of the components). That is:
where p are the prices of the component stocks and d is the Dow Divisor.
Events such as stock splits or changes in the list of the companies composing the index alter the sum of the component prices. In these cases, in order to avoid discontinuity in the index, the Dow Divisor is updated so that the quotations right before and after the event coincide:
The Dow Divisor was 0.14523396877348 on September 1, 2017. Presently, every $1 change in price in a particular stock within the average equates to a 6.885 (or 1 ÷ 0.14523396877348) point movement.
With the current inclusion of only 30 stocks, critics such as Ric Edelman argue that the DJIA is not a very accurate representation of overall market performance. Still, it is the most cited and most widely recognized of the stock market indices. Additionally, the DJIA is criticized for being a price - weighted average, which gives higher - priced stocks more influence over the average than their lower - priced counterparts, but takes no account of the relative industry size or market capitalization of the components. For example, a $1 increase in a lower - priced stock can be negated by a $1 decrease in a much higher - priced stock, even though the lower - priced stock experienced a larger percentage change. In addition, a $1 move in the smallest component of the DJIA has the same effect as a $1 move in the largest component of the average. For example, during September -- October 2008, former component AIG 's reverse split - adjusted stock price collapsed from $22.76 on September 8 to $1.35 on October 27; contributing to a roughly 3,000 - point drop in the index.
As of January 2018, Boeing and Goldman Sachs are among the highest priced stocks in the average and therefore have the greatest influence on it. Alternately, Pfizer and General Electric are among the lowest priced stocks in the average and have the least amount of sway in the price movement. Many critics of the DJIA recommend the float - adjusted market - value weighted S&P 500 or the Wilshire 5000, the latter of which includes all U.S. equity securities, as better indicators of the U.S. stock market.
A study between the correlation of components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average compared with the movement of the index finds that the correlation is higher in a time period where the average recedes and goes down. The correlation is lowest in a time when the average is flat or rises a modest amount.
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where is the bates motel located in canada | Bates Motel (TV series) - wikipedia
Bates Motel is an American psychological horror drama television series that aired from March 18, 2013 to April 24, 2017. It was developed by Carlton Cuse, Kerry Ehrin, and Anthony Cipriano, and is produced by Universal Television and American Genre for the cable network A&E.
The series, a contemporary prequel to Alfred Hitchcock 's 1960 film Psycho; based on Robert Bloch 's 1959 novel of the same name, depicts the lives of Norman Bates (Freddie Highmore) and his mother Norma (Vera Farmiga) prior to the events portrayed in the novel and film, albeit in a different fictional town (White Pine Bay, Oregon, as opposed to Fairvale, California) and in a modern - day setting. However, the final season loosely adapts the plot of Psycho. Max Thieriot and Olivia Cooke both starred as part of the main cast throughout the series ' run. After recurring in the first season, Nestor Carbonell was added to the main cast from season two onward.
The series begins in Arizona with the death of Norma 's husband, after which Norma purchases the Seafairer motel located in a coastal Oregon town so that she and Norman can start a new life. Subsequent seasons follow Norman as his mental illness becomes dangerous, and Norma as she struggles to protect her son, and those around him, from himself. The series was filmed outside Vancouver in Aldergrove, British Columbia, along with other locations within the Fraser Valley of British Columbia.
A&E chose to skip a pilot of the series, opting to go straight - to - series by ordering a 10 - episode first season. On June 15, 2015, the series was renewed for a fourth and fifth season, making Bates Motel A&E 's longest - running original scripted drama series in the channel 's history. The series ' lead actors, Vera Farmiga and Freddie Highmore, received particular praise for their performances in the series, with the former receiving a Primetime Emmy Award nomination and winning a Saturn Award for Best Actress on Television. Bates Motel also won three People 's Choice Awards for Favorite Cable TV Drama, and for Favorite Cable TV Actress (Farmiga) and Actor (Highmore).
The first season follows Norma and Norman Bates as they buy a motel after Norman 's father dies. On one of the first nights of the two owning the motel, the former owner breaks in and sexually assaults Norma. Norman knocks the attacker out, and Norma stabs him to death. She decides it 's best not to call the police and to cover up the murder. She and Norman dispose of the body. He complicates the cover - up by keeping a belt that belonged to the victim. When the town sheriff and his deputy notice that a man has gone missing, Norma and Norman must keep them from digging too far.
The second season follows the aftermath of Norman 's teacher 's murder, as her mysterious past comes to light. Meanwhile, Norma finds herself making dangerous decisions in order to keep the motel running and preventing the impending bypass. Bradley 's search for her father 's killer leads to the extremes, and Dylan learns the disturbing truth about his parentage.
The third season focuses on Norman 's waning deniability about what 's happening to him, and the lengths he will go to gain control of his fragile psyche. The dramatic events of last season leave Norma more aware of her son 's mental fragility and fearful of what he is capable of. Meanwhile, Sheriff Romero begins to distance himself from the Bates family after he suspects Norma is lying to him about her husband 's death.
The fourth season follows Norma as she becomes increasingly fearful of Norman, going to great lengths to find him the professional help he needs. This complicates their once unbreakable trust as Norman struggles to maintain his grip on reality. Meanwhile, Sheriff Romero once again finds himself drawn into Norma and Norman 's lives. He agrees to marry Norma because his insurance will enable her to place Norman in an expensive psychiatric hospital. His generosity backfires, however, when Norman learns of the marriage. Norman bitterly resents Romero for coming between him and his mother and at one point threatens the sheriff with an axe.
The fifth season begins two years after the death of Norma. Publicly happy and well - adjusted, Norman struggles at home, where his blackouts are increasing and "Mother '' threatens to take him over completely. Meanwhile, Dylan and Emma find themselves drawn back into Norman 's world, and Romero hungers for revenge against his stepson, Norman.
On January 12, 2012, it was reported that A&E were developing a television series titled Bates Motel that would serve as a prequel to the Alfred Hitchcock film Psycho. The first script was written by Anthony Cipriano. In March 2012, Carlton Cuse and Kerry Ehrin joined the project as executive producers and head writers. Cuse has cited the drama series Twin Peaks as a key inspiration for Bates Motel, stating, "We pretty much ripped off Twin Peaks... If you wanted to get that confession, the answer is yes. I loved that show. They only did 30 episodes. Kerry (Ehrin) and I thought we 'd do the 70 that are missing. '' On July 2, 2012, A&E gave Bates Motel a straight - to - series order. Chris Bacon was hired to score the music for the series in January 2013.
On August 27, 2012, Vera Farmiga was the first to be cast in the leading role of Norma Louise Bates. On September 14, 2012, Freddie Highmore was cast as Norman Bates. That same day, Max Thieriot was cast as Norman 's half - brother, Dylan Massett. Shortly after, on September 19, 2012, Nicola Peltz was cast as Bradley Martin, a possible love interest for Norman. Finally, on September 20, 2012, Olivia Cooke was the final main cast member to join the series, in the role of Emma Decody, Norman 's best friend. Nestor Carbonell was cast in a recurring role as Sheriff Alex Romero in the first season, but was upgraded to the main cast at the beginning of the second season. In July 2014, Kenny Johnson, who recurred as Norma 's brother Caleb Calhoun in the second season, was promoted to a series regular for the third season. It was announced on July 22, 2016 at San Diego Comic - Con International that Rihanna would appear in the iconic role of Marion Crane for the fifth and final season.
A replica of the original Bates Motel set from the film Psycho was built on location at approximately 1054 272nd Street in Aldergrove, British Columbia, where portions of the series were filmed. The original house and motel is located in Universal Studios, Hollywood, Los Angeles. Additional filming for the series took place in multiple areas in British Columbia, including Steveston, Coquitlam, Horseshoe Bay, West Vancouver and Fort Langley. In February 2017, after filming was completed for the series, the Bates Motel exterior set in Aldergrove was demolished.
The first season of Bates Motel received a score of 66 on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 81 % of 37 critics gave the first season a positive review. The site 's consensus reads, "Bates Motel utilizes mind manipulation and suspenseful fear tactics, on top of consistently sharp character work and wonderfully uncomfortable familial relationships. '' The second season of Bates Motel received a score of 67 out of 100 on Metacritic, from 11 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Rotten Tomatoes reported an 86 % rating from 12 reviews for the second season. The site 's consensus reads, "Bates Motel reinvents a classic thriller with believable performances and distinguished writing. ''
The third season of Bates Motel received a score of 72 out of 100 on Metacritic, from 5 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Rotten Tomatoes reported a 92 % rating from 12 reviews. The site 's consensus reads, "Bates Motel further blurs lines around TV 's creepiest taboo mother / son relationship, uncomfortably darkening its already fascinating tone. '' The fourth season of Bates Motel was met with positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % positive rating from 8 reviews. The fifth and final season of Bates Motel received a score of 81 out of 100 on Metacritic, from 8 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % rating from 8 reviews.
In Canada, the series airs only on the U.S. network A&E, which is available through most Canadian cable and satellite companies. In Australia, the series premiered on Fox8 on May 26, 2013. In the UK and Ireland, it premiered on Universal Channel on April 2, 2014. In Jamaica, it premiered on CVM TV on August 11, 2014. In the Middle East, it premiered on OSN First HD in mid-2014. The second season premiered on January 5, 2015. In the Philippines, Bates Motel began airing on Jack TV on August 12, 2013. In South Africa, the series premiered on MNet on June 21, 2013. The series premiered in India on Colors Infinity on November 6, 2015.
NBCUniversal partnered with Hot Topic, the American retailer of pop culture merchandise, to introduce a collection of clothing and accessories inspired by Bates Motel. The merchandise, including items such as bathrobes and bloody shower curtains, became available at Hot Topic 's website and select stores on March 18, 2014. As of 2018, the merchandise is no longer available through Hot Topic.
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when does the new linkin park cd come out | Linkin Park - wikipedia
Linkin Park is an American rock band from Agoura Hills, California. Formed in 1996, the band rose to international fame with their debut album Hybrid Theory (2000), which was certified Diamond by the RIAA in 2005 and multi-Platinum in several other countries. Their following studio album Meteora continued the band 's success, topping the Billboard 200 album chart in 2003, and was followed by extensive touring and charity work.
Having adapted nu metal and rap metal to a radio - friendly yet densely layered style in Hybrid Theory and Meteora, the band explored other genres on their next studio album, Minutes to Midnight (2007). The album topped the Billboard charts and had the third - best debut week of any album that year. The band continued to explore a wider variation of musical types in their fourth album, A Thousand Suns (2010), layering their music with more electronic sounds and beats. Their fifth album, Living Things (2012), combines musical elements from all of their previous records. Their sixth album, The Hunting Party (2014), returned to a heavier rock sound. Their seventh album One More Light, a more electronic and pop - oriented record, was released on May 19, 2017.
In 2003, MTV2 named Linkin Park the sixth - greatest band of the music video era and the third - best of the new millennium. Billboard ranked Linkin Park No. 19 on the Best Artists of the Decade chart. In 2012, the band was voted as the greatest artist of the 2000s in a Bracket Madness poll on VH1. In 2014, the band was declared as the Biggest Rock Band in the World Right Now by Kerrang!. As the best - selling band of the 21st century and one of the world 's best - selling music artists overall, Linkin Park has sold more than 68 million records worldwide and has won two Grammy Awards.
Linkin Park was founded by three high school friends: Mike Shinoda, Rob Bourdon, and Brad Delson. The three attended Agoura High School in Agoura Hills, California, a suburb of Los Angeles. After graduating from high school, the three began to take their musical interests more seriously, recruiting Joe Hahn, Dave "Phoenix '' Farrell, and Mark Wakefield to perform in their band, then called Xero. Though limited in resources, the band began recording and producing songs within Shinoda 's makeshift bedroom studio in 1996, resulting in a four - track demo tape, entitled Xero. Tensions and frustration within the band grew however after they failed to land a record deal. The lack of success and stalemate in progress prompted Wakefield, at that time the band 's vocalist, to leave the band in search of other projects. Farrell also left to tour with Tasty Snax, a Christian punk and ska band.
After spending a considerable time searching for Wakefield 's replacement, Xero recruited Arizona vocalist Chester Bennington, who was recommended by Jeff Blue, the vice president of Zomba Music in March 1999. Bennington, formerly of a post-grunge band by the name of Grey Daze, became a standout among applicants because of the dynamic in his singing style. The band then agreed on changing its name from Xero to Hybrid Theory; the newborn vocal chemistry between Shinoda and Bennington helped revive the band, inciting them to work on new material. In 1999 the band released a self - titled extended play, which they circulated across internet chat - rooms and forums with the help of an online ' street team '. The band 's renaissance culminated with another change in name, this time to Linkin Park, a play on and homage to Santa Monica 's Lincoln Park (now called Christine Emerson Reed Park). The band initially wanted to use the name "Lincoln Park '', however they changed it to "Linkin '' to acquire the internet domain "linkinpark.com ''. The band still struggled to sign a record deal. Linkin Park turned to Jeff Blue for additional help after facing numerous rejections from several major record labels. After failing to catch Warner Bros. Records on three previous reviews, Jeff Blue, who had negotiated his employment contract with Warner Brothers to include signing Linkin Park, and was now the vice president of Warner Bros. Records, helped the band sign a deal with the company in 1999. The band released its breakthrough album, Hybrid Theory, the following year.
Linkin Park released Hybrid Theory on October 24, 2000. The album, which represented half a decade 's worth of the band 's work, was edited by Don Gilmore. Hybrid Theory was a massive commercial success; it sold more than 4.8 million copies during its debut year, earning it the status of best - selling album of 2001, while singles such as "Crawling '' and "One Step Closer '' established themselves as staples among alternative rock radio play lists during the year. Additionally, other singles from the album were featured in films such as Dracula 2000, Little Nicky, and Valentine. Hybrid Theory won a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance for the song "Crawling '' and was nominated for two other Grammy Awards: Best New Artist and Best Rock Album. MTV awarded the band their Best Rock Video and Best Direction awards for "In the End ''. Through the winning of the Grammy for Best Hard Rock Performance, Hybrid Theory 's overall success had catapulted the band into mainstream success.
During this time, Linkin Park received many invitations to perform on many high - profile tours and concerts including Ozzfest, Family Values Tour, and KROQ Almost Acoustic Christmas. The band worked with Jessica Sklar to found their official fan club and street team, "Linkin Park Underground '', in November 2001. Linkin Park also formed its own tour, Projekt Revolution, which featured other notable artists such as Cypress Hill, Adema, and Snoop Dogg. Within a year 's stretch, Linkin Park had performed at over 320 concerts. The experiences and performances of the precocious band were documented in its first DVD, Frat Party at the Pankake Festival, which debuted in November 2001. Now reunited with former bassist Phoenix, the band began work on a remix album, dubbed Reanimation, which would include works from Hybrid Theory and non-album tracks. Reanimation debuted on July 30, 2002, featuring the likes of Black Thought, Jonathan Davis, Aaron Lewis, and many others. Reanimation claimed the second spot on the Billboard 200, and sold nearly 270,000 copies during its debut week. Hybrid Theory is also in the RIAA 's Top 100 Albums.
Following the success of Hybrid Theory and Reanimation, Linkin Park spent a significant amount of time touring around the United States. The band members began to work on new material amidst its saturated schedule, spending a sliver of their free time in their tour bus ' studio. The band officially announced the production of a new studio album in December 2002, revealing its new work was inspired by the rocky region of Meteora in Greece, where numerous monasteries have been built on top of the rocks. Meteora features a mixture of the band 's nu metal and rap metal style with newer innovative effects, including the induction of a shakuhachi (a Japanese flute made of bamboo) and other instruments. Linkin Park 's second album debuted on March 25, 2003 and instantly earned worldwide recognition, going to No. 1 in the US and UK, and No. 2 in Australia.
Meteora sold more than 800,000 copies during its first week, and it ranked as the best selling album on the Billboard charts at the time. The album 's singles, including "Somewhere I Belong '', "Breaking the Habit '', "Faint '', and "Numb '', received significant radio attention. By October 2003, Meteora sold nearly three million copies. The album 's success allowed Linkin Park to form another Projekt Revolution, which featured other bands and artists including Mudvayne, Blindside, and Xzibit. Additionally, Metallica invited Linkin Park to play at the Summer Sanitarium Tour 2003, which included well - known acts such as Limp Bizkit, Mudvayne and Deftones. The band released an album and DVD, titled Live in Texas, which featured some audio and video tracks from the band 's performances in Texas during the tour. In early 2004, Linkin Park started a world tour titled the Meteora World Tour. Supporting bands on the tour included Hoobastank, P.O.D., Story of the Year and Pia.
Meteora earned the band multiple awards and honors. The band won the MTV awards for Best Rock Video for "Somewhere I Belong '' and the Viewer 's Choice Award for "Breaking the Habit ''. Linkin Park also received significant recognition during the 2004 Radio Music Awards, winning the Artist of the Year and Song of the Year ("Numb '') awards. Although Meteora was not nearly as successful as Hybrid Theory, it was the third best selling album in the United States during 2003. The band spent the first few months of 2004 touring around the world, first with the third Projekt Revolution tour, and later several European concerts. At the same time, the band 's relationship with Warner Bros. Records was deteriorating rapidly on account of several trust and financial issues. After months of feuding, the band finally negotiated a deal in December 2005.
Following Meteora 's success, the band worked on many side projects. Bennington appeared on DJ Lethal 's "State of the Art '' and other work with Dead by Sunrise, while Shinoda did work with Depeche Mode. In 2004, the band began to work with Jay - Z to produce another remix album, titled Collision Course. The album, which featured intermixed lyrics and background tracks from both artists ' previous albums, debuted in November 2004. Shinoda also formed Fort Minor as a side project. With the aid of Jay - Z, Fort Minor released its debut album, The Rising Tied, to critical acclaim.
Linkin Park also participated in numerous charitable events, most notably raised money to benefit victims of Hurricane Charley in 2004 and later Hurricane Katrina in 2005. The band donated $75,000 to the Special Operations Warrior Foundation in March 2004. They also helped relief efforts for the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami victims by staging several charity concerts and setting up an additional fund called Music for Relief. Most notably, however, the band participated at Live 8, a series of charitable benefit concerts set up to raise global awareness. Alongside Jay - Z, the band performed on Live 8 's stage in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to a global audience. The band would later be reunited with Jay - Z at the Grammy Award Ceremony 2006, during which they performed "Numb / Encore '', en route to winning a Grammy for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration. They were joined on stage by Paul McCartney who added verses from the song "Yesterday ''. They would later go on to play at the 2006 Summer Sonic music festival, which was hosted by Metallica in Japan.
Linkin Park returned to the recording studios in 2006 to work on new material. To produce the album, the band chose producer Rick Rubin. Despite initially stating the album would debut sometime in 2006, the album was delayed until 2007. The band had recorded thirty to fifty songs in August 2006, when Shinoda stated the album was halfway completed. Bennington later added that the new album would stray away from its previous nu metal sound. Warner Bros. Records officially announced that the band 's third studio album, titled Minutes to Midnight, would be released on May 15, 2007 in the United States. After spending fourteen months working on the album, the band members opted to further refine their album by removing five of the original seventeen tracks. The album 's title, a reference to the Doomsday Clock, foreshadowed the band 's new lyrical themes. Minutes to Midnight sold over 625,000 copies in its first week, making it one of the most successful debut week albums in recent years. The album also took the top spot on the Billboard Charts.
The album 's first single, "What I 've Done '', was released on April 2, and premiered on MTV and Fuse within the same week. The single was acclaimed by listeners, becoming the top - ranked song on the Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks and Mainstream Rock Tracks charts. The song is also used in soundtrack for the 2007 action film, Transformers. Mike Shinoda was also featured on the Styles of Beyond song "Second to None '', which was also included in the film. Later in the year, the band won the "Favorite Alternative Artist '' in the American Music Awards. The band also saw success with the rest of the album 's singles, "Bleed It Out '', "Shadow of the Day '', "Given Up '', and "Leave Out All the Rest '', which were released throughout 2007 and early 2008. The band also collaborated with Busta Rhymes on his single "We Made It '', which was released on April 29.
Linkin Park embarked on a large world tour titled "Minutes to Midnight World Tour ''. The band promoted the album 's release by forming their fourth Projekt Revolution tour in the United States which included many musical acts like My Chemical Romance, Taking Back Sunday, HIM, Placebo, and many others. They also played numerous shows in Europe, Asia, and Australia which included a performance at Live Earth Japan on July 7, 2007. and headlining Download Festival in Donington Park, England and Edgefest in Downsview Park, Toronto, Canada. The band completed touring on its fourth Projekt Revolution tour before taking up an Arena tour around the United Kingdom, visiting Nottingham, Sheffield and Manchester, before finishing on a double night at the O2 arena in London. Bennington stated that Linkin Park plans to release a follow - up album to Minutes to Midnight. However, he stated the band will first embark on a United States tour to gather inspiration for the album. Linkin Park embarked on another Projekt Revolution tour in 2008. This was the first time a Projekt Revolution tour was held in Europe with three shows in Germany and one in the United Kingdom. A Projekt Revolution tour was also held in the United States which featured Chris Cornell, The Bravery, Ashes Divide, Street Drum Corps and many others. Linkin Park finished the tour with a final show in Texas. Mike Shinoda announced a live CD / DVD titled Road to Revolution: Live at Milton Keynes, which is a live video recording from the Projekt Revolution gig at the Milton Keynes Bowl on June 29, 2008, which was officially released on November 24, 2008.
In May 2009, Linkin Park announced they were working on a fourth studio album, which was planned to be released in 2010. Shinoda told IGN that the new album would be ' genre - busting, ' while building off of elements in Minutes to Midnight. He also mentioned that the album would be more experimental and "hopefully more cutting - edge ''. Bennington also addressed the media to confirm that Rick Rubin would return to produce the new album. The band later revealed the album would be called A Thousand Suns. While working on the new album, Linkin Park worked with successful film composer Hans Zimmer to produce the score for Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen. The band released a single for the movie, titled "New Divide ''. Joe Hahn created a music video for the song, which featured clips from the film. On June 22, Linkin Park played a short set in Westwood Village after the premier of the movie. After completing work for Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, the band returned to the studio to finalize their album.
On April 26, the band released an app for the iPhone, iPod Touch, and iPad, a game called 8 - Bit Rebellion! It featured the band as playable characters, and a new song called "Blackbirds '' which was unlockable by beating the game. The song was also later released as an iTunes bonus track on A Thousand Suns.
A Thousand Suns was released on September 14. The album 's first single, "The Catalyst '', was released on August 2. The band promoted their new album by launching a concert tour, which started in Los Angeles on September 7. Linkin Park also relied on MySpace to promote their album, releasing two additional songs, "Waiting for the End '' and "Blackout '' on September 8. Furthermore, a documentary about the album 's production, titled Meeting of A Thousand Suns, was available for streaming on the band 's MySpace page. On August 31, 2010, it was announced that the band would perform the single live for the first time at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12, 2010. The venue of the debut live performance of the single was Griffith Observatory, an iconic location used in Hollywood movies. "Waiting for the End '' was released as the second single of A Thousand Suns.
Linkin Park reached No. 8 in Billboard Social 50, a chart of the most active artists on the world 's leading social networking sites. In other Billboard Year - End charts, the band reached No. 92 in the "Top Artists '' chart, as well as A Thousand Suns reaching No. 53 in the Year - End chart of the Billboard Top 200 albums and No. 7 in the 2010 Year - End Rock Albums, and "The Catalyst '' reaching No. 40 in the Year - End Rock Songs chart.
The band was nominated for six Billboard Awards in 2011 for Top Duo or Group, Best Rock Album for A Thousand Suns, Top Rock Artist, Top Alternative Artist, Top Alternative Song for "Waiting for the End '' and Top Alternative Album for A Thousand Suns, but did not win any award. The band charted in numerous Billboard Year - End charts in 2011. The band was No. 39 in the Top Artists Chart, No. 84 in the Billboard 200 Artists chart, No. 11 in the Social 50 Chart, No. 6 in the Top Rock Artists Chart, No. 9 in the Rock Songs Artists Chart, No. 16 in the Rock Albums Chart, No. 4 in the Hard Rock Albums Chart, and No. 7 in the Alternative Songs Chart.
In July 2011, Bennington told Rolling Stone that Linkin Park aims to produce a new album every eighteen months, and that he would be shocked if a new album did not come out in 2012. He later revealed in another interview in September 2011 that the band was still in the beginning phases of the next album, saying "We just kind of began. We like to keep the creative juices flowing, so we try to keep that going all the time... we like the direction that we 're going in ''. Later, on March 28, 2012, Shinoda confirmed that the band is filming a music video for "Burn It Down ''. Joe Hahn directed the video. Shinoda spoke to Co. Create about the album 's art, saying that it will "blow them (the fans) away... the average person is not going to be able to look at it and go, I understand that that 's completely new, like not just the image but the way they made the image is totally new. So there 's going to be that ''.
On April 15, 2012, Shinoda announced that Living Things would be the title of Linkin Park 's fifth album. Shinoda stated that they chose the title Living Things because the album is more about people, personal interactions, and it is far more personal than their previous albums. The band promoted the album on the 2012 edition of the Honda Civic Tour, with co-headliners Incubus. The band performed "Burn It Down '' at 2012 Billboard Music Awards. On May 24, the band released the music video for "Burn It Down '' and debuted "Lies Greed Misery '', another song from Living Things, on BBC Radio 1. "Powerless '', the twelfth and closing track of the album, was featured in the closing credits of the film Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter.
Living Things sold over 223,000 copies during its debut week, ranking No. 1 on the US Albums Charts. Linkin Park 's single, "Castle of Glass '', was nominated for ' Best Song in a Game ' at the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards. The band also performed at the award ceremony on December 7, but lost the award to "Cities '' by Beck. Linkin Park also played at the Soundwave music festival in Australia, where they shared the stage with Metallica, Paramore, Slayer and Sum 41.
On August 10, 2013, the band collaborated with American musician Steve Aoki to record the song "A Light That Never Comes '' for Linkin Park 's online puzzle - action game LP Recharge (short for Linkin Park Recharge), which was launched on Facebook and the official LP Recharge website on September 12, 2013. On the day of the game 's release, Linkin Park made a post on their Facebook explaining that the song used to promote the game would be included on a new remix album, entitled Recharged, which was released on October 29, 2013 on CD, vinyl, and digital download. Similar to Reanimation, the album features remixes of ten of the songs from Living Things, with contributions from other artists, such as Ryu of Styles of Beyond, Pusha T, Datsik, KillSonik, Bun B, Money Mark, and Rick Rubin. The band also worked on the soundtrack for the film Mall, which was directed by Joe Hahn.
In an interview with Fuse, Shinoda confirmed that Linkin Park had begun recording their sixth studio album in May 2013. The band released the first single from their upcoming album, titled, "Guilty All the Same '' on March 6, 2014 through Shazam. The single was later released on the following day by Warner Bros. Records and debut at No. 28 on the US Billboard Rock Airplay charts before peaking at No. 1 on the Mainstream Rock charts in the following weeks. Shortly after the single 's release, the band revealed their sixth album would be titled The Hunting Party. The album was produced by Shinoda and Delson, who wanted to explore musical elements from Hybrid Theory and the band 's earlier material. Shinoda commented the album is a "90s style of rock record ''. He elaborated, "It 's a rock record. It 's loud and it 's rock, but not in the sense of what you 've heard before, which is more like ' 90s hardcore - punk - thrash. ' The album includes musical contributions from rapper Rakim, Page Hamilton of Helmet, Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine, and Daron Malakian of System of a Down. The Hunting Party was released on June 13, 2014, in most countries, and later released in the United States on June 17.
Linkin Park performed at Download Festival on June 14, 2014, where they played their debut album, Hybrid Theory, in its entirety. Linkin Park headlined Rock am Ring and Rock im Park in 2014, along with Metallica, Kings of Leon, and Iron Maiden. They also headlined with Iron Maiden again at the Greenfield Festival in July. On June 22, Linkin Park made an unscheduled headline appearance at the Vans Warped Tour, where they played with members of Issues, The Devil Wears Prada, A Day To Remember, Yellowcard, Breathe Carolina, Finch, and Machine Gun Kelly. In January 2015, the band embarked on a tour to promote the release of The Hunting Party, consisting of 17 concerts across the United States and Canada. The tour was canceled after only three concerts when Bennington injured his ankle. On May 9, Linkin Park performed at the first edition of Rock in Rio USA, in direct support for Metallica.
On November 9, 2014, MTV Europe named Linkin Park the "Best Rock '' act of 2014 at their annual music awards ceremony. The band won the ' Best Rock Band ' and ' Best Live Act ' titles of 2014 on Loudwire 's Music Awards. Revolver ranked The Hunting Party as the fourth best album of 2014. In an interview with AltWire on May 4, Shinoda reflected on The Hunting Party and commented on Linkin Park 's future, stating; "I 'm really happy with the reaction from The Hunting Party, and I think we 're ready to move somewhere new on the next album, which will be coming (in 2016) ''.
Linkin Park collaborated with Steve Aoki on the song "Darker Than Blood '' for Aoki 's album Neon Future II, which was released in May 2015. The first preview of the song came during Aoki 's performance on February 28, 2015 at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago, Illinois. The song was debuted on Twitch.tv on April 13 and released on April 14.
Linkin Park performed at the closing ceremony of Blizzcon 2015, Blizzard 's video game convention.
Linkin Park began working on new material for a seventh studio album in November 2015. Chester Bennington commented on the album 's direction by stating, "We 've got a lot of great material that I hope challenges our fanbase as well as inspires them as much as it has us. '' In February 2017, Linkin Park released promotional videos on their social network accounts, which featured Shinoda and Bennington preparing new material for the album. Mike Shinoda stated the band was following a new process when producing the album. Brad Delson elaborated: "We 've made so many records and we clearly know how to make a record and we definitely did n't take the easy way out this time. ''
The first single from the new album was revealed to be titled "Heavy '' and features pop singer Kiiara, the first time the band has featured a female vocalist on an original song for a studio album. The lyrics for the song were co-written by Linkin Park with Julia Michaels and Justin Tranter. The single was released for download on February 16. As they have done in the past, Linkin Park had cryptic messages online in relation to the new album. The album cover was revealed through digital puzzles across social media; The cover features six kids playing in the ocean. The band 's seventh album, One More Light, was released on May 19, 2017.
Bennington died on July 20, 2017; his death was ruled a suicide by hanging. Shinoda confirmed Bennington 's death on Twitter, writing "Shocked and heartbroken, but it 's true. An official statement will come out as soon as we have one ''. The band had released a music video for their single "Talking to Myself '' earlier that day. One day after Bennington 's death, the band canceled the North American leg of their One More Light World Tour. On the morning of July 24, Linkin Park released an official statement on their website as a tribute to Bennington. On July 28, Shinoda announced that donations made to the band 's Music for Relief charity would be redirected to the One More Light Fund, which had been set up in Bennington 's memory. On August 4, when the band was initially scheduled to play on Good Morning America, Chris Cornell 's twelve - year - old daughter Toni (who was also Bennington 's goddaughter) appeared with OneRepublic to perform "Hallelujah '' as a tribute to Bennington and her father. Bennington had previously performed the song at the funeral for Cornell, who had also died from a suicide by hanging two months earlier.
On August 22, Linkin Park announced plans to host a tribute concert in Los Angeles to honor Bennington. The band thanked fans for their support, stating, "The five of us are so grateful for all of your support as we heal and build the future of Linkin Park ''. The band later confirmed that the concert, titled Linkin Park and Friends - Celebrate Life In Honor of Chester Bennington, would take place on October 27 at the Hollywood Bowl. The event included Linkin Park 's first performance following Bennington 's death. The event featured multiple guests performing Linkin Park songs along with the band. The event was over three hours long and was streamed live via YouTube.
On January 19, 2010, Linkin Park released a new song titled "Not Alone '' as part of a compilation from Music for Relief called Download to Donate for Haiti in support of the Haiti Earthquake crisis. On February 10, 2010, Linkin Park released the official music video for the song on their homepage. The single itself was released on October 21, 2011.
On January 11, 2011, an updated version of Download to Donate for Haiti was launched, called Download to Donate for Haiti V2. 0, with more songs to download. For the updated compilation, the band released Keaton Hashimoto 's remix of "The Catalyst '' from the "Linkin Park featuring YOU '' contest.
Shinoda designed two T - shirts, in which the proceeds will go to Music for Relief to help the victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami disasters. Music for Relief released Download to Donate: Tsunami Relief Japan, another compilation of songs, in which the proceeds will go to Save the Children. The band released the song titled as "Issho Ni '', meaning "we 're in this together '', on March 22, 2011 via Download to Donate: Tsunami Relief Japan.
In the wake of Typhoon Haiyan, Linkin Park played at Club Nokia during the "Music for Relief: Concert for the Philippines '' in Los Angeles, and raised donations for victims. The show was broadcast on AXS TV on February 15. Other artists during the show included The Offspring, Bad Religion, Heart, and The Filharmonic.
Linkin Park combines elements of rock music, hip hop and electronica, and have been categorized as alternative metal and rap rock by AllMusic. They are also tagged as rap rock by About.com. Despite also being characterized as nu metal, the band never considered themselves as such. Their MusicMight biography lists them as alternative rock, nu metal and rap metal. WatchMojo.com identifies them as alternative rock, electronic rock and industrial rock, while Billboard characterizes them as alternative metal and electronic rock.
Both Hybrid Theory and Meteora combine the alternative metal, nu metal, and rap rock sound with influences and elements from hip hop, alternative rock, and electronica, utilizing programming and synthesizers. William Ruhlmann from AllMusic regarded it as "a Johnny - come - lately to an already overdone musical style, '' whereas Rolling Stone described their song "Breaking the Habit '' as "risky, beautiful art ''.
In Minutes to Midnight the band experimented with their established sound and drew influences from a wider and more varied range of genres and styles, a process Los Angeles Times compares to a stage in U2 's work. In it, only two of the songs feature rapping, and the majority of the album can be considered alternative rock. NME magazine 's Dan Silver criticized the band 's approach, calling it the "sound of a band trying and failing to forge a new identity '', and referring to the song "Hands Held High '', a song about terrorist attacks and war, as "far and away the funniest thing you will hear all year ''.
The vocal interplay between Chester Bennington and Mike Shinoda plays as a major part within Linkin Park 's music, with Bennington being the lead vocalist and Shinoda as the rapping vocalist. On Linkin Park 's third album, Minutes to Midnight, Shinoda sings lead vocals on "In Between '', "Hands Held High '', and on the B - side "No Roads Left ''. On numerous songs from band 's fourth album, A Thousand Suns, such as the album 's four singles ("The Catalyst '', "Waiting for the End '', "Burning in the Skies '', "Iridescent ''), both Shinoda and Bennington sing. On most of the record 's tracks, the band notably used electronic drumbeats along with outro drumbeats. The album has been regarded as a turning point in the band 's musical career, having a stronger emphasis on electronica. James Montgomery, of MTV, compared the record to Radiohead 's Kid A, while Jordy Kasko of Review, Rinse, Repeat likened the album to both Kid A and Pink Floyd 's landmark album The Dark Side of the Moon. Shinoda stated that he and the other band members were deeply influenced by Chuck D and Public Enemy. He elaborated: "Public Enemy were very three - dimensional with their records because although they seemed political, there was a whole lot of other stuff going on in there too. It made me think how three - dimensional I wanted our record to be without imitating them of course, and show where we were at creatively ''. One of the record 's political elements is its samples of notable speeches by American political figures.
Their fifth album, Living Things, is also an electronic - heavy album, but includes other influences, resulting in a harder sound by comparison. The band returned to a heavier sound compared to their last three albums on The Hunting Party, which was described as an alternative metal and hard rock album. Their seventh album, One More Light, was described as pop, pop rock and electropop.
Linkin Park 's influences include Nine Inch Nails, Deftones, The Roots and Aphex Twin.
Linkin Park has sold more than 70 million records. The group 's first studio album Hybrid Theory is one of the best - selling albums in the US (10 million copies shipped) and worldwide (27 million copies sold). Billboard estimates that Linkin Park earned US $5 million between May 2011 and May 2012, making them the 40th - highest - paid musical artist. 11 of the band 's singles have reached the number one position on Billboard 's Alternative Songs chart, the second-most for any artist.
In 2003, MTV2 named Linkin Park the sixth - greatest band of the music video era and the third - best of the new millennium. Billboard ranked Linkin Park No. 19 on the Best Artists of the Decade chart. The band was recently voted as the greatest artist of the 2000s in a Bracket Madness poll on VH1. In 2014, the band was declared as the Biggest Rock Band in the World Right Now by Kerrang!. In 2015, Kerrang! gave "In the End '' and "Final Masquerade '' the top two positions on Kerrang! 's Rock 100 list.
Linkin Park became the first rock band to achieve more than one billion YouTube hits. Linkin Park also became the fifteenth most liked page on Facebook, tenth most liked artist, and most liked group followed by the Black Eyed Peas. Linkin Park 's "Numb '' is the third and "In the End '' is the sixth "timeless song '' on Spotify. The two songs making Linkin Park the only artist to have two timeless songs in top ten.
Hybrid Theory by the group is listed in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die, It was also ranked at # 11 on Billboard 's Hot 200 Albums of the Decade. In addition the album was included in Best of 2001 by Record Collector, The top 150 Albums of the Generation by Rock Sound and 50 Best Rock Albums of the 2000 's by Kerrang!. The album Meteora was included in Top 200 Albums of the Decade by Billboard at # 36. The album sold 20 million copies worldwide. The collaborated EP Collision Course with Jay - Z, became the second ever EP to top the Billboard 200, going on to sell over 300,000 copies in its first week after Alice in Chains ' Jar of Flies in 1994. The album Minutes to Midnight in the United States, the album had the biggest first week sales of 2007 at the time, with 625,000 albums sold. In Canada, the album sold over 50,000 copies in its first week and debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart. Worldwide, the album shipped over 3.3 million copies in its first four weeks of release.
The New York Times ' Jon Caramanica commented Linkin Park "brought the collision of hard rock and hip - hop to its commercial and aesthetic peak '' at the beginning of the 2000s. Several rock and non-rock artists have cited Linkin Park as an influence, including Of Mice & Men, One Ok Rock, Bishop Nehru, Misono, Evanescence, From Ashes to New, Bring Me the Horizon, Red, Girl on Fire, Manafest, Silentó, 3OH! 3, The Prom Kings, AJ Tracey, Kiiara, The Chainsmokers, Kevin Rudolf, blackbear, Tokio Hotel, and Stormzy.
Current members
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where is the highest air pressure found in the atmosphere | Atmospheric pressure - wikipedia
Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth (or that of another planet). In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. Pressure measures force per unit area, with SI units of pascals (1 Pa = 1 N / m). On average, a column of air one square centimetre (cm) (0.16 sq in) in cross-section, measured from sea level to the top of the Earth 's atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kilograms (2.3 lb) and weight of about 10.1 newtons (2.3 lb). That weight (across one square centimeter) is a pressure of 10.1 N / cm or 101 kN / m (kPa). A column 1 square inch (6.5 cm) in cross-section would have a weight of about 14.7 lb (6.7 kg) or about 65.4 N.
Atmospheric pressure is caused by the gravitational attraction of the planet on the atmospheric gases above the surface, and is a function of the mass of the planet, the radius of the surface, and the amount of gas and its vertical distribution in the atmosphere. It is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations due to temperature and variations in composition.
The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as 101 325 Pa (1.013 25 bar), equivalent to 760 mmHg (torr), 29.92 in Hg and 14.696 psi.
The mean sea level pressure (MSLP) is the average atmospheric pressure at sea level. This is the atmospheric pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television, and newspapers or on the Internet. When barometers in the home are set to match the local weather reports, they measure pressure adjusted to sea level, not the actual local atmospheric pressure.
The altimeter setting in aviation is an atmospheric pressure adjustment.
Average sea - level pressure is 1013.25 mbar (101.325 kPa; 29.921 inHg; 760.00 mmHg). In aviation weather reports (METAR), QNH is transmitted around the world in millibars or hectopascals (1 hectopascal = 1 millibar), except in the United States, Canada, and Colombia where it is reported in inches (to two decimal places) of mercury. The United States and Canada also report sea level pressure SLP, which is adjusted to sea level by a different method, in the remarks section, not in the internationally transmitted part of the code, in hectopascals or millibars. However, in Canada 's public weather reports, sea level pressure is instead reported in kilopascals.
In the US weather code remarks, three digits are all that are transmitted; decimal points and the one or two most significant digits are omitted: 1013.2 mbar (101.32 kPa) is transmitted as 132; 1000.0 mbar (100.00 kPa) is transmitted as 000; 998.7 mbar is transmitted as 987; etc. The highest sea - level pressure on Earth occurs in Siberia, where the Siberian High often attains a sea - level pressure above 1050 mbar (105 kPa; 31 inHg), with record highs close to 1085 mbar (108.5 kPa; 32.0 inHg). The lowest measurable sea - level pressure is found at the centers of tropical cyclones and tornadoes, with a record low of 870 mbar (87 kPa; 26 inHg) (see Atmospheric pressure records).
Pressure varies smoothly from the Earth 's surface to the top of the mesosphere. Although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year - round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. One can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude. Temperature and humidity also affect the atmospheric pressure, and it is necessary to know these to compute an accurate figure. The graph at right was developed for a temperature of 15 ° C and a relative humidity of 0 %.
At low altitudes above sea level, the pressure decreases by about 1.2 kPa for every 100 metres. For higher altitudes within the troposphere, the following equation (the barometric formula) relates atmospheric pressure p to altitude h
where the constant parameters are as described below:
Atmospheric pressure varies widely on Earth, and these changes are important in studying weather and climate. See pressure system for the effects of air pressure variations on weather.
Atmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal (twice - daily) cycle caused by global atmospheric tides. This effect is strongest in tropical zones, with an amplitude of a few millibars, and almost zero in polar areas. These variations have two superimposed cycles, a circadian (24 h) cycle and semi-circadian (12 h) cycle.
The highest adjusted - to - sea level barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth (above 750 meters) was 1085.7 hPa (32.06 inHg) measured in Tosontsengel, Mongolia on 19 December 2001. The highest adjusted - to - sea level barometric pressure ever recorded (below 750 meters) was at Agata in Evenk Autonomous Okrug, Russia (66 ° 53'N, 93 ° 28'E, elevation: 261 m, 856 ft) on 31 December 1968 of 1083.8 hPa (32.005 inHg). The discrimination is due to the problematic assumptions (assuming a standard lapse rate) associated with reduction of sea level from high elevations.
The Dead Sea, the lowest place on Earth at 430 metres (1,410 ft) below sea level, has a correspondingly high typical atmospheric pressure of 1065 hPa.
The lowest non-tornadic atmospheric pressure ever measured was 870 hPa (0.858 atm; 25.69 inHg), set on 12 October 1979, during Typhoon Tip in the western Pacific Ocean. The measurement was based on an instrumental observation made from a reconnaissance aircraft.
One atmosphere (101 kPa or 14.7 psi) is also the pressure caused by the weight of a column of fresh water of approximately 10.3 m (33.8 ft). Thus, a diver 10.3 m underwater experiences a pressure of about 2 atmospheres (1 atm of air plus 1 atm of water). Conversely, 10.3 m is the maximum height to which water can be raised using suction under standard atmospheric conditions.
Low pressures such as natural gas lines are sometimes specified in inches of water, typically written as w.c. (water column) or w.g. (inches water gauge). A typical gas - using residential appliance in the US is rated for a maximum of 14 w.c., which is approximately 35 hPa. Similar metric units with a wide variety of names and notation based on millimetres, centimetres or metres are now less commonly used.
Pure water boils at 100 ° C (212 ° F) at earth 's standard atmospheric pressure. The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure around the water. Because of this, the boiling point of water is lower at lower pressure and higher at higher pressure. Cooking at high elevations, therefore, requires adjustments to recipes. A rough approximation of elevation can be obtained by measuring the temperature at which water boils; in the mid-19th century, this method was used by explorers.
An important application of the knowledge that atmospheric pressure varies directly with altitude was in determining the height of hills and mountains thanks to the availability of reliable pressure measurement devices. While in 1774 Maskelyne was confirming Newton 's theory of gravitation at and on Schiehallion in Scotland (using plumb bob deviation to show the effect of "gravity '') and accurately measure elevation, William Roy using barometric pressure was able to confirm his height determinations, the agreement being to within one meter (3.28 feet). This method became and continues to be useful for survey work and map making. This early "application of science '' gave people insight into how science could easily be put to practical use.
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when do babies start to have stranger anxiety | Stranger anxiety - wikipedia
Stranger anxiety is a form of distress that children experience when exposed to strangers. Stranger anxiety and stranger fear are two interchangeable terms. Stranger anxiety is a typical part of the developmental sequence that most children experience. It can occur even if the child is with a caregiver or another person they trust. It peaks from 6 to 12 months but may recur afterwards until the age of 24 months. As a child gets older, stranger anxiety can be a problem as they begin to socialize. Children may become hesitant to play with unfamiliar children. Foster children are especially at risk, particularly if they experienced neglect early in their life.
The anxiety children experience when meeting a stranger is based on the sensation of fear they develop when introduced to an unfamiliar factor in their life that elicits the feeling of fear. They are not born with the awareness that meeting a stranger for the first time will cause them to be fearful. The child discovers this feeling when facing the stimulus, in this case a stranger, for the first time. Experiencing fear causes toddlers to sense they are in a potentially threatened position and therefore, they go towards their caregiver in order to seek protection from the stranger. This reaction enables children to develop instincts to guide them when they feel endangered and seek the protection of a familiar and trusted individual to ensure their safety and survival. The stimuli which provoke a child 's anxiety in the presence of a stranger are influenced by the individual 's age, gender and his or her distance from the toddler. When a child is in the company of an unknown child, he / she is less frightened than if he / she were with an unknown adult. This is due to the height of the individual. The taller the person, the more frightening he / she seems. In addition, children are more fearful of a stranger when they are standing in close proximity to them, while their caregiver is farther away or completely out of their sight. The gender of the stranger contributes to the level of anxiety a child experiences. When in the presence of a male, the child feels more anxious than in front of a female.
The anxiety a child feels when facing a stranger is based on various fears that arise in them. A few of these are based on the actions the stranger could unexpectedly take. For example, the child worries he / she can be taken away from his / her caregiver or harmed. The fear of the unknown elicits the anxiety. Although anxiety can go away in few minutes, it could also last a long time. As children reach the age of 2, their feelings of anxiety in the presence of strangers are nearly gone. However, some children can still experience apprehension up until the age of 4. It is less probable for toddlers to experience anxiety in the presence of a stranger if a figure they trust, such as their caregivers, perform positive interactions with this person. For example, they employ a calm tone of voice, they smile and hug the stranger. This enables the child to feel a certain reassurance seeing that their caregiver does not show any sign of fear in the presence of this individual.
Stranger anxiety develops slowly; it does not just appear suddenly. It typically first starts to appear around 4 months of age with infants behaving differently with caregivers than with strangers. In fact, there is a difference between their interactions with their caregiver and the stranger. They become cautious when strangers are around; therefore, preferring to be with their caregiver instead of the stranger. Around 7 -- 8 months, stranger anxiety becomes more present; therefore, it occurs more frequently at this point. Infants start to be aware of their environment and they are aware of their relationships with people; so, stranger anxiety is clearly displayed. Around this time, children choose and prefer to be with their primary caregiver. As a child 's cognitive skills develop and improve, typically around 12 months, their stranger anxiety can become more intense. They display behaviors like running to their caregiver, grabbing at the caregiver 's legs, or demanding to be picked up. Children seem also to respond more positively to a person who gives positive reinforcements and more negatively to a person who gives negative reinforcements.
Fearfulness within the sight of outsiders is thought to be developed around 6 months of age. In fact, that fear of strangers increases throughout their first year of life. The beginning of stranger fear is accepted to be adaptive, offering balance to infants ' tendencies toward approach and exploration and adding to the developing attachment system. However, in extreme cases of stranger fear, this can be a warning sign to the emergence of social anxiety. According to the University of Pittsburgh, stranger anxiety tends to be seen before separation anxiety.
According to the University of Pittsburgh based on the child, signs of stranger anxiety can differ from one to child the other. For example;
Parental attitudes also have an effect on a child 's fear acquisition. In their early months and years, infants acquire most of their behavioral information for their direct family and often, their primary caregivers. Young infants are more selective and preferentially learn about new threats for their mother 's responses. High risk mothers can easily influence their child 's responses since are more likely to mimic their actions. For example, a child who sees their mother demonstrating negative reactions towards a specific person, then the child is more likely to have a negative response towards that same person. While most studies have researched the effect of mothers ' behaviors on their children, it is important to note that the effect of parental modeling is not unique to mothers, but the phenomenon occurs for both mothers and fathers.
Fear beliefs that occur vicariously can be reversed using the same form of acquisition through a vicarious counter-conditioning procedure. For example, a parent can show a stranger 's angry face with happy face or a scared - paired animal with happy faces as well and vice versa. Also, feared responses seem to decrease with time if infants are provided with opportunities to have physical contact with the stimuli which helps alleviate the stimuli 's fearful properties.
Stranger fear is less likely in older children (i.e. at least six years old) since there is a greater readiness for them to accept behavioral information from outside the family. However, studies show that older children do exhibit increased anxiety to new threats and avoidant responses following discussion with parents. The effect of parental modeling of anxiety on children may go beyond influencing anxious behaviors in children, but also affect their subjective feelings and cognition during middle childhood.
This has important implications for parents and those working with school - age children because it suggests that they can potentially prevent or reverse fear developing if they recognize a child is involved in a fear - related vicarious learning event. In cases where infants become fearful of strangers or unknown entities (such as foreign objects), parents should respond positively towards the stranger, only after the child has a phobic response to it.
Since stranger anxiety can manifest itself suddenly or happen gradually throughout the development of the toddler, dealing with it can be hard sometimes because people are often not prepared to react to it or they do n't even know what stranger anxiety is. Stranger anxiety should be viewed as a normal, common part of a child 's development. Since it is often characterized by negative emotions and fear, multiple steps were created to induct a feeling of trust and safety between the child and the strangers.
Extreme anxiety can affect development, especially if a child is so terrified that they will not explore new environments and hinder themselves from learning. Also, research shows that exposure to circumstances that produce persistent fear and chronic anxiety can have a lifelong effect on a child 's brain by disrupting its developing architecture. While stranger anxiety is a normal part of child development, if it becomes so severe that it restricts normal life professional help might be necessary. Seeking the help of a pediatrician is recommended if the situation does n't improve, or even regresses in time. Often, pediatricians will be able to find the origin of the anxiety suffered by the child and create a plan of action in order to rectify the situation.
According to the American Psychiatric Association, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is defined as "a developmental disorder characterized by troubles with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior ''. There is a significant overlap between the behaviors that characterize ASD and those observed in stranger anxiety, which makes diagnoses and research more difficult. However, individuals with ASD often have a rigid understanding of the world and behave in a very rule - based and compartmentalized manner, depending on their placement on the spectrum. Thus, the social interactions and stranger approaches seen in children are often modeled from their caretakers and are based on the rules they are told.
Children with developmentally appropriate behavior also model their parents ' behavior and can exhibit stranger anxiety until about 6 years old, but children with ASD have difficulty accepting behavioral information and understanding how to behave with certain people and strangers. Thus, if caretakers / parents demonstrate negative behavior, like facial expressions, verbal communications, or physical retractions, towards strangers, children with autism will often imitate this behavior. Although children with ASD often have difficulty with imitation, children are often taught that strangers are "dangerous ''. Moreover, if caretakers teach children with autism that strangers are unsafe, they will demonstrate stranger anxiety and have difficulty understanding otherwise as they grow. For example, caretakers may teach children to never speak to strangers, but children with ASD will understand this literally and may fear and be anxious around all strangers.
Therefore, it is crucial to appropriately teach children with autism who they may expect to meet in a given location and situation and what those people look like, in order for them to be self - sufficient and not anxious wherever they are. Individuals with ASD need to understand not only who they should be interacting with in the community, but also what the expected behaviors are during these interactions. Moreover, caretakers / parents are cautioned to not reinforce negative reactions when strangers are seen and to teach "stranger danger '' precariously. Thus, children with autism should be taught strategies that slightly differ than a developmentally appropriate child. One example of a strategy is the Circles Program, which color coordinates individuals that a child may encounter by titling them in different colored circles and outlining the expected social boundaries with these people. Another strategy used for children with ASD and stranger anxiety is to use social stories, this includes pictures and audio tapes which makes understanding possible changes they may encounter with strangers.
Stranger terror is extremely severe stranger anxiety that inhibits the child 's normal functioning. The DSM - V describes stranger terror as infants with a reactive attachment disorder, inhibited type and do not respond to or initiate contact with others, but rather show extreme trepidation and ambivalence about unknown adults. Anxiety and fear around strangers usually appears around 6 months of age and it slowly increases throughout the first year of life. This increase in stranger anxiety correlates with the same time as when the child starts crawling, walking and exploring its surroundings. The age of the child seems to play an important role in the development of stranger terror in infants. Older infants (i.e. at least 12 months) seem to be more effected than younger infants because their cognitive development to know and remember has matured more than younger infants and their attachment to caregivers is stronger than younger infants.
Stranger anxiety and stranger terror is associated to the Attachment Theory, to the attachment to caregiver. Seen across different species, attachment increases the chances of the infant 's survival in the world. In a research conducted by Tyrrell and Dozier (1997), they found that infants in foster care show more attachment - related difficulties than control infants in their families. Those foster children were sometimes unsoothable after the contact or even just the presence of a stranger. There have been hypotheses that for these infants the appearance of the stranger represented a potential loss of the new attachment figure and it was the fear of re-experiencing this loss that prompted their behavior. Those children with stranger anxiety will rarely go beyond their caregiver to explore their surroundings. Stranger terror elicits strong reactions from children as described below, most likely due to the degree of traumatic event which causes their strong reactions such as the loss of a mother. In order to cope with attachment - related traumas, children suffering from stranger terror develop abnormal means of coping with these events by viewing all adults as threatening and avoiding contact with everyone, for example.
In a Strange Situation experiment, a child of the age of 20 months was in a room with their mother and a stranger would enter. The child would go hide behind the legs of the mother. The mother was then asked to leave the room and leave the child with the stranger. After the first separation, the child began to scream and was extremely upset. He refused all contact with the stranger and when the adult tried to pick up the child he would scream louder until put back down. Any attempts by the stranger to sooth the child was unsuccessful. When the mother came back in the room for the first reunion, the child somewhat calmed down, but he was still very upset and distressed. For the second part of the experiment, the child was left alone in the room for a couple of minutes before the stranger entered again. The second the stranger entered the room the child began crying loudly again even if no contact was made.
To conclude, although resistance to a stranger is common for children, the extreme reactions was far more urgent and depicted terror. In addition, most babies in the experiment show some evidence of settling when the stranger enters the room the second time. In contrast, children with stranger terror showed an increase in distress upon the stranger 's entry.
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which of the following best describes the world health organization's definition of health | Health - wikipedia
Health is the ability of a biological system to acquire, convert, allocate, distribute, and utilize energy with maximum efficiency. The World Health Organization (WHO) defined human health in a broader sense in its 1948 constitution as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well - being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. '' This definition has been subject to controversy, in particular as lacking operational value, the ambiguity in developing cohesive health strategies and because of the problem created by use of the word "complete '', which makes it practically impossible to achieve. Other definitions have been proposed, among which a recent definition that correlates health and personal satisfaction.
The definition of health has evolved over time. In keeping with the biomedical perspective, early definitions of health focused on the theme of the body 's ability to function; health was seen as a state of normal function that could be disrupted from time to time by disease. An example of such a definition of health is: "a state characterized by anatomic, physiologic, and psychological integrity; ability to perform personally valued family, work, and community roles; ability to deal with physical, biological, psychological, and social stress ''. Then in 1948, in a radical departure from previous definitions, the World Health Organization (WHO) proposed a definition that aimed higher: linking health to well - being, in terms of "physical, mental, and social well - being, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity ''. Although this definition was welcomed by some as being innovative, it was also criticized as being vague, excessively broad and was not construed as measurable. For a long time, it was set aside as an impractical ideal and most discussions of health returned to the practicality of the biomedical model.
Just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a leading role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, but in dynamic terms of resiliency, in other words, as "a resource for living ''. 1984 WHO revised the definition of health defined it as "the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living; it is a positive concept, emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities ''. Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from insults. Mental, intellectual, emotional and social health referred to a person 's ability to handle stress, to acquire skills, to maintain relationships, all of which form resources for resiliency and independent living.
Since the late 1970s, the federal Healthy People Initiative has been a visible component of the United States ' approach to improving population health. In each decade, a new version of Healthy People is issued, featuring updated goals and identifying topic areas and quantifiable objectives for health improvement during the succeeding ten years, with assessment at that point of progress or lack thereof. Progress has been limited to many objectives, leading to concerns about the effectiveness of Healthy People in shaping outcomes in the context of a decentralized and uncoordinated US health system. Healthy People 2020 gives more prominence to health promotion and preventive approaches and adds a substantive focus on the importance of addressing social determinants of health. A new expanded digital interface facilitates use and dissemination rather than bulky printed books as produced in the past. The impact of these changes to Healthy People will be determined in the coming years.
Systematic activities to prevent or cure health problems and promote good health in humans are undertaken by health care providers. Applications with regard to animal health are covered by the veterinary sciences. The term "healthy '' is also widely used in the context of many types of non-living organizations and their impacts for the benefit of humans, such as in the sense of healthy communities, healthy cities or healthy environments. In addition to health care interventions and a person 's surroundings, a number of other factors are known to influence the health status of individuals, including their background, lifestyle, and economic, social conditions and spirituality; these are referred to as "determinants of health. '' Studies have shown that high levels of stress can affect human health.
In the first decade of the 21st century, the conceptualization of health as an ability opened the door for self - assessments to become the main indicators to judge the performance of efforts aimed at improving human health. It also created the opportunity for every person to feel healthy, even in the presence of multiple chronic diseases, or a terminal condition, and for the re-examination of determinants of health, away from the traditional approach that focuses on the reduction of the prevalence of diseases.
Generally, the context in which an individual lives is of great importance for both his health status and quality of their life. It is increasingly recognized that health is maintained and improved not only through the advancement and application of health science, but also through the efforts and intelligent lifestyle choices of the individual and society. According to the World Health Organization, the main determinants of health include the social and economic environment, the physical environment and the person 's individual characteristics and behaviors.
More specifically, key factors that have been found to influence whether people are healthy or unhealthy include the following:
An increasing number of studies and reports from different organizations and contexts examine the linkages between health and different factors, including lifestyles, environments, health care organization and health policy, one specific health policy brought into many countries in recent years was the introduction of the sugar tax. Beverage taxes came into light with increasing concerns about obesity, particularly among youth. Sugar - sweetened beverages have become a target of anti-obesity initiatives with increasing evidence of their link to obesity. -- such as the 1974 Lalonde report from Canada; the Alameda County Study in California; and the series of World Health Reports of the World Health Organization, which focuses on global health issues including access to health care and improving public health outcomes, especially in developing countries.
The concept of the "health field, '' as distinct from medical care, emerged from the Lalonde report from Canada. The report identified three interdependent fields as key determinants of an individual 's health. These are:
The maintenance and promotion of health is achieved through different combination of physical, mental, and social well - being, together sometimes referred to as the "health triangle. '' The WHO 's 1986 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion further stated that health is not just a state, but also "a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities. ''
Focusing more on lifestyle issues and their relationships with functional health, data from the Alameda County Study suggested that people can improve their health via exercise, enough sleep, maintaining a healthy body weight, limiting alcohol use, and avoiding smoking. Health and illness can co-exist, as even people with multiple chronic diseases or terminal illnesses can consider themselves healthy.
The environment is often cited as an important factor influencing the health status of individuals. This includes characteristics of the natural environment, the built environment and the social environment. Factors such as clean water and air, adequate housing, and safe communities and roads all have been found to contribute to good health, especially to the health of infants and children. Some studies have shown that a lack of neighborhood recreational spaces including natural environment leads to lower levels of personal satisfaction and higher levels of obesity, linked to lower overall health and well being. This suggests that the positive health benefits of natural space in urban neighborhoods should be taken into account in public policy and land use.
Genetics, or inherited traits from parents, also play a role in determining the health status of individuals and populations. This can encompass both the predisposition to certain diseases and health conditions, as well as the habits and behaviors individuals develop through the lifestyle of their families. For example, genetics may play a role in the manner in which people cope with stress, either mental, emotional or physical. For example, obesity is a significant problem in the United States that contributes to bad mental health and causes stress in the lives of great numbers of people. (One difficulty is the issue raised by the debate over the relative strengths of genetics and other factors; interactions between genetics and environment may be of particular importance.)
A number of types of health issues are common around the globe. Disease is one of the most common. According to GlobalIssues.org, approximately 36 million people die each year from non-communicable (not contagious) disease including cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes and chronic lung disease (Shah, 2014).
Among communicable diseases, both viral and bacterial, AIDS / HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria are the most common, causing millions of deaths every year (Shah, 2014).
Another health issue that causes death or contributes to other health problems is malnutrition, especially among children. One of the groups malnutrition affects most is young children. Approximately 7.5 million children under the age of 5 die from malnutrition, usually brought on by not having the money to find or make food (Shah, 2014).
Bodily injuries are also a common health issue worldwide. These injuries, including broken bones, fractures, and burns can reduce a person 's quality of life or can cause fatalities including infections that resulted from the injury or the severity injury in general (Moffett, 2013).
Lifestyle choices are contributing factors to poor health in many cases. These include smoking cigarettes, and can also include a poor diet, whether it is overeating or an overly constrictive diet. Inactivity can also contribute to health issues and also a lack of sleep, excessive alcohol consumption, and neglect of oral hygiene (Moffett2013). There are also genetic disorders that are inherited by the person and can vary in how much they affect the person and when they surface (Moffett, 2013).
Though the majority of these health issues are preventable, a major contributor to global ill health is the fact that approximately 1 billion people lack access to health care systems (Shah, 2014). Arguably, the most common and harmful health issue is that a great many people do not have access to quality remedies.
The World Health Organization describes mental health as "a state of well - being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community ''. Mental Health is not just the absence of mental illness.
Mental illness is described as ' the spectrum of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral conditions that interfere with social and emotional well - being and the lives and productivity of people. Having a mental illness can seriously impair, temporarily or permanently, the mental functioning of a person. Other terms include: ' mental health problem ', ' illness ', ' disorder ', ' dysfunction '.
Roughly a quarter of all adults 18 and over in the US are considered diagnosable with mental illness. Mental illnesses are the leading cause of disability in the US and Canada. Examples include, schizophrenia, ADHD, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and autism.
Many teens suffer from mental health issues in response to the pressures of society and social problems they encounter. Some of the key mental health issues seen in teens are: depression, eating disorders, and drug abuse. There are many ways to prevent these health issues from occurring such as communicating well with a teen suffering from mental health issues. Mental health can be treated and be attentive to teens ' behavior.
Many factors contribute to mental health problems, including:
Achieving and maintaining health is an ongoing process, shaped by both the evolution of health care knowledge and practices as well as personal strategies and organized interventions for staying healthy.
An important way to maintain your personal health is to have a healthy diet. A healthy diet includes a variety of plant - based and animal - based foods that provide nutrients to your body. Such nutrients give you energy and keep your body running. Nutrients help build and strengthen bones, muscles, and tendons and also regulate body processes (i.e. blood pressure). The food guide pyramid is a pyramid - shaped guide of healthy foods divided into sections. Each section shows the recommended intake for each food group (i.e. Protein, Fat, Carbohydrates, and Sugars). Making healthy food choices is important because it can lower your risk of heart disease, developing some types of cancer, and it will contribute to maintaining a healthy weight.
The Mediterranean diet is commonly associated with health - promoting effects due to the fact that it contains some bioactive compounds like phenolic compounds, isoprenoids and alkaloids.
Physical exercise enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness. It strengthens muscles and improves the cardiovascular system. According to the National Institute of Health (NIH) there are four types of exercise; Endurance, Strength, Flexibility, and Balance. Endurance exercises are those that will elevate your heart rate including; walking, jogging, running, hiking etc.
Sleep is an essential component to maintaining health. In children, sleep is also vital for growth and development. Ongoing sleep deprivation has been linked to an increased risk for some chronic health problems. In addition, sleep deprivation has been shown to correlate with both increased susceptibility to illness and slower recovery times from illness. In one study, people with chronic insufficient sleep, set as six hours of sleep a night or less, were found to be four times more likely to catch a cold compared to those who reported sleeping for seven hours or more a night. Due to the role of sleep in regulating metabolism, insufficient sleep may also play a role in weight gain or, conversely, in impeding weight loss. Additionally, in 2007, the International Agency for Research on Cancer, which is the cancer research agency for the World Health Organization, declared that "shiftwork that involves circadian disruption is probably carcinogenic to humans, '' speaking to the dangers of long - term nighttime work due to its intrusion on sleep. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation released updated recommendations for sleep duration requirements based on age and concluded that "Individuals who habitually sleep outside the normal range may be exhibiting signs or symptoms of serious health problems or, if done volitionally, may be compromising their health and well - being. ''
Health science is the branch of science focused on health. There are two main approaches to health science: the study and research of the body and health - related issues to understand how humans (and animals) function, and the application of that knowledge to improve health and to prevent and cure diseases and other physical and mental impairments. The science builds on many sub-fields, including biology, biochemistry, physics, epidemiology, pharmacology, medical sociology. Applied health sciences endeavor to better understand and improve human health through applications in areas such as health education, biomedical engineering, biotechnology and public health.
Organized interventions to improve health based on the principles and procedures developed through the health sciences are provided by practitioners trained in medicine, nursing, nutrition, pharmacy, social work, psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy and other health care professions. Clinical practitioners focus mainly on the health of individuals, while public health practitioners consider the overall health of communities and populations. Workplace wellness programs are increasingly adopted by companies for their value in improving the health and well - being of their employees, as are school health services in order to improve the health and well - being of children.
Public health has been described as "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals. '' It is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. The population in question can be as small as a handful of people or as large as all the inhabitants of several continents (for instance, in the case of a pandemic). Public health has many sub-fields, but typically includes the interdisciplinary categories of epidemiology, biostatistics and health services. Environmental health, community health, behavioral health, and occupational health are also important areas of public health.
The focus of public health interventions is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behavior, communities, and (in aspects relevant to human health) environments. Its aim is to prevent health problems from happening or re-occurring by implementing educational programs, developing policies, administering services and conducting research. In many cases, treating a disease or controlling a pathogen can be vital to preventing it in others, such as during an outbreak. Vaccination programs and distribution of condoms to prevent the spread of communicable diseases are examples of common preventive public health measures, as are educational campaigns to promote vaccination and the use of condoms (including overcoming resistance to such).
Public health also takes various actions to limit the health disparities between different areas of the country and, in some cases, the continent or world. One issue is the access of individuals and communities to health care in terms of financial, geographical or socio - cultural constraints to accessing and using services. Applications of the public health system include the areas of maternal and child health, health services administration, emergency response, and prevention and control of infectious and chronic diseases.
The great positive impact of public health programs is widely acknowledged. Due in part to the policies and actions developed through public health, the 20th century registered a decrease in the mortality rates for infants and children and a continual increase in life expectancy in most parts of the world. For example, it is estimated that life expectancy has increased for Americans by thirty years since 1900, and worldwide by six years since 1990.
Personal health depends partially on the active, passive, and assisted cues people observe and adopt about their own health. These include personal actions for preventing or minimizing the effects of a disease, usually a chronic condition, through integrative care. They also include personal hygiene practices to prevent infection and illness, such as bathing and washing hands with soap; brushing and flossing teeth; storing, preparing and handling food safely; and many others. The information gleaned from personal observations of daily living -- such as about sleep patterns, exercise behavior, nutritional intake and environmental features -- may be used to inform personal decisions and actions (e.g., "I feel tired in the morning so I am going to try sleeping on a different pillow ''), as well as clinical decisions and treatment plans (e.g., a patient who notices his or her shoes are tighter than usual may be having exacerbation of left - sided heart failure, and may require diuretic medication to reduce fluid overload).
Personal health also depends partially on the social structure of a person 's life. The maintenance of strong social relationships, volunteering, and other social activities have been linked to positive mental health and also increased longevity. One American study among seniors over age 70, found that frequent volunteering was associated with reduced risk of dying compared with older persons who did not volunteer, regardless of physical health status. Another study from Singapore reported that volunteering retirees had significantly better cognitive performance scores, fewer depressive symptoms, and better mental well - being and life satisfaction than non-volunteering retirees.
Prolonged psychological stress may negatively impact health, and has been cited as a factor in cognitive impairment with aging, depressive illness, and expression of disease. Stress management is the application of methods to either reduce stress or increase tolerance to stress. Relaxation techniques are physical methods used to relieve stress. Psychological methods include cognitive therapy, meditation, and positive thinking, which work by reducing response to stress. Improving relevant skills, such as problem solving and time management skills, reduces uncertainty and builds confidence, which also reduces the reaction to stress - causing situations where those skills are applicable.
In addition to safety risks, many jobs also present risks of disease, illness and other long - term health problems. Among the most common occupational diseases are various forms of pneumoconiosis, including silicosis and coal worker 's pneumoconiosis (black lung disease). Asthma is another respiratory illness that many workers are vulnerable to. Workers may also be vulnerable to skin diseases, including eczema, dermatitis, urticaria, sunburn, and skin cancer. Other occupational diseases of concern include carpal tunnel syndrome and lead poisoning.
As the number of service sector jobs has risen in developed countries, more and more jobs have become sedentary, presenting a different array of health problems than those associated with manufacturing and the primary sector. Contemporary problems, such as the growing rate of obesity and issues relating to stress and overwork in many countries, have further complicated the interaction between work and health.
Many governments view occupational health as a social challenge and have formed public organizations to ensure the health and safety of workers. Examples of these include the British Health and Safety Executive and in the United States, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, which conducts research on occupational health and safety, and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, which handles regulation and policy relating to worker safety and health.
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when did captain cold die in the flash | Captain Cold - Wikipedia
Captain Cold (Leonard Snart) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Captain Cold is the leader of the Rogues, a loose criminal association, as well as the older brother of Golden Glider. An acquaintance of the various superheroes known as the Flash, he has served as a bitter enemy to Barry Allen, both enemy and grudging friend to Wally West, and one of the regretting killers of Bart Allen. As part of 2011 's The New 52 reboot, Captain Cold is a villain that with his team The Rogues lives by a code to never kill and sometimes can be perceived as a hero.
IGN 's list of the Top 100 Comic Book Villains Of All Time List ranked Captain Cold as # 27. Actor Wentworth Miller has portrayed the character in The CW 's television series The Flash and Legends of Tomorrow.
Created by John Broome and Carmine Infantino, the character made his first appearance in Showcase # 8 (June 1957).
Leonard Snart was raised by an abusive father and took refuge with his grandfather, who worked in an ice truck. When his grandfather died, Snart grew tired of his father 's abuse and set out to start a criminal career. Snart joined up with a group of small - time thieves and in planning out a robbery, each was issued a gun and a visor to protect their eyes against the flashes of gunfire. This visor design would later be adapted by Snart into his trademark costume. In recent years he has added a radio receiver to them which picks up the police band to monitor local law enforcement. Snart and the other thugs were captured by the Flash and imprisoned. Snart decided to go solo, but knew he had to do something about the local hero, the Flash.
Snart read an article that theorized that the energy emissions of a cyclotron could interfere with the Flash 's speed. He designed a weapon to harness that power and broke into a cyclotron lab, intending to use the device to charge up his experimental gun. As he was finishing his experiment, a security guard surprised Snart. Intending to use his gun only to scare the guard, he inadvertently pulled the trigger and discovered that his weapon had been altered in a way he had never imagined. The moisture in the air around the guard froze. Intrigued by this twist of fate, Snart donned a parka and the aforementioned visor and declared himself to be Captain Cold - the man who mastered absolute zero. Snart then committed a series of non-lethal crimes, on one occasion placing the city in suspended animation in an attempt to force Iris West to marry him as he had fallen in love with her when he saw her in the prison, but the Flash got through a wall of ice and was able to reverse the process. He later fell in love with a newscaster, and competed with Heat Wave (in his first appearance) over her in a crime spree, but they were both beaten by the Flash. But after Barry Allen 's death, during the Crisis on Infinite Earths, Captain Cold became a bounty hunter with his sister Lisa, the Golden Glider.
During the events of Underworld Unleashed, Captain Cold lost his soul to Neron but Wally West brought it back to the land of the living. He soon returned to crime, this time a member of Wally 's Rogues Gallery. The Rogues had first been assembled when another Flash foe, the super-intelligent Gorilla Grodd had broken them out of jail to distract the Flash. The Golden Glider had abandoned her bounty hunter career and had started partnering with a series of thugs who she dressed in a costume, armed with a copy of Captain Cold 's signature Cold Gun, and called Chillblaine. Already distraught over the death of her lover, the Top, it seemed that the supposed death of her brother pushed her over the edge. But the last Chillblaine was a little smarter and more vicious. He murdered the Golden Glider, prompting Captain Cold to hunt him down, torture him and kill him by freezing his outer layer of skin and then pushing him off a high rise building. Not long after that, Snart was framed by a new incarnation of Mister Element. He used his Element Gun to simulate Cold 's gun, using ice and cold to murder several police officers before Captain Cold and the Flash discovered who was actually responsible. With the death of his sister, and having killed Chillblaine and Mr. Element in vengeance, Cold has again become an unrepentant criminal. However, during a confrontation with Brother Grimm, Cold actually worked with Wally West to defeat the powerful magic user, although this was mainly because he and Mirror Master had been betrayed by Grimm and wanted revenge.
Captain Cold was declared the leader of the Flash 's Rogues Gallery. His skill and experience have made him a strong leader to the likes of the Weather Wizard, the new Trickster, the new Mirror Master, and the new Captain Boomerang. Len seems to have taken the young Captain Boomerang under his wing, after the elder Boomerang was recently killed. Tabloids rumoured that Captain Cold 's sister, the Golden Glider, was Boomerang 's mother, making him Captain Cold 's nephew. This turned out to be false, however, as the new Boomerang 's mother has been revealed to be Meloni Thawne, who is also the mother of Bart Allen. Despite his more ruthless nature as of late, Captain Cold 's heart is not completely frozen, evidenced by having sent flowers to honor Sue Dibny, murdered wife of the Elongated Man.
Traditionally, Captain Cold is driven by three things: money, women, and the desire to beat Barry Allen. Although not the lecher that Captain Boomerang was, Len Snart has an eye for the ladies, particularly models. When Barry Allen died, Captain Cold drifted for a while, jumping back and forth over the lines of crime and justice. He was captured by the Manhunter and served time in the Suicide Squad, worked with his sister as a bounty hunter (Golden Snowball Recoveries), and, with his longtime friend and sometimes nemesis Heat Wave, encountered Fire and Ice of the Justice League. He has teamed up with various villains over the years other than the many Rogues. These include Catwoman and the Secret Society of Super Villains. His favorite baseball team is the Houston Astros.
In the 2006 "One Year Later '' storyline, he and several other Rogues are approached by Inertia with a plan to kill the Flash (then Bart Allen). Though Inertia was defeated, Captain Cold, Weather Wizard, Heat Wave, Mirror Master and Abra Kadabra killed Bart with a combined barrage of their elemental weapons. He, Heat Wave, and Weather Wizard seemed to express guilt, however, after learning the identity of the Flash and how young he was.
Captain Cold is one of the exiled villains featured in the 2007 - 08 miniseries Salvation Run along with his fellow Rogues: Heat Wave, Weather Wizard, Mirror Master, and Abra Kadabra.
In the 2008 miniseries Final Crisis: Rogues ' Revenge, Captain Cold and the Rogues briefly joined Libra 's Secret Society of Super Villains. In Final Crisis: Rogues ' Revenge story, however, Cold and the rest of the Rogues reject Libra 's offer, wanting to stay out of the game. Before they can retire, they hear of Inertia escaping and decide to stick around long enough to get revenge for being used. Cold and his group is challenged by a new set of Rogues, formed by Libra to be their replacements. The new group, having kidnapped Cold 's father, challenge the Rogues, and are defeated and killed. Cold goes to his father, talking to him about the abuse he suffered, and the fate of his sister. After the elder Snart insults him and his mother, calling them weak, Cold punches him, but finds himself unable to kill him, instead getting Heat Wave to do it. The Rogues have their confrontation with Inertia, despite interference by Zoom and Libra, and kill Inertia. Libra then reveals that he needs the Rogues because Barry Allen has returned from the dead, and the Flashes are potential threats to him and Darkseid. Though shocked by the news that Allen is alive, Cold still rejects his offer of membership. After regrouping, Cold and the other Rogues agree not to retire, claiming that the game is back on. In "Final Crisis '' # 7, someone that looks like Captain Cold appears as a Justifier and is seen fighting the Female Furies alongside the other Justifiers under Lex Luthor 's control.
In the 2009 The Flash: Rebirth miniseries, Captain Cold is seen with the other Rogues, reading about Barry Allen 's return and claiming that they would need more of the Rogues. The Rogues are still debating Allen 's return, with Cold saying it 's time to pull out their contingency plan that Scudder came up with, stating "In case The Flash returns, break glass. ''
In the 2009 -- 2010 "Blackest Night '' storyline, the Rogues realize that the bodies of various dead Rogues are missing and prepare to fight them. Captain Cold knows that his sister, the Golden Glider, is among the reanimated Black Lanterns but is still ready to lead the Rogues against the zombies. He is confronted by the Black Lantern Glider, who attempts to use his feelings of love for her against him. However, Captain Cold manages to suppress these feelings long enough for him to fight back, freezing her within a block of ice. He subsequently kills Owen Mercer by throwing him into a pit with his Black Lantern father when he learns that Owen has been feeding people to his father in the belief that consuming flesh will restore him to life, informing Owen that Rogues do not kill women and children.
In The Flash (Vol. 3), Captain Cold and the Rogues visit Sam Scudder 's old hideout and unveil a giant mirror with the words In Case of Flash: Break Glass written on it and release beings from a Mirror World upon breaking it. However, Captain Cold is told by Mirror Master he had discovered that the giant mirror is actually a slow acting poison.
In the timeline of the 2011 company - wide reboot of all its superhero titles, The New 52, Captain Cold is reintroduced as a younger man than in the previous timeline and now with his Rogues lives with a code to never kill. His origin remains the same, however, his sister Lisa has not been the Golden Glider, and is instead dying of cancer. Upon learning that the hospital does not have enough energy to power a laser that could save her life, because of an EMP seemingly caused by the Flash, Cold blames him for everything that has happened to him, including a falling out with the Rogues, and decides to break the rules of their "game '' and kill the Flash. Captain Cold has undergone experiments that have given him ice - based metahuman powers, including the ability to slow down the molecules around him, creating a field of inertia that reduces the Flash 's speed to human level, allowing Captain Cold to touch him and effortlessly beat him. He and the Rogues are set to return, but later defeated them with help from Flash, and the Pied Piper.
After freeing the Trickster and attending the meeting at the Justice League Watchtower, the Rogues return to Central and Keystone City, only to see that both have been destroyed by Gorilla Grodd. Grodd returns to Central City during the eclipse, while a ceremony commemorating Flash between the humans and gorillas is occurring. Grodd proceeds to take control of Central City as its king and renames it Gorilla City. Captain Cold sees the city 's cops tied up from Grodd, and proceeds to free them. He then asks Mirror Master to help him get to the hospital where his sister is being held in order to check on her. While there, the Crime Syndicate send Black Bison, Hyena, Multiplex, Plastique and Typhoon to finish Grodd 's work and destroy the hospital. The Rogues are able to hold them off, only to be interrupted by Deathstorm and Power Ring, who were sent by Ultraman to deal with the Rogues for resisting the Crime Syndicate 's offer to join them. After battling Deathstorm and Power Ring, Deathstorm attacks Captain Cold and is able to extract his freezing powers from his DNA. Mirror Master attempts to get the Rogues out through the Mirror World, but Power Ring destroys the mirror causing the Rogues to be separated. Captain Cold ends up at Luthor and his Kryptonian clone 's location where they are also joined by Black Manta, who has retrieved Black Adam from the ocean. Luthor realizes that, with the help of his clone, Black Adam, Black Manta, and Captain Cold, he may be able to stop the Crime Syndicate. Captain Cold and the rest of the squad, now joined by Batman, Catwoman, Sinestro and Deathstroke, infiltrate the fallen Watchtower, where Black Manta kills the Outsider and Cold proceeds to shatter Johnny Quick 's right leg after having frozen the molecules in it with his cold gun. He then unmasks the hooded prisoner brought over from Earth - 3, revealing it to be Alexander Luthor, who is their version of Shazam, Mazahs, who states he will kill them all. After defeating the crime syndicate, Captain Cold is pardoned by the U.S government, and becomes a member of the Justice League, along with Luthor.
Snart and the Rogues first made a cameo appearance in the DC Rebirth 's storylines; they are fleetingly watching a news report about the many newly created speedsters appearing throughout the city in The Flash # 3. Snart quips that it is time for the Rogues to leave Central City for a while. Visually the Rogues still seem to be based upon their New 52 appearances in this cameo, though when Snart later appears in one of Flash 's memory flashbacks he has resorted to an even older look. He and the other Rogues retain these costumes in their later appearances.
Snart and the Rogues make their first full - length appearance in The Flash # 15, where they are attempting to steal a valuable golden statue of the god Mercury from the small island nation of Corto Maltese. The Flash arrives to stop them, but they turn out to be constructs of Mirror Master laid so that the Rogues can commit a crime spree in Central City. Captain Cold reveals what he had been working on in his absence from the city -- a "black ice gun '' that uses the anti-Speed Force weaponry of the terrorist group Black Hole combined with his regular freeze gun. After a fight, the Golden Glider had a chance to kill the Flash, but was talked out of it by her fellow Rogues. Despite this setback, Flash manages to finally beat Snart and the rest of the Rogues without killing them. By the end of The Flash # 17, Snart appears to be ready to take over Iron Heights from the more neophyte villains, including Papercut.
In the Watchmen sequel Doomsday Clock, Captain Cold and his fellow Rogues are among the villains that attend the underground meeting held by Riddler that talks about the Superman Theory.
Like the majority of the Flash 's Rogues, Snart had no innate superhuman powers. He instead relied on his cold guns and instincts. Over the years, Snart had modified his weapons to allow a variety of effects such as:
Fellow ice - based villain Mr. Freeze has noted that Cold is the only cold - themed villain in the DC Universe to have mastered "absolute zero '' with his weapons.
In the New 52 universe Captain Cold temporarily had metahuman ice powers, including the power to slow down the Flash or objects traveling at high velocities via molecular deceleration caused by Absolute Zero, but these powers are later lost in the Forever Evil series when he is attacked by Deathstorm - the Earth - 3 counterpart of Firestorm - with Cold reverting to using his classic ice gun. Despite his lack of professional or technical expertise, Cold states that he spent so long analyzing the parts of his cold gun that he is able to recreate it in just over half an hour using parts stolen from a standard electronics shop. He 's even skilled enough to program it for a host of unique effects simulating some of his powers; like his "Cold Field '' which quick cools the atmosphere to the point everything caught in it grinds to a halt, or an auto activation function which triggers his Cold Gun 's freeze ray via vocalized password input.
During the Rebirth storyline, Snart augmented his Cold Gun even further by combining it with the anti-Speed Force technologies by the science criminal cell called Black Hole. The newly christened Black Ice Gun now tacked directly into The Speed Force in order to painfully disrupt a speedster 's connection to it. Snart 's new cold gun was so powerful that not only could it hinder the Flash in the most excruciating way possible, it was vastly more powerful in scope, able to freeze both the harbor and several city blocks adjacent to their current location.
Wentworth Miller portrays Leonard Snart / Captain Cold in The CW 's Arrowverse.
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who played linda and bernie on everybody loves raymond | List of Everybody loves Raymond characters - wikipedia
This is a list of fictional characters from Everybody Loves Raymond, an American sitcom, originally broadcast on CBS from September 13, 1996, to May 16, 2005.
The show revolves around the life of Italian - American Ray Barone, a sportswriter from Long Island, and his wife, Debra Barone. Other main characters include Ray 's parents, Frank and Marie, Ray 's children Ally, Michael and Geoffrey and Ray 's brother Robert, with his wife Amy.
Raymond Albert "Ray '' Barone (Ray Romano) is the protagonist of the sitcom. Most of the series ' storylines revolve around him, hence the title of the show. He lives on Long Island, with his wife Debra and their three children Ally and twin boys, Michael and Geoffrey Barone. He attended St. Johns University (New York) in Queens, New York. Ray is well - known through the community due to his profession as a writer for a sports column. In some episodes, he is seen reviewing a famous sportsperson. However, this is shown to have subsided in the later seasons. Due to the nature of his work, Ray is often seen on the couch, watching sports, rather than assisting Debra with household duties and the children.
At times Raymond appears rather introverted. He often rants in a nasal, whiny voice. His fears include not being liked by everyone and confronting his parents, particularly his mother. He often gets annoyed because he feels that he and Debra lack intimacy. He is also promoted as chief sports writer.
Parts of the backstory of his childhood have explained Raymond 's attitude and personality as an adult. Raymond and Robert were spoiled by their mother. However, their father, who worked long hours, had been neglectful in showing them affection and instead showed verbal abuse. Ray has sometimes shown this pattern of behavior in his reluctance to participate with his own children.
A running gag in the show is how much Ray was mothered and spoiled by his mother, while Robert was neglected. Raymond was pampered by Marie, which in turn, made him lazy and causing him to act like a child, and very often, to defend himself to Debra, he goes to Marie for advice and protection. He is also very scared of her and often sides with her instead of Debra.
In 2004, TV Guide ranked Ray Barone number 10 on its ' 50 Greatest TV Dads of All Time ' list.
The character has made several crossover appearances:
Debra Louise Whelan - Barone (Patricia Heaton), is the wife of Ray. She was raised by wealthy parents, Lois (Katherine Helmond) and Warren Whelan (Robert Culp), and grew up in an upper - class background, unlike the other major characters in the sitcom. She has a sister, Jennifer Whelan (Ashley Crow), who is seen only once in the entire series. Following her graduation from high school, she traveled a lot and dated many famous sportspeople. Before marrying Ray, she worked in public relations for the New York Rangers hockey team.
Debra is vulnerable and emotionally sensitive. She is unhappy as a housewife, having to put up not only with Ray 's immature jokes and lazy behavior, but more with his intrusive family members, who often barge in uninvited, leaving havoc in their wake. Though Ray 's parents frustrate her, she rarely shows her feelings to them, resulting in occasional bursts in private of yelling, stomping, and throwing objects.
Debra has a feud with Marie, who shows a large amount of distaste of her ability to be a mother and a wife. Throughout the series, Debra often finds Robert the most patient of the Barones, and at times she is shown to get along well with Frank, who thinks of her as a daughter and understands Debra 's intolerance towards Marie.
She is also depressed about her parents when they were in an argument, and she was distraught when they were divorcing. Even though she grew up in a traditional conservative family, she was a free - spirited and a popular teen in her early years. Ray once noted that, during college, she went to Mardi Gras and flashed her breasts to many people who gave her beads and also ended up topless in the newspaper.
Her main catchphrase is, usually addressed to Ray in an ominous voice when he has done something bad, "What did you do? ''
The character has also appeared in the King of Queens episode "Dire Strayts ''.
Marie Janella Barone (Doris Roberts) is the wife of Frank, and matriarch of the Barone family. As a housewife, she excels in household duties, including cooking, cleaning, and generally keeping and maintaining a good household. Marie appears to have narcissistic personality disorder, and her treatment of people due to this becomes a focal point of several episodes of the show. She is very nosy, snobbish, arrogant, insulting, and has a strong hold over her family due to her penchant for her likely narcissistic abuse, bullying those around her with guilt and a victim complex to get her way. She has very high self - esteem and believes herself as a positive example of what every wife, mother and woman should be. She takes special pride in her Italian background and even arranges a tour of Italy for the whole family out of her own savings.
Throughout the series, she is shown to have favorites with certain people, with her son Raymond being the first and Debra being possibly the last. Other than Frank, everyone has a hard time standing up to Marie due to her ability of making people feel guilty, although Debra does occasionally take a stand. She is well aware of Raymond 's reluctance to stand up to her, and in many situations takes advantage of this to achieve her own interests.
It is established in the flashbacks of "How They Met '' that she has never liked Debra ever since Debra asked Ray to fix her futon at dinner time, but Marie has never admitted her dislike of Debra outright and is careful about not saying it out loud, but she never ceases the chance to annoy her or indirectly insult her on many occasions just for her own pleasure.
She has saved a little money on the side every day and admitted to Debra that she collected over $46,000 since her wedding. She also sends money to South America to a fundraiser. She is also shown to actually control the family 's finances in front of Frank, who always thought he was the one in charge and remained oblivious to much of her savings or expenses.
As her boys were growing up, she spoiled her younger son while completely cutting Robert out of the picture. However, in a later episode, she claims that this was because Robert was able to take care of himself and was independent, in contrast to Ray who was a sensitive, timid, needy little boy (this was likely said just to manipulate Robert into getting Amy pregnant, as both he and Raymond note and Marie herself winks to Ray, indicating this is another manipulation). In some cases, however, she is shown to care and be overprotective of Robert as well. This includes when he had nightmares growing up, when he was gored by a bull, when he was interviewing for an FBI position, and her frequent attempts to get Robert out of the police force in effort to keep him safe.
Marie is also seen constantly arguing with her husband Frank in nearly every episode, with them constantly fighting and annoying each other. However, in some situations, there have been times when they do evidence their love for one another, despite their reluctance to be open with it. Much to Debra 's annoyance, even Debra 's parents find them more interesting, since they are honest to each other.
Her catchphrase is "I do n't like that, (insert name). '' whenever anyone says anything inappropriate.
The final episode reveals that her birthday is December 9 (this was one of Frank 's classic "one - liners '' as he adds "1802 '').
The character has also appeared in the King of Queens episode "Rayny Day ''.
Francis Oscar "Frank '' Barone (Peter Boyle) is the husband of Marie and a retired bookkeeper. In the episode "The Gift '' (season 2), it is Frank 's 65th birthday, making his year of birth 1932. He can be seen as aggressive, selfish, uncaring, and masculine. Although it is briefly mentioned that he has a sensitive side, Frank refuses to accept it. In episodes like "Pet the Bunny '', "Christmas Present '', "Fathers Knows Least '' and "Frank Goes Downstairs '', he indicates that, though capable of patience and kindness, he deliberately cultivates a tough guy persona. However, Frank is sometimes shown to be a good family man, such as taking the fall for Debra when Marie 's prized canister goes missing or even trying to console Robert after he becomes morose from a breakup.
He is always seen at Ray and Debra 's house on the black armchair with his pants unbuttoned and zipper open watching sports or at home ordering Marie to prepare his meals while sitting and reading the paper. During his sons ' childhood, Frank was virtually absent and had refused to show any sign of affection and love to either boy. He was constantly at loggerheads with his wife Marie to how the boys were to be raised. He is very opinionated, outspoken, and has no problem insulting family members and strangers out in the open (this applies in particular to his wife, Marie). He calls men names like "Nancy '', "Shirley '', "Peaches '', and "Mary '' who do not live up to his standards to what it takes to be a man. His main catchphrase on the show is "Holy crap ''.
Throughout the sitcom, Frank is shown to have socially conservative values, particularly regarding minority groups such as gays and lesbians, and ethnic groups such as the Koreans and Japanese to which he occasionally mutters "Japanese crap ''. He does n't follow or accept anything outside the social norms, to which Marie proclaims "Frank lives in blissful ignorance ''. Despite Marie 's constant self - regard, she is accepting of these minority groups. Much to other characters ' dismay, he 's not above engaging in illegal or dubious activities such as gambling or stealing cable from Ray.
In his spare time, Frank is a skilled handyman and a history buff, with a particular interest in the American Civil War. He 's frequently seen making repairs in Ray and Debra 's house, and in "Frank Goes Downstairs '' is injured while fixing their staircase. His regular get - away activity is having naked pool bath with his elderly friends at a community center referred to as "the lodge ''. On every other Saturday, he takes Raymond 's children to The Happy Zone.
Frank is also a war veteran. He fought in the Korean War and he uses this as a reference for recounting stories of survival and how he came to be a "man ''. In one particular incident, where all three Barone men were pretending to go to counseling sessions it was revealed that Ray and Robert had a long line of physically disciplinarian grandparents. However, Frank vowed to never be physically abusive towards his sons, never enforcing corporal punishment on them and never engaging in anything more than yelling at them.
Though for the most part largely anti-social and honest in his relationships with others, he is often depicted as the only member of the family who is not only unafraid of Marie, but the only one who will put his foot down and stand up to her, much to the combined relief and horror of the other characters. Many of their arguments revolve around trivial and even irrational subjects, such as who invented the lawn and literally comparing apples and oranges.
They also come into conflict over Debra, whom Frank, unlike Marie, overwhelmingly loves, and even tends to be more affectionate with than he is with either of his sons. True to his blunt personality, in one episode in which the entire family (the adults) were at a counseling session with their church priest Father Hubley, he yelled out in front of everyone that the main reason why Marie looks down on Debra -- "She (Debra) married him (Raymond), and (Marie) still ca n't deal with it. ''
Robert Charles Barone (Brad Garrett) is Raymond 's older brother (4 years older than Ray) and the first - born son of Frank and Marie. His birthday is April 6 and his birth weight was 12 pounds (5443 g). Standing at 6 ' 81⁄2 '' (204 cm), he is the tallest Barone, and has several quirks, the biggest being a nervous habit of touching food to his chin before eating it, commonly known as the "Crazy Chin '', which he developed to cope with anxiety which started when Raymond was born and all of Marie 's attention turned to Raymond. Robert is a loving uncle and still deeply cares for his little brother Raymond. Robert has been a police officer with the N.Y.P.D for 27 years, eventually attaining the rank of Sergeant and then, by the end of the series, Lieutenant. His height, appearance and demeanor are the source of much humor, but despite his imposing size, Robert is a very skilled dancer.
After divorcing his first wife Joanne in 1995, Robert moved back in with his parents, became a workaholic, and was acknowledged by the NYPD for never being absent one day of his career for three years straight. Robert 's advanced skills as a police officer even got him an interview with the FBI, but his mother intentionally interfered in the interview process. Robert was passed over but simply because the other candidates were more qualified. He was injured on the job when he was gored in the bottom by a bull. When he returned, he left the police force out of a lack of self - confidence, and became a telemarketer. Later, he took a side job as an alarm salesman for a brief time (one episode) but returned to the NYPD, mainly with Raymond 's help.
Robert dated Debra 's best friend Amy MacDougall for several years, despite a number of breakups. After a bad date with yet another woman, Robert ran into Amy in a bar and they soon got back together and married in 2003. In 2004, they purchased Frank and Marie 's home for $26,000, but they had to welcome them back in when the elder Barones were kicked out of a retirement community in New Jersey in the episode "Not So Fast. ''
Robert is very jealous of his brother Raymond, who was favored by their mother, and though Robert is four years older than Ray and much taller, he constantly feels as if he 's stuck in Ray 's shadow. Despite the obvious favoring of Ray, Marie has claimed that there was never any favoritism. He has a very dark sense of humor and will make fun of Raymond to no end to get a little belated revenge. He is also known for being very passive - aggressive.
While he enjoys taunting Ray himself, Robert is very protective of his younger brother; in one episode, he overhears a radio sports show host insulting Ray at length and angrily humiliates the man in retaliation. He also respects Ray as a well - meaning, if generally absent, father, in the pattern of Frank. Robert serves as the moral conscience in the family, as the most virtuous of the characters, and often pleads with others when they are considering doing something questionable.
Robert 's catchphrase in the show is when he finds the family gathered together silent and says: "Is this about me? ''
Robert also appears in the King of Queens episode "Road Rayge ''.
Amy Louise MacDougall (Monica Horan) is Robert 's on - and - off girlfriend, and eventual wife. They met because Amy is Debra 's best friend. She and Debra share the same middle name. Although Amy marries Robert in Season 7, Episode 24: "Robert 's Wedding '', she also appears in the previous seasons. Many issues have caused Amy and Robert to break up in the first six seasons, with one being caused by Raymond and another being that Robert had sex with another woman. Frequently, Amy apologizes to someone even if she did n't do anything wrong.
She is a confident woman who was raised in a family of devout Protestants, who live in Pennsylvania. She describes her parents as "people who would n't yell if they were on fire. '' Amy was a virgin when she met Robert, which Ray had a hard time understanding, as Amy was 33 at the time. She eventually lost her virginity to Robert before they were married, but they were spotted having sex by their neighbors, causing Robert 's neighbors to sign a sheet mandating bedroom curtains in the apartment building.
Hank is a former professor and is now a high school principal. He is known to be opposed to smoking, and his line when he sees someone smoking is "Why do n't you just drink poison? ''. Pat is a housewife, and has a high - pitched, gentle voice. She is shown to be a protective and loving mother.
Lois is a housewife, and traveled around on fundraisers. Her line of work was not mentioned. She is friendly and patient, but easily insulted. She also appears to be nervous around Robert, who feels the same way. She has a struggling relationship with Warren, and even though she suggested and went to counseling in New Jersey, he eventually files in for a divorce, which she accepts, since she can not find love in her marriage anymore.
Warren is a businessman, achieving success at a young age, and a caring, happy - go - lucky father. He is very passionate about antiques, and, in a running joke on the show, is often referred to as having a problem with alcohol. He had problems with Lois about their marriage. They agreed to go on counseling in New Jersey, but they eventually divorced. Debra was distraught and furious with Lois because she thought that she filed it, but Warren tells her the truth.
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who did tobey maguire play in the 5th wave | The 5th Wave (film) - Wikipedia
The 5th Wave is a 2016 American science fiction action film directed by J Blakeson, with a screenplay by Susannah Grant, Akiva Goldsman, and Jeff Pinkner, based on the novel of the same name by Rick Yancey. The film stars Chloë Grace Moretz, Nick Robinson, Ron Livingston, Maggie Siff, Alex Roe, Maria Bello, Maika Monroe and Liev Schreiber.
Development began in March 2012, when Sony picked up the film rights to the trilogy, with Graham King 's production company GK Films and Tobey Maguire 's Material Pictures. Filming took place in Atlanta, Georgia from October 2014 to January 2015. The 5th Wave was released on January 22, 2016, in the United States by Columbia Pictures. It grossed $109 million worldwide against a $54 million budget. It has a 16 % approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes, which called it "a limp, derivative wriggle ''.
Ohio high - schooler Cassie Sullivan, armed with an M4 carbine, emerges from the woods to raid an abandoned gas station. Upon entering, she hears a male voice calling for help. She finds a wounded man, who points a gun at her, but they each put their weapons down. His other hand is under his jacket and as he takes it out, she sees a glint of metal and kills him. He was holding a Christian cross and the screen cuts to black to show her backstory.
A city - sized alien spaceship is circling Earth, containing extraterrestrials referred to as "The Others ''. Ten days later, The Others unleash their 1st Wave, an electromagnetic pulse that permanently destroys all electrical power, including vehicles and causing flying aircraft to fall. The 2nd Wave has The Others manipulate the planet 's geology and fault lines, causing earthquakes and megatsunamis that completely decimate coastal cities and islands. For the 3rd Wave, The Others weaponize a strain of avian flu virus, with birds carrying the infectant across the planet, with Cassie 's mother being one of the casualties.
Cassie, her father and her younger brother Sam, find a refugee camp in the woods with roughly 300 survivors. A few days later, an army unit with working vehicles rolls into the camp. The unit 's commander, Colonel Vosch, claims there is an imminent threat of a 4th Wave and they will take the children to safety at Wright - Patterson Air Force Base, intending to bring the buses back to retrieve the adults. Cassie is separated from Sam, and witnesses the army massacring all the adults, her father included.
Cassie scavenges her way toward the base, but is shot in the leg by an unseen shooter and passes out. About a week later, she wakes up in the farmhouse of a man named Evan Walker, who saved her. Cassie leaves towards the base with Evan, but learns that he is an Other, sent years ago as a sleeper agent and merged his consciousness into a human host. The sleepers roam their designated zones, killing human survivors. Evan admits his humanity was reactivated when he saw her, disagrees with the invasion and lets her leave. He warns that Colonel Vosch and the military are possessed by the consciousness of individual Others.
At the base, the military have used deception and technology to convince the rescued children that the humans outside the base have been possessed. They provide military training to the children, forming them into squads to go on kill missions outside the base. Sam has been placed into a squad led by Ben, a boy Cassie had a crush on, along with Ringer, a tough teenage girl, Dumbo and Teacup. While out on a kill mission, Ringer removes her military implant, causing her to register as an Other - possessed human on the squad 's scopes. The squad deduces the plan to have them kill real unpossessed humans, making them the 5th Wave. Ben sends his squad into the woods and returns to base, claiming his squad was killed, for the purpose of retrieving Sam, who was left behind.
Ben confronts Colonel Vosch about child warriors being the 5th Wave and Cassie kills Sergeant Reznik during her one - on - one indoctrination spiel. Ben and Cassie find each other and leave to find Sam. Evan sets off numerous bombs and advises them to quickly find Sam before the destruction of the entire facility. Colonel Vosch and the surviving military evacuate with the human children by military aircraft. Cassie, Ben and Sam escape, with help from Ringer, just as Evan completes the destruction of the base. Ben 's squad is reunited and Cassie ponders the strength of hope as humanity 's driving force for survival.
In March 2012, Columbia Pictures picked up the film rights to the trilogy, with Graham King and Tobey Maguire attached as producers. On April 15, 2014, it was officially announced that Chloë Grace Moretz would star as Cassie Sullivan, and that J Blakeson would direct from a script by Susannah Grant. From June through August 2014, Nick Robinson and Alex Roe joined the film as male protagonists Ben Parish and Evan Walker, respectively, while Liev Schreiber was cast as the villain. Over the following months, Maika Monroe, Zackary Arthur, Tony Revolori, Ron Livingston, Maggie Siff, and Talitha Bateman joined the film.
Principal photography began on October 18, 2014, in Atlanta, Georgia. Three months later, on January 11, a planned explosion of a bus in downtown Macon, Georgia for the film went awry when it spread wider than planned, blowing out more than forty windows on Cotton Avenue, collapsing ceilings, destroying store fronts, setting one building on fire, and leaving soot on the brick buildings as well. The production company promised to cover all damages caused by the 3: 45 am incident, but the work that was done was done badly and remains incomplete twenty - eight months later. Filming officially ended on January 17, 2015.
In April 2015, it was announced that Henry Jackman would compose the music for the film.
Columbia Pictures originally set the film a release date for January 29, 2016. On April 30, 2015, they pushed back the release date this time from its original release date of January 29, 2016, then to January 15, 2016. However, In December 2015, they pushed back the release date this time from January 15, 2016, then to January 22, 2016. It was released on January 14, 2016 in Australia, Germany and the Middle East.
An international trailer for the film was released on Sony Pictures ' official YouTube account on September 1, 2015.
The film was released for home media on 3 May 2016. The film was released online on various video sites 2 weeks prior to this.
The 5th Wave grossed $34.9 million in North America and $75 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $109.9 million, against a production budget of $54 million.
The film was released in North America on January 22, 2016, alongside Dirty Grandpa and The Boy, and was projected to gross $10 -- 14 million from 2,908 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $475,000 from its Thursday night screenings and $3.5 million on its first day. It went on to gross $10.3 million in its opening weekend, finishing 6th at the box office.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 16 % based on 128 reviews and an average rating of 4.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "With unimpressive effects and plot points seemingly pieced together from previous dystopian YA sci - fi films, The 5th Wave ends up feeling like more of a limp, derivative wriggle. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 33 out of 100 based on 30 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Jeffrey M. Anderson of The San Francisco Examiner said of the film, "Every plot turn and every line of dialogue has been borrowed from somewhere else, and everything is utterly, totally predictable '', noting how the film "steals material from (but does not stop at) the Twilight, Hunger Games and Divergent franchises. '' Anthony Lane of The New Yorker faulted the film as a "marketing wheeze dressed up as an art form, and stupendously summarized by the image of Cassie hurrying through the woods carrying both an assault rifle and a Teddy bear '', adding that the film "appears to have been designed by some crazed Oedipal wing of the N.R.A. ''
Rob Vaux of the Sci - Fi Movie Page gave the film one star out of five, saying, "The YA adaptation craze hits a low point with this aimless, purposeless alien invasion story that wastes a fine cast. '' In the San Francisco Chronicle, Mick LaSalle wrote, "rarely does a movie that fails so utterly start so well '', falling apart ahead of the fifth wave. As to a possible trilogy, "if we 're not really vigilant, and look to the skies, and prepare, they 're going to make at least two more of these things. We 've got to beat back the invasion now ''. Eddie Cockrell of Variety gave the film a mixed review, saying, "The 5th Wave is an effectively decent post-apocalyptic, young adult, world - in - the - balance survival thriller '' with an "arrestingly original spin on trendy genre tropes '', although he suggested that fans of the book may have "issues with what has been edited ''.
Brian Truitt of USA Today gave the film a positive review, stating that it "is an inviting sci - fi invasion '' and "nicely stokes the imagination of a new generation of science - fiction movie nerds ''. He praised Moretz and Robinson as "equally strong '' co-leads. Shannon Harvey of The West Australian also gave the film a positive review, writing, "It 's actually got a lot going for it, from acting prodigy Chloe Grace Moretz as the kind of tough but fragile heroine you can cheer for to handsome production values, several plot twists ''. Michael Patterson of Moviepilot gave the film a positive review, calling it a "thrilling story of survival ''.
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what type of genetic disorder is tay sachs | Tay -- Sachs disease - wikipedia
Tay -- Sachs disease is a genetic disorder that results in the destruction of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. The most common type, known as infantile Tay -- Sachs disease, becomes apparent around three to six months of age with the baby losing the ability to turn over, sit, or crawl. This is then followed by seizures, hearing loss, and inability to move. Death usually occurs in early childhood. Less commonly the disease may occur in later childhood or adulthood. These forms are generally milder in nature.
Tay -- Sachs disease is caused by a genetic mutation in the HEXA genes on chromosome 15. It is inherited from a person 's parents in an autosomal recessive manner. The mutation results in problems with an enzyme called beta - hexosaminidase A which results in the buildup of the molecule GM2 ganglioside within cells, leading to toxicity. Diagnosis is by measuring the blood hexosaminidase A level or genetic testing. It is a type of sphingolipidosis.
The treatment of Tay -- Sachs disease is supportive in nature. This may involve multiple specialities as well as psychosocial support for the family. The disease is rare in the general population. In Ashkenazi Jews, French Canadians of southeastern Quebec, and Cajuns of southern Louisiana, the condition is more common. Approximately 1 in 3,600 Ashkenazi Jews at birth are affected.
The disease is named after Waren Tay, who in 1881 first described a symptomatic red spot on the retina of the eye; and Bernard Sachs, who described in 1887 the cellular changes and noted an increased rate of disease in Ashkenazi Jews. Carriers of a single Tay -- Sachs allele are typically normal. It has been hypothesized that being a carrier may confer protection from another condition such as tuberculosis, explaining the persistence of the allele in certain populations. Researchers are looking at gene therapy or enzyme replacement therapy as possible treatments.
Tay -- Sachs disease is typically first noticed in infants around 6 months old displaying an abnormally strong response to sudden noises or other stimuli, known as the "startle response ''. There may also be listlessness or muscle stiffness (hypertonia). The disease is classified into several forms, which are differentiated based on the onset age of neurological symptoms.
Until the 1970s and 1980s, when the disease 's molecular genetics became known, the juvenile and adult forms of the disease were not always recognized as variants of Tay -- Sachs disease. Post-infantile Tay -- Sachs was often misdiagnosed as another neurological disorder, such as Friedreich 's ataxia.
Tay -- Sachs disease is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder, meaning that when both parents are carriers, there is a 25 % risk of giving birth to an affected child with each pregnancy. The affected child would have received a mutated copy of the gene from each parent.
Tay -- Sachs results from mutations in the HEXA gene on chromosome 15, which encodes the alpha - subunit of beta - N - acetylhexosaminidase A, a lysosomal enzyme. By 2000, more than 100 different mutations had been identified in the human HEXA gene. These mutations have included single base insertions and deletions, splice phase mutations, missense mutations, and other more complex patterns. Each of these mutations alters the gene 's protein product (i.e., the enzyme), sometimes severely inhibiting its function. In recent years, population studies and pedigree analysis have shown how such mutations arise and spread within small founder populations. Initial research focused on several such founder populations:
In the 1960s and early 1970s, when the biochemical basis of Tay -- Sachs disease was first becoming known, no mutations had been sequenced directly for genetic diseases. Researchers of that era did not yet know how common polymorphisms would prove to be. The "Jewish Fur Trader Hypothesis, '' with its implication that a single mutation must have spread from one population into another, reflected the knowledge at the time. Subsequent research, however, has proven that a large variety of different HEXA mutations can cause the disease. Because Tay -- Sachs was one of the first genetic disorders for which widespread genetic screening was possible, it is one of the first genetic disorders in which the prevalence of compound heterozygosity has been demonstrated.
Compound heterozygosity ultimately explains the disease 's variability, including the late - onset forms. The disease can potentially result from the inheritance of two unrelated mutations in the HEXA gene, one from each parent. Classic infantile Tay -- Sachs disease results when a child has inherited mutations from both parents that completely stop the biodegradation of gangliosides. Late onset forms occur due to the diverse mutation base -- people with Tay -- Sachs disease may technically be heterozygotes, with two differing HEXA mutations that both inactivate, alter, or inhibit enzyme activity. When a patient has at least one HEXA copy that still enables some level of hexosaminidase A activity, a later onset disease form occurs. When disease occurs because of two unrelated mutations, the patient is said to be a compound heterozygote.
Heterozygous carriers (individuals who inherit one mutant allele) show abnormal enzyme activity but manifest no disease symptoms. This phenomenon is called dominance; the biochemical reason for wild - type alleles ' dominance over nonfunctional mutant alleles in inborn errors of metabolism comes from how enzymes function. Enzymes are protein catalysts for chemical reactions; as catalysts, they speed up reactions without being used up in the process, so only small enzyme quantities are required to carry out a reaction. Someone homozygous for a nonfunctional mutation in the enzyme - encoding gene has little or no enzyme activity, so will manifest the abnormal phenotype. A heterozygote (heterozygous individual) has at least half of the normal enzyme activity level, due to expression of the wild - type allele. This level is normally enough to enable normal function and thus prevent phenotypic expression.
Tay -- Sachs disease is caused by insufficient activity of the enzyme hexosaminidase A. Hexosaminidase A is a vital hydrolytic enzyme, found in the lysosomes, that breaks down sphingolipids. When hexosaminidase A is no longer functioning properly, the lipids accumulate in the brain and interfere with normal biological processes. Hexosaminidase A specifically breaks down fatty acid derivatives called gangliosides; these are made and biodegraded rapidly in early life as the brain develops. Patients with and carriers of Tay -- Sachs can be identified by a simple blood test that measures hexosaminidase A activity.
The hydrolysis of GM2 - ganglioside requires three proteins. Two of them are subunits of hexosaminidase A; the third is a small glycolipid transport protein, the GM2 activator protein (GM2A), which acts as a substrate - specific cofactor for the enzyme. Deficiency in any one of these proteins leads to ganglioside storage, primarily in the lysosomes of neurons. Tay -- Sachs disease (along with AB - variant GM2 - gangliosidosis and Sandhoff disease) occurs because a mutation inherited from both parents deactivates or inhibits this process. Most Tay -- Sachs mutations probably do not directly affect protein functional elements (e.g., the active site). Instead, they cause incorrect folding (disrupting function) or disable intracellular transport.
In patients with a clinical suspicion for Tay -- Sachs disease, with any age of onset, the initial testing involves an enzyme assay to measure the activity of hexosaminidase in serum, fibroblasts, or leukocytes. Total hexosaminidase enzyme activity is decreased in individuals with Tay - Sachs as is the percentage of hexosaminidase A. After confirmation of decreased enzyme activity in an individual, confirmation by molecular analysis can be pursued. All patients with infantile onset Tay -- Sachs disease have a "cherry red '' macula in the retina, easily observable by a physician using an ophthalmoscope. This red spot is a retinal area that appears red because of gangliosides in the surrounding retinal ganglion cells. The choroidal circulation is showing through "red '' in this foveal region where all retinal ganglion cells are pushed aside to increase visual acuity. Thus, this cherry - red spot is the only normal part of the retina; it shows up in contrast to the rest of the retina. Microscopic analysis of the retinal neurons shows they are distended from excess ganglioside storage. Unlike other lysosomal storage diseases (e.g., Gaucher disease, Niemann -- Pick disease, and Sandhoff disease), hepatosplenomegaly (liver and spleen enlargement) is not seen in Tay -- Sachs.
Three main approaches have been used to prevent or reduce the incidence of Tay -- Sachs:
As of 2010 there was no treatment that addressed the cause of Tay -- Sachs disease or could slow its progression; people receive supportive care to ease the symptoms and extend life by reducing the chance of contracting infections. Infants are given feeding tubes when they can no longer swallow. In late - onset Tay -- Sachs, medication (e.g., lithium for depression) can sometimes control psychiatric symptoms and seizures, although some medications (e.g., tricyclic antidepressants, phenothiazines, haloperidol, and risperidone) are associated with significant adverse effects.
As of 2010, even with the best care, children with infantile Tay -- Sachs disease usually die by the age of 4. Children with the juvenile form are likely to die from the ages 5 - 15, while those with the adult form will probably not be affected.
Ashkenazi Jews have a high incidence of Tay -- Sachs and other lipid storage diseases. In the United States, about 1 in 27 to 1 in 30 Ashkenazi Jews is a recessive carrier. The disease incidence is about 1 in every 3,500 newborn among Ashkenazi Jews. French Canadians and the Cajun community of Louisiana have an occurrence similar to the Ashkenazi Jews. Irish Americans have a 1 in 50 chance of being a carrier. In the general population, the incidence of carriers as heterozygotes is about 1 in 300. The incidence is approximately 1 in 320,000 newborns in the general population in United States.
Three general classes of theories have been proposed to explain the high frequency of Tay -- Sachs carriers in the Ashkenazi Jewish population:
Tay -- Sachs disease was one of the first genetic disorders for which epidemiology was studied using molecular data. Studies of Tay -- Sachs mutations using new molecular techniques such as linkage disequilibrium and coalescence analysis have brought an emerging consensus among researchers supporting the founder effect theory.
Waren Tay and Bernard Sachs, two physicians, described the disease 's progression and provided differential diagnostic criteria to distinguish it from other neurological disorders with similar symptoms.
Both Tay and Sachs reported their first cases among Ashkenazi Jewish families. Tay reported his observations in 1881 in the first volume of the proceedings of the British Ophthalmological Society, of which he was a founding member. By 1884, he had seen three cases in a single family. Years later, Bernard Sachs, an American neurologist, reported similar findings when he reported a case of "arrested cerebral development '' to other New York Neurological Society members.
Sachs, who recognized that the disease had a familial basis, proposed that the disease should be called amaurotic familial idiocy. However, its genetic basis was still poorly understood. Although Gregor Mendel had published his article on the genetics of peas in 1865, Mendel 's paper was largely forgotten for more than a generation -- not rediscovered by other scientists until 1899. Thus, the Mendelian model for explaining Tay -- Sachs was unavailable to scientists and doctors of the time. The first edition of the Jewish Encyclopedia, published in 12 volumes between 1901 and 1906, described what was then known about the disease:
It is a curious fact that amaurotic family idiocy, a rare and fatal disease of children, occurs mostly among Jews. The largest number of cases has been observed in the United States -- over thirty in number. It was at first thought that this was an exclusively Jewish disease because most of the cases at first reported were between Russian and Polish Jews; but recently there have been reported cases occurring in non-Jewish children. The chief characteristics of the disease are progressive mental and physical enfeeblement; weakness and paralysis of all the extremities; and marasmus, associated with symmetrical changes in the macula lutea. On investigation of the reported cases, they found that neither consanguinity nor syphilitic, alcoholic, or nervous antecedents in the family history are factors in the etiology of the disease. No preventive measures have as yet been discovered, and no treatment has been of benefit, all the cases having terminated fatally.
Jewish immigration to the United States peaked in the period 1880 -- 1924, with the immigrants arriving from Russia and countries in Eastern Europe; this was also a period of nativism (hostility to immigrants) in the United States. Opponents of immigration often questioned whether immigrants from southern and eastern Europe could be assimilated into American society. Reports of Tay -- Sachs disease contributed to a perception among nativists that Jews were an inferior race.
In 1969, Shintaro Okada and John S. O'Brien showed that Tay -- Sachs disease was caused by an enzyme defect; he also proved that Tay -- Sachs patients could be diagnosed by an assay of hexosaminidase A activity. The further development of enzyme assays demonstrated that levels of hexosaminidases A and B could be measured in patients and carriers, allowing the reliable detection of heterozygotes. During the early 1970s, researchers developed protocols for newborn testing, carrier screening, and pre-natal diagnosis. By the end of 1979, researchers had identified three variant forms of GM2 gangliosidosis, including Sandhoff disease and the AB variant of GM2 - gangliosidosis, accounting for false negatives in carrier testing.
Since carrier testing for Tay -- Sachs began in 1971, millions of Ashkenazi Jews have been screened as carriers. Jewish communities embraced the cause of genetic screening from the 1970s on. The success with Tay -- Sachs disease has led Israel to become the first country that offers free genetic screening and counseling for all couples and opened discussions about the proper scope of genetic testing for other disorders in Israel.
Because Tay -- Sachs disease was one of the first autosomal recessive genetic disorders for which there was an enzyme assay test (prior to polymerase chain reaction testing methods), it was intensely studied as a model for all such diseases, and researchers sought evidence of a selective process. A continuing controversy is whether heterozygotes (carriers) have or had a selective advantage. The presence of four different lysosomal storage disorders in the Ashkenazi Jewish population suggests a past selective advantage for heterozygous carriers of these conditions. ''
This controversy among researchers has reflected three debates among geneticists at large:
Enzyme replacement therapy techniques have been investigated for lysosomal storage disorders, and could potentially be used to treat Tay -- Sachs as well. The goal would be to replace the nonfunctional enzyme, a process similar to insulin injections for diabetes. However, in previous studies, the HEXA enzyme itself has been thought to be too large to pass through the specialized cell layer in the blood vessels that forms the blood -- brain barrier in humans.
Researchers have also tried directly instilling the deficient enzyme hexosaminidase A into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which bathes the brain. However, intracerebral neurons seem unable to take up this physically large molecule efficiently even when it is directly by them. Therefore, this approach to treatment of Tay -- Sachs disease has also been ineffective so far.
Tay -- Sachs disease exists in Jacob sheep. The biochemical mechanism for this disease in the Jacob sheep is virtually identical to that in humans, wherein diminished activity of hexosaminidase A results in increased concentrations of GM2 ganglioside in the affected animal. Sequencing of the HEXA gene cDNA of affected Jacobs sheep reveal an identical number of nucleotides and exons as in the human HEXA gene, and 86 % nucleotide sequence identity. A missense mutation (G444R) was found in the HEXA cDNA of the affected sheep. This mutation is a single nucleotide change at the end of exon 11, resulting in that exon 's deletion (before translation) via splicing. The Tay -- Sachs model provided by the Jacob sheep is the first to offer promise as a means for gene therapy clinical trials, which may prove useful for disease treatment in humans.
Other experimental methods being researched involve substrate reduction therapy, which attempts to use alternative enzymes to increase the brain 's catabolism of GM2 gangliosides to a point where residual degradative activity is sufficient to prevent substrate accumulation. One experiment has demonstrated that using the enzyme sialidase allows the genetic defect to be effectively bypassed, and as a consequence, GM2 gangliosides are metabolized so that their levels become almost inconsequential. If a safe pharmacological treatment can be developed -- one that increases expression of lysosomal sialidase in neurons without other toxicity -- then this new form of therapy could essentially cure the disease.
Another metabolic therapy under investigation for Tay -- Sachs disease uses miglustat. This drug is a reversible inhibitor of the enzyme glucosylceramide synthase, which catalyzes the first step in synthesizing glucose - based glycosphingolipids like GM2 ganglioside.
As Tay -- Sachs disease is a deficiency of β - hexosaminidase A, by getting a substance that increases its activity, people affected will not be deteriorating as fast or not at all. While for infantile Tay -- Sachs disease, there is no β - hexosaminidase A so then the treatment would be ineffective. However, for people affected by Late - Onset Tay -- Sachs disease, they still have β - hexosaminidase A. The drug Pyrimethamine has been shown to increase activity of β - hexosaminidase A. However, the increased levels of β - hexosaminidase A still fall far short of the desired "10 % of normal HEXA '', above which the phenotypic symptoms begin to disappear.
This is a harsh procedure, which involves killing the patient 's blood system with chemo and administering cord blood. This procedure has been done before, with several people surviving the infantile form, to age 8 and on. Cord blood is immature, so it easily accepts its new host without rejecting it. As to date, the two hospitals that do this procedure are the University of Minnesota and Duke Medical Center.
Critics criticize its harsh nature, and that it is unapproved. It is also hard for it to cross the blood - brain barrier. The earlier treatment starts, the better. It is often very pricey, with $25000 per unit. Adults will need many units of cord blood.
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the work of william bleek and lucy lloyd | Wilhelm Bleek - wikipedia
Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel Bleek (8 March 1827 -- 17 August 1875) was a German linguist. His work included A Comparative Grammar of South African Languages and his great project jointly executed with Lucy Lloyd: The Bleek and Lloyd Archive of ǀxam and! kun texts. A short form of this eventually reached press with Specimens of Bushman Folklore, which Laurens van der Post drew on heavily.
Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel Bleek was born in Berlin on 8 March 1827. He was the eldest son of Friedrich Bleek, Professor of Theology at Berlin University and then at the University of Bonn, and Augusta Charlotte Marianne Henriette Sethe. He graduated from the University of Bonn in 1851 with a doctorate in linguistics, after a period in Berlin where he went to study Hebrew and where he first became interested in African languages. Bleek 's thesis featured an attempt to link North African and Khoikhoi (or what were then called Hottentot) languages -- the thinking at the time being that all African languages were connected. After graduating in Bonn, Bleek returned to Berlin and worked with a zoologist, Dr Wilhelm KH Peters, editing vocabularies of East African languages. His interest in African languages was further developed during 1852 and 1853 by learning Egyptian Arabic from Professor Karl Richard Lepsius, whom he met in Berlin in 1852.
Bleek was appointed official linguist to Dr William Balfour Baikie 's Niger Tshadda Expedition in 1854. Ill - health (a tropical fever) forced his return to England where he met George Grey and John William Colenso, the Anglican Bishop of Natal, who invited Bleek to join him in Natal in 1855 to help compile a Zulu grammar. After completing Colenso 's project, Bleek travelled to Cape Town in 1856 to become Sir George Grey 's official interpreter as well as to catalogue his private library. Grey had philological interests and was Bleek 's patron during his time as Governor of the Cape. The two had a good professional and personal relationship based on an admiration that appears to have been mutual. Bleek was widely respected as a philologist, particularly in the Cape. While working for Grey he continued with his philological research and contributed to various publications during the late 1850s. Bleek requested examples of African literature from missionaries and travellers, such as the Revd W Kronlein who provided Bleek with Namaqua texts in 1861.
In 1859 Bleek briefly returned to Europe in an effort to improve his poor health but returned to the Cape and his research soon after. In 1861 Bleek met his future wife, Jemima Lloyd, at the boarding house where he lived in Cape Town (run by a Mrs Roesch), while she was waiting for a passage to England, and they developed a relationship through correspondence. She returned to Cape Town from England the following year.
Bleek married Jemima Lloyd on 22 November 1862. The Bleeks first lived at The Hill in Mowbray but moved in 1875 to Charlton House. Jemima 's sister, Lucy Lloyd, joined the household, became his colleague, and carried on his work after his death.
When Grey was appointed Governor of New Zealand, he presented his collection to the National Library of South Africa on condition that Bleek be its curator, a position he occupied from 1862 until his death in 1875. In addition to this work, Bleek supported himself and his family by writing regularly for Het Volksblad throughout the 1860s and publishing the first part of his A Comparative Grammar of South African Languages in London in 1862. The second part was also published in London in 1869 with the first chapter appearing in manuscript form in Cape Town in 1865. Unfortunately, much of Bleek 's working life in the Cape, like that of his sister - in - law after him, was characterised by extreme financial hardship which made his research even more difficult to continue with.
Bleek 's first contact with San people (Bushmen) was with prisoners at Robben Island and the Cape Town Gaol and House of Correction, in 1857. He conducted interviews with a few of these prisoners, which he used in later publications. These people all came from the Burgersdorp and Colesberg regions and variations of one similar - sounding "Bushman '' language. Bleek was particularly keen to learn more about this "Bushman '' language and compare it to examples of "Bushman '' vocabulary and language earlier noted by Hinrich Lichtenstein and obtained from missionaries at the turn of the 19th century.
In 1863 Resident Magistrate Louis Anthing introduced the first ǀXam - speakers to Bleek. He brought three men to Cape Town from the Kenhardt district to stand trial for attacks on farmers (the prosecution was eventually waived by the Attorney General). In 1866 two San prisoners from the Achterveldt near Calvinia were transferred from the Breakwater prison to the Cape Town prison, making it easier for Bleek to meet them. With their help, Bleek compiled a list of words and sentences and an alphabetical vocabulary. Most of these words and sentences were provided by Adam Kleinhardt (see Bleek I - 1, UCT A1. 4.1).
In 1870 Bleek and Lloyd, by now working together on the project to learn "Bushman '' language and record personal narratives and folklore, became aware of the presence of a group of 28 ǀXam prisoners (San from the central interior of southern Africa) at the Breakwater Convict Station and received permission to relocate one prisoner to their home in Mowbray so as to learn his language. The prison chaplain, Revd Fisk, was in charge of the selection of this individual -- a young man named a! kunta. But because of his youth, a! kunta was unfamiliar with much of his people 's folklore and an older man named kabbo was then permitted to accompany him. kabbo became Bleek and Lloyd 's first real teacher, a title by which he later regarded himself. Over time, members of kabbo 's family and other families lived with Bleek and Lloyd in Mowbray, and were interviewed by them. Many of the xam - speakers interviewed by Bleek and Lloyd were related to one another. Bleek and Lloyd learned and wrote down their language, first as lists of words and phrases and then as stories and narratives about their lives, history, folklore and remembered beliefs and customs.
Bleek, along with Lloyd, made an effort to record as much anthropological and ethnographic information as possible. This included genealogies, places of origin, and the customs and daily life of the informants. Photographs and measurements (some as specified by Thomas Huxley 's global ethnographic project, see Godby 1996) were also taken of all their informants in accordance with the norms of scientific research of the time in those fields. More intimate and personal painted portraits were also commissioned of some of the xam teachers.
Although Bleek and Lloyd interviewed other individuals during 1875 and 1876 (Lloyd doing this alone after Bleek 's death), most of their time was spent interviewing only six individual xam contributors. Bleek wrote a series of reports on the language and the literature and folklore of the xam - speakers he interviewed, which he sent to the Cape Secretary for Native Affairs. This was first in an attempt to gain funding to continue with his studies and then also to make Her Majesty 's Colonial Government aware of the need to preserve San folklore as an important part of the nation 's heritage and traditions. In this endeavour Bleek must surely have been influenced by Louis Anthing.
Bleek died in Mowbray on 17 August 1875, aged 48, and was buried in Wynberg Anglican cemetery in Cape Town along with his two infant children, who had died before him. His all - important work recording the Xam language and literature was continued and expanded by Lucy Lloyd, fully supported by his wife Jemima. In his obituary in the South African Mail of 25 August 1875, he was lauded in the following terms: ' As a comparative philologist he stood in the foremost rank, and as an investigator and authority on the South African languages, he was without peer.
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when does the school year start in turkey | Education in Turkey - Wikipedia
Education in Turkey is governed by a national system which was established in accordance with the Atatürk Reforms after the Turkish War of Independence. It is a state - supervised system designed to produce a skillful professional class for the social and economic institutes of the nation.
Compulsory education lasts 12 years. Primary and secondary education is financed by the state and free of charge in public schools, between the ages of 6 and 18, and by 2001 enrollment of children in this age range was nearly 100 %. Secondary or high school education is not mandatory but required in order to then progress to universities. By 2011 there were 166 universities in Turkey. Except for the Open Education Faculty (Turkish: Açıköğretim Fakültesi) at Anadolu University, entrance is regulated by a national examination, ÖSYS, after which high school graduates are assigned to university according to their performance.
In 2002, the total expenditure on education in Turkey amounted to $13.4 billion, including the state budget allocated through the National Ministry of Education and private and international funds.
After the foundation of the Turkish republic the organization of the Ministry of Education gradually developed and was reorganized with the Law no 2287 issued in 1933. The Ministry changed its names several times. It fell under the Ministry of Culture (1935 -- 1941 and was named Ministry of National Education, Youth, and Sports (1983 -- 1989). Since then it is called the Ministry of National Education. Before the Republic, education institutions were far from having a national character. Schools were organized in three separate channels which were vertical institutions independent of each other. The first and the most common in this organization were the district schools and madrasas based on the teaching of the Quran the Arabian language and memorizing, the second were the Reform schools and high schools supporting innovation and the third were the colleges and minority schools with foreign language education.
The Law of Integration of Education, no 430 was issued on 3 March 1924. With this law, the three separate channels were combined, the first one was closed, the second was developed and the third one was taken under the inspection and monitoring of the Ministry of Education. One of its aims was to apply secularism in the area of education. By the law for the Education Organization no 789 issued on 22 March 1926 the Ministry of National Education was given responsibility for defining the degrees and equalities of the public and private schools already opened or to be opened by a ministry other than the Ministry of National Education. This Law brought new arrangements such as "no school can be opened in Turkey without the permission and agreement of the Ministry of National Education '' or "curricula shall be prepared by the Ministry of National Education ''. The vocational - technical education institutions formerly directed by local governments were put under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education.
In 1923 -- 24, there were in Turkey, slightly more than 7,000 secondary school students, almost 3,000 high school students, some 2,000 technical school students and officially 18,000 medrese students of whom 6,000 are claimed to be actual students and the rest who registered to be excluded from military service. The population of Turkey was at that moment some 13 -- 14 million.
On 1 November 1928 Law no 1353 introduced a new Latin - based alphabet was accepted. In 1931, the Turkish Association of History, and in 1932, the Turkish Language Association were established to protect Turkish from influences of foreign languages, improve it as science suggests and prevent misuse of the Turkish language.
Until 1997 children in Turkey were obliged to take five years of education. The 1997 reforms introduced compulsory education for eight years. New legislation introduced in March 2012 prolonged compulsory education to 12 years.
In July 2017, the Justice and Development Party (AKP) government presented a new curriculum for schools, inter alia removing evolution theory and adding the concept of jihad as part of Islamic law in books. "But what is this jihad? What our Prophet (Muhammad) says is that while returning from a war, we are going from a small jihad to a big jihad. What is this big jihad? It is to serve our society, to increase welfare, to ensure peace in society, to serve the society 's needs. The easiest thing is to wage war, to fight. The skill is the difficult one, which is to ensure peace and tranquility, '' he said. Education ministry also adds that "Jihad is an element in our religion; it is in our religion... The duty of the Education Ministry is to teach every concept deservedly, in a correct way. It is also our job to correct things that are wrongly perceived, seen or taught. '' The chairman of a teachers ' union described the changes as "a huge step in the wrong direction for Turkey 's schools and an attempt to avoid raising generations who ask questions, '' adding that "the new policies that ban the teaching of evolution and requiring all schools to have a prayer room, these actions destroy the principle of secularism and the scientific principles of education. ''
Pre-primary education includes the optional education of children between 36 -- 72 - month who are under the age of compulsory primary education. Pre-Primary education institutions, independent nurseries are opened as nursery classes and practical classes within formal and non-formal education institutions with suitable physical capacity. Services related to Pre-Primary education are given by nurseries, kindergartens, practical classes opened first and foremost by the Ministry of National Education and by day - centers, nursery schools, day care houses, child care houses and child care institutions opened by various ministries and institutions for care or education purposes based on the provisions of ten laws, two statutes and ten regulations. In the academic year 2001 -- 2002, 256,400 children were being educated and 14,500 teachers were employed in 10,500 Pre-Primary education institutions.
Primary school (Turkish: İlköğretim Okulu) lasts 4 years. Primary education covers the education and teaching directed to children between 6 -- 14, is compulsory for all citizens, boys or girls, and is given free of charge in public schools. Primary education institutions are schools that provide eight years of uninterrupted education, at the end of which graduates receive a primary education diploma. The first four years of the Primary School is sometimes referred to as "First School, 1. Level '' (Turkish: İlkokul 1. Kademe) but both are correct.
There are four core subjects at First, Second and Third Grades which are; Turkish, Maths, Hayat Bilgisi (literally meaning "Life Knowledge '') and Foreign Language. At Fourth Grade, "Hayat Bilgisi '' is replaced by Science and Social Studies. The foreign language taught at schools changes from school to school. The most common one is English, while some schools teach German, French or Spanish instead of English. Some private schools teach two foreign languages at the same time.
Earlier the term "middle school '' (tr: orta okul) was used for the three years education to follow the then compulsory five years at "First School '' (tr: ilk okul). Now the second four years of primary education are sometimes referred to as "First School, 2. Level '' (Turkish: İlkokul 2. Kademe) but both are correct. Already primary schools may be public or private schools. Public Schools are free but Private Schools ' admission fees change from school to school. Foreign languages taught at Private Schools are usually at a higher level than at Public Schools for most Private Schools prefer hiring native speakers as teachers.
There are five core subjects at sixth and seventh grades; Turkish, maths, science, social studies and foreign language. At eighth grade, social studies is replaced by "Turkish History of Revolution and Kemalism '' (tr: T.C. İnkılap Tarihi ve Atatürkçülük).
In the academic year 2001 -- 2002, 10.3 million students were being educated and 375,500 teachers were employed in 34,900 schools.
Secondary education includes all of the general, vocational and technical education institutions that provide at least three years of education after primary school. The system for being accepted to a high school changes almost every year. Sometimes private schools have different exams, sometimes there are 3 exams for 3 years, sometimes there 's only one exam but it is calculated differently, sometimes they only look at your school grades. Secondary education aims to give students a good level of common knowledge, and to prepare them for higher education, for a vocation, for life and for business in line with their interests, skills and abilities. In the academic year 2001 -- 2002 2.3 million students were being educated and 134,800 teachers were employed in 6,000 education institutions.
General secondary education covers the education of children between 15 -- 17 for at least three years after primary education. General secondary education includes high schools, foreign language teaching high schools, Anatolian High Schools, high schools of science, Anatolia teacher training high schools, and Anatolia fine arts high schools.
Vocational and technical secondary education involves the institutions that both raise students as manpower in business and other professional areas, prepare them for higher education and meet the objectives of general secondary education. Vocational and technical secondary education includes technical education schools for boys, technical education schools for girls, trade and tourism schools, religious education schools, multi-program high schools, special education schools, private education schools and health education schools.
Secondary education is often referred as high school education, since the schools are called lyceum (tr: lise).
In public high schools and vocational high schools, students attend six classes each day, which last for approximately 40 minutes each. In Anatolian high schools and private high schools, the daily programme is typically longer, up to eight classes each day, also including a lunch period. All 9th graders are taught the same classes nationwide, with minor differences in certain cases. These classes are: Turkish language, Turkish literature, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geometry, world history, geography, religion & ethics, physical education, a foreign language (in most cases English), a second foreign language (most commonly German but could be French, Italian, Japanese, Arabic, Russian, or Chinese).
When students enter the 11th grade, they typically choose one of four tracks: Turkish language -- mathematics, science, social sciences, and foreign languages. In vocational high schools, no tracks are offered, while in science high schools only the science tracks are offered. Different schools may have different policies; some, but not many, schools offer electives instead of academic tracks, giving students a wider range of options. For the 10th, 11th and 12th grade, the compulsory courses are: Turkish language, Turkish literature, republican history, and propaganda. In addition to that, students may be taught the following classes, depending on the track they choose and / or the high school they attend: mathematics, geometry, statistics, physics, biology, chemistry, geography, philosophy, psychology, sociology, economy, logic, arts and music, traffic and health, computer, physical education, first and second foreign language.
The students used to be given a diploma for the academic track they had chosen, which gave them an advantage if they wanted to pursue their higher education in the corresponding fields, as the University Entrance Exam scores were weighted according to the student 's track. (e.g. A science student would have an advantage over a Turkish - Mathematics student when applying for Medicine). As of the 2010 -- 2011 educational year, all high school students are given the standard high school diploma.
At the end of high school, following the 12th grade, students take a high school finishing examination and they are required to pass this in order to take the University Entrance Exam and continue their studies at a university. There are four score types for different academic fields, including but not limited to:
The International Baccalaureate has been available in Turkey since 1994 when the first school was authorized by the IB and 53 schools now offer one or more of the IB programmes.
Vocational and technical secondary education involves the institutions that both raise students as manpower in business and other professional areas, prepare them for higher education and meet the objectives of general secondary education. Vocational and technical secondary education includes technical education schools for boys, technical education schools for girls, trade and tourism schools, religious education schools, multi-program high schools, special education schools, private education schools and health education schools. In the academic year 2001 -- 2002, 821,900 students were being educated and 66,100 teachers were employed in 3,400 vocational and technical secondary education schools.
According to Article 37 of Vocational Education Lhiaw no 3308, the Ministry of National Education is organizing vocational courses in order to prepare the people who have left the formal education system and do not possess the qualifications required for employment for any vacant positions in the business sector. Based on apprenticeship training programs, the Ministry of National Education pays the insurance premiums against occupational accidents, sicknesses during the vocational period and other sicknesses of participants attending courses in relation to their occupation. These participants may take experienced apprenticeship exams after the education they have received and the work they have performed are evaluated according to the Regulations for Evaluating the Certificates and Diplomas in Apprenticeship and Vocational Training.
People who work in the 109 branches mentioned in Law no 3308, have finished primary education and are below the age of 14 may receive training as candidate apprentices or apprentices. Law no 4702 gives apprenticeship training opportunity to those over 19. The period of apprentice training changes between 2 -- 4 years depending on the nature of vocations.
Adolescents who have not attended the formal education system or left the system at any stage may take the experienced apprenticeship exam after 1 year of adaptation training, provided they had reached the age of 16 at the date when the said profession was included in the coverage of law. Those at the age of 18 may directly take the experienced apprenticeship exam, if a certificate is provided to prove that he / she is working in the related profession.
Those who graduate from vocational and technical secondary education institutions or from vocational and technical schools and institutions may take proficiency exam in their own professions. Graduates of technical high school or of 4 - year programs in vocational and technical schools and institutions are given a certificate to start businesses with the privileges and responsibilities of a proficiency certificate. In 2001, 248,400 apprentices were being educated and 5,100 teachers were employed in 345 vocational training centers.
In March 2012 the Grand National Assembly passed new legislation on primary and secondary education usually termed as "4 + 4 + 4 '' (4 years primary education, first level, 4 years primary education, second level and 4 years secondary education). Children will begin their primary education in the first month of September following their sixth birthdays and will come to a close during the school year in which students turn 14 years old.
The primary education stages, which includes the first two stages of four years ' education each, will entail four years of mandatory elementary education, followed by an additional mandatory four years of middle school education, in which students will be able to choose whether they want to study at a general education middle school or a religious vocational middle school, which are referred to as Imam Hatip schools. The new legislation includes the reopening of Imam Hatip middle schools. Primary education establishments will be set up separately as independent elementary schools and middle schools.
Higher education includes all levels of institutions giving education past the secondary school level for a period of at least 17 years.
Higher education institutions include:
In the academic year 2001 -- 2002 there were 76 universities, 53 of which belonged to the state and 23 to foundations. In these institutions 66,700 personnel were working, 63,000 in state universities and 3,700 in others.
After the national university entrance examination organized by the national examing body students, if they succeed, continue with their studies at a university. Foreign students take the Yös exam or provide equivalent credentials approved by the Higher Education Council (YÖK).
Universities provide either two or four years of education for undergraduate studies, while graduate programs last a minimum of two years. Some universities also ask for an additional year of English preparatory study to be completed before the start of studies, unless an exemption examination is passed.
There are around 820 higher education institutions including universities with a total student enrollment of over 1 million. Tertiary education is the responsibility of the Higher Education Council, and funding is provided by the state for public institutions that make up the bulk of the tertiary education system. There are 167 universities in Turkey, which are classified as either public or foundational (private) and 373,353 students were graduated from these universities in 2006. Public universities typically charge very low fees while private foundation universities are highly expensive with fees that can reach $30,000 per annum. Since 1998, universities have been given greater autonomy and were encouraged to raise funds through partnerships with industry.
The quality of education at the Turkish universities varies greatly, some providing education and facilities on par with internationally renowned schools (the technical universities are often compared with universities in the United States, and are regularly visited by the US Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology and their engineering programs deemed substantially equivalent to comparable programs in the US.
Turkish universities actively participate in the Socrates -- Erasmus program of the European Commission, aiming to increase student and academician mobility within the European Union, the European Economic Area countries, and other EU candidate states. An increasing number of Turkish university students complete a part of their studies abroad at other participating countries ' universities, and Turkish universities receive students of the same status from abroad. With the passage of law 2547, the rectors of all the public universities are appointed jointly by the faculty, Higher Education Council and the President of Turkey. The former president, Abdullah Gül, suggested that the system might be changed to eliminate the Higher Education Council and political influence.
The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) coordinates basic and applied research and development, acting on proposed policies by the Turkish Academy of Sciences (TÜBA). There are more than 60 research institutes and organizations. Turkey 's R&D strengths include agriculture, forestry, health, biotechnology, nuclear technologies, minerals, materials, IT, and defence.
In the Turkish education system, private schools may be grouped into four.
There are many dershane in cities. They will transform into academic high schools in 2015, as the new law requires.
In 1927, all courses concerning religion were excluded from the curriculum of primary, secondary, and high schools on the basis that non-Muslims also live in Turkey. Between 1927 and 1949, religious instruction was not permitted in schools. In 1949, the Ministry of Education allowed a course on religion in 4th and 5th grades of primary school.
In 1956, as a result of multi-party democracy, a new government was established. Being more sympathetic towards the religious sentiments of society, this new government introduced a religion course into secondary schools. This time, if the parents wanted to exempt their children from the course, they had to apply to the school with a written request. After nearly ten years, in 1967, the religion course was introduced to the 1st and 2nd grades of high school. Students, however, were enrolled for the course with the written request of their parents. In 1975, the course was extended to the third (last) grade of the high schools. And, finally, following the military coup in 1980, the religion course became schools was also constitutionally secured. The exact title of the course was, "The Culture of Religion and Knowledge of Ethics. ''
In 1985, the Institute for Creation Research, a United States creationist group, helped advise Turkey 's education minister Vehbi Dinçerler on how to introduce creationism in high schools. Turkish academics have stated that the resulting ignorance of evolution led to Turkey coming last in a survey that measured knowledge of evolution in 34 industrialised nations.
Currently, religious education courses begin at the 4th grade (age10) of primary school and continues throughout secondary and high schools. From the 4th to the 8th grade, classes consist of two hours per week. At the high school level, there is one hour of class per week Thus, a student who has graduated from high school receives 8 continuous years of religion courses. There are no fixed books for the course. Rather, each school decides which book to follow -- provided that the book for each level is approved by the Ministry of Education. Nearly half of the content of these courses concerns religion and Islam (whom majority are Muslims) with remaining topics ranging from secularism to humanism and from ethical values to etiquette. The major world religions such as Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism and Buddhism are included in the content of the course.
The most common foreign language is English, which in public schools is taught from 2nd grade (age 8) onwards through to the end of high school. In high school a second foreign language is introduced. However the number of lessons given in public schools is minimal compared to private schools, which begin teaching English in kindergarten, have two or three times as many English lessons in the timetable, and in many cases employ native speakers of English as teachers. In 2011 the Ministry of Education, under pressure from the Prime Minister to improve the learning of English in Turkey, announced that the approach to language would be thoroughly revised, part of which would include a plan to hire 40,000 foreigners as language assistants in public schools.
As a result of the poor standards achieved by the public system many students take an intensive English language "prep year '' when entering university. These are offered by both state and private universities throughout Turkey.
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the walking dead is season 8 the last season | The Walking Dead (season 8) - Wikipedia
The eighth season of The Walking Dead, an American post-apocalyptic horror television series on AMC, premiered on October 22, 2017, and concluded on April 15, 2018, consisting of 16 episodes. Developed for television by Frank Darabont, the series is based on the eponymous series of comic books by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore, and Charlie Adlard. The executive producers are Kirkman, David Alpert, Scott M. Gimple, Greg Nicotero, Tom Luse, and Gale Anne Hurd, with Gimple as showrunner for his fifth and final season. The eighth season received positive reviews from critics. It was nominated for multiple awards and won two, including Best Horror Television Series for the third consecutive year, at the 44th Saturn Awards.
This season adapts material from issues # 115 -- 126 of the comic book series and focuses on Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln), his group of survivors and everyone at the Alexandria Safe - Zone, the Hilltop, the Kingdom, and later the Scavengers going to war with Negan (Jeffrey Dean Morgan) and the Saviors.
The eighth season features twenty series regulars overall. For this season, Katelyn Nacon, Khary Payton, Steven Ogg, and Pollyanna McIntosh were promoted to series regular status, after previously having recurring roles, while Seth Gilliam and Ross Marquand were added to the opening credits.
The Walking Dead was renewed by AMC for a 16 - episode eighth season on October 16, 2016. Production began on April 25, 2017, in Atlanta, Georgia. On July 12, 2017, production was shut down after stuntman John Bernecker was killed, after falling more than 20 feet onto a concrete floor. Production resumed on July 17.
The season premiere, which also serves as the series ' milestone 100th episode, was directed by executive producer Greg Nicotero.
In November 2017, it was announced that Lennie James who portrays Morgan Jones, would be leaving The Walking Dead after the conclusion of this season, and he will join the cast of the spin - off series Fear the Walking Dead.
The first trailer for the season was released on July 21, 2017 at the San Diego Comic - Con. The second trailer was released on February 1, 2018 for the second part of the season.
On March 15, 2018, it was announced that the season finale and the fourth season premiere of Fear the Walking Dead would be screened at AMC, Regal, and Cinemark theaters across the United States on April 15, the same day as the TV airing, for "Survival Sunday: The Walking Dead & Fear the Walking Dead ''. The episodes marked the first crossover between the two series. The cinema screening also included an extra half - hour of exclusive bonus content.
The eighth season of The Walking Dead has received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds a score of 67 % with an average rating of 6.68 out of 10, based on 15 reviews, and an average episode score 72 %. The site 's critical consensus reads: "The Walking Dead 's eighth season energizes its characters with some much - needed angst and action, though it 's still occasionally choppy and lacking forward - moving plot progression. ''
For the 44th Saturn Awards, the eight season of The Walking Dead received seven nominations, winning two. It won Best Horror Television Series and Best Performance by a Younger Actor in a Television Series (Chandler Riggs). The nominations were for Best Actor on Television (Andrew Lincoln), Best Supporting Actor on Television (Khary Payton), Best Supporting Actress on Television (Danai Gurira and Melissa McBride), and Best Guest Starring Role on Television (Jeffrey Dean Morgan).
The first half of the season was nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series at the 24th Screen Actors Guild Awards.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The eighth season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD on August 21, 2018. The set includes three audio commentaries and three featurettes.
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citi hires new head of us government bond trading | Citigroup - Wikipedia
Citigroup Inc. or Citi (stylized as citi) is an American multinational investment bank and financial services corporation headquartered in New York City. The company was formed by the merger of banking giant Citicorp and financial conglomerate Travelers Group in 1998; however, Travelers was spun off from the company in 2002. Citigroup now owns Citicorp, the holding company for Citibank, as well as several international subsidiaries.
Citigroup is ranked 4th on the list of largest banks in the United States and, alongside JPMorgan Chase, Bank of America, and Wells Fargo, it is one of the Big Four banks of the United States. It is a systemically important financial institution and is on the list of systemically important banks that are too big to fail. It is one of the nine global investment banks in the Bulge Bracket.
Citigroup is ranked 32nd on the Fortune 500. Citigroup has over 200 million customer accounts and does business in more than 160 countries. It has 209,000 employees, although it had 357,000 employees before the financial crisis of 2007 - 2008, when it was rescued via a massive stimulus package by the U.S. government.
Citigroup is the holding company for the following divisions:
Citigroup was formed on October 9, 1998, following the $140 billion merger of Citicorp and Travelers Group to create the world 's largest financial services organization. The history of the company is, thus, divided into the workings of several firms that over time amalgamated into Citicorp, a multinational banking corporation operating in more than 100 countries; or Travelers Group, whose businesses covered credit services, consumer finance, brokerage, and insurance. As such, the company history dates back to the founding of: the City Bank of New York (later Citibank) in 1812; Bank Handlowy in 1870; Smith Barney in 1873, Banamex in 1884; Salomon Brothers in 1910.
City Bank of New York was chartered by New York State on June 16, 1812, with $2 million of capital. Serving a group of New York merchants, the bank opened for business on September 14 of that year, and Samuel Osgood was elected as the first President of the company. The company 's name was changed to The National City Bank of New York in 1865 after it joined the new U.S. national banking system, and it became the largest American bank by 1895. It became the first contributor to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York in 1913, and the following year it inaugurated the first overseas branch of a U.S. bank in Buenos Aires, although the bank had, since the mid-19th century, been active in plantation economies, such as the Cuban sugar industry. The 1918 purchase of U.S. overseas bank International Banking Corporation helped it become the first American bank to surpass $1 billion in assets, and it became the largest commercial bank in the world in 1929. As it grew, the bank became a leading innovator in financial services, becoming the first major U.S. bank to offer compound interest on savings (1921); unsecured personal loans (1928); customer checking accounts (1936) and the negotiable certificate of deposit (1961).
The bank changed its name to The First National City Bank of New York in 1955, which was shortened in 1962 to First National City Bank on the 150th anniversary of the company 's foundation. The company organically entered the leasing and credit card sectors, and its introduction of U.S. dollar -- denominated certificates of deposit in London marked the first new negotiable instrument in market since 1888. The bank introduced its First National City Charge Service credit card -- popularly known as the "Everything card '' and later to become MasterCard -- in 1967.
In 1976, under the leadership of CEO Walter B. Wriston, First National City Bank (and its holding company First National City Corporation) was renamed as Citibank, N.A. (and Citicorp, respectively). Shortly afterward, the bank launched the Citicard, which pioneered the use of 24 - hour ATMs. John S. Reed was elected CEO in 1984, and Citi became a founding member of the CHAPS clearing house in London. Under his leadership, the next 14 years would see Citibank become the largest bank in the United States and the largest issuer of credit cards and charge cards in the world, and expand its global reach to over 90 countries.
Travelers Group, at the time of merger, was a diverse group of financial concerns that had been brought together under CEO Sandy Weill. Its roots came from Commercial Credit, a subsidiary of Control Data Corporation that was taken private by Weill in November 1986 after taking charge of the company earlier that year. Two years later, Weill mastered the buyout of Primerica Financial Services -- a conglomerate that had already bought life insurance company AL Williams as well as brokerage firm Smith Barney. The new company took the Primerica name, and employed a "cross-selling '' strategy such that each of the entities within the parent company aimed to sell each other 's services. Its non-financial businesses were spun off.
In September 1992, Travelers Insurance, which had suffered from poor real estate investments and sustained significant losses in the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew, formed a strategic alliance with Primerica that would lead to its amalgamation into a single company in December 1993. With the acquisition, the group became Travelers Inc. Property & casualty and life & annuities underwriting capabilities were added to the business. Meanwhile, the distinctive Travelers red umbrella logo, which was also acquired in the deal, was applied to all the businesses within the newly named organization. During this period, Travelers acquired Shearson Lehman -- a retail brokerage and asset management firm that was headed by Weill until 1985 -- and merged it with Smith Barney.
In November 1997, Travelers Group (which had been renamed again in April 1995 when they merged with Aetna Property and Casualty, Inc.), acquired Salomon Brothers, a major bond dealer and bulge bracket investment bank, in a $9 billion transaction. This deal complemented Travelers / Smith Barney well as Salomon was focused on fixed - income and institutional clients, whereas Smith Barney was strong in equities and retail. Salomon Brothers absorbed Smith Barney into the new securities unit termed Salomon Smith Barney; a year later, the division incorporated Citicorp 's former securities operations as well. The Salomon Smith Barney name was abandoned in October 2003 after a series of financial scandals that tarnished the bank 's reputation.
On April 6, 1998, the merger between Citicorp and Travelers Group was announced to the world, creating a $140 billion firm with assets of almost $700 billion. The deal would enable Travelers to market mutual funds and insurance to Citicorp 's retail customers while giving the banking divisions access to an expanded client base of investors and insurance buyers.
In the transaction, Travelers Group acquired all Citicorp shares for $70 billion in stock, issuing 2.5 new Citigroup shares for each Citicorp share. Existing shareholders of each company owned about half of the new firm. While the new company maintained Citicorp 's "Citi '' brand in its name, it adopted Travelers ' distinctive "red umbrella '' as the new corporate logo, which was used until 2007.
The chairmen of both parent companies, John S. Reed and Sandy Weill respectively, were announced as co-chairmen and co-CEOs of the new company, Citigroup, Inc., although the vast difference in management styles between the two immediately presented question marks over the wisdom of such a setup.
The remaining provisions of the Glass -- Steagall Act -- enacted following the Great Depression -- forbade banks to merge with insurance underwriters, and meant Citigroup had between two and five years to divest any prohibited assets. However, Weill stated at the time of the merger that they believed "that over that time the legislation will change... we have had enough discussions to believe this will not be a problem ''. Indeed, the passing of the Gramm - Leach - Bliley Act in November 1999 vindicated Reed and Weill 's views, opening the door to financial services conglomerates offering a mix of commercial banking, investment banking, insurance underwriting and brokerage.
Joe J. Plumeri worked on the post-merger integration of the two companies and was appointed CEO of Citibank North America by Weill and Reed. He oversaw its network of 450 branches. J. Paul Newsome, an analyst with CIBC Oppenheimer, said: "He 's not the spit - and - polish executive many people expected. He 's rough on the edges. But Citibank knows the bank as an institution is in trouble -- it ca n't get away anymore with passive selling -- and Plumeri has all the passion to throw a glass of cold water on the bank. '' Plumeri boosted the unit 's earnings from $108 million to $415 million in one year, an increase of nearly 300 %. He unexpectedly retired from Citibank, however, in January 2000.
In 2000, Citigroup acquired Associates First Capital Corporation for $31.1 billion in stock, which, until 1989, had been owned by Gulf + Western (now part of National Amusements), and later by Ford Motor Credit Company. The Associates was widely criticized for predatory lending practices and Citi eventually settled with the Federal Trade Commission by agreeing to pay $240 million to customers who had been victims of a variety of predatory practices, including "flipping '' mortgages, "packing '' mortgages with optional credit insurance, and deceptive marketing practices.
In 2001, Citigroup made additional acquisitions: European American Bank, in July, for $1.9 billion, and Banamex in August, for $12.5 billion.
The company spun off its Travelers Property and Casualty insurance underwriting business in 2002. The spin off was prompted by the insurance unit 's drag on Citigroup stock price because Travelers earnings were more seasonal and vulnerable to large disasters and events such as the September 11 attacks. It was also difficult to sell insurance directly to its customers since most customers were accustomed to purchasing insurance through a broker.
Travelers merged with The St. Paul Companies Inc. in 2004 forming The St. Paul Travelers Companies. Citigroup retained the life insurance and annuities underwriting business; however, it sold those businesses to MetLife in 2005. Citigroup still sells life insurance through Citibank, but it no longer underwrites insurance.
In spite of divesting Travelers Insurance, Citigroup retained Travelers ' signature red umbrella logo as its own until February 2007, when Citigroup agreed to sell the logo back to St. Paul Travelers, which renamed itself Travelers Companies. Citigroup also decided to adopt the corporate brand "Citi '' for itself and virtually all its subsidiaries, except Primerica and Banamex.
Heavy exposure to troubled mortgages in the form of collateralized debt obligation (CDOs), compounded by poor risk management, led Citigroup into trouble as the subprime mortgage crisis worsened 2008. The company had used elaborate mathematical risk models which looked at mortgages in particular geographical areas, but never included the possibility of a national housing downturn, or the prospect that millions of mortgage holders would default on their mortgages. Trading head Thomas Maheras was close friends with senior risk officer David Bushnell, which undermined risk oversight. As Treasury Secretary, Robert Rubin was said to be influential in lifting the Glass -- Steagall Act that allowed Travelers and Citicorp to merge in 1998. Then on the board of directors of Citigroup, Rubin and Charles Prince were said to be influential in pushing the company towards MBS and CDOs in the subprime mortgage market.
Starting in June 2006, Senior Vice President Richard M. Bowen III, the chief underwriter of Citigroup 's Consumer Lending Group, began warning the board of directors about the extreme risks being taken on by the mortgage operation that could potentially result in massive losses. The group bought and sold $90 billion of residential mortgages annually. Bowen 's responsibility was essentially to serve as the quality control supervisor ensuring the unit 's creditworthiness. When Bowen first became a whistleblower in 2006, 60 % of the mortgages were defective. The amount of bad mortgages began increasing throughout 2007 and eventually exceeded 80 % of the volume. Many of the mortgages were not only defective, but were a result of mortgage fraud. Bowen attempted to rouse the board via weekly reports and other communications. On November 3, 2007, Bowen emailed Citigroup Chairman Robert Rubin and the bank 's chief financial officer, head auditor and the chief risk management officer to again expose the risk and potential losses, claiming that the group 's internal controls had broken down and requesting an outside investigation of his business unit. The subsequent investigation revealed that at the Consumer Lending Group had suffered a breakdown of internal controls since 2005. Regardless of the findings of the investigation, Bowen 's charges were ignored, despite the fact that withholding such information from shareholders violated the Sarbanes -- Oxley Act (SOX), which he had pointed out. Citigroup CEO Charles Prince signed a certification that the bank was in compliance with SOX despite Bowen revealing this was n't so. Citigroup eventually stripped Bowen of most of his responsibilities and informing him that his physical presence was no longer required at the bank. The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission asked him to testify about Citigroup 's role in the mortgage crisis, and he did so, appearing as one of the first witnesses before the Commission in April 2010.
As the crisis began to unfold, Citigroup announced on April 11, 2007, that it would eliminate 17,000 jobs, or about 5 percent of its workforce, in a broad restructuring designed to cut costs and bolster its long underperforming stock. Even after securities and brokerage firm Bear Stearns ran into serious trouble in summer 2007, Citigroup decided the possibility of trouble with its CDO 's was so tiny (less than 1 / 100 of 1 %) that they excluded them from their risk analysis. With the crisis worsening, Citigroup announced on January 7, 2008 that it was considering cutting another 5 percent to 10 percent of its 327,000 member - workforce.
By November 2008, Citigroup was insolvent, despite its receipt of $25 billion in taxpayer - funded federal Troubled Asset Relief Program funds. On November 17, 2008, Citigroup announced plans for about 52,000 new job cuts, on top of 23,000 cuts already made during 2008 in a huge job cull resulting from four quarters of consecutive losses and reports that it was unlikely to be in profit again before 2010. The same day on Wall Street markets responded, with shares falling and dropping the company 's market capitalization to $6 billion, down from $300 billion two years prior. Eventually staff cuts totaled over 100,000 employees. Its stock market value dropped to $20.5 billion, down from $244 billion two years earlier. Shares of Citigroup common stock traded well below $1.00 on the New York Stock Exchange.
As a result, late in the evening on November 23, 2008, Citigroup and Federal regulators approved a plan to stabilize the company and forestall a further deterioration in the company 's value. On November 24, 2008, the U.S. government announced a massive bailout for Citigroup designed to rescue the company from bankruptcy while giving the government a major say in its operations. A joint statement by the US Treasury Department, the Federal Reserve and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corp announced: "With these transactions, the U.S. government is taking the actions necessary to strengthen the financial system and protect U.S. taxpayers and the U.S. economy. '' The bailout called for the government to back about $306 billion in loans and securities and directly invest about $20 billion in the company. The Treasury provided $20 billion in Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) funds in addition to $25 billion given in October. The Treasury Department, the Federal Reserve and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) agreed to cover 90 % of the losses on Citigroup 's $335 billion portfolio after Citigroup absorbed the first $29 billion in losses. The Treasury would assume the first $5 billion in losses; the FDIC would absorb the next $10 billion; then the Federal Reserve would assume the rest of the risk. The assets remained on Citigroup 's balance sheet; the technical term for this arrangement is ring fencing.
In return the bank gave the U.S. Treasury $27 billion of preferred shares and warrants to acquire common stock. The government obtained wide powers over banking operations. Citigroup agreed to try to modify mortgages, using standards set up by the FDIC after the collapse of IndyMac Bank, with the goal of keeping as many homeowners as possible in their houses. Executive salaries would be capped. As a condition of the federal assistance, Citigroup 's dividend payment was reduced to $0.01 per share.
According to The Wall Street Journal, the government aid provided to Citi in 2008 / 2009 was provided to prevent a worldwide chaos and panic by the potential collapse of its Global Transactions Services (now TTS) division. According to the article, former CEO Pandit said if Citigroup was allowed to unravel into bankruptcy, "100 governments around the world would be trying to figure out how to pay their employees ''.
In 2009, Jane Fraser, the CEO of Citi Private Bank, stopped paying its bankers with commission for selling investment products, in a move to bolster Citi Private Bank 's reputation as an independent wealth management adviser, as opposed to a product pusher.
On January 16, 2009, Citigroup announced its intention to reorganize itself into two operating units: Citicorp for its retail and institutional client business, and Citi Holdings for its brokerage and asset management. Citigroup will continue to operate as a single company for the time being, but Citi Holdings managers will be tasked to "take advantage of value - enhancing disposition and combination opportunities as they emerge '', and eventual spin - offs or mergers involving either operating unit were not ruled out. Citi Holdings consists of Citi businesses that Citi wants to sell and are not considered part of Citi 's core businesses. The majority of its assets are U.S. mortgages. It was created in the wake of the financial crisis as part of Citi 's restructuring plan. It consists of several business entities including remaining interests in local consumer lending such as OneMain Financial, divestitures such as Smith Barney, and a special asset pool. Citi Holdings represents $156 billion of GAAP assets, or ~ 8 % of Citigroup; 59 % represents North American mortgages, 18 % operating businesses, 13 % special asset pool, and 10 % categorized as other. Operating businesses include OneMain Financial ($10 B), PrimeRe ($7 B), MSSB JV ($8 B) and Spain / Greece retail ($4 B), less associated loan loss reserves. While Citi Holdings is a mixed bag, its primary objective is to wind down some non-core businesses and reduce assets, and strategically "breaking even '' in 2015.
On February 27, 2009, Citigroup announced that the U.S. government would take a 36 % equity stake in the company by converting US $25 billion in emergency aid into common stock with a United States Treasury credit line of $45 billion to prevent the bankruptcy of the company. The government guaranteed losses on more than $300 billion of troubled assets and injected $20 billion immediately into the company. The salary of the CEO was set at $1 per year and the highest salary of employees was restricted to $500,000. Any compensation amount above $500,000 had to be paid with restricted stock that could not be sold by the employee until the emergency government aid was repaid in full. The U.S. government also gained control of half the seats in the Board of Directors, and the senior management was subjected to removal by the US government if there were poor performance. By December 2009, the U.S. government stake was reduced from a 36 % stake to a 27 % stake, after Citigroup sold $21 billion of common shares and equity in the largest single share sale in U.S. history, surpassing Bank of America 's $19 billion share sale 1 month prior. By December 2010, Citigroup repaid the emergency aid in full and the U.S. government had made a $12 billion profit on its investment in the company. Government restrictions on pay and oversight of the senior management were removed after the U.S. government sold its remaining 27 % stake in December 2010.
On June 1, 2009, it was announced that Citigroup would be removed from the Dow Jones Industrial Average effective June 8, 2009, due to significant government ownership. Citigroup was replaced by Travelers Co.
Smith Barney, Citi 's global private wealth management unit, provided brokerage, investment banking and asset management services to corporations, governments and individuals around the world. With over 800 offices worldwide, Smith Barney held 9.6 million domestic client accounts, representing $1.562 trillion in client assets worldwide.
On January 13, 2009, Citi announced the merger of Smith Barney with Morgan Stanley Wealth Management. Citi received $2.7 billion and a 49 % interest in the joint venture.
In June 2013, Citi sold its remaining 49 % stake in Smith Barney to Morgan Stanley Wealth Management for $13.5 billion following an appraisal by Perella Weinberg.
In 2010, Citigroup achieved its first profitable year since 2007. It reported $10.6 billion in net profit, compared with a $1.6 billion loss in 2009. Late in 2010, the government sold its remaining stock holding in the company, yielding an overall net profit to taxpayers of $12 billion. A special IRS tax exception given to Citi allowed the US Treasury to sell its shares at a profit, while it still owned Citigroup shares, which eventually netted $12 billion. According to Treasury spokeswoman Nayyera Haq, "This (IRS tax) rule was designed to stop corporate raiders from using loss corporations to evade taxes, and was never intended to address the unprecedented situation where the government owned shares in banks. And it was certainly not written to prevent the government from selling its shares for a profit. ''
In 2011, Citi was the first bank to introduce digitized Smart Banking branches in Washington, D.C., New York, Tokyo and Busan (South Korea) while it continued renovating its entire branch network. New sales and service centers were also opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Citi Express modules, 24 - hour service units, were introduced in Colombia. Citi opened additional branches in China, expanding its branch presence to 13 cities in China.
Citi Branded Cards introduced several new products in 2011, including: Citi ThankYou, Citi Executive / AAdvantage and Citi Simplicity cards in the U.S. It also has Latin America partnership cards with Colombia - based airline Avianca and with Banamex and AeroMexico; and a merchant loyalty program in Europe. Citibank is also the first and currently the only international bank to be approved by Chinese regulators to issue credit cards under its own brand without cooperating with Chinese state - owned domestic banks.
In 2012, the Global Markets division and Orient Securities formed form Citi Orient Securities, a Shanghai based equity and debt brokerage operating in the Chinese market.
On March 13, 2012, the Federal Reserve reported Citigroup is one of the four financial institutions, out of 19 major banks, that failed its stress tests, designed to measure bank capital during a financial crisis. The 2012 stress tests determined whether banks could withstand a financial crisis that has unemployment at 13 %, stock prices to be cut in half, and home prices decreased by 21 %. Citi failed the Fed stress tests due to Citi 's high capital return plan and its international loans, which were rated by the Fed to be at higher risk than its domestic American loans. Citi received half of its revenues from its international businesses. In comparison, Bank Of America, which passed the stress test and did not ask for a capital return to investors, received 78 % of its revenue in the United States.
By June 2012, the year of Citi 's 200th anniversary, Citigroup had built up $420 billion in surplus cash reserves and government securities. As of March 31, 2012, Citi had a Tier 1 capital ratio of 12.4 %. This was a result of selling more than $500 billion of its special assets placed in Citi Holdings, which were guaranteed from losses by the US Treasury while under federal majority ownership.
In 2013, Sanjiv Das was replaced as head of CitiMortgage with Jane Fraser, former head of Citi Private Bank.
On March 26, 2014, the Federal Reserve Board of Governors reported that Citigroup was one of the 5 financial institutions that failed its stress tests. Unlike in the failed stress test in 2012, Citigroup failed on qualitative concerns that were unresolved despite regulatory warnings. The report specifically stated that Citigroup failed "to project revenues and losses under a stressful scenario for material parts of the firm 's global operations and its ability to develop scenarios for its internal stress testing that adequately reflects its full range business activities and exposures. ''
On March 11, 2015, Citi has passed its first CCAR test, allowing it to raise its dividend to 5 cent a share and unveiling a plan for a $7.8 billion share repurchase.
In February 2016, the company was subject to a lawsuit as a result of the bankruptcy of a Mexican oil services firm.
In April 2016, Citigroup announced that it would eliminate its bad bank, Citi Holdings.
On June 23, 2016, Federal Reserve handed Citi a passing grade on its stress test the second time in a row, giving permission to triple its dividend to 16 cent a share and approving a $8.6 billion stock repurchase program,
Citi Capital Advisors (CCA), formerly Citi Alternative Investments, was a hedge fund that offered various investment strategies across multiple asset classes. To comply with the Volcker Rule, which limits bank ownership in hedge funds to no more than 3 %, Citi spun off its hedge fund unit in 2013 and gave a majority of the company to its managers. The spin - off of CCA created Napier Park Global Capital, a $6.8 billion hedge fund with more than 100 employees in New York and London and managed by Jim O'Brien and Jonathan Dorfman.
In October 2014, Citigroup announced its exit from consumer banking in 11 markets, including Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Japan, Guam, the Czech Republic, Egypt, South Korea (consumer finance only), and Hungary.
In May 2015, the bank announced the sale of its margin foreign exchange business, including CitiFX Pro and TradeStream, to FXCM and SAXO Bank of Denmark. Despite this deal, industry surveys pegged Citi as the biggest banking player in the forex market. The company 's remaining foreign exchange sales & trading businesses continued operating in the wake of this deal under the leadership of James Bindler, who succeeded Jeff Feig as the firm 's global head of foreign exchange in 2014.
In February 2016, Citi sold its retail and commercial banking operations in Panama and Costa Rica to the Bank of Nova Scotia (Scotiabank) for $360 million. The operations sold include 27 branches serving approximately 250,000 clients. Citi continues to offer corporate and institutional banking and wealth management in Panama and Costa Rica.
In November 2015, Springleaf acquired OneMain Financial from Citigroup.
On April 1, 2016, Citigroup became the exclusive issuer of Costco - branded credit cards.
In April 2016, Citi was given regulatory approval for its ' living will, ' its plans to shut down operations in the event of another financial crisis.
On March 22, 2018, Citigroup placed the first - of - its - kind restrictions on business banking clients, including clients who offer Citigroup - backed credit cards or who raise capital from Citigroup, requiring clients to perform background checks for firearms sales, to prohibit firearms sales to those under 21 years old, and to prohibit sales of bump stocks and high - capacity magazines.
Citigroup Center, a diagonal - roof skyscraper located in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, is Citigroup 's most famous office building, which despite popular belief is not the company 's headquarters building. Citigroup has its headquarters located in downtown Tribeca (388 Greenwich). Citigroup also owns a building in Tribeca, Manhattan at 388 Greenwich Street that serves as headquarters for its Investment and Corporate Banking operations and was the former headquarters of the Travelers Group.
All of Citigroup 's New York City real estate, excluding the company 's Smith Barney division and Wall Street trading division, lies along the New York City Subway 's IND Queens Boulevard Line, served by the E and M trains. Consequently, the company 's Midtown buildings -- including 787 Seventh Avenue, 666 Fifth Avenue, 399 Park Avenue, 485 Lexington, 153 East 53rd Street (Citigroup Center) in Manhattan, and One Court Square in Long Island City, Queens, are all on the short four - stop corridor of the Queens Boulevard Line between Court Square and Seventh Avenue.
Citigroup owns the naming rights to Citi Field, the home ballpark of the New York Mets Major League Baseball team, via a $400 million, 20 - year deal that commenced with the stadium opening in 2009.
Citicorp Center in Chicago has a series of curved archways at its peak, and sits across the street from major competitor ABN AMRO 's ABN AMRO Plaza. It has shops and restaurants serving Metra customers via the Ogilvie Transportation Center.
In 2004, Japanese regulators took action against Citibank Japan loaning to a customer involved in stock manipulation. The regulator suspended bank activities in one branch and three offices, and restricted their consumer banking division. In 2009, Japanese regulators again took action against Citibank Japan, because the bank had not set up an effective money laundering monitoring system. The regulators suspended sales operations within Citibank 's retail banking for a month.
On March 23, 2005, the National Association of Securities Dealers, the former name of the American self - regulatory organization for broker - dealers, now known as the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FInRA) announced total fines of $21.25 million against Citigroup Global Markets, Inc., American Express Financial Advisors and Chase Investment Services regarding suitability and supervisory violations of their mutual fund sales practices between January 2002 and July 2003. The case against Citigroup involved recommendations and sales of Class B and Class C shares of mutual funds.
On June 6, 2007, FInRA announced more than $15 million in fines and restitution against Citigroup Global Markets, Inc., to settle charges related to misleading documents and inadequate disclosure in retirement seminars and meetings for BellSouth Corp. employees in North Carolina and South Carolina. FInRA found that Citigroup did not properly supervise a team of brokers located in Charlotte, N.C., who used misleading sales materials during dozens of seminars and meetings for hundreds of BellSouth employees.
In July 2010, Citigroup agreed to pay $75 million to settle civil charges that it misled investors over potential losses from high - risk mortgages. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission said that Citigroup had made misleading statements about the company 's exposure to subprime mortgages. In 2007, Citigroup indicated that its exposure was less than $13 billion, when in fact it was over $50 billion.
In April 2011, an arbitration panel ordered Citigroup Inc to pay $54.1 million for losses from municipal securities funds that cratered between 2007 and 2008.
In August 2012, Citigroup agreed to pay almost $25 million to settle an investor lawsuit alleging the bank misled investors about the nature of mortgage - backed securities. The lawsuit was on behalf of investors who purchased certificates in one of two mortgage - backed securities trusts from Citigroup Mortgage Loan Trust Inc in 2007.
In February 2012, Citigroup agreed to pay $158.3 million to settle claims that it falsely certified the quality of loans issued by its CitiMortgage unit over a period of more than six years, so that they would qualify for insurance from the Federal Housing Administration. The lawsuit was initially brought by Sherry Hunt, a CitiMortgage employee.
On February 9, 2012, it was announced that the five largest mortgage servicers (Ally / GMAC, Bank of America, Citi, JPMorgan Chase, and Wells Fargo) agreed to a historic settlement with the federal government and 49 states. The settlement, known as the National Mortgage Settlement (NMS), required the servicers to provide about $26 billion in relief to distressed homeowners and in direct payments to the states and federal government. This settlement amount makes the NMS the second largest civil settlement in U.S. history, only trailing the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement. The five banks were also required to comply with 305 new mortgage servicing standards. Oklahoma held out and agreed to settle with the banks separately.
In 2014, Citigroup agreed to pay $7 billion to resolve claims it misled investors about shoddy mortgage - backed securities in the run - up to the financial crisis. Attorney General Eric H. Holder Jr. said "The bank 's misconduct was egregious. (...) As a result of their assurances that toxic financial products were sound, Citigroup was able to expand its market share and increase profits '' and that "the settlement did not absolve the bank or its employees from facing criminal charges. ''
In July 2015, Citigroup was fined $70 million by the United States Consumer Financial Protection Bureau and the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, and ordered to pay $700 million to customers. Citigroup had conducted illegal practices in marketing add - on products for credit cards, including credit monitoring, debt - protection products and wallet - protection services.
In January 2017, Citigroup Global Markets Inc. was fined $25 million by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission for order spoofing in U.S. Treasury futures markets, i.e., placing orders that were intended to be cancelled before execution, and for failing to diligently supervise its employees with regard to spoofing.
On October 22, 2001, Citigroup was sued for violating federal securities laws by misrepresenting Citigroup 's Enron - related exposure in its 2001 Annual Report and elsewhere, and failing to disclose the true extent of Citigroup 's legal liability arising out of its ' structured finance ' deals with Enron. In 2003, Citigroup paid $145 million in fines and penalties to settle claims by the Securities and Exchange Commission and the Manhattan district attorney 's office.
In 2004, Citigroup paid $2.65 billion pre-tax, or $1.64 billion after - tax, to settle a lawsuit concerning its role in selling stocks and bonds for WorldCom, the second largest telecommunications company in the world, which collapsed after an accounting scandal.
On February 5, 2002, Citigroup was sued for violating federal securities laws and misleading investors by issuing false information about Global Crossing 's revenues and financial performance. In 2005, Citigroup paid $75 million to settle the lawsuit. Citigroup was accused of issuing exaggerated research reports and not disclosing conflicts of interest.
In 2005, Citigroup paid $2 billion to settle a lawsuit filed by investors in Enron. In 2008, Citi also agreed to pay $1.66 billion to Enron creditors.
On November 8, 2007, Citigroup was sued for financial misrepresentations and omissions of what amounted to more than two years of income and an entire line of business. In 2012, the company paid $590 million to settle the case.
In 1998, the General Accounting Office issued a report critical of Citibank 's handling of funds received from Raul Salinas de Gortari, brother of Carlos Salinas, the former president of Mexico. The report, titled "Raul Salinas, Citibank and Alleged Money Laundering, '' indicated that Citibank facilitated the transfer of millions of dollars through complex financial transactions that hid the funds ' paper trail. The report indicated that Citibank took on Salinas as a client without making a thorough inquiry as to how he made his fortune, an omission that a Citibank official called a violation of the bank 's "know your customer '' policy.
In December 2002, Citigroup paid fines totaling $400 million, to states and the federal government as part of a settlement involving charges that ten banks, including Citigroup, deceived investors with biased research. The total settlement with the ten banks was $1.4 billion. The settlement required that the banks separate investment banking from research, and ban any allocation of IPO shares.
Citigroup was criticized for disrupting the European bond market by rapidly selling € 11 billion worth of bonds on August 2, 2004 on the MTS Group trading platform, driving down the price, and then buying it back at cheaper prices.
In a leaked report for their investor clients from 2005, a team of global strategists at Citigroup wrote an analysis of the global distribution of wealth and consumers. In it, they state that global imbalances have grown to the extent as to justify talking of a plutonomy, and demand for a renewed understanding of how this impacts consumption. The authors cite data showing that the top 1 % households in the US economy account for about 20 % of the total income in 2000, which is roughly equal to the share of the bottom 60 % of households put together. Moreover, in terms of wealth they demonstrate even more inequality such that "(T) he top 1 % of households also account for 33 % of net worth, greater than the bottom 90 % of households put together. It gets better (or worse, depending on your political stripe) - the top 1 % of households account for 40 % of financial net worth, more than the bottom 95 % of households put together. '' Of the current plutonomies (namely United States, United Kingdom, and Canada), they describe six key drivers: "... an ongoing (bio -) technological revolution; capitalist - friendly governments and tax regimes; globalization that re-arranges global supply chains with mobile well - capitalized elites and immigrants; greater financial complexity and innovation; the rule of law, and patent protection are all well. '' In the report, the authors advocate to maintain unequal distribution of wealth in the sense that "... society and governments need to be amenable to disproportionately allow / encourage the few to retain that fatter profit share. The Managerial Aristocracy, like in the Gilded Age, the Roaring Twenties, and the thriving nineties, needs to commandeer a vast chunk of that rising profit share, either through capital income, or simply paying itself a lot. '' Moreover, the authors say that in industrialize countries, there seems to be a relationship between income concentration (plutonomy) and the household savings rates such that the latter tend to fall in plutonomies. The ultimate objective of their report is to examine how to make money of this. The report has also figured in Michael Moore 's Capitalism: A love Story while his portrayal of the report has been criticized by the authors. Later reports by the same principal author mainly confirmed the previous findings.
In a New York Times op - ed, Michael Lewis and David Einhorn described the November 2008 $306 billion guarantee as "an undisguised gift '' without any real crisis motivating it.
According to New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo, Citigroup paid hundreds of millions of dollars in bonuses to more than 1,038 of its employees after it had received its $45 billion TARP funds in late 2008. This included 738 employees each receiving $1 million in bonuses, 176 employees each receiving $2 million bonuses, 124 each receiving $3 million in bonuses, and 143 each receiving bonuses of $4 million to more than $10 million. As a result of the criticism and the U.S. Government 's majority holding of Citigroup 's common shares, compensation and bonuses were restricted from February 2009 until December 2010.
In November 2007 it became public that Citigroup was heavily involved in the Terra Securities scandal, which involved investments by eight municipalities of Norway in various hedge funds in the United States bond market. The funds were sold by Terra Securities to the municipalities, while the products were delivered by Citigroup. Terra Securities ASA filed for bankruptcy November 28, 2007, the day after they received a letter from the Financial Supervisory Authority of Norway announcing withdrawal of permissions to operate. The letter stated, "The Supervisory Authority contends that Citigroup 's presentation, as well as the presentation from Terra Securities ASA, appears insufficient and misleading because central elements like information about potential extra payments and the size of these are omitted. ''
In August 2008, Citigroup agreed to pay nearly $18 million in refunds and fines to settle accusations by California Attorney General Jerry Brown that it wrongly took funds from the accounts of credit card customers. Citigroup paid $14 million of restitution to roughly 53,000 customers nationwide. A three - year investigation found that Citigroup from 1992 to 2003 used an improper computerized "sweep '' feature to move positive balances from card accounts into the bank 's general fund, without telling cardholders. Brown said that Citigroup "knowingly stole from its customers, mostly poor people and the recently deceased, when it designed and implemented the sweeps... When a whistleblower uncovered the scam and brought it to his superiors (in 2001), they buried the information and continued the illegal practice. ''
In September 2011, former Wall Street reporter Ron Suskind stated that Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner ignored a 2009 order from President Barack Obama to break up Citigroup in an enormous restructuring and liquidation process. According to Suskind, Obama wanted to restructure the bank into several leaner and smaller companies while Geithner was executing stress tests of American financial institutions.
Robert Kuttner wrote in his 2010 book A Presidency in Peril that in spring 2009, Geithner and chief economic adviser Larry Summers believed that they could not seize, liquidate and break up Citigroup because they lacked the legal authority or the tools to do so. The Treasury Department denied Suskind 's account in an e-mail to the media stating "This account is simply untrue. The directive given by the president in March 2009, was to develop a contingency plan for tough restructurings if the government ended up owning large shares of institutions at the conclusion of the stress tests that Secretary Geithner worked aggressively to put in place as part of the Administration 's Financial Stability Plan. While Treasury began work on those contingency plans, there was fortunately never a need to put them in place. ''
At Citi 's 2012 annual shareholders ' meeting on April 17, Citi 's executive compensation package was rejected, with approximately 55 % of the votes being against approval. The non-binding vote was required under the Dodd - Frank Act, which requires corporations to hold advisory shareholder votes on their executive compensation plans. Many shareholders expressed concerns about Citi 's failed 2012 Fed stress test and lack of long - term performance - based metrics in its executive compensation plan. One of the largest and most activist of the shareholders voting no, the California Public Employees ' Retirement System, stated Citi "has not anchored rewards to performance ''. A Citigroup shareholder filed a lawsuit days after the vote, claiming Citi executives breached their fiduciary duties. In response, Richard Parsons, former chairman of Citigroup, called the vote a "serious matter ''. A spokeswoman for Citi said "Citi 's Board of Directors takes the shareholder vote seriously, and along with senior management will consult with representative shareholders to understand their concerns '' and that the Compensation committee of the Board "will carefully consider their (shareholder) input as we move forward ''.
In January 2017, bank regulators fined Citigroup $25 million on account of five traders from the bank having manipulated U.S. Treasury futures more than 2,500 times between July 2011 and December 2012. Citigroup was criticized for failing to adequately supervise its traders and for not having systems in place to detect spoofing, which involves entering fake orders designed to fool others into thinking prices are poised to rise or fall.
Between 1998 and 2014, Citigroup spent nearly $100 million lobbying the federal government. As of 2008, Citigroup was the 16th largest political campaign contributor in the US, out of all organizations, according to the Center for Responsive Politics. From 1989 to 2006, members of the firm donated over $23,033,490, 49 % of which went to Democrats and 51 % of which went to Republicans. Matthew Vadum, a senior editor at the conservative Capital Research Center, acknowledged these figures, but pointed out that Citigroup had been "a longtime donor to left - wing pressure groups '', and referred to a Capital Research Center Foundation Watch 2006 study of Fortune 100 foundation giving, where Citigroup 's foundation gave "20 times more money to groups on the left than to groups on the right '' during tax year 2003.
In 2014 Citigroup 's PAC contributed $804,000 to campaigns of various members of Congress, i.e. 162 members of the House, including 72 Democrats, where donations averaged about $5,000 per candidate. Of the 57 Democrats supporting the 2015 Spending bill, 34 had received campaign cash from Citigroup 's PAC at some point since 2010. Citigroup 's 2014 donations favored Republicans only slightly. The bank 's PAC had been nearly as generous to Democrats as Republicans -- $30,000 to the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (the maximum) and $10,000 to the ' New Democrat Coalition ', a group of moderate Democrats most of whom voted for the 2015 spending package. Citibank 's PAC made donations to both the campaigns and the leadership PACs of many top Democrats who voted for the 2015 spending bill, including Steny Hoyer (Md.) House Democratic Whip and Representatives Jim Himes (D - Conn.) and Debbie Wasserman Schultz (D - Florida.).
In 2009, former chairman Richard Parsons hired long - time Washington, D.C. lobbyist Richard F. Hohlt to advise him and the company about relations with the U.S. government, though not to lobby for the company. While some speculated anonymously that the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) would have been a particular focus of Hohlt 's attention, Hohlt said he 'd had no contact with the government insurance corporation. Some former regulators found room to criticize Hohlt 's involvement with Citigroup, because of his earlier involvement with the financial - services industry during the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s. Hohlt responded that though mistakes were made in the earlier episode he 'd never been investigated by any government agency and his experience gave him reason to be back in the "operating room '' as parties address the more recent crisis.
In 2010, the company named Edward Skyler, formerly in New York City government and at Bloomberg L.P., to its senior public and governmental relations position. Before Skyler was named and before he began his job search, the company reportedly held discussions with three other individuals to fill the position: NY Deputy Mayor Kevin Sheekey, Mayor Michael Bloomberg 's "political guru... (who) spearheaded... his short - lived flirtation with a presidential run..., who will soon leave City Hall for a position at the mayor 's company, Bloomberg L.P.... After Mr. Bloomberg 's improbable victory in the 2001 mayor 's race, both Mr. Skyler and Mr. Sheekey followed him from his company to City Hall. Since then, they have been a part of an enormously influential coterie of advisers ''; Howard Wolfson, the former communications director for Hillary Clinton 's presidential campaign and Mr. Bloomberg 's re-election bid; and Gary Ginsberg, now at Time Warner and formerly at News Corporation.
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indian institute of aeronautical engineering & information technology aeronautical engineering india | Indian institute of Aeronautical Engineering & Information Technology - Wikipedia
Indian Institute of Aeronautical Engineering & Information Technology (IIAEIT) is an aerospace engineering college in Pune, India. It also offers mechanical engineering and other technology related courses. It is known for its full - time face to face B. Tech Aerospace Engineering course (BTAE) which is jointly launched by (sandip university) (SUN) and Aeronautical Engineering and Research Organisation (AERO).
It is a frontline training institute in the engineering disciplines, especially in the field of aeronautics. With a first rated faculty, backed by fully furnished laboratories, the institute is considered as the one of the best in Pune, India.
IIAEIT has established itself into a chief forefront Institution with excellent infrastructure over the last twelve years. Apart from training students for the professional industries, the institution also prepares Aerospace students to master their engineering.
Aeronautical Engineering and Research Organisation (AERO) is a constituent part of Shastri Group of Institutes. It popularizes education, research and development by collaborating with several Industries and educational institutions in all fields of aviation in India as well as abroad. AERO in collaboration with Sandip University, Nashik, offers B. Tech aerospace engineering course which is accomplished face - to - face, on sandip university campus.
Shastri Group of Institutes was founded in ((pune) (India)) by Anshul Sharma in the year 2001. The group originated by preparing students for the examinations conducted by professional institutes. With its front head flagship named Indian Institute for Aeronautical Engineering and Information Technology SGI is a part of PSD Shastri Educational Foundation which is engaged in several social services and objectives. It is mentored by an Advisory Board whose members are from Aviation, Services, Industries, Business and Educational fields.
B. Tech Aerospace Engineering (BTAE) is run by IIAEIT as a Program Study Center of Indira Gandhi National Open University, in face - face mode of delivery in India 's education hub, Pune. It is a four - year full - time degree course. AERO has designed this four - year full - time course and IIAEIT conducts the lectures and practicals. Some technical subjects are taught by guest lecturers from Delhi via teleconferencing facilitated by IGNOU.
The curriculum includes a total of 19 laboratory courses. A one - year project assessment in the seventh semester and eight elective courses in the final semester, industry visit in two semesters and professional training is must for all admitted students. The course offers 120 seats per centre.
Presently fresh admissions are kept on hold till further orders by the court.
The total percentage of marks are calculated for each semester by summing the products of marks obtained in each subject and its respective credits and then dividing it by the total credits.
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lyrics to i want to be free by the monkees | I Wanna Be Free (the Monkees song) - wikipedia
"I Wanna Be Free '' is a song written by Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart that was first performed by The Monkees and appeared on their debut album The Monkees in 1966. It was released as a single in some countries, reaching the Top 20 in Australia. It was also covered by The Lettermen.
Boyce and Hart wrote "I Wanna Be Free '' for the Monkees before the group was even put together. Along with "(Theme from) The Monkees '' and "Let 's Dance On, '' it was one of the first songs written for the group. It was also the only song written for the Monkees ' first album which was not written under deadline pressure. According to Allmusic critic Matthew Greenwald, the song was an attempt by Boyce and Hart to write a song like The Beatles ' "Yesterday. '' Like "Yesterday, '' the instrumentation for "I Wanna Be Free '' incorporates a string quartet. The instrumentation also incorporates acoustic guitar and harpsichord. Davy Jones sang the vocals.
A faster version of the song was recorded with Micky Dolenz sharing the vocals with Jones. This version appeared in the TV series and as a bonus track on some releases of The Monkees.
The song appeared in a number of episodes of The Monkees TV series, including the pilot episode and "Success Story. '' It was also included on the Monkees ' debut album, in part to insure that the album included a gentle ballad. Since then, it has appeared on many Monkees ' compilation albums, including Colgems ' The Monkees Greatest Hits, Barrel Full of Monkees, Arista Records ' The Monkees Greatest Hits, Rhino Records ' Greatest Hits, The Monkees Anthology and The Best of The Monkees. It also appeared on the live albums Live 1967 and Summer 1967: The Complete U.S. Concert Recordings.
Allmusic 's Matthew Greenwald calls the song a "positively beautiful and wistful statement of teenage coming of age '' and also praises its melody. Greenwald also considers the song important in helping the Monkees gain a pre-teen audience, noting that Jones ' "angst - filled '' live performances of the song were especially effective at eliciting emotional responses from the girls in the audience. Fellow Allmusic critic Tim Sendra finds the song "achingly sweet, even a little soulful in a very British way. '' CMJ New Music Monthly author Nicole Keiper referred to the song as "heavenly. '' However, Digital audio and compact disc review magazine referred to the song as an "inconsequential teeny ballad. ''
According to Boyce, "I Wanna Be Free '' was Jimmy Webb 's favorite song and even inspired the song "By the Time I Get to Phoenix, '' which Webb wrote for Glen Campbell and which became a top 10 hit on the country music charts in 1967.
"I Wanna Be Free '' was released as a single in some countries in 1967. It reached # 17 on Australia 's Go - Set chart and # 8 on Billboard Magazine 's Australian "Hits of the World '' charts. The song also reached # 7 in Singapore on Billboard 's "Hits of the World '' charts.
Jimmie Rodgers covered the song in 1968, in a recording that Billboard Magazine called "poignant ballad material... performed in first rate fashion. '' The Lettermen covered "I Wanna Be Free '' on their 1968 album Goin ' Out of My Head. Songwriters Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart covered the song themselves on their 1968 album I Wonder What She 's Doing Tonite? The Manhattan Strings recorded an instrumental version of the song in 1967. Andy Williams covered it for his 1967 LP Born Free. Ed Ames covered the song on the album "Who will Answer '' (1968) with studio vocalists and musicians.
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who does the voice of chef in south park | Chef (South Park) - wikipedia
Jerome "Chef '' McElroy is a cartoon character on the Comedy Central series South Park who was voiced by Isaac Hayes. A cafeteria worker (as his nickname implies) at the local elementary school in the town of South Park, Colorado, Chef is generally portrayed as more level - headed than the other adult residents of the town, and sympathetic to the kids. His guidance is often sought by the show 's core group of child protagonists -- Eric Cartman, Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, and Kenny McCormick -- as he is usually the only adult whom they consistently trusted. To an inadvertent fault, he frequently gives inappropriate advice, usually in the non sequitur form of a lascivious soul song.
Chef was inspired by Hayes and other popular soul singers of the 1970s, as well as an actual dining hall worker encountered by series co-creator Trey Parker while he attended the University of Colorado. Chef played a less prominent role as the series progressed beyond its earlier seasons, and the character was made retired at the beginning of the tenth season in "The Return of Chef '' following the controversial departure of Hayes.
In tradition with the show 's animation style, Chef is composed of simple geometrical shapes, and is animated with use of a computer, though he is given the impression of being a construction paper cutout composition animated through the use of stop motion, which was the technique used to animate the "Spirit of Christmas '' shorts and the show 's first episode. Chef is an overweight African American with a beard who usually wore blue pants and a red shirt. He frequently dons a traditional chef 's hat and white apron on which the word "CHEF '' is printed in black, even when he is not at work.
Until Token Black and his family were given a more notable role starting in the show 's fourth season, Chef was portrayed as the only black resident in all of South Park. Parker and co-creator Matt Stone initially planned to have one of themselves voice the character, fearing that their ideal candidates of Hayes, Lou Rawls, and Barry White would never agree to voice the character because the duo had admittedly and purposefully created him as a "stereotype '' to reflect what they felt was the perception most inhabitants of less - diverse mountainous Colorado towns had of black people. However, Hayes agreed to voice the character due in part to the audacity of some of the show 's early scripts. Chef (usually kindheartedly, though not always) referred to most people in town with the pejorative "crackers '', including the children.
Chef, after abandoning his musical aspirations, moved to South Park with plans to open his own restaurant. Before this, he had befriended several famous recording artists in the music industry, including Elton John and Meat Loaf, helping them to launch their successful careers. Despite failing at yet another dream, Chef made his way onto the South Park City Council, representing Public Safety. In addition to dispensing advice to the children and a few of the adult townsfolk, Chef speaks out against what he feels are outrageous ideas. For example, he opposes the rampant prescription of Ritalin in the episode "Timmy 2000 '', and he objects to the town 's acceptance of Mr. Garrison committing purposefully flamboyant sadomasochistic acts in front of schoolchildren in "The Death Camp of Tolerance ''. In "Chef Goes Nanners '', he briefly converts to Islam and adopted the name "Abdul Mohammed Jabar Rauf Kareem Ali '' when he demanded that South Park change its official flag because it depicted the town 's racist past. On several other occasions, Chef helped save South Park (and in a few other instances, the entire world) from potential disasters.
Chef is also known for frequently engaging in casual sex, a habit he often expresses through song. He drives a 1980s woodie station wagon with a vanity plate that reads "LUV CHEF ''. He is often seen accompanied by numerous young women when at home or on vacation, and is even revealed to have had a one - night stand with Kathie Lee Gifford. He once resorted to male prostitution in an effort to raise money to pay legal fees, and had sex with nearly every woman in South Park before having to stop due to exhaustion. In "The Succubus '', Chef briefly becomes an office worker and took up monogamy after meeting a woman named Veronica. The two were engaged to be married until it was revealed that Veronica was actually a succubus. In the South Park video game, the children can seek Chef 's advice at one of the many buildings labelled "Chef 's Shack O ' Love '', which is implied to be a brothel, complete with a naked woman in Chef 's bed.
Chef 's parents, Nellie and Thomas McElroy, live in Scotland. The couple have made two major appearances in the episodes "The Succubus '' and "The Biggest Douche in the Universe '', and made a brief cameo in a town Christmas celebration in "Red Sleigh Down ''. They were not seen at Chef 's funeral in "The Return of Chef ''.
Chef is known to have run a quiz show called Chef 's Luv Shack, as is apparent in the video game of the same name.
Chef endearingly calls the boys "the children '' or just "children '' (even when addressing one individually), and, unless he is preoccupied with a female companion, is usually willing to assist them with whatever help they need. He is consistently the only adult in town who the boys held in high regard, and they view him as their friend. They are also visibly saddened his presence in their lives is threatened. In addition to being fans of his food (especially his trademark Salisbury steak), the boys often heartily anticipate encountering Chef when waiting in the school lunch line, so that they can explain whatever dilemma is affecting them, usually after their traditional greeting:
Chef: Hello there, children! The boys (in unison): Hey Chef! Chef: How 's it goin '? The boys (one or in unison): Bad. Chef: Why "bad ''?
The boys sometimes take it upon themselves to travel to Chef 's house individually to seek his advice on all manners of their problems, specifically relationships. He usually gives advice in the form of a soul song, which usually winds up being about sex, whether or not sex was relevant to the topic at hand. Hearing the songs would often leave the boys even more confused and with no further understanding of what they initially inquire about. In earlier seasons, Chef is often approached by the children when they are unfamiliar with a term that pertains to adult matters, such as "lesbian '' or "prostitute ''. This happens so often that it eventually aggravates Chef, who pleads with them to stop asking questions he feels are not appropriate for him to answer. Despite this, the children continue asking these questions, much to his chagrin. An absent - minded Chef sometimes answers anyway, not realizing his lapse until the damage had been done. Chef acknowledges that doing this had repeatedly gotten him in trouble with his boss, Principal Victoria.
In addition to singing in an effort to explain something to the children, Chef also sings about things relevant to what has transpired in the plot. These songs were original compositions written by Parker, and performed by Hayes in the same sexually suggestive R&B style he had utilized during his own music career. Within the show, Chef is the original composer of these songs, including "Stinky Britches '', which was depicted as having been covered by Alanis Morissette without proper credit to Chef. When Chef is left with legal debt after losing a court case to have himself credited as the song 's original writer, several bands and artists (guest starring as themselves) hold a concert dubbed "Chef Aid '', a parody of Live Aid, to raise the funds. The episode inspired a real - life album, Chef Aid: The South Park Album, released in 1998, which featured guest stars from the episode such as Elton John and Ozzy Osbourne. The album includes many of the full - length versions of the songs Chef had performed in the show 's first two seasons; "Chocolate Salty Balls '' was released as a single, and reached # 1 in both the record charts of Ireland and the United Kingdom. As the series progressed and Chef 's role became more intermittent, his spontaneous outbursts into song became less of a show standard.
Parker and Stone originally planned to have Chef sing a song in every single episode but abandoned the idea after finding it too challenging and fearing writing too many songs would make them less funny, similar to their rationale for dispensing with Kenny 's episodic deaths.
On January 4, 2006, Hayes defended South Park 's style of controversial humor to The A.V. Club and XM 's Opie and Anthony show, going so far as to note that although he was not pleased with the show 's depiction of the Church of Scientology, of which he was a member, he "understood what Matt and Trey are doing. '' However, on March 13, 2006, nearly two months after suffering a stroke, Hayes was reported to have quit South Park over objections to the show 's attitudes toward and depiction of various religions, claiming that the show had crossed the line from satire into intolerance.
Despite the content of the official press release, there remains considerable speculation about the motivations behind his departure. Parker and Stone assert that he quit due to the controversial episode "Trapped in the Closet '', and its treatment of Scientology. Stone commented in a manner that suggested that Hayes practiced a double standard regarding the treatment of religion on South Park: "(We) never heard a peep out of Isaac in any way until we (lampooned) Scientology. He wants a different standard for religions other than his own, and to me, that is where intolerance and bigotry begin. '' Fox News reporter Roger Friedman suggested that, because he was still suffering from the effects of his stroke, Hayes was hospitalized and not in a position to make a rational decision to leave the show. Friedman also reported that Hayes left the show because of the external pressure forced by his fellow Scientologists, the decision was not voluntary, and the original press release announcing his departure was put out by someone who was not authorized to represent him. In a 2016 oral history of South Park in The Hollywood Reporter, Isaac Hayes III confirmed that the decision to leave the show was made by Hayes ' entourage while Hayes was unable to make such decisions on his own.
Nine days after Hayes 's departure from production, the controversy was satirized in the show 's Season 10 premiere "The Return of Chef ''. For the episode, voice clips of Chef were taken from previous episodes and linked together to form new dialogue to support the plot, which involves Chef 's leaving South Park to join the "Super Adventure Club '', which eventually brainwashes Chef until he had the mindset of a child molester. The organization combines outdoor activities with child molestation, an act they perceive as justified because of their beliefs.
After the boys are unable to convince Chef to come back to South Park, a rope bridge Chef is walking across is struck by lightning. He falls to a violent death, culminating with his mutilation at the hands of a grizzly bear and a cougar and finally discharged fecal matter (a reference to the episode "Something Wall - Mart This Way Comes '', in which Cartman claims that the relaxation of the bowel muscles confirms that a person is really dead).
South Park holds a memorial service for him (Canadian comedians Terrance and Phillip even attend, despite having never met the man themselves), in which Kyle gives a eulogy stating, "We should n't be mad at Chef for leaving us, we should be mad at that fruity little club for scrambling his brains '', a deliberate parallel with Hayes ' departure from the show in favor of Scientology.
Mimicking a scene from the finale of Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith, Chef 's body is secretly collected by the Super Adventure Club, who managed to revive him as a cyborg -- identified on the show 's official website as "Darth Chef '' (a parody of Star Wars ' Darth Vader). He is fitted with a suit and mask like those of Vader, except with the helmet taking on the appearance of Chef 's trademark hat, and wields a red, glowing spatula, parodying Vader 's red lightsaber. Darth Chef 's voice was provided by British comedian and filmmaker Peter Serafinowicz, who voiced Darth Maul in Star Wars: Episode I -- The Phantom Menace. Darth Chef has not made an appearance in subsequent episodes, but has appeared with other characters in the background of the South Park opening sequence, and is mentioned in the episode "Stunning and Brave '', when PC Principal says the kids drove him to kill himself, which is not true.
Chef is alluded to after his death in the season 10 episode "Hell on Earth 2006 '' where, during Satan 's party, there are multiple scenes in which a Caucasian male dressed as Chef can be seen in the background. He is also referenced in the season 14 episode "Crème Fraiche '' when Randy becomes the new chef at school and greets the kids with Chef 's trademark lines. Isaac Hayes himself died on August 10, 2008, two years after his departure from South Park.
Chef makes an appearance in the 2014 video game South Park: The Stick of Truth as the reanimated Nazi Zombie penultimate boss later in the game. Once again, voice clips of Isaac Hayes as Chef are recycled from past episodes with the exception of recorded speech clips from Adolf Hitler. During his battle with the player and the other boys, Chef will express remorse by saying things like "I 'm sorry, boys '' and "what have I done? '' While there were vague references to the Super Adventure Club and his death, there were no references to the Darth Chef suit.
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what is the average major league baseball batting average | Batting average - wikipedia
Batting average is a statistic in cricket, baseball, and softball that measures the performance of batsmen in cricket and batters in baseball and softball. The development of the baseball statistic was influenced by the cricket statistic.
In cricket, a player 's batting average is the total number of runs that they have scored divided by the number of times they have been out. Since the number of runs a player scores and how often they get out are primarily measures of their own playing ability, and largely independent of their teammates, batting average is a good metric for an individual player 's skill as a batter. The number is also simple to interpret intuitively. If all the batter 's innings were completed (i.e. they were out every innings), this is the average number of runs they score per innings. If they did not complete all their innings (i.e. some innings they finished not out), this number is an estimate of the unknown average number of runs they score per innings. Batting average has been used to gauge cricket players ' relative skills since the 18th century.
Most players have career batting averages in the range of 20 to 40. This is also the desirable range for wicket - keepers, though some fall short and make up for it with keeping skill. Until a substantial increase in scores in the 21st century due to improved bats and smaller grounds among other factors, players who sustained an average above 50 through a career were considered exceptional, and before the development of the heavy roller in the 1870s (which allowed for a flatter, safer cricket pitch) an average of 25 was considered very good.
Career records for batting average are usually subject to a minimum qualification of 20 innings played or completed, in order to exclude batsmen who have not played enough games for their skill to be reliably assessed. Under this qualification, the highest Test batting average belongs to Australia 's Sir Donald Bradman, with 99.94. Given that a career batting average over 50 is exceptional, and that only five other players have averages over 60, this is an outstanding statistic. The fact that Bradman 's average is so far above that of any other cricketer has led several statisticians to argue that, statistically at least, he was the greatest athlete in any sport.
Disregarding this 20 innings qualification, the highest career test batting average is 112, by Andy Ganteaume, a Trinidadian Keeper - batsman, who was dismissed for 112 in his only test innings.
Batting averages in One Day International (ODI) cricket tend to be lower than in Test cricket, because of the need to score runs more quickly and take riskier strokes and the lesser emphasis on building a large innings. It should also be remembered, especially in relation to the ODI histogram above, that there were no ODI competitions when Bradman played.
If a batter has been dismissed in every single innings, then their total number of runs scored divided by the number of times they have been out gives exactly the average number of runs they score per innings. However, for a batter with innings which have finished not out, this statistic is only an estimate of the average number of runs they score per innings -- the true average number of runs they score per innings is unknown as it is not known how many runs they would have scored if they could have completed all their not out innings. If their scores have a geometric distribution then total number of runs scored divided by the number of times out is the maximum likelihood estimate of their true unknown average.
Batting averages can be strongly affected by the number of not outs. For example, Phil Tufnell, who was noted for his poor batting, has an apparently respectable ODI average of 15 (from 20 games), despite a highest score of only 5 not out, as he scored an overall total of 15 runs from 10 innings, but was out only once.
A different, and more recently developed, statistic which is also used to gauge the effectiveness of batsmen is the strike rate. It measures a different concept however -- how quickly the batter scores (number of runs from 100 balls) -- so it does not supplant the role of batting average. It is used particularly in limited overs matches, where the speed at which a batter scores is more important than it is in first - class cricket.
(Source: Cricinfo Statsguru)
Table shows players with at least 20 innings completed.
* denotes not out.
In baseball, the batting average (BA) is defined by the number of hits divided by at bats. It is usually reported to three decimal places and read without the decimal: A player with a batting average of. 300 is "batting three - hundred. '' If necessary to break ties, batting averages could be taken beyond the. 001 measurement. In this context, a. 001 is considered a "point, '' such that a. 235 batter is 5 points higher than a. 230 batter.
Henry Chadwick, an English statistician raised on cricket, was an influential figure in the early history of baseball. In the late 19th century he adapted the concept behind the cricket batting average to devise a similar statistic for baseball. Rather than simply copy cricket 's formulation of runs scored divided by outs, he realized that hits divided by at bats would provide a better measure of individual batting ability. This is because while in cricket, scoring runs is almost entirely dependent on one 's own batting skill, in baseball it is largely dependent on having other good hitters on one 's team. Chadwick noted that hits are independent of teammates ' skills, so used this as the basis for the baseball batting average. His reason for using at bats rather than outs is less obvious, but it leads to the intuitive idea of the batting average being a percentage reflecting how often a batter gets on base, whereas in contrary, hits divided by outs is not as simple to interpret in real terms.
In modern times, a season batting average higher than. 300 is considered to be excellent, and an average higher than. 400 a nearly unachievable goal. The last player to do so, with enough plate appearances to qualify for the batting championship, was Ted Williams of the Boston Red Sox, who hit. 406 in 1941, though the best modern players either threaten to or actually do achieve it occasionally, if only for brief periods of time. There have been numerous attempts to explain the disappearance of the. 400 hitter, with one of the more rigorous discussions of this question appearing in Stephen Jay Gould 's 1996 book Full House.
Ty Cobb holds the record for highest career batting average with. 366, 9 points higher than Rogers Hornsby who has the second highest average in history at. 358. The record for lowest career batting average for a player with more than 2,500 at - bats belongs to Bill Bergen, a catcher who played from 1901 to 1911 and recorded a. 170 average in 3,028 career at - bats. The modern - era record for highest batting average for a season is held by Napoleon Lajoie, who hit. 426 in 1901, the first year of play for the American League. The modern - era record for lowest batting average for a player that qualified for the batting title is held by Rob Deer, who hit. 179 in 1991. While finishing six plate appearances short of qualifying for the batting title, Adam Dunn of the Chicago White Sox hit. 159 for the 2011 season, twenty points (and 11.2 %) lower than the record. The highest batting average for a rookie was. 408 in 1911 by Shoeless Joe Jackson.
For non-pitchers, a batting average below. 230 is often considered poor, and one below. 200 is usually unacceptable. This latter level is sometimes referred to as "The Mendoza Line '', named for Mario Mendoza (a lifetime. 215 hitter), a stellar defensive shortstop whose defensive capabilities just barely made up for his offensive shortcomings. The league batting average in Major League Baseball for 2016 was. 255, and the all - time league average is between. 260 and. 275.
In rare instances, MLB players have concluded their careers with a perfect batting average of 1.000. John Paciorek had three hits in all three of his turns at bat. Esteban Yan went two - for - two, including a home run. Hal Deviney 's two hits in his only plate appearances included a triple, while Steve Biras, Mike Hopkins, Chet Kehn, Jason Roach and Fred Schemanske also went two - for - two. A few dozen others have hit safely in their one and only career at - bat.
Sabermetrics, the study of baseball statistics, considers batting average a weak measure of performance because it does not correlate as well as other measures to runs scored, thereby causing it to have little predictive value. Batting average does not take into account walks or power, whereas other statistics such as on - base percentage and slugging percentage have been specifically designed to measure such concepts. Adding these statistics together form a player 's On - base plus slugging or "OPS ''. This is commonly seen as a much better, though not perfect, indicator of a player 's overall batting ability as it is a measure of hitting for average, hitting for power and drawing bases on balls.
In 1887, Major League Baseball counted bases on balls as hits. The result of this was skyrocketed batting averages, including some near. 500, and the experiment was abandoned the following season.
The Major League Baseball batting averages championships (often referred to as "the batting title '') is awarded annually to the player in each league who has the highest batting average. Ty Cobb holds the MLB (and American League) record for most batting titles, officially winning 11 in his pro career. The National League record of 8 batting titles is shared by Honus Wagner and Tony Gwynn. Most of Cobb 's career and all of Wagner 's career took place in what is known as the Dead - Ball Era, which was characterized by higher batting averages and much less power, whereas Gwynn 's career took place in the Live - Ball Era.
To determine which players are eligible to win the batting title, the following conditions have been used over the sport 's history:
From 1967 to the present, if the player with the highest average in a league fails to meet the minimum plate - appearance requirement, the remaining at - bats until qualification (e.g., 5 ABs, if the player finished the season with 497 plate appearances) are hypothetically considered hitless at - bats; if his recalculated batting average still tops the league, he is awarded the title. This is officially called Rule 10.22 (a), but it is also known as the Tony Gwynn rule because the Padres ' legend won the batting crown in 1996 with a. 353 average on just 498 plate appearances (i.e., was four shy). Gwynn was awarded the title since he would have led the league even if he 'd gone 0 - for - 4 in those missing plate appearances. His average would have dropped to. 349, five points better than second - place Ellis Burks '. 344. In 2012, a one - time amendment to the rule was made to disqualify Melky Cabrera from the title. Cabrera requested that he be disqualified after serving a suspension that season for a positive testosterone test. He had batted. 346 with 501 plate appearances, and the original rule would have awarded him the title over San Francisco Giants teammate Buster Posey, who won batting. 336.
Note: Batting averages are normally rounded to 3 decimal places. Extra detail here is used for tie - breaker.
Following from usage in cricket and baseball, batting average has come to be used for other statistical measures of performance and in the general usage on how a person did in a wide variety of actions.
An example is the Internet Archive, which uses the term in ranking downloads. Its "batting average '' indicates the correlation between views of a description page of a downloadable item, and the number of actual downloads of the item. This avoids the effect of popular downloads by volume swamping potentially more focused and useful downloads, producing an arguably more useful ranking.
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who won the 2017 mayoral election in nyc | New York City mayoral election, 2017 - wikipedia
De Blasio
Malliotakis
Bill de Blasio Democratic
Bill de Blasio Democratic
An election for Mayor of New York City was held on November 7, 2017. Bill de Blasio, the incumbent mayor, won re-election to a second term.
Bill de Blasio was elected Mayor of New York City in 2013, with his term beginning January 1, 2014. De Blasio declared his intention to seek re-election to Democratic nomination again in April 2015.
As per Jerry Skurnik 's blog, the following Democrats and Republicans have filed their petitions to have their names on the ballot during the primary elections. They are as follows: Democrats - Bill De Blasio, Sal Albanese, Robert Gangi, Richard Bashner and Michael Tolkin; Republicans - Nicole Malliotakis, Rocky De La Fuente and Walter Iwachiw.
On May 9, 2017, the Libertarian Party nominated Aaron Commey as its mayoral candidate. This is Commey 's first run for political office.
On August 1, 2017, the City Board of Elections determined in a hearing that Rocky De La Fuente did not receive enough petition signatures to qualify for the primary Republican ballot in September. With the disqualification of Rocky De La Fuente on the primary ballot and the remaining Republican candidate, Walter Iwachiw, not reporting any fundraising for this election, Nicole Malliotakis is the remaining candidate that will secure the Republican nominee for NYC Mayor.
There were two Democratic primary debates to determine who would be the Democratic nominee for NYC Mayor. The candidates were incumbent Mayor, Bill De Blasio and former NYC Council Member, Sal Albanese. Both candidates had democratic primaries on August 23rd and on September 6th.
The first general election debate was held on October 10th featuring Democratic nominee and incumbent NYC Mayor, Bill De Blasio, Republican challenger, Nicole Malliotakis, and Independent candidate, Bo Dietl. The second general election debate was held on November 1st.
Besides the Democratic and Republican parties, the Conservative, Green, Working Families, Independence, Reform, and Women 's Equality parties are qualified New York parties. These parties have automatic ballot access.
For this election, once Paul Massey dropped out of NYC Mayoral race, the Independence Party failed to submit another entry for the election day ballot. There was no independence party line in this general election. Any candidate not among the eight qualified New York parties must petition their way onto the ballot; they do not face primary elections.
Albanese was nominated by the Reform Party Committee. On September 12, 2017, an Opportunity to Ballot was held to see if Albanese would retain the party 's nomination. Bo Dietl, running as an independent, and Nicole Malliotakis, the Republican nominee, each attempted to the secure the party line. Albanese won the race by receiving approximately 57 percent of the vote, defeating the write in campaigns.
Hypothetical polling
A total of 5,343 write - in votes were also certified by the Board of Elections. These included 982 votes for former Mayors Michael Bloomberg, 12 for Rudolph Giuliani, 9 for Fiorello La Guardia (deceased), 3 for David Dinkins, and one each for John Lindsay, Abraham Beame, and Ed Koch (the latter three deceased), and 857 that could not be attributed to anybody or counted.
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an antibaryon composed of two anti up quarks and one antidown quark | Quark - wikipedia
A quark (/ kwɔːrk, kwɑːrk /) is a type of elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei. Due to a phenomenon known as color confinement, quarks are never directly observed or found in isolation; they can be found only within hadrons, which exist as either baryons (which include protons and neutrons) or as mesons. For this reason, much of what is known about quarks has been drawn from observations of hadrons.
Quarks have various intrinsic properties, including electric charge, mass, color charge, and spin. They are the only elementary particles in the Standard Model of particle physics to experience all four fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces (electromagnetism, gravitation, strong interaction, and weak interaction), as well as the only known particles whose electric charges are not integer multiples of the elementary charge.
There are six types, known as flavors, of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. Up and down quarks have the lowest masses of all quarks. The heavier quarks rapidly change into up and down quarks through a process of particle decay: the transformation from a higher mass state to a lower mass state. Because of this, up and down quarks are generally stable and the most common in the universe, whereas strange, charm, bottom, and top quarks can only be produced in high energy collisions (such as those involving cosmic rays and in particle accelerators). For every quark flavor there is a corresponding type of antiparticle, known as an antiquark, that differs from the quark only in that some of its properties have equal magnitude but opposite sign.
The quark model was independently proposed by physicists Murray Gell - Mann and George Zweig in 1964. Quarks were introduced as parts of an ordering scheme for hadrons, and there was little evidence for their physical existence until deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in 1968. Accelerator experiments have provided evidence for all six flavors. The top quark, first observed at Fermilab in 1995, was the last to be discovered.
The Standard Model is the theoretical framework describing all the currently known elementary particles. This model contains six flavors of quarks (q), named up (u), down (d), strange (s), charm (), bottom (), and top (). Antiparticles of quarks are called antiquarks, and are denoted by a bar over the symbol for the corresponding quark, such as u for an up antiquark. As with antimatter in general, antiquarks have the same mass, mean lifetime, and spin as their respective quarks, but the electric charge and other charges have the opposite sign.
Quarks are spin - ⁄ particles, implying that they are fermions according to the spin -- statistics theorem. They are subject to the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that no two identical fermions can simultaneously occupy the same quantum state. This is in contrast to bosons (particles with integer spin), of which any number can be in the same state. Unlike leptons, quarks possess color charge, which causes them to engage in the strong interaction. The resulting attraction between different quarks causes the formation of composite particles known as hadrons (see "Strong interaction and color charge '' below).
The quarks that determine the quantum numbers of hadrons are called valence quarks; apart from these, any hadron may contain an indefinite number of virtual "sea '' quarks, antiquarks, and gluons, which do not influence its quantum numbers. There are two families of hadrons: baryons, with three valence quarks, and mesons, with a valence quark and an antiquark. The most common baryons are the proton and the neutron, the building blocks of the atomic nucleus. A great number of hadrons are known (see list of baryons and list of mesons), most of them differentiated by their quark content and the properties these constituent quarks confer. The existence of "exotic '' hadrons with more valence quarks, such as tetraquarks (q q q q) and pentaquarks (q q q q q), were conjectured from the beginnings of the quark model but not discovered until the early 21st century.
Elementary fermions are grouped into three generations, each comprising two leptons and two quarks. The first generation includes up and down quarks, the second strange and charm quarks, and the third bottom and top quarks. All searches for a fourth generation of quarks and other elementary fermions have failed, and there is strong indirect evidence that no more than three generations exist. Particles in higher generations generally have greater mass and less stability, causing them to decay into lower - generation particles by means of weak interactions. Only first - generation (up and down) quarks occur commonly in nature. Heavier quarks can only be created in high - energy collisions (such as in those involving cosmic rays), and decay quickly; however, they are thought to have been present during the first fractions of a second after the Big Bang, when the universe was in an extremely hot and dense phase (the quark epoch). Studies of heavier quarks are conducted in artificially created conditions, such as in particle accelerators.
Having electric charge, mass, color charge, and flavor, quarks are the only known elementary particles that engage in all four fundamental interactions of contemporary physics: electromagnetism, gravitation, strong interaction, and weak interaction. Gravitation is too weak to be relevant to individual particle interactions except at extremes of energy (Planck energy) and distance scales (Planck distance). However, since no successful quantum theory of gravity exists, gravitation is not described by the Standard Model.
See the table of properties below for a more complete overview of the six quark flavors ' properties.
The quark model was independently proposed by physicists Murray Gell - Mann and George Zweig in 1964. The proposal came shortly after Gell - Mann 's 1961 formulation of a particle classification system known as the Eightfold Way -- or, in more technical terms, SU (3) flavor symmetry, streamlining its structure. Physicist Yuval Ne'eman had independently developed a scheme similar to the Eightfold Way in the same year. An early attempt at constituent organization was available in the Sakata model.
At the time of the quark theory 's inception, the "particle zoo '' included, amongst other particles, a multitude of hadrons. Gell - Mann and Zweig posited that they were not elementary particles, but were instead composed of combinations of quarks and antiquarks. Their model involved three flavors of quarks, up, down, and strange, to which they ascribed properties such as spin and electric charge. The initial reaction of the physics community to the proposal was mixed. There was particular contention about whether the quark was a physical entity or a mere abstraction used to explain concepts that were not fully understood at the time.
In less than a year, extensions to the Gell - Mann -- Zweig model were proposed. Sheldon Lee Glashow and James Bjorken predicted the existence of a fourth flavor of quark, which they called charm. The addition was proposed because it allowed for a better description of the weak interaction (the mechanism that allows quarks to decay), equalized the number of known quarks with the number of known leptons, and implied a mass formula that correctly reproduced the masses of the known mesons.
In 1968, deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) showed that the proton contained much smaller, point - like objects and was therefore not an elementary particle. Physicists were reluctant to firmly identify these objects with quarks at the time, instead calling them "partons '' -- a term coined by Richard Feynman. The objects that were observed at SLAC would later be identified as up and down quarks as the other flavors were discovered. Nevertheless, "parton '' remains in use as a collective term for the constituents of hadrons (quarks, antiquarks, and gluons).
The strange quark 's existence was indirectly validated by SLAC 's scattering experiments: not only was it a necessary component of Gell - Mann and Zweig 's three - quark model, but it provided an explanation for the kaon () and pion (π) hadrons discovered in cosmic rays in 1947.
In a 1970 paper, Glashow, John Iliopoulos and Luciano Maiani presented the so - called GIM mechanism to explain the experimental non-observation of flavor - changing neutral currents. This theoretical model required the existence of the as - yet undiscovered charm quark. The number of supposed quark flavors grew to the current six in 1973, when Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa noted that the experimental observation of CP violation could be explained if there were another pair of quarks.
Charm quarks were produced almost simultaneously by two teams in November 1974 (see November Revolution) -- one at SLAC under Burton Richter, and one at Brookhaven National Laboratory under Samuel Ting. The charm quarks were observed bound with charm antiquarks in mesons. The two parties had assigned the discovered meson two different symbols, J and ψ; thus, it became formally known as the J / ψ meson. The discovery finally convinced the physics community of the quark model 's validity.
In the following years a number of suggestions appeared for extending the quark model to six quarks. Of these, the 1975 paper by Haim Harari was the first to coin the terms top and bottom for the additional quarks.
In 1977, the bottom quark was observed by a team at Fermilab led by Leon Lederman. This was a strong indicator of the top quark 's existence: without the top quark, the bottom quark would have been without a partner. However, it was not until 1995 that the top quark was finally observed, also by the CDF and DØ teams at Fermilab. It had a mass much larger than had been previously expected, almost as large as that of a gold atom.
For some time, Gell - Mann was undecided on an actual spelling for the term he intended to coin, until he found the word quark in James Joyce 's book Finnegans Wake:
-- Three quarks for Muster Mark! Sure he has n't got much of a bark And sure any he has it 's all beside the mark.
The word quark itself is of German origin and denotes a dairy product, but is also a colloquial term for '' rubbish ''. Gell - Mann went into further detail regarding the name of the quark in his book The Quark and the Jaguar:
In 1963, when I assigned the name "quark '' to the fundamental constituents of the nucleon, I had the sound first, without the spelling, which could have been "kwork ''. Then, in one of my occasional perusals of Finnegans Wake, by James Joyce, I came across the word "quark '' in the phrase "Three quarks for Muster Mark ''. Since "quark '' (meaning, for one thing, the cry of the gull) was clearly intended to rhyme with "Mark '', as well as "bark '' and other such words, I had to find an excuse to pronounce it as "kwork ''. But the book represents the dream of a publican named Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker. Words in the text are typically drawn from several sources at once, like the "portmanteau '' words in Through the Looking - Glass. From time to time, phrases occur in the book that are partially determined by calls for drinks at the bar. I argued, therefore, that perhaps one of the multiple sources of the cry "Three quarks for Muster Mark '' might be "Three quarts for Mister Mark '', in which case the pronunciation "kwork '' would not be totally unjustified. In any case, the number three fitted perfectly the way quarks occur in nature.
Zweig preferred the name ace for the particle he had theorized, but Gell - Mann 's terminology came to prominence once the quark model had been commonly accepted.
The quark flavors were given their names for several reasons. The up and down quarks are named after the up and down components of isospin, which they carry. Strange quarks were given their name because they were discovered to be components of the strange particles discovered in cosmic rays years before the quark model was proposed; these particles were deemed "strange '' because they had unusually long lifetimes. Glashow, who co-proposed charm quark with Bjorken, is quoted as saying, "We called our construct the ' charmed quark ', for we were fascinated and pleased by the symmetry it brought to the subnuclear world. '' The names "bottom '' and "top '', coined by Harari, were chosen because they are "logical partners for up and down quarks ''. In the past, bottom and top quarks were sometimes referred to as "beauty '' and "truth '' respectively, but these names have somewhat fallen out of use. While "truth '' never did catch on, accelerator complexes devoted to massive production of bottom quarks are sometimes called "beauty factories ''.
Quarks have fractional electric charge values -- either (− ⁄) or (+ ⁄) times the elementary charge (e), depending on flavor. Up, charm, and top quarks (collectively referred to as up - type quarks) have a charge of + ⁄ e, while down, strange, and bottom quarks (down - type quarks) have − ⁄ e. Antiquarks have the opposite charge to their corresponding quarks; up - type antiquarks have charges of − ⁄ e and down - type antiquarks have charges of + ⁄ e. Since the electric charge of a hadron is the sum of the charges of the constituent quarks, all hadrons have integer charges: the combination of three quarks (baryons), three antiquarks (antibaryons), or a quark and an antiquark (mesons) always results in integer charges. For example, the hadron constituents of atomic nuclei, neutrons and protons, have charges of 0 e and + 1 e respectively; the neutron is composed of two down quarks and one up quark, and the proton of two up quarks and one down quark.
Spin is an intrinsic property of elementary particles, and its direction is an important degree of freedom. It is sometimes visualized as the rotation of an object around its own axis (hence the name "spin ''), though this notion is somewhat misguided at subatomic scales because elementary particles are believed to be point - like.
Spin can be represented by a vector whose length is measured in units of the reduced Planck constant ħ (pronounced "h bar ''). For quarks, a measurement of the spin vector component along any axis can only yield the values + ħ / 2 or − ħ / 2; for this reason quarks are classified as spin - ⁄ particles. The component of spin along a given axis -- by convention the z axis -- is often denoted by an up arrow ↑ for the value + ⁄ and down arrow ↓ for the value − ⁄, placed after the symbol for flavor. For example, an up quark with a spin of + ⁄ along the z axis is denoted by u ↑.
A quark of one flavor can transform into a quark of another flavor only through the weak interaction, one of the four fundamental interactions in particle physics. By absorbing or emitting a W boson, any up - type quark (up, charm, and top quarks) can change into any down - type quark (down, strange, and bottom quarks) and vice versa. This flavor transformation mechanism causes the radioactive process of beta decay, in which a neutron (n) "splits '' into a proton (p), an electron () and an electron antineutrino (ν) (see picture). This occurs when one of the down quarks in the neutron (u d d) decays into an up quark by emitting a virtual boson, transforming the neutron into a proton (u u d). The boson then decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino.
Both beta decay and the inverse process of inverse beta decay are routinely used in medical applications such as positron emission tomography (PET) and in experiments involving neutrino detection.
While the process of flavor transformation is the same for all quarks, each quark has a preference to transform into the quark of its own generation. The relative tendencies of all flavor transformations are described by a mathematical table, called the Cabibbo -- Kobayashi -- Maskawa matrix (CKM matrix). Enforcing unitarity, the approximate magnitudes of the entries of the CKM matrix are:
where V represents the tendency of a quark of flavor i to change into a quark of flavor j (or vice versa).
There exists an equivalent weak interaction matrix for leptons (right side of the W boson on the above beta decay diagram), called the Pontecorvo -- Maki -- Nakagawa -- Sakata matrix (PMNS matrix). Together, the CKM and PMNS matrices describe all flavor transformations, but the links between the two are not yet clear.
According to quantum chromodynamics (QCD), quarks possess a property called color charge. There are three types of color charge, arbitrarily labeled blue, green, and red. Each of them is complemented by an anticolor -- antiblue, antigreen, and antired. Every quark carries a color, while every antiquark carries an anticolor.
The system of attraction and repulsion between quarks charged with different combinations of the three colors is called strong interaction, which is mediated by force carrying particles known as gluons; this is discussed at length below. The theory that describes strong interactions is called quantum chromodynamics (QCD). A quark, which will have a single color value, can form a bound system with an antiquark carrying the corresponding anticolor. The result of two attracting quarks will be color neutrality: a quark with color charge ξ plus an antiquark with color charge − ξ will result in a color charge of 0 (or "white '' color) and the formation of a meson. This is analogous to the additive color model in basic optics. Similarly, the combination of three quarks, each with different color charges, or three antiquarks, each with anticolor charges, will result in the same "white '' color charge and the formation of a baryon or antibaryon.
In modern particle physics, gauge symmetries -- a kind of symmetry group -- relate interactions between particles (see gauge theories). Color SU (3) (commonly abbreviated to SU (3)) is the gauge symmetry that relates the color charge in quarks and is the defining symmetry for quantum chromodynamics. Just as the laws of physics are independent of which directions in space are designated x, y, and z, and remain unchanged if the coordinate axes are rotated to a new orientation, the physics of quantum chromodynamics is independent of which directions in three - dimensional color space are identified as blue, red, and green. SU (3) color transformations correspond to "rotations '' in color space (which, mathematically speaking, is a complex space). Every quark flavor f, each with subtypes f, f, f corresponding to the quark colors, forms a triplet: a three - component quantum field which transforms under the fundamental representation of SU (3). The requirement that SU (3) should be local -- that is, that its transformations be allowed to vary with space and time -- determines the properties of the strong interaction. In particular, it implies the existence of eight gluon types to act as its force carriers.
Two terms are used in referring to a quark 's mass: current quark mass refers to the mass of a quark by itself, while constituent quark mass refers to the current quark mass plus the mass of the gluon particle field surrounding the quark. These masses typically have very different values. Most of a hadron 's mass comes from the gluons that bind the constituent quarks together, rather than from the quarks themselves. While gluons are inherently massless, they possess energy -- more specifically, quantum chromodynamics binding energy (QCBE) -- and it is this that contributes so greatly to the overall mass of the hadron (see mass in special relativity). For example, a proton has a mass of approximately 938 MeV / c, of which the rest mass of its three valence quarks only contributes about 9 MeV / c; much of the remainder can be attributed to the field energy of the gluons. See Chiral symmetry breaking. The Standard Model posits that elementary particles derive their masses from the Higgs mechanism, which is associated to the Higgs boson. It is hoped that further research into the reasons for the top quark 's large mass of ~ 173 GeV / c, almost the mass of a gold atom, might reveal more about the origin of the mass of quarks and other elementary particles.
Quarks are treated as zero - dimensional point - like entities of zero size in QCD; the lack of any detectable size in experiments puts an upper bound on their size of 10 ^ - 4 the size of a proton, i.e. less than 10 ^ - 19 metres
The following table summarizes the key properties of the six quarks. Flavor quantum numbers (isospin (I), charm (C), strangeness (S, not to be confused with spin), topness (T), and bottomness (B ′)) are assigned to certain quark flavors, and denote qualities of quark - based systems and hadrons. The baryon number (B) is + ⁄ for all quarks, as baryons are made of three quarks. For antiquarks, the electric charge (Q) and all flavor quantum numbers (B, I, C, S, T, and B ′) are of opposite sign. Mass and total angular momentum (J; equal to spin for point particles) do not change sign for the antiquarks.
As described by quantum chromodynamics, the strong interaction between quarks is mediated by gluons, massless vector gauge bosons. Each gluon carries one color charge and one anticolor charge. In the standard framework of particle interactions (part of a more general formulation known as perturbation theory), gluons are constantly exchanged between quarks through a virtual emission and absorption process. When a gluon is transferred between quarks, a color change occurs in both; for example, if a red quark emits a red -- antigreen gluon, it becomes green, and if a green quark absorbs a red -- antigreen gluon, it becomes red. Therefore, while each quark 's color constantly changes, their strong interaction is preserved.
Since gluons carry color charge, they themselves are able to emit and absorb other gluons. This causes asymptotic freedom: as quarks come closer to each other, the chromodynamic binding force between them weakens. Conversely, as the distance between quarks increases, the binding force strengthens. The color field becomes stressed, much as an elastic band is stressed when stretched, and more gluons of appropriate color are spontaneously created to strengthen the field. Above a certain energy threshold, pairs of quarks and antiquarks are created. These pairs bind with the quarks being separated, causing new hadrons to form. This phenomenon is known as color confinement: quarks never appear in isolation. This process of hadronization occurs before quarks, formed in a high energy collision, are able to interact in any other way. The only exception is the top quark, which may decay before it hadronizes.
Hadrons contain, along with the valence quarks (q) that contribute to their quantum numbers, virtual quark -- antiquark (q q) pairs known as sea quarks (q). Sea quarks form when a gluon of the hadron 's color field splits; this process also works in reverse in that the annihilation of two sea quarks produces a gluon. The result is a constant flux of gluon splits and creations colloquially known as "the sea ''. Sea quarks are much less stable than their valence counterparts, and they typically annihilate each other within the interior of the hadron. Despite this, sea quarks can hadronize into baryonic or mesonic particles under certain circumstances.
Under sufficiently extreme conditions, quarks may become deconfined and exist as free particles. In the course of asymptotic freedom, the strong interaction becomes weaker at higher temperatures. Eventually, color confinement would be lost and an extremely hot plasma of freely moving quarks and gluons would be formed. This theoretical phase of matter is called quark -- gluon plasma. The exact conditions needed to give rise to this state are unknown and have been the subject of a great deal of speculation and experimentation. A recent estimate puts the needed temperature at 7012190000000000000 ♠ (1.90 ± 0.02) × 10 kelvin. While a state of entirely free quarks and gluons has never been achieved (despite numerous attempts by CERN in the 1980s and 1990s), recent experiments at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider have yielded evidence for liquid - like quark matter exhibiting "nearly perfect '' fluid motion.
The quark -- gluon plasma would be characterized by a great increase in the number of heavier quark pairs in relation to the number of up and down quark pairs. It is believed that in the period prior to 10 seconds after the Big Bang (the quark epoch), the universe was filled with quark -- gluon plasma, as the temperature was too high for hadrons to be stable.
Given sufficiently high baryon densities and relatively low temperatures -- possibly comparable to those found in neutron stars -- quark matter is expected to degenerate into a Fermi liquid of weakly interacting quarks. This liquid would be characterized by a condensation of colored quark Cooper pairs, thereby breaking the local SU (3) symmetry. Because quark Cooper pairs harbor color charge, such a phase of quark matter would be color superconductive; that is, color charge would be able to pass through it with no resistance.
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what does drake sample in nice for what | Nice for What - wikipedia
"Nice for What '' is a song recorded by Canadian rapper Drake from his fifth studio album Scorpion (2018). It was released by Young Money Entertainment and Cash Money Records as the second single from the album on April 6, 2018, along with its music video. The song was produced by Murda Beatz with co-production handled by Blaqnmild, and features additional vocals by Big Freedia and 5th Ward Weebie. It debuted at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100, replacing Drake 's own "God 's Plan '' and becoming his fifth US number one. It also topped the UK Singles Chart and ARIA Singles Chart, becoming his second number - one song of 2018 in the two countries after "God 's Plan ''.
On March 14, 2018, Lauryn Hill 's son Joshua Omaru Marley posted a snippet of the song on Snapchat. Drake later confirmed an upcoming Murda Beatz - produced single during an Instagram Live session. On April 5, Drake made a surprise appearance during a Majid Jordan concert in Toronto. "The reason I 'm here tonight is because I 'm back in the city finishing my album, '' he told the audience. "I 've got a new single dropping tomorrow night, too, just in case you got some free time. ''
"Nice for What '' is an upbeat bounce song which contains elements of early 2000s R&B, with a length of three minutes thirty seconds. It samples Lauryn Hill 's song "Ex-Factor '' (1998), "Drag Rap '' by the Showboys (1986), "Get Your Roll On '' by Big Tymers (2000), and also features clips from performances by Big Freedia. Lyrically, the hook of Drake 's song samples Lauryn Hill singing about "cutting loose in the midst of a relationship ''.
Directed by Karena Evans, the accompanying music video shows women carrying out various activities, including swimming, dancing, modeling, playing with children, horse - riding, and holding a business meeting. It features guest appearances from, in order of appearance, Olivia Wilde, Misty Copeland, Issa Rae, Rashida Jones, Jourdan Dunn, Tracee Ellis Ross, Tiffany Haddish, Yara Shahidi, Zoe Saldana, Elizabeth and Victoria Lejonhjärta, Letitia Wright, Bria Vinaite, Emma Roberts, Syd, Michelle Rodriguez and Drake himself. Evans called it an honour to work on the video, writing on Instagram that it was "a privilege and a blessing to have told this story with every single one of you revolutionary women, both in front and behind the camera ''.
"Nice for What '' received positive reviews from music critics, with many praising its promotion of female empowerment. Hugh McIntyre of Forbes regarded the "perfectly - pitched '' song as "another perfect delivery from the biggest artist in hip - hop '', writing that the "vocal sample helps the track stand out from much of the rest of his discography ''. Kevin Lozano of Pitchfork awarded the song "Best New Track '', praising Drake for "smoothly handling the impeccable production from Murda Beatz '', and lauding the song as "a fantastic piece of hip - hop machinery '' and "one of Drake 's most complete releases in some time ''.
Chris DeVille of Stereogum deemed the song "a big, brash, almost obnoxiously loud New Orleans bounce - inspired production '', describing it as "extremely poppy and sounds like a bid for continued commercial dominance ''.
In the United States, Drake became the first artist to have a new number - one debut replace his former number - one debut ("God 's Plan '') at the top of the Hot 100. It debuted with 88,000 downloads sold and 60.4 million streams. "Nice for What '' became the 30th song in Billboard history to enter at number one. It also became Drake 's fifth US number - one song overall and third as a lead artist. The song also became the first song to debut on the Mainstream R&B / Hip - Hop chart in the top 10. "Nice for What '' topped the Hot 100 for four consecutive weeks before it was replaced on May 14, 2018 by Childish Gambino 's "This Is America ''. It then returned for a fifth non-consecutive week at the number one spot on the issue date June 2, 2018. On the issue dated July 14, 2018, "Nice for What '' became the first song to reach number one in four nonconsecutive runs. It has topped the Hot 100 for eight nonconsecutive weeks.
Credits adapted from Tidal and Qobuz.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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where is i'm a celebrity being filmed | I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! (UK TV series) - wikipedia
I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out Of Here! (often shortened to I 'm a Celebrity or I 'm a Celeb) is a British survival reality television game show, first aired on 25 August 2002, in which celebrities live in jungle conditions with few creature comforts. The show has been hosted by Ant & Dec since its inception and served as the inspiration for a franchise of the same name. It is filmed in Murwillumbah, New South Wales, Australia and broadcast on ITV in the United Kingdom.
In the Republic of Ireland, TV3 began simulcasts at the beginning of series 3 in 2004. The series moved to their sister channel 3e for series 12, 13 and 14. The series moved to UTV Ireland in 2015 for series 15. The show has been contracted to air until at least 2019, taking it to at least 19 series.
In return for their appearance on I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!, the celebrities are asked to nominate a charity to which the producers, ITV Studios, make donations. The celebrities themselves are also paid a fee to compensate them for possible loss of earnings while they are in the jungle. The producers of the show keep the precise details of the celebrities ' contracts private, prompting much speculation from the media. The money is raised by allowing viewers to vote by phone, text message, or the "red button '' (a colloquialism popular in the UK for TV interactive services) for the celebrity they would like to complete a "Bushtucker Trial '' -- a physical task usually involving snakes, spiders or other creepy - crawlies found in the jungle -- and, later in each series, to vote for the celebrity they would like to see win the show. The last remaining celebrity after all others have been evicted is declared the winner of the show, and is branded "King / Queen of the Jungle ''.
Bushtucker trials are used in the show to allow the contestants to gain food and treats for camp. Bushtucker Trials take two formats: eating trials, or physical / mental tasks.
In the eating trials, contestants are required to eat a variety of different "jungle '' foods. Each dish successfully eaten will gain the contestants one star, which equals one meal for camp (although the number of meals per star can vary). These trials generate the most viewer responses according to the ITV website. The foods that are required to be eaten can include: crickets (in a variety of forms, such as cooked into biscuits, blended into drinks or eaten alive or dead), green ants, mealworms, witchetty grub, roasted spider or tarantulas, kangaroo testicles, kangaroo penis, kangaroo vaginal parts, crocodile penis, cockroach (prepared in various ways such as being cooked into biscuits, blended into drinks, eaten alive or dead). Other past foods include beach worms, bull 's tongues, the anus of various animals, vomit fruits, cooked pigs ' brains, various animal testicles, raw fish eyes, sheep eyes, blended rats or mice tails.
The second type of challenge is more of a physical or mental task that requires the contestants to perform activities to gain stars. These can include searching through dung, going through tunnels, negotiating obstacles on high wires, or performing other tasks.
One way of camp can earn treats is by doing extra tasks in Bushtucker trials or in general. Dingo Dimes can be used in the vending machine in Croc Creek. Dingo Dimes only featured in the 2015 series.
Another way camp can earn treats is to do what is known as the "Dingo Dollar Challenge ''. This involves two or more celebrities going into the jungle to perform a task that releases an item to open a container with an amount of dingo dollars. Once that has been completed and the dollars have been retrieved, it is taken to a small woodshack shop, with shopkeeper ' Kiosk Keith '. They can exchange the dollars for a necessity such as a hammock or a treat such as chocolate chip cookies. Kiosk Keith calls camp and the celebrities then have a question usually relating to a celebrity or a piece of trivia. The "Celebrity Chest '' was abandoned for the first time in the 2012 series, in favour of the Dingo Dollar Challenge, which involves the celebrities collecting ' dingo dollars ' and subsequently answering a question correctly in order to win a treat for the camp, if they win they will receive their prize however if the celebrities get it wrong, Kiosk Keith takes the dingo dollars and shuts up shop, leaving nothing for the camp.
Formerly, ' The Celebrity Chest ' had a question with a choice of answers, similar to the Dingo Dollar Challenge, the two celebrities who took part in the challenge would bring the chest back to camp and collaborate over the question with the other camp members. If correct, they would win a treat, if incorrect, they would be told what the treat was.
In Dingo Dollars if the camp members answer correctly they get a choice of two treats.
The first series of the show was filmed near Cairns, in Queensland, Australia. Since the second series, the programme has been filmed in Springbrook National Park, near Murwillumbah, New South Wales, Australia.
Inside the entrance to the filming location is an open area allocated to buildings which accommodate on - site medical facilities, containers for the storage of props, and other back - stage facilities. Families and friends of the celebrities are housed here each morning during evictions. From this area, a restricted access road climbs to the site of the studios. The road then heads down into a valley via four - wheel drive access to the set of the show.
Some of these areas are viewable from Google Earth, although it is difficult to view the suspension bridges and open - air studio that Ant & Dec broadcast from. While the roof of the main building is bright red, when filming is out of season, this whole area is covered with hessian to obscure the aerial view. The creeks and camp areas are situated directly below the main suspension bridges. As they are so close to the celebrities, the crew have to be careful during filming to keep voices and music down. Many of the Bushtucker Trials are not performed here; in fact, some are performed well away from the area.
Once out of the jungle, the contestants stay at the five - star hotel Palazzo Versace Australia. The health and well - being of the celebrities and crew are looked after by medic Bob McCarron and his team from EMS. McCarron is also responsible for all of the creatures and food in the challenges.
The finals of the second and third UK series were seen by 12.73 and 14.99 million people respectively -- in both cases well over half of all people watching television in the country at the time.
The site in which the celebrities stay appears to be open to the elements, but is largely covered by sheets above the view of the cameras. In one episode, a celebrity had to swim in a swamp apparently infested with crocodiles. Marksmen were shown ready to shoot the animals if they attacked. In actuality, the area where this was filmed does not have crocodiles because it is too far south.
In Series 9 it was revealed that Katie Price was being paid almost four times as much as the other contestants, which sparked some criticism. It was also reported that, as a result, cash - strapped ITV were unable to provide any more money for the series, and that the quality of the trials had gone down.
Winners are crowned King or Queen of their respective year. To date, there have been 10 Kings and 7 Queens of the Jungle.
Key:
Sponsors in the Republic of Ireland includes holiday firm MultiTrip.com, online fashion store M and M Direct and more recently car company, Kia.
The first three series of I 'm a Celebrity occurred at various different times during the years they were broadcast. From series 4 onwards, the show is broadcast from around mid November until late November / early December.
8 contestants, 25 August -- 8 September 2002:
10 contestants, 28 April -- 12 May 2003:
10 contestants, 26 January -- 9 February 2004:
11 contestants, 21 November -- 6 December 2004:
12 contestants, 20 November -- 5 December 2005:
12 contestants, 13 November -- 1 December 2006:
11 contestants, 12 -- 30 November 2007:
Series 8: Sunday 16 November -- 5 December 2008:
Series 9: 15 November -- 4 December 2009
I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me out of Here! returned on 14 November 2010 at 9pm on ITV and ITV1 HD for its tenth series, as confirmed by presenters Ant and Dec at the end of the "Coming Out '' show at the conclusion of series 9. This is the first series in HD. Series 10 is the only series to have 2 live trials.
Series 10: 14 November -- 4 December 2010
The eleventh series began on 13 November 2011. The official line - up was confirmed on 9 November 2011.
Series 11: 13 November -- 3 December 2011
The twelfth series began on 11 November and ended on 1 December 2012. The official line - up was revealed on 7 November 2012.
Series 12: 11 November -- 1 December 2012
The thirteenth series began airing on ITV on 17 November 2013. The first advert for the series aired on 21 October 2013. The line - up was confirmed on 13 November 2013.
Series 13: 17 November 2013 -- 8 December 2013
The show returned for its fourteenth series on 16 November 2014. On 15 October 2014, a teaser for the upcoming series was released on the official website. On 11 November, the full list of celebrities was confirmed by ITV. On 20 November, a further two campmates were confirmed to have joined the show.
Series 14: 16 November 2014 -- 7 December 2014
The show returned on 15 November 2015 under a new three - year contract, as confirmed by Ant & Dec at the end of the Coming Out show on 10 December 2014.
Series 15: 15 November 2015 -- 6 December 2015
The show returned in 2016, and is the second in a three - year contract, as confirmed by Ant & Dec at the end of the Coming Out show on 9 December 2015. It began airing on 13 November 2016.
Series 16: 13 November 2016 -- 4 December 2016
The show returned in 2017, and is the third in a three - year contract, as confirmed by Ant & Dec at the end of the Coming Out show on 7 December 2016. It began airing on 19 November 2017.
Series 17: 19 November 2017 -- 10 December 2017
Note for "Average rating '': Since 2010 incl. HD viewers and since 2011 incl. "ITV + 1 '' consumers.
I 'm a Celebrity: Extra Camp (previously I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! NOW!) is a companion show, broadcast on ITV2 in the UK and on UTV Ireland in the Republic of Ireland. It features behind - the - scenes footage of I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! and shows the emotional responses of the contestants after they have been voted off.
Series 1 to 4 was filmed completely live in the UK and series 5 -- 8 were filmed mainly live in Australia with a live co-presenter in the UK. Since series 9, the show has been filmed completely live in Australia with occasional celebrity interviews based in London, shown through webcam.
In the first series, the show was presented by Irish TV presenter Louise Loughman. In series 2 -- 3, the show was presented by Mark Durden - Smith and Tara Palmer - Tomkinson. In series 4, Palmer - Tomkinson was absent and Durden - Smith was the only host. For the fifth series, Palmer - Tomkinson returned to present the show. Durden - Smith did not, as he decided to spend time with his children instead. He was replaced by Matt Brown. Palmer - Tomkinson did not return for series 6.
In series 6, Brendon Burns initially presented the show, but left after three episodes. This led to Durden - Smith returning for the rest of the series, where he presented from the UK. He was joined by new presenters Kelly Osbourne and Jeff Brazier (briefly Steve Wilson before Brazier took over), who presented from the jungle in Australia. Also this series, a 5pm teatime programme, I 'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here! Exclusive, ran each weekday on ITV. It was co-hosted by series 5 runner - up Sheree Murphy and Phillip Schofield in 2006. It did not return for a second series.
For series 7 -- 8, Matt Willis and his wife Emma took over from the previous hosts, Kelly Osbourne and Jeff Brazier, in Australia. Because they were having a child in early 2009, they did not return to present series 9. Durden - Smith also presented the show, from the UK, for the final time.
Series 9 to 10 saw new presenter Caroline Flack take over with roving reporter Joe Swash, email / people reporter Russell Kane, and a panel of celebrity pundits, which changed approximately every three to five days. For series 11, Flack left in order to present another ITV2 show, The Xtra Factor, and was replaced by Laura Whitmore. Swash and Kane both stayed on for the eleventh series.
On 16 June 2012, it was announced that Kane would not return to Get Me Out of Here! NOW!. He was replaced by stand - up comic Rob Beckett. All three presenters returned to present the thirteenth and fourteenth series of the show.
Due to tour commitments, Beckett did not return for Series 15. He was replaced by comedian David Morgan.
On 14 April 2016, Laura Whitmore stated that she would not be returning to the Jungle. On 31 May 2016 during an interview on Up Late with Rylan, Morgan confirmed that he would not be returning to the series due to other work commitments. They were replaced by Vicky Pattison, Stacey Solomon and Chris Ramsey.
On 13 April 2017, Pattison and Ramsey both stated on social media that they would not be returning to the show in 2017. It was confirmed that 2016 winner Scarlett Moffatt was announced as a new presenter in September 2017 and will join long - running presenter Joe Swash on the new series. It was also confirmed that Joel Dommett would join the presenting lineup.
Various TV presenters and comedians have hosted the show since it began in 2002, with Joe Swash having presented the most series, at nine.
Notes:
Coordinates: 28 ° 15 ′ 42.75 '' S 153 ° 21 ′ 1.79 '' E / 28.2618750 ° S 153.3504972 ° E / - 28.2618750; 153.3504972
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what does being born with an extra y chromosome mean | XYY syndrome - wikipedia
XYY syndrome is a genetic condition in which a male has an extra Y chromosome. Symptoms are usually few. They may include being taller than average, acne, and an increased risk of learning problems. The person is generally otherwise normal, including normal fertility.
The condition is generally not inherited from a person 's parents but rather occurs as a result of a random event during sperm cell development. Diagnosis is by a chromosomal analysis. There are 47 chromosomes, instead of the usual 46, giving a 47, XYY karyotype.
Treatment may include speech therapy or extra help with schoolwork. Outcomes are generally good. Prevention is not possible. The condition occurs in about 1 in 1,000 male births. Many people with the condition are unaware that they have it. The condition was first described in 1961.
People with the 47, XYY karyotype have an increased growth velocity from early childhood, with an average final height approximately 7 cm (3 ") above expected final height. In Edinburgh, Scotland, eight 47, XYY boys born 1967 -- 1972 and identified in a newborn screening programme had an average height of 188.1 cm (6'2 '') at age 18 -- their fathers ' average height was 174.1 cm (5'81⁄2 "), their mothers ' average height was 162.8 cm (5'4 ''). The increased gene dosage of three X / Y chromosome pseudoautosomal region (PAR1) SHOX genes has been postulated as a cause of the increased stature seen in all three sex chromosome trisomies: 47, XXX, 47, XXY, and 47, XYY. Severe acne was noted in a very few early case reports, but dermatologists specializing in acne now doubt the existence of a relationship with 47, XYY.
Testosterone levels (prenatally) are normal in 47, XYY males. Most 47, XYY males have normal sexual development and have normal fertility.
In contrast to the other common sex chromosome aneuploidies -- 47, XXX and 47, XXY (Klinefelter syndrome) -- the average IQ scores of 47, XYY boys identified by newborn screening programs were not reduced compared to the general population. In a summary of six prospective studies of 47, XYY boys identified by newborn screening programmes, twenty - eight 47, XYY boys had an average 100.76 verbal IQ, 108.79 performance IQ, and 105.00 full - scale IQ. In a systematic review including two prospective studies of 47, XYY boys identified by newborn screening programs and one retrospective study of 47, XYY men identified by screening men over 184 cm (6'1⁄2 ") in height, forty - two 47, XYY boys and men had an average 99.5 verbal IQ and 106.4 performance IQ.
In prospective studies of 47, XYY boys identified by newborn screening programs, the IQ scores of 47, XYY boys were usually slightly lower than those of their siblings. In Edinburgh, fifteen 47, XYY boys with siblings identified in a newborn screening program had an average 104.0 verbal IQ and 106.7 performance IQ, while their siblings had an average 112.9 verbal IQ and 114.6 performance IQ.
Approximately half of 47, XYY boys identified by newborn screening programs had learning difficulties -- a higher proportion than found among siblings and above - average - IQ control groups. In Edinburgh, 54 % of 47, XYY boys (7 of 13) identified in a newborn screening program received remedial reading teaching compared to 18 % (4 of 22) in an above - average - IQ control group of 46, XY boys matched by their father 's social class. In Boston, USA 55 % of 47, XYY boys (6 of 11) identified in a newborn screening program had learning difficulties and received part - time resource room help compared to 11 % (1 of 9) in an above - average - IQ control group of 46, XY boys with familial balanced autosomal chromosome translocations.
Developmental delays and behavioral problems are also possible, but these characteristics vary widely among affected boys and men, are not unique to 47, XYY and are managed no differently from in 46, XY males. Aggression is not seen more frequently in 47, XYY males.
47, XYY is not inherited, but usually occurs as a random event during the formation of sperm cells. An incident in chromosome separation during anaphase II (of meiosis II) called nondisjunction can result in sperm cells with an extra copy of the Y - chromosome. If one of these atypical sperm cells contributes to the genetic makeup of a child, the child will have an extra Y - chromosome in each of the body 's cells.
In some cases, the addition of an extra Y - chromosome results from nondisjunction during cell division during a post-zygotic mitosis in early embryonic development. This can produce 46, XY / 47, XYY mosaics.
47, XYY syndrome is not usually diagnosed until learning issues are present. The syndrome is diagnosed in an increasing number of children prenatally by amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling in order to obtain a chromosome karyotype, where the abnormality can be observed.
It is estimated that only 15 -- 20 % of children with 47, XYY syndrome are diagnosed within their lifetime. Of these, approximately 30 % are diagnosed prenatally. For the rest of those diagnosed after childbirth, around half are diagnosed during childhood or adolescence due to developmental delays or learning difficulties. The rest are diagnosed for a variety of reasons including a small percentage due to fertility problems (5 %).
Around 1 in 1,000 boys are born with a 47, XYY karyotype. The incidence of 47, XYY is not known to be affected by the parents ' ages.
In April 1956, Hereditas published the discovery by cytogeneticists Joe Hin Tjio and Albert Levan at Lund University in Sweden that the normal number of chromosomes in diploid human cells was 46 -- not 48 as had been believed for the preceding thirty years. In the wake of the establishment of the normal number of human chromosomes, 47, XYY was the last of the common sex chromosome aneuploidies to be discovered, two years after the discoveries of 47, XXY, 45, X, and 47, XXX in 1959. Even the much less common 48, XXYY had been discovered in 1960, a year before 47, XYY.
Screening for those X chromosome aneuploidies was possible by noting the presence or absence of "female '' sex chromatin bodies (Barr bodies) in the nuclei of interphase cells in buccal smears, a technique developed a decade before the first reported sex chromosome aneuploidy. An analogous technique to screen for Y - chromosome aneuploidies by noting supernumerary "male '' sex chromatin bodies was not developed until 1970, a decade after the first reported sex chromosome aneuploidy.
The first published report of a man with a 47, XYY karyotype was by internist and cytogeneticist Avery Sandberg and colleagues at Roswell Park Memorial Institute in Buffalo, New York in 1961. It was an incidental finding in a normal 44 - year - old, 6 ft. (183 cm) tall man of average intelligence who was karyotyped because he had a daughter with Down syndrome. Only a dozen isolated 47, XYY cases were reported in the medical literature in the four years following the first report by Sandberg.
Then, in December 1965 and March 1966, Nature and The Lancet published the first preliminary reports by British cytogeneticist Patricia Jacobs and colleagues at the MRC Human Genetics Unit at Western General Hospital in Edinburgh of a chromosome survey of 315 male patients at State Hospital in Carstairs, Lanarkshire -- Scotland 's only special security hospital for the developmentally disabled -- that found nine patients, ages 17 to 36, averaging almost 6 ft. in height (avg. 5'11 ", range: 5'7 '' to 6'2 "), had a 47, XYY karyotype, and mischaracterized them as aggressive and violent criminals. Over the next decade, almost all published XYY studies were on height - selected, institutionalized XYY males.
In January 1968 and March 1968, The Lancet and Science published the first U.S. reports of tall, institutionalized XYY males by Mary Telfer, a biochemist, and colleagues at the Elwyn Institute. Telfer found five tall, developmentally disabled XYY boys and men in hospitals and penal institutions in Pennsylvania, and since four of the five had at least moderate facial acne, reached the erroneous conclusion that acne was a defining characteristic of XYY males. After learning that convicted mass murderer Richard Speck had been karyotyped, Telfer not only incorrectly assumed the acne - scarred Speck was XYY, but reached the false conclusion that Speck was the archetypical XYY male -- or "supermale '' as Telfer referred to XYY males outside of peer - reviewed scientific journals.
In April 1968, The New York Times -- using Telfer as a main source -- introduced the XYY genetic condition to the general public in a three - part series on consecutive days that began with a Sunday front - page story about the planned use of the condition as a mitigating factor in two murder trials in Paris and Melbourne -- and falsely reported that Richard Speck was an XYY male and that the condition would be used in an appeal of his murder conviction. The series was echoed the following week by articles -- again using Telfer as a main source -- in Time and Newsweek, and six months later in The New York Times Magazine.
In December 1968, the Journal of Medical Genetics published the first XYY review article -- by Michael Court Brown, director of the MRC Human Genetics Unit -- which reported no overrepresentation of XYY males in nationwide chromosome surveys of prisons and hospitals for the developmentally disabled and mentally ill in Scotland, and concluded that studies confined to institutionalized XYY males may be guilty of selection bias, and that long - term longitudinal prospective studies of newborn XYY boys were needed.
In May 1969, at the annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, Telfer and her Elwyn Institute colleagues reported that case studies of the institutionalized XYY and XXY males they had found convinced them that XYY males had been falsely stigmatized and that their behavior may not be significantly different from chromosomally normal 46, XY males.
In June 1969, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Center for Studies of Crime and Delinquency held a two - day XYY conference in Chevy Chase, Maryland. In December 1969, with a grant from the NIMH Center for Studies of Crime and Delinquency, cytogeneticist Digamber Borgaonkar at Johns Hopkins Hospital began a chromosome survey of (predominantly African - American) boys ages 8 to 18 in all Maryland institutions for delinquent, neglected, or mentally ill juveniles, which was suspended from February -- May 1970 due to an American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) lawsuit about the lack of informed consent. Concurrently, through 1974, psychologist John Money at Johns Hopkins Hospital experimented on thirteen XYY boys and men (ages 15 to 37) in an unsuccessful attempt to treat their history of behavior problems by chemical castration using high - dose Depo - Provera -- with side - effects of weight gain (avg. 26 lbs.) and suicide.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, screening of consecutive newborns for sex chromosome abnormalities was undertaken at seven centers worldwide: in Denver (Jan 1964 -- 1974), Edinburgh (Apr 1967 -- Jun 1979), New Haven (Oct 1967 -- Sep 1968), Toronto (Oct 1967 -- Sep 1971), Aarhus (Oct 1969 -- Jan 1974, Oct 1980 -- Jan 1989), Winnipeg (Feb 1970 -- Sep 1973), and Boston (Apr 1970 -- Nov 1974). The Boston study, led by Harvard Medical School child psychiatrist Stanley Walzer at Children 's Hospital, was unique among the seven newborn screening studies in that it only screened newborn boys (non-private - ward newborn boys at the Boston Hospital for Women) and was funded in part by grants from the NIMH Center for Studies of Crime and Delinquency. The Edinburgh study was led by Shirley Ratcliffe who focused her career on it and published the results in 1999.
In December 1969, Lore Zech at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm first reported intense fluorescence of the A T - rich distal half of the long arm of the Y chromosome in the nuclei of metaphase cells treated with quinacrine mustard. In April 1970, Peter Pearson and Martin Bobrow at the MRC Population Genetics Unit in Oxford and Canino Vosa at the University of Oxford reported fluorescent "male '' sex chromatin bodies in the nuclei of interphase cells in buccal smears treated with quinacrine dihydrochloride, which could be used to screen for Y chromosome aneuploidies like 47, XYY.
In June 1970, The XYY Man was published -- the first of seven Kenneth Royce spy novels whose fictional tall, intelligent, nonviolent XYY hero was a reformed expert cat burglar recruited by British intelligence for dangerous assignments -- and later adapted into a thirteen - episode British summer television series broadcast in 1976 and 1977. In other fictional television works, a January 1971 episode "By the Pricking of My Thumbs... '' of the British science fiction TV series Doomwatch featured an XYY boy expelled from school because his genetic condition led him to be falsely accused of nearly blinding another boy, a November 1993 episode "Born Bad '' of the American police procedural TV series Law & Order portrayed a 14 - year - old XYY sociopathic murderer, and the May 2007 season finale episode "Born To Kill '' of the American police procedural TV series CSI: Miami depicted a 34 - year - old XYY serial killer. The false stereotype of XYY boys and men as violent criminals has also been used as a plot device in the horror films Il gatto a nove code in February 1971 (dubbed into English as The Cat o ' Nine Tails in May 1971) and Alien 3 in May 1992.
In December 1970, at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), its retiring president, geneticist H. Bentley Glass, cheered by the legalization of abortion in New York, envisioned a future where pregnant women would be required by the government to abort XYY "sex deviants ''. Mischaracterization of the XYY genetic condition was quickly incorporated into high school biology textbooks and medical school psychiatry textbooks, where misinformation still persists decades later.
In 1973, child psychiatrist Herbert Schreier at Children 's Hospital told Harvard Medical School microbiologist Jon Beckwith of Science for the People that he thought Walzer 's Boston XYY study was unethical; Science for the People investigated the study and filed a complaint with Harvard Medical School about the study in March 1974. In November 1974, Science for the People went public with their objections to the Boston XYY study in a press conference and a New Scientist article alleging inadequate informed consent, a lack of benefit (since no specific treatment was available) but substantial risk (by stigmatization with a false stereotype) to the subjects, and that the unblinded experimental design could not produce meaningful results regarding the subjects ' behavior. In December 1974, the Harvard Standing Committee on Medical Research issued a report supporting the Boston XYY study and in March 1975, the faculty voted 199 -- 35 to allow continuation of the study. After April 1975, screening of newborns was discontinued -- changes to informed consent procedures and pressure from additional advocacy groups, including the Children 's Defense Fund, having led to the discontinuation of the last active U.S. newborn screening programs for sex chromosome abnormalities in Boston and Denver.
In August 1976, Science published a retrospective cohort study by Educational Testing Service psychologist Herman Witkin and colleagues that screened the tallest 16 % of men (over 184 cm (6'0 ") in height) born in Copenhagen from 1944 -- 1947 for XXY and XYY karyotypes, and found an increased rate of minor criminal convictions for property crimes among sixteen XXY and twelve XYY men may be related to the lower intelligence of those with criminal convictions, but found no evidence that XXY or XYY men were inclined to be aggressive or violent.
The March of Dimes sponsored five international conferences in June 1974, November 1977, May 1981, June 1984, and June 1989 and published articles from the conferences in book form in 1979, 1982, 1986, and 1991 from seven longitudinal prospective cohort studies on the development of over 300 children and young adults with sex chromosome abnormalities identified in the screening of almost 200,000 consecutive births in hospitals in Denver, Edinburgh, New Haven, Toronto, Aarhus, Winnipeg, and Boston from 1964 to 1975. These seven studies -- the only unbiased studies of unselected individuals with sex chromosome abnormalities -- have replaced the older, biased studies of institutionalized individuals in understanding the development of individuals with sex chromosome abnormalities.
In May 1997, Nature Genetics published the discovery by Ercole Rao and colleagues of the X / Y chromosome pseudoautosomal region (PAR1) SHOX gene, haploinsufficiency of which leads to short stature in Turner syndrome (45, X). It was subsequently postulated that the increased gene dosage of three SHOX genes leads to tall stature in the sex chromosome trisomies 47, XXX, 47, XXY, and 47, XYY.
In July 1999, Psychological Medicine published a case - control study by Royal Edinburgh Hospital psychiatrist Michael Götz and colleagues that found an increased rate of criminal convictions among seventeen XYY men identified in the Edinburgh newborn screening study compared to an above - average - IQ control group of sixty XY men, which multiple logistic regression analysis indicated was mediated mainly through lowered intelligence.
In June 2002, the American Journal of Medical Genetics published results from a longitudinal prospective cohort Denver Family Development Study led by pediatrician and geneticist Arthur Robinson, which found that in fourteen prenatally diagnosed 47, XYY boys (from high socioeconomic status families), IQ scores available for six boys ranged from 100 -- 147 with a mean of 120. For the eleven of fourteen boys with siblings, in nine instances their siblings were stronger academically, but in one case the subject was performing equal to, and in another case superior to, his siblings.
Some medical geneticists question whether the term "syndrome '' is appropriate for this condition because many people with this karyotype appear normal.
Why do men commit crimes of violence? For some, the urge to violence may be inborn -- traced to something called the Y chromosome... Once in every 500 male births, for example, the sex chromosome complement is XXY rather than XY, thus erring in the direction of femaleness. The resulting individual, called a Klinefelter male, is usually retarded, unusually tall and sterile. Erring in the other direction, however, is the XYY complement resulting in the "supermale. '' He is also unusually tall and somewhat retarded, but appears to be highly, perhaps too highly, sexually motivated... We were intrigued by Dr. Jacobs ' contention that an extra Y chromosome results in tall stature, mild mental retardation, and severely disordered personality characterized by violent, aggressive behavior. We therefore planned to confirm and extend her studies. Syndrome Status for the XYY The XXY male has long been thought to display a constellation of symptoms that makes him diagnosable; that is, he has achieved syndrome status. It would seem that the XYY male is fast achieving similar status. His symptoms, as we and other laboratories tend to think of them, are: extremely tall stature, long limbs and strikingly long arm span, facial acne, mild mental retardation, severe mental illness (including psychosis) and aggressive, antisocial behavior with a long history of arrests, frequently beginning at an early age. On reading newspaper accounts of Richard Speck, who murdered eight Chicago student nurses in 1966, we noted all these traits and therefore concluded that Speck was a likely candidate for the XYY disorder. Independently, a cytogenetic laboratory in Chicago confirmed this hunch, reinforcing our inclination to believe that the XYY syndrome is really coming of age. It seems quite possible that in the XYY male, exemplified by Speck, biologists are describing in genetic terms a certain type of defective criminal who has long been explicitly recognized by the forensic psychiatrist.
Dr. Pergament said he and Dr. Sato, a research fellow, had absolutely no connection with the Speck case and never examined Speck. The report was also denied by Speck 's attorney, Public Defender Gerald W. Getty. "I never knew those doctors existed before I read about them in the paper, '' Getty said. Getty did say that a chromosomal test was performed on Speck, before Speck 's trial, by a geneticist from outside the Chicago area. He declined to identify the geneticist, and he said the results of the test never have been disclosed. "It was agreed, '' he said, "that the results would not be disclosed unless I wished them disclosed. And I still do n't. '' In any case, Getty said, the results could not be used in an appeal -- since they were not part of the trial evidence. If anything, he said, they could only be used in connection with a new trial.
At the same time he made public reports from Vanderbilt University showing no abnormal makeup of Speck 's chromosomes... Getty displayed a letter of Sept. 26, 1966, relating that photographic evidence of 18 cells from Speck 's blood showed no chromosome abnormality. He also exhibited a letter of last July 3, indicating that 100 of 101 cells in a sample of Speck 's blood studied after the original tests showed the normal 46 chromosomes. The other cell had 45, regarded by the Vanderbilt investigators as having no significance.
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by what means were the satellite states kept under control by the soviets | Satellite state - wikipedia
The term satellite state designates a country that is formally independent in the world, but under heavy political, economic and military influence or control from another country. The term was coined by analogy to planetary objects orbiting a larger object, such as smaller moons revolving around larger planets, and is used mainly to refer to Central and Eastern European countries of the Warsaw Pact during the Cold War or to Mongolia or Tannu Tuva between 1924 and 1990, for example. As used for Central and Eastern European countries it implies that the countries in question were "satellites '' under the hegemony of the Soviet Union. In some contexts it also refers to other countries in the Soviet sphere of influence during the Cold War -- such as North Korea (especially in the years surrounding the Korean War of 1950 -- 1953) and Cuba (particularly after it joined the Comecon in 1972). In Western usage, the term has seldom been applied to states other than those in the Soviet orbit. In Soviet usage, the term applied to the states in the orbit of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.
The Oxford English Dictionary traces the use of the phrase satellite state in English back at least as far as 1916.
In times of war or political tension, satellite states sometimes serve as buffers between an enemy country and the nation exerting control over the satellites. "Satellite state '' is one of several contentious terms used to describe the (alleged) subordination of one state to another. Other such terms include puppet state and neo-colony. In general, the term "satellite state '' implies deep ideological and military allegiance to the hegemonic power, whereas "puppet state '' implies political and military dependence, and "neo-colony '' implies (often abject) economic dependence. Depending on which aspect of dependence is being emphasised, a state may fall into more than one category.
When the Mongolian Revolution of 1921 broke out, Mongolian revolutionaries expelled Russian White Guards (during the Russian Civil War of 1917 -- 1923 following the Communist October Revolution of 1917) from Mongolia, which became independent when the Qing dynasty collapsed in 1911, with the assistance of the Soviet Red Army. The revolution also officially ended Manchurian sovereignty over Mongolia, which had existed since 1691. Although the theocratic Bogd Khaanate of Mongolia still nominally continued, with successive series of violent struggles, Soviet influence got ever stronger, and after the death of the Bogd Khaan ("Great Khan '', or "Emperor ''), the Mongolian People 's Republic was proclaimed on November 26, 1924. A nominally independent and sovereign country, it has been described as being a satellite state of the Soviet Union in the years from 1924 until 1990.
During the Russian Civil War, the Soviet Red Army troops took Tuva in January 1920, which had also been part of the Qing Empire of China and a protectorate of Imperial Russia. The Tuvan People 's Republic, was proclaimed independent in 1921 and was a satellite state of Soviet Union until its annexation in 1944 by the Soviet Union.
Another early Soviet satellite state in Asia was the short - lived Far East Republic in Siberia.
At the end of World War II, most eastern and central European countries were occupied by the Soviet Union, and along with the USSR made up what is sometimes called the Soviet Empire. The Soviets remained in these countries after the war 's end. Through a series of coalition governments including Communist parties, and then a forced liquidation of coalition members unliked by the Soviets, Stalinist systems were established in each country. Stalinists gained control of existing governments, police, press and radio outlets in these countries. Soviet satellite states in Europe included:
The Federal People 's Republic of Yugoslavia is sometimes referred to as a Soviet satellite, though it broke from the Soviet Union in the 1948 Tito - Stalin split, with the Cominform offices being moved from Belgrade to Bucharest, and subsequently initiated formation of the Non-Aligned Movement. The People 's Socialist Republic of Albania, under the leadership of Stalinist Enver Hoxha, broke ties with the Soviet Union the 1960 Soviet - Albanian split following the Soviet de-Stalinization process. These countries were, at least between 1945 and 1948, all members of the Eastern Bloc.
The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan can also be considered a Soviet satellite; from 1978 until 1991, the central government in Kabul was aligned with the Communist bloc, and was directly supported by Soviet military between 1979 and 1989. The short - lived East Turkestan Republic (1944 -- 1950) was a Soviet satellite until it was absorbed into the People 's Republic of China along with the rest of Xinjiang.
Some commentators have actually expressed concern that United States military and diplomatic interventions in the Middle East and elsewhere might lead, or perhaps have already led, to the existence of American satellite states. William Pfaff has warned that a permanent American presence in Iraq would "turn Iraq into an American satellite state ''. The term has also been used in the past to describe the relationship between Lebanon and Syria, as Syria has been accused of intervening in Lebanese political affairs. In addition, Swaziland and Lesotho have both been described as satellite states of South Africa.
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when did mcdonald's start serving the big mac | Big Mac - wikipedia
The Big Mac is a hamburger sold by international fast food restaurant chain McDonald 's. It was introduced in the Greater Pittsburgh area, United States, in 1967 and nationwide in 1968. It is one of the company 's signature products.
The Big Mac was created by Jim Delligatti, an early Ray Kroc franchisee, who was operating several restaurants in the Pittsburgh area. It was invented in the kitchen of Delligatti 's first McDonald 's franchise, located on McKnight Road in suburban Ross Township. The Big Mac had two previous names, both of which failed in the marketplace: the Aristocrat, which consumers found difficult to pronounce and understand, and Blue Ribbon Burger. The third name, Big Mac, was created by Esther Glickstein Rose, a 21 - year - old advertising secretary who worked at McDonald 's corporate headquarters in Oak Brook, Illinois. The Big Mac debuted at Delligatti 's Uniontown, Pennsylvania restaurant in 1967, selling for 45 cents. It was designed to compete with Big Boy restaurants ' Big Boy sandwich; Eat'n Park was the Pittsburgh area 's Big Boy franchisee at the time. The Big Mac proved popular, and it was added to the menu of all U.S. restaurants in 1968.
The Big Mac consists of two 1.6 oz (45.4 g) (0.0454 kg) beef patties, "special sauce '' (a variant of Thousand Island dressing), iceberg lettuce, American cheese, pickles, and onions, served in a three - part sesame seed bun.
The Big Mac is known worldwide and is often used as a symbol of American capitalism. The Economist has used it as a reference point for comparing the cost of living in different countries -- the Big Mac Index -- as it is so widely available and is comparable across markets. This index is sometimes referred to as Burgernomics.
The name was popularized by a 1974 advertising campaign featuring a list of the ingredients in a Big Mac: "Two all - beef patties, special sauce, lettuce, cheese, pickles, onions -- on a sesame seed bun. ''
Big Mac Sauce is delivered to McDonald 's restaurants in sealed canisters designed by Sealright, from which it is meant to be directly dispensed using a special calibrated "sauce gun '' that dispenses a specified amount of the sauce for each pull of the trigger. Its design is similar to a caulking gun.
In 2012, McDonald 's admitted that "the special sauce ingredients were not really a secret '' because the recipe had been available online "for years ''. It consists of store - bought mayonnaise, sweet pickle relish and yellow mustard whisked together with vinegar, garlic powder, onion powder and paprika.
The Big Mac, along with many other McDonald 's products, was first served in a "clamshell '' styrofoam container that was phased out beginning in 1990 due to environmental concerns. The product is now sold in a collapsible cardboard box.
The earliest instances of McDonald 's utilizing advertising for the burger were mainly print ads, and a TV ad in which Hoyt Axton sings "The Ballad of Big Mac '' which aired in 1969.
The Two all - beef patties, special sauce, lettuce, cheese, pickles, onions -- on a sesame seed bun concept for the jingle was created by Keith Reinhard, Chairman Emeritus of DDB Worldwide, and his creative group at Needham Harper and Steers. Originally, the ingredients appeared as a one - word heading for a McDonald 's ad developed for college newspapers. The words were then set to music created by Mark Vieha, who performed the original jingle. The first run of commercials ran only a year and a half, going off the air in 1976, but its popularity remained beyond its TV life. Subsequent to the jingle, McDonald 's followed up with a promotion based on its customers spontaneously having a "Big Mac Attack ''.
Many franchises in the United States ran promotions during the original campaign that awarded a free burger to customers who could recite the slogan within a specified time (usually two or three seconds). One example of its success was that the McDonald 's operators in New York City ran out of Big Mac buns. McDonald 's Australia emulated this promotion in the mid-1980s, and some Brazilian McDonald 's around the same time (only offering a free glass of Coca - Cola instead), in the Portuguese - language version, which is "Dois hambúrgueres, alface, queijo, molho especial, cebola e picles num pão com gergelim ''.
The slogan soon led to a shaggy dog joke that had as its punchline "two obese Patties, Special Ross, Lester Cheese, picking bunions on a Sesame Street bus ''.
In 2003, McDonald 's revived the phrase. In an English - language ad from McDonald 's international "i 'm lovin ' it '' campaign, a rapper rapidly spouts off the trademark in the background music. Also in 2003, American Greetings and Carlton Cards released a Christmas ornament of a Big Mac, on which the slogan was both printed and played aloud by pulling on a string. Roy Bergold, National Advertising Manager at McDonald 's, has a big hand in championing the original campaign and helping to bring it back.
In 2008, the phrase was revived by McDonald 's Malaysia. The revival includes the original prize of a free Big Mac if the customer is able to recite the phrase in under four seconds. This was released in May, along with the promotional Mega Mac, which has four beef patties rather than the standard two.
In the early 1980s, as a promotion, McDonald 's staged an in - house rivalry between their two most popular products. Consumers were invited to decide "Which one will be number one? Chicken McNuggets or Big Mac sandwiches? '' For each of either item that a customer bought, they received another of the same at half price. Later in the ad campaign, the second was offered for free. It was eventually announced that the Big Mac was "number one ''.
In 2005, McDonald 's began offering product placement rewards to hip hop artists who namechecked the Big Mac in their music, giving US $5 to the artist for every time a song mentioning the hamburger was played on the radio. This offer quickly spawned a satirical reference from hip hop artist Mad Skillz, who references the marketing ploy in his track "2005 Wrap Up '' by stating "And I 'm beefin ' wit ' Mickey D 's man, y'all dead wrong, Talkin ' ' bout payin ' rappers to mention Big Macs in their song, We do rap from the heart, y'all better have some respect, Alright, Big Mac! Big Mac! Big Mac! Now where 's my check? ''
In addition to the McDonald 's signature hamburger, Big Mac was the name of a character, Officer Big Mac, in McDonaldland, the fictional world created as an advertising campaign for McDonald 's. Officer Big Mac was similar to Mayor McCheese, except he was the chief of police, wearing a constable uniform and sporting a large Big Mac for a head.
On August 22, 2007, McDonald 's opened the Big Mac Museum in North Huntingdon, Pennsylvania to celebrate the Big Mac 's 40th anniversary. The museum features the world 's largest Big Mac statue (measuring 14 feet high and 12 feet wide) and has hundreds of historic artifacts and exhibits that celebrate the Big Mac.
Some Uniontown residents were unhappy with the selected location; a McDonald 's spokesperson said that the decision was based on ease of highway access.
The Big Mac is a geographically localized product. In the United States, the Big Mac has 550 kcal (2,300 kJ), 29 grams of fat and 25 grams of protein. In Australia, the burger is slightly smaller with 493 kcal (2,060 kJ) and 26.9 grams of fat, but similar amounts of protein with 25.2 grams, while the Japanese burger tops out the scales at 557 kcal and 30.5 grams of fat. Several Mcdonald 's subsidiaries adapt the standard features of the Big Mac (from the USA) to regional requirements.
Similar products by other restaurant chains:
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who was the astronaut that killed the doctor | The Impossible Astronaut - wikipedia
"The Impossible Astronaut '' is the first episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. Written by show runner Steven Moffat, and directed by Toby Haynes, the episode was first broadcast on 23 April 2011 in the United Kingdom, as well as the United States and Canada. It also aired in Australia on 30 April 2011. The episode features alien time traveller the Doctor (Matt Smith) and his companions Amy Pond (Karen Gillan) and Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill), and is the first of a two - part story, which concluded with "Day of the Moon ''.
In the episode, Amy Pond, Rory and River Song are summoned to Utah, United States, by the Eleventh Doctor, who is killed by a mysterious figure in a space suit. The dead Doctor is revealed to be an older self, after his younger version returns. They try to understand what the future Doctor said and are sent to Washington D.C. The team deals with the Silence, a race of aliens with the ability to make people forget their encounter with them when they look away.
The Silence was created to compete with other past aliens in terms of "scariness, '' including the Weeping Angels. The episode was partially filmed on location at Lone Rock, Utah, the first time in Doctor Who that principal photography took place in the United States. Before the broadcast, a fan leaked the plot of the episode following a press screening. The episode was seen by 8.86 million viewers in the United Kingdom, and received generally positive reviews from critics. "The Impossible Astronaut '' gained an Appreciation Index of 88 -- considered excellent. The episode was dedicated to Elisabeth Sladen, known for playing former companion Sarah Jane Smith, who died from cancer on 19 April 2011.
On 22 March 2011, a short scene serving as a prequel for the first episode was released on the programme 's website. In the prequel, Nixon receives a phone call from the little girl who keeps calling him in the episode. She begs for the President to look behind him, but he asks how she got that number, which the ' spaceman ' told her. She tells him it is about monsters, to which he replies "Young lady, there are no monsters in the Oval Office. '' He then hangs up and leans back. Behind him stands an out - of - focus Silent.
After a two - month break from their travels with the Doctor, his companions, Amy Pond and her husband, Rory Williams, receive a "TARDIS blue '' - coloured envelope providing a time, date and set of coordinates leading them to Utah. They arrive to meet River Song (Alex Kingston), who also received an envelope, and the Doctor, now 1,103 years old, 194 years older than he was when he last saw them. He takes them to a picnic at a nearby lake, telling them he is taking them on a trip to "Space 1969. '' Amy catches a glimpse of a mysterious figure from a distance, but appears to immediately forget about it after she looks away. Later, a figure in an American astronaut suit emerges from the lake; the Doctor approaches it but warns his companions not to interfere. The astronaut shoots the Doctor, causing him to begin to regenerate, but his companions are horrified to witness the astronaut shoot him again, killing him before he can fully regenerate. The three are met by Canton Everett Delaware III (William Morgan Sheppard) who also received an envelope and was instructed to bring a can of gasoline, which the group then uses to give the Doctor a Viking - style funeral.
Regrouping at a diner, Amy, Rory, and River are speculating about who might have sent the envelopes when they are shocked to see the Doctor walking in, 200 years younger again. He reveals that he too was given an envelope, but does not know who sent it to him. Reluctantly his companions decide not to tell the Doctor either about his death or that the sender was his future self. The four do a search on Delaware and "Space 1969. '' The TARDIS travels back to 8 April 1969, and ends up cloaked in the Oval Office. President Richard Nixon (Stuart Milligan) converses with a younger Delaware (Mark Sheppard) about a series of phone calls he received from a young girl asking for help. The Doctor quickly gains Delaware 's trust, convincing Nixon to give him a few minutes to locate the girl.
While the Doctor works, Amy sees the mysterious figure again, and excuses herself to the restroom. There, the figure, a member of a species known as the Silence, waits for her and kills an innocent woman despite Amy 's pleas. Realising the alien is wiping her memory of their encounters, Amy takes a picture of the alien. When she leaves the restroom, however, she yet again forgets the encounter. By then the Doctor has found the girl 's location, a building near Cape Canaveral, Florida, at the intersection of streets named Jefferson, Adams, and Hamilton. The Doctor and his companions leave in the TARDIS, followed closely by a curious Delaware.
Upon arrival, they find pieces of a space suit and alien technology. River and Rory explore a vast network of tunnels that have apparently spread across the planet for centuries, unnoticed by the human population. The two find a control room with a design similar to one seen in "The Lodger '' but are unaware they are surrounded by the Silence. Meanwhile, Delaware hears the little girl screaming and gives chase. As Amy and the Doctor follow, Amy tells him she is pregnant. When they find Delaware unconscious, a figure in an astronaut suit appears. Quickly, Amy picks up Delaware 's gun and shoots at the suit. However, she realises too late that the helmet 's visor has opened to reveal the little girl.
The TARDIS had been previously turned invisible by damage to its visual stabiliser in the Second Doctor story The Invasion. When Canton first leaves the TARDIS, the Doctor remarks, "Brave heart, Canton, '' a reference to the Fifth Doctor 's recurrent statement to his companion Tegan Jovanka, "Brave heart, Tegan. '' When Amy asks the younger Doctor to trust her, he asks her to swear to him on something that matters. After some thought, she smiles and says "Fish fingers and custard, '' referring to events in "The Eleventh Hour, '' when Amy first meets the Doctor as a little girl.
The episode was written by Steven Moffat, who took charge of the show in 2010. Moffat wanted the 2011 season to start with a two - part story in an attempt to begin with more gravity and a wider scope in plot, as well as wanting the episodes to be one of the darker ones in the series. "The Impossible Astronaut '' / "Day of the Moon '' was the first two - part episode to open a series since the 1985 Sixth Doctor story Attack of the Cybermen.
In the Doctor Who Confidential episode following the broadcast of "The Impossible Astronaut, '' Moffat stated that in his view, it was one of the darker episodes of the series, but still maintained the same level of humour. The inclusion of the Doctor 's death felt like a series ender for some of the producers, but was actually there to "kick it off. '' In writing the death scene of the older version of the Doctor, Moffat wanted to acknowledge to the audience that Time Lords are not invincible, and could still die permanently if killed before regeneration. In creating the Silence, the alien antagonists of the episode, Moffat wanted them to challenge past monsters in terms of "scariness. '' He felt these creatures are a "much bigger deal. '' The aliens ' design was partially inspired by the figure from the Edvard Munch painting The Scream.
In October 2010, it was announced that Mark Sheppard, who had appeared in other past science fiction series, including Battlestar Galactica, Firefly, Supernatural, and Warehouse 13, would make a guest appearance on Doctor Who. Sheppard described playing Canton as a "dream job, '' and said he wished to appear in another of Moffat 's works, including Sherlock. Even though Sheppard is an English actor, it was his first appearance in a British - made television show. For the scene depicting the older Canton Delaware, the producers originally planned that Sheppard would appear older using makeup effects. However, Sheppard suggested instead that his father and actor, William Morgan Sheppard, play the role, a suggestion that was accepted.
American actor Stuart Milligan was cast as President Nixon, which he said he found exciting, having played other presidents in the past, including Dwight D. Eisenhower. Prosthetic pieces were applied on Milligan 's cheeks, nose, and ears to make him resemble Nixon as much as possible. He also practiced how Nixon would speak, but initially found it difficult since he had to wear fake teeth. Milligan previously appeared in the animated Tenth Doctor special Dreamland as the voice of Colonel Stark. Chuk Iwuji, who played Carl, previously appeared in the Seventh Doctor audio drama A Thousand Tiny Wings, where he played Joshua Sembeke.
This pair of episodes marks the first time that Doctor Who has filmed principal photography footage within the United States; the American - produced TV movie of 1996 was filmed in Canada, and some second unit establishing shots of New York and the Statue of Liberty were filmed on Liberty Island for the episode "Daleks in Manhattan '', but none of the cast of the episode were involved in the shoot. Filming took place in the state of Utah. For the opening shot for the location, director Toby Haynes wanted it to be epic so that the audience could recognise where the episode was set. Scenes on the roadway were filmed on U.S. Route 163 (several miles east of the coordinates listed on the Doctor 's invitations). The crew wanted to add as many American icons as they could into those shots, including a Stetson hat, a 1950s Edsel Villager, and a yellow school bus. Moffat, having enjoyed writing episodes featuring River Song, wanted to give her an impressive entrance. Haynes had Alex Kingston block the sunlight from the camera angle and blow smoke from her revolver. The scenes involving the picnic and the future - Doctor dying took place on the shore of Lake Powell. The suit worn by the future - Doctor 's killer was a fabricated replica of an Apollo space suit. In filming the death scene the filming crew noticed that Karen Gillan was genuinely upset and "was acting her heart out. '' In filming the "Viking funeral '' scene, Haynes wished to film it during the sunset. However, the sun set over the desert, so was instead filmed during sunrise, as the sun rose over the water.
Kingston had to genuinely slap Matt Smith several times in a scene because it was difficult to fake. Kingston recalled that after a few takes, Smith got red cheeked and grew frustrated at having to do the sequence over and over again. The Oval Office set was constructed at Upper Boat Studios in South Wales. Because the production crew had access to several pictures and plans of the real office, they were able to replicate it in almost every detail. The main problem for building the set was the plastering; the crew normally plaster one wall at a time for normal rooms, but because the Oval Office was round, they had to do the entire set at once. The American - style diner scene when the companions reunite with the Doctor in this episode is actually located in Cardiff Bay. The Laurel and Hardy film The Flying Deuces, in which the Doctor intruded, was done by Smith dancing in front of greenscreen.
At some point before the broadcast of the episode, it and "Day of the Moon '' were released in a press screening, where a number of fans were invited to attend. The production team present asked them not to give away any spoilers. However, following the screening a fan gave away the entire plot of the two episodes on an internet forum. News of this angered Moffat. In an interview on BBC Radio 5 Live, Moffat stated;
Despite this he added that the majority of Doctor Who fans are "spoiler - phobes, '' who refused to go online to be spoiled.
"The Impossible Astronaut '' was first broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 23 April 2011 at 6 pm. It began with a still - caption tribute to actress Elisabeth Sladen, who died from cancer on 19 April 2011. Sladen had previously appeared in the series as companion Sarah Jane Smith, and as the same character on the spin - off series The Sarah Jane Adventures. After the broadcast "The Impossible Astronaut '' received preliminary, overnight figures of 6.52 million viewers. Final consolidated ratings for the episode increased to 8.86 million, with a 43.2 per cent audience share. This made the episode the second highest rated programme of the day, behind Britain 's Got Talent on ITV1. The episode was the third most watched on BBC One, and sixth overall for the entire week ending 24 April. An additional 300,000 viewed the episode from BBC iPlayer within two days of its original broadcast. It received an Appreciation Index of 88, one of the higher scores for the weekend.
In the United States the episode aired on BBC America on the same day it was released in the United Kingdom, as was the case in Canada for Space. 1.3 million viewers saw "The Impossible Astronaut '' on BBC America, making it the highest rated telecast in the history of the channel. It was reportedly up by 71,000 from "The Eleventh Hour ''. When Live + 7 day DVR ratings were added, the total rose to 1.8 million. In Canada, the episode was seen by 538,000, making it the most watched Who episode for the channel, and its most watched telecast in 2011. It was shown on ABC1 in Australia on 30 April 2011, and was viewed by 860,000 from the five capital cities, matching the ratings from "A Christmas Carol '' on Boxing Day 2010.
Audience measurement service Kantar Media reported that "The Impossible Astronaut '' is the most recorded television event of all time. Analysis of BARB data revealed that 4.11 million people recorded and viewed the programme within a week of broadcast, accounting for 46 % of the episode 's total viewers. A total of 1.38 million requests were placed on iPlayer for the month of April, placing it at number one for the month.
The episode was met with generally positive reviews from television critics. Dan Martin of The Guardian reacted positively towards the episode, believing the cast performed better than the previous fifth series. He stated "Steven Moffat has thrown away the rule book and made Doctor Who as, you imagine, he 's pictured it should be his whole life. Killing the Doctor leaves the shape of the series mapped out, raises the bar so that no one is safe, and sees Amy, Rory and River facing a terrible dilemma. '' Martin liked that "Amy 's numbed horror ramps things up to a series - finale level on intensity from the off, '' and then switches "into an Oval Office comedy of manners, '' and "morphs into gothic horror and finally flings you to the ground with its cinematic cliffhanger. '' He was also positive towards the American setting, and "our eccentric British foursome bumbling through it, '' believing the series raised its game with this. With regards to the Silence, Martin believed it was "a standard Moffat psychological trick, but the most refined to date. '' Martin later rated it the second best episode of the series, though the finale was not included in the list.
Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy called the episode "a fantastic launch for the sixth series, '' adding "the Doctor Who team 's US location shooting has certainly paid off, lending these early scenes a grand scale that the series could scarcely have expected to achieve in 2005, let alone in 1963. '' Commenting on the future - Doctor 's death, Jeffery said "seven minutes in, a nation 's collective jaw dropped as The Doctor -- this show 's lead -- is mercilessly gunned down. This plot twist is simply stunning, and it 's difficult to imagine even casual viewers not sitting up to pay attention at this point. '' Jeffery also believed that the series regulars were on "top form, '' adding "the more abrasive aspects of Amy Pond 's personality seem to have been toned down this year, and Karen Gillan responds with her best, most sympathetic performance to date. Arthur Darvill also lives up to his recent promotion to full - time companion. His comic timing is simply superb, but he excels too in the episode 's darker moments. '' Jeffery rated the episode five stars out of five.
Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph believed it was "a cracking start to the first part of the 2011 series, with the shocking ending of Amy seemingly shooting a girl making one keen wait for the conclusion next week to see how it all resolves itself, '' as well as enjoying the concept of the Silence. Rick Marshall of MTV believed that "Steven Moffat and the Doctor Who crew offer up yet another great episode, '' but also said the "big cliffhanger will likely cause more than a few fans ' heads to explode. '' In addition, Marshall believed the alien antagonists "give the Weeping Angels a run for their money in scare factor. '' Simon Brew of Den of Geek thought the episode was "a triumphant return for Doctor Who, bubbling with confidence and throwing down story strands that hint at an engrossing series. '' Brew liked Sheppard 's performance as Delaware and Darvill 's increasing presence as Rory. Brew also complimented Haynes ' work in the United States, saying it was an improvement from "Daleks in Manhattan '', which featured British actors attempting to play with American accents. Tom Phillips of Metro said the 1969 US setting were "beautifully used, '' and enjoyed the "spookiness '' of the Silence. However Phillips felt the episode would be "a bit hard to get into '' for new viewers. Kevin O'Sullivan The Sunday Mirror was more negative towards the episode, stating it was "impossible to understand, '' and for "strictly sci - fi nerds only, '' adding that Smith "remains a derivative Doctor who brings nothing new to the party. ''
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how deep is the deepest part of the dead sea | Dead Sea - wikipedia
The Dead Sea (Hebrew: יָם הַמֶּלַח Yam ha - Melah lit. Salt Sea; Arabic: البحر الميت Al - Bahr al - Mayyit) is a salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east and Israel and Palestine to the west. Its surface and shores are 430.5 metres (1,412 ft) below sea level, Earth 's lowest elevation on land. The Dead Sea is 304 m (997 ft) deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. With a salinity of 342 g / kg, or 34.2 %, (in 2011), it is 9.6 times as salty as the ocean and one of the world 's saltiest bodies of water. This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which plants and animals can not flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea is 50 kilometres (31 mi) long and 15 kilometres (9 mi) wide at its widest point. It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, and its main tributary is the Jordan River.
The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years. It was one of the world 's first health resorts (for Herod the Great), and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products, from asphalt for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilisers. People also use the salt and the minerals from the Dead Sea to create cosmetics and herbal sachets.
The Dead Seawater has a density of 1.24 kg / litre, which makes swimming similar to floating.
The Dead Sea is receding at an alarming rate. Multiple canals and pipelines were proposed to reduce its recession, which had begun causing many problems. The Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance project, carried out by Jordan, will provide water to neighbouring countries, while the brine will be carried to the Dead Sea to help stabilise its levels. The first phase of the project is scheduled to begin in 2018 and be completed in 2021.
In Hebrew, the Dead Sea is Yām ha - Melaḥ (help info) (ים המלח ), meaning "sea of salt '' (Genesis 14: 3). The Bible uses this term alongside two others: the Sea of the Arabah (Yām ha - ' Ărāvâ ים הערבה ), and the Eastern Sea (Yām ha - Mizraḥî ים המזרחי ). The designation "Dead Sea '' never appears in the Bible.
In prose sometimes the term Yām ha - Māvet (ים המוות , "sea of death '') is used, due to the scarcity of aquatic life there. In Arabic the Dead Sea is called al - Bahr al - Mayyit (help info) ("the Dead Sea ''), or less commonly baḥru lūṭa (بحر لوط, "the Sea of Lot ''). Another historic name in Arabic was the "Sea of Zoʼar '', after a nearby town in biblical times. The Greeks called it Lake Asphaltites (Attic Greek ἡ Θάλαττα ἀσφαλτῖτης, hē Thálatta asphaltĩtēs, "the Asphaltite sea '').
The Dead Sea is an endorheic lake located in the Jordan Rift Valley, a geographic feature formed by the Dead Sea Transform (DST). This left lateral - moving transform fault lies along the tectonic plate boundary between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate. It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in Turkey and the northern end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of Sinai. It is here that the Upper Jordan River / Sea of Galilee / Lower Jordan River water system comes to an end.
The Jordan River is the only major water source flowing into the Dead Sea, although there are small perennial springs under and around the Dead Sea, forming pools and quicksand pits along the edges. There are no outlet streams.
The Mujib River, biblical Arnon, is one the larger water sources of the Dead Sea other than the Jordan. The Wadi Mujib valley, 420 m below the sea level in the southern of Jordan valley, is a biosphere reserve, with an area of 212 km (82 sq mi). Other more substantial sources are Wadi Darajeh (Arabic) / Nahal Dragot (Hebrew), and Nahal Arugot. Wadi Hasa (biblical Zered) is another wadi flowing into the Dead Sea.
Rainfall is scarcely 100 mm (4 in) per year in the northern part of the Dead Sea and barely 50 mm (2 in) in the southern part. The Dead Sea zone 's aridity is due to the rainshadow effect of the Judaean Mountains. The highlands east of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself.
To the west of the Dead Sea, the Judaean mountains rise less steeply and are much lower than the mountains to the east. Along the southwestern side of the lake is a 210 m (700 ft) tall halite formation called "Mount Sodom ''.
There are two contending hypotheses about the origin of the low elevation of the Dead Sea. The older hypothesis is that the Dead Sea lies in a true rift zone, an extension of the Red Sea Rift, or even of the Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa. A more recent hypothesis is that the Dead Sea basin is a consequence of a "step - over '' discontinuity along the Dead Sea Transform, creating an extension of the crust with consequent subsidence.
Around 3.7 million years ago, what is now the valley of the Jordan River, Dead Sea, and the northern Wadi Arabah was repeatedly inundated by waters from the Mediterranean Sea. The waters formed in a narrow, crooked bay that is called by geologists the Sedom Lagoon, which was connected to the sea through what is now the Jezreel Valley. The floods of the valley came and went depending on long - scale climate change. The Sedom Lagoon deposited beds of salt that eventually became 2.5 km (1.55 mi) thick.
Approximately two million years ago, the land between the Rift Valley and the Mediterranean Sea rose to such an extent that the ocean could no longer flood the area. Thus, the long lagoon became a landlocked lake. The Sedom Lagoon extended at its maximum from the Sea of Galilee in the north to somewhere around 50 km (30 mi) south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea, and the subsequent lakes obviously never surpassed this expanse. The Hula Depression was never part of any of these water bodies due to its higher elevation and the high threshold of the Korazim block separating it from the Sea of Galilee basin.
The first prehistoric lake to follow the Sedom Lagoon is named Lake Amora, followed by Lake Lisan and finally by the Dead Sea. The water levels and salinity of these lakes have either risen or fallen as an effect of the tectonic dropping of the valley bottom, and due to climate variation. As the climate became more arid, Lake Lisan finally shrank and became saltier, leaving the Dead Sea as its last remainder.
In prehistoric times, great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Amora. The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the Lisan Peninsula and Mount Sodom (on the southwest side of the lake). Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed, forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the bucket. When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces, the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sodom stayed in place as high cliffs (see salt dome).
From 70,000 to 12,000 years ago, the lake 's level was 100 m (330 ft) to 250 m (820 ft) higher than its current level. This lake, Lake Lisan, fluctuated dramatically, rising to its highest level around 26,000 years ago, indicating a very wet climate in the Near East. Around 10,000 years ago, the lake 's level dropped dramatically, probably to even lower than today 's. During the last several thousand years, the lake has fluctuated approximately 400 m (1,300 ft), with some significant drops and rises. Current theories as to the cause of this dramatic drop in levels rule out volcanic activity; therefore, it may have been a seismic event.
The Dead Sea 's climate offers year - round sunny skies and dry air. It has less than 50 millimetres (2 in) mean annual rainfall and a summer average temperature between 32 and 39 ° C (90 and 102 ° F). Winter average temperatures range between 20 and 23 ° C (68 and 73 ° F). The region has weaker ultraviolet radiation, particularly the UVB (erythrogenic rays). Given the higher atmospheric pressure, the air has a slightly higher oxygen content (3.3 % in summer to 4.8 % in winter) as compared to oxygen concentration at sea level. Barometric pressures at the Dead Sea were measured between 1061 and 1065 hPa and clinically compared with health effects at higher altitude. (This barometric measure is about 5 % higher than sea level standard atmospheric pressure of 1013.25 hPa, which is the global ocean mean or ATM.) The Dead Sea affects temperatures nearby because of the moderating effect a large body of water has on climate. During the winter, sea temperatures tend to be higher than land temperatures, and vice versa during the summer months. This is the result of the water 's mass and specific heat capacity. On average, there are 192 days above 30C (86F) annually.
With 34.2 % salinity (in 2011), it is one of the world 's saltiest bodies of water, though Lake Vanda in Antarctica (35 %), Lake Assal in Djibouti (34.8 %), Lagoon Garabogazköl in the Caspian Sea (up to 35 %) and some hypersaline ponds and lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica (such as Don Juan Pond (44 %)) have reported higher salinities.
Until the winter of 1978 -- 79, when a major mixing event took place, the Dead Sea was composed of two stratified layers of water that differed in temperature, density, age, and salinity. The topmost 35 meters (115 ft) or so of the Dead Sea had an average salinity of 342 parts per thousand (in 2002), and a temperature that swung between 19 ° C (66 ° F) and 37 ° C (99 ° F). Underneath a zone of transition, the lowest level of the Dead Sea had waters of a consistent 22 ° C (72 ° F) temperature and complete saturation of sodium chloride (NaCl). Since the water near the bottom is saturated, the salt precipitates out of solution onto the sea floor.
Beginning in the 1960s, water inflow to the Dead Sea from the Jordan River was reduced as a result of large - scale irrigation and generally low rainfall. By 1975, the upper water layer was saltier than the lower layer. Nevertheless, the upper layer remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense. When the upper layer cooled so its density was greater than the lower layer, the waters mixed (1978 -- 79). For the first time in centuries, the lake was a homogeneous body of water. Since then, stratification has begun to redevelop.
The mineral content of the Dead Sea is very different from that of ocean water. The exact composition of the Dead Sea water varies mainly with season, depth and temperature. In the early 1980s, the concentration of ionic species (in g / kg) of Dead Sea surface water was Cl (181.4), Br (4.2), SO (0.4), HCO (0.2), Ca (14.1), Na (32.5), K (6.2) and Mg (35.2). The total salinity was 276 g / kg. These results show that the composition of the salt, as anhydrous chlorides on a weight percentage basis, was calcium chloride (CaCl) 14.4 %, potassium chloride (KCl) 4.4 %, magnesium chloride (MgCl) 50.8 % and sodium chloride (NaCl) 30.4 %. In comparison, the salt in the water of most oceans and seas is approximately 85 % sodium chloride. The concentration of sulfate ions (SO) is very low, and the concentration of bromide ions (Br) is the highest of all waters on Earth.
The salt concentration of the Dead Sea fluctuates around 31.5 %. This is unusually high and results in a nominal density of 1.24 kg / l. Anyone can easily float in the Dead Sea because of natural buoyancy. In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States.
An unusual feature of the Dead Sea is its discharge of asphalt. From deep seeps, the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles and blocks of the black substance. Asphalt - coated figurines and bitumen - coated Neolithic skulls from archaeological sites have been found. Egyptian mummification processes used asphalt imported from the Dead Sea region.
The Dead Sea area has become a location for health research and potential treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the water, the low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere, the reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation, and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each may have specific health effects. For example, persons experiencing reduced respiratory function from diseases such as cystic fibrosis seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure.
The region 's climate and low elevation have made it a popular center for assessment of putative therapies:
Climatotherapy at the Dead Sea may be a therapy for psoriasis by sunbathing for long periods in the area due to its position below sea level and subsequent result that UV rays are partially blocked by the increased cloud cover over the Dead Sea.
Rhinosinusitis patients receiving Dead Sea saline nasal irrigation exhibited improved symptom relief compared to standard hypertonic saline spray in one study.
Dead Sea mud pack therapy has been suggested to temporarily relieve pain in patients with osteoarthritis of the knees. According to researchers of the Ben Gurion University of the Negev, treatment with mineral - rich mud compresses can be used to augment conventional medical therapy.
The sea is called "dead '' because its high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms, such as fish and aquatic plants, from living in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present.
In times of flood, the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35 % to 30 % or lower. The Dead Sea temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters. In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red. Researchers from Hebrew University of Jerusalem found the Dead Sea to be teeming with a type of alga called Dunaliella. Dunaliella in turn nourished carotenoid - containing (red - pigmented) halobacteria, whose presence caused the color change. Since 1980, the Dead Sea basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers.
In 2011 a group of scientists from Be'er Sheva, Israel and Germany discovered fissures in the floor of the Dead Sea by scuba diving and observing the surface. These fissures allow fresh and brackish water to enter the Dead Sea. They sampled biofilms surrounding the fissures and discovered numerous species of bacteria and archaea.
Many animal species live in the mountains surrounding the Dead Sea. Hikers can see ibex, hares, hyraxes, jackals, foxes, and even leopards. Hundreds of bird species inhabit the zone as well. Both Jordan and Israel have established nature reserves around the Dead Sea.
The delta of the Jordan River was formerly a jungle of papyrus and palm trees. The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus described Jericho as "the most fertile spot in Judea ''. In Roman and Byzantine times, sugarcane, henna, and sycamore fig all made the lower Jordan valley wealthy. One of the most valuable products produced by Jericho was the sap of the balsam tree, which could be made into perfume. By the 19th century, Jericho 's fertility had disappeared.
There are several small communities near the Dead Sea. These include Ein Gedi, Neve Zohar and the Israeli settlements in the Megilot Regional Council: Kalya, Mitzpe Shalem and Avnat. There is a nature preserve at Ein Gedi, and several Dead Sea hotels are located on the southwest end at Ein Bokek near Neve Zohar. Highway 90 runs north - south on the Israeli side for a total distance of 565 km (351 mi) from Metula on the Lebanese border in the north to its southern terminus at the Egyptian border near the Red Sea port of Eilat.
Potash City is a small community on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, and others including Suweima. Highway 65 runs north - south on the Jordanian side from near Jordan 's northern tip down past the Dead Sea to the port of Aqaba.
Dwelling in caves near the Dead Sea is recorded in the Hebrew Bible as having taken place before the Israelites came to Canaan, and extensively at the time of King David.
Just northwest of the Dead Sea is Jericho. Somewhere, perhaps on the southeastern shore, would be the cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis which were said to have been destroyed in the time of Abraham: Sodom and Gomorra (Genesis 18) and the three other "Cities of the Plain '', Admah, Zeboim and Zoar (Deuteronomy 29: 23). Zoar escaped destruction when Abraham 's nephew Lot escaped to Zoar from Sodom (Genesis 19: 21 - 22). Before the destruction, the Dead Sea was a valley full of natural tar pits, which was called the vale of Siddim. King David was said to have hidden from Saul at Ein Gedi nearby.
In Ezekiel 47: 8 - 9 there is a specific prophecy that the sea will "be healed and made fresh '', becoming a normal lake capable of supporting marine life. A similar prophecy is stated in Zechariah 14: 8, which says that "living waters will go out from Jerusalem, half of them to the eastern sea (likely the Dead Sea) and half to the western sea (the Mediterranean). ''
Aristotle wrote about the remarkable waters. The Nabateans and others discovered the value of the globs of natural asphalt that constantly floated to the surface where they could be harvested with nets. The Egyptians were steady customers, as they used asphalt in the embalming process that created mummies. The Ancient Romans knew the Dead Sea as "Palus Asphaltites '' (Asphalt Lake).
King Herod the Great built or rebuilt several fortresses and palaces on the western bank of the Dead Sea. The most famous was Masada, where in 70 CE a small group of Jewish zealots fled after the fall of the destruction of the Second Temple. The zealots survived until 73 CE, when a siege by the X Legion ended in the deaths by suicide of its 960 inhabitants. Another historically important fortress was Machaerus (מכוור), on the eastern bank, where, according to Josephus, John the Baptist was imprisoned by Herod Antipas and died.
Also in Roman times, some Essenes settled on the Dead Sea 's western shore; Pliny the Elder identifies their location with the words, "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast... (above) the town of Engeda '' (Natural History, Bk 5.73); and it is therefore a hugely popular but contested hypothesis today, that same Essenes are identical with the settlers at Qumran and that "the Dead Sea Scrolls '' discovered during the 20th century in the nearby caves had been their own library.
Josephus identified the Dead Sea in geographic proximity to the ancient Biblical city of Sodom. However, he referred to the lake by its Greek name, Asphaltites.
Various sects of Jews settled in caves overlooking the Dead Sea. The best known of these are the Essenes of Qumran, who left an extensive library known as the Dead Sea Scrolls. The town of Ein Gedi, mentioned many times in the Mishna, produced persimmon for the temple 's fragrance and for export, using a secret recipe. "Sodomite salt '' was an essential mineral for the temple 's holy incense, but was said to be dangerous for home use and could cause blindness. The Roman camps surrounding Masada were built by Jewish slaves receiving water from the towns around the lake. These towns had drinking water from the Ein Feshcha springs and other sweetwater springs in the vicinity.
Intimately connected with the Judean wilderness to its northwest and west, the Dead Sea was a place of escape and refuge. The remoteness of the region attracted Greek Orthodox monks since the Byzantine era. Their monasteries, such as Saint George in Wadi Kelt and Mar Saba in the Judaean Desert, are places of pilgrimage.
In the 19th century the River Jordan and the Dead Sea were explored by boat primarily by Christopher Costigan in 1835, Thomas Howard Molyneux in 1847, William Francis Lynch in 1848, and John MacGregor in 1869. The full text of W.F. Lynch 's 1949 book Narrative of the United States ' Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea is available online. Charles Leonard Irby and James Mangles travelled along the shores of the Dead Sea already in 1817 - 18, but did n't navigate on its waters.
Explorers and scientists arrived in the area to analyze the minerals and research the unique climate.
After the find of the "Moabite Stone '' in 1868 on the plateau east of the Dead Sea, Moses Wilhelm Shapira and his partner Salim al - Khouri forged and sold a whole range of presumed "Moabite '' antiquities, and in 1883 Shapira presented what is now known as the "Shapira Strips '', a supposedly ancient scroll written on leather strips which he claimed had been found near the Dead Sea. The strips were declared to be forgeries and Shapira took his own life in disgrace.
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, hundreds of religious documents dated between 150 BCE and 70 CE were found in caves near the ancient settlement of Qumran, about one mile (1.6 kilometres) inland from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea (presently in the West Bank). They became known and famous as the Dead Sea Scrolls.
The world 's lowest roads, Highway 90, run along the Israeli and West Bank shores of the Dead Sea, along with Highway 65 on the Jordanian side, at 393 m (1,289 ft) below sea level.
A golf course named for Sodom and Gomorrah was built by the British at Kalia on the northern shore.
The first major Israeli hotels were built in nearby Arad, and since the 1960s at the Ein Bokek resort complex.
Israel has 15 hotels along the Dead Sea shore, generating total revenues of $291 million in 2012. Most Israeli hotels and resorts on the Dead Sea are on a six - kilometre (3.7 - mile) stretch of the southern shore.
On the Jordanian side, nine international franchises have opened seaside resort hotels near the King Hussein Bin Talal Convention Center, along with resort apartments, on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. The 9 hotels have boosted the Jordanian side 's capacity to 2,800 rooms.
On November 22, 2015, the Dead Sea panorama road was included along with 40 archaeological locations in Jordan, to become live on Google Street View.
The Palestinian Dead Sea Coast is about 40 kilometres (25 miles) long. The World Bank estimates that a Palestinian Dead Sea tourism industry could generate $290 million of revenues per year and 2,900 jobs. However, Palestinians have been unable to obtain construction permits for tourism - related investments on the Dead Sea. According to the World Bank, Officials in the Palestinian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities state that the only way to apply for such permits is through the Joint Committees established under the Oslo Agreement, but the relevant committee has not met with any degree of regularity since 2000.
In the early part of the 20th century, the Dead Sea began to attract interest from chemists who deduced the sea was a natural deposit of potash (potassium chloride) and bromine. The Palestine Potash Company was chartered in 1929, after its founder, Siberian Jewish engineer and pioneer of Lake Baikal exploitation, Moses Novomeysky, worked for the charter for over ten years. The first plant was on the north shore of the Dead Sea at Kalya and produced potash by solar evaporation of the brine. Employing Arabs and Jews, it was an island of peace in turbulent times. The company quickly grew into the largest industrial site in the Middle East, and in 1934 built a second plant on the southwest shore, in the Mount Sodom area, south of the ' Lashon ' region of the Dead Sea. Palestine Potash Company supplied half of Britain 's potash during World War II. Both plants were destroyed by the Jordanians in the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War.
The Dead Sea Works was founded in 1952 as a state - owned enterprise based on the remnants of the Palestine Potash Company. In 1995, the company was privatized and it is now owned by Israel Chemicals. From the Dead Sea brine, Israel produces (2001) 1.77 million tons potash, 206,000 tons elemental bromine, 44,900 tons caustic soda, 25,000 tons magnesium metal, and sodium chloride. Israeli companies generate around US $3 billion annually from the sale of Dead Sea minerals (primarily potash and bromine), and from other products that are derived from Dead Sea Minerals.
On the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, Arab Potash (APC), formed in 1956, produces 2.0 million tons of potash annually, as well as sodium chloride and bromine. The plant is located at Safi, South Aghwar Department, in the Karak Governorate.
Jordanian Dead Sea mineral industries generate about $1.2 billion in sales (equivalent to 4 percent of Jordan 's GDP).
The Palestinian Dead Sea Coast is about 40 kilometres (25 miles) long. The Palestinian economy is unable to benefit from Dead Sea chemicals due to restricted access, permit issues and the uncertainties of the investment climate. The World Bank estimates that a Palestinian Dead Sea chemicals industry could generate $918 m incremental value added per year, "almost equivalent to the contribution of the entire manufacturing sector of Palestinian territories today ''.
Both companies, Dead Sea Works Ltd. and Arab Potash, use extensive salt evaporation pans that have essentially diked the entire southern end of the Dead Sea for the purpose of producing carnallite, potassium magnesium chloride, which is then processed further to produce potassium chloride. The ponds are separated by a central dike that runs roughly north - south along the international border. The power plant on the Israeli side allows production of magnesium metal (by a subsidiary, Dead Sea Magnesium Ltd.).
Due to the popularity of the sea 's therapeutic and healing properties, several companies have also shown interest in the manufacturing and supplying of Dead Sea salts as raw materials for body and skin care products.
Since 1930, when its surface was 1,050 km (410 sq mi) and its level was 390 m (1,280 ft) below sea level, the Dead Sea has been monitored continuously. In recent decades, the Dead Sea has been rapidly shrinking because of diversion of incoming water from the Jordan River to the north. The southern end is fed by a canal maintained by the Dead Sea Works, a company that converts the sea 's raw materials. From a water surface of 395 m (1,296 ft) below sea level in 1970 it fell 22 m (72 ft) to 418 m (1,371 ft) below sea level in 2006, reaching a drop rate of 1 m (3 ft) per year. As the water level decreases, the characteristics of the Sea and surrounding region may substantially change.
The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by a groundwater level drop, causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater. This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of large sinkholes along the western shore -- incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers, rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes.
In May 2009 at the World Economic Forum, Jordan announced its plans to construct the "Jordan National Red Sea Development Project '' (JRSP). This is a plan to convey seawater from the Red Sea near Aqaba to the Dead Sea. Water would be desalinated along the route to provide fresh water to Jordan, with the brine discharge sent to the Dead Sea for replenishment. The early planning called for developer and financier selection to be completed by year 's end, with detailed design to begin in early 2010, and water delivery by 2017. Israel expressed its support and will likely benefit from some of the water delivery to its Negev region. Some hydro - power will be collected near the Dead Sea from the dramatic change in elevation on the downhill side of the project.
At a regional conference in July 2009, officials expressed concern about the declining water levels. Some suggested industrial activities around the Dead Sea might need to be reduced. Others advised environmental measures to restore conditions such as increasing the volume of flow from the Jordan River to replenish the Dead Sea. Currently, only sewage and effluent from fish ponds run in the river 's channel. Experts also stressed the need for strict conservation efforts. They said agriculture should not be expanded, sustainable support capabilities should be incorporated into the area and pollution sources should be reduced.
Sources: Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, Haaretz, Jewish Virtual Library, Jordan Valley Authority.
In October 2009, the Jordanians announced accelerated plans to extract around 300 million cubic metres (11 billion cubic feet) of water per year from the Red Sea, desalinate it for use as fresh water and send the waste water to the Dead Sea by tunnel, despite concerns about inadequate time to assess the potential environmental impact. According to Jordan 's minister for water, General Maysoun Zu'bi, this project could be considered as the first phase of the Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance.
In December 2013, Israel, Jordan and the Palestinian Authority signed an agreement for laying a water pipeline to link the Red Sea with the Dead Sea. The pipeline will be 180 km (110 mi) long and is estimated to take up to five years to complete. In January 2015 it was reported that the level of water is now dropping by 1 m (3 ft) a year.
On 27 November 2016, it was announced that the Jordanian government is shortlisting five consortiums to implement the project. Jordan 's ministry of Water and Irrigation said that the $100 million first phase of the project will begin construction in the first quarter of 2018, and will be completed by 2021.
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most points scored by a single team in an nba game | List of highest - scoring NBA games - wikipedia
In basketball, points are used to keep track of the score in a game. Points can be accumulated by making field goals (worth two points from within the three - point line or three points from beyond the three - point line) or free throws (worth one point). The team that records the most points at the end of a game is declared the game 's winner. If the game is still tied at the end of regulation play, additional overtime period (s) are played in order to determine the winner.
Teams only averaged around 80 points per game in the years following the founding of the National Basketball Association (NBA) in 1946. Before the introduction of the shot clock, teams often ran out the clock by passing the ball more frequently after they established a lead in a game. If one team chose to stall, the other team (especially if behind) would often commit fouls to regain possession. This resulted in very low - scoring games with many fouls, affecting attendance by making fans irritable. Starting in the 1954 -- 55 season, the NBA implemented a 24 - second shot clock. If the offensive team fails to hit the rim with the ball within the allotted time, they would lose possession. This innovation resulted in much higher scoring games. All of the highest - scoring games in the NBA have happened during the shot - clock era.
The highest - scoring regular season game is the triple - overtime game between the Detroit Pistons and the Denver Nuggets on December 13, 1983. The two teams combined to score 370 points, with the Pistons defeating the Nuggets 186 -- 184. An NBA - record four players scored over 40 points in the game, including the Nuggets ' Kiki Vandeweghe with a game - high 51. The two teams also set several other NBA records, including the most points scored by one team (186 points), the most points scored by a losing team (184), the most field goals by two teams (142), most field goals by one team (74) and most assists by two teams (93).
The highest - scoring regular season game in regulation was between the Golden State Warriors and the Denver Nuggets on November 2, 1990. In that game, Golden State defeated Denver 162 -- 158. The Warriors ' Chris Mullin scored a game - high 38 points. The Nuggets were coached by Doug Moe from 1980 to 1990 and Paul Westhead from 1990 to 1992, both of whom employed a run and gun offensive strategy, which focuses on attempting a high number of field goals while also conceding a large number of points on defense. In fact, Moe 's and Westhead 's Nuggets were participants in five of the ten highest - scoring regular season games in NBA history. The Warriors were coached by Don Nelson from 1988 to 1995 and 2006 to 2010. He employed Nellie Ball, a style of run and gun that uses smaller, more athletic players to outrun opponents. Another notable high scoring regular season game is a March 2, 1962 game between the Philadelphia Warriors and the New York Knicks. In that game, the Warriors ' Wilt Chamberlain scored an NBA - record 100 points.
The highest - scoring playoff game is the double - overtime game between the Portland Trail Blazers and the Phoenix Suns on May 11, 1992. The two teams combined to score 304 points, with the Trail Blazers defeating the Suns 153 -- 151. The Suns ' Kevin Johnson scored a game - high 35 points, with 12 other players also scoring in double figures. The highest - scoring playoff game in regulation occurred when the San Antonio Spurs defeated the Denver Nuggets with a score of 152 -- 133 for a combined score of 285 points on April 26, 1983. In that game, the Spurs ' George Gervin scored a game - high 42 points.
Most of the highest - scoring games happened before the 1995 -- 96 season, when the average scoring (points per game) per team was always in the 100s. Until the emergence of ' small ball ' in 2013, the average had dropped down to the 90s. Only two post-1995 games make the top - ten lists of both the regular season and playoffs: a May 10, 2003 game between the Dallas Mavericks and the Sacramento Kings and a December 7, 2006 game between the Phoenix Suns and New Jersey Nets. Both the Mavericks and the Suns were coached by Nelson and Mike D'Antoni respectively, both of whom also made use of the run and gun style.
Below are the top 10 highest - scoring playoff games. Four of the games happened before the 1979 -- 80 season, the season in which the three - point line was first implemented.
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what does it mean to be a master smith | American Bladesmith Society - wikipedia
The American Bladesmith Society, or ABS, is a non-profit organization composed of knifemakers whose primary function is to promote the techniques of forging steel blades. The ABS was founded by knifemaker William F. Moran, who came up with the concept in 1972 when he was Chairman of the Knifemakers ' Guild; the following year, he introduced Damascus steel blades at an annual show. In 1976, he incorporated the organization, and it received non-profit status in 1985.
ABS knifemakers forge their blades, as opposed to making them via the stock - removal method. The ABS has developed a system of ratings designating whether a member is an Apprentice, a Journeyman, or a Master smith. The ABS has partnered with several colleges to offer courses in bladesmithing and has launched its own museum.
Bill Moran had been elected chairman of the Knifemakers ' Guild in 1972. At that time, there were fewer than a dozen practicing bladesmiths in America, and this number was decreasing, whereas the number of stock removal knifemakers was increasing. To remedy this, Moran unveiled 8 pattern welded blades at the 1973 show, dubbing them "Damascus Steel, '' and he handed out a booklet on how to forge the steel to the knifemakers in attendance.
Within months, a handful of knifemakers had begun making Damascus blades: Bill Bagwell, Don Hastings, Michael Connor, and Sid Birt. By 1976 more than a dozen bladesmiths were making Damascus steel, and on December 4, 1976, Moran wrote the by - laws.
In 1985, the ABS held its first "hammer - in '' at Dubois, Wyoming in conjunction with the University of Wyoming. The following year it was moved to Washington, Arkansas in conjunction with Texarkana College. This campus had a replica of James Black 's blacksmith shop where, during the winter of 1830 and 1831, American frontiersman James Bowie purchased a knife from Black. This hammer - in, named the Piney Woods Hammer - In, still occurs semi-annually.
In 1988, the ABS established the criteria for Mastersmith and Journeyman. In 1991, Moran stepped down as its President. But the Society unanimously elected him "Chairman Emeritus, '' meaning that he would serve on the board for the balance of his life.
In 1988, on the grounds of Historic Washington State Park in Hempstead County, Arkansas, the ABS and Texarkana College founded a Bladesmithing School in collaboration with the Pioneer Washington Foundation and the Arkansas State Parks. The campus was located near where historians believed that James Black had first forged the Bowie knife. From 1988 to 2001, Bill Moran taught at least one class a year at the school from basic knife making to the forging of Damascus steel. Upon his retirement from teaching in 2001, the school was renamed the William F. Moran School of Bladesmithing. The American Bladesmith Society is now associated with Texarkana College in Arkansas, Haywood Community College in North Carolina, and the New England School of Metalwork in Maine which offer Bladesmithing courses taught by experienced ABS Master Smiths and Journeyman Smiths.
The ABS launched its own museum and Hall of Fame in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1995 in conjunction with the Historic Arkansas Museum. The first year inductions were held in 1996: James Black, James Bowie, Don Hastings, B.R. Hughes, William F. Moran, and William Scagel.
Bladesmiths join the ABS as Regular members and are rated as Apprentice Smiths. After a three (3) year period as a member they may apply for the Journeyman test.
An applicant is eligible to apply for Journeyman Smith judging and rating at the Annual ABS meeting, after they have been a member of the ABS for 3 years. Following the "Introduction to Bladesmithing Course, '' the applicant may take the test under the supervision of a Master Smith. The applicant must have personally forged and performed all work on the test blade, with no other person physically assisting in its construction or heat - treating. The test knife must be a carbon steel forged blade with a maximum overall length of 15 inches, maximum width of 2 inches and blade length of 10 inches. Damascus blades or laminated blades are not allowed as test blades. Once the test begins, no work, not even light stropping, may be done to the test blade. The test blade is used to cut a free - hanging rope, chop through 2 2X4 '' pieces of lumber, and retain an edge capable of shaving hair from the judge 's arm. Lastly, the knife is placed into a vise and flexed. The knife must spring back without breaking and must remain functional. If successful, the applicant must submit 5 forged carbon steel knives for judging on symmetry, balance, and aesthetics. Knifemakers who have attained this title frequently use the suffix "JS '' when informing the public about their knives.
At the New York Knife Show in 1981, the first Master bladesmith ratings were awarded to: Bill Bagwell, Jimmy Fikes, Don Fogg, Don Hastings, Bill Moran, and James Schmidt. Years later, tests were established for a maker to attain a rating of "Master smith. '' The tests for Master smith include using a forged Damascus steel blade with a minimum of 300 layers and fashioned as a "stick tang knife '' (as opposed to a full - tang) to cut a free hanging rope, chop through 2 2X4 '' pieces of lumber, and retain an edge capable of shaving hair. Lastly, the knife is placed into a vise and flexed for 90 degrees. The knife must spring back without breaking, must remain functional, and must not slip from the handle. Once the performance test is passed, the applicant must submit 5 knives to a panel of judges, all knives are judged on balance, beauty, and symmetry, but one must be either an "Art Knife '' or a "European style '' dagger. The first smith to receive the Master title under these requirements was Wayne Goddard. Wyoming knifemaker Audra Draper became the first woman to hold a Master smith title in 1999. Knifemakers who have attained this title frequently use the suffix "MS '' when informing the public about their knives.
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why do we use greek letters in science | Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering - wikipedia
Greek letters are used in mathematics, science, engineering, and other areas where mathematical notation is used as symbols for constants, special functions, and also conventionally for variables representing certain quantities. In these contexts, the capital letters and the small letters represent distinct and unrelated entities. Those Greek letters which have the same form as Latin letters are rarely used: capital A, B, E, Z, H, I, K, M, N, O, P, T, Y, X. Small ι, ο and υ are also rarely used, since they closely resemble the Latin letters i, o and u. Sometimes font variants of Greek letters are used as distinct symbols in mathematics, in particular for ε / ε and π / π. The archaic letter digamma (Ϝ / ϝ / ϛ) is sometimes used.
The Bayer designation naming scheme for stars typically uses the first Greek letter, α, for the brightest star in each constellation, and runs through the alphabet before switching to Latin letters.
In mathematical finance, the Greeks are the variables denoted by Greek letters used to describe the risk of certain investments.
The majority of English - speaking mathematicians use neither the modern nor the historical Greek pronunciations of the names of the letters, but the traditional English pronunciation, e.g. / ˈθeɪtə / for θ (US pronunciation), cf. ancient (thɛ̂ːta) and modern (ˈθita).
The Greek letter forms used in mathematics are often different from those used in Greek - language text: they are designed to be used in isolation, not connected to other letters, and some use variant forms which are not normally used in current Greek typography.
The OpenType font format has the feature tag ' mgrk ' "Mathematical Greek '' to identify a glyph as representing a Greek letter to be used in mathematical (as opposed to Greek language) contexts.
The table below shows a comparison of Greek letters rendered in TeX and HTML. The font used in the TeX rendering is an italic style. This is in line with the convention that variables should be italicized. As Greek letters are more often than not used as variables in mathematical formulas, a Greek letter appearing similar to the TeX rendering is more likely to be encountered in works involving mathematics.
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where is a web page’s dom instance located | Document Object Model - wikipedia
The Document Object Model (DOM) is a cross-platform and language - independent application programming interface that treats an HTML, XHTML, or XML document as a tree structure wherein each node is an object representing a part of the document. The objects can be manipulated programmatically and any visible changes occurring as a result may then be reflected in the display of the document.
The principal standardization of DOM was handled by the World Wide Web Consortium, which last developed a recommendation in 2004. WHATWG took over development of the standard, publishing it as a living document. The W3C now publishes stable snapshots of the WHATWG standard.
The history of the Document Object Model is intertwined with the history of the "browser wars '' of the late 1990s between Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer, as well as with that of JavaScript and JScript, the first scripting languages to be widely implemented in the layout engines of web browsers.
JavaScript was released by Netscape Communications in 1995 within Netscape Navigator 2.0. Netscape 's competitor, Microsoft, released Internet Explorer 3.0 the following year with a port of JavaScript called JScript. JavaScript and JScript let web developers create web pages with client - side interactivity. The limited facilities for detecting user - generated events and modifying the HTML document in the first generation of these languages eventually became known as "DOM Level 0 '' or "Legacy DOM. '' No independent standard was developed for DOM Level 0, but it was partly described in the specifications for HTML 4.
Legacy DOM was limited in the kinds of elements that could be accessed. Form, link and image elements could be referenced with a hierarchical name that began with the root document object. A hierarchical name could make use of either the names or the sequential index of the traversed elements. For example, a form input element could be accessed as either document. formName. inputName or document. forms (0). elements (0).
The Legacy DOM enabled client - side form validation and the popular "rollover '' effect.
In 1997, Netscape and Microsoft released version 4.0 of Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer respectively, adding support for Dynamic HTML (DHTML) functionality enabling changes to a loaded HTML document. DHTML required extensions to the rudimentary document object that was available in the Legacy DOM implementations. Although the Legacy DOM implementations were largely compatible since JScript was based on JavaScript, the DHTML DOM extensions were developed in parallel by each browser maker and remained incompatible. These versions of the DOM became known as the "Intermediate DOM. ''
After the standardization of ECMAScript, the W3C DOM Working Group began drafting a standard DOM specification. The completed specification, known as "DOM Level 1 '', was recommended by W3C in late 1998. By 2005, large parts of W3C DOM were well - supported by common ECMAScript - enabled browsers, including Microsoft Internet Explorer version 6 (from 2001), Opera, Safari and Gecko - based browsers (like Mozilla, Firefox, SeaMonkey and Camino).
The W3C DOM Working Group published its final recommendation and subsequently disbanded in 2004. Development efforts migrated to the WHATWG, which continues to maintain a living standard. In 2009, the Web Applications group reorganized DOM activities at the W3C. In 2013, due to a lack of progress and the impending release of HTML5, the DOM Level 4 specification was reassigned to the HTML Working Group to expedite its completion. Meanwhile, in 2015, the Web Applications group was disbanded and DOM stewardship passed to the Web Platform group. Beginning with the publication of DOM Level 4 in 2015, the W3C creates new recommendations based on snapshots of the WHATWG standard.
To render a document such as an HTML page, most web browsers use an internal model similar to the DOM. The nodes of every document are organized in a tree structure, called the DOM tree, with the topmost node named as "Document object ''. When an HTML page is rendered in browsers, the browser downloads the HTML into local memory and automatically parses it to display the page on screen.
When a web page is loaded, the browser creates a Document Object Model of the page, which is an object oriented representation of an HTML document, that acts as an interface between JavaScript and the document itself and allows the creation of dynamic web pages:
Because DOM supports navigation in any direction (e.g., parent and previous sibling) and allows for arbitrary modifications, an implementation must at least buffer the document that has been read so far (or some parsed form of it).
Web browsers rely on layout engines to parse HTML into a DOM. Some layout engines, such as Trident / MSHTML, are associated primarily or exclusively with a particular browser, such as Internet Explorer. Others, including Blink, WebKit, and Gecko, are shared by a number of browsers, such as Google Chrome, Opera, Safari, and Firefox. The different layout engines implement the DOM standards to varying degrees of compliance.
DOM implementations:
APIs that expose DOM implementations:
Inspection tools:
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our father which are in heaven hallowed be thy name | Lord 's Prayer - wikipedia
The Lord 's Prayer (also called the Our Father or Pater Noster, among other names) is a venerated Christian prayer that, according to the New Testament, Jesus taught as the way to pray. Two versions of this prayer are recorded: the long form in the Gospel of Matthew in the middle of the Sermon on the Mount, and the short form in the Gospel of Luke when "one of his disciples said to him, ' Lord, teach us to pray, as John taught his disciples. ' ''
The first three of the seven petitions in Matthew address God; the other four are related to human needs and concerns. The Matthew account alone includes the "Your will be done '' and the "Rescue us from the evil one '' (or "Deliver us from evil '') petitions. Both original Greek texts contain the adjective epiousios, which does not appear in any other classical or Koine Greek literature; while controversial, "daily '' has been the most common English - language translation of this word. Some Christians, particularly Protestants, conclude the prayer with a doxology, a later addendum appearing in some manuscripts of Matthew.
Matthew 6: 9 - 13 (NRSV)
Luke 11: 2 - 4 (NRSV)
Initial words on the topic from the Catechism of the Catholic Church teach that it "is truly the summary of the whole gospel. '' The prayer is used by most Christian churches in their worship; with few exceptions, the liturgical form is the Matthean. Although theological differences and various modes of worship divide Christians, according to Fuller Seminary professor Clayton Schmit, "there is a sense of solidarity in knowing that Christians around the globe are praying together... and these words always unite us. ''
In biblical criticism, the prayer 's absence in the Gospel of Mark together with its occurrence in Matthew and Luke has caused scholars who accept the two - source hypothesis (against other document hypotheses) to conclude that it is probably a logion original to Q.
Standard edition of Greek text
Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου ἐλθέτω ἡ βασιλεία σου γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά σου, ὡς ἐν οὐρανῷ καὶ ἐπὶ γῆς τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον δὸς ἡμῖν σήμερον καὶ ἄφες ἡμῖν τὰ ὀφειλήματα ἡμῶν, ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς ἀφήκαμεν τοῖς ὀφειλέταις ἡμῶν καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν, ἀλλὰ ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ.
Patriarchal Edition 1904
Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου ἐλθέτω ἡ βασιλεία σου γενηθήτω τὸ θέλημά σου, ὡς ἐν οὐρανῷ, καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς τὸν ἄρτον ἡμῶν τὸν ἐπιούσιον δὸς ἡμῖν σήμερον καὶ ἄφες ἡμῖν τὰ ὀφειλήματα ἡμῶν, ὡς καὶ ἡμεῖς ἀφίεμεν τοῖς ὀφειλέταις ἡμῶν καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν, ἀλλὰ ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ τοῦ πονηροῦ. ὅτι σοῦ ἐστιν ἡ βασιλεία καὶ ἡ δύναμις καὶ ἡ δόξα εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας ἀμήν.
Roman Missal
There are several different English translations of the Lord 's Prayer from Greek or Latin, beginning around AD 650 with the Northumbrian translation. Of those in current liturgical use, the three best - known are:
The square brackets in three of the texts below indicate the doxology often added at the end of the prayer by Protestants and, in a slightly different form, by the Byzantine Rite ("For thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory: of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, now and ever, and unto ages of ages. Amen. ''), among whom the prayer proper is usually recited by the cantors and congregation in unison, and the doxology by the priest as the conclusion of the prayer. The Anglican Book of Common Prayer adds it in some services but not in all. Older English translations of the Bible, based on late Byzantine Greek manuscripts, included it, but it is excluded in critical editions of the New Testament, such as that of the United Bible Societies. It is absent in the oldest manuscripts and is not considered to be part of the original text of Matthew 6: 9 -- 13. The Catholic Church has never attached it to the Lord 's Prayer, but has included it in the Roman Rite Mass as revised in 1969, not as part of the Our Father but separated from it by a prayer called the embolism spoken or sung by the priest (in the official ICEL English translation: "Deliver us, Lord, we pray, from every evil, graciously grant peace in our days, that, by the help of your mercy, we may be always free from sin and safe from all distress, as we await the blessed hope and the coming of our Saviour, Jesus Christ. '') that elaborates on the final petition, "Deliver us from evil. '' For more information on this doxology, see Doxology, below. When Reformers set out to translate the King James Bible, they assumed that a Greek manuscript they possessed was ancient and therefore adopted the phrase "For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory forever '' into the Lord 's Prayer. Later scholarship demonstrated that the manuscript was actually a late addition based on Eastern liturgical tradition.
Other English translations are also used.
Though Matthew 6: 12 uses the term debts, the older English versions of the Lord 's Prayer uses the term trespasses, while ecumenical versions often use the term sins. The latter choice may be due to Luke 11: 4, which uses the word sins, while the former may be due to Matthew 6: 14 (immediately after the text of the prayer), where Jesus speaks of trespasses. As early as the third century, Origen of Alexandria used the word trespasses (παραπτώματα) in the prayer. Although the Latin form that was traditionally used in Western Europe has debita (debts), most English - speaking Christians (except Scottish Presbyterians and some others of the Reformed tradition) use trespasses. The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the Established Presbyterian Church of Scotland as well as the Congregational denomination follow the version found in Matthew 6 in the Authorized Version (known also as the King James Version), which in the prayer uses the words "debts '' and "debtors ''.
All these versions are based on the text in Matthew, rather than Luke, of the prayer given by Jesus:
Matthew 6: 9 -- 13 (ESV)
Luke 11: 2 -- 4 (ESV)
Subheadings use 1662 Book of Common Prayer (BCP) (see above)
"Our Father, which art in heaven ''
This explains that God, the Father, rests in Heaven, and the plural word "Our '' indicates that there are a group of God 's children who call him Father.
Augustine interpreted "heaven '' (coelum, sky) in this context as meaning "in the hearts of the righteous, as it were in His holy temple ''.
"Hallowed be thy Name; ''
Former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams explains this phrase as a petition that people may look upon God 's name as holy, as something that inspires awe and reverence, and that they may not trivialize it by making God a tool for their purposes, to "put other people down, or as a sort of magic to make themselves feel safe ''. He sums up the meaning of the phrase by saying: "Understand what you 're talking about when you 're talking about God, this is serious, this is the most wonderful and frightening reality that we could imagine, more wonderful and frightening than we can imagine. ''
"Thy kingdom come; ''
"This petition has its parallel in the Jewish prayer, ' May he establish his Kingdom during your life and during your days. ' In the gospels Jesus speaks frequently of God 's kingdom, but never defines the concept: "He assumed this was a concept so familiar that it did not require definition. '' Concerning how Jesus ' audience in the gospels would have understood him, G.E. Ladd turns to the concept 's Hebrew Biblical background: "The Hebrew word malkuth (...) refers first to a reign, dominion, or rule and only secondarily to the realm over which a reign is exercised. (...) When malkuth is used of God, it almost always refers to his authority or to his rule as the heavenly King. '' This petition looks to the perfect establishment of God 's rule in the world in the future, an act of God resulting in the eschatological order of the new age.
The request for God 's kingdom to come is commonly interpreted at the most literal level: as a reference to the belief, common at the time, that a Messiah figure would bring about a kingdom of God. Traditionally, the coming of God 's kingdom is seen as a divine gift to be prayed for, not a human achievement. This idea is frequently challenged by groups who believe that the Kingdom will come by the hands of those faithful who work for a better world. These believe that Jesus ' commands to feed the hungry and clothe the needy are the kingdom to which he was referring.
Hilda C. Graef notes that the operative Greek word, basileia, means both kingdom and kingship (i.e., reign, dominion, governing, etc.), but that the English word kingdom loses this double meaning. Kingship adds a psychological meaning to the petition: one is also praying for the condition of soul where one follows God 's will.
"Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven: ''
John Ortberg interprets this phrase as follows: "Many people think our job is to get my afterlife destination taken care of, then tread water till we all get ejected and God comes back and torches this place. But Jesus never told anybody -- neither his disciples nor us -- to pray, ' Get me out of here so I can go up there. ' His prayer was, ' Make up there come down here. ' Make things down here run the way they do up there. '' The request that "thy will be done '' is God 's invitation to "join him in making things down here the way they are up there. ''
"Give us this day our daily (epiousios) bread; ''
As mentioned earlier in this article, the original word ἐπιούσιος (epiousios), commonly characterized as daily, is unique to the Lord 's Prayer in all of ancient Greek literature. The word is almost a hapax legomenon, occurring only in Luke and Matthew 's versions of the Lord 's Prayer, and nowhere else in any other extant Greek texts. While epiousios is often substituted by the word "daily, '' all other New Testament translations from the Greek into "daily '' otherwise reference hemeran (ἡμέραν, "the day ''), which does not appear in this usage.
Via linguistic parsing, Jerome translated "ἐπιούσιον '' (epiousios) as "supersubstantialem '' in the Gospel of Matthew, but chose "cotidianum '' ("daily '') in the Gospel of Luke. This wide - ranging difference with respect to meaning of epiousios is discussed in detail in the current Catechism of the Catholic Church by way of an inclusive approach toward tradition as well as a literal one for meaning: "Taken in a temporal sense, this word is a pedagogical repetition of "this day, '' to confirm us in trust "without reservation. '' Taken in the qualitative sense, it signifies what is necessary for life, and more broadly every good thing sufficient for subsistence. Taken literally (epi - ousios: "super-essential ''), it refers directly to the Bread of Life, the Body of Christ, the "medicine of immortality, '' without which we have no life within us. ''
Epiousios is translated as supersubstantialem in the Vulgate (Matthew 6: 11) and accordingly as supersubstantial in the Douay - Rheims Bible (Matthew 6: 11).
Barclay M. Newman 's A Concise Greek - English Dictionary of the New Testament, published in a revised edition in 2010 by the United Bible Societies has the following entry:
"And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us; ''
The Presbyterian and other Reformed churches tend to use the rendering "forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors ''. Roman Catholics, Anglicans and Methodists are more likely to say "trespasses... those who trespass against us ''. The "debts '' form appears in the first English translation of the Bible, by John Wycliffe in 1395 (Wycliffe spelling "dettis ''). The "trespasses '' version appears in the 1526 translation by William Tyndale (Tyndale spelling "treaspases ''). In 1549 the first Book of Common Prayer in English used a version of the prayer with "trespasses ''. This became the "official '' version used in Anglican congregations.
After the request for bread, Matthew and Luke diverge slightly. Matthew continues with a request for debts to be forgiven in the same manner as people have forgiven those who have debts against them. Luke, on the other hand, makes a similar request about sins being forgiven in the manner of debts being forgiven between people. The word "debts '' (ὀφειλήματα) does not necessarily mean financial obligations, as shown by the use of the verbal form of the same word (ὀφείλετε) in passages such as Romans 13: 8. The Aramaic word ḥôbâ can mean "debt '' or "sin ''. This difference between Luke 's and Matthew 's wording could be explained by the original form of the prayer having been in Aramaic. The generally accepted interpretation is thus that the request is for forgiveness of sin, not of supposed loans granted by God. Asking for forgiveness from God was a staple of Jewish prayers. It was also considered proper for individuals to be forgiving of others, so the sentiment expressed in the prayer would have been a common one of the time.
Anthony C. Deane, Canon of Worcester Cathedral, suggests that the choice of the word "ὀφειλήματα '' (debts), rather than "ἁμαρτίας '' (sins), indicates a reference to failures to use opportunities of doing good. He links this with the parable of the sheep and the goats (also in Matthew 's Gospel), in which the grounds for condemnation are not wrongdoing in the ordinary sense but failure to do right, missing opportunities for showing love to others.
"As we forgive... ''. Divergence between Matthew 's "debts '' and Luke 's "sins '' is relatively trivial compared to the impact of the second half of this statement. The verses immediately following the Lord 's Prayer, show Jesus teaching that the forgiveness of our sin / debt (by God) is contingent on how we forgive others. Later, Matthew elaborates with Jesus ' parable of the unforgiving servant. In this parable, forgiveness from the king (God) is conditional on the servant 's forgiveness of a small debt owed to him.
"And lead us not into temptation, ''
Interpretations of the penultimate petition of the prayer -- not to be led by God into peirasmos -- vary considerably. The range of meanings of the Greek word "πειρασμός '' (peirasmos) is illustrated in New Testament Greek lexicons. In different contexts it can mean temptation, testing, trial, experiment. Although the traditional English translation uses the word "temptation '' and Carl Jung saw God as actually leading people astray, Christians generally interpret the petition as not contradicting James 1: 13 -- 14: "Let no one say when he is tempted, ' I am being tempted by God ', for God can not be tempted with evil, and he himself tempts no one. But each person is tempted when he is lured and enticed by his own desire. '' Some see the petition as an eschatological appeal against unfavourable Last Judgment, a theory supported by the use of the word "peirasmos '' in this sense in Revelation 3: 10. Others see it as a plea against hard tests described elsewhere in scripture, such as those of Job. It is also read as: "Do not let us be led (by ourselves, by others, by Satan) into temptations ''. Since it follows shortly after a plea for daily bread (i.e., material sustenance), it is also seen as referring to not being caught up in the material pleasures given. A similar phrase appears in Matthew 26: 41 and Luke 22: 40 in connection with the prayer of Jesus in Gethsemane. Joseph Smith, the founder of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints, in a translation of the Holy Bible that was n't completed before his death, used this wording: "And suffer us not to be led into temptation ''.
In 2017, Pope Francis, speaking on the Italian TV channel TV2000, proposed that the wording be changed to "do not let us fall into temptation '', explaining that "it is I who fall, it is not God who throws me into temptation ''.
"But deliver us from evil: ''
Translations and scholars are divided over whether the final word here refers to "evil '' in general or "the evil one '' (the devil) in particular. In the original Greek, as well as in the Latin translation, the word could be either of neuter (evil in general) or masculine (the evil one) gender. Matthew 's version of the prayer appears in the Sermon on the Mount, in earlier parts of which the term is used to refer to general evil. Later parts of Matthew refer to the devil when discussing similar issues. However, the devil is never referred to as the evil one in any known Aramaic sources. While John Calvin accepted the vagueness of the term 's meaning, he considered that there is little real difference between the two interpretations, and that therefore the question is of no real consequence. Similar phrases are found in John 17: 15 and 2 Thessalonians 3: 3.
"For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory, For ever and ever. Amen. ''
The doxology of the prayer is not contained in Luke 's version, nor is it present in the earliest manuscripts of Matthew, representative of the Alexandrian text, although it is present in the manuscripts representative of the later Byzantine text. Most scholars do not consider it part of the original text of Matthew. New translations generally omit it.
The first known use of the doxology, in a less lengthy form ("for yours is the power and the glory forever ''), as a conclusion for the Lord 's Prayer (in a version slightly different from that of Matthew) is in the Didache, 8: 2. It has similarities with 1 Chronicles -- "Yours, O LORD, is the greatness and the power and the glory and the victory and the majesty, for all that is in the heavens and in the earth is yours. Yours is the kingdom, O LORD, and you are exalted as head above all. '' In the Byzantine Rite, a similar doxology is sung within the context of the Divine Liturgy. Following the last line of the prayer, the priest sings "For thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory, of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, now and ever and unto ages of ages. ''
Latin Church Roman Catholics do not use the doxology when reciting the Lord 's Prayer, because it is not part of their received liturgical tradition and is not found in the Latin Vulgate of St. Jerome. Since 1970 it is included in the Roman Rite Mass as an independent item, not as part of the Lord 's Prayer. The Anglican Book of Common Prayer sometimes gives the Lord 's Prayer with the doxology, sometimes without. Most Protestants append it to the Lord 's Prayer.
In the course of Christianization, one of the first texts to be translated between many languages has historically been the Lord 's Prayer, long before the full Bible would be translated into the respective languages. Since the 16th century, collections of translations of the prayer have often been used for a quick comparison of languages.
The first such collection, with 22 versions, was Mithridates de differentis linguis by Conrad Gessner (1555; the title refers to Mithridates VI of Pontus who according to Pliny the Elder was an exceptional polyglot).
Gessner 's idea of collecting translations of the prayer was taken up by authors of the 17th century, including Hieronymus Megiserus (1603) and Georg Pistorius (1621). Thomas Lüdeken in 1680 published an enlarged collection of 83 versions of the prayer, of which three were in fictional philosophical languages. Lüdeken quotes as a Barnum Hagius as his source for the exotic scripts used, while their true (anonymous) author was Andreas Müller. In 1700, Lübeck 's collection was re-edited by B. Mottus as Oratio dominica plus centum linguis versionibus aut characteribus reddita et expressa. This edition was comparatively inferior, but a second, revised edition was published in 1715 by John Chamberlain. This 1715 edition was used by Gottfried Hensel in his Synopsis Universae Philologiae (1741) to compile "geographico - polyglot maps '' where the beginning of the prayer was shown in the geographical area where the respective languages were spoken. Johann Ulrich Kraus also published a collection with more than 100 entries.
These collections continued to be improved and expanded well into the 19th century; Johann Christoph Adelung and Johann Severin Vater in 1806 -- 1817 published the prayer in "well - nigh five hundred languages and dialects ''.
Samples of scripture, including the Lord 's Prayer, were published in 52 oriental languages, most of them not previously found in such collections, translated by the brethren of the Serampore Mission and printed at the mission press there in 1818.
There are similarities between the Lord 's Prayer and both biblical and post-biblical material in Jewish prayer especially Kiddushin 81a (Babylonian). "Hallowed be thy name '' is reflected in the Kaddish. "Lead us not into sin '' is echoed in the "morning blessings '' of Jewish prayer. A blessing said by some Jewish communities after the evening Shema includes a phrase quite similar to the opening of the Lord 's Prayer: "Our God in heaven, hallow thy name, and establish thy kingdom forever, and rule over us for ever and ever. Amen. '' There are parallels also in 1 Chronicles 29: 10 -- 18.
Rabbi Aron Mendes Chumaceiro has said that nearly all the elements of the prayer have counterparts in the Jewish Bible and Deuterocanonical books: the first part in Isaiah 63: 15 -- 16 ("Look down from heaven and see, from your holy and beautiful habitation... For you are our Father... '') and Ezekiel 36: 23 ("I will vindicate the holiness of my great name... '') and Ezekiel 38: 23 ("I will show my greatness and my holiness and make myself known in the eyes of many nations... ''), the second part in Obadiah 1: 21 ("Saviours shall go up to Mount Zion to rule Mount Esau, and the kingdom shall be the LORD 's '') and 1 Samuel 3: 18 ("... It is the LORD. Let him do what seems good to him ''), the third part in Proverbs 30: 8 ("... feed me with my apportioned bread ''), the fourth part in Sirach 28: 2 ("Forgive your neighbour the wrong he has done, and then your sins will be pardoned when you pray ''). "Deliver us from evil '' can be compared with Psalm 119: 133 ("... let no iniquity get dominion over me. ''). Chumaceiro says that, because the idea of God leading a human into temptation contradicts the righteousness and love of God, "Lead us not into temptation '' has no counterpart in the Jewish Bible / Christian Old Testament.
The word "πειρασμός '', which is translated as "temptation '', could also be translated as "test '' or "trial '', making evident the attitude of someone 's heart. Well - known examples in the Old Testament are God 's test of Abraham (Genesis 22: 1), his "moving '' (the Hebrew word means basically "to prick, as by weeds, thorns '') David to do (numbering Israel) what David later acknowledged as sin (2 Samuel 24: 1 -- 10; see also 1 Chronicles 21: 1 -- 7), and the Book of Job.
In modern times, various composers have incorporated The Lord 's Prayer into a musical setting for utilization during liturgical services for a variety of religious traditions as well as interfaith ceremonies. Included among them are:
Text
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after a succession of monarchs what country was led to the status of a great european power | Monarchies in Europe - wikipedia
Monarchy was the prevalent form of government in the history of Europe throughout the Middle Ages, only occasionally competing with communalism, notably in the case of the Maritime republics and the Swiss Confederacy.
Republicanism became more prevalent in the Early Modern period, but monarchy remained predominant in Europe during the 19th century. Since the end of World War I, however, most European monarchies have been abolished. There remain, as of 2016, twelve (12) sovereign monarchies in Europe. Of these, seven are kingdoms: Denmark, Norway and Sweden and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland are of pre-modern origin; the kingdoms of the Netherlands and of Belgium were established in 1815 and 1830, respectively; the Kingdom of Spain, founded in 1479, was abolished in 1931, restored in 1947 / 69, before Spain transitioned to democracy in 1978 as a constitutional monarchy. The principalities of Andorra, Liechtenstein, and Monaco and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg were restored as sovereign states in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. The State of the Vatican City was recognized as a sovereign state administered by the Holy See in 1929.
Ten of these monarchies are hereditary, and two are elective: Vatican City (the Pope, elected at the papal conclave), and Andorra (technically a semi-elective diarchy, the joint heads of state being the elected President of France and the Bishop of Urgell, appointed by the Pope).
Most of the monarchies in Europe are constitutional monarchies, which means that the monarch does not influence the politics of the state: either the monarch is legally prohibited from doing so, or the monarch does not utilize the political powers vested in the office by convention. The exceptions are Liechtenstein and Monaco, which are usually considered semi-constitutional monarchies due to the large influence the princes still have on politics, and Vatican City, which is a theocratic absolute elective monarchy. There is currently no major campaign to abolish the monarchy (see monarchism and republicanism) in any of the twelve states, although there is a significant minority of republicans in many of them (e.g. the political organisation Republic in the United Kingdom). Currently seven of the twelve monarchies are members of the European Union: Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
At the start of the 20th century, France, Switzerland and San Marino were the only European nations to have a republican form of government. The ascent of republicanism to the political mainstream started only at the beginning of the 20th century, facilitated by the toppling of various European monarchies through war or revolution; as at the beginning of the 21st century, most of the states in Europe are republics with either a directly or indirectly elected head of state.
The notion of kingship in Europe ultimately originates in systems of tribal kingship in prehistoric Europe. The Minoan (c. 3200 -- c. 1400 BCE) and Mycenaean civilisation (c. 1600 -- c. 1100 BCE) provide the earliest examples of monarchies in protohistoric Greece. Thanks to the decipherment of the Linear B script in 1952, much knowledge has been acquired about society in the Mycenaean realms, where the kings functioned as leaders of palace economies. The role of kings changed in the following Greek Dark Ages (c. 1100 -- c. 750 BCE) to big gentleman farmers with military power.
Since the beginning of antiquity, monarchy confronted several republican forms of government, wherein executive power was in the hands of a number of people that elected leaders in a certain way instead of appointing them by hereditary succession. During the archaic period (c. 750 -- 500 BCE), kingship disappeared in almost all Greek poleis, and also in Rome (then still a barely significant town). After the demise of kingship, the Greek city - states were initially most often led by nobility (aristocracy), after which their economic and military power base crumbled. Next, in almost all poleis tyrants usurped power for two generations (tyranny, 7th and especially 6th century BCE), after which gradually forms of governments led by the wealthy (oligarchy) or assemblies of free male citizens (democracy) emerged in Classical Greece (mainly after 500 BCE). Athenian democracy (6th century -- 322 BCE) is the best - known example of the latter form; classical Sparta (c. 550 -- 371 BCE) was a militaristic polis with a remarkable mix between monarchy (dual kingship), aristocracy (Gerousia) and democracy (Apella); the Roman Republic (c. 509 -- 27 BCE) had a mixed constitution of oligarchy, democracy and especially aristocracy.
The dominant poleis of Athens and Sparta were weakened by warring each other, especially during the Peloponnesian War (431 -- 404 BCE) won by Sparta. They were defeated and ruled by Thebes for a time (371 -- 360 BCE), after which Sparta 's role was over. Eventually, all of Greece was subjugated by the Macedonian monarchy in 338 BCE, that put an end to the era of free autonomous city - states, and Athenian democracy as well in 322 BCE. In the subsequent Hellenistic period (334 -- 30 BCE) numerous diadochs (successors of Alexander the Great) fought one another for the kingship of Macedon, definitively obtained by the Antigonids in 277 BCE. Meanwhile, the Phoenician city - state of Carthage, located in present - day Tunisia, aside from settling large swaths of North Africa 's coast, also set up several colonies on Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, the Baleares and in southern Iberia. The Carthaginian empire, according to tradition founded in 814 BCE, started out as a monarchy, but in the 4th century transformed into a republic where suffets ("judges '') ruled. Finally, Rome gradually conquered all of Italy (primarily after 350 BCE), and defeated Carthage in the Punic Wars (264 -- 146 BCE). In 168, Macedon was subdued by the Romans, and partitioned into four client republics. These were annexed as Roman provinces in 148, as happened to Greece in 146, making Rome 's territory envelop all of literate Europe. The remainder of Iberia, the Illyrian coast and eventually Gaul by general Julius Caesar were added to the Roman Republic, which however was experiencing an institutional crisis. After defeating his rival Pompey, Caesar was appointed dictator to restore order. He almost managed to found a dynasty in the process, but was killed by a republican cabal led by Brutus in 44 BCE.
Caesar 's adoptive son Octavian prevailed in the ensuing civil war, and converted the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire in 27 BCE. He took on the name Augustus, with the rather humble title of princeps ("first (citizen) ''), as if he were merely primus inter pares ("first among equals ''), when he had in fact founded a monarchy. This limited emperorship (Principate) was strengthened in 284 by Diocletian to absolute reign (Dominate). The Empire recognised various client kingdoms under imperial suzerainty; most of these were in Asia, but tribal client kings were also recognized by the Roman authorities in Britannia. Most of the barbarian kingdoms established in the 5th century (the kingdoms of the Suebi, Burgundi, Vandals, Franks, Visigoths, Ostrogoths) recognized the Roman Emperor at least nominally, and Germanic kingdoms would continue to mint coins depicting the Roman emperor well into the 6th century. It was this derivation of the authority of kingship from the Christian Roman Empire that would be at the core of the medieval institution of kingship in Europe and its notion of the divine right of kings, as well as the position of the Pope in Latin Christendom, the restoration of the Roman Empire under Charlemagne and the derived concept of the Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe.
The monarchies of Europe in the Christian Middle Ages derived their claim from Christianisation and the divine right of kings, partly influenced by the notion of sacral kingship inherited from Germanic antiquity. The great powers of Europe in the Early Modern period were the result of a gradual process of centralization of power taking place over the course of the Middle Ages.
The Early Middle Ages begin with a fragmentation of the former Western Roman Empire into "barbarian kingdoms ''. In Western Europe, the kingdom of the Franks developed into the Carolingian Empire by the 8th century, and the kingdoms of Anglo - Saxon England were unified into the kingdom of England by the 10th century. With the breakup of the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century, the system of feudalism places kings at the head of a pyramid of relationships between liege lords and vassals, dependent on the regional rule of barons, and the intermediate positions of counts (or earls) and dukes. The core of European feudal manorialism in the High Middle Ages were the territories of the kingdom of France, the Holy Roman Empire (centered on the nominal kingdoms of Germany and Italy) and the kingdoms of England and Scotland. On the fringes of Catholic Europe, additional kingdoms developed with the progress of Christianisation:
With the rise of nation - states and the Protestant Reformation, the theory of divine right justified the king 's absolute authority in both political and spiritual matters. The theory came to the fore in England under the reign of James I of England (1603 -- 1625, also known as James VI of Scotland 1567 -- 1625). Louis XIV of France (1643 -- 1715) strongly promoted the theory as well. Early modern Europe was dominated by the Wars of Religion, notably the Thirty Years ' War, during which the major European monarchies developed into centralised great powers sustained by their colonial empires. The main European powers in the early modern period were:
The House of Habsburg became the most influential royal dynasty in continental Europe by the 17th century, divided into the Spanish and Austrian branches.
The modern resurgence of parliamentarism and anti-monarchism began with the temporary overthrow of the English monarchy by the Parliament of England in 1649, followed by the American Revolution (1775 -- 83) and especially the French Revolution (1789 -- 99). The absolutist Kingdom of France was first transformed to a constitutional monarchy (1791 -- 2), before being fully abolished on 21 September 1792, and eventually the former king even executed, to the other European courts ' great shock. During the subsequent French Revolutionary Wars (1792 -- 1799), the great European monarchies were unable to restore the monarchy; instead, the French First Republic expanded and annexed neighbouring territories, or converted them into loyal sister republics. Meanwhile, the German Mediatization of 1803 thoroughly rearranged the political structure of the Holy Roman Empire, with many small principalities and all ecclesiastical lands being annexed by larger monarchies. After Napoleon seized power, however, he gradually constructed a new imperial order in French - controlled Europe, first by crowning himself Emperor of the French in 1804, and then converting the sister republics into monarchies ruled by his relatives.
Following Napoleon 's defeat in 1814 and 1815, the reactionary Congress of Vienna determined that all of Europe should consist of strong monarchies (with the exception of Switzerland and a few insignificant republics). In France, the Bourbon dynasty was restored, replaced by the liberal July Monarchy in 1830, before the entire monarchy was again abolished during the Revolutions of 1848. The popular Napoleon III was able to proclaim himself Emperor in 1852, thus founding the Second French Empire. The kingdoms of Sicily and Naples ("Two Sicilies '') were absorbed into the kingdom of Sardinia to form the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Austria and Prussia vied to unite all German states under their banner, with Prussia emerging victorious in 1866. It succeeded in provoking Napoleon III to declare war, defeat France and absorb the southern German states into the German Empire in the process (1870 -- 71). From the ashes of the Second Empire rose the French Third Republic, the only great republican European power until World War I.
Much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division between anti-monarchist Radicalism and monarchist Conservativism. The Kingdom of Spain was briefly abolished in 1873, restored 1874 -- 1931 and again in 1978. The Kingdom of Portugal was abolished in 1910. The Russian Empire ended in 1917, the Kingdom of Prussia in 1918. The Kingdom of Hungary fell under Habsburg rule in 1867 and was dissolved in 1918 (restored 1920 -- 1946). Likewise, the Kingdom of Bohemia under Habsburg rule was dissolved in 1918.
The Napoleonic Wars transformed the political landscape of Europe, and a number of modern kingdoms were formed in a resurgence of monarchism after the defeat of the French Empire:
Many countries abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, especially in the wake of either World War I or World War II.
Monarchies established during the interbellum period were:
II ^ Leonor is, as the reigning king 's older daughter, the current heiress presumptive. Felipe VI has no sons.
III ^ The monarch of the United Kingdom is also the sovereign of the fifteen other Commonwealth realms.
Andorra has been a co-principality since the signing of a paréage in 1278, when the count of Foix and the bishop of La Seu d'Urgell agreed to share sovereignty over the landlocked country. After the title of the count of Foix had been passed to the kings of Navarre, and after Henry of Navarre had become Henry IV of France, an edict was issued in 1607 which established the French head of state as the legal successor to the count of Foix in regard to the paréage. Andorra was annexed by the First French Empire together with Catalonia in 1812 -- 1813. After the Empire 's demise, Andorra became independent again. The current joint monarchs are Bishop Joan Enric Vives Sicília and President Emmanuel Macron of France.
Belgium has been a kingdom since 21 July 1831 without interruption, after it became independent from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands with Léopold I as its first king. Belgium is the only remaining popular monarchy in the world: The monarch is formally known as the "King of the Belgians '', not the "King of Belgium ''. While in a referendum held on 12 March 1950, 57.68 per cent of the Belgians voted in favor of allowing Léopold III, whose conduct during World War II had been considered questionable and who had been accused of treason, to return to the throne; due to civil unrest, he opted to abdicate in favor of his son Baudouin I on 16 July 1951. The current monarch is Philippe.
In Denmark, the monarchy goes back to the prehistoric times of the legendary kings, before the 10th century. Currently, about 80 per cent support keeping the monarchy. The current monarch is Margrethe II. The Danish monarchy also includes the Faroe Islands and Greenland which are parts of the Kingdom of Denmark with internal home rule. Due to this status, the monarch has no separate title for these regions.
Liechtenstein formally came into existence on 23 January 1719, when Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor decreed the lordship of Schellenberg and the countship of Vaduz united and raised to the dignity of a principality. Liechtenstein was a part of the Holy Roman Empire until the Treaty of Pressburg was signed on 26 December 1805; this marked Liechtenstein 's formal independence, though it was a member of the Confederation of the Rhine and the German Confederation afterwards. While Liechtenstein was still closely aligned with Austria - Hungary until World War I, it realigned its politics and its customs and monetary institutions with Switzerland instead. Having been a constitutional monarchy since 1921, Hans - Adam II demanded more influence in Liechtenstein 's politics in the early 21st century, which he was granted in a referendum held on 16 March 2003, effectively making Liechtenstein a semi-constitutional monarchy again. However, the constitutional changes also provide for the possibility of a referendum to abolish the monarchy entirely. The current monarch is Hans - Adam II, who turned over the day - to - day governing decisions to his son and heir Alois, Hereditary Prince of Liechtenstein on 15 August 2004.
Luxembourg has been an independent grand duchy since 9 June 1815. Originally, Luxembourg was in personal union with the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Kingdom of the Netherlands from 16 March 1815 until 23 November 1890. While Wilhelmina succeeded Willem III in the Netherlands, this was not possible in Luxembourg due to the order of succession being based on Salic law at that time; he was succeeded instead by Adolphe. In a referendum held on 28 September 1919, 80.34 per cent voted in favor of keeping the monarchy. The current monarch is Henri.
Monaco has been ruled by the House of Grimaldi since 1297. From 1793 until 1814, Monaco was under French control; the Congress of Vienna designated Monaco as being a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia from 1815 until 1860, when the Treaty of Turin ceded the surrounding counties of Nice and Savoy to France. Menton and Roquebrune - Cap - Martin, part of Monaco until the mid-19th century before seceding in hopes of being annexed by Sardinia, were ceded to France in exchange for 4,000,000 French francs with the Franco - Monegasque Treaty in 1861, which also formally guaranteed Monaco its independence. Until 2002, Monaco would have become part of France had the house of Grimaldi ever died out; in a treaty signed that year, the two nations agreed that Monaco would remain independent even in such a case. The current monarch is Albert II.
Though while not using the title of king until 1815, the Dutch Royal House has been an intricate part of the politics of the Low Countries since medieval times. In 1566, the stadtholder William of Orange became the main leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish Habsburgs that set off the Eighty Years ' War and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1581. He was born in the House of Nassau as Count of Nassau - Dillenburg. He became Prince of Orange in 1544 and is thereby the founder of the branch House of Orange - Nassau
His descendants became de facto heads of state of the Dutch Republic during the 16th to 18th centuries, which was an effectively hereditary role. For the last half century of its existence, it became an officially hereditary role and thus a monarchy (though maintaining republican pretense) under Prince William IV. His son, Prince William V, was the last stadtholder of the republic, whose own son, King William I, became the first king of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, which was established on 16 March 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars. With the independence of Belgium on 21 July 1831, the Netherlands formally became the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The current monarch is Willem - Alexander.
Norway was united and independent for the first time in 872, as a kingdom. It is thus one of the oldest monarchies in the world, along with the Swedish and Danish ones. Norway was part of the Kalmar Union from 1397 until 1524, then part of Denmark -- Norway from 1536 until 1814, and finally part of the Union between Sweden and Norway from 1814 until 1905. Norway became completely independent again on 7 June 1905. Support for establishing a republic lies around 20 per cent. The current monarch is Harald V.
Spain came into existence as a single, united kingdom under Charles I of Spain on 23 January 1516. The monarchy was briefly abolished by the First Spanish Republic from 11 February 1873 until 29 December 1874. The monarchy was abolished again on 14 April 1931, first by the Second Spanish Republic -- which lasted until 1 April 1939 -- and subsequently by the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, who ruled until his death on 20 November 1975. Monarchy was restored on 22 November 1975 under Juan Carlos I, who was also the monarch until his abdication in 2014. His son Felipe VI is the current monarch. The 1978 constitution confirms the title of the monarch is the King of Spain, but that he may also use other titles historically associated with the Crown, including the kingdoms of Castile and León, Aragon, the Two Sicilies, Jerusalem, Navarre, Granada, Seville, Toledo, Valencia, Galicia, Sardinia, Córdoba, Corsica, etc.
Today, there is a large number of organisations campaigning in favor of establishing a Third Spanish Republic; Data from 2006 suggest that only 25 per cent of Spaniards are in favor of establishing a republic; however, the numbers have increased since Juan Carlos I abdicated.
Sweden 's monarchy goes back as far as the Danish one, to the semi -- legendary kings before the 10th century, since then it has not been interrupted. However, the unification of the rivalling kingdoms Svealand and Götaland (consolidation of Sweden) did not occur until some time later, possibly in the early 11th century. The current royal family, the House of Bernadotte, has reigned since 1818. The current monarch is Carl XVI Gustaf.
The monarchy of the United Kingdom can be defined to have started either with the Kingdoms of England (871) or Scotland (843), with the Union of the Crowns on 24 March 1603, or with the Acts of Union of 1 May 1707. It was briefly interrupted by the English Interregnum, with the Commonwealth of England existing in its stead from 30 January 1649 until 15 December 1653 and from 26 May 1659 until 25 May 1660 and the Protectorate taking its place from 16 December 1653 until 25 May 1659. The current monarch is Elizabeth II.
Support for establishing a republic instead of a monarchy was around 18 per cent in the United Kingdom in 2006, while a majority thinks that there will still be a monarchy in the United Kingdom in ten years ' time, public opinion is rather uncertain about a monarchy still existing in fifty years and a clear majority believes that the monarchy will no longer exist a century after the poll. Public opinion is, however, certain that the monarchy will still exist in thirty years. About 30 per cent are in favour of discontinuing the monarchy after Elizabeth 's death.
The monarch of the United Kingdom is also the monarch of the fifteen other Commonwealth realms, none of which are in Europe. Some of these realms have significant levels of support for republicanism.
Differently from the Holy See, in existence for almost two thousand years, the Vatican City was not a sovereign state until the 20th century. In the 19th century the annexation of the Papal States by the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the subsequent establishment of the Kingdom of Italy, was not recognized by the Vatican. However, by the Lateran Treaty of 1929, the Kingdom of Italy recognized Vatican City as an independent state, and vice versa. Since then, the elected monarch of the Vatican City state has been the current pope. The pope still officially carries the title "King of the Ecclesiastical State '' (in Latin: Rex Status Ecclesiæ).
The succession order is determined by primogeniture in most European monarchies. Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom now adhere to absolute primogeniture, whereby the eldest child inherits the throne, regardless of gender; Monaco and Spain have the older system of male - preference primogeniture, while Liechtenstein uses agnatic primogeniture. In 1990, Norway granted absolute primogeniture to the Norwegian throne, meaning that the eldest child, regardless of gender, takes precedence in the line of succession. This was not, however, done retroactively (as, for example, Sweden had done in 1980), meaning that Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway continues to take precedence over his older sister.
There are plans to change to absolute primogeniture in Spain through a rather complicated process, as the change entails a constitutional amendment. Two successive parliaments will have to pass the law by a two - thirds majority and then put it to a referendum. As parliament has to be dissolved and new elections have to be called after the constitutional amendment is passed for the first time, the previous Presidente del Gobierno José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero indicated he would wait until the end of his first term in 2008 before passing the law, although this deadline passed without the referendum being called. The amendment enjoys strong public support.
To change the order of succession in the United Kingdom, as the Queen of the United Kingdom is also the queen of the fifteen other Commonwealth realms, a change had to be agreed and made by all of the Commonwealth realms together. In the United Kingdom, the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 was enacted, and after completion of the legislative alterations required in some other realms, the changes came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015.
Liechtenstein uses agnatic primogeniture (aka Salic law), which completely excludes women from the order of succession unless there are no male heirs of any kind present, and was criticised for this by a United Nations committee for this perceived gender equality issue in November 2007.
The co-princes of Andorra are the president of the French Republic, who is elected by the French people, and the Bishop of La Seu d'Urgell, who is appointed by the Pope.
The absolute monarch of Vatican City, the Pope, is elected by the College of Cardinals. The current ruler is Pope Francis.
Luxembourg also used agnatic primogeniture until 20 June 2011, when absolute primogeniture was introduced.
One issue that occasionally rises is whether the monarchies are too expensive when compared to republics, or whether particular monarchies are more expensive than others, to maintain. This comparison may be hard to draw, since financial administration may differ radically from country to country, and not all profits and costs are publicly known, and because of different arrangements regarding the private property of the monarch. In the UK, the Crown Estate has a special legal status making it neither government property nor the private property of the monarch. Revenues from these hereditary possessions have been placed at the disposition of the British government (thus proceeding directly to the Treasury) by every monarch since the accession of George III in 1760; the revenues of GBP 304.1 million (fiscal year of 2015 / 16) far exceed the expenses of the British royal family in this sense resulting in a "negative cost '' of the British monarchy.
In 2016, Dutch newspaper de Volkskrant published an overview of the annual expenditure (excluding security expenses) of all European royal houses (not counting Luxembourg and the four monarchical European microstates).
In 2013, professor Herman Matthijs from Ghent University calculated the costs of the seven EU monarchies plus Norway, and compared them to the EU 's two most populous republics, France and Germany. His four main conclusions were:
He stressed that the financial administration 's transparency differs enormously between countries; especially the non-transparent monarchies may be much more expensive than is publicly known. This means comparing them to republics, especially the very transparent administration of France where citizens can know exactly what they pay for, may be unfair. In a 2015 interview with NRC Handelsblad, Matthijs commented that the then - known € 7.7 million allotted to the royal house in Spain 's national budget was ' unbelievable ': "I ca n't find out more, but I understand from the media that the total expenses of the Spanish house may be as much as 80 million. ''
Calls for the abolition of Europe 's monarchies have been widespread since the development of republicanism in the 17th to 18th centuries during the Enlightenment. During the French Revolution, the Ancien Régime in France was abolished, and in all territories the French First Republic conquered during the following Coalition Wars, sister republics were proclaimed. However, after Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French in 1804, all of these (except Switzerland) were converted back to monarchies headed by his relatives. The post-Napoleonic European Restoration reaffirmed the monarchical balance of power on the continent.
In subsequent decades, republicanism would regain lost ground with the rise of liberalism, nationalism, and later socialism. The Revolutions of 1848 were largely inspired by republicanism. Most of Europe 's monarchies were abolished either during or following World War I or World War II, and the remaining monarchies were transformed into constitutional monarchies.
Republican movements in Europe remain active up to present. The most prominent organisations campaigning to eliminate one or more of Europe 's remaining monarchies and / or to liquidate assets reserved for reigning families are affiliated with the Alliance of European Republican Movements, but there are smaller independent initiatives as well, such as Hetis2013 in the Netherlands. Also, some political parties (e.g. Podemos in Spain) have stepped up and called for national referenda to abolish monarchies.
The political influence of monarchism in former European monarchies is very limited. The most influential such movement was Carlism in Spain, calling for the restoration of the Bourbon (rather than the Habsburg) dynasty. Carlism playing a significant role in the Spanish Civil War in the 1930s. The Bourbon dynasty was eventually restored, in a constitutional monarchy, in 1978.
There are several monarchist parties in France, most notably the Action Française (established 1899). Monarchist parties also exist in the Czech Republic (1991), in Greece (2010), in Italy (1972) and in Russia (2012).
Otto von Habsburg renounced all pretense to the Habsburg titles in 1958, and monarchism in Austria has next to no political influence; a German monarchist organisation called Tradition und Leben has been in existence since 1959. Monarchism in Bavaria has had more significant support, including Franz Josef Strauss, minister - president of Bavaria from 1978 -- 1988.
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who sang you'll never walk alone first liverpool or celtic | You 'll Never Walk Alone - wikipedia
"You 'll Never Walk Alone '' is a show tune from the 1945 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Carousel. In the second act of the musical, Nettie Fowler, the cousin of the protagonist Julie Jordan, sings "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' to comfort and encourage Julie when her husband, Billy Bigelow, the male lead, commits suicide after a failed robbery attempt. It is reprised in the final scene to encourage a graduation class of which Louise (Billy and Julie 's daughter) is a member. The now invisible Billy, who has been granted the chance to return to Earth for one day in order to redeem himself, watches the ceremony and is able to silently motivate the unhappy Louise to join in the song.
The song is also sung at association football clubs around the world, where it is performed by a massed chorus of supporters on matchday; this tradition began at Liverpool F.C. in the early 1960s.
Christine Johnson, who created the role of Nettie Fowler, introduced the song in the original Broadway production. Later in the show Jan Clayton, as Julie Jordan, reprised it, with the chorus joining in.
In the film, it is first sung by Claramae Turner as Nettie. The weeping Julie Jordan (Shirley Jones) tries to sing it but can not; it is later reprised by Julie and those attending the graduation.
Besides the recordings of the song on the Carousel cast albums and the film soundtrack, the song has been recorded by many artists, with notable hit versions made by Roy Hamilton, Frank Sinatra, Gerry and the Pacemakers, Judy Garland, Elvis Presley, Johnny Cash, Andy Williams, Johnny Maestro and The Brooklyn Bridge, Olivia Newton - John and Doris Day. Progressive rock group Pink Floyd took a recording by the Liverpool Kop choir, and "interpolated '' it into their own song, "Fearless '', on their 1971 album Meddle.
From 1964 through 2010, Jerry Lewis concluded the annual Jerry Lewis Labor Day MDA Telethon by singing the song. After the end of a concert by the rock band Queen, the audience spontaneously sang this song, according to lead guitarist Brian May, and this helped to inspire the creation of their songs "We Are the Champions '' and "We Will Rock You ''. Italian - American tenor Sergio Franchi sang a notable version accompanied by the Welsh Men 's Choir on the June 9, 1968 telecast of The Ed Sullivan Show. He also covered this song in his 1964 RCA Victor album The Exciting Voice of Sergio Franchi. American singer and songwriter Barbra Streisand sang this song in a surprise appearance at the close of the 2001 Emmy Awards, in honor of the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks.
In 1990 at the Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa concert at Wembley Stadium London, the audience spontaneously broke out into a mass rendition. Mandela turned to Adelaide Tambo who accompanied him onto the stage and asked what the song was. She replied, "A football song ''.
Renée Fleming sang the song at the Concert for America, which marked the first anniversary of 9 / 11, and for the Inauguration of Barack Obama on January 20, 2009.
In 2010, this was sung during the festivities of the Last Night of the Proms, with the choir at the Royal Albert Hall joined by crowds of the public from Hillsborough Castle, Northern Ireland; Caird Hall, Dundee; Hyde Park, London; Salford, Greater Manchester; and Wales, to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the death of Oscar Hammerstein II.
In the second season of American Horror Story, this song was recited as a poem.
It has been the song of the Madison Scouts Drum and Bugle Corps song since 1954, where they first performed it as a part of their first field show in 1954. Challenged by the Rosemont Cavaliers singing "Over the Rainbow '' in 1957, the corps responded with "You 'll Never Walk Alone '', and it has been the official corps song ever since.
Punk band Dropkick Murphys covered the song for their 2017 album 11 Short Stories of Pain & Glory. Vocalist / bassist Ken Casey said in a December 2016 interview discussing the reason behind their version. "As you may know, opiate overdoses are an epidemic in America now particularly in (the Boston) area. I 've been to thirty wakes in two years, three this week, one being my cousin, Al 's lost a brother in law. It 's hit home close to us. I was leaving one of the wakes and this song came on and as I was listening to the lyrics it summed up exactly how I was feeling. Sad, but knowing there is hope. You never have to be alone. I hope you like our version ''.
In the UK, the song 's most successful cover was released in 1963 by the Liverpudlian Merseybeat group Gerry and the Pacemakers, peaking at number one on the UK singles chart for four consecutive weeks. Sung by Liverpool fans in 1963, the song quickly became the anthem of Liverpool F.C. and is sung by its supporters moments before the start of each home game with the Gerry and the Pacemakers version played over the public address system.
According to former player Tommy Smith, lead vocalist Gerry Marsden presented Liverpool manager Bill Shankly with a recording of his forthcoming cover single during a pre-season coach trip in the summer of 1963. "Shanks was in awe of what he heard... Football writers from the local newspapers were travelling with our party and, thirsty for a story of any kind between games, filed copy back to their editors to the effect that we had adopted Gerry Marsden 's forthcoming single as the club song. '' The squad was subsequently invited to perform the track with the band on The Ed Sullivan Show with Marsden stating, "Bill came up to me. He said, ' Gerry my son, I have given you a football team and you have given us a song '. ''
Shankly picked the song as his eighth and final selection for the BBC 's Desert Island Discs on the eve of the 1965 FA Cup Final. As Liverpool fans sang "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' at Wembley during the 1965 FA Cup Final win over Leeds, commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme referred to it as "Liverpool 's signature tune ''. Marsden told BBC Radio how, in the 1960s, the disc jockey at Anfield would play the top - ten commercial records in descending order, with the number one single played last, shortly before kickoff. Liverpool fans on the Kop would sing along, but unlike with other hit singles, once "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' dropped out of the top - ten, instead of disregarding the song, supporters continued to sing it.
The song was adopted by Scottish team Celtic after a 1966 Cup Winners Cup semi-final against Liverpool at Anfield. It is now sung by Celtic fans prior to every home European tie. The song has also been adopted by Dutch team Feyenoord, SC Cambuur, Germany 's Borussia Dortmund, 1. FSV Mainz 05, TSV 1860 Munich, Japan 's F.C. Tokyo, Spain 's CD Lugo. the Marist St. Pats MSP 80 / 80 Blues, and Bali United. In ice hockey, the song has been adopted by German Deutsche Eishockey Liga side Krefeld Pinguine and Croatian Medveščak Zagreb.
A special recording of the song was made in solidarity with Bradford City following the Valley Parade fire in 1985, when 56 spectators died and many more were seriously injured. The song was performed by The Crowd, which was a supergroup featuring Gerry Marsden, Paul McCartney and others, and spent two weeks at number - one in the UK.
Some years later, after witnessing a rendition of "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' at Anfield in 2007, the President of the Spanish Olympic Committee, Alejandro Blanco, said he felt inspired to seek lyrics to his country 's wordless national anthem, the Marcha Real, ahead of Madrid 's bid to host the 2016 Olympic Games.
During the 2014 Hong Kong protests, legislator Tam Yiu Chung quoted the song during a Legislative Council of Hong Kong meeting, to salute the Hong Kong Police, who had received widespread criticism for using excessive force against pro-democracy protesters. More than 2,000 Liverpool Football Club fans in Hong Kong condemned his inappropriate use of the song, comparing his support of the police action to the police actions in the 1989 Hillsborough disaster, where South Yorkshire Police were found to have distorted facts relating to the unlawful killing by negligence of 96 Liverpool supporters.
On March 13, 2016, after Borussia Dortmund 's 2 - 0 win against 1. FSV Mainz 05 in the German Bundesliga, supporters of both teams performed the song to commemorate a Dortmund fan who died from a cardiac arrest in the stands during the game.
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where is most natural gas found in the world | List of countries by Natural gas proven reserves - wikipedia
This is a list of countries by natural gas proven reserves based on The World Factbook (when no citation is given). or other authoritative third - party sources (as cited). Based on data from BP, at the end of 2009, proved gas reserves were dominated by three countries: Iran, Russia, and Qatar, which together held nearly half the world 's proven reserves.
There is some disagreement on which country has the largest proven gas reserves. Sources that consider that Russia has by far the largest proven reserves include the US CIA (47.6 trillion cubic meters), the US Energy Information Administration (49 tcm), and OPEC (48.81 tcm). However, BP credits Russia with only 32.9 tcm, which would place it in second place, slightly behind Iran (33.1 to 33.8 tcm, depending on the source).
Due to constant announcements of shale gas recoverable reserves, as well as drilling in Central Asia, South America and Africa, deepwater drilling, estimates are undergoing frequent updates, mostly increasing. Since 2000, some countries, notably the US and Canada, have seen large increases in proved gas reserves due to development of shale gas, but shale gas deposits in most countries are yet to be added to reserve calculations.
TOTAL: 205.34 trillion cubic meters
Comparison of proven natural gas reserves from different sources (billions of cubic meters, as of 31 Dec. 2014 / 1 Jan. 2015)
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which band original composed the song we will rock you | We Will Rock You (musical) - Wikipedia
We Will Rock You (often abbreviated as WWRY) is a rock musical based on the songs of British rock band Queen with a book by Ben Elton. The musical tells the story of a group of Bohemians who struggle to restore the free exchange of thought, fashion, and live music in a distant future where everyone dresses, thinks and acts the same. Musical instruments and composers are forbidden, and rock music is all but unknown.
Directed by Christopher Renshaw and choreographed by Arlene Phillips, the original West End production opened at the Dominion Theatre on 14 May 2002, with Tony Vincent, Hannah Jane Fox, Sharon D. Clarke and Kerry Ellis in principal roles. Although the musical was at first panned by critics, it has become an audience favourite, becoming the longest - running musical at the Dominion Theatre, celebrating its tenth anniversary on 14 May 2012.
The tenth longest - running musical in West End history, the London production closed on 31 May 2014 after a final performance in which Brian May and Roger Taylor both performed. A number of international productions have since followed the original, and We Will Rock You has been seen in six of the world 's continents. Many productions are still active globally.
According to Brian May, Queen 's manager Jim Beach had spoken with the band about creating a jukebox musical with Queen 's songs since the mid-1990s. Initially, the intent was to create a biographical story of Freddie Mercury. About this time, Robert De Niro 's production company Tribeca expressed interest in a Queen musical, but it found the original idea difficult to work with.
In 2000, Ben Elton was approached to start talks with May and Taylor on the project. He suggested taking the musical down a different path than initially imagined, creating an original story that would capture the spirit of much of their music. He worked closely with May and Taylor to incorporate Queen 's songs into the story. Elton has also stated that he was in part inspired by the computer - controlled dystopia of the science - fiction film The Matrix. The script was eventually completed midway through 2001.
London 's critics almost uniformly panned the show, criticising the concept and direction. The Guardian wrote that the premise "really is as sixth form as it sounds '', called the production "ruthlessly packaged and manufactured '' and opined that the "sometimes funny '' libretto exists mainly to "devise more unlikely ways to wring out another Queen song. '' The Daily Mirror wrote that "Ben Elton should be shot for this risible story. '' The Daily Telegraph described it as "guaranteed to bore you rigid '' and "prolefeed at its worst. '' However, some individual performances received praise and the production remains a popular success.
The original production of We Will Rock You opened on 12 May 2002 at the Dominion Theatre, London, with previews beginning on 26 April. Tony Vincent played the lead role of Galileo, with Hannah Jane Fox as Scaramouche, Sharon D. Clarke as Killer Queen, Nigel Planer as Pop, Nigel Clauzel as Brit and Kerry Ellis as Meat. For her performance, Clarke was nominated for "Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical or Entertainment '' at the 2003 Olivier Awards.
On 17 August 2005 We Will Rock You became the longest running musical at that venue, surpassing the previous record - holder Grease. This is a notable achievement because the Dominion Theatre is one of the largest theatrical venues in West End, with a seating a capacity of 2,163 patrons. At the 2011 Laurence Olivier Awards, the show won the Audience Award for Most Popular Show.
Notable cast replacements include Mig Ayesa, who played Galileo, taking over from Tony Vincent. Mazz Murray took over the role of Killer Queen after Sharon D. Clarke 's departure in April 2004. Murray left the production in August 2011, which made her the longest running principal cast member, although she left the production briefly in September 2010 for maternity leave. Brenda Edwards, who was an X-Factor semi-finalist in 2005, is currently performing the role of Killer Queen. On 22 September 2008 I 'd Do Anything semi-finalist, Rachel Tucker, began performing in the role of Meat. She left the production on 19 September 2009. The role was then taken on by Irish born performer Louise Bowden, who had already performed in several prolific musicals including Mamma Mia!, Guys and Dolls and Mary Poppins. Bowden unexpectedly quit the production in May 2010. It was then left to Amanda Coutts to perform the role Meat. Coutts was originally Bowden 's understudy. The West End production featured a nine piece live band under the musical direction of Stuart Morley.
A national UK tour was launched in 2009 at the Palace Theatre, Manchester. The 2009 tour cast initially included, Alex Gaumond as Galileo, Sarah French - Ellis as Scaramouche, Brenda Edwards as Killer Queen, Georgina Hagen as Meat, Jonathan Wilkes as Khashoggi, Kevin Kennedy as Pop. Gaumond and French - Ellis returned to play their characters in the West End and were Galileo and Scaramouche.
A second UK tour launched in December 2010 at the Palace Theatre, Manchester.
On 11 March 2014 it was announced the West End production would close on 31 May 2014, shortly after its 12th Anniversary, and after 4600 performances at the Dominion Theatre.
The first international production premiered at the Regent Theatre in Melbourne, Australia on 7 August 2003. The cast included Michael Falzon as Galileo, Kate Hoolihan as Scaramouche and Annie Crummer as Killer Queen. Amanda Harrison, who originated Oz in this Melbourne production, had previously been in the ensemble of the original London production. The production closed at this venue on 4 March 2004 to make way for Australian tour stops at Burswood Theatre, Perth (27 April to June 2004), Queensland Performing Arts Centre, Brisbane (27 July to 25 September 2004), and Star City Lyric Theatre, Sydney (9 October 2004 to 13 March 2005). The same production then made an international tour stop at the Shinjuku Koma Theater in Tokyo, Japan where it ran from 27 May to 24 August 2005.
Due to the success of the Japan tour stop, another Australian tour group was put together in 2006. They performed at the same venue: the Shinjuku Koma Theatre in Tokyo, from 14 November to 17 December 2006. Some of the actors of the 2005 tour returned for the 2006 tour, including Peter Murphy as Galileo, Daniel Fletcher as Brit, Ross Givern as Khashoggi and Robert Grubb as Pop. Kate Hoolihan, who had played Scaramouche in the 2005 tour, chose to switch to the role of Oz in the 2006 tour. The tour group then performed in Osaka from 5 January 2007 at the Umeda Arts Theater.
A new tour of Australia was announced on 17 August 2015. The tour is commenced in Sydney, NSW on 30 April 2016.
In 2018, Platinum Entertainment Perth will present Western Australia 's first PRO / AM production of We Will Rock You, commencing 23 March 2018 at His Majesty 's Theatre, Perth. The PRO / AM production stars Normie Rowe, Chris Murphy, Courtney Murphy, Dean Misdale, and introduces Blake Williams in the role of Galileo, with Holly Denton as Scaramouche. Ryan Dawson joins the cast in the role of Khashoggi, following his stint in the role of Madonna in London 's West End.
A Spanish production ran from 1 October 2003 (official opening on 3 November) to 30 May 2004 at Teatro Calderón, Madrid. The lead role of Galileo was shared by Momo Cortés and Miquel Fernández. The rest of the cast included María Blanco as Scaramouche, Sheilah Cuffy as Killer Queen, Javier Navares as Khashoggi, Ángel Padilla as Brit, Eva María Cortés (sister of Momo Cortés) as Meat, and José María Guzmán and Juanjo Pardo sharing the role of Pop. The Madrid production had all spoken dialogue and the lyrics translated into Spanish, except for the songs "We Will Rock You '', "We Are the Champions '' and "Bohemian Rhapsody '', which retained their English lyrics. After closing at Teatro Calderón, the show began a tour through Spain with stops at Barcelona, Bilbao, Valencia, and Seville.
In 2007 the production returned to Teatro Calderón, Madrid with previews from 23 January and an official opening on 12 February. This stage featured an entirely new cast, with Julián Fontalvo and Daniel Diges sharing the role of Galileo, Ruth Calvo and Elena Medina sharing the role of Scaramouche, Nieves Val León and Tessa Bodí sharing the role of Killer Queen, Carlos Fernández as Khashoggi, Juán Félix Bejarano as Brit, María López y Lara Alcázar sharing the role of Meat, and Diego Falcón as Pop. The production finally closed on 6 January 2008.
A US tour had originally been planned for 2004, with initially announced stops in Connecticut and Washington state. However, due to scheduling conflicts of the creative team, the US tour was scrapped and replaced with a production housed at the Paris Las Vegas hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada, which is the musical 's first North American venue.
The Las Vegas production had previews from 4 August and officially opened on 8 September 2004. Tony Vincent, who had originated the role of Galileo in the London production, reprised the role, which he alternated with Jason Wooten. Aspen Miller and Kacie Sheik shared the role of Scaramouche, Patti Russo was Killer Queen, and Ty Taylor was Brit. The Las Vegas production "trimmed '' down the book into a single act show. This production closed on 27 November 2005.
On 15 October 2013, a North American tour began at the Hippodrome Theatre in Baltimore, Maryland. The original cast included Brian Justin Crum (Broadway 's Next to Normal) as Galileo, PJ Griffith (Broadway 's American Idiot and Mamma Mia!) as Khashoggi, Jacqueline Arnold (Broadway 's Priscilla Queen of the Desert) as Killer Queen, Jared Zirilli (Broadway 's Lysistrata Jones) as Britney, Ruby Lewis (Grease, Desperate Housewives) as Scaramouche, Ryan Knowles (Newsical, Radio City Music Hall) as Buddy and Erica Peck (We Will Rock You Toronto Cast) as Oz. The North American leg on the We Will Rock You tour covered nearly the whole of the US, corners of Canada and a sold out run in Mexico City at the Auditiorio Nacional. In all, the North American leg of the WWRY World tour included 298 performances, 30 cities, 23 States / Territories, 3 Countries, over 30,000 miles traveled and over a half - a-million people in attendance.
A Russian production opened in the Estrada Theatre, Moscow on 17 October 2004. The production 's dialogue and all songs but three were translated into Russian, by Evgeny Margulis of Mashina Vremeni. This production closed only four months after its opening due to disagreements between the show 's producers, despite fan protests to keep the show going.
A German production opened in the Musical Dome, Cologne on 12 December 2004. The Cologne production had the spoken dialogue translated to German, but the musical numbers consisted of a mix of translated German language lyrics and the original English language lyrics. According to Brian May, the language combination was intentional by writer Ben Elton, with German representing the show 's "present day '' and English representing the distant past. The production closed at this venue on 30 September 2008 to be transferred to Stuttgart. The Stuttgart transfer opened at the Apollo Theatre on 13 November 2008 after previews from 7 November 2008. The production opened in Berlin on 21 October 2010 and closed for good on 21 October 2011.
A follow up tour version started in December 2012 in Basel and closed in June 2013 in Essen. It is going to restart in September 2014 in Munich followed by Frankfurt and Vienna.
A South African production opened at the Civic Theatre in Johannesburg on 9 May 2006. The production starred Francois Schreuder as Galileo, Helen Burger as Scaramouche, Vicky Sampson as Killer Queen, and Helen Goldberg as Oz. This production made tour stops at the Artscape in Cape Town (from 25 July) and the Playhouse Opera in Durban (29 September to 29 October 2006) before closing.
A German - language production opened in Zürich, Switzerland on 3 December 2006 at Theatre Stadthof 11, Oerlikon using the book of the bilingual Cologne production. The Swiss production starred Jessica Kessler as Scaramouche, Brigitte Oelke as Killer Queen and Rachel Fischer as Ozzy. This production closed at the end of 2007 to be transferred to Vienna. The transfer opened in Vienna, Austria on 24 January 2008, at the Raimund Theatre where it ran until 13 July 2008.
A Canadian production began previews on 14 March and officially opened on 10 April 2007 at the Canon Theatre, Toronto. Mig Ayesa, who played the lead role in the London production, had been offered the role in the Canadian production by Brian May and Ben Elton, but the Canadian producers wanted an all - Canadian cast and Quebec native Yvan Pednault was given the role. The rest of the cast included Erica Peck as Scaramouche, Alana Bridgewater as Killer Queen, Suzie McNeil as Oz and Evan Buliung as Khashoggi. McNeil had been a participant of the reality show Rockstar: INXS, in which she had competed against Ayesa and former Las Vegas We Will Rock You cast member Ty Taylor.
This production closed at the Canon Theatre on 11 May 2008 to be transferred to the Panasonic Theatre, where it opened on 16 July 2008. The new Toronto production underwent major rewrites in order to trim the show before its reopening. Changes include: there is no longer any dialogue between "Ga - Ga '' and "I Want to Break Free ''; "One Vision '' has been cut; the Act Two song sequence is now "Fat Bottomed Girls '', "Who Wants to Live Forever '', "Seven Seas of Rhye '', "Hammer to Fall '' and then "Another One Bites the Dust '' before leading to the finale. In October 2008, Camilla Scott took over the role of Khashoggi, a character that had previously been portrayed as a male, though her understudies remain male. Erica Peck, who originated the role of Scaramouche in this production, was scheduled to reprise her role from 29 May to the closing date. This production closed on 28 June 2009.
The North American Regional Theatre Premiere production, directed by Thom Currie, opened at Thunder Bay, Ontario 's Magnus Theatre on September 8, 2017. The production was choreographed by Julie Tomaino with assistant choreography by Robert Allan. Set design was by Joe Pagnan and lighting design was by Rebecca Miller. Costumes were designed by Mervi Agombar, with musical direction by Danny Johnson. The cast featured Adam Charles (Galileo), Jessie Cox (Scaramouche), Gabi Epstein (Killer Queen), Spencer Hari (Khashoggi), Ryan G. Hinds (Brit), Amy Sellors (Oz), Jeremy LaPalme (Buddy), with Dean Deffett, Jade Percival, Matthew Pinkerton, Chelsea Preston, and Alyssa Smith. With sold out audiences during its initial scheduled run and due to popular demand, the production was held over. It closed September 30, 2017.
An Australasian tour was launched at the end of 2007 in New Zealand, in which previous We Will Rock You cast members MiG Ayesa (London cast), Annie Crummer (original Australian cast), Neels Clasen (original South African cast) and Malcolm Terry (original South African cast) reprise their roles as Galileo, Killer Queen, Khashoggi and Pop respectively. Talia Kodesh, who had played Oz in the South African production, played the role of Scaramouche in the New Zealand tour stop. After the tour left New Zealand, the role was taken over by Sivan Raphaely, who had been in the ensemble of the original South African production.
The tour performed in Auckland, New Zealand at The Civic, The Edge (26 October to 2 December 2007), in Seoul, South Korea at the Seongnam Arts Centre (2 to 24 February 2008), in Singapore at the Esplanade Theatre (28 March to 27 April 2008), in Hong Kong at The Lyric Theatre of The Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts (16 May to 22 June 2008) and in Bangkok, Thailand at the Muangthai Ratchadalai Theatre (12 to 27 July 2008).
An Italian production opened on 4 December 2009 at the Allianz Teatro in Milan, Italy. Starring Gianluca Merolli and Salvo Vinci as Galileo, Marta Rossi and Martina Ciabatti as Scaramouche, Valentina Ferrari as Killer Queen, Salvo Bruno and Carlo Spano as Khashoggi, Paolo Barillari as Brit, Loredana Fadda and Mary Dima as Oz and Massimiliano Colonna as Pop. WWRY Italy is produced by Barley Arts and directed by Maurizio Colombi. The musical director is Roberto Zanaboni followed by Davide Magnabosco (keyboard), Giovanni Maria Lori (keyboard), Linda Pinelli (bass), Alex Polifrone (drums), Marco Scazzetta (percussions), Andrea Cervetto (guitar) and the lead guitarist is Tristan Avakian, who had a successful run with WWRY Toronto. All the dialogues are in Italian and almost all the songs are in English, except for "Radio Ga Ga '' and "No One But You ''. The translation and adaptation of the Italian script were made by Raffaella Rolla with the co-operation of Alice Mistroni. The show is scheduled to tour across Italy over the year, so far visiting Milan, Bologna, Trieste and Rome. The second season is due to start in Bergamo on 4 November and it will be on tour until March 2011. The double cast has been dropped therefore this year the leading roles are: Galileo (Salvo Vinci), Scaramouche (Martha Rossi), Oz (Loredana Fadda), Brit (Paolo Barillari), Khashoggi (Salvo Bruno), Killer Queen (Valentina), Pop (Massimiliano Colonna). The new lead guitarist is Marco Gerace.
12 September through 18 December 2010 a big production of WWRY were played in Stockholm, Sweden at the venue Cirkus. The spoken dialogue is translated to Swedish by Anders Albien. Cast: Killer Queen: Tina Lejonberg, Galileo: Bruno Mitsogiannis, Scaramouche: Marie Haugen Smistad, Ozzy: Anna Lidman, Brit: Henrik Orwander, Khashoggi: Daniel Engman, Peps: Simon Bengtsson Tibblin, Teacher: Linda Holmgren, Christer: Tomas Marcotte.
January 2011, the Stockholm Production of WWRY moved to Oslo, Norway. The production opened 23 January at Folketeateret. The spoken dialogue (and some of the songs) was translated to Norwegian by Kjetil Indregard. Cast: Killer Queen: Reidun Sæther, Galileo: Espen Grjotheim, Scaramouche: Marie Haugen Smistad, Ozzy: Anna Lidman, Brit: Eivind Dundas, Khashoggi: Daniel Engman, Oddi (Pop): Mads Henning Jørgensen, Big Macca: Håvard Bakke, Teacher: Linda Holmgren. The production closed 16 April 2011.
On 1 September 2011, the Netherlands production was transferred to Antwerp. Many of the cast members had already played the musical in the Netherlands, but the challenge was that they had to learn the ' Belgian language ': Cast
Marjolein Teepen has won the Flemish Musical Award on 18 June 2012. Marjolein has won the award for "Best Female Lead '' for her role as Scaramouche in the Belgian version of the musical We Will Rock You. She was also nominated in the Netherlands.
A production of the show opened on 23 April 2015 on board the new Royal Caribbean cruise ship, Anthem of the Seas. All passengers on the ship have the option of attending, provided they book a particular performance in advance.
Open on March 2016 in São Paulo, Brazil.
Cast
Raquel Quarterone (Ensemble) Fernanda Belinatti (Ensemble) Mariana Hidemi (Ensemble) Carol Isolani (Ensemble) Bárbara Guerra Xavier (Ensemble) Marisol Marcondes (Ensemble) Amanda Doring (Ensemble) Jefferson Ferreira (Ensemble) Fernando Marianno (Ensemble) Daniel Caldini (Ensemble) Renato Bellini (Ensemble) Thiago Machado (Ensemble) Fernando Lourenção (Ensemble) Leo Rommano (Ensemble) Anelita Gallo (Swing e Dance Captain) Clara Camargo (Swing) Gabriel Conrad (Swing e Dance Captain Assistante) Danilo Barbieri (Swing)
A tour of the show in Australia started in April 2016 in Sydney, before touring to Brisbane and finishing up in Melbourne.
From 2006, the show has been licensed for amateur productions in the UK, with proceeds going to the Mercury Phoenix Trust. This license also extends to school performances, under the title "Schools Will Rock You ''.
In late 2007 The show was performered for the first time outside of the Dominion Theatre in London for a short period, it played Radlett, Hitchin, Watford, Chesham and Harlow: the cast included Peter Eldridge as Galileo, Dawn Travell as Scaramouche, David Adams (making history as the first male to play the role) as Killer Queen, Colin McLeod as Khashoggi and Steve Leigh as Pop. Replacements include Steve Anderson as Galileo, Caroline Fitch and Monique Perks as Scaramouche, Debbie Marsh and Charlie Taylor as Killer Queen, David Adams (swapping roles) as Khashoggi (also understudy for Galileo) and Mark Morton, Colin McLeod and Chris Wilson as Pop, the show enjoyed sellout performances at all venues and received great critical acclaim.
In early 2007 Queen Theatrical granted the rights for a non-equity production of We Will Rock You at the Jedlicka Performing Art Centre in Chicago from April, making it the first North American production since the Las Vegas show closed.
An externally licensed production was staged in Varberg, Sweden from February to July 2007. A Dutch production was opened at 4 September (Premiere) 2010.
From 2017, the show has been licensed for amateur productions in Australia, with the amateur premiere being performed by Townsville Choral Society at the Townsville Entertainment Centre in February 2018.
A high school production of the show ran in July 2018, performed by the students of John Paul College, Logan City, Queensland, Australia.
Galileo -- Tony Vincent
Scaramouche -- Hannah Jane Fox
Killer Queen -- Sharon D Clarke
Khashoggi -- Alexander Hanson
Hanson left the production in November 2003 and Khashoggi was played by Clive Carter thereafter.
Brit -- Nigel Clauzel
Meat -- Kerry Ellis
Pop -- Nigel Planer
Macca -- Giles New
Galileo -- Tony Vincent
Vincent left the production on 15 November 2003 and Galileo was played by Ayesa thereafter. Jessop moved up to first understudy and Peter Johansson joined the production as the second understudy.
Scaramouche -- Hannah Jane Fox
Killer Queen -- Sharon D Clarke
Khashoggi -- Clive Carter
Brit -- Nigel Clauzel
Meat -- Kerry Ellis
Pop -- Nigel Planer
When Ayesa became Galileo in November 2003 Baxter moved up to first understudy and Haydn Oakley joined the production as the second understudy.
Macca -- Luke Baxter
Galileo -- MiG Ayesa
Scaramouche -- Hannah Jane Fox
Killer Queen -- Mazz Murray
Khashoggi -- Clive Carter
Brit -- Nigel Clauzel
Meat -- Jenna Lee - James
Pop -- Mark Arden
Macca -- Chris Holland
Galileo -- MiG Ayesa
Ayesa left the production on 2 July 2005 and Galileo was played by Peter Johansson thereafter. Johansson rejoined the production to play this role.
Scaramouche -- Hannah Jane Fox
Fox left the production on 28 January 2006 and Scaramouche was played by Jenna Lee - James thereafter.
Killer Queen -- Mazz Murray
Khashoggi -- Alex Bourne
Brit -- Colin Charles
Meat -- Jenna Lee James
When Lee - James became Scaramouche in January 2006, Rachael Wooding joined the cast to play Meat.
Pop -- Jeff Shankley
Macca -- Craig Ryder
Galileo -- Peter Johansson
Bailey left the production on 17 June 2006 and Ryder took his place as second understudy. Cameron Jack rejoined the production as the third understudy.
Scaramouche -- Jenna Lee - James
Killer Queen -- Mazz Murray
Khashoggi -- Alex Bourne
Brit -- Colin Charles
When Bailey left the production Cameron Jack became first understudy.
Meat -- Rachel Wooding
Pop -- Jeff Shankley
Rebel Leader -- Craig Ryder
Galileo -- Peter Johansson
Scaramouche -- Jenna Lee - James
Killer Queen -- Mazz Murray
Khashoggi -- Alex Bourne
Brit -- Colin Charles
Meat -- Rachel Wooding
Pop -- Jeff Shankley
Rebel Leader -- Craig Ryder
Galileo -- Ricardo Afonso
Scaramouche -- Sabrina Aloueche
Killer Queen -- Mazz Murray
Khashoggi -- Alex Bourne
Brit -- Lain Gray
Meat -- Lucy Sinclair
Pop -- Julian Littman
Rebel Leader -- Craig Ryder Understudy # 1 -- Gary Lake
Galileo -- Ricardo Afonso
Scaramouche -- Sabrina Aloueche
Killer Queen -- Mazz Murray
Khashoggi -- Alex Bourne
Brit -- Ian Carlyle
Meat -- Rachel Tucker
Pop -- Garry Lake
Rebel Leader -- Brian McCann
Galileo -- Peter Murphy
Murphy left the Production in June 2010 and Galileo was played by a returning Ricardo Afonso thereafter.
Scaramouche -- Sabrina Aloueche
Aloueche left the performance on 4 September 2010 and the role of Scaramouche was played by a returning Sarah French - Ellis thereafter.
Killer Queen -- Mazz Murray
Murray left the Production on 25 May 2010 and the role of Killer Queen was played by Hannah Levane and Tricia Adele Turner alternating performances thereafter.
Khashoggi -- Alex Bourne
Brit -- Ian Carlyle
Meat -- Louise Bowden
Bowden left the production in May 2010 and the role of Meat was played by Coutts thereafter. De Wall became first understudy, Hilton became second understudy. Kayleigh Stephenson became Meat 's third understudy and Alicia Peacock joined the production as Coutts ' track.
Pop -- Garry Lake
Rebel Leader -- Jacob Chapman
Galileo -- Ricardo Afonso
Afonso was replaced a second time by Peter Murphy in September 2010. In August 2011 Murphy was replaced by Alex Gaumond. Gaumond joined the cast especially to play this role.
Scaramouche -- Sarah French - Ellis
French - Ellis left the production in June 2011 and was replaced by a returning Sabrina Aloueche.
Killer Queen -- Lucy Tapp
Tapp left the production after only a handful of performances as Killer Queen. She was replaced by Brenda Edwards, covering for a pregnant Mazz Murray.
Khashoggi -- Alex Bourne
Brit -- Ian Carlyle
Meat -- Amanda Coutts
Coutts left the West End production to perform on the national We Will Rock You Tour. The role of Meat was played by Lauren Varnham throughout October 2010. Rachael John joined the production on 1 November to play Meat.
Pop -- Garry Lake
Lake left the production in September 2010 and was replaced by Kevin Kennedy on 6 September.
Rebel Leader -- Jacob Chapman
Galileo -- Alex Gaumond
Gaumond left the production in February 2012. The role of Galileo was played by Noel Sullivan thereafter.
Scaramouche -- Sabrina Aloueche
Aloueche left the production on 30 September 2011 whereupon the role of Scaramouche was taken by Lauren Samuels. Samuels performed the role until 21 April 2012. From 23 April 2012 until 31 July 2012 the role was performed by Sarah French - Ellis once again. Samules returned to the role on 1 August 2012.
Killer Queen -- Brenda Edwards
Mazz Murray returned to the production and played Killer Queen throughout August 2011 only to leave the production again at the end of the month. Edwards returned to play Killer Queen on a permanent basis on 22 August 2011.
Khashoggi -- Alex Bourne
Bourne left the production on 1 October 2011. The role of Khashoggi was performed by Alasdair Harvey thereafter.
Brit -- Ian Carlyle
Meat -- Rachael John
Pop -- Kevin Kennedy
Rebel Leader -- John McLarnon
Galileo -- Noel Sullivan
Sullivan left the production on 5 October 2012. The role of Galileo was performed by Oliver Tompsett until 11 June 2013. Nathan David joined the production to play Galileo on 12 and 13 June 2013. On 14 June 2013 Oliver Tompsett joined the cast to play Galileo.
Scaramouche -- Lauren Samuels
Samuels left the production on 6 October 2012. The role of Scaramouche was played by Rachael Wooding thereafter.
Killer Queen -- Brenda Edwards
Khashoggi -- Alasdair Harvey
Brit -- Wayne Robinson
Meat -- Rachael John
Pop -- Kevin Kennedy
Rebel Leader -- John McLarnon
Teacher -- Katie Paine
Teen Queens
Ensemble
Swings
Galileo -- Oliver Tompsett
Scaramouche -- Rachael Wooding
Killer Queen -- Brenda Edwards
Khashoggi -- Alasdair Harvey
Brit -- Rolan Bell
Meat -- Amanda Coutts
Pop -- Kevin Kennedy
Rebel Leader -- Patrick Smyth
Teacher -- Katie Paine
Teen Queens
Ensemble
Swings
Australasia Tour cast
Original Cast
2009 Cast
Galileo was also played by Charly Luske
Galileo -- Alex DeLeo
Scaramouche -- Amanda Coutts
Pop -- Kevin Kennedy
Killer Queen -- Allyson Kaye Daniel
Galileo -- Ryan Anderson understudy "Galileo '' - Carl Man
Scaramouche -- Hannah Ducharme
Pop -- Kevin Kennedy
Killer Queen -- Britt Lenting Understudy "Killer Queen '' - Frances Russ
Ensemble Members are: Justin Anderson, Sheridan Anderson, Erinn Arnel, Michelle Barr, Hugh Barrington, Kyla Bartholomeusz, Sarah Clarke, Keane Fletcher, Scott McConnell, Suzie Melloy, Ruvarashe Ngwenya, Morgan Palmer, Joshua Russell, Ryan Sheppard, Leigh Sleightholme, Ashlee Smith, Thalia Smith, Mike Snell, Kate Thomas, Karla Tonkich and Paul Watson
The story is set exactly 300 years in the future in a vaguely Orwellian world. Earth has been renamed as the "iPlanet '' (Planet Mall in older productions) and is controlled by the Globalsoft Corporation. ("Innuendo '') On the iPlanet, mainstream commercial conformity reigns, in which Ga Ga Kids watch the same movies, listen to computer - generated music, wear the same clothes and hold the same thoughts and opinions. Musical instruments are forbidden, and rock music is unknown. ("Radio Ga Ga '')
In the newest graduating class is black sheep, Galileo, who has dreams and hears strange words in his head, most of which are lyrics of songs long since lost, though he does not understand their significance. Despite his teacher 's advice, Galileo refuses to conform like the rest of his classmates. ("I Want to Break Free '') Galileo is captured by Khashoggi, commander of Globalsoft 's police. The teacher also reveals a second anomaly, a young, goth woman named Scaramouche who is openly mocked and derided by her peers ("Somebody to Love ''). She too is arrested by Khashoggi.
Ruling Globalsoft Corporation is Killer Queen. ("Killer Queen '') She has heard of a prophecy that instruments have been hidden somewhere on the iPlanet in the "place of living rock '', and a "bright star '' will show the way to them. She orders Khashoggi to get to the bottom of the matter and crush the rebel Bohemians who believe in the prophecy. Killer Queen then basks in her power over the iPlanet. ("Play the Game '')
Galileo and Scaramouche wake up in a hospital. They realise that they are kindred spirits, feared by the rest of their society. ("Under Pressure '') They flee together from the hospital. Killer Queen has blown up all the rocks on the iPlanet, but can not find any supposed hidden instruments. She insists that they have won, and the prophecy will not come to pass. ("A Kind of Magic '')
On the streets, Bohemians Britney and Oz climb out of the sewers, where they have been gathering materials to make musical instruments. Britney is a believer in the Dreamer who will fulfil the prophecy, and insists to the cynical Oz that it 's the key to bringing real music back into the world. ("I Want It All '') Brit and Oz hear footsteps approaching, and hide.
Galileo and Scaramouche arrive, with Galileo talking about his belief that he has a destiny. He says that he has a name for the woman: "Scaramouche ''. Britney and Oz reveal themselves, and accuse Galileo and Scaramouche of being spies, because Galileo keeps spouting words of the "sacred text ''. Galileo insists that he only hears those words in his head. Britney tests Galileo, singing the first few lines of "Bohemian Rhapsody ''. Galileo responds correctly with the subsequent lines, and Britney realises that he is the Dreamer of the prophecy. They bring Galileo and Scaramouche to the Heartbreak Hotel, which is located at the ruins of the Tottenham Court Road tube station, where the Bohemians have made their home. ("Headlong '') Of note, the original London production is staged at the Dominion Theatre, which is located above the real Tottenham Court Road tube station.
The Bohemians explain that they take their names after singers long gone, and mourn the deaths of those who died young. ("No One But You '') The group then celebrate the reason rock bands started playing music in the first place, which was for love. ("Crazy Little Thing Called Love '')
Khashoggi and his police suddenly arrive at the Heartbreak Hotel, where they round up the Bohemians for capture. Britney breaks free and battles the police in order to enable Galileo and Scaramouche to escape, but in the process is killed.
The Ga Ga Kids of the iPlanet move on in their regular fashion. ("One Vision '')
Galileo and Scaramouche have escaped the Heartbreak Hotel, and realise that back at the hospital, tracking devices were installed in their heads. They remove them, and upon realising that they are all that 's left of the rebels, they confess their love for each other. ("Who Wants to Live Forever '')
The surviving Bohemians have been rounded up by Khashoggi to be tortured. ("Flash '') When he can not get any information from them about the prophecy, he has them brain - drained. ("Seven Seas of Rhye '' -- interpolating "Lazing on a Sunday Afternoon '')
Galileo wakes up, and tells Scaramouche that he had a dream that the Bohemians were sent to the Seven Seas of Rhye. Scaramouche agrees they have to go there, but then Galileo insists that she stay because she 's a "chick '', to which Scaramouche takes offence. They argue, and decide that both of them will go to the Seven Seas of Rhye, but their relationship will be purely professional.
Back at Globalsoft headquarters ("Fat Bottomed Girls '') Khashoggi reports that the Bohemians are no longer a problem. Killer Queen prematurely starts to celebrate. ("Do n't Stop Me Now '') Khashoggi interrupts her, explaining that Galileo and Scaramouche escaped. Killer Queen declares this is the last time Khashoggi has disappointed her, and has him brain - drained. ("Another One Bites the Dust '')
Galileo and Scaramouche are making their way to the Seven Seas of Rhye, arguing all the way. ("Hammer to Fall '') At the Seven Seas of Rhye pub in Montreaux, Pop the librarian is serving drinks to the lifeless Bohemians. ("These Are the Days of Our Lives '') When Galileo and Scaramouche arrive, Pop explains the full nature of the prophecy to them as inscribed by the three remaining members of the band Queen just before they were sentenced to death (Brian May, his last request being a final guitar solo, apparently delayed his execution for three and a half days). Scaramouche figures out that the bright shining star of the prophecy is rock star Freddie Mercury 's statue, and that it 's pointing to Wembley Stadium, the "place of living rock ''. After initially preparing to travel by bicycle, (opening of "Bicycle Race '') Scaramouche protests that the method "is n't very cool '', and so they travel there by motorcycle. ("Headlong (reprise) '')
Wembley Stadium is in ruins, with no instruments to be found. Reconciling and their love for each other rekindled ("Love of My Life ''), Scaramouche inspires Galileo to perform the opening of "We Will Rock You '', and an electric guitar is revealed. Galileo can not play it, but Scaramouche can. ("Brighton Rock solo '') Pop hacks into Globalsoft 's network so their music can be heard by everyone on the iPlanet, and Killer Queen is defeated. ("Tie Your Mother Down '', "We Will Rock You / We Are the Champions '')
After the curtain calls ("We Will Rock You (fast version) ''), a question appears that says "Do you want ' Bohemian Rhapsody '? '' Everybody in the audience is supposed to shout yes, and the answer appears as "Oh... alright then '' and the entire cast perform "Bohemian Rhapsody '' as an encore.
International productions of the musical feature changes in the story and song line - up in order to better reach target audiences. All the main characters retain their general personalities across productions, but the names vary depending on the production. (See characters section below).
The dialogue contains many references to popular culture, with lyrics from numerous non-Queen songs and albums inserted into the text. These references are constantly changing, and according to writer Elton, this is to keep the show "fresh ''. Songs that have been referenced include The Beatles ' "Help! '', "Strawberry Fields Forever '', "Penny Lane '', "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds '', "I Am the Walrus '' and "Hello, Goodbye '', Little Richard 's "Tutti Fruitti '' and "Long Tall Sally '', the theme from The Wombles, The Goodies ' "Funky Gibbon '', Bruce Springsteen 's "Born to Run '', David Bowie 's "Rebel Rebel '' and "Space Oddity '', The Wild Ones ' "Wild Thing '', Rolling Stones ' "Honky Tonk Women '', Bob Dylan 's "Mr. Tambourine Man '', ABBA 's "Dancing Queen '' and "Fernando '', Oasis ' "(What 's the Story) Morning Glory? '', Eminem 's "The Real Slim Shady '', Spice Girls ' "Wannabe '', Elton John 's "Goodbye Yellow Brick Road '', Black Lace 's "Agadoo '', The Clash 's "Complete Control '', Teletubbies and songs by Amy Winehouse and Michael Jackson.
May often performs with the London production on special occasions such as anniversaries and Freddie Mercury 's birthday.
Hannah Jane Fox, who originated Scaramouche, was the last original principal cast member to remain with the show. She gave her final performance on 28 January 2006, four years after the musical opened at the Dominion Theatre, and the event was celebrated with May appearing on stage to perform the guitar solo during the "Bohemian Rhapsody '' encore.
On 5 September 2006, the London show celebrated what would have been Freddie Mercury 's 60th birthday. During the song "Do n't Stop Me Now '', ordinarily sung by Killer Queen, the band "McFly '' (who were at No. 1 with the song on the singles charts the previous week) emerged onto the stage to sing it instead. Brian May and Roger Taylor joined the encore, performing Taylor 's "Say It 's Not True '' as a duo. Ben Elton also addressed the audience on this special occasion. The following week, tickets to the London show were sold from £ 19.46, Mercury 's birth year.
On 14 May 2007, the London show celebrated its fifth anniversary with a special show featuring both May and Taylor playing in the final section of the show. Writer Ben Elton also made an appearance to present a special plaque to the cast, May and Taylor. During the portion of the show based in Pop 's bar, the line "But the Pub Landlord has a Bike '' was followed by a cameo appearance of British comedian Al Murray, who came up through the stage on a motorcycle.
The London show 's sixth anniversary performance was held on 21 May 2008, a week after its actual anniversary due to the unavailability of Brian May. For the first time since the show opened, the Killer Queen character performed the entire song "Do n't Stop Me Now '', a musical number which is normally interrupted by the Khashoggi character. This unique performance is acknowledged by Killer Queen 's dialogue: "No, you did n't let me finish, you never let me finish. For six long years, night after night, week after week, year after year. Well, tonight, I 'm going to finish. '' To which Khashoggi replied: "It 's not in the script! '' The Killer Queen proceeded to yell "Screw the script! '' before continuing the song. Additionally, May joined Killer Queen and the dancers on stage for the performance. After the encore, Elton made a thank you speech, after which the entire cast performed "The Show Must Go On '', accompanied by May on guitar.
The seventh anniversary of the London Show was celebrated on Monday 18 May 2009. The show contained a special appearance from Brian May and Ben Elton who emerged together in a cloud of smoke during the encore rendition of "Bohemian Rhapsody '' with May playing guitar. As with the year before, Elton gave a thank you speech and the entire cast performed "The Show Must Go On '', accompanied by May on guitar.
On Saturday 12 September 2009 at the early matinee performance Brian May again emerged in a cloud of smoke playing the guitar in "Bohemian Rhapsody ''. What was the occasion for this appearance is not clear. He did the same again on Saturday 14 November 2009 at the matinee.
On Sunday 31 January 2010 in The O2 Dublin, Brian May once again played Bohemian Rhapsody with the company during the finale of both the matinee and evening shows to celebrate the end of their year - long tour.
On Saturday 5 September 2010 Brian also appeared though a cloud of smoke, again to play "Bohemian Rhapsody ''. This was due to the annual cast change, as well as a celebration of what would have been Freddie Mercury 's 64th birthday, and afterwards Brian gave a farewell speech to the cast that were leaving.
On Saturday 5 October 2013, Brian appeared through the cloud of smoke to play Bohemian Rhapsody once more. This was because it was cast change and some of the cast were leaving. Brian appeared to be very emotional when he was giving his speech.
Queen guitarist Brian May and drummer Roger Taylor often perform at premieres and special events. Bassist John Deacon left Queen in 1997, and has n't performed with May or Taylor since.
When Bohemian Rhapsody is performed with Brian and Roger, Brian comes up from a trap in the stage with a lot of smoke (only at Dominion Theatre. Elsewhere he is walking from the Wembley gate in the back, to the front of stage.) He performs the solo right before the opera section. Then the opera section begins, he walks off stage. Doing the headbanging section Roger comes up on the Heartbreak Hotel platform and Brian runs back on stage (only at Dominion Theatre. Elsewhere Roger 's drum kit is being pushed by stage crew and Brian runs on stage.) They perform the headbanging section with the cast and the low key section. They end it all with a big ending before the stage goes into blackout.
Galileo Figaro -- The central character of the musical; a dreamer who hears strange words in his head. He is eventually revealed to be a reincarnation of Freddie Mercury. The character 's name is a reference to the lyrics in the Queen song "Bohemian Rhapsody ''.
Scaramouche -- A sarcastic, cynical character and Galileo 's love interest. In the finale she shows talent playing the electric guitar, and Galileo declares that she is a reincarnation of Brian May, only this time "he 's a babe ''. The character 's name is a reference to the lyrics in the Queen song "Bohemian Rhapsody ''.
Killer Queen -- The villain of the musical, she rules over iPlanet with an iron fist. The character 's name is a reference to the Queen song "Killer Queen ''.
Brit (alternately Paris, Duff, Vic and J.B.) -- Brit, short for Britney Spears, is the main male Bohemian rebel. In other productions, his name is either Paris (short for Paris Hilton), Duff (short for Hilary Duff), Vic (short for Victoria Beckham) or J.B. (short for Jeanette Biedermann).
Meat (alternately Oz, Ozzy) -- Meat, short for Meat Loaf, is the main female Bohemian. In some productions, the character is named Oz after Ozzy Osbourne.
Commander Khashoggi -- Killer Queen 's second - in - command, he is head of Globalsoft 's police and carries out Killer Queen 's dirty work. The character 's name is a reference to the Queen song "Khashoggi 's Ship '' (which is about the real life Saudi arms dealer Adnan Khashoggi).
Pop (alternately Polo, Bap, DJ, Buddy) -- An elderly librarian trying to figure out the "exact date the music died '', in some productions in love with Scaramouche, believed to be named after the creation of reality television talent shows (the example given varies depending on the production, but includes Popstars, Pop Idol, The X Factor, or the relevant regional variant). Probably named for Iggy Pop or simply a diminutive for "Grandfather ''. In the German production his full name is "Bap Niedecken ''. The name refers to the German band "Bap '' (Cologne dialect for "Papa '' = "Father '') and the singer Wolfgang Niedecken.
Other Bohemians -- The other Bohemians have constantly changing names following media trends. These are usually music - related, and have included Paul McCartney, Bruce Springsteen, Robbie Williams, Beyoncé, Madonna, Amy Winehouse, Bob the Builder, Boy George, Cliff Richard, Spice Girls, Elton John, Jackson Five, Prince, Burton Cummings, John Farnham, Charlotte Church, Crazy Frog, Eddie Cochran, Avril Lavigne, Shania Twain, Lily Allen, Kelly Osbourne and Clay Aiken, Cheeky Girls, Kurt Cobain and recently Michael Jackson, Whitney Houston, Gary Barlow, Lady Gaga, Justin Bieber, Katy Perry, Britney Spears, and Frankie Valli.
As a jukebox musical, the show 's music consists entirely of Queen material. The musical numbers of the original London production are as follows.
Later in the London production, the "One Vision '' sequence was changed to include Freddie Mercury 's recorded vocals for the bridge. Previously, the bridge had been sung by the ensemble.
In the original London production, "Fat - Bottomed Girls '' was a short instrumental interlude prior to "Another One Bites the Dust ''. Subsequent international productions expanded the song into a full song and dance sequence. Due to the positive response, the change was transferred back to the London production.
For the single - act Las Vegas production, "Who Wants to Live Forever '' is replaced by "You 're My Best Friend ''. In the 2013 - 2014 North American tour, "You 're My Best Friend '' is added after "I Want It All. '' "Who Wants To Live Forever '' is reinstated, after "Flash '' and "Seven Seas of Rhye. ''
For the Australasian tour, Canadian production and the 2013 - 14 North American tour, "Play the Game '' is replaced by "Now I 'm Here ''.
For the revamped Canadian production and the 2013 - 14 North American tour, "One Vision '' is removed. "Flash '' and "Seven Seas Of Rhye '' are repositioned to the start of Act Two.
On special occasions, "The Show Must Go On '' is added to the encore.
A cast recording of the original London production was released in November 2002. Not all songs in the show were included in the album, the omitted tracks have been marked * in the above list. In August 2003, the London cast recording was given an Australian edition re-release, containing a bonus track of the original Australian Killer Queen, Annie Crummer, singing a studio version of "Another One Bites the Dust ''.
In 2004, Kerry Ellis, who was the original Meat in the London production, worked with Brian May to record an instrumental studio version of "No One but You (Only the Good Die Young) ''. This version is available through the official Queen website and in Ellis ' limited - release CD single titled Wicked in Rock.
A Madrid cast recording was released in 2004. The recording includes a bonus second disc containing an extended Spanish - translated studio version of "No - One But You '' ("Solo Por Ti '') sung by the original Meat, Eva María Cortés, and video clips of the original Madrid production.
A Cologne cast recording was released in 2005. It is the only We Will Rock You cast recording to contain "Fat Bottomed Girls ''.
In 2012, a 10th Anniversary Edition of the London Cast Recording was issued, comprising the original cast recording album, along with a CD with bonus material.
At the time of launching the musical, Robert De Niro referred to the possibility of a film version.
In a 2009 interview with the BBC, Brian May said that a film version was proposed, and that Ben Elton had written a full script with a "grittier '' storyline. He emphasised that a lot more action can be included during the songs in a film than in a stage musical.
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song there a guy works down the chip shop | There 's a Guy Works Down the Chip Shop Swears He 's Elvis - wikipedia
"There 's a Guy Works Down the Chip Shop Swears He 's Elvis '' was Kirsty MacColl 's first hit single, charting in the UK at # 14 in 1981, and remaining in the charts for nine weeks. It reached # 9 in the Irish charts. A promotional version was released in the USA, which instead referenced a truck stop as opposed to the very British chip shop, but this was only available to DJs and did not get a full release.
Norwegian singer Elisabeth Andreasson covered the song on her 1981 country album Angel of the Morning, with lyrics in Swedish by Hasse Olsson as "Killen ner ' på Konsum svär att han är Elvis '' ("The guy down Konsum '' swears he 's Elvis).
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who played the traveler in star trek the next generation | Eric Menyuk - wikipedia
Eric Menyuk (born November 5, 1959) is an American attorney and former actor. He gained renown for his brief appearances in the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation as "The Traveler ''. He was originally considered for the role of the android Data which was eventually given to Brent Spiner. After retiring from his acting career, he retrained to become an attorney and represents children with disabilities and specializes in children 's education rights.
Menyuk was in the running to play the android character Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation. A memo from John Pike to John Ferrard dated April 13, 1987, listed Menyuk as one of several actors who were in contention for the role, also including Mark Lindsay Chapman, Kevin Peter Hall and Kelvin Han Yee. Brent Spiner was eventually chosen for the role over Menyuk.
He was subsequently cast in the role of the Traveler, first appearing in the first season in the episode "Where No One Has Gone Before '' and returning in the fourth season episode "Remember Me '' and season seven 's "Journey 's End ''. In order to portray the character, he had to undergo a three - hour make - up process on each day of shooting, including prosthetics applied to his face and to both hands in order to reduce the number of fingers shown. He later remarked that although he respected the work of Michael Westmore, he disliked the prosthetics on his hands and would go out of his way during shooting to hide them. Following his appearances on Star Trek, he has appeared on the convention circuit, including Star Trek themed cruises on Carnival Cruise Lines.
He is an attorney, having graduated from Loyola Law School, Los Angeles, in 1998 after he retired from film and television. He and his wife Laurie have two children, a son and a daughter.
Due to his son 's special needs he has moved into the field of law involving children 's education rights. He was admitted to the State Bar of California on July 12, 1998. He earned his undergraduate degree from Vassar College in 1981.
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when is the last time a volcano erupted | List of large volcanic eruptions in the 21st century - wikipedia
This is a list of volcanic eruptions of the 21st century measuring a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of at least 4, as well as notable smaller eruptions. Note that the size of eruptions can be subject to considerable uncertainty.
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where does the whole 9 yards come from | The whole nine yards - wikipedia
The whole nine yards or the full nine yards is a colloquial American phrase meaning "everything, the whole lot '' or, when used as an adjective, "all the way '', as in, "The Army came out and gave us the whole nine yards on how they use space systems. '' Its origin is unknown and has been described by Yale University librarian Fred R. Shapiro as "the most prominent etymological riddle of our time ''.
The Oxford English Dictionary finds the earliest published non-idiomatic use in an 1855 Indiana newspaper article. The earliest known idiomatic use of the phrase is from 1907 in southern Indiana. The phrase is related to the expression the whole six yards, used around the same time in Kentucky and South Carolina. Both phrases are variations on the whole ball of wax, first recorded in the 1880s. They are part of a family of expressions in which an odd - sounding item, such as enchilada, shooting match, shebang or hog, is substituted for ball of wax. The choice of the number nine may be related to the expression "To the nines '' (to perfection).
Use of the phrase became widespread in the 1980s and 1990s. Much of the interest in the phrase 's etymology can be attributed to New York Times language columnist William Safire, who wrote extensively on this question.
The Oxford English Dictionary places the earliest published non-idiomatic use of the phrase in the New Albany (Indiana) Daily Ledger, January 30, 1855 in an article called "The Judge 's Big Shirt. '' "What a silly, stupid woman! I told her to get just enough to make three shirts; instead of making three, she has put the whole nine yards into one shirt! '' The first known use of the phrase as an idiom appears in The Mitchell Commercial, a newspaper in the small town of Mitchell, Indiana, in its May 2, 1907 edition:
This afternoon at 2: 30 will be called one of the baseball games that will be worth going a long way to see. The regular nine is going to play the business men as many innings as they can stand, but we can not promise the full nine yards.
The idiom was used three more times in the Mitchell Commercial over the next seven years, in the forms give him the whole nine yards (i.e., tell someone a big story), take the whole nine yards (i.e., take everything), and settled the whole nine yards (i.e., resolved everything).
In other uses from this time period, the phrase was given as the whole six yards. In 1912, a local newspaper in Kentucky asked readers to, "Just wait boys until the fix gets to a fever heat and they will tell the whole six yards. '' The same newspaper repeated the phrase soon afterward in another issue, stating "As we have been gone for a few days and failed to get all the news for this issue we will give you the whole six yards in our next. '' The six - yard form of the phrase also appears in a 1921 headline in a local South Carolina paper.
The phrase is not known to have been used in writing thereafter until a 1956 issue of Kentucky Happy Hunting Ground, where it appears in an article on fishing. After describing the contests and prizes, the author writes, "So that 's the whole nine - yards. '' It appeared in an article on hunting the following year, this time unhyphenated.
The phrase at this point was still rare. There is strong circumstantial evidence it was not in general use in 1961, as Ralph Boston set a world record for the long jump that year at 27 feet, or nine yards, but no news report has been found that made any reference to the term, suggesting that journalists were unaware of it or did not regard it as common enough to use as a pun.
In a short story published in 1962, the phrase is attributed to "a brush salesman ''. A letter published in an auto magazine later that year describes a certain new car as containing "all nine yards of goodies ''. In 1964, several newspapers published a syndicated story which explained that "Give ' em the whole nine yards '' was NASA talk for an item - by - item report. This early usage can be read as suggesting length, but can also be read as suggesting detailed completeness.
Two 1965 newspaper articles quote U.S. military personnel serving in Vietnam using the phrase. The phrase was explained as something "teenagers say '' in a military - oriented magazine in 1965. Citations from 1966 show the phrase was used by a former U.S. Army airman, and also in a publication for military test pilots. It is also recorded in two contemporary novels concerning the U.S. Air Force in Vietnam, Carl Krueger 's Wings of a Tiger (1966), and Elaine Shepard 's The Doom Pussy (1967).
William Safire, a language columnist at the New York Times, asked listeners for information regarding the origin of the phrase on Larry King 's radio show in 1982. Safire ended up writing nine columns on this subject and is largely responsible for the interest in it. In 1986, the phrase was added to the Oxford English Dictionary with the earliest citation given as 1970. The Historical Dictionary of American Slang (1997) cited Shepard 's novel, thus pushing the earliest known usage back to 1967.
Several key discoveries in further antedating the phrase were made by Bonnie Taylor - Blake, a neuroscience researcher at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and an amateur member of the American Dialect Society, an association of professional and amateur linguists whose mailing list often serves as a forum for word and phrase discoveries. In 2012, Taylor - Blake discovered the 1956 and 1957 uses in Kentucky Happy Hunting Ground, and later that year she and Fred R. Shapiro found the "whole six yards '' examples from the 1912 -- 1921 period, which received substantial publicity. In 2013, Taylor - Blake posted her discovery of the Mitchell Commercial uses from the 1907 -- 1914 period.
There is still no consensus on the origin, though many early published quotations are now available for study. A vast number of explanations for this phrase has been suggested; many of these are no longer viable in light of what is now known about the phrase 's history.
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whats the difference between contraflow and with flow | Contraflow lane - wikipedia
In transport engineering nomenclature, a counterflow lane or contraflow lane is a lane in which traffic flows in the opposite direction of the surrounding lanes.
Contraflow lanes are often used for bicycles or bus rapid transit on what are otherwise one - way streets. In a sample configuration for buses, a street might have four lanes: the outermost lanes are reserved for buses in both directions, while the center two lanes are available for general traffic in only one direction. Thus, the street functions as two - way for buses, but one - way for all other vehicles.
Contraflow lanes can also be used to extend the capacity of separated limited - access roads when there are physical constraints. For example, the Boston I - 93 - Southeast Expressway "Zipper - Lane '', which provides an HOV lane for the morning rush on the northbound side, and the afternoon rush on the southbound side.
In certain situations, reversible lanes will be contraflow for a portion of the day. The Lincoln Tunnel XBL to the Lincoln Tunnel is a contraflow exclusive bus lane for buses during the morning peak period. The XBL lane is fed by the New Jersey Turnpike at Exits 16E and 17, and New Jersey Route 3. The helix, tunnel, and terminal are owned and operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the bi-state agency that also operates the 2.5 - mile (4.02 km) contraflow lane along the left lane of three westbound lanes. The XBL serves over 1,800 buses, which transport more than 65,000 persons, each morning and is a major component of the morning "inbound '' commutation crossing the Hudson River.
When lanes on motorways are closed for repair and maintenance, a contraflow lane may be set up on the other side of the central reservation.
Contraflow bus lanes, areas in which a dedicated lane of an otherwise one way street is reversed for buses and other mass transit, exist in locations such as:
From June 1990 to June 2002, a similar line existed in Montreal, along Pie - IX Boulevard; this was indefinitely suspended after two fatalities. Government buses use a bus - only contraflow lane on Macquarie St in Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.
Authorised buses, emergency vehicles and taxis use a contraflow lane on Petrie Tce, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
Tram lanes are an extension to this system found in cities with curbside streetcar networks. For example, tram lanes in Zagreb can be used only by trams, buses, and taxicabs.
Contraflow is a common part of decent cycling infrastructure and is often seen on one - way streets. A standard example is that car and other vehicular traffic might have only one lane while on both sides there are bike lanes; one going in the same direction as the vehicular traffic, the other (the contraflow bike lane) allows cyclists to safely go in the opposite direction to the cars. This is allowed as the road may not be wide enough for two lanes of car traffic but there is enough room to allow for the additional bicycle lane; and without it cyclists may be forced to take a long, and perhaps unsafe, detour.
Another example is the same as the above but there is only one bike lane, the contraflow lane, and bicycles travelling in the same direction as the cars share the cars ' lane. This solution would be more suited to very narrow roads or ones with light traffic.
In Belgium since about 2005, and in France since 2010, the default position in towns has been for one - way streets to be available for cycling in either direction, known in French as sens unique limité (SUL). In this case, a contraflow cycle lane is often marked in paint, with dotted white lines and ideograms of a bicycle, either all the way along the street if busy, or more commonly just at junctions.
In the Netherlands, most one - way streets are two way for cyclists, although this is not always marked by a counterflow lane. This is presented as a ' one - way street, except for cyclists '. One - way streets that do not exclude bicycles are rare and are usually only found as pairs of a single street that are too far apart to be presented as a single street. It is not uncommon for cyclists to fail to notice a one - way street that does include bicycles, because they are too accustomed to all one - way streets excluding bicycles.
Contraflow cycling is often assumed to be associated with higher accidents risks, but where it has been properly evaluated, contraflow cycling actually seems to reduce the accidents risk.
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who dies in series 4 of the walking dead | The Walking Dead (season 4) - Wikipedia
The fourth season of The Walking Dead, an American post-apocalyptic horror television series on AMC, premiered on October 13, 2013, and concluded on March 30, 2014, consisting of 16 episodes. Developed for television by Frank Darabont, the series is based on the eponymous series of comic books by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore, and Charlie Adlard. It was executive produced by Kirkman, David Alpert, Scott M. Gimple, Greg Nicotero, Tom Luse, and Gale Anne Hurd, with Gimple assuming the role of showrunner after Glen Mazzara 's departure from the series. The fourth season was well received by critics. It was nominated for multiple awards and won three, including Best Syndicated / Cable Television Series for the second consecutive year, at the 40th Saturn Awards.
This season adapts material from issues # 39 -- 61 of the comic book series and introduces notable comic characters, including Bob Stookey (Lawrence Gilliard Jr.), Sgt. Abraham Ford (Michael Cudlitz), Dr. Eugene Porter (Josh McDermitt) and Rosita Espinosa (Christian Serratos), as well as the Chambler Family, a modified version of the Chalmers Family from a tie - in novel, The Walking Dead: Rise of the Governor.
Set several months after the attempted attack on the prison by The Governor (David Morrissey) and his army, the season continues the story of Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln), who renounced his leadership in order to live a quiet and more peaceful life in contrast to his cold - hearted nature in the previous season. Striving to hold onto humanity, Rick and his fellow survivors struggle to maintain their close to an ideal life at the prison as problems arise in the face of new evil, and threats within and outside the premises, including a deadly flu strain and the return of the atrocious Governor.
The fourth season features thirteen series regulars, with nine actors receiving opening credits billing, while four others are credited as "Also starring ''. Melissa McBride and Scott Wilson, who portray Carol Peletier and Hershel Greene, respectively, were added in the opening sequence after previously being credited as "Also starring ''. David Morrissey, who plays The Governor, is not credited among the main cast until his reappearance in the episode "Live Bait ''. Credited as "Also starring '' are Emily Kinney (Beth Greene), Chad L. Coleman (Tyreese Williams), and Sonequa Martin - Green (Sasha Williams), who were promoted from recurring status, and Lawrence Gilliard Jr., who joins the main cast as Bob Stookey. Wilson and Morrissey were both removed from the opening credits, and as series regulars after the episode "After ''. However, Wilson is re-added to the opening credits and as a series regular for the season finale, "A ''.
Lennie James was initially reported to return as Morgan Jones, Rick 's first human encounter in the apocalypse, however showrunner Scott M. Gimple confirmed that he would not appear in the fourth season, saying that he was misquoted. Despite this, Gimple stated that Morgan would return in later seasons. Morgan eventually returned in the series ' fifth season.
A fourth season of the show, consisting of 16 episodes, was confirmed in December 2012. Production began in Senoia, Georgia on May 6, 2013. In July 2013, it was reported that David S. Goyer would be directing the penultimate episode of the season, however Goyer did not direct the episode due to scheduling conflicts. Greg Nicotero, who replaced Goyer, directed three episodes for the season, while Tricia Brock and Ernest Dickerson each directed two episodes. Michelle MacLaren returned this season to direct the season finale, after previously directing episodes in seasons one and two. Comic book co-creator Robert Kirkman wrote two episodes of the season. Filming was completed on November 23, 2013.
In an interview with showrunner Scott Gimple, he shares: "The ultimate inspiration for The Walking Dead is the comic book. Sometimes, we can go far away from the comic book story, but often we ultimately serve the comic book story. And even when we go far away from it, we 're inspired by it - and the novels as well. And then beyond that, all of the great stuff that we have consumed along the way, from zombie movies to Star Wars to other comics to really highbrow movies like The Grand Illusion to Jaws. And also really, world history. The plague storyline was inspired by both Camus ' The Plague and other stories about the plague I heard in Edinburgh. But really, it starts with the comic book. ''
Following the two previous web series in 2011 and 2012, another set of webisodes titled The Oath was released on October 1, 2013.
A third season of the live talk show aired alongside the fourth season of The Walking Dead.
The fourth season of The Walking Dead has been well received from critics. On Metacritic, the season holds a score of 75 out of 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews '', based on 16 critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds an 86 % with an average rating of 7.66 out of 10, based on 30 reviews, and an average episode score of 86 %. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Consistently thrilling, with solid character development and enough gore to please grindhouse fans, this season of The Walking Dead continues to demonstrate why it 's one of the best horror shows on television. ''
For the 40th Saturn Awards, the fourth season of The Walking Dead received four nominations and three wins. The wins were for Best Syndicated / Cable Television Series, Best Supporting Actress on Television (Melissa McBride), and Best Performance by a Younger Actor in a Television Series (Chandler Riggs). The only other nomination was for Best Guest Starring Role on Television (David Morrissey).
The season also received two nominations for the 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards: Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series ("Too Far Gone '') and Outstanding Special Visual Effects in a Supporting Role ("30 Days Without an Accident ''). Additionally, the season was also nominated for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Television Series at the 20th and 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards for both halves of the season, respectively. Melissa McBride was nominated for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series at the 4th Critics ' Choice Television Awards.
The fourth season was released on region 1 / A DVD and Blu - ray on August 26, 2014. It was also released in limited edition Blu - ray packaging, a replica of the tree walker (featured in the episode "Isolation ''), designed by Greg Nicotero and sculpted by McFarlane Toys. Special features include "Inside The Walking Dead '' and "The Making of The Walking Dead '' featurettes for every episode; six other featurettes titled, "Drawing Inspiration '', "Hershel '', "The Governor is Back '', "Society, Science & Survival '', "Inside KNB Studios '' and "A Journey Back to Brutality ''; deleted scenes from eight episodes; and audio commentaries on six episodes; and two extended episodes. Also, the final line of the season is uncensored, with Rick saying "They 're fucking with the wrong people. ''
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analyse the role of thinkers and philosophers in the french revolution | Women in the French Revolution - wikipedia
Historians since the late 20th century have debated how women shared in the French Revolution and what long - term impact it had on French women. Women had no political rights in pre-Revolutionary France; they were considered "passive '' citizens; forced to rely on men to determine what was best for them. That changed dramatically in theory as there seemingly were great advances in feminism. Feminism emerged in Paris as part of a broad demand for social and political reform. The women demanded equality to men and then moved on to a demand for the end of male domination. Their chief vehicle for agitation were pamphlets and women 's clubs, especially the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women. However, the Jacobin (radical) element in power abolished all the women 's clubs in October 1793 and arrested their leaders. The movement was crushed. Devance explains the decision in terms of the emphasis on masculinity in wartime, Marie Antoinette 's bad reputation for feminine interference in state affairs, and traditional male supremacy. A decade later the Napoleonic Code confirmed and perpetuated women 's second - class status.
Women had no political rights in pre-Revolutionary France; they could not vote or hold any political office. They were considered "passive '' citizens; forced to rely on men to determine what was best for them in the government. It was the men who defined these categories, and women were forced to accept male domination in the political sphere.
Women were taught to be committed to their husbands and "all his interests... (to show) attention and care... (and) sincere and discreet zeal for his salvation. '' A woman 's education often consisted of learning to be a good wife and mother; as a result women were not supposed to be involved in the political sphere, as the limit of their influence was the raising of future citizens. The subservient role of women prior to the revolution was perhaps best exemplified by the Frederician Code, published in 1750 and attacked by Enlightenment philosophers and publications.
The highly influential Encyclopédie in the 1750s set the tone of the Enlightenment, and its ideas exerted influence on the subsequent Revolution in France. Writing a number of articles on women in society, Louis de Jaucourt criticized traditional roles for women, arguing that "it would be difficult to demonstrate that the husband 's rule comes from nature, in as much as this principle is contrary to natural human equality... a man does not invariably have more strength of body, of wisdom, of mind or of conduct than a woman... The example of England and Russia shows clearly that women can succeed equally in both moderate and despotic government... '' One of greatest influences foreshadowing the revolutionary and republican transformations in women 's roles was Jean - Jacques Rousseau 's educational treatise Emile (1762). Some liberal men advocated equal rights for women including women 's suffrage. Nicolas de Condorcet was especially noted for his advocacy, in his articles published in the Journal de la Société de 1789, and by publishing De l'admission des femmes au droit de cité ("For the Admission to the Rights of Citizenship For Women '') in 1790.
When the Revolution started, some women struck forcefully, using the volatile political climate to assert their active natures. In the time of the Revolution, women could not be kept out of the political sphere. They swore oaths of loyalty, "solemn declarations of patriotic allegiance, (and) affirmations of the political responsibilities of citizenship. '' De Corday d'Armont is a prime example of such a woman; engaged in the revolutionary political faction of the Girondists, she assassinated the Jacobin leader, Marat. Throughout the Revolution, other women such as Pauline Léon and her Society of Revolutionary Republican Women supported the radical Jacobins, staged demonstrations in the National Assembly and participated in the riots, often using armed force.
The Women 's March on Versailles is but one example of feminist militant activism during the French Revolution. While largely left out of the thrust for increasing rights of citizens, as the question was left indeterminate in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, activists such as Pauline Léon and Théroigne de Méricourt agitated for full citizenship for women. Women were, nonetheless, "denied political rights of ' active citizenship ' (1791) and democratic citizenship (1793). ''
Pauline Léon, on 6 March 1792, submitted a petition signed by 319 women to the National Assembly requesting permission to form a garde national in order to defend Paris in case of military invasion. Léon requested permission be granted to women to arm themselves with pikes, pistols, sabers and rifles, as well as the privilege of drilling under the French Guards. Her request was denied. Later in 1792, Théroigne de Méricourt made a call for the creation of "legions of amazons '' in order to protect the revolution. As part of her call, she claimed that the right to bear arm would transform women into citizens.
On 20 June 1792 a number of armed women took part in a procession that "passed through the halls of the Legislative Assembly, into the Tuileries Gardens, and then through the King 's residence. '' Militant women also assumed a special role in the funeral of Marat, following his murder on 13 July 1793. As part of the funeral procession, they carried the bathtub in which Marat had been murdered as well as a shirt stained with Marat 's blood.
The most radical militant feminist activism was practiced by the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women, which was founded by Léon and her colleague, Claire Lacombe on 10 May 1793. The goal of the club was "to deliberate on the means of frustrating the projects of the enemies of the Republic. '' Up to 180 women attended the meetings of the Society. Of special interest to the Society was "combating hoarding (of grain and other staples) and inflation. '' On 20 May 1793, women were at the fore of a crowd that demanded "bread and the Constitution of 1793. '' When their cries went unnoticed, the women went on a rampage, "sacking shops, seizing grain and kidnapping officials. ''
The Society demanded a law in 1793 that would compel all women to wear the tricolore cockade insignia to demonstrate their loyalty to the Republic. They also repeated their demands for vigorous price controls to keep bread -- the major food of the poor people -- from becoming too expensive. After the Convention passed the cockade law in September 1793, the Revolutionary Republican Women demanded vigorous enforcement, but were countered by market women, former servants, and religious women who adamantly opposed price controls (which would drive them out of business) and resented attacks on the aristocracy and on religion. They said that "Only whores and female Jacobins wear cockades. '' Fist fights broke out in the streets between the two factions of women.
Meanwhile, the men who controlled the Jacobins rejected the Revolutionary Republican Women as dangerous rabble - rousers. At this point the Jacobins controlled the government; they dissolved the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women, and decreed that all women 's clubs and associations were illegal. They sternly reminded women to stay home and tend to their families by leaving public affairs to the men. Organized women were permanently shut out of the French Revolution after October 30, 1793.
Most of these outwardly activist women were punished for their militancy. The kind of punishment received during the Revolution included public denouncement, arrest, execution, or exile. Théroigne de Méricourt was arrested, publicly flogged and then spent the rest of her life sentenced to an insane asylum. Pauline Léon and Claire Lacombe were arrested, later released, and continued to receive ridicule and abuse for their activism. Many of the women of the Revolution were even publicly executed for "conspiring against the unity and the indivisibility of the Republic ''.
While some women chose a militant, and often violent, path, others chose to influence events through writing, publications, and meetings. Olympe de Gouges wrote a number of plays, short stories, and novels. Her publications emphasized that women and men are different, but this should n't stop them from equality under the law. In her "Declaration on the Rights of Woman '' she insisted that women deserved rights, especially in areas concerning them directly, such as divorce and recognition of illegitimate children.
De Gouges also expressed non-gender political views; even before the start of the terror, Olympe de Gouges addressed Robespierre using the pseudonym "Polyme '' calling him the Revolution 's "infamy and shame. '' She warned of the Revolution 's building extremism saying that leaders were "preparing new shackles if (the French people 's liberty were to) waver. '' Stating that she was willing to sacrifice herself by jumping into the Seine if Robespierre were to join her, de Gouges desperately attempted to grab the attention of the French citizenry and alert them to the dangers that Robespierre embodied. In addition to these bold writings, her defense of the king was one of the factors leading to her execution. An influential figure, one of her suggestions early in the Revolution, to have a voluntary, patriotic tax, was adopted by the National Convention in 1789.
Madame Roland (aka Manon or Marie Roland) was another important female activist. Her political focus was not specifically on women or their liberation. She focused on other aspects of the government, but was a feminist by virtue of the fact that she was a woman working to influence the world. Her personal letters to leaders of the Revolution influenced policy; in addition, she often hosted political gatherings of the Brissotins, a political group which allowed women to join.
While limited by her gender, Madame Roland took it upon herself to spread Revolutionary ideology and spread word of events, as well as to assist in formulating the policies of her political allies. Unable to directly write policies or carry them through to the government, Roland influenced her political allies and thus promote her political agenda. Roland attributed women 's lack of education to the public view that women were too weak or vain to be involved in the serious business of politics. She believed that it was this inferior education that turned them into foolish people, but women "could easily be concentrated and solidified upon objects of great significance '' if given the chance.
As she was led to the scaffold, Madame Roland shouted "O liberty! What crimes are committed in thy name! '' Witnesses of her life and death, editors, and readers helped to finish her writings and several editions were published posthumously. While she did not focus on gender politics in her writings, by taking an active role in the tumultuous time of the Revolution, Roland took a stand for women of the time and proved they could take an intelligent active role in politics.
Though women did not gain the right to vote as a result of the Revolution, they still greatly expanded their political participation and involvement in governing. They set precedents for generations of feminists to come.
A major aspect of the French Revolution was the dechristianisation movement, a movement that many common people did not agree with. Especially for women living in rural areas of France, the demise of the Catholic Church meant a loss of normalcy. For instance, the ringing of Church bells resonating through the town called people to confession and was a symbol of unity for the community. With the onset of the dechristianisation campaign the Republic silenced these bells and sought simultaneously to silence the religious fervor of the majority Catholic population.
When these revolutionary changes to the Church were implemented, it spawned a counter-revolutionary movement, particularly amongst women. Although some of these women embraced the political and social amendments of the Revolution, they opposed the dissolution of the Catholic Church and the formation of revolutionary cults like the Cult of the Supreme Being advocated by Robespierre. As Olwen Hufton argues, these women began to see themselves as the "defenders of faith ''. They took it upon themselves to protect the Church from what they saw as a heretical change to their faith, enforced by revolutionaries.
Counter-revolutionary women resisted what they saw as the intrusion of the state into their lives. Economically, many peasant women refused to sell their goods for assignats because this form of currency was unstable and was backed by the sale of confiscated Church property. By far the most important issue to counter-revolutionary women was the passage and the enforcement of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790. In response to this measure, women in many areas began circulating anti-oath pamphlets and refused to attend masses held by priests who had sworn oaths of loyalty to the Republic. This diminished the social and political influence of the juring priests because they presided over smaller congregations and counter-revolutionary women did not seek them for baptisms, marriages or confession. Instead, they secretly hid nonjuring priests and attended clandestine traditional masses. These women continued to adhere to traditional practices such as Christian burials and naming their children after saints in spite of revolutionary decrees to the contrary.
It was this determined resistance to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and the dechristianisation campaigns that played a major role in the re-emergence of the Catholic Church as a prominent social institution. Olwen Hufton notes about the Counter-Revolutionary women: "for it is her commitment to her religion which determines in the post-Thermidorean period the re-emergence of the Catholic Church... ''. Although they struggled, these women were eventually vindicated in their bid to reestablish the Church and thereby also to reestablish traditional family life and social stability. This was seen in the Concordat of 1801, which formally reinstated the Catholic Church in France. This act came after years of attempts at dechristianisation or state - controlled religion, which were thwarted in part due to the resistance of religiously devout counter-revolutionary women.
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who won in brown v board of education | Brown v. Board of Education - wikipedia
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), was a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students to be unconstitutional. The decision effectively overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state - sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17, 1954, the Warren Court 's unanimous (9 -- 0) decision stated that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. '' As a result, de jure racial segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a major victory of the Civil Rights Movement, and a model for many future impact litigation cases. However, the decision 's fourteen pages did not spell out any sort of method for ending racial segregation in schools, and the Court 's second decision in Brown II (349 U.S. 294 (1955)) only ordered states to desegregate "with all deliberate speed ''.
For much of the sixty years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United States had been dominated by racial segregation. This policy had been endorsed in 1896 by the United States Supreme Court case of Plessy v. Ferguson, which held that as long as the separate facilities for the separate races were equal, segregation did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment ("no State shall... deny to any person... the equal protection of the laws '').
The plaintiffs in Brown asserted that this system of racial separation, while masquerading as providing separate but equal treatment of both white and black Americans, instead perpetuated inferior accommodations, services, and treatment for black Americans. Racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Brown was influenced by UNESCO 's 1950 Statement, signed by a wide variety of internationally renowned scholars, titled The Race Question. This declaration denounced previous attempts at scientifically justifying racism as well as morally condemning racism. Another work that the Supreme Court cited was Gunnar Myrdal 's An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944). Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration. The research performed by the educational psychologists Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark also influenced the Court 's decision. The Clarks ' "doll test '' studies presented substantial arguments to the Supreme Court about how segregation affected black schoolchildren 's mental status.
The United States and the Soviet Union were both at the height of the Cold War during this time, and U.S. officials, including Supreme Court Justices, were highly aware of the harm that segregation and racism played on America 's international image. When Justice William O. Douglas traveled to India in 1950, the first question he was asked was, "Why does America tolerate the lynching of Negroes? '' Douglas later wrote that he had learned from his travels that "the attitude of the United States toward its colored minorities is a powerful factor in our relations with India. '' Chief Justice Earl Warren, nominated to the Supreme Court by President Eisenhower, echoed Douglas 's concerns in a 1954 speech to the American Bar Association, proclaiming that "Our American system like all others is on trial both at home and abroad,... the extent to which we maintain the spirit of our constitution with its Bill of Rights, will in the long run do more to make it both secure and the object of adulation than the number of hydrogen bombs we stockpile. ''
In 1951, a class action suit was filed against the Board of Education of the City of Topeka, Kansas in the United States District Court for the District of Kansas. The plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children.
The suit called for the school district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The Topeka Board of Education operated separate elementary schools under an 1879 Kansas law, which permitted (but did not require) districts to maintain separate elementary school facilities for black and white students in 12 communities with populations over 15,000. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka NAACP. Notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman McKinley Burnett; Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter; and Lucinda Todd.
The named plaintiff, Oliver L. Brown, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the Santa Fe Railroad, an assistant pastor at his local church, and an African American. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by Scott, a childhood friend. Brown 's daughter Linda, a third grader, had to walk six blocks to her school bus stop to ride to Monroe Elementary, her segregated black school one mile (1.6 km) away, while Sumner Elementary, a white school, was seven blocks from her house.
As directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools.
The case "Oliver Brown et al. v. The Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas '' was named after Oliver Brown as a legal strategy to have a man at the head of the roster. The lawyers, and the National Chapter of the NAACP, also felt that having Mr. Brown at the head of the roster would be better received by the U.S. Supreme Court Justices. The 13 plaintiffs were: Oliver Brown, Darlene Brown, Lena Carper, Sadie Emmanuel, Marguerite Emerson, Shirley Fleming, Zelma Henderson, Shirley Hodison, Maude Lawton, Alma Lewis, Iona Richardson, and Lucinda Todd. The last surviving plaintiff, Zelma Henderson, died in Topeka, on May 20, 2008, at age 88.
The District Court ruled in favor of the Board of Education, citing the U.S. Supreme Court precedent set in Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), which had upheld a state law requiring "separate but equal '' segregated facilities for blacks and whites in railway cars. The three - judge District Court panel found that segregation in public education has a detrimental effect on negro children, but denied relief on the ground that the negro and white schools in Topeka were substantially equal with respect to buildings, transportation, curricula, and educational qualifications of teachers.
The case of Brown v. Board of Education as heard before the Supreme Court combined five cases: Brown itself, Briggs v. Elliott (filed in South Carolina), Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County (filed in Virginia), Gebhart v. Belton (filed in Delaware), and Bolling v. Sharpe (filed in Washington D.C.).
All were NAACP - sponsored cases. The Davis case, the only case of the five originating from a student protest, began when 16 - year - old Barbara Rose Johns organized and led a 450 - student walkout of Moton High School. The Gebhart case was the only one where a trial court, affirmed by the Delaware Supreme Court, found that discrimination was unlawful; in all the other cases the plaintiffs had lost as the original courts had found discrimination to be lawful.
The Kansas case was unique among the group in that there was no contention of gross inferiority of the segregated schools ' physical plant, curriculum, or staff. The district court found substantial equality as to all such factors. The lower court, in its opinion, noted that, in Topeka, "the physical facilities, the curricula, courses of study, qualification and quality of teachers, as well as other educational facilities in the two sets of schools (were) comparable. '' The lower court observed that "colored children in many instances are required to travel much greater distances than they would be required to travel could they attend a white school '' but also noted that the school district "transports colored children to and from school free of charge '' and that "(n) o such service (was) provided to white children. ''
In the Delaware case the district court judge in Gebhart ordered that the black students be admitted to the white high school due to the substantial harm of segregation and the differences that made the separate schools unequal.
The NAACP 's chief counsel, Thurgood Marshall -- who was later appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1967 -- argued the case before the Supreme Court for the plaintiffs. Assistant attorney general Paul Wilson -- later distinguished emeritus professor of law at the University of Kansas -- conducted the state 's ambivalent defense in his first appellate argument.
In December 1952, the Justice Department filed a friend of the court brief in the case. The brief was unusual in its heavy emphasis on foreign - policy considerations of the Truman administration in a case ostensibly about domestic issues. Of the seven pages covering "the interest of the United States, '' five focused on the way school segregation hurt the United States in the Cold War competition for the friendship and allegiance of non-white peoples in countries then gaining independence from colonial rule. Attorney General James P. McGranery noted that
The existence of discrimination against minority groups in the United States has an adverse effect upon our relations with other countries. Racial discrimination furnishes grist for the Communist propaganda mills.
The brief also quoted a letter by Secretary of State Dean Acheson lamenting that
The United States is under constant attack in the foreign press, over the foreign radio, and in such international bodies as the United Nations because of various practices of discrimination in this country.
British barrister and parliamentarian Anthony Lester has written that "Although the Court 's opinion in Brown made no reference to these considerations of foreign policy, there is no doubt that they significantly influenced the decision. ''
In spring 1953, the Court heard the case but was unable to decide the issue and asked to rehear the case in fall 1953, with special attention to whether the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause prohibited the operation of separate public schools for whites and blacks.
The Court reargued the case at the behest of Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter, who used reargument as a stalling tactic, to allow the Court to gather a consensus around a Brown opinion that would outlaw segregation. The justices in support of desegregation spent much effort convincing those who initially intended to dissent to join a unanimous opinion. Although the legal effect would be same for a majority rather than unanimous decision, it was felt that dissent could be used by segregation supporters as a legitimizing counter-argument.
Conference notes and draft decisions illustrate the division of opinions before the decision was issued. Justices Douglas, Black, Burton, and Minton were predisposed to overturn Plessy. Fred M. Vinson noted that Congress had not issued desegregation legislation; Stanley F. Reed discussed incomplete cultural assimilation and states ' rights and was inclined to the view that segregation worked to the benefit of the African - American community; Tom C. Clark wrote that "we had led the states on to think segregation is OK and we should let them work it out. '' Felix Frankfurter and Robert H. Jackson disapproved of segregation, but were also opposed to judicial activism and expressed concerns about the proposed decision 's enforceability. Chief Justice Vinson had been a key stumbling block. After Vinson died in September 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as Chief Justice. Warren had supported the integration of Mexican - American students in California school systems following Mendez v. Westminster. However, Eisenhower invited Earl Warren to a White House dinner, where the president told him: "These (southern whites) are not bad people. All they are concerned about is to see that their sweet little girls are not required to sit in school alongside some big overgrown Negroes. '' Nevertheless, the Justice Department sided with the African American plaintiffs.
In his reading of the unanimous decision, Justice Warren noted the adverse psychological effects that segregated schools had on African American children. Brown 's cite of the Kenneth and Mamie Doll Study was criticized by Justice Clarence Thomas in a later concurring opinion for implying black inferiority. According to Susan Firestone, the study itself is dubious in conclusion and unreliable in reproduction.
While all but one justice personally rejected segregation, the judicial restraint faction questioned whether the Constitution gave the Court the power to order its end. The activist faction believed the Fourteenth Amendment did give the necessary authority and were pushing to go ahead. Warren, who held only a recess appointment, held his tongue until the Senate confirmed his appointment.
Warren convened a meeting of the justices, and presented to them the simple argument that the only reason to sustain segregation was an honest belief in the inferiority of Negroes. Warren further submitted that the Court must overrule Plessy to maintain its legitimacy as an institution of liberty, and it must do so unanimously to avoid massive Southern resistance. He began to build a unanimous opinion.
Although most justices were immediately convinced, Warren spent some time after this famous speech convincing everyone to sign onto the opinion. Justices Jackson and Reed finally decided to drop their dissent. The final decision was unanimous. Warren drafted the basic opinion and kept circulating and revising it until he had an opinion endorsed by all the members of the Court. Reed was the last holdout and reportedly cried during the reading of the opinion.
Reporters who observed the court holding were surprised by two facts. First, the court made a unanimous decision. Prior to the ruling, there were reports that the court members were sharply divided and might not be able to agree. Second, the attendance of Justice Robert H. Jackson who had suffered a mild heart attack and was not expected to return to the bench until early June 1954. "Perhaps to emphasize the unanimity of the court, perhaps from a desire to be present when the history - making verdict was announced, Justice Jackson was in his accustomed seat when the court convened. '' Reporters also noted that former Secretary of State Dean Acheson (who had related the case to foreign policy considerations) and current Attorney General Herbert Brownell were in the courtroom.
The key holding of the Court was that, even if segregated black and white schools were of equal quality in facilities and teachers, segregation by itself was harmful to black students and unconstitutional. They found that a significant psychological and social disadvantage was given to black children from the nature of segregation itself, drawing on research conducted by Kenneth Clark assisted by June Shagaloff. This aspect was vital because the question was not whether the schools were "equal '', which under Plessy they nominally should have been, but whether the doctrine of separate was constitutional. The justices answered with a strong "no '':
(D) oes segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even though the physical facilities and other "tangible '' factors may be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities? We believe that it does...
"Segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children. The effect is greater when it has the sanction of the law, for the policy of separating the races is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the negro group. A sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learn. Segregation with the sanction of law, therefore, has a tendency to (retard) the educational and mental development of negro children and to deprive them of some of the benefits they would receive in a racial (ly) integrated school system. ''...
The Topeka junior high schools had been integrated since 1941. Topeka High School was integrated from its inception in 1871 and its sports teams from 1949 on. The Kansas law permitting segregated schools allowed them only "below the high school level ''.
Soon after the district court decision, election outcomes and the political climate in Topeka changed. The Board of Education of Topeka began to end segregation in the Topeka elementary schools in August 1953, integrating two attendance districts. All the Topeka elementary schools were changed to neighborhood attendance centers in January 1956, although existing students were allowed to continue attending their prior assigned schools at their option. Plaintiff Zelma Henderson, in a 2004 interview, recalled that no demonstrations or tumult accompanied desegregation in Topeka 's schools:
"They accepted it, '' she said. "It was n't too long until they integrated the teachers and principals. ''
The Topeka Public Schools administration building is named in honor of McKinley Burnett, NAACP chapter president who organized the case.
Monroe Elementary was designated a U.S. National Historic Site unit of the National Park Service on October 26, 1992.
Not everyone accepted the Brown v. Board of Education decision. In Virginia, Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. organized the Massive Resistance movement that included the closing of schools rather than desegregating them. See, for example, The Southern Manifesto. For more implications of the Brown decision, see School integration in the United States.
Texas Attorney General John Ben Shepperd organized a campaign to generate legal obstacles to implementation of desegregation.
In 1957, Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus called out his state 's National Guard to block black students ' entry to Little Rock Central High School. President Dwight Eisenhower responded by deploying elements of the 101st Airborne Division from Fort Campbell, Kentucky, to Arkansas and by federalizing Arkansas 's National Guard.
Also in 1957, Florida 's response was mixed. Its legislature passed an Interposition Resolution denouncing the decision and declaring it null and void. But Florida Governor LeRoy Collins, though joining in the protest against the court decision, refused to sign it, arguing that the attempt to overturn the ruling must be done by legal methods.
In Mississippi fear of violence prevented any plaintiff from bringing a school desegregation suit for the next nine years. When Medgar Evers sued to desegregate Jackson, Mississippi schools in 1963 White Citizens Council member Byron De La Beckwith murdered him. Two subsequent trials resulted in hung juries. Beckwith was not convicted of the murder until 1994.
In 1963, Alabama Gov. George Wallace personally blocked the door to Foster Auditorium at the University of Alabama to prevent the enrollment of two black students. This became the infamous Stand in the Schoolhouse Door where Wallace personally backed his "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever '' policy that he had stated in his 1963 inaugural address. He moved aside only when confronted by General Henry Graham of the Alabama National Guard, who was ordered by President John F. Kennedy to intervene.
In North Carolina, there was often a strategy of nominally accepting Brown, but tacitly resisting it. On May 18, 1954 the Greensboro, North Carolina school board declared that it would abide by the Brown ruling. This was the result of the initiative of D.E. Hudgins Jr., a former Rhodes Scholar and prominent attorney, who chaired the school board. This made Greensboro the first, and for years the only, city in the South, to announce its intent to comply. However, others in the city resisted integration, putting up legal obstacles to the actual implementation of school desegregation for years afterward, and in 1969, the federal government found the city was not in compliance with the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Transition to a fully integrated school system did not begin until 1971, after numerous local lawsuits and both nonviolent and violent demonstrations. Historians have noted the irony that Greensboro, which had heralded itself as such a progressive city, was one of the last holdouts for school desegregation.
In Moberly, Missouri, the schools were desegregated, as ordered. However, after 1955, the African - American teachers from the local "negro school '' were not retained; this was ascribed to poor performance. They appealed their dismissal in Naomi Brooks et al., Appellants, v. School District of City of Moberly, Missouri, Etc., et al.; but it was upheld, and SCOTUS declined to hear a further appeal.
Many Northern cities also had de facto segregation policies, which resulted in a vast gulf in educational resources between black and white communities. In Harlem, New York, for example, not a single new school had been built since the turn of the century, nor did a single nursery school exist, even as the Second Great Migration caused overcrowding of existing schools. Existing schools tended to be dilapidated and staffed with inexperienced teachers. Northern officials were in denial of the segregation, but Brown helped stimulate activism among African - American parents like Mae Mallory who, with support of the NAACP, initiated a successful lawsuit against the city and State of New York on Brown 's principles. Mallory and thousands of other parents bolstered the pressure of the lawsuit with a school boycott in 1959. During the boycott, some of the first freedom schools of the period were established. The city responded to the campaign by permitting more open transfers to high - quality, historically - white schools. (New York 's African - American community, and Northern desegregation activists generally, now found themselves contending with the problem of white flight, however.)
The intellectual roots of Plessy v. Ferguson, the landmark United States Supreme Court decision upholding the constitutionality of racial segregation in 1896 under the doctrine of "separate but equal '' were, in part, tied to the scientific racism of the era. However, the popular support for the decision was more likely a result of the racist beliefs held by many whites at the time. In deciding Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court rejected the ideas of scientific racists about the need for segregation, especially in schools. The Court buttressed its holding by citing (in footnote 11) social science research about the harms to black children caused by segregated schools.
Both scholarly and popular ideas of hereditarianism played an important role in the attack and backlash that followed the Brown decision. The Mankind Quarterly was founded in 1960, in part in response to the Brown decision.
William Rehnquist wrote a memo titled "A Random Thought on the Segregation Cases '' when he was a law clerk for Justice Robert H. Jackson in 1952, during early deliberations that led to the Brown v. Board of Education decision. In his memo, Rehnquist argued: "I realize that it is an unpopular and unhumanitarian position, for which I have been excoriated by ' liberal ' colleagues but I think Plessy v. Ferguson was right and should be reaffirmed. '' Rehnquist continued, "To the argument... that a majority may not deprive a minority of its constitutional right, the answer must be made that while this is sound in theory, in the long run it is the majority who will determine what the constitutional rights of the minorities are. '' Rehnquist also argued for Plessy with other law clerks.
However, during his 1971 confirmation hearings, Rehnquist said, "I believe that the memorandum was prepared by me as a statement of Justice Jackson 's tentative views for his own use. '' Justice Jackson had initially planned to join a dissent in Brown. Later, at his 1986 hearings for the slot of Chief Justice, Rehnquist put further distance between himself and the 1952 memo: "The bald statement that Plessy was right and should be reaffirmed, was not an accurate reflection of my own views at the time. '' In any event, while serving on the Supreme Court, Rehnquist made no effort to reverse or undermine the Brown decision, and frequently relied upon it as precedent.
Chief Justice Warren 's reasoning was broadly criticized by contemporary legal academics with Judge Learned Hand decrying that the Supreme Court had "assumed the role of a third legislative chamber '' and Herbert Wechsler finding Brown impossible to justify based on neutral principles.
Some aspects of the Brown decision are still debated. Notably, Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas, himself an African American, wrote in Missouri v. Jenkins (1995) that at the very least, Brown I has been misunderstood by the courts.
Brown I did not say that "racially isolated '' schools were inherently inferior; the harm that it identified was tied purely to de jure segregation, not de facto segregation. Indeed, Brown I itself did not need to rely upon any psychological or social - science research in order to announce the simple, yet fundamental truth that the Government can not discriminate among its citizens on the basis of race....
Segregation was not unconstitutional because it might have caused psychological feelings of inferiority. Public school systems that separated blacks and provided them with superior educational resources making blacks "feel '' superior to whites sent to lesser schools -- would violate the Fourteenth Amendment, whether or not the white students felt stigmatized, just as do school systems in which the positions of the races are reversed. Psychological injury or benefit is irrelevant...
Given that desegregation has not produced the predicted leaps forward in black educational achievement, there is no reason to think that black students can not learn as well when surrounded by members of their own race as when they are in an integrated environment. (...) Because of their "distinctive histories and traditions, '' black schools can function as the center and symbol of black communities, and provide examples of independent black leadership, success, and achievement.
Some Constitutional originalists, notably Raoul Berger in his influential 1977 book "Government by Judiciary, '' make the case that Brown can not be defended by reference to the original understanding of the 14th Amendment. They support this reading of the 14th amendment by noting that the Civil Rights Act of 1875 did not ban segregated schools and that the same Congress that passed the 14th Amendment also voted to segregate schools in the District of Columbia. Other originalists, including Michael W. McConnell, a federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit, in his article "Originalism and the Desegregation Decisions, '' argue that the Radical Reconstructionists who spearheaded the 14th Amendment were in favor of desegregated southern schools. Evidence supporting this interpretation of the 14th amendment has come from archived Congressional records showing that proposals for federal legislation which would enforce school integration were debated in Congress a few years following the amendment 's ratification.
The case also has attracted some criticism from more liberal authors, including some who say that Chief Justice Warren 's reliance on psychological criteria to find a harm against segregated blacks was unnecessary. For example, Drew S. Days has written: "we have developed criteria for evaluating the constitutionality of racial classifications that do not depend upon findings of psychic harm or social science evidence. They are based rather on the principle that ' distinctions between citizens solely because of their ancestry are by their very nature odious to a free people whose institutions are founded upon the doctrine of equality, ' Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81 (1943)... ''
In his book The Tempting of America (page 82), Robert Bork endorsed the Brown decision as follows:
By 1954, when Brown came up for decision, it had been apparent for some time that segregation rarely if ever produced equality. Quite aside from any question of psychology, the physical facilities provided for blacks were not as good as those provided for whites. That had been demonstrated in a long series of cases... The Court 's realistic choice, therefore, was either to abandon the quest for equality by allowing segregation or to forbid segregation in order to achieve equality. There was no third choice. Either choice would violate one aspect of the original understanding, but there was no possibility of avoiding that. Since equality and segregation were mutually inconsistent, though the ratifiers did not understand that, both could not be honored. When that is seen, it is obvious the Court must choose equality and prohibit state - imposed segregation. The purpose that brought the fourteenth amendment into being was equality before the law, and equality, not separation, was written into the law.
In June 1987, Philip Elman, a civil rights attorney who served as an associate in the Solicitor General 's office during Harry Truman 's term, claimed he and Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter were mostly responsible for the Supreme Court 's decision, and stated that the NAACP 's arguments did not present strong evidence. Elman has been criticized for offering a self - aggrandizing history of the case, omitting important facts, and denigrating the work of civil rights attorneys who had laid the groundwork for the decision over many decades. However, Frankfurter was also known for being one of court 's most outspoken advocates of the judicial restraint philosophy of basing court rulings on existing law rather than personal or political considerations. Public officials in the United States today are nearly unanimous in lauding the ruling. In May 2004, the fiftieth anniversary of the ruling, President George W. Bush spoke at the opening of the Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site, calling Brown "a decision that changed America for the better, and forever. '' Most Senators and Representatives issued press releases hailing the ruling.
In an article in Townhall, Thomas Sowell argued that When Chief Justice Earl Warren declared in the landmark 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education that racially separate schools were "inherently unequal, '' Dunbar High School was a living refutation of that assumption. And it was within walking distance of the Supreme Court. ''
In 1955, the Supreme Court considered arguments by the schools requesting relief concerning the task of desegregation. In their decision, which became known as "Brown II '' the court delegated the task of carrying out school desegregation to district courts with orders that desegregation occur "with all deliberate speed, '' a phrase traceable to Francis Thompson 's poem, The Hound of Heaven.
Supporters of the earlier decision were displeased with this decision. The language "all deliberate speed '' was seen by critics as too ambiguous to ensure reasonable haste for compliance with the court 's instruction. Many Southern states and school districts interpreted "Brown II '' as legal justification for resisting, delaying, and avoiding significant integration for years -- and in some cases for a decade or more -- using such tactics as closing down school systems, using state money to finance segregated "private '' schools, and "token '' integration where a few carefully selected black children were admitted to former white - only schools but the vast majority remained in underfunded, unequal black schools.
For example, based on "Brown II, '' the U.S. District Court ruled that Prince Edward County, Virginia did not have to desegregate immediately. When faced with a court order to finally begin desegregation in 1959 the county board of supervisors stopped appropriating money for public schools, which remained closed for five years, from 1959 to 1964.
White students in the county were given assistance to attend white - only "private academies '' that were taught by teachers formerly employed by the public school system, while black students had no education at all unless they moved out of the county. But the public schools reopened after the Supreme Court overturned "Brown II '' in Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, declaring that "... the time for mere ' deliberate speed ' has run out, '' and that the county must provide a public school system for all children regardless of race.
In 1978, Topeka attorneys Richard Jones, Joseph Johnson and Charles Scott, Jr. (son of the original Brown team member), with assistance from the American Civil Liberties Union, persuaded Linda Brown Smith -- who now had her own children in Topeka schools -- to be a plaintiff in reopening Brown. They were concerned that the Topeka Public Schools ' policy of "open enrollment '' had led to and would lead to further segregation. They also believed that with a choice of open enrollment, white parents would shift their children to "preferred '' schools that would create both predominantly African American and predominantly European American schools within the district. The district court reopened the Brown case after a 25 - year hiatus, but denied the plaintiffs ' request finding the schools "unitary ''. In 1989, a three - judge panel of the Tenth Circuit on 2 -- 1 vote found that the vestiges of segregation remained with respect to student and staff assignment. In 1993, the Supreme Court denied the appellant School District 's request for certiorari and returned the case to District Court Judge Richard Rodgers for implementation of the Tenth Circuit 's mandate.
After a 1994 plan was approved and a bond issue passed, additional elementary magnet schools were opened and district attendance plans redrawn, which resulted in the Topeka schools meeting court standards of racial balance by 1998. Unified status was eventually granted to Topeka Unified School District No. 501 on July 27, 1999. One of the new magnet schools is named after the Scott family attorneys for their role in the Brown case and civil rights.
Linda Brown Thompson later recalled the experience of being refused enrollment:
... we lived in an integrated neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school and the school looked so big to a smaller child. And I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out... to sit outside with the secretary. And while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on. And then he immediately came out of the office, took me by the hand and we walked home from the school. I just could n't understand what was happening because I was so sure that I was going to go to school with Mona and Guinevere, Wanda, and all of my playmates.
Linda Brown died on March 25, 2018 at the age of 76.
I thought Plessy had been wrongly decided at the time, that it was not a good interpretation of the equal protection clause to say that when you segregate people by race, there is no denial of equal protection. But Plessy had been on the books for 60 years; Congress had never acted, and the same Congress that had promulgated the 14th Amendment had required segregation in the District schools... I saw factors on both sides... I did not agree then, and I certainly do not agree now, with the statement that Plessy against Ferguson is right and should be reaffirmed. I had ideas on both sides, and I do not think I ever really finally settled in my own mind on that... (A) round the lunch table I am sure I defended it... I thought there were good arguments to be made in support of it.
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who sings as long as you love me | As Long As You Love Me (Backstreet Boys song) - wikipedia
"As Long as You Love Me '' is a song by American boy band Backstreet Boys. It was released as the second single from their debut album Backstreet Boys in the United States and Backstreet 's Back internationally. It was released in September 1997 internationally and in October 1997 in the United States. It is one of the bands ' biggest hits and considered one of their signature songs.
It peaked at number 1 in New Zealand and the Philippines, number 2 in Australia and Austria, number 3 in the United Kingdom, number 4 in Switzerland and Sweden, and number 5 in the Netherlands and Norway. At The 1997 MTV Europe Music Awards the song won Select Video.
The song is their biggest selling single in the UK and the 13th biggest selling boyband single of the 1990s in the UK, selling 430,000 copies. It was never released as a commercial single in the US, but became an MTV staple and a radio airplay hit. It spent 56 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart, peaking at # 4. The song was a last minute addition to the album, as Clive Calder, then - chairman of Zomba, heard the song and called Jive Records president Barry Weiss, who then contacted the band 's manager, Johnny Wright.
Due to an error on the part of someone in the production chain, an early mix of "As Long As You Love Me '' was included on Backstreet 's Back and the 1997 US Backstreet Boys album. The mistake was corrected in the second pressing of the US debut album released in 1998. This allegedly annoyed writer and producer Max Martin. This early version subsequently became the version released as a single to radio and video. It has different instrumentation and mixing, as well as a slightly different structure, very similar to their previous US single, "Quit Playing Games (with My Heart) ''. The final version is usually listed as the "Radio '' or "Video Version ''.
The single has sold over 530,000 copies in the United Kingdom.
As Long as You Love Me -- The Remixes
Note: It is unknown if this single was also released in CD format.
The video was directed by Nigel Dick and filmed on June 15, 1997 in Pasadena, California. It shows the band auditioning before six ladies. The number was chosen so that the ladies would not appear to be matched up with the band members. The ladies named Donna, Jana, Linda, Fatima, Gina and Nina video tape the performances and take notes. The band members primarily sing and dance, but each member also has a short "screen test '' vignette in which he dresses up in a costume and performs various unusual activities. At the bridge, the members switch places with the ladies and have them perform screen tests. The positions reverse again near the end of the song.
The dance for this song, as featured in the video, includes a dance that uses folding chairs as part of the choreography; for many years after the song 's release, the band ended most performances of the song with the same "chair dance '' routine. There are special effects utilized in the video, most notably morphing sequences, where the face of one member morphs into another 's. There are also quick dissolves or straight cuts between footage of the members each doing the chair routine in the same exact position of the set. The cuts cause a working fan in the background to appear to stutter in its spin. One of the models featured was Leighanne Wallace, who Littrell ultimately married in 2000. The video has more than 117 million views as of June 16, 2017.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The Netherlands retro rock band The Kik recorded a live version in Dutch ("Als jij maar van mij houdt '') in the 3FM studio, using only CASIO keyboards. Radio deejay Giel Beelen subsequently asked the band to release their version as a single.
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where is yeh hai mohabbatein shooting going on | Ye Hai Mohabbatein - Wikipedia
Ye Hai Mohabbatein (lit. This is love) is an Indian soap opera which first aired on Star Plus on 3 December 2013. It is created by Ekta Kapoor and Shobha Kapoor and produced by their production company Balaji Telefilms. The show stars Divyanka Tripathi and Karan Patel in lead role.
The story is partially based on Manju Kapur 's novel, Custody. Set in Delhi, the show follows the love story of Tamil dentist Dr. Ishita Iyer and Punjabi CEO Raman Kumar Bhalla. Ishita is infertile and becomes emotionally attached to Raman 's daughter, Ruhi, who lives with her divorced father. Raman 's ex-wife, Shagun, lives with her boyfriend, Ashok Khanna. Due to circumstances, Raman and Ishita marry each other. Then fall in love with each other madly The show has won more than 50 awards.
The show took a seven - year leap in April 2016 followed by a one - year leap in November 2016 and a two - year leap in November 2017. On 9 December 2016 the show completed its 1,000 th episode. It has filmed at several foreign locations including Australia, Budapest and London. Its time slot has varied over the years first airing at 11: 00 PM then at 7: 30 PM and currently at 10: 30 PM IST. In the UK however, it has remained at 7: 30PM BST slot since its inception as it has topped the UK ratings over the years.
This is a romantic soap opera about two different people and how their lives are linked by their daughter.
Tamil dentist Ishita Vishwanathan Iyer and Punjabi businessman Raman Kumar Bhalla live in Delhi with their parents. Ishita, who is infertile, forms a motherly bond with Raman 's troubled little daughter, Ruhi. To prevent Raman 's ill - intentioned ex-wife, Shagun, from taking custody of the girl, Ishita and Raman get married and develop a deep bond.
Ashok, Raman 's former boss and the - then boyfriend of Shagun, orchestrates a plot to defame Ishita 's cousin, Mihika, and make her his wife. Cast aside, Shagun seeks refuge for herself and her son, Aditya (Adi), at the Bhalla household, where she plots against Ishita to reclaim Raman. However, Ishita and Raman only grow closer and Shagun is thrown out of the house. She kidnaps Ruhi and Aditya, and Ishita risks her life to save the children. The act causes Shagun to re-examine herself and turn her life around. Raman 's brother Romi is told that his ex-girlfriend Sarika had his child and convinces her to marry him.
Ashok is revealed to be a sex offender and his marriage with Mihika ends in divorce. Ishita is able to become pregnant with Raman 's child, but suffers a miscarriage when Ashok tries to kill the entire family. The couple decide to try again with a reformed Shagun acting as their surrogate. However, there are difficulties in the household as Ashok has a spy among them, which turns out to be Sarika; the child she claimed to be Romi 's was adopted.
Ishita finds the real parents of the "orphan '' but accidentally kills the father and is convicted for murder. Raman is convinced to marry Nidhi, a defence lawyer, to save Ishita. When Raman and Ishita 's child Pihu was born, Nidhi kidnaps the newborn. As Ishita tries to rescue Pihu, Nidhi also kidnaps Ruhi and fakes their deaths. Incensed over the loss, Raman banishes Ishita from the house. Before he can correct his mistake, Ishita attempts suicide, leaving everyone to think she is dead, while she was actually saved by her friend Mani.
After living in Australia with Mani, Ishita returns to India and meets Raman, who feels betrayed that she lived away from him for so many years. Ishita and Raman learn that Ruhi is alive and living as pop star Ruhaan. In order to win her back, they mend their relationship. This disappoints Pihu, who believes that Raman and Shagun are her parents. Raman and Ishita get Shagun and Mani married, but afterward, Shagun turns Pihu rebellious.
Adi and Mani 's niece, Aliya fall in love. Ishita and Raman get remarried. After Pihu learns that Ishita and Raman are her real parents, Mani and Shagun decide to leave the country with her. Raman desperately goes with them, in hopes of counteracting Shagun 's influence.
Shagun, Mani, Aliya and Pihu have been living in Bangkok, Thailand with Raman staying nearby to keep an eye on Pihu. Ruhi explains to Pihu the sacrifices that Ishita made for her, leading Pihu to accept Ishita as her mother. Dejected, Shagun returns to India.
After a man tries to blackmail Ruhi, Ishita handles the situation while Raman goes berserk. Upset with Raman 's anger issues, Ishita leaves with Pihu and lives with Shagun, who is pregnant with Mani 's child. Nidhi kills Ishita 's sister, Vandita, and Raman is charged with the crime. Ishita proves his innocence and has Nidhi arrested. Afterward, Adi and Aliya get married.
Mani is presumed dead in an accident and Raman is wrongfully charged again. His innocence is proven when it is revealed that Mani is alive. Ruhi becomes friends with Pihu 's friend, Riya, and develops feelings for Riya 's father, Nikhil. As Nikhil 's true colours are revealed, Ishita and Raman struggle as Ruhi falls in love with the wrong person.
Pihu pushes her cousin Ananya down a staircase in a fatal accident. Ananya dies, Raman 's sister, Simmi, the mother of Ananya, is outraged and demands justice. To protect Pihu, Ishita makes a false confession and is sentenced to life imprisonment, while a disbelieving Raman is left heartbroken. Unknown to Raman, Ashok later reopens the case, proving Ishita 's innocence.
A broken Bhalla family visits Budapest, Hungary for a business trip, where they fall into a trap set by Simmi and Param, Ananya 's parents. Adi is struggling to save his marriage as Aliya develops a gambling addiction. Pihu has been put in a boarding school. where Simmi torments her. Raman 's depression is exploited with drug abuse, to the point where he has forgotten his family and allowed Param to take over his company. Ishita arrives, aided by Ashok, who has reformed after being diagnosed with terminal cancer.
Back in Delhi, Ishita tries to help Raman regain his memories. Pihu is kidnapped by Nikhil, who is working with Simmi and Param, and Ishita becomes paralysed in the ensuing conflict. The stress causes Raman to have a seizure and Simmi convinces the family that Ishita is the source of the stress. Ishita is warned to stay away or Raman could die.
Simmi frames Aliya for the murder of a money lender, in order to force Ishita to sign divorce papers. With Mihika 's help, Ishita defeats Simmi and Param, who are ousted from the family. Ishita is welcomed back into the family.
It is revealed that Ruhi was molested by Nikhil, but kept silent due to Simmi 's threats. Ishita gets Nikhil arrested and Raman remembers that Ruhi is his daughter. Simmi, still vengeful, shoots Ishita. Ishita is taken to the hospital, where Raman is convinced he shot her. Ishita becomes blind and Raman wants to be sent to an asylum, as he thinks he is a danger. Ashok dies by saving Ishita who heals. A happy Raman decides to take Ishita on a trip to London where Romi, Adi, Shagun and Aliya also arrived for their separate reasons and they all meet Roshni there. An anonymous woman named Sonakshi gupta in London who may be a spirit appears to possess Ishita. Meanwhile, Adi starts to feel for Roshni. But soon in India, the same anonymous lady follows Ishita and during an encounter with her, Ishita seeks the truth. All planning and plotting of that lady came to a tragic end when Ishita captures her. A shocking truth came into light when the woman told that she is not a spirit and not Sonakshi Gupta but she is, Aarushi, the twin sister of Sonakshi. She also reveals that Sonakshi committed Suicide because of Raman 's illegal recruitment business of which Sonakshi had fallen a prey to. Aarushi wanted to take the revenge of her sister 's death from Raman. Later, Ishita comes to know that the master mind behind this is Kiran. Through Kiran and they come to know that Suraj, brother of Ashok is behind this. Meanwhile, Adi is obsessed in the love of Roshni. Adi and Aliya 's relationship becomes worse. Later, Ruhi informs Ishita that Adi is the real mastermind who is doing fraud business with Suraj. Meanwhile, Simmi comes to know about death of Ananya mystery while Ishita were discussing. Adi forces Aliya to give divorce and Aliya goes to Ishita and tells about Adi. Raman throws Adi out of the house. Roshni agrees to marry Shantanu which is suggested by Shagun. Later, Adi kidnaps Roshni at the temple and takes her to a hill top. Meanwhile, Simmi tells the judge to arrest Pihu and Pihu is sentenced to live in juvenile home for 8 months. The seasons ends with Ishita being forced to shoot Adi as he was threatening her that he would throw acid on Roshni 's face.
Pihu is back from juvenile house. Ishita and Raman went to receive Pihu. There it was revealed that the whole Bhalla (except for Ruhi and Romi) and Iyer family (except for Bala and Kiran) rejected Ishita. It is then revealed that Roshni is pregnant with Adi 's child. Now starts Ishita and Raman 's hatred as Ishita is blamed by Raman for Adi 's death. Pihu is kept away from Ishita but Ruhi is on ishita side. Roshni is helped by ishita. Raman will now make Ishita 's life hell. How will ishita and Raman reunite. Aliya will find out about the baby and will try to kill it. Than there will be a battle between ishita and raman. Ishita will be harassed by goons which were sent by raman. this will be a huge twist in the love story of ishra. Find out how this track will affect the lives of ishra
The series, produced by Ekta Kapoor and Shobha Kapoor under the banner Balaji Telefilms is an family drama and also a love story. The show premiered at 11: 00 pm (IST) on Monday on December 3, 2013 and airs episodes from Monday to Friday. Talking about the show, Ekta said, "My association with Star goes back a long way. We have together celebrated many successes and created iconic characters through generations. I look forward to working with them closely on this show and I am sure that the viewers will accept Ishita & Raman into their families ''. The show was initially called Mera Tera Rishta Purana but was changed to Ye Hai Mohabbatein.
Television actress Divyanka Tripathi (who is known for her role as Vidya in Banoo Main Teri Dulhann) was selected by Kapoor to play the lead role of Ishita. Cezanne Khan (of Kasautii Zindagii Kay fame) was first approached to play Raman, the male lead opposite Tripathi, but was replaced by Karan Patel. Child artist Ruhanika Dhawan was chosen to play the important character of Ruhi. Actress and Bigg Boss 6 fame Sayantani Ghosh was first considered the role of the main antagonist of the show, but later Anita Hassanandani was selected to play the main negative role of the show of Shagun. The other cast included Aly Goni, Mihika Verma, Shruti Bapna, Neena Kulkarni, Shahnaz Rizwan, Kaushal Kapoor, Abhay Bhargava and Gautam Ahuja.
As of January 2018, the show has received 15 Boroplus Gold Awards, 6 Indian Telly Awards, 3 Indian Television Academy Awards, a Big Star Entertainment Award, 2 Lions Gold Awards and an Asian Viewers Television Award. The show has also received 22 Star Parivaar Awards from its originating network, though these can not be said to be impartial.
Despite airing for nearly two years, Ye Hai Mohabbatein was still one of the highest - rated shows on Indian television in January 2016 when it was ranked third in TRP ratings chart. Starting in January 2017, the show has begun to falter in the TRP ratings as the show 's focus shifted to the new generation. Nevertheless, the show is very popular in the UK, being the most - watched Indian show. The climax of Ruhi - Nikhil track leading to Ananya 's death brought a sudden spike in the ratings in the first week of November 2017 (week 44) and the series secured a place amongst the Top 10 shows after almost a year off this ranking. With the Budapest track and the focus back on the main leads, the show reached the Top 5 in the second week of November 2017 (week 45). In week 46 the show further climbed to the 4th spot on the TRP chart, thus becoming the most - watched show on STAR Plus. In week 47 the show remained at No. 4 on the TRP charts and continued to be the most - watched show on STAR Plus. The show continued to do well maintaining its No. 1 position on STAR Plus in the following weeks. In week 51, Ye Hai Mohabbatein emerged as the most - watched show across all Hindi GECs.
The show has been remade in several languages:
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what was the number one song on january 11 1990 | List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one Singles of 1990 - wikipedia
This is a list of the U.S. Billboard magazine Hot 100 number - ones of 1990. The three longest running number - one singles of 1990 are "Nothing Compares 2 U '' by Sinéad O'Connor, "Vision of Love '' by Mariah Carey, and "Because I Love You (The Postman Song) '' by Stevie B, which each attained four weeks at the top of the chart.
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when a good is called an inferior good | Inferior good - wikipedia
In economics, an inferior good is a good whose demand decreases when consumer income rises (or demand rises when consumer income decreases), unlike normal goods, for which the opposite is observed. Normal goods are those for which demand rises as consumer income rises. This would be the opposite of a superior good, one that is often associated with wealth and the wealthy, whereas an inferior good is associated with lower socio - economic groups.
Inferiority, in this sense, is an observable fact relating to affordability rather than a statement about the quality of the good. As a rule, these goods are affordable and adequately fulfill their purpose, but as more costly substitutes that offer more pleasure (or at least variety) become available, the use of the inferior goods diminishes.
Depending on consumer or market indifference curves, the amount of a good bought can either increase, decrease, or stay the same when income increases.
There are many examples of inferior goods. A number of economists have suggested that shopping at large discount chains such as Walmart and rent - to - own establishments vastly represent a large percentage of goods referred to as "inferior ''. Cheaper cars are examples of the inferior goods. Consumers will generally prefer cheaper cars when their income is constricted. As a consumer 's income increases the demand of the cheap cars will decrease, while demand of costly cars will increase, so cheap cars are inferior goods.
Inter-city bus service is also an example of an inferior good. This form of transportation is cheaper than air or rail travel, but is more time - consuming. When money is constricted, traveling by bus becomes more acceptable, but when money is more abundant than time, more rapid transport is preferred. In some countries with less developed or poorly maintained railways this is reversed: trains are slower and cheaper than buses, so rail travel is an inferior good.
Certain financial services, including payday lending, are inferior goods. Such financial services are generally marketed to persons with low incomes. People with middle or higher incomes can typically use credit cards that have better terms of payment or bank loans for higher volumes and much lower rates of interest.
Inexpensive foods like instant noodles, bologna, pizza, hamburger, mass - market beer, frozen dinners, and canned goods are additional examples of inferior goods. As incomes rise, one tends to purchase more expensive, appealing and nutritious foods. Likewise, goods and services used by poor people for which richer people have alternatives exemplify inferior goods. As a rule, used and obsolete goods (but not antiques) marketed to persons of low income as closeouts are inferior goods at the time even if they had earlier been normal goods or even luxury goods.
Others are very inconsistent across geographic regions or cultures. The potato, for example, generally conforms to the demand function of an inferior good in the Andean region where the crop originated. People of higher incomes and / or those who have migrated to coastal areas are more likely to prefer other staples such as rice or wheat products as they can afford them. However, in several countries of Asia, such as Bangladesh, potatoes are not an inferior good, but rather a relatively expensive source of calories and a high - prestige food, especially when eaten in the form of "French fries '' by urban elites.
A special type of inferior good may exist known as the Giffen good, which would disobey the "law of demand ''. Quite simply, when the price of a Giffen good increases, the demand for that good increases. This would have to be a good that is such a large proportion of a person or market 's consumption that the income effect of a price increase would produce, effectively, more demand. The observed demand curve would slope upward, indicating positive elasticity.
It was noted by Sir Robert Giffen that in Ireland during the 19th century there was a rise in the price of potatoes. The poor people were forced to reduce their consumption of meat and expensive items such as eggs. Potatoes still being the cheapest food, in order to compensate they started consuming more even though its price was rising. This phenomenon is often described as "Giffen 's Paradox ''.
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who made the pure food and drug act | Pure Food and Drug Act - wikipedia
The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was the first of a series of significant consumer protection laws which was enacted by Congress in the 20th century and led to the creation of the Food and Drug Administration. Its main purpose was to ban foreign and interstate traffic in adulterated or mislabeled food and drug products, and it directed the U.S. Bureau of Chemistry to inspect products and refer offenders to prosecutors. It required that active ingredients be placed on the label of a drug 's packaging and that drugs could not fall below purity levels established by the United States Pharmacopeia or the National Formulary. The Jungle by Upton Sinclair was an inspirational piece that kept the public 's attention on the important issue of unsanitary meat processing plants that later led to food inspection legislation.
The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 was a key piece of Progressive Era legislation, signed by President Theodore Roosevelt on the same day as the Federal Meat Inspection Act. Enforcement of the Pure Food and Drug Act was assigned to the Bureau of Chemistry in the U.S. Department of Agriculture which was renamed the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1930. The Meat Inspection Act was assigned to what is now known as the Food Safety and Inspection Service that remains in the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The first federal law regulating foods and drugs, the 1906 Act 's reach was limited to foods and drugs moving in interstate commerce. Although the law drew upon many precedents, provisions, and legal experiments pioneered in individual states, the federal law defined "misbranding '' and "adulteration '' for the first time and prescribed penalties for each. The law recognized the U.S. Pharmacopeia and the National Formulary as standards authorities for drugs, but made no similar provision for federal food standards. The law was principally a "truth in labeling '' law designed to raise standards in the food and drug industries and protect the reputations and pocketbooks of honest businessmen.
Under the law, drug labels, for example, had to list any of 10 ingredients that were deemed "addictive '' and / or "dangerous '' on the product label if they were present, and could not list them if they were not present. Alcohol, morphine, opium, and cannabis were all included on the list of these "addictive '' and / or "dangerous '' drugs. The law also established a federal cadre of food and drug inspectors that one Southern opponent of the legislation criticized as "a Trojan horse with a bellyful of inspectors and other employees. '' Penalties under the law were modest, but an under - appreciated provision of the Act proved more powerful than monetary penalties. Goods foods found in different areas in violation of the law were subject to seizure and destruction at the expense of the manufacturer. That, combined with a legal requirement that all convictions be published as Notices of Judgment, proved to be important tools in the enforcement of the statute and had a deterrent effect upon would - be violators. Deficiencies in this original statute, which had become noticeable by the 1920s, led to the replacement of the 1906 statute with the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act which was enacted in 1938 and signed by President Franklin Roosevelt.In 1903 Cosmetic Act, along with its numerous amendments, remains the statutory basis for federal regulation of all foods, drugs, biological products, cosmetics, medical devices, tobacco, and radiation - emitting devices by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
It took 27 years to the 1906 statute, during which time the public was made aware of many problems with foods and drugs in the U.S. Muckraking journalists, such as Samuel Hopkins Adams, targeted the patent medicine industry with its high - alcoholic content patent medicines, soothing syrups for infants with opium derivatives, and "red clauses '' in newspaper contracts providing that patent medicine ads (upon which most newspapers of the time were dependent) would be withdrawn if the paper expressed support for food and drug regulatory legislation. The Chief Chemist of the Bureau of Chemistry, Dr. Harvey Washington Wiley, captured the country 's attention with his hygienic table studies, which began with a modest Congressional appropriation in 1902. The goal of the table trial was to study the human effects of common preservatives used in foods during a period of rapid changes in the food supply brought about by the need to feed cities and support an industrializing nation increasingly dependent on immigrant labor. Wiley recruited young men to eat all their meals at a common table as he added increased "doses '' of preservatives including borax, benzoate, formaldehyde, sulfites, and salicylates. The table trials captured the nation 's fancy and were soon dubbed "The Poison Squad '' by newspapers covering the story. The men soon adopted the motto "Only the Brave dare eat the fare '' and at times the publicity given to the trials became a burden. Though many results of the trial came to be in dispute, there was no doubt that formaldehyde was dangerous and it disappeared quickly as a preservative. Wiley himself felt that he had found adverse effects from large doses of each of the preservatives and the public seemed to agree with Wiley. In many cases, most particularly with ketchup and other condiments, the use of preservatives was often used to disguise insanitary production practices. Although the law itself did not proscribe the use of some of these preservatives, consumers increasingly turned away from many products with known preservatives.
The 1906 statute regulated food and drugs moving in interstate commerce and forbade the manufacture, sale, or transportation of poisonous patent medicines. The Act arose due to public education and exposés from public interest guardians such as Upton Sinclair and Samuel Hopkins Adams, social activist Florence Kelley, researcher Harvey W. Wiley, and President Theodore Roosevelt.
The 1906 Act paved the way for the eventual creation of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and is generally considered to be that agency 's founding date, though the agency existed before the law was passed and was not named FDA until later. "While the Food and Drug act remains a foundational law of the FDA mission, it 's not the law that created the FDA. (Initially,) the Bureau of Chemistry (the precursor to the FDA) regulated food safety. In 1927, the Bureau was reorganized into the Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration and the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils. The FDIA was renamed the FDA in 1930. ''
The law itself was largely replaced by the much more comprehensive Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938.
The Pure Food and Drug Act was initially concerned with ensuring products were labeled correctly. Later efforts were made to outlaw certain products that were not safe, followed by efforts to outlaw products which were safe but not effective. For example, there was an attempt to outlaw Coca - Cola in 1909 because of its excessive caffeine content; caffeine had replaced cocaine as the active ingredient in Coca - Cola in 1903. In the case United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca - Cola, the judge found that Coca - Cola had a right to use caffeine as it saw fit, although Coca - Cola eventually lost when the government appealed to the Supreme Court. It reached a settlement with the United States government to reduce the caffeine amount.
In addition to caffeine, the Pure Food and Drug Act required that drugs such as alcohol, cocaine, heroin, morphine, and cannabis, be accurately labeled with contents and dosage. Previously many drugs had been sold as patent medicines with secret ingredients or misleading labels. Cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and other such drugs continued to be legally available without prescription as long as they were labeled. It is estimated that sale of patent medicines containing opiates decreased by 33 % after labeling was mandated. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 is cited by drug policy reform advocates such as James P. Gray as a successful model for re-legalization of currently prohibited drugs by requiring accurate labels, monitoring of purity and dose, and consumer education.
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how many primal cuts of beef are there | Primal cut - wikipedia
A primal cut or cut of meat is a piece of meat initially separated from the carcass of an animal during butchering. Examples of primals include the beef round, loin, rib, and chuck or the swine ham, loin, Boston butt, and picnic.
Different countries and cultures make these cuts in different ways, and primal cuts also differ between type of carcass. The British, American and French primal cuts all differ in some respects. For example, "rump steak '' in British and Commonwealth English is commonly called "sirloin '' in American English. On the other hand, British "sirloin '' is called "porterhouse '' by Americans. Another notable example is fatback, which in Europe is an important primal cut of pork, but in North America is regarded as trimmings to be used in sausage or rendered into lard. The primal cuts may be sold complete or cut further.
The distinct term "prime cut '' is sometimes used to describe cuts considered to be of better quality; for example in the US Department of Agriculture meat grading systems, most use "prime '' to indicate top quality.
Beef primal cuts:
Veal primal cuts:
Pork primal cuts:
Lamb primal cuts:
Media related to Meat cuts at Wikimedia Commons
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list of current united states house of representatives by age | Current members of the United States House of Representatives - wikipedia
This is a list of individuals currently serving in the United States House of Representatives.
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when do you need a multiple comparison test | Multiple comparisons problem - wikipedia
In statistics, the multiple comparisons, multiplicity or multiple testing problem occurs when one considers a set of statistical inferences simultaneously or infers a subset of parameters selected based on the observed values. In certain fields it is known as the look - elsewhere effect.
The more inferences are made, the more likely erroneous inferences are to occur. Several statistical techniques have been developed to prevent this from happening, allowing significance levels for single and multiple comparisons to be directly compared. These techniques generally require a stricter significance threshold for individual comparisons, so as to compensate for the number of inferences being made.
The interest in the problem of multiple comparisons began in the 1950s with the work of Tukey and Scheffé. Other methods, such as the closed testing procedure (Marcus et al., 1976) and the Holm -- Bonferroni method (1979), later emerged. In 1995, work on the false discovery rate began. In 1996, the first conference on multiple comparisons took place in Israel. This was followed by conferences around the world, usually taking place about every two years.
Multiple comparisons arise when a statistical analysis involves multiple statistical tests, each of which has a potential to produce a "discovery. '' Failure to compensate for multiple comparisons can have important real - world consequences, as illustrated by the following examples:
In both examples, as the number of comparisons increases, it becomes more likely that the groups being compared will appear to differ in terms of at least one attribute. Our confidence that a result will generalize to independent data should generally be weaker if it is observed as part of an analysis that involves multiple comparisons, rather than an analysis that involves only a single comparison.
For example, if one test is performed at the 5 % level and the corresponding null hypothesis is true, there is only a 5 % chance of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis. However, if 100 tests are conducted and all corresponding null hypotheses are true, the expected number of incorrect rejections (also known as false positives or Type I errors) is 5. If the tests are statistically independent from each other, the probability of at least one incorrect rejection is 99.4 %.
The multiple comparisons problem also applies to confidence intervals. A single confidence interval with a 95 % coverage probability level will contain the population parameter in 95 % of experiments. However, if one considers 100 confidence intervals simultaneously, each with 95 % coverage probability, the expected number of non-covering intervals is 5. If the intervals are statistically independent from each other, the probability that at least one interval does not contain the population parameter is 99.4 %.
Techniques have been developed to prevent the inflation of false positive rates and non-coverage rates that occur with multiple statistical tests.
The following table defines the possible outcomes when testing multiple null hypotheses. Suppose we have a number m of null hypotheses, denoted by: H, H,..., H. Using a statistical test, we reject the null hypothesis if the test is declared significant. We do not reject the null hypothesis if the test is non-significant. Summing each type of outcome over all H yields the following random variables:
In m (\ displaystyle m) hypothesis tests of which m 0 (\ displaystyle m_ (0)) are true null hypotheses, R (\ displaystyle R) is an observable random variable, and S (\ displaystyle S), T (\ displaystyle T), U (\ displaystyle U), and V (\ displaystyle V) are unobservable random variables.
If m independent comparisons are performed, the family-wise error rate (FWER), is given by
Hence, unless the tests are perfectly positively dependent (i.e., identical), α _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ bar (\ alpha))) increases as the number of comparisons increases. If we do not assume that the comparisons are independent, then we can still say:
which follows from Boole 's inequality. Example: 0.2649 = 1 − (1 −. 05) 6 ≤. 05 × 6 = 0.3 (\ displaystyle 0.2649 = 1 - (1 -. 05) ^ (6) \ leq. 05 \ times 6 = 0.3)
There are different ways to assure that the family-wise error rate is at most α _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ bar (\ alpha))). The most conservative method, which is free of dependence and distributional assumptions, is the Bonferroni correction α (p e r c o m p a r i s o n) = α _̄ / m (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (\ mathrm (\ (per \ comparison \))) = (\ bar (\ alpha)) / m).
A marginally less conservative correction can be obtained by solving the equation for the family-wise error rate of m (\ displaystyle m) independent comparisons for α (p e r c o m p a r i s o n) (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (\ mathrm (\ (per \ comparison \)))). This yields α (per comparison) = 1 − (1 − α _̄) 1 / m (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (\ ((\ text (per comparison)) \)) = 1 - ((1 - (\ bar (\ alpha)))) ^ (1 / m)), which is known as the Šidák correction. Another procedure is the Holm -- Bonferroni method, which uniformly delivers more power than the simple Bonferroni correction, by testing only the lowest p - value (i = 1 (\ displaystyle i = 1)) against the strictest criterion, and the higher p - values (i > 1 (\ displaystyle i > 1)) against progressively less strict criteria. α (p e r c o m p a r i s o n) = α _̄ / (m − i + 1) (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (\ mathrm (\ (per \ comparison \))) = (\ bar (\ alpha)) / (m - i + 1)).
Multiple testing correction refers to re-calculating probabilities obtained from a statistical test which was repeated multiple times. In order to retain a prescribed family-wise error rate α in an analysis involving more than one comparison, the error rate for each comparison must be more stringent than α. Boole 's inequality implies that if each of m tests is performed to have type I error rate α / m, the total error rate will not exceed α. This is called the Bonferroni correction, and is one of the most commonly used approaches for multiple comparisons.
In some situations, the Bonferroni correction is substantially conservative, i.e., the actual family-wise error rate is much less than the prescribed level α. This occurs when the test statistics are highly dependent (in the extreme case where the tests are perfectly dependent, the family-wise error rate with no multiple comparisons adjustment and the per - test error rates are identical). For example, in fMRI analysis, tests are done on over 100,000 voxels in the brain. The Bonferroni method would require p - values to be smaller than. 05 / 100000 to declare significance. Since adjacent voxels tend to be highly correlated, this threshold is generally too stringent.
Because simple techniques such as the Bonferroni method can be conservative, there has been a great deal of attention paid to developing better techniques, such that the overall rate of false positives can be maintained without excessively inflating the rate of false negatives. Such methods can be divided into general categories:
The advent of computerized resampling methods, such as bootstrapping and Monte Carlo simulations, has given rise to many techniques in the latter category. In some cases where exhaustive permutation resampling is performed, these tests provide exact, strong control of Type I error rates; in other cases, such as bootstrap sampling, they provide only approximate control.
Traditional methods for multiple comparisons adjustments focus on correcting for modest numbers of comparisons, often in an analysis of variance. A different set of techniques have been developed for "large - scale multiple testing '', in which thousands or even greater numbers of tests are performed. For example, in genomics, when using technologies such as microarrays, expression levels of tens of thousands of genes can be measured, and genotypes for millions of genetic markers can be measured. Particularly in the field of genetic association studies, there has been a serious problem with non-replication -- a result being strongly statistically significant in one study but failing to be replicated in a follow - up study. Such non-replication can have many causes, but it is widely considered that failure to fully account for the consequences of making multiple comparisons is one of the causes.
In different branches of science, multiple testing is handled in different ways. It has been argued that if statistical tests are only performed when there is a strong basis for expecting the result to be true, multiple comparisons adjustments are not necessary. It has also been argued that use of multiple testing corrections is an inefficient way to perform empirical research, since multiple testing adjustments control false positives at the potential expense of many more false negatives. On the other hand, it has been argued that advances in measurement and information technology have made it far easier to generate large datasets for exploratory analysis, often leading to the testing of large numbers of hypotheses with no prior basis for expecting many of the hypotheses to be true. In this situation, very high false positive rates are expected unless multiple comparisons adjustments are made.
For large - scale testing problems where the goal is to provide definitive results, the familywise error rate remains the most accepted parameter for ascribing significance levels to statistical tests. Alternatively, if a study is viewed as exploratory, or if significant results can be easily re-tested in an independent study, control of the false discovery rate (FDR) is often preferred. The FDR, loosely defined as the expected proportion of false positives among all significant tests, allows researchers to identify a set of "candidate positives '' that can be more rigorously evaluated in a follow - up study.
The practice of trying many unadjusted comparisons in the hope of finding a significant one is a known problem, whether applied unintentionally or deliberately, is sometimes called "p - hacking. ''
A basic question faced at the outset of analyzing a large set of testing results is whether there is evidence that any of the alternative hypotheses are true. One simple meta - test that can be applied when it is assumed that the tests are independent of each other is to use the Poisson distribution as a model for the number of significant results at a given level α that would be found when all null hypotheses are true. If the observed number of positives is substantially greater than what should be expected, this suggests that there are likely to be some true positives among the significant results. For example, if 1000 independent tests are performed, each at level α = 0.05, we expect 50 significant tests to occur when all null hypotheses are true. Based on the Poisson distribution with mean 50, the probability of observing more than 61 significant tests is less than 0.05, so if more than 61 significant results are observed, it is very likely that some of them correspond to situations where the alternative hypothesis holds. A drawback of this approach is that it over-states the evidence that some of the alternative hypotheses are true when the test statistics are positively correlated, which commonly occurs in practice.. On the other hand, the approach remains valid even in the presence of correlation among the test statistics, as long as the Poisson distribution can be shown to provide a good approximation for the number of significant results. This scenario arises, for instance, when mining significant frequent itemsets from transactional datasets. Furthermore, a careful two stage analysis can bound the FDR at a pre-specified level.
Another common approach that can be used in situations where the test statistics can be standardized to Z - scores is to make a normal quantile plot of the test statistics. If the observed quantiles are markedly more dispersed than the normal quantiles, this suggests that some of the significant results may be true positives.
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who was regarded as the first free jazz musician | Free jazz - wikipedia
Free jazz is an approach to jazz music that was first developed in the 1950s and 60s as musicians attempted to alter, extend, or break down jazz convention, often by discarding fixed chord changes or tempos. Though the music of free jazz composers varied widely, a common feature was dissatisfaction with the limitations of bebop, hard bop, and modal jazz that had developed in the 1940s and 50s. Often described as avant - garde, free jazz has also been described as an attempt to return jazz to its primitive, often religious, roots and emphasis on collective improvisation.
As its name implies, free jazz can not be defined more than loosely, as many musicians draw on free jazz concepts and idioms, and it was never completely distinct as a genre. Many free jazz musicians, notably Pharoah Sanders and John Coltrane, used harsh overblowing or other techniques to elicit unconventional sounds from their instruments, or played unusual instruments. Free jazz musicians created a progressive musical language which drew on earlier styles of jazz such as Dixieland jazz and African music. Typically this kind of music is played by small groups of musicians. The music often swings but without regular meter, and there are frequent accelerandi and ritardandi.
Free jazz is strongly associated with the 1950s innovations of Ornette Coleman and Cecil Taylor and the later works of John Coltrane. Other important pioneers include Charles Mingus, Eric Dolphy, Albert Ayler, Archie Shepp, Joe Maneri and Sun Ra. Coleman pioneered many techniques typical of free jazz, most notably his rejection of pre-written chord changes, believing instead that freely improvised melodic lines should serve as the basis for harmonic progression in his compositions. Some of bassist Charles Mingus 's work was also important in establishing free jazz. Of particular note are his early Atlantic albums, such as The Clown, Tijuana Moods, and most notably Pithecanthropus Erectus, the title song of which contained one section that was freely improvised in a style unrelated to the song 's melody or chordal structure. Although today "free jazz '' is the generally used term, many other terms were used to describe the loosely defined movement, including "avant - garde '', "energy music '' and "The New Thing ''. During its early and mid-1960s heyday, much free jazz was released by established labels such as Prestige, Blue Note, and Impulse, as well as independents such as ESP Disk and BYG Actuel.
Keith Johnson of AllMusic describes a "Modern Creative '' genre, in which "musicians may incorporate free playing into structured modes -- or play just about anything. '' Johnson includes John Zorn, Henry Kaiser, Eugene Chadbourne, Tim Berne, Bill Frisell, Steve Lacy, Cecil Taylor, Ornette Coleman, and Ray Anderson in this genre, which continues "the tradition of the ' 50s to ' 60s free - jazz mode ''.
Defining the essence of free jazz is complicated; many musicians draw on free jazz concepts and idioms, and free jazz was never entirely distinct from other genres. Many individual musicians reject efforts at classification, regarding them as useless or unduly limiting. Free jazz uses jazz idioms, and like jazz it places an aesthetic premium on expressing the "voice '' or "sound '' of the musician, as opposed to the classical tradition in which the performer is seen more as expressing the thoughts of the composer.
Many critics, particularly at the music 's inception, suspected that the abandonment of familiar elements of jazz pointed to a lack of technique on the part of the musicians. Today such views are more marginal, and the music has built up a tradition and a body of accompanying critical writing. It remains less commercially popular than most other forms of jazz.
This breakdown of form and rhythmic structure has been seen by some critics to coincide with jazz musicians ' exposure to and use of elements from non-Western music, especially African, Arabic, and Indian. The atonality of free jazz is often credited by historians and jazz performers to a return to non-tonal music of the nineteenth century, including field hollers, street cries, and jubilees (part of the "return to the roots '' element of free jazz). This suggests that perhaps the movement away from tonality was not a conscious effort to devise a formal atonal system, but rather a reflection of the concepts surrounding free jazz. Eventually, jazz became totally "free '' by removing all dependence on chord progressions and instead using polytempic and polyrhythmic structures.
Many critics have drawn connections between the term "free jazz '' and the American social setting during the late 1950s and 1960s, especially the emerging social tensions of racial integration and the civil rights movement. Many argue those recent phenomena such as the landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954, the emergence of the "Freedom Riders '' in 1961, the 1963 Freedom Summer of activist - supported black voter registration, and the free alternative black Freedom Schools demonstrate the political implications of the word "free '' in context of free jazz. Thus many consider free jazz to be not only a rejection of certain musical credos and ideas, but a musical reaction to the oppression and experience of black Americans.
While free jazz is widely considered to begin in the late 1950s, there are compositions that precede this era that have notable connections to the free jazz aesthetic. Some of the works of Lennie Tristano in the late 1940s, particularly "Intuition '', "Digression '', and "Descent into the Maelstrom '' exhibit the use of techniques associated with free jazz, such as atonal collective improvisation and lack of discrete chord changes. Other notable examples proto - free jazz include City of Glass written in 1948 by Bob Graettinger for the Stan Kenton band and Jimmy Giuffre 's 1953 "Fugue ''. It can be argued, however, that these works are more representative of third stream jazz with its references to contemporary classical music techniques such as serialism.
The true beginning of free jazz as it is understood today, however, came with the recordings of Ornette Coleman. Coleman pioneered many techniques typical of free jazz, most notably his rejection of pre-written chord changes, believing instead that freely improvised melodic lines should serve as the basis for harmonic progression in his compositions. His first notable recordings for Contemporary Records included Tomorrow Is the Question! and Something Else in 1958, garnering Coleman national recognition. In terms of free jazz history, these albums revolutionized concepts of musical structure, as many of the compositions on these two early albums do not follow typical 32 - bar form and often employ abrupt changes in tempo and mood.
The free jazz movement received its biggest impetus when Coleman moved from the West Coast to New York City and was signed to Atlantic Records: albums such as The Shape of Jazz to Come and Change of the Century marked a radical step beyond his more conventional early work. On these albums, Coleman strayed from the tonal basis that formed the lines of his earlier albums and began truly examining the possibilities of atonal improvisation. The most important recording to the free jazz movement from Coleman during this era, however, came with Free Jazz, recorded in A&R Studios in New York in 1960. It marked an abrupt departure from the highly structured compositions of his past. Recorded with a double quartet separated into left and right channels, Free Jazz brought a more aggressive, cacophonous texture to Coleman 's work, and the record 's title would provide the name for the nascent free jazz movement.
In conjunction with Coleman 's innovations during the early 1960s, contemporary pianist Cecil Taylor was also exploring the possibilities of avant - garde free jazz. A classically trained pianist, Taylor 's main influences included Thelonious Monk and Horace Silver, who prove key to Taylor 's later unconventional uses of the piano. Jazz Advance, his first album released in 1956 under the Transition label, still showed ties to the more traditional jazz music albeit with a greatly expanded harmonic vocabulary. The harmonic freedom of these early releases, however, would lead to his transition into free jazz during the early 1960s. Key to this transformation was the introduction of saxophonist Jimmy Lyons and drummer Sunny Murray in 1962, who encouraged the use of more progressive musical language such as tone clusters and abstracted rhythmic figures.
Taylor 's landmark release in the formation of free jazz in the 1960s came in the form of Unit Structures, released via Blue Note Records in 1966. It was on this recording that Taylor truly marked his transition into free jazz, as his compositions now were almost completely composed without notated scores, devoid of conventional jazz meter and harmonic progression. This new direction was especially influenced by drummer Andrew Cyrille, who manages to provide rhythmic dynamism outside the conventions of bebop and swing. During this time period, Taylor also began exploring some of the techniques of the classical avant - garde, especially evident in his use of prepared pianos as was developed by composer John Cage.
Along with Taylor and Coleman, Albert Ayler was one of the essential composers and performers during the beginning period of free jazz. He began his career as a bebop tenor saxophonist in Scandinavia, and had already begun pushing the boundaries of tonal jazz and blues to their harmonic limits. He soon began collaborating with notable free jazz musicians, including Cecil Taylor in 1962. He pushed the jazz idiom to its absolute limits, and many of his compositions bear little resemblance to jazz of the past. Ayler 's musical language focused on the possibilities of microtonal improvisation and extended saxophone technique, creating squawks and honks with his instrument to achieve multiphonic effects. Yet amidst Ayler 's progressive techniques, he shows an attachment for simple, rounded melodies reminiscent of folk music, which he explores via his more avant - garde style. One of the most key of Ayler 's free jazz recordings is Spiritual Unity, including his often recorded and most famous composition, Ghosts, in which a simple spiritual - like melody is gradually shifted and distorted through Ayler 's unique improvisatory interpretation. Ultimately, Ayler serves as an important example of many ways which free jazz could be interpreted, as he often strays into more tonal areas and melodies while exploring the timbral and textural possibilities within his melodies. In this way, his free jazz is built upon both a progressive attitude towards melody and timbre as well as a desire to examine and recontextualize the music of the past.
The work of Coleman, Taylor and Ayler firmly established the legitimacy of the free jazz movement. While much of the American audience was reticent to approach this new style of jazz, it was quickly embraced by forward - thinking jazz artists, most notably John Coltrane. Coltrane was a self - admitted admirer of Ornette Coleman and his innovative approach to improvisation and harmony. In a 1963 interview with Jazz Magazine, Coltrane said of Coleman:
Yeah, well, I feel indebted to him (Coleman), myself. Because actually, when he came along, I was so far in this thing (the "harmonic structures ''), I did n't know where I was going to go next. And, I did n't know if I would have thought about just abandoning the chord system or not. I probably would n't have thought of that at all. And he came along doing it, and I heard it, I said, "Well, that - that must be the answer. ''
While Coltrane 's desire to explore the limits of solo improvisation and the possibilities of innovative form and structure was evident in records like A Love Supreme, his work owed more to the tradition of modal jazz and post-bop. But with the recording of Ascension in 1965, Coltrane demonstrated his appreciation for the new wave of free jazz innovators. Ascension saw Coltrane augmenting his classic quartet with six additional horn players, including notable free jazz artists Archie Shepp and Pharoah Sanders. Formally, the composition includes free - form solo improvisation interspersed with sections of collective improvisation reminiscent of Coleman 's Free Jazz. The piece sees Coltrane exploring the timbral possibilities of his instrument, using over-blowing to achieve multiphonic tones. Coltrane continued to explore the avant - garde in his following compositions, including such albums as Om, Kulu Se Mama, and Meditations, as well as collaborating with notable free jazz artists such as John Tchicai.
Much of Sun Ra 's music could be classified as free jazz, especially his work from the 1960s, although Sun Ra said repeatedly that his music was written and boasted that what he wrote sounded more free than what "the freedom boys '' played. Music by Sun Ra, especially The Heliocentric Worlds of Sun Ra (1965), was, in fact, steeped in what could be referred to as a new black mysticism. But Sun Ra 's penchant for nonconformity aside, he was along with Coleman and Taylor an integral voice to the formation of new jazz styles during the 1960s. As evidenced by his compositions on the 1956 record Sounds of Joy, Sun Ra 's early work employed a typical bop style. But he soon foreshadowed the free jazz movements with compositions like "A Call for All Demons '' off of the 1955 - 57 record Angels and Demons at Play, which combines atonal improvisation with Latin - inspired mambo percussion. His period of fully realized free jazz experimentation began in 1965, with the release of The Heliocentric Worlds of Sun Ra and The Magic City. These records placed a musical emphasis on timbre and texture over meter and harmony, employing a wide variety of electronic instruments and innovative percussion instruments, including the electric celeste, Hammond B - 3, bass marimba, harp, and timpani. As result, Sun Ra proved to be one of the first free jazz artists to explore the possibilities of electronic instrumentation, as well as displaying an interest in timbral possibilities through his use of progressive and unconventional instrumentation in his compositions.
Some of bassist Charles Mingus ' work was also important in establishing free jazz. Of particular note are his early Atlantic Records albums, such as The Clown, Tijuana Moods, and most notably Pithecanthropus Erectus, the title song of which contained one section that was freely improvised in a style unrelated to the song 's melody or chordal structure. His contributions were primarily in his efforts to bring back the importance of collective improvisation in a music scene that had become dominated by solo improvisation (as a result of the development of the big band). His music did reflect the ideas of freedom, but also looked back, drawing upon bop and even swing styles.
Since the mid-1950s, saxophonist Jackie McLean had been exploring a concept he called "The Big Room '', where the often strict rules of bebop could be loosened or abandoned at will. Similarly, Cecil Taylor, the most prominent free jazz pianist, began stretching the bop boundaries as early as 1956.
The Jimmy Giuffre Trio (with Paul Bley and Steve Swallow) received little attention during their original incarnation from 1960 to 1962, but afterwards were regarded as one of the most innovative free jazz ensembles.
Eric Dolphy 's work with Charles Mingus, John Coltrane, and Chico Hamilton, along with his solo work, helped to set the stage for free jazz in the music community.
In Chicago, many of the musicians in AACM and its ensemble the Art Ensemble of Chicago worked seriously in the ' free jazz ' forms, including Muhal Richard Abrams, Malachi Favors, and Famoudou Don Moye
In Europe, free jazz first flowered through the experiments of expatriate Jamaican alto saxophonist Joe Harriott. Beginning in the late 1950s, he worked on his own distinctive concept of what he termed free form. These explorations were parallel to Coleman 's in many respects but Harriott 's work was barely known outside England.
Beginning in the mid-1960s, players such as guitarist Derek Bailey, saxophonists Peter Brötzmann and Evan Parker and drummer John Stevens developed an idiom that came to be called "free improvisation ''. It drew sustenance from free jazz while moving much further from jazz tradition (often drawing equally on contemporary composers such as Anton Webern and John Cage for inspiration). Also based in Europe, Steve Lacy worked with free improvisation, but had greater connections to the New York musical scene.
Free jazz also strove to incorporate the sounds and intents of music from other cultures. Coltrane experimented with the music of India, while Archie Shepp, Clifford Thornton, and Pharoah Sanders were heavily influenced by musics of North and West Africa. During the 1960s and 1970s, the musicians were heavily influenced by the political ideas of Malcolm X, Bobby Seale, Angela Davis, and other black community leaders.
Free jazz has primarily been an instrumental genre. However, Jeanne Lee was a notable free jazz vocalist; others such as Jayne Cortez, Sheila Jordan, Linda Sharrock, and Patty Waters also made notable contributions to the genre.
Much of the multi-instrumentalist Anthony Braxton 's music could be classified as free jazz. His Ghost Trance Music, which introduces a steady pulse to his music, also allows the simultaneous performance of any piece by the performers. Braxton has recorded with many of the free jazz musicians, including Ornette Coleman and European free improvisers such as Derek Bailey, Evan Parker, and the Globe Unity Orchestra.
The 1960s lay the foundation for free jazz, but by the 1970s, the setting for the jazz avant - garde was shifting. There was a large migration of avant - garde and free jazz musicians to New York City, seeking new venues and audiences for their music. These new arrivals, including musicians such as Arthur Blythe, James Newton, and Mark Dresser, marked the beginning of the Loft Era. As the name may imply, musicians during this time would often perform in private homes and other unconventional spaces. During this time, the status of free jazz became more complex, as many musicians sought to bring in various different genres into their works. Free jazz no longer necessarily indicated the rejection of tonal melody, overarching harmonic structure, or metrical divide, as laid out by Coleman, Coltrane, and Taylor. Instead, the free jazz techniques and aesthetic developed in the 1960s became just one of many influences, including popular and world music, in this new strain of loft jazz.
By the 1980s the "downtown '' scene replaced the previous decades 's loft jazz scene as the center of activity for New York City avant - garde and free jazz artists (especially as rents increased in what had been largely low - rent or undesirable neighborhoods), being associated with places such as the Knitting Factory, which opened in 1987. A younger generation of players including David S. Ware, Matthew Shipp, William Parker and Joe Morris continued to play free jazz inspired by the ground - breaking work of the 1960s "New Thing '' era. Like other styles of jazz, free jazz also adopted elements of contemporary rock, funk, and pop music: Ornette Coleman was a leader in this vein, embracing electric music with his 1970s band Prime Time, and a number of other players including James Blood Ulmer, Sonny Sharrock, and Ronald Shannon Jackson forged styles combining elements of free jazz and fusion.
George Russell, hailed as "the great pathbreaker '' for encouraging the use of modes by free jazz composers and performers, was a faculty member at the New England Conservatory. David Baker received two degrees from and later taught at Indiana University in Bloomington, and also performed actively. In many cases, musicians with these appointments were able to bring other artists onto campus as instructors and performers; Thornton secured positions at Wesleyan University for Jimmy Garrison, Sam Rivers, and Ed Blackwell, and brought Marion Brown to perform and - eventually - to study.
The 1981 documentary film Imagine the Sound explores free jazz through interviews with and performances by Archie Shepp, Paul Bley, Cecil Taylor and Bill Dixon.
Many musicians are keeping the free jazz style alive in the 21st century. Two major scenes are based in New York and Chicago. In New York, players include Charles Gayle, William Parker, Matana Roberts, Chad Taylor, John Zorn, Assif Tsahar, Tom Abbs, Kenny Werner, and Chris Speed. In Chicago, notable performers are Fred Anderson (deceased 2010), Nicole Mitchell, Ernest Dawkins, Ken Vandermark, and Hamid Drake. There are also many free - jazz musicians in Europe.
Writers Paul Tanner, Maurice Gerow, and David Megill have suggested that
the freer aspects of jazz, at least, have reduced the freedom acquired in the sixties. Most successful recording artists today construct their works in this way: beginning with a strain with which listeners can relate, following with an entirely free portion, and then returning to the recognizable strain. The pattern may occur several times in a long selection, giving listeners pivotal points to cling to. At this time, listeners accept this -- they can recognize the selection while also appreciating the freedom of the player in other portions. Players, meanwhile, are tending toward retaining a key center for the seemingly free parts. It is as if the musician has learned that entire freedom is not an answer to expression, that the player needs boundaries, bases, from which to explore.
Tanner, Gerow and Megill name Miles Davis, Cecil Taylor, John Klemmer, Keith Jarrett, Chick Corea, Pharoah Sanders, McCoy Tyner, Alice Coltrane, Wayne Shorter, Anthony Braxton, Don Cherry, and Sun Ra as musicians who have employed this approach.
Keith Johnson of AllMusic describes a "Modern Creative '' genre, in which "musicians may incorporate free playing into structured modes -- or play just about anything. '' Johnson includes John Zorn, Henry Kaiser, Eugene Chadbourne, Tim Berne, Bill Frisell, Steve Lacy, Cecil Taylor, Ornette Coleman, and Ray Anderson in this genre, which continues "the tradition of the ' 50s to ' 60s free - jazz mode ''.
Canadian artist Stan Douglas uses free jazz as a direct response to complex attitudes towards African - American music. Exhibited at documenta 9 in 1992, his video installation Hors - champs (meaning "off - screen '') addresses the political context of free jazz in the 1960s, as an extension of black consciousness and is one of his few works to directly address race. Four American musicians, George Lewis (trombone), Douglas Ewart (saxophone), Kent Carter (bass) and Oliver Johnson (drums) who lived in France during the free jazz period in the 1960s, improvise Albert Ayler 's 1965 composition "Spirits Rejoice. ''
New York Eye and Ear Control is Canadian artist Michael Snow 's 1964 film with a soundtrack of group improvisations recorded by an augmented version of Albert Ayler 's group and released as the album New York Eye and Ear Control. Critics have compared the album with the key free jazz recordings: Ornette Coleman 's Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation and John Coltrane 's Ascension. John Litweiler regards it favourably in comparison because of its "free motion of tempo (often slow, usually fast); of ensemble density (players enter and depart at will); of linear movement ''. Ekkehard Jost places it in the same company and comments on "extraordinarily intensive give - and - take by the musicians '' and "a breadth of variation and differentiation on all musical levels ''.
French artist Jean - Max Albert, as trumpet player of Henri Texier 's first quintet, participated in the 60s in one of the very first expressions of free jazz in France. As a painter, he then experimented plastic transpositions of Ornette Coleman 's approach. Free jazz, painted in 1973, used architectural structures in correspondence to the classical chords of standard harmonies confronted with an unrestrained all over painted improvisation. Jean - Max Albert still explores the free jazz lessons, collaborating with pianist François Tusques in experimental films: Birth of Free Jazz, Don Cherry... these topics considered through a pleasant and poetic way.
Outside of North America, free jazz scenes have become established in Europe and Japan. Alongside the aforementioned Joe Harriott, saxophonists Peter Brötzmann, Evan Parker, trombonist Conny Bauer, guitarist Derek Bailey, pianist Fred Van Hove, drummer Han Bennink, saxophonist and bass clarinetist Willem Breuker, and pianist Misha Mengelberg were among the most well - known early European free jazz performers. European free jazz can generally be seen as approaching free improvisation, with an ever more distant relationship to jazz tradition. Specifically Brötzmann has had a significant impact on the free jazz players of the United States.
A relatively active free jazz scene behind the iron curtain produced musicians like Tomasz Stańko, Zbigniew Seifert, Vladimir Chekasin, Vyacheslav Ganelin and Vladimir Tarasov. Japanese guitarist Masayuki Takayanagi and saxophonist Kaoru Abe, among others, took free jazz in another direction, approaching the energy levels of noise. Some international jazz musicians have come to North America and become immersed in free jazz, most notably Ivo Perelman from Brazil and Gato Barbieri of Argentina (this influence is more evident in Barbieri 's early work).
South African artists, including early Dollar Brand, Zim Ngqawana, Carlo Mombelli, Chris McGregor, Louis Moholo, and Dudu Pukwana experimented with a form of free jazz (and often big - band free jazz) that fused experimental improvisation with African rhythms and melodies. American musicians like Don Cherry, John Coltrane, Milford Graves, and Pharoah Sanders integrated elements of the music of Africa, India, and the Middle East for a sort of World music - influenced free jazz.
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what percent of the land on earth does not receive sufficient precipitation | Precipitation - wikipedia
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel and hail. Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and "precipitates ''. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated: cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air. Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called "showers. ''
Moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is typically active when freezing rain occurs. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain and serves as the foci for forcing and rising air. Provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the cloud droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops and descend toward the Earth where they will freeze on contact with exposed objects. Where relatively warm water bodies are present, for example due to water evaporation from lakes, lake - effect snowfall becomes a concern downwind of the warm lakes within the cold cyclonic flow around the backside of extratropical cyclones. Lake - effect snowfall can be locally heavy. Thundersnow is possible within a cyclone 's comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation. On the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. Most precipitation occurs within the tropics and is caused by convection. The movement of the monsoon trough, or intertropical convergence zone, brings rainy seasons to savannah climes.
Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year; 398,000 cubic kilometres (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres (26,000 cu mi) over land. Given the Earth 's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in), but over land it is only 715 millimetres (28.1 in). Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes.
Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies, e.g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost, rather than rain or snow.
Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km (121,000 mi) of water falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans. Given the Earth 's surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres (39 in).
Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall. Convective processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the atmosphere in that location within an hour and cause heavy precipitation, while stratiform processes involve weaker upward motions and less intense precipitation. Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice. Mixtures of different types of precipitation, including types in different categories, can fall simultaneously. Liquid forms of precipitation include rain and drizzle. Rain or drizzle that freezes on contact within a subfreezing air mass is called "freezing rain '' or "freezing drizzle ''. Frozen forms of precipitation include snow, ice needles, ice pellets, hail, and graupel.
The dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated, and (unless super-saturation occurs) condenses to water. Water vapor normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. An elevated portion of a frontal zone forces broad areas of lift, which form clouds decks such as altostratus or cirrostratus. Stratus is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. It can also form due to the lifting of advection fog during breezy conditions.
There are four main mechanisms for cooling the air to its dew point: adiabatic cooling, conductive cooling, radiational cooling, and evaporative cooling. Adiabatic cooling occurs when air rises and expands. The air can rise due to convection, large - scale atmospheric motions, or a physical barrier such as a mountain (orographic lift). Conductive cooling occurs when the air comes into contact with a colder surface, usually by being blown from one surface to another, for example from a liquid water surface to colder land. Radiational cooling occurs due to the emission of infrared radiation, either by the air or by the surface underneath. Evaporative cooling occurs when moisture is added to the air through evaporation, which forces the air temperature to cool to its wet - bulb temperature, or until it reaches saturation.
The main ways water vapor is added to the air are: wind convergence into areas of upward motion, precipitation or virga falling from above, daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies or wet land, transpiration from plants, cool or dry air moving over warmer water, and lifting air over mountains.
Coalescence occurs when water droplets fuse to create larger water droplets, or when water droplets freeze onto an ice crystal, which is known as the Bergeron process. The fall rate of very small droplets is negligible, hence clouds do not fall out of the sky; precipitation will only occur when these coalesce into larger drops. When air turbulence occurs, water droplets collide, producing larger droplets. As these larger water droplets descend, coalescence continues, so that drops become heavy enough to overcome air resistance and fall as rain.
Raindrops have sizes ranging from 0.1 millimetres (0.0039 in) to 9 millimetres (0.35 in) mean diameter, above which they tend to break up. Smaller drops are called cloud droplets, and their shape is spherical. As a raindrop increases in size, its shape becomes more oblate, with its largest cross-section facing the oncoming airflow. Contrary to the cartoon pictures of raindrops, their shape does not resemble a teardrop. Intensity and duration of rainfall are usually inversely related, i.e., high intensity storms are likely to be of short duration and low intensity storms can have a long duration. Rain drops associated with melting hail tend to be larger than other rain drops. The METAR code for rain is RA, while the coding for rain showers is SHRA.
Ice pellets or sleet are a form of precipitation consisting of small, translucent balls of ice. Ice pellets are usually (but not always) smaller than hailstones. They often bounce when they hit the ground, and generally do not freeze into a solid mass unless mixed with freezing rain. The METAR code for ice pellets is PL.
Ice pellets form when a layer of above - freezing air exists with sub-freezing air both above and below. This causes the partial or complete melting of any snowflakes falling through the warm layer. As they fall back into the sub-freezing layer closer to the surface, they re-freeze into ice pellets. However, if the sub-freezing layer beneath the warm layer is too small, the precipitation will not have time to re-freeze, and freezing rain will be the result at the surface. A temperature profile showing a warm layer above the ground is most likely to be found in advance of a warm front during the cold season, but can occasionally be found behind a passing cold front.
Like other precipitation, hail forms in storm clouds when supercooled water droplets freeze on contact with condensation nuclei, such as dust or dirt. The storm 's updraft blows the hailstones to the upper part of the cloud. The updraft dissipates and the hailstones fall down, back into the updraft, and are lifted again. Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres (0.20 in) or more. Within METAR code, GR is used to indicate larger hail, of a diameter of at least 6.4 millimetres (0.25 in). GR is derived from the French word grêle. Smaller - sized hail, as well as snow pellets, use the coding of GS, which is short for the French word grésil. Stones just larger than golf ball - sized are one of the most frequently reported hail sizes. Hailstones can grow to 15 centimetres (6 in) and weigh more than 500 grams (1 lb). In large hailstones, latent heat released by further freezing may melt the outer shell of the hailstone. The hailstone then may undergo ' wet growth ', where the liquid outer shell collects other smaller hailstones. The hailstone gains an ice layer and grows increasingly larger with each ascent. Once a hailstone becomes too heavy to be supported by the storm 's updraft, it falls from the cloud.
Snow crystals form when tiny supercooled cloud droplets (about 10 μm in diameter) freeze. Once a droplet has frozen, it grows in the supersaturated environment. Because water droplets are more numerous than the ice crystals the crystals are able to grow to hundreds of micrometers in size at the expense of the water droplets. This process is known as the Wegener -- Bergeron -- Findeisen process. The corresponding depletion of water vapour causes the droplets to evaporate, meaning that the ice crystals grow at the droplets ' expense. These large crystals are an efficient source of precipitation, since they fall through the atmosphere due to their mass, and may collide and stick together in clusters, or aggregates. These aggregates are snowflakes, and are usually the type of ice particle that falls to the ground. Guinness World Records list the world 's largest snowflakes as those of January 1887 at Fort Keogh, Montana; allegedly one measured 38 cm (15 inches) wide. The exact details of the sticking mechanism remain a subject of research.
Although the ice is clear, scattering of light by the crystal facets and hollows / imperfections mean that the crystals often appear white in color due to diffuse reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the small ice particles. The shape of the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed. Rarely, at a temperature of around − 2 ° C (28 ° F), snowflakes can form in threefold symmetry -- triangular snowflakes. The most common snow particles are visibly irregular, although near - perfect snowflakes may be more common in pictures because they are more visually appealing. No two snowflakes are alike, as they grow at different rates and in different patterns depending on the changing temperature and humidity within the atmosphere through which they fall on their way to the ground. The METAR code for snow is SN, while snow showers are coded SHSN.
Diamond dust, also known as ice needles or ice crystals, forms at temperatures approaching − 40 ° C (− 40 ° F) due to air with slightly higher moisture from aloft mixing with colder, surface based air. They are made of simple ice crystals that are hexagonal in shape. The METAR identifier for diamond dust within international hourly weather reports is IC.
Stratiform or dynamic precipitation occurs as a consequence of slow ascent of air in synoptic systems (on the order of cm / s), such as over surface cold fronts, and over and ahead of warm fronts. Similar ascent is seen around tropical cyclones outside of the eyewall, and in comma - head precipitation patterns around mid-latitude cyclones. A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Occluded fronts usually form around mature low - pressure areas. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies other than Earth. When it gets cold, Mars has precipitation that most likely takes the form of ice needles, rather than rain or snow.
Convective rain, or showery precipitation, occurs from convective clouds, e.g., cumulonimbus or cumulus congestus. It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity. Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time, as convective clouds have limited horizontal extent. Most precipitation in the tropics appears to be convective; however, it has been suggested that stratiform precipitation also occurs. Graupel and hail indicate convection. In mid-latitudes, convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts, squall lines, and warm fronts.
Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large - scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air (see katabatic wind) on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.
In Hawaii, Mount Waiʻaleʻale, on the island of Kauai, is notable for its extreme rainfall, as it has the second highest average annual rainfall on Earth, with 12,000 millimetres (460 in). Storm systems affect the state with heavy rains between October and March. Local climates vary considerably on each island due to their topography, divisible into windward (Ko ʻolau) and leeward (Kona) regions based upon location relative to the higher mountains. Windward sides face the east to northeast trade winds and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier and sunnier, with less rain and less cloud cover.
In South America, the Andes mountain range blocks Pacific moisture that arrives in that continent, resulting in a desertlike climate just downwind across western Argentina. The Sierra Nevada range creates the same effect in North America forming the Great Basin and Mojave Deserts. Similarly, in Asia, the Himalaya mountains create an obstacle to monsoons which leads to extremely high precipitation on the southern side and lower precipitation levels on the northern side.
Extratropical cyclones can bring cold and dangerous conditions with heavy rain and snow with winds exceeding 119 km / h (74 mph), (sometimes referred to as windstorms in Europe). The band of precipitation that is associated with their warm front is often extensive, forced by weak upward vertical motion of air over the frontal boundary which condenses as it cools and produces precipitation within an elongated band, which is wide and stratiform, meaning falling out of nimbostratus clouds. When moist air tries to dislodge an arctic air mass, overrunning snow can result within the poleward side of the elongated precipitation band. In the Northern Hemisphere, poleward is towards the North Pole, or north. Within the Southern Hemisphere, poleward is towards the South Pole, or south.
Southwest of extratropical cyclones, curved cyclonic flow bringing cold air across the relatively warm water bodies can lead to narrow lake - effect snow bands. Those bands bring strong localized snowfall which can be understood as follows: Large water bodies such as lakes efficiently store heat that results in significant temperature differences (larger than 13 ° C or 23 ° F) between the water surface and the air above. Because of this temperature difference, warmth and moisture are transported upward, condensing into vertically oriented clouds (see satellite picture) which produce snow showers. The temperature decrease with height and cloud depth are directly affected by both the water temperature and the large - scale environment. The stronger the temperature decrease with height, the deeper the clouds get, and the greater the precipitation rate becomes.
In mountainous areas, heavy snowfall accumulates when air is forced to ascend the mountains and squeeze out precipitation along their windward slopes, which in cold conditions, falls in the form of snow. Because of the ruggedness of terrain, forecasting the location of heavy snowfall remains a significant challenge.
The wet, or rainy, season is the time of year, covering one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls. The term green season is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist authorities. Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics. Savanna climates and areas with monsoon regimes have wet summers and dry winters. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is equally distributed through the year. Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid-season when the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough move poleward of their location during the middle of the warm season. When the wet season occurs during the warm season, or summer, rain falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening hours. The wet season is a time when air quality improves, freshwater quality improves, and vegetation grows significantly. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.
Tropical cyclones, a source of very heavy rainfall, consist of large air masses several hundred miles across with low pressure at the centre and with winds blowing inward towards the centre in either a clockwise direction (southern hemisphere) or counterclockwise (northern hemisphere). Although cyclones can take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact, as they may bring much - needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. Areas in their path can receive a year 's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage.
On the large scale, the highest precipitation amounts outside topography fall in the tropics, closely tied to the Intertropical Convergence Zone, itself the ascending branch of the Hadley cell. Mountainous locales near the equator in Colombia are amongst the wettest places on Earth. North and south of this are regions of descending air that form subtropical ridges where precipitation is low; the land surface underneath these ridges is usually arid, and these regions make up most of the Earth 's deserts. An exception to this rule is in Hawaii, where upslope flow due to the trade winds lead to one of the wettest locations on Earth. Otherwise, the flow of the Westerlies into the Rocky Mountains lead to the wettest, and at elevation snowiest, locations within North America. In Asia during the wet season, the flow of moist air into the Himalayas leads to some of the greatest rainfall amounts measured on Earth in northeast India.
The standard way of measuring rainfall or snowfall is the standard rain gauge, which can be found in 100 mm (4 in) plastic and 200 mm (8 in) metal varieties. The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm (1 in) of rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gauges have markings on the inner cylinder down to 0.25 mm (0.01 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick designed with the appropriate 0.25 mm (0.01 in) markings. After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside it is discarded, then filled with the remaining rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer cylinder is empty. These gauges are used in the winter by removing the funnel and inner cylinder and allowing snow and freezing rain to collect inside the outer cylinder. Some add anti-freeze to their gauge so they do not have to melt the snow or ice that falls into the gauge. Once the snowfall / ice is finished accumulating, or as 300 mm (12 in) is approached, one can either bring it inside to melt, or use lukewarm water to fill the inner cylinder with in order to melt the frozen precipitation in the outer cylinder, keeping track of the warm fluid added, which is subsequently subtracted from the overall total once all the ice / snow is melted.
Other types of gauges include the popular wedge gauge (the cheapest rain gauge and most fragile), the tipping bucket rain gauge, and the weighing rain gauge. The wedge and tipping bucket gauges will have problems with snow. Attempts to compensate for snow / ice by warming the tipping bucket meet with limited success, since snow may sublimate if the gauge is kept much above freezing. Weighing gauges with antifreeze should do fine with snow, but again, the funnel needs to be removed before the event begins. For those looking to measure rainfall the most inexpensively, a can that is cylindrical with straight sides will act as a rain gauge if left out in the open, but its accuracy will depend on what ruler is used to measure the rain with. Any of the above rain gauges can be made at home, with enough know - how.
When a precipitation measurement is made, various networks exist across the United States and elsewhere where rainfall measurements can be submitted through the Internet, such as CoCoRAHS or GLOBE. If a network is not available in the area where one lives, the nearest local weather office will likely be interested in the measurement.
A concept used in precipitation measurement is the hydrometeor. Bits of liquid or solid water in the atmosphere are known as hydrometeors. Formations due to condensation, such as clouds, haze, fog, and mist, are composed of hydrometeors. All precipitation types are made up of hydrometeors by definition, including virga, which is precipitation which evaporates before reaching the ground. Particles blown from the Earth 's surface by wind, such as blowing snow and blowing sea spray, are also hydrometeors.
Although surface precipitation gauges are considered the standard for measuring precipitation, there are many areas in which their use is not feasible. This includes the vast expanses of ocean and remote land areas. In other cases, social, technical or administrative issues prevent the dissemination of gauge observations. As a result, the modern global record of precipitation largely depends on satellite observations.
Satellite sensors work by remotely sensing precipitation -- recording various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that theory and practice show are related to the occurrence and intensity of precipitation. The sensors are almost exclusively passive, recording what they see, similar to a camera, in contrast to active sensors (radar, lidar) that send out a signal and detect its impact on the area being observed.
Satellite sensors now in practical use for precipitation fall into two categories. Thermal infrared (IR) sensors record a channel around 11 micron wavelength and primarily give information about cloud tops. Due to the typical structure of the atmosphere, cloud - top temperatures are approximately inversely related to cloud - top heights, meaning colder clouds almost always occur at higher altitudes. Further, cloud tops with a lot of small - scale variation are likely to be more vigorous than smooth - topped clouds. Various mathematical schemes, or algorithms, use these and other properties to estimate precipitation from the IR data.
The second category of sensor channels is in the microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The frequencies in use range from about 10 gigahertz to a few hundred GHz. Channels up to about 37 GHz primarily provide information on the liquid hydrometeors (rain and drizzle) in the lower parts of clouds, with larger amounts of liquid emitting higher amounts of microwave radiant energy. Channels above 37 GHz display emission signals, but are dominated by the action of solid hydrometeors (snow, graupel, etc.) to scatter microwave radiant energy. Satellites such as the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) and the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission employ microwave sensors to form precipitation estimates.
Additional sensor channels and products have been demonstrated to provide additional useful information including visible channels, additional IR channels, water vapor channels and atmospheric sounding retrievals. However, most precipitation data sets in current use do not employ these data sources.
The IR estimates have rather low skill at short time and space scales, but are available very frequently (15 minutes or more often) from satellites in geosynchronous Earth orbit. IR works best in cases of deep, vigorous convection -- such as the tropics -- and becomes progressively less useful in areas where stratiform (layered) precipitation dominates, especially in mid - and high - latitude regions. The more - direct physical connection between hydrometeors and microwave channels gives the microwave estimates greater skill on short time and space scales than is true for IR. However, microwave sensors fly only on low Earth orbit satellites, and there are few enough of them that the average time between observations exceeds three hours. This several - hour interval is insufficient to adequately document precipitation because of the transient nature of most precipitation systems as well as the inability of a single satellite to appropriately capture the typical daily cycle of precipitation at a given location.
Since the late 1990s, several algorithms have been developed to combine precipitation data from multiple satellites ' sensors, seeking to emphasize the strengths and minimize the weaknesses of the individual input data sets. The goal is to provide "best '' estimates of precipitation on a uniform time / space grid, usually for as much of the globe as possible. In some cases the long - term homogeneity of the dataset is emphasized, which is the Climate Data Record standard.
In other cases, the goal is producing the best instantaneous satellite estimate, which is the High Resolution Precipitation Product approach. In either case, of course, the less - emphasized goal is also considered desirable. One key result of the multi-satellite studies is that including even a small amount of surface gauge data is very useful for controlling the biases that are endemic to satellite estimates. The difficulties in using gauge data are that 1) their availability is limited, as noted above, and 2) the best analyses of gauge data take two months or more after the observation time to undergo the necessary transmission, assembly, processing and quality control. Thus, precipitation estimates that include gauge data tend to be produced further after the observation time than the no - gauge estimates. As a result, while estimates that include gauge data may provide a more accurate depiction of the "true '' precipitation, they are generally not suited for real - or near - real - time applications.
The work described has resulted in a variety of datasets possessing different formats, time / space grids, periods of record and regions of coverage, input datasets, and analysis procedures, as well as many different forms of dataset version designators. In many cases, one of the modern multi-satellite data sets is the best choice for general use.
The likelihood or probability of an event with a specified intensity and duration, is called the return period or frequency. The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from charts based on historic data for the location. The term 1 in 10 year storm describes a rainfall event which is rare and is only likely to occur once every 10 years, so it has a 10 percent likelihood any given year. The rainfall will be greater and the flooding will be worse than the worst storm expected in any single year. The term 1 in 100 year storm describes a rainfall event which is extremely rare and which will occur with a likelihood of only once in a century, so has a 1 percent likelihood in any given year. The rainfall will be extreme and flooding to be worse than a 1 in 10 year event. As with all probability events, it is possible though unlikely to have two "1 in 100 Year Storms '' in a single year.
The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. Specifically, the primary types are A, tropical; B, dry; C, mild mid-latitude; D, cold mid-latitude; and E, polar. The five primary classifications can be further divided into secondary classifications such as rain forest, monsoon, tropical savanna, humid subtropical, humid continental, oceanic climate, Mediterranean climate, steppe, subarctic climate, tundra, polar ice cap, and desert.
Rain forests are characterized by high rainfall, with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1,750 and 2,000 mm (69 and 79 in). A tropical savanna is a grassland biome located in semi-arid to semi-humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes, with rainfall between 750 and 1,270 mm (30 and 50 in) a year. They are widespread on Africa, and are also found in India, the northern parts of South America, Malaysia, and Australia. The humid subtropical climate zone is where winter rainfall (and sometimes snowfall) is associated with large storms that the westerlies steer from west to east. Most summer rainfall occurs during thunderstorms and from occasional tropical cyclones. Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side continents, roughly between latitudes 20 ° and 40 ° degrees away from the equator.
An oceanic (or maritime) climate is typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes of all the world 's continents, bordering cool oceans, as well as southeastern Australia, and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year - round. The Mediterranean climate regime resembles the climate of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin, parts of western North America, parts of Western and South Australia, in southwestern South Africa and in parts of central Chile. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. A steppe is a dry grassland. Subarctic climates are cold with continuous permafrost and little precipitation.
Precipitation, especially rain, has a dramatic effect on agriculture. All plants need at least some water to survive, therefore rain (being the most effective means of watering) is important to agriculture. While a regular rain pattern is usually vital to healthy plants, too much or too little rainfall can be harmful, even devastating to crops. Drought can kill crops and increase erosion, while overly wet weather can cause harmful fungus growth. Plants need varying amounts of rainfall to survive. For example, certain cacti require small amounts of water, while tropical plants may need up to hundreds of inches of rain per year to survive.
In areas with wet and dry seasons, soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases during the wet season. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime. The previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Developing countries have noted that their populations show seasonal weight fluctuations due to food shortages seen before the first harvest, which occurs late in the wet season.
Increasing temperatures tend to increase evaporation which leads to more precipitation. Precipitation has generally increased over land north of 30 ° N from 1900 to 2005 but has declined over the tropics since the 1970s. Globally there has been no statistically significant overall trend in precipitation over the past century, although trends have varied widely by region and over time. Eastern portions of North and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia have become wetter. The Sahel, the Mediterranean, southern Africa and parts of southern Asia have become drier. There has been an increase in the number of heavy precipitation events over many areas during the past century, as well as an increase since the 1970s in the prevalence of droughts -- especially in the tropics and subtropics. Changes in precipitation and evaporation over the oceans are suggested by the decreased salinity of mid - and high - latitude waters (implying more precipitation), along with increased salinity in lower latitudes (implying less precipitation, more evaporation, or both). Over the contiguous United States, total annual precipitation increased at an average rate of 6.1 % per century since 1900, with the greatest increases within the East North Central climate region (11.6 % per century) and the South (11.1 %). Hawaii was the only region to show a decrease (- 9.25 %).
The urban heat island warms cities 0.6 to 5.6 ° C (1.1 to 10.1 ° F) above surrounding suburbs and rural areas. This extra heat leads to greater upward motion, which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity. Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48 % and 116 %. Partly as a result of this warming, monthly rainfall is about 28 % greater between 32 to 64 kilometres (20 to 40 mi) downwind of cities, compared with upwind. Some cities induce a total precipitation increase of 51 %.
The Quantitative Precipitation Forecast (abbreviated QPF) is the expected amount of liquid precipitation accumulated over a specified time period over a specified area. A QPF will be specified when a measurable precipitation type reaching a minimum threshold is forecast for any hour during a QPF valid period. Precipitation forecasts tend to be bound by synoptic hours such as 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 GMT. Terrain is considered in QPFs by use of topography or based upon climatological precipitation patterns from observations with fine detail. Starting in the mid to late 1990s, QPFs were used within hydrologic forecast models to simulate impact to rivers throughout the United States. Forecast models show significant sensitivity to humidity levels within the planetary boundary layer, or in the lowest levels of the atmosphere, which decreases with height. QPF can be generated on a quantitative, forecasting amounts, or a qualitative, forecasting the probability of a specific amount, basis. Radar imagery forecasting techniques show higher skill than model forecasts within six to seven hours of the time of the radar image. The forecasts can be verified through use of rain gauge measurements, weather radar estimates, or a combination of both. Various skill scores can be determined to measure the value of the rainfall forecast.
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describe the major contributions of classical roman civilization | Legacy of the Roman Empire - wikipedia
The legacy of the Roman Empire includes the set of cultural values, religious beliefs, technological advancements, engineering and language. This legacy was passed on after the demise of the empire itself and continued to shape other civilizations, a process which continues to this day. The city of Rome was the civitas (reflected in the etymology of the word "civilization '') and consequently the actual western civilization on which subsequent cultures built.
The Latin language of ancient Rome, epitomized by Classical Latin used in Latin literature, evolved during the Middle Ages and has been utilized ever since by the Roman Catholic Church for Ecclesiastical Latin. Vulgar Latin, the common tongue used for regular social interactions, evolved simultaneously into the Romance languages that exist today (e.g. Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, etc.). Although the Western Roman Empire fell in the 5th century AD, the Eastern Roman Empire continued until its conquest by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century AD and cemented the Greek language in many parts of the Eastern Mediterranean even after the Early Muslim conquests of the 7th century AD. Although there has been a small modern revival of the Hellenistic religion with Hellenism, ancient Roman paganism was largely displaced by Christianity after the 4th century AD and the Christian conversion of Roman emperor Constantine I (r. 306 - 337 AD). The Christian faith of the late Roman Empire continued to evolve during the Middle Ages and is still a major facet of the modern Western world.
Ancient Roman architecture, largely indebted to ancient Greek architecture of the Hellenistic period, has made a consistent impact on the architecture of the Western world, particularly during the Italian Renaissance of the 15th century. Roman law and republican politics (from the age of the Roman Republic) have left an enduring legacy, influencing the city - state republics of the Medieval period as well as the early United States and other modern democratic republics. The Julian calendar of ancient Rome formed the basis of the Gregorian calendar in the West, while Roman inventions and engineering, such as the construction of concrete domes, continued to influence various peoples after the fall of Rome.
Latin was the lingua franca of the early Roman Empire and later the Western Roman Empire, while particularly in the East indigenous languages such as Greek and to a lesser degree Egyptian and Aramaic language continued to be in use. Despite the decline of the Western Roman Empire, the Latin language continued to flourish in the very different social and economic environment of the Middle Ages, not least because it became the official language of the Roman Catholic Church. Koine Greek, which served as a lingua franca in the Eastern Empire, is still used today as a sacred language in some Eastern Orthodox churches.
In Western and Central Europe and parts of Africa, Latin retained its elevated status as the main vehicle of communication for the learned classes throughout the Middle Ages; this is especially seen during the Renaissance and Baroque periods. Books which had a revolutionary impact on science, such as Nicolaus Copernicus ' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543), were composed in Latin. This language was not supplanted for scientific purposes until the 18th century, and for formal descriptions in zoology, as well as botany - it survived to the later 20th century. The modern international Binomial nomenclature holds to this day: the scientific name of each species is classified by a Latin or Latinized name.
Today the Romance languages, which comprise all languages that descended from Latin, are spoken by more than 800 million native speakers worldwide, mainly in the Americas, Europe, and Africa. Romance languages are either official, co-official, or significantly used in 72 countries around the world.
Additionally, Latin had a great influence on both the grammar and the lexicon of West Germanic languages. Romance words make respectively 59 %, 20 % and 14 % of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35 % of the vocabulary of Dutch.
All three official scripts of the modern European Union -- Latin, Greek and Cyrillic -- descend from writing systems used in the Roman Empire. Today, the Latin script, the Latin alphabet spread by the Roman Empire to most of Europe, and derived from the Phoenician alphabet through an ancient form of the Greek alphabet adopted and modified by Etruscan, is the most widespread and commonly used script in the world. Spread by various colonies, trade routes, and political powers, the script has continued to grow in influence. The Greek alphabet, which had been popularized throughout the eastern Mediterranean region during the Hellenistic period, remained the primary script of the Eastern Empire through the Byzantine Empire until its demise in the 15th century.
The Carolingian Renaissance of the 8th century rescued many works in Latin from oblivion: manuscripts transcribed at that time are our only sources for works that later fell into obscurity once more, only to be recovered during the Renaissance: Tacitus, Lucretius, Propertius and Catullus are examples. Other Latin writers were always read: Virgil was reinterpreted as a prophet of Christianity by the 4th century, and gained the reputation of a sorcerer in the 12th century.
Cicero, in a limited number of his works, remained a model of good style, mined for quotations. Ovid was read with a Christian allegorical interpretation. Seneca was reimagined as the correspondent of Saint Paul. Lucan, Persius, Juvenal, Horace, Terence, and Statius survived in the continuing canon and historians Valerius Maximus and Livy continued to be read for the moral lessons history was expected to impart.
Through the Roman Empire, Greek literature also continued to make an impact in Europe long after the Empire 's fall, especially after the recovery of Greek texts from the East during the high Middle Ages and the resurgence of Greek literacy during the Renaissance. Plutarch 's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, for instance, originally written in Greek, was widely read by educated Westerners from the Renaissance up to the 20th century. Shakespeare 's play Julius Caesar takes most of its material from Plutarch 's biographies of Caesar, Cato, and Brutus, whose exploits were frequently discussed and debated by the literati of the time.
The modern Western calendar is a refinement of the Julian calendar, which was introduced by Julius Caesar. The calendar of the Roman Empire began with the months Ianuarius (January), Februarius (February), and Martius (March). The common tradition to begin the year on 1 January was a convention established in ancient Rome. Throughout the medieval period, the year began on 25 March, the Catholic Solemnity of the Annunciation.
The modern seven - day week follows the Greco - Roman system of planetary hours, in which one of the seven heavenly bodies of the Solar System that were known in ancient times -- Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury and the Moon -- is given "rulership '' over each day. The Romance languages (with the exception of Portuguese, that assigns an ordinal number to five days of the week, from Monday to Friday, beginning with segunda - feira, and ending with sexta - feira) preserve the original Latin names of each day of the week, except for Sunday, which came to be called dies dominicus (Lord 's Day) under Christianity.
This system for the days of the week spread to Celtic and Germanic peoples, as well as the Albanians, before the collapse of the empire, after which the names of comparable gods were substituted for the Roman deities in some languages. In Germanic languages, for instance, Thor stood in for Jupiter (Jove), yielding "Thursday '' from the Latin dies Iovis, while in Albanian, native deities En and Prende were assigned to Thursday and Friday respectively.
The 12 - hour clock is a time convention popularized by the Romans in which the 24 hours of the day are divided into two periods. The Romans divided the day into 12 equal hours, A.M. (ante - meridiem, meaning before midday) and P.M. (post-meridiem, meaning past midday). The Romans also started the practice used worldwide today of a new day beginning at midnight.
Roman numerals continued as the primary way of writing numbers in Europe until the 14th century, when they were largely replaced in common usage by Hindu - Arabic numerals. The Roman numeral system continues to be widely used, however, in certain formal and minor contexts, such as on clock faces, coins, in the year of construction on cornerstone inscriptions, and in generational suffixes (such as Louis XIV or William Howard Taft IV).
The Romans solidified the modern concept of the hour as one - 24th part of a day and night. The English measurement system also retains features of the Ancient Roman foot (11.65 modern inches), which was used in England prior to the Anglo - Saxon settlement of Britain. The inch itself derives from the Roman uncia, meaning one - twelfth part.
While classical Roman and Hellenistic religion were ultimately superseded by Christianity, many key theological ideas and questions that are characteristic of Western religions originated with pre-Christian theology. The first cause argument for the existence of God, for instance, originates with Plato. Design arguments, which were introduced by Socrates and Aristotle and remain widely discussed to this day, formed an influential component of Stoic theology well into the late Roman period. The problem of evil was widely discussed among ancient philosophers, including the Roman writers such as Cicero and Seneca, and many of the answers they provided were later absorbed into Christian theodicy. In Christian moral theology, moreover, the field of natural law ethics draws heavily on the tradition established by Aristotle, the Stoics, and especially by Cicero 's popular Latin work, De Legibus. Cicero 's conception of natural law "found its way to later centuries notably through the writings of Saint Isidore of Seville and the Decretum of Gratian '' and influenced the discussion of the topic up through the era of the American Revolution.
Christianity itself also spread through the Roman Empire; since emperor Theodosius I (AD 379 - 395), the official state church of the Roman Empire was Christianity. Subsequently, former Roman territories became Christian states which exported their religion to other parts of the world, through colonization and missionaries.
Christianity also served as a conduit for preserving and transmitting Greco - Roman literary culture. Classical educational tradition in the liberal arts was preserved after the fall of the empire by the medieval Christian university. Education in the Middle Ages relied heavily on Greco - Roman books such as Euclid 's Elements and the influential quadrivium textbooks written in Latin by the Roman statesman Boethius (AD 480 -- 524).
Major works of Greek and Latin literature, moreover, were both read and written by Christians during the imperial era. Many of the most influential works of the early Christian tradition were written by Roman and Hellenized theologians who engaged heavily with the literary culture of the empire (see church fathers). St. Augustine 's (AD 354 - 430) City of God, for instance, draws extensively on Virgil, Cicero, Varro, Homer, Plato, and elements of Roman values and identity to criticize paganism and advocate for Christianity amidst a crumbling empire. The engagement of early Christians as both readers and writers of important Roman and Greek literature helped to ensure that the literary culture of Rome would persist after the fall of the empire. For thousands of years to follow, religious scholars in the Latin West from Bede to Thomas Aquinas and later renaissance figures such as Dante, Montaigne and Shakespeare would continue to read, reference and imitate both Christian and pagan literature from the Roman Empire. In the east, the empire 's prolific tradition of Greek literature continued uninterrupted after the fall of the west, in part due to the works of the Greek fathers, who were widely read by Christians in medieval Byzantium and continue to influence religious thought to this day (see Byzantine literature).
While much of the most influential Greek science and philosophy was developed before the rise of the Empire, major innovations occurred under Roman rule that have had a lasting impact on the intellectual world. The traditions of Greek, Egyptian and Babylonian scholarship continued to flourish at great centers of learning such as Athens, Alexandria, and Pergamon.
Epicurean philosophy reached a literary apex in the long poem by Lucretius, who advocated an atomic theory of matter and revered the older teachings of the Greek Democritus. The works of the philosophers Seneca the Younger, Epictetus and the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius were widely read during the revival of Stoic thought in the Renaissance, which synthesized Stoicism and Christianity. Fighter pilot James Stockdale famously credited the philosophy of Epictetus as being a major source of strength when he was shot down and held as prisoner during the Vietnam War. Plato 's philosophy continued to be widely studied under the Empire, growing into the sophisticated neoplatonic system through the influence of Plotinus. Platonic philosophy was largely reconciled with Christianity by the Roman theologian Augustine of Hippo, who, while a staunch opponent of Roman paganism, viewed the Platonists as having more in common with Christians than the other pagan schools. To this day, Plato 's Republic is considered the foundational work of Western philosophy, and is read by students around the globe.
The widespread Lorem ipsum text, which is widely used as a meaningless placeholder in modern typography and graphic design, is derived from the Latin text of Cicero 's philosophical treatise De finibus.
Pagan philosophy was gradually supplanted by Christianity in the later years of the Empire, culminating in the closure of the Academy of Athens by Justinian I. Many Greek - speaking philosophers moved to the east, outside the borders of the Empire. Neoplatonism and Aristotelianism gained a stronghold in Persia, where they were a heavy influence on early Islamic philosophy. Thinkers of the Islamic Golden Age such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroës) engaged deeply with Greek philosophy, and played a major role in saving works of Aristotle that had been lost to the Latin West. The influence of Greek philosophy on Islam was dramatically reduced In the 11th century when the views of Avicenna and Avveroes were strongly criticized by Al - Ghazali. His Incoherence of the Philosophers is among the most influential books in Islamic history. In Western Europe, meanwhile, the recovery of Greek texts during the Scholastic period had a profound influence on Latin science and theology from the Middle Ages into the Renaissance.
In science, the theories of the Greco - Roman physician Galen dominated Western medical thought and practice for more than 1,300 years. Ptolemy produced the most thorough and sophisticated astronomical theory of antiquity, documented in the Almagest. The Ptolemaic model of the solar system would remain the dominant approach to astronomy across Europe and the Middle East for more than a thousand years.
At Alexandria, the engineer and experimentalist Hero of Alexandria founded the study of mechanics and pneumatics. In modern geometry, Heron 's formula bears his name. Roman Alexandria also saw the seeds of modern algebra arise in the works of Diophantus. Greek algebra continued to be studied in the east well after the fall of the Western Empire, where it matured into modern algebra in the hands of al - Khwārizmī (see the history of algebra). The study of Diophantine Equations and Diophantine Approximations are still important areas of mathematical research today.
All of the planets in our Solar System, excluding Earth, are named after Roman deities.
Although the law of the Roman Empire is not used today, modern law in many jurisdictions is based on principles of law used and developed during the Roman Empire. Some of the same Latin terminology is still used today. The general structure of jurisprudence used today, in many jurisdictions, is the same (trial with a judge, plaintiff, and defendant) as that established during the Roman Empire.
The modern concept of republican government is directly modeled on the Roman Republic. The republican institutions of Rome survived in many of the Italian city - states of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The United States Congress is inspired by the Roman senate and legislative assemblies, while the president holds a position similar to that of a Roman consul. Many European political thinkers of the Enlightenment were avid consumers of Latin literature. Montesquieu, Edmund Burke, and John Adams were all strongly influenced by Cicero, for instance. Adams recommended Cicero as a model for politicians to imitate, and once remarked that "the sweetness and grandeur of his sounds, and the harmony of his numbers give pleasure enough to reward the reading if one understood none of his meaning. ''
Many Roman inventions were improved versions of other people 's inventions and ranged from military organization, weapon improvements, armour, siege technology, naval innovation, architecture, medical instruments, irrigation, civil planning, construction, agriculture and many more areas of civic, governmental, military and engineering development.
That said, the Romans also developed a huge array of new technologies and innovations. Many came from common themes but were vastly superior to what had come before, whilst others were totally new inventions developed by and for the needs of Empire and the Roman way of life.
Some of the more famous examples are the Roman aqueducts (some of which are still in use today), Roman roads, water powered milling machines, thermal heating systems (as employed in Roman baths, and also used in palaces and wealthy homes) sewage and pipe systems and the invention and widespread use of concrete.
Metallurgy and glass work (including the first widespread use of glass windows) and a wealth of architectural innovations including high rise buildings, dome construction, bridgeworks and floor construction (seen in the functionality of the Colosseum 's arena and the underlying rooms / areas beneath it) are other examples of Roman innovation and genius.
Military inventiveness was widespread and ranged from tactical / strategic innovations, new methodologies in training, discipline and field medicine as well as inventions in all aspects of weaponry, from armor and shielding to siege engines and missile technology.
This combination of new methodologies, technical innovation, and creative invention in the military gave Rome the edge against its adversaries for half a millennium, and with it, the ability to create an empire that even today, more than 2000 years later, continues to leave its legacy in many areas of modern life.
Rome left a legacy of founding many cities as Colonia. There were more than 500 Roman colonies spread through the Empire, most of them populated by veterans of the Roman legions. Some Roman colonies rose to become influential commercial and trade centers, transportation hubs and capitals of international empires, like Constantinople, London, Paris and Vienna.
This list below is incomplete and is not intended to be exhaustive.
All those colonies were connected by another important legacy of the Roman Empire: the Roman roads. Indeed, the empire comprised more than 400,000 km of roads, of which over 80,500 kilometres (50,000 mi) were stone - paved. The courses (and sometimes the surfaces) of many Roman roads survived for millennia. Many are overlaid by modern roads, like the Via Emilia in northern Italy.
In the mid-18th century, Roman architecture inspired neoclassical architecture. Neoclassicalism was an international movement. Though neoclassical architecture employs the same classical vocabulary as late Baroque architecture, it tends to emphasize its planar qualities, rather than sculptural volumes. Projections and recessions and their effects of light and shade are flatter; sculptural bas - reliefs are flatter and tend to be enframed in friezes, tablets or panels. Its clearly articulated individual features are isolated rather than interpenetrating, autonomous and complete in themselves.
International neoclassical architecture was exemplified in Karl Friedrich Schinkel 's buildings, especially the Old Museum in Berlin, Sir John Soane 's Bank of England in London and the newly built White House and Capitol in Washington, DC in the United States. The Scots architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German - born Catherine II the Great in St. Petersburg.
Italy clung to Rococo until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced as a political statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.
From a legal point of view the Roman Empire, founded by Augustus in 27 BC and divided into two "parts '' after the death of Theodosius I in 395, had survived only in the eastern part which, with the deposition of the last western emperor Romulus Augustulus, in 476, had also obtained the imperial regalia of the western part reuniting from a formal point of view the Roman Empire.
The Roman line continued uninterrupted to rule the Eastern Roman Empire, whose main characteristics were Roman concept of state, medieval Greek culture and language, and Orthodox Christian faith. The Byzantines themselves never ceased to refer to themselves as "Romans '' (Rhomaioi) and to their state as the "Roman Empire '', the "Empire of the Romans '' (in Greek Βασιλεία των Ῥωμαίων, Basileía ton Rhōmaíōn) or "Romania '' (Ῥωμανία, Rhōmanía). Likewise, they were called "Rûm '' (Rome) by their eastern enemies to the point that competing neighbours even acquired its name, such as the Sultanate of Rûm.
The designation of the Empire as "Byzantine '' is a retrospective idea: it began only in 1557, a century after the fall of Constantinople, when German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ, a collection of Byzantine sources. The term did not come in general use in the Western world before the 19th century, when modern Greece was born. The end of the continuous tradition of the Roman Empire is open to debate: the final point was the capture of Constantinople in 1453 AD, while some place it at the sack of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204.
After the fall of Constantinople, Thomas Palaiologos, brother of the last Eastern Roman Emperor, Constantine XI, was elected emperor and tried to organize the remaining forces. His rule came to an end after the fall of the last major Byzantine city, Corinth. He then moved to Italy and continued to be recognized as Eastern emperor by the Christian powers.
His son Andreas Palaiologos continued claims on the Byzantine throne until he sold the title to Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile before his death in 1502. However, there is no evidence that any Spanish monarch used the Byzantine imperial titles, which would have symbolically converted the king of Spain into a legitimate Emperor of Rome.
In Western Europe, the Roman concept of state was continued for almost a millennium by the Holy Roman Empire whose emperors, mostly of German tongue, viewed themselves as the legitimate successors to the ancient imperial tradition (King of the Romans) and Rome as the capital of its Empire. The German title of "Kaiser '' is derived from the Latin word for "Caesar ''. The word Caesar is pronounced / kae: sar / in Classical Latin.
The coronation of Charlemagne as "Roman '' emperor by Pope Leo III in the year 800 was a deprived act of legitimate juridical profile: only the Roman emperor of the East (called "Byzantine '' later by the Enlightenment in the eighteenth century) would be crowned a peer of him in the western part, which is why Constantinople was always suspicious of that act.
The emperors of the Holy Roman Empire sought in many ways to make themselves accepted by the Byzantines as their peers: with diplomatic relations, political marriages or threats. Sometimes, however, they did not obtain the expected results, because from Constantinople they were always called "King of the Germans '', never "Emperor. '' The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806 owing to pressure by Napoleon I.
In Eastern Europe, the Russian czars (Czar derived from Caesar) adopted the idea of Moscow in Russia being a Third Rome (with Constantinople being the second). Sentiments of being the heir of the fallen Eastern Roman Empire began during the reign of Ivan III, Grand Duke of Moscow who had married Sophia Paleologue, the niece of Constantine XI (it is important to note that she was not the heiress of the Byzantine throne, her brother Andreas, who in fact was). Being the most powerful Orthodox Christian state, the Tsars were thought of in Russia as succeeding the Eastern Roman Empire as the rightful rulers of the Orthodox Christian world. There were also competing Bulgarian, Wallachian and Ottoman claims for legal succession of the Roman Empire, Mehmet II "the Conqueror '' claiming the title Kayser - i Rûm, meaning Caesar of Rome.
In the early 20th century, the Italian fascists under their "Duce '' Benito Mussolini dreamed of a new Roman Empire as an Italian one, encompassing the Mediterranean basin.
In the mid 20th century, Alexandre Kojève wanted to re-establish the Roman Empire, but this time its real goal would be a multinational soccer team.
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which of the following is an example of an internal combustion engine | Internal combustion engine - wikipedia
An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine, the expansion of the high - temperature and high - pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine. The force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into useful mechanical energy.
The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859 and the first modern internal combustion engine was created in 1876 by Nikolaus Otto (see Otto engine).
The term internal combustion engine usually refers to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four - stroke and two - stroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the six - stroke piston engine and the Wankel rotary engine. A second class of internal combustion engines use continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket engines, each of which are internal combustion engines on the same principle as previously described. Firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine.
In contrast, in external combustion engines, such as steam or Stirling engines, energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, heated in a boiler. ICEs are usually powered by energy - dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many stationary applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft, and boats.
Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel fuel or fuel oil. There is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be obtained from either fossil fuels or renewable energy.
Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines. In 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a Gas Engine. Also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine. In 1807, French engineers Nicéphore (who went on to invent photography) and Claude Niépce ran a prototype internal combustion engine, using controlled dust explosions, the Pyréolophore. This engine powered a boat on the Saône river, France. The same year, the Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by an electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially.
In 1854 in the UK, the Italian inventors Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci tried to patent "Obtaining motive power by the explosion of gases '', although the application did not progress to the granted stage. In 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas - fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine. In 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid - fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, four - cycle engine. In 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two - stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine. In 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid - fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the world 's first jet aircraft.
At one time, the word engine (via Old French, from Latin ingenium, "ability '') meant any piece of machinery -- a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A "motor '' (from Latin motor, "mover '') is any machine that produces mechanical power. Traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as "engines ''; however, combustion engines are often referred to as "motors. '' (An electric engine refers to a locomotive operated by electricity.)
In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, but the engines that sit on the transom are referred to as motors.
Reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives (some are electrical but most use Diesel engines). Rotary engines of the Wankel design are used in some automobiles, aircraft and motorcycles.
Where very high power - to - weight ratios are required, internal combustion engines appear in the form of combustion turbines or Wankel engines. Powered aircraft typically uses an ICE which may be a reciprocating engine. Airplanes can instead use jet engines and helicopters can instead employ turboshafts; both of which are types of turbines. In addition to providing propulsion, airliners may employ a separate ICE as an auxiliary power unit. Wankel engines are fitted to many unmanned aerial vehicles.
ICEs drive some of the large electric generators that power electrical grids. They are found in the form of combustion turbines in combined cycle power plants with a typical electrical output in the range of 100 MW to 1 GW. The high temperature exhaust is used to boil and superheat water to run a steam turbine. Thus, the efficiency is higher because more energy is extracted from the fuel than what could be extracted by the combustion turbine alone. In combined cycle power plants efficiencies in the range of 50 % to 60 % are typical. In a smaller scale Diesel generators are used for backup power and for providing electrical power to areas not connected to an electric grid.
Small engines (usually 2 ‐ stroke gasoline engines) are a common power source for lawnmowers, string trimmers, chain saws, leafblowers, pressure washers, snowmobiles, jet skis, outboard motors, mopeds, and motorcycles.
There are several possible ways to classify internal combustion engines.
Reciprocating:
Rotary:
Continuous combustion:
The base of a reciprocating internal combustion engine is the engine block, which is typically made of cast iron or aluminium. The engine block contains the cylinders. In engines with more than one cylinder they are usually arranged either in 1 row (straight engine) or 2 rows (boxer engine or V engine); 3 rows are occasionally used (W engine) in contemporary engines, and other engine configurations are possible and have been used. Single cylinder engines are common for motorcycles and in small engines of machinery. Water - cooled engines contain passages in the engine block where cooling fluid circulates (the water jacket). Some small engines are air - cooled, and instead of having a water jacket the cylinder block has fins protruding away from it to cool by directly transferring heat to the air. The cylinder walls are usually finished by honing to obtain a cross hatch, which is better able to retain the oil. A too rough surface would quickly harm the engine by excessive wear on the piston.
The pistons are short cylindrical parts which seal one end of the cylinder from the high pressure of the compressed air and combustion products and slide continuously within it while the engine is in operation. The top wall of the piston is termed its crown and is typically flat or concave. Some two - stroke engines use pistons with a deflector head. Pistons are open at the bottom and hollow except for an integral reinforcement structure (the piston web). When an engine is working the gas pressure in the combustion chamber exerts a force on the piston crown which is transferred through its web to a gudgeon pin. Each piston has rings fitted around its circumference that mostly prevent the gases from leaking into the crankcase or the oil into the combustion chamber. A ventilation system drives the small amount of gas that escape past the pistons during normal operation (the blow - by gases) out of the crankcase so that it does not accumulate contaminating the oil and creating corrosion. In two - stroke gasoline engines the crankcase is part of the air -- fuel path and due to the continuous flow of it they do not need a separate crankcase ventilation system.
The cylinder head is attached to the engine block by numerous bolts or studs. It has several functions. The cylinder head seals the cylinders on the side opposite to the pistons; it contains short ducts (the ports) for intake and exhaust and the associated intake valves that open to let the cylinder be filled with fresh air and exhaust valves that open to allow the combustion gases to escape. However, 2 - stroke crankcase scavenged engines connect the gas ports directly to the cylinder wall without poppet valves; the piston controls their opening and occlusion instead. The cylinder head also holds the spark plug in the case of spark ignition engines and the injector for engines that use direct injection. All CI engines use fuel injection, usually direct injection but some engines instead use indirect injection. SI engines can use a carburetor or fuel injection as port injection or direct injection. Most SI engines have a single spark plug per cylinder but some have 2. A head gasket prevents the gas from leaking between the cylinder head and the engine block. The opening and closing of the valves is controlled by one or several camshafts and springs -- or in some engines -- a desmodromic mechanism that uses no springs. The camshaft may press directly the stem of the valve or may act upon a rocker arm, again, either directly or through a pushrod.
The crankcase is sealed at the bottom with a sump that collects the falling oil during normal operation to be cycled again. The cavity created between the cylinder block and the sump houses a crankshaft that converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons to rotational motion. The crankshaft is held in place relative to the engine block by main bearings, which allow it to rotate. Bulkheads in the crankcase form a half of every main bearing; the other half is a detachable cap. In some cases a single main bearing deck is used rather than several smaller caps. A connecting rod is connected to offset sections of the crankshaft (the crankpins) in one end and to the piston in the other end through the gudgeon pin and thus transfers the force and translates the reciprocating motion of the pistons to the circular motion of the crankshaft. The end of the connecting rod attached to the gudgeon pin is called its small end, and the other end, where it is connected to the crankshaft, the big end. The big end has a detachable half to allow assembly around the crankshaft. It is kept together to the connecting rod by removable bolts.
The cylinder head has an intake manifold and an exhaust manifold attached to the corresponding ports. The intake manifold connects to the air filter directly, or to a carburetor when one is present, which is then connected to the air filter. It distributes the air incoming from these devices to the individual cylinders. The exhaust manifold is the first component in the exhaust system. It collects the exhaust gases from the cylinders and drives it to the following component in the path. The exhaust system of an ICE may also include a catalytic converter and muffler. The final section in the path of the exhaust gases is the tailpipe.
The top dead center (TDC) of a piston is the position where it is nearest to the valves; bottom dead center (BDC) is the opposite position where it is furthest from them. A stroke is the movement of a piston from TDC to BDC or vice versa together with the associated process. While an engine is in operation the crankshaft rotates continuously at a nearly constant speed. In a 4 - stroke ICE each piston experiences 2 strokes per crankshaft revolution in the following order. Starting the description at TDC, these are:
The defining characteristic of this kind of engine is that each piston completes a cycle every crankshaft revolution. The 4 processes of intake, compression, power and exhaust take place in only 2 strokes so that it is not possible to dedicate a stroke exclusively for each of them. Starting at TDC the cycle consist of:
While a 4 - stroke engine uses the piston as a positive displacement pump to accomplish scavenging taking 2 of the 4 strokes, a 2 - stroke engine uses the last part of the power stroke and the first part of the compression stroke for combined intake and exhaust. The work required to displace the charge and exhaust gases comes from either the crankcase or a separate blower. For scavenging, expulsion of burned gas and entry of fresh mix, two main approaches are described: Loop scavenging, and Uniflow scavenging, SAE news published in the 2010s that ' Loop Scavenging ' is better under any circumstance than Uniflow Scavenging.
Some SI engines are crankcase scavenged and do not use poppet valves. Instead the crankcase and the part of the cylinder below the piston is used as a pump. The intake port is connected to the crankcase through a reed valve or a rotary disk valve driven by the engine. For each cylinder a transfer port connects in one end to the crankcase and in the other end to the cylinder wall. The exhaust port is connected directly to the cylinder wall. The transfer and exhaust port are opened and closed by the piston. The reed valve opens when the crankcase pressure is slightly below intake pressure, to let it be filled with a new charge; this happens when the piston is moving upwards. When the piston is moving downwards the pressure in the crankcase increases and the reed valve closes promptly, then the charge in the crankcase is compressed. When the piston is moving upwards, it uncovers the exhaust port and the transfer port and the higher pressure of the charge in the crankcase makes it enter the cylinder through the transfer port, blowing the exhaust gases. Lubrication is accomplished by adding 2 - stroke oil to the fuel in small ratios. Petroil refers to the mix of gasoline with the aforesaid oil. This kind of 2 - stroke engines has a lower efficiency than comparable 4 - strokes engines and release a more polluting exhaust gases for the following conditions:
The main advantage of 2 - stroke engines of this type is mechanical simplicity and a higher power - to - weight ratio than their 4 - stroke counterparts. Despite having twice as many power strokes per cycle, less than twice the power of a comparable 4 - stroke engine is attainable in practice.
In the USA two stroke motorcycle and automobile engines were banned due to the pollution, although many thousands of lawn maintenance engines are in use.
Using a separate blower avoids many of the shortcomings of crankcase scavenging, at the expense of increased complexity which means a higher cost and an increase in maintenance requirement. An engine of this type uses ports or valves for intake and valves for exhaust, except opposed piston engines, which may also use ports for exhaust. The blower is usually of the Roots - type but other types have been used too. This design is commonplace in CI engines, and has been occasionally used in SI engines.
CI engines that use a blower typically use uniflow scavenging. In this design the cylinder wall contains several intake ports placed uniformly spaced along the circumference just above the position that the piston crown reaches when at BDC. An exhaust valve or several like that of 4 - stroke engines is used. The final part of the intake manifold is an air sleeve which feeds the intake ports. The intake ports are placed at an horizontal angle to the cylinder wall (I.e: they are in plane of the piston crown) to give a swirl to the incoming charge to improve combustion. The largest reciprocating IC are low speed CI engines of this type; they are used for marine propulsion (see marine diesel engine) or electric power generation and achieve the highest thermal efficiencies among internal combustion engines of any kind. Some Diesel - electric locomotive engines operate on the 2 - stroke cycle. The most powerful of them have a brake power of around 4.5 MW or 6,000 HP. The EMD SD90MAC class of locomotives use a 2 - stroke engine. The comparable class GE AC6000CW whose prime mover has almost the same brake power uses a 4 - stroke engine.
An example of this type of engine is the Wärtsilä - Sulzer RTA96 - C turbocharged 2 - stroke Diesel, used in large container ships. It is the most efficient and powerful reciprocating internal combustion engine in the world with a thermal efficiency over 50 %. For comparison, the most efficient small four - stroke engines are around 43 % thermally - efficient (SAE 900648); size is an advantage for efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of volume to surface area.
See the external links for a in - cylinder combustion video in a 2 - stroke, optically accessible motorcycle engine.
Dugald Clerk developed the first two cycle engine in 1879. It used a separate cylinder which functioned as a pump in order to transfer the fuel mixture to the cylinder.
In 1899 John Day simplified Clerk 's design into the type of 2 cycle engine that is very widely used today. Day cycle engines are crankcase scavenged and port timed. The crankcase and the part of the cylinder below the exhaust port is used as a pump. The operation of the Day cycle engine begins when the crankshaft is turned so that the piston moves from BDC upward (toward the head) creating a vacuum in the crankcase / cylinder area. The carburetor then feeds the fuel mixture into the crankcase through a reed valve or a rotary disk valve (driven by the engine). There are cast in ducts from the crankcase to the port in the cylinder to provide for intake and another from the exhausst port to the exhaust pipe. The height of the port in relationship to the length of the cylinder is called the "port timing. ''
On the first upstroke of the engine there would be no fuel inducted into the cylinder as the crankcase was empty. On the downstroke the piston now compresses the fuel mix, which has lubricated the piston in the cylinder and the bearings due to the fuel mix having oil added to it. As the piston moves downward is first uncovers the exhaust, but on the first stroke there is no burnt fuel to exhaust. As the piston moves downward further, it uncovers the intake port which has a duct that runs to the crankcase. Since the fuel mix in the crankcase is under pressure the mix moves through the duct and into the cylinder.
Because there is no obstruction in the cylinder of the fuel to move directly out of the exhaust port prior to the piston rising far enough to close the port, early engines used a high domed piston to slow down the flow of fuel. Later the fuel was "resonated '' back into the cylinder using an expansion chamber design. When the piston rose close to TDC a spark ignites the fuel. As the piston is driven downward with power it first uncovers the exhaust port where the burned fuel is expelled under high pressure and then the intake port where the process has been completed and will keep repeating.
Later engines used a type of porting devised by the Deutz company to improve performance. It was called the Schnurle Reverse Flow system. DKW licensed this design for all their motorcycles. Their DKW RT 125 was one of the first motor vehicles to achieve over 100 mpg as a result.
Internal combustion engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI). Before the invention of reliable electrical methods, hot tube and flame methods were used. Experimental engines with laser ignition have been built.
The spark ignition engine was a refinement of the early engines which used Hot Tube ignition. When Bosch developed the magneto it became the primary system for producing electricity to energize a spark plug. Many small engines still use magneto ignition. Small engines are started by hand cranking using a recoil starter or hand crank. Prior to Charles F. Kettering of Delco 's development of the automotive starter all gasoline engined automobiles used a hand crank.
Larger engines typically power their starting motors and Ignition systems using the electrical energy stored in a lead -- acid battery. The battery 's charged state is maintained by an automotive alternator or (previously) a generator which uses engine power to create electrical energy storage.
The battery supplies electrical power for starting when the engine has a starting motor system, and supplies electrical power when the engine is off. The battery also supplies electrical power during rare run conditions where the alternator can not maintain more than 13.8 volts (for a common 12V automotive electrical system). As alternator voltage falls below 13.8 volts, the lead - acid storage battery increasingly picks up electrical load. During virtually all running conditions, including normal idle conditions, the alternator supplies primary electrical power.
Some systems disable alternator field (rotor) power during wide open throttle conditions. Disabling the field reduces alternator pulley mechanical loading to nearly zero, maximizing crankshaft power. In this case the battery supplies all primary electrical power.
Gasoline engines take in a mixture of air and gasoline and compress it by the movement of the piston from bottom dead center to top dead center when the fuel is at maximum compression. The reduction in the size of the swept area of the cylinder and taking into account the volume of the combustion chamber is described by a ratio. Early engines had compression ratios of 6 to 1. As compression ratios were increased the efficiency of the engine increased as well.
With early induction and ignition systems the compression ratios had to be kept low. With advances in fuel technology and combustion management high performance engines can run reliably at 12: 1 ratio. With low octane fuel a problem would occur as the compression ratio increased as the fuel was igniting due to the rise in temperature that resulted. Charles Kettering developed a lead additive which allowed higher compression ratios.
The fuel mixture is ignited at difference progressions of the piston in the cylinder. At low rpm the spark is timed to occur close to the piston achieving top dead center. In order to produce more power, as rpm rises the spark is advanced sooner during piston movement. The spark occurs while the fuel is still being compressed progressively more as rpm rises.
The necessary high voltage, typically 10,000 volts, is supplied by an induction coil or transformer. The induction coil is a fly - back system, using interruption of electrical primary system current through some type of synchronized interrupter. The interrupter can be either contact points or a power transistor. The problem with this type of ignition is that as RPM increases the availability of electrical energy decreases. This is especially as problem since the amount of energy needed to ignite a more dense fuel mixture is higher. The result was often a high rpm misfire.
Capacitor discharge ignition was developed. It produces a rising voltage that is sent to the spark plug. CD system voltages can reach 60,000 volts. CD ignitions use step - up transformers. The step - up transformer uses energy stored in a capacitance to generate electric spark. With either system, a mechanical or electrical control system provides a carefully timed high - voltage to the proper cylinder. This spark, via the spark plug, ignites the air - fuel mixture in the engine 's cylinders.
While gasoline internal combustion engines are much easier to start in cold weather than diesel engines, they can still have cold weather starting problems under extreme conditions. For years the solution was to park the car in heated areas. In some parts of the world the oil was actually drained and heated over night and returned to the engine for cold starts. In the early 1950s the gasoline Gasifier unit was developed, where, on cold weather starts, raw gasoline was diverted to the unit where part of the fuel was burned causing the other part to become a hot vapor sent directly to the intake valve manifold. This unit was quite popular until electric engine block heaters became standard on gasoline engines sold in cold climates.
Diesel, PPC and HCCI engines, rely solely on heat and pressure created by the engine in its compression process for ignition. The compression level that occurs is usually twice or more than a gasoline engine. Diesel engines take in air only, and shortly before peak compression, spray a small quantity of diesel fuel into the cylinder via a fuel injector that allows the fuel to instantly ignite. HCCI type engines take in both air and fuel, but continue to rely on an unaided auto - combustion process, due to higher pressures and heat. This is also why diesel and HCCI engines are more susceptible to cold - starting issues, although they run just as well in cold weather once started. Light duty diesel engines with indirect injection in automobiles and light trucks employ glowplugs (or other pre-heating: see Cummins ISB # 6BT) that pre-heat the combustion chamber just before starting to reduce no - start conditions in cold weather. Most diesels also have a battery and charging system; nevertheless, this system is secondary and is added by manufacturers as a luxury for the ease of starting, turning fuel on and off (which can also be done via a switch or mechanical apparatus), and for running auxiliary electrical components and accessories. Most new engines rely on electrical and electronic engine control units (ECU) that also adjust the combustion process to increase efficiency and reduce emissions.
Surfaces in contact and relative motion to other surfaces require lubrication to reduce wear, noise and increase efficiency by reducing the power wasting in overcoming friction, or to make the mechanism work at all. At the very least, an engine requires lubrication in the following parts:
In 2 - stroke crankcase scavenged engines, the interior of the crankcase, and therefore the crankshaft, connecting rod and bottom of the pistons are sprayed by the 2 - stroke oil in the air - fuel - oil mixture which is then burned along with the fuel. The valve train may be contained in a compartment flooded with lubricant so that no oil pump is required.
In a splash lubrication system no oil pump is used. Instead the crankshaft dips into the oil in the sump and due to its high speed, it splashes the crankshaft, connecting rods and bottom of the pistons. The connecting rod big end caps may have an attached scoop to enhance this effect. The valve train may also be sealed in a flooded compartment, or open to the crankshaft in a way that it receives splashed oil and allows it to drain back to the sump. Splash lubrication is common for small 4 - stroke engines.
In a forced (also called pressurized) lubrication system, lubrication is accomplished in a closed loop which carries motor oil to the surfaces serviced by the system and then returns the oil to a reservoir. The auxiliary equipment of an engine is typically not serviced by this loop; for instance, an alternator may use ball bearings sealed with their own lubricant. The reservoir for the oil is usually the sump, and when this is the case, it is called a wet sump system. When there is a different oil reservoir the crankcase still catches it, but it is continuously drained by a dedicated pump; this is called a dry sump system.
On its bottom, the sump contains an oil intake covered by a mesh filter which is connected to an oil pump then to an oil filter outside the crankcase, from there it is diverted to the crankshaft main bearings and valve train. The crankcase contains at least one oil gallery (a conduit inside a crankcase wall) to which oil is introduced from the oil filter. The main bearings contain a groove through all or half its circumference; the oil enters to these grooves from channels connected to the oil gallery. The crankshaft has drillings which take oil from these grooves and deliver it to the big end bearings. All big end bearings are lubricated this way. A single main bearing may provide oil for 0, 1 or 2 big end bearings. A similar system may be used to lubricate the piston, its gudgeon pin and the small end of its connecting rod; in this system, the connecting rod big end has a groove around the crankshaft and a drilling connected to the groove which distributes oil from there to the bottom of the piston and from then to the cylinder.
Other systems are also used to lubricate the cylinder and piston. The connecting rod may have a nozzle to throw an oil jet to the cylinder and bottom of the piston. That nozzle is in movement relative to the cylinder it lubricates, but always pointed towards it or the corresponding piston.
Typically a forced lubrication systems have a lubricant flow higher than what is required to lubricate satisfactorily, in order to assist with cooling. Specifically, the lubricant system helps to move heat from the hot engine parts to the cooling liquid (in water - cooled engines) or fins (in air - cooled engines) which then transfer it to the environment. The lubricant must be designed to be chemically stable and maintain suitable viscosities within the temperature range it encounters in the engine.
Common cylinder configurations include the straight or inline configuration, the more compact V configuration, and the wider but smoother flat or boxer configuration. Aircraft engines can also adopt a radial configuration, which allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations such as the H, U, X, and W have also been used.
Multiple cylinder engines have their valve train and crankshaft configured so that pistons are at different parts of their cycle. It is desirable to have the piston 's cycles uniformly spaced (this is called even firing) especially in forced induction engines; this reduces torque pulsations and makes inline engines with more than 3 cylinders statically balanced in its primary forces. However, some engine configurations require odd firing to achieve better balance than what is possible with even firing. For instance, a 4 - stroke I2 engine has better balance when the angle between the crankpins is 180 ° because the pistons move in opposite directions and inertial forces partially cancel, but this gives an odd firing pattern where one cylinder fires 180 ° of crankshaft rotation after the other, then no cylinder fires for 540 °. With an even firing pattern the pistons would move in unison and the associated forces would add.
Multiple crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a cylinder head at all because they can instead have a piston at each end of the cylinder called an opposed piston design. Because fuel inlets and outlets are positioned at opposed ends of the cylinder, one can achieve uniflow scavenging, which, as in the four - stroke engine is efficient over a wide range of engine speeds. Thermal efficiency is improved because of a lack of cylinder heads. This design was used in the Junkers Jumo 205 diesel aircraft engine, using two crankshafts at either end of a single bank of cylinders, and most remarkably in the Napier Deltic diesel engines. These used three crankshafts to serve three banks of double - ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts at the corners. It was also used in single - bank locomotive engines, and is still used in marine propulsion engines and marine auxiliary generators.
Most truck and automotive diesel engines use a cycle reminiscent of a four - stroke cycle, but with a compression heating ignition system, rather than needing a separate ignition system. This variation is called the diesel cycle. In the diesel cycle, diesel fuel is injected directly into the cylinder so that combustion occurs at constant pressure, as the piston moves.
Otto cycle is the typical cycle for most of the cars internal combustion engines, that work using gasoline as a fuel. Otto cycle is exactly the same one that was described for the four - stroke engine. It consists of the same major steps: Intake, compression, ignition, expansion and exhaust.
In 1879, Nikolaus Otto manufactured and sold a double expansion engine (the double and triple expansion principles had ample usage in steam engines), with two small cylinders at both sides of a low - pressure larger cylinder, where a second expansion of exhaust stroke gas took place; the owner returned it, alleging poor performance. In 1906, the concept was incorporated in a car built by EHV (Eisenhuth Horseless Vehicle Company) CT, USA; and in the 21st century Ilmor designed and successfully tested a 5 - stroke double expansion internal combustion engine, with high power output and low SFC (Specific Fuel Consumption).
The six - stroke engine was invented in 1883. Four kinds of six - stroke use a regular piston in a regular cylinder (Griffin six - stroke, Bajulaz six - stroke, Velozeta six - stroke and Crower six - stroke), firing every three crankshaft revolutions. The systems capture the wasted heat of the four - stroke Otto cycle with an injection of air or water.
The Beare Head and "piston charger '' engines operate as opposed - piston engines, two pistons in a single cylinder, firing every two revolutions rather more like a regular four - stroke.
The very first internal combustion engines did not compress the mixture. The first part of the piston downstroke drew in a fuel - air mixture, then the inlet valve closed and, in the remainder of the down - stroke, the fuel - air mixture fired. The exhaust valve opened for the piston upstroke. These attempts at imitating the principle of a steam engine were very inefficient. There are a number of variations of these cycles, most notably the Atkinson and Miller cycles. The diesel cycle is somewhat different.
Split - cycle engines separate the four strokes of intake, compression, combustion and exhaust into two separate but paired cylinders. The first cylinder is used for intake and compression. The compressed air is then transferred through a crossover passage from the compression cylinder into the second cylinder, where combustion and exhaust occur. A split - cycle engine is really an air compressor on one side with a combustion chamber on the other.
Previous split - cycle engines have had two major problems -- poor breathing (volumetric efficiency) and low thermal efficiency. However, new designs are being introduced that seek to address these problems.
The Scuderi Engine addresses the breathing problem by reducing the clearance between the piston and the cylinder head through various turbo charging techniques. The Scuderi design requires the use of outwardly opening valves that enable the piston to move very close to the cylinder head without the interference of the valves. Scuderi addresses the low thermal efficiency via firing after top dead centre (ATDC).
Firing ATDC can be accomplished by using high - pressure air in the transfer passage to create sonic flow and high turbulence in the power cylinder.
Jet engines use a number of rows of fan blades to compress air which then enters a combustor where it is mixed with fuel (typically JP fuel) and then ignited. The burning of the fuel raises the temperature of the air which is then exhausted out of the engine creating thrust. A modern turbofan engine can operate at as high as 48 % efficiency.
There are six sections to a Fan Jet engine:
A gas turbine compresses air and uses it to turn a turbine. It is essentially a jet engine which directs its output to a shaft. There are three stages to a turbine: 1) air is drawn through a compressor where the temperature rises due to compression, 2) fuel is added in the combuster, and 3) hot air is exhausted through turbine blades which rotate a shaft connected to the compressor.
A gas turbine is a rotary machine similar in principle to a steam turbine and it consists of three main components: a compressor, a combustion chamber, and a turbine. The air, after being compressed in the compressor, is heated by burning fuel in it. The heated air and the products of combustion expand in a turbine, producing work output. About ⁄ of the work drives the compressor: the rest (about ⁄) is available as useful work output.
Gas Turbines are among the most efficient internal combustion engines. The General Electric 7HA and 9HA turbine combined cycle electrical plants are rated at over 61 % efficiency.
A gas turbine is a rotary machine somewhat similar in principle to a steam turbine. It consists of three main components: compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine. The air is compressed by the compressor where a temperature rise occurs. The compressed air is further heated by combustion of injected fuel in the combustion chamber which expands the air. This energy rotates the turbine which powers the compressor via a mechanical coupling. The hot gases are then exhausted to provide thrust.
Gas turbine cycle engines employ a continuous combustion system where compression, combustion, and expansion occur simultaneously at different places in the engine -- giving continuous power. Notably, the combustion takes place at constant pressure, rather than with the Otto cycle, constant volume.
The Wankel engine (rotary engine) does not have piston strokes. It operates with the same separation of phases as the four - stroke engine with the phases taking place in separate locations in the engine. In thermodynamic terms it follows the Otto engine cycle, so may be thought of as a "four - phase '' engine. While it is true that three power strokes typically occur per rotor revolution, due to the 3: 1 revolution ratio of the rotor to the eccentric shaft, only one power stroke per shaft revolution actually occurs. The drive (eccentric) shaft rotates once during every power stroke instead of twice (crankshaft), as in the Otto cycle, giving it a greater power - to - weight ratio than piston engines. This type of engine was most notably used in the Mazda RX - 8, the earlier RX - 7, and other vehicle models. The engine is also used in unmanned aerial vehicles, where the small size and weight and the high power - to - weight ratio are advantageous.
Forced induction is the process of delivering compressed air to the intake of an internal combustion engine. A forced induction engine uses a gas compressor to increase the pressure, temperature and density of the air. An engine without forced induction is considered a naturally aspirated engine.
Forced induction is used in the automotive and aviation industry to increase engine power and efficiency. It particularly helps aviation engines, as they need to operate at high altitude.
Forced induction is achieved by a supercharger, where the compressor is directly powered from the engine shaft or, in the turbocharger, from a turbine powered by the engine exhaust.
All internal combustion engines depend on combustion of a chemical fuel, typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject nitrous oxide to do more of the same thing and gain a power boost). The combustion process typically results in the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers (see stoichiometry), as well as by the compression and other factors.
The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also be used. Engines with appropriate modifications can also run on hydrogen gas, wood gas, or charcoal gas, as well as from so - called producer gas made from other convenient biomass. Experiments have also been conducted using powdered solid fuels, such as the magnesium injection cycle.
Presently, fuels used include:
Even fluidized metal powders and explosives have seen some use. Engines that use gases for fuel are called gas engines and those that use liquid hydrocarbons are called oil engines; however, gasoline engines are also often colloquially referred to as, "gas engines '' ("petrol engines '' outside North America).
The main limitations on fuels are that it must be easily transportable through the fuel system to the combustion chamber, and that the fuel releases sufficient energy in the form of heat upon combustion to make practical use of the engine.
Diesel engines are generally heavier, noisier, and more powerful at lower speeds than gasoline engines. They are also more fuel - efficient in most circumstances and are used in heavy road vehicles, some automobiles (increasingly so for their increased fuel efficiency over gasoline engines), ships, railway locomotives, and light aircraft. Gasoline engines are used in most other road vehicles including most cars, motorcycles, and mopeds. Note that in Europe, sophisticated diesel - engined cars have taken over about 45 % of the market since the 1990s. There are also engines that run on hydrogen, methanol, ethanol, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), biodiesel, paraffin and tractor vaporizing oil (TVO).
Hydrogen could eventually replace conventional fossil fuels in traditional internal combustion engines. Alternatively fuel cell technology may come to deliver its promise and the use of the internal combustion engines could even be phased out.
Although there are multiple ways of producing free hydrogen, those methods require converting combustible molecules into hydrogen or consuming electric energy. Unless that electricity is produced from a renewable source -- and is not required for other purposes -- hydrogen does not solve any energy crisis. In many situations the disadvantage of hydrogen, relative to carbon fuels, is its storage. Liquid hydrogen has extremely low density (14 times lower than water) and requires extensive insulation -- whilst gaseous hydrogen requires heavy tankage. Even when liquefied, hydrogen has a higher specific energy but the volumetric energetic storage is still roughly five times lower than gasoline. However, the energy density of hydrogen is considerably higher than that of electric batteries, making it a serious contender as an energy carrier to replace fossil fuels. The ' Hydrogen on Demand ' process (see direct borohydride fuel cell) creates hydrogen as needed, but has other issues, such as the high price of the sodium borohydride that is the raw material.
Since air is plentiful at the surface of the earth, the oxidizer is typically atmospheric oxygen, which has the advantage of not being stored within the vehicle. This increases the power - to - weight and power - to - volume ratios. Other materials are used for special purposes, often to increase power output or to allow operation under water or in space.
Cooling is required to remove excessive heat -- over heating can cause engine failure, usually from wear (due to heat - induced failure of lubrication), cracking or warping. Two most common forms of engine cooling are air - cooled and water - cooled. Most modern automotive engines are both water and air - cooled, as the water / liquid - coolant is carried to air - cooled fins and / or fans, whereas larger engines may be singularly water - cooled as they are stationary and have a constant supply of water through water - mains or fresh - water, while most power tool engines and other small engines are air - cooled. Some engines (air or water - cooled) also have an oil cooler. In some engines, especially for turbine engine blade cooling and liquid rocket engine cooling, fuel is used as a coolant, as it is simultaneously preheated before injecting it into a combustion chamber.
Internal Combustion engines must have their cycles started. In reciprocating engines this is accomplished by turning the crankshaft (Wankel Rotor Shaft) which induces the cycles of intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust. The first engines were started with a turn of their flywheels, while the first vehicle (the Daimler Reitwagen) was started with a hand crank. All ICE engined automobiles were started with hand cranks until Charles Kettering developed the electric starter for automobiles.
The most often found methods of starting ICE today is with an electric motor. As diesel engines have become larger another method has come into use as well, that is Air Starters.
Another method of starting is to use compressed air that is pumped into some cylinders of an engine to start it turning.
With two wheeled vehicles their engines may be started in four ways:
There are also starters where a spring is compressed by a crank motion and then used to start an engine. Small engines use a pull rope mechanism called recoil starting as the rope returns to storage after it has been pulled fully out to start the engine.
Turbine engines are frequently started by electric motor, or by air.
Engine types vary greatly in a number of different ways:
Once ignited and burnt, the combustion products -- hot gases -- have more available thermal energy than the original compressed fuel - air mixture (which had higher chemical energy). The available energy is manifested as high temperature and pressure that can be translated into work by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high - pressure gases inside the cylinders drive the engine 's pistons.
Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening a valve or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (top dead center, or TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle, which varies between engines. Any heat that is not translated into work is normally considered a waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system.
Internal combustion engines are heat engines, and as such their theoretical efficiency can be approximated by idealized thermodynamic cycles. The thermal efficiency of a theoretical cycle can not exceed that of the Carnot cycle, whose efficiency is determined by the difference between the lower and upper operating temperatures of the engine. The upper operating temperature of an engine is limited by two main factors; the thermal operating limits of the materials, and the auto - ignition resistance of the fuel. All metals and alloys have a thermal operating limit, and there is significant research into ceramic materials that can be made with greater thermal stability and desirable structural properties. Higher thermal stability allows for a greater temperature difference between the lower (ambient) and upper operating temperatures, hence greater thermodynamic efficiency. Also, as the cylinder temperature rises, the engine becomes more prone to auto - ignition. This is caused when the cylinder temperature nears the flash point of the charge. At this point, ignition can spontaneously occur before the spark plug fires, causing excessive cylinder pressures. Auto - ignition can be mitigated by using fuels with high auto - ignition resistance (octane rating), however it still puts an upper bound on the allowable peak cylinder temperature.
The thermodynamic limits assume that the engine is operating under ideal conditions: a frictionless world, ideal gases, perfect insulators, and operation for infinite time. Real world applications introduce complexities that reduce efficiency. For example, a real engine runs best at a specific load, termed its power band. The engine in a car cruising on a highway is usually operating significantly below its ideal load, because it is designed for the higher loads required for rapid acceleration. In addition, factors such as wind resistance reduce overall system efficiency. Engine fuel economy is measured in miles per gallon or in liters per 100 kilometres. The volume of hydrocarbon assumes a standard energy content.
Most iron engines have a thermodynamic limit of 37 %. Even when aided with turbochargers and stock efficiency aids, most engines retain an average efficiency of about 18 % - 20 %. The latest technologies in Formula One engines have seen a boost in thermal efficiency to almost 47 %. Rocket engine efficiencies are much better, up to 70 %, because they operate at very high temperatures and pressures and can have very high expansion ratios.
There are many inventions aimed at increasing the efficiency of IC engines. In general, practical engines are always compromised by trade - offs between different properties such as efficiency, weight, power, heat, response, exhaust emissions, or noise. Sometimes economy also plays a role in not only the cost of manufacturing the engine itself, but also manufacturing and distributing the fuel. Increasing the engine 's efficiency brings better fuel economy but only if the fuel cost per energy content is the same.
For stationary and shaft engines including propeller engines, fuel consumption is measured by calculating the brake specific fuel consumption, which measures the mass flow rate of fuel consumption divided by the power produced.
For internal combustion engines in the form of jet engines, the power output varies drastically with airspeed and a less variable measure is used: thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC), which is the mass of propellant needed to generate impulses that is measured in either pound force - hour or the grams of propellant needed to generate an impulse that measures one kilonewton - second.
For rockets, TSFC can be used, but typically other equivalent measures are traditionally used, such as specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity.
Internal combustion engines such as reciprocating internal combustion engines produce air pollution emissions, due to incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel. The main derivatives of the process are carbon dioxide CO 2, water and some soot -- also called particulate matter (PM). The effects of inhaling particulate matter have been studied in humans and animals and include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. There are, however, some additional products of the combustion process that include nitrogen oxides and sulfur and some uncombusted hydrocarbons, depending on the operating conditions and the fuel - air ratio.
Not all of the fuel is completely consumed by the combustion process; a small amount of fuel is present after combustion, and some of it reacts to form oxygenates, such as formaldehyde or acetaldehyde, or hydrocarbons not originally present in the input fuel mixture. Incomplete combustion usually results from insufficient oxygen to achieve the perfect stoichiometric ratio. The flame is "quenched '' by the relatively cool cylinder walls, leaving behind unreacted fuel that is expelled with the exhaust. When running at lower speeds, quenching is commonly observed in diesel (compression ignition) engines that run on natural gas. Quenching reduces efficiency and increases knocking, sometimes causing the engine to stall. Incomplete combustion also leads to the production of carbon monoxide (CO). Further chemicals released are benzene and 1, 3 - butadiene that are also hazardous air pollutants.
Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces emissions of incomplete combustion products, but also promotes reaction between oxygen and nitrogen in the air to produce nitrogen oxides (NO). NO is hazardous to both plant and animal health, and leads to the production of ozone (O). Ozone is not emitted directly; rather, it is a secondary air pollutant, produced in the atmosphere by the reaction of NO and volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight. Ground - level ozone is harmful to human health and the environment. Though the same chemical substance, ground - level ozone should not be confused with stratospheric ozone, or the ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays.
Carbon fuels contain sulfur and impurities that eventually produce sulfur monoxides (SO) and sulfur dioxide (SO) in the exhaust, which promotes acid rain.
In the United States, nitrogen oxides, PM, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and ozone, are regulated as criteria air pollutants under the Clean Air Act to levels where human health and welfare are protected. Other pollutants, such as benzene and 1, 3 - butadiene, are regulated as hazardous air pollutants whose emissions must be lowered as much as possible depending on technological and practical considerations.
NO, carbon monoxide and other pollutants are frequently controlled via exhaust gas recirculation which returns some of the exhaust back into the engine intake, and catalytic converters, which convert exhaust chemicals to harmless chemicals.
The emission standards used by many countries have special requirements for non-road engines which are used by equipment and vehicles that are not operated on the public roadways. The standards are separated from the road vehicles.
Significant contributions to noise pollution are made by internal combustion engines. Automobile and truck traffic operating on highways and street systems produce noise, as do aircraft flights due to jet noise, particularly supersonic - capable aircraft. Rocket engines create the most intense noise.
Internal combustion engines continue to consume fuel and emit pollutants when idling so it is desirable to keep periods of idling to a minimum. Many bus companies now instruct drivers to switch off the engine when the bus is waiting at a terminal.
In England, the Road Traffic Vehicle Emissions Fixed Penalty Regulations 2002 (Statutory Instrument 2002 No. 1808) introduced the concept of a "stationary idling offence ''. This means that a driver can be ordered "by an authorised person... upon production of evidence of his authorisation, require him to stop the running of the engine of that vehicle '' and a "person who fails to comply... shall be guilty of an offence and be liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding level 3 on the standard scale ''. Only a few local authorities have implemented the regulations, one of them being Oxford City Council.
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who knocked out nigeria in 2014 world cup | 2014 FIFA World Cup knockout stage - Wikipedia
The knockout stage of the 2014 FIFA World Cup was the second and final stage of the competition, following the group stage. It began on 28 June with the round of 16 and ended on 13 July with the final match of the tournament, held at Estádio do Maracanã, Rio de Janeiro. The top two teams from each group (16 in total) advanced to the knockout stage to compete in a single - elimination tournament. A third - place match was played between the two losing teams of the semi-finals.
In all matches in the knockout stage, if the score was level at the end of 90 minutes, two 15 - minute periods of extra time was played. If the score was still level after extra time, the match was decided by a penalty shoot - out.
All times listed below are in Brasília official time (UTC -- 3).
The top two placed teams from each of the eight groups qualified for the knockout stage.
The two teams had met in 68 previous matches, including three times in the FIFA World Cup knockout stage, all won by Brazil (1962, semi-finals: 4 -- 2; 1998, round of 16: 4 -- 1; 2010, round of 16: 3 -- 0).
Brazil opened the scoring when from a corner when David Luiz turned Thiago Silva 's flick - on into the net with his thigh. While replays suggested that Chilean defender Gonzalo Jara may have had the last touch, FIFA later confirmed that the goal was scored by Luiz, not Jara. Chile equalised when Hulk lost possession after a throw - in in his own half, Eduardo Vargas stole the ball and passed to Alexis Sánchez to score.
In the second half, Hulk 's goal was disallowed as Howard Webb adjudged that the player used his arm in bringing down the ball and gave him a yellow card instead. Chances were few after that with Brazil dominating possession with Hulk forcing Claudio Bravo into a decent save, and the match went to extra time. The best chance of extra time came in the last seconds as Mauricio Pinilla 's shot hit the crossbar. In the resulting penalty shootout, the score was tied 2 -- 2 after four rounds, with Brazil goalkeeper Júlio César saving from Pinilla and Sánchez, while Willian missed and Hulk 's shot was saved by Bravo. In the fifth round, Neymar scored his penalty, meaning Chile had to score, but Jara 's shot hit the inside of the post. Brazil advanced to the quarter - finals to face Colombia.
The result meant that in all four World Cups where Chile qualified for the knockout stage, they were eliminated by Brazil.
Man of the Match: Júlio César (Brazil)
Assistant referees: Michael Mullarkey (England) Darren Cann (England) Fourth official: Felix Brych (Germany) Fifth official: Mark Borsch (Germany)
The two teams had met in 38 previous matches, including in the 1962 FIFA World Cup group stage, won 2 -- 1 by Uruguay. Their most recent meetings were in the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers, with both teams winning at home, Colombia winning 4 -- 0 and Uruguay winning 2 -- 0. Uruguayan striker Luis Suárez was not in the line - up because of a nine - game ban imposed by FIFA due to a biting incident involving Italian defender Giorgio Chiellini during their final group stage match.
Colombia won 2 -- 0 with both goals from James Rodríguez, the first in the 28th minute, where he controlled Abel Aguilar 's headed ball on his chest before volleying left - footed from 25 yards out with the ball going in off the underside of the crossbar, which won the 2014 FIFA Puskás Award later in the year. The second goal, in the 50th minute, was a close - range shot from six yards out after receiving the ball from a header by Juan Cuadrado on the right.
Colombia progressed through to the quarter - finals for the first time in their history, where they would face Brazil.
Man of the Match: James Rodríguez (Colombia)
Assistant referees: Sander van Roekel (Netherlands) Erwin Zeinstra (Netherlands) Fourth official: Svein Oddvar Moen (Norway) Fifth official: Kim Haglund (Norway)
The two teams had met in six previous matches, including in the 1998 FIFA World Cup group stage, a 2 -- 2 draw. Mexico midfielder José Juan Vázquez was suspended for the match due to accumulation of yellow cards.
Giovani dos Santos opened the scoring for Mexico early in the second half with a left - footed volley from outside the box after gathering a Dutch clearance. Mexico led until the 88th minute, when a Dutch corner was headed back by substitute Klaas - Jan Huntelaar for Wesley Sneijder to equalise with a hard shot from 16 yards. Only a few minutes later, with stoppage time coming to a close, Arjen Robben drew a penalty for the Netherlands after being fouled by Rafael Márquez on the right of the penalty area, which Huntelaar converted into the bottom left corner to win the match for the Netherlands. Netherlands advanced to the quarter - finals to face Costa Rica, while Mexico were eliminated in the round of 16 for the sixth tournament in a row.
The match was the first time in World Cup history where a cooling break was instituted, with temperatures at 32 ° C (90 ° F) and humidity levels at 68 %.
Man of the Match: Guillermo Ochoa (Mexico)
Assistant referees: Bertino Cunha (Portugal) Tiago Trigo (Portugal) Fourth official: Carlos Vera (Ecuador) Fifth official: Byron Romero (Ecuador)
The two teams had never met before. This match was Greece 's first ever in the FIFA World Cup knockout stage.
Bryan Ruiz opened the scoring in the 52nd minute when Christian Bolaños passed to him and he shot low left - footed from outside the penalty area to the right corner of the net with Greek goalkeeper Orestis Karnezis not moving on his line. Costa Rica were then reduced to 10 men with Óscar Duarte being sent off after picking up a second yellow card. Sokratis Papastathopoulos equalised in injury time shooting into the net from seven yards out after Costa Rica goalkeeper Keylor Navas had saved an initial shot from Theofanis Gekas. No goals were scored in extra time, and the match went to a penalty shoot - out. During the intermission before the penalty shoot - out, the Greek coach Fernando Santos was sent off following a dispute with the referee. In the penalty shoot - out, Navas saved Gekas ' shot before Michael Umaña scored the winning penalty for Costa Rica hitting it high to the goalkeeper 's right.
This marked the first time that Costa Rica progressed to the quarter - finals in a FIFA World Cup, where they faced the Netherlands.
Man of the Match: Keylor Navas (Costa Rica)
Assistant referees: Matthew Cream (Australia) Hakan Anaz (Australia) Fourth official: Nawaf Shukralla (Bahrain) Fifth official: Yaser Tulefat (Bahrain)
The two teams had met in one previous match, in a friendly in 2009, won by Nigeria 1 -- 0.
Paul Pogba had the best chance in the first half but his right foot volley after a cross from the right was saved by Vincent Enyeama. In the second half Yohan Cabaye saw a shot come back off the bar. The opening goal came with 11 minutes to play when Pogba headed into the net after a mistake by Enyeama where he failed to hold onto a corner kick from the left by Mathieu Valbuena. In injury time, France got a second when Joseph Yobo put into his own net under pressure from Antoine Griezmann after a cross from the right by Valbuena.
France advanced to the quarter - finals to face Germany, while Nigeria were eliminated at the round of 16 in all three World Cups where they reached the knockout stage.
Man of the Match: Paul Pogba (France)
Assistant referees: Mark Hurd (United States) Joe Fletcher (Canada) Fourth official: Alireza Faghani (Iran) Fifth official: Hassan Kamranifar (Iran)
The two teams had met in two previous matches, including in the 1982 FIFA World Cup group stage, where Algeria defeated West Germany 2 -- 1. This match was Algeria 's first ever in the FIFA World Cup knockout stage.
After a goalless 90 minutes, Germany opened the scoring two minutes into extra time, when half - time substitute André Schürrle scored with a left foot back - heel from Thomas Müller 's cross from the left. Germany extended the lead in the 120th minute when Mesut Özil converted with his left foot high into the net after Schürrle 's shot was blocked on the line, but Algeria pulled one back in injury time when substitute Abdelmoumene Djabou scored with his left foot from six yards after a cross from the right by Sofiane Feghouli.
Germany advanced to the quarter - finals to face France, continuing their streak of reaching the last eight in every World Cup since 1954. Djabou 's goal, timed at 120 minutes and 51 seconds, was the latest goal in World Cup history, surpassing Alessandro Del Piero 's goal against Germany in 2006, timed at 120 minutes and 32 seconds.
Man of the Match: Raïs M'Bolhi (Algeria)
Assistant referees: Emerson de Carvalho (Brazil) Marcelo Van Gasse (Brazil) Fourth official: Walter López (Guatemala) Fifth official: Leonel Leal (Costa Rica)
The two teams had met in six previous matches, including in the 1966 FIFA World Cup group stage, won by Argentina 2 -- 0.
The match went to extra time with Ángel Di María scoring the only goal with two minutes remaining with a side - foot finish from the right of the penalty area after a run and pass from Lionel Messi. Switzerland had a chance to equalise in injury time but Blerim Džemaili headed against the post then prodded the rebound wide. Argentina advanced to the quarter - finals to face Belgium.
Man of the Match: Lionel Messi (Argentina)
Assistant referees: Mathias Klasenius (Sweden) Daniel Wärnmark (Sweden) Fourth official: Svein Oddvar Moen (Norway) Fifth official: Kim Haglund (Norway)
The two teams had met in five previous matches, including one in the 1930 FIFA World Cup group stage won by United States 3 -- 0 and which was one of the two first FIFA World Cup matches to be played. An unofficial friendly between the two teams was scheduled on 12 June 2014 in São Paulo, but was cancelled because of traffic due to the opening ceremony and match. Belgium midfielder Steven Defour was suspended for the match, after being sent off in the last group stage match against South Korea.
In a game dominated by the Belgians, but still goalless through the first 90 minutes thanks to U.S. goalkeeper Tim Howard, U.S. striker Chris Wondolowski missed a great chance in stoppage time from less than five yards out. Thus, the game went to extra time and Belgium took the lead within two minutes. Romelu Lukaku, who came off the bench at the start of extra time, crossed from the right into the penalty area, Matt Besler failed to clear the ball, and Kevin De Bruyne shot low into the far corner from the right of the penalty area. Near the end of extra time first half, De Bruyne 's through ball from the right set up Lukaku to extend the lead with a left footed shot to the net. The United States pulled one back early in extra time second half, when substitute Julian Green volleyed in Michael Bradley 's lobbed pass with his right foot from near the penalty spot. Minutes later, the U.S. nearly equalised on a set piece routine that saw Clint Dempsey through on goal, but his first touch was too hard and the ball was corralled by Belgian goalkeeper Thibaut Courtois. Belgium held on for the win, and advanced to the quarter - finals to face Argentina.
With Belgium 's victory, the 2014 World Cup became the first tournament where all the top teams of the group stage advanced to the quarter - finals. U.S. goalkeeper Tim Howard recorded 15 saves in the match, which was the most saves recorded in a match since FIFA started to keep track of the number of saves in 1966. Julian Green also became the youngest player to score a goal in the 2014 FIFA World Cup.
Man of the Match: Tim Howard (United States)
Assistant referees: Rédouane Achik (Morocco) Abdelhak Etchiali (Algeria) Fourth official: Norbert Hauata (Tahiti) Fifth official: Aden Range (Kenya)
The two teams had met in 25 previous matches, including three times in the FIFA World Cup (1958, third place match: France 6 -- 3 West Germany; 1982 semi-finals: France 3 -- 3 (aet) West Germany, West Germany won 5 -- 4 on penalties; 1986, semi-finals: France 0 -- 2 West Germany).
The only goal came in the 13th minute when Mats Hummels got ahead of his marker Raphaël Varane to head Germany into the lead from ten yards out after a free - kick from Toni Kroos on the left. Karim Benzema had a shot in second half injury time from the left which he hit straight at Manuel Neuer.
Germany advanced to the semi-finals where they would face Brazil. They became the first team to reach four straight World Cup semi-finals, breaking the record of three shared by their predecessor West Germany (1982, 1986, 1990) and Brazil (1994, 1998, 2002). Germany was also guaranteed their 13th top four finish, the most by any nation.
Man of the Match: Mats Hummels (Germany)
Assistant referees: Hernán Maidana (Argentina) Juan Pablo Belatti (Argentina) Fourth official: Jonas Eriksson (Sweden) Fifth official: Mathias Klasenius (Sweden)
The two teams had met in 25 previous matches, but never in the FIFA World Cup. This was the first time Colombia had reached the quarter - finals of the World Cup. Brazil midfielder Luiz Gustavo was suspended for the match due to accumulation of yellow cards.
Brazil took the lead in the 7th minute, when Neymar 's corner from the left was turned in from close range by Thiago Silva. They doubled the lead in the 69th minute when David Luiz scored directly from a long - range free kick, side - footing the ball over the wall and into the top - right corner. Colombia reduced the deficit with 10 minutes to go, when James Rodríguez converted a penalty kick low into the left corner and sent the goalkeeper the wrong way. The penalty was awarded after substitute Carlos Bacca was fouled by Brazil goalkeeper Júlio César. Neymar was kneed in the back by Colombia defender Juan Camilo Zúñiga in the 88th minute, which resulted in the striker 's withdrawal from the match. Subsequent medical evaluation discovered a fractured vertebra, forcing the Brazilian to miss the remainder of the tournament. Brazil advanced to the semi-final, where they faced Germany.
James 's sixth goal of the tournament was enough for him to win the Golden Boot award. He also became the first player to score in his first five career World Cup matches since Peru 's Teófilo Cubillas (across the 1970 and 1978 tournaments).
Man of the Match: David Luiz (Brazil)
Assistant referees: Roberto Alonso (Spain) Juan Carlos Yuste (Spain) Fourth official: Svein Oddvar Moen (Norway) Fifth official: Kim Haglund (Norway)
The two teams had met in three previous matches, including twice in the FIFA World Cup (1982, group stage: Argentina 0 -- 1 Belgium; 1986, semi-finals: Argentina 2 -- 0 Belgium). Argentina defender Marcos Rojo was suspended for the match due to accumulation of yellow cards.
The only goal of the match was scored by Argentina forward Gonzalo Higuaín in the eighth minute, a powerful shot with his right foot from just inside the penalty area after a pass from Di María was deflected to him by Belgium defender Jan Vertonghen. Higuaín had a chance to extend the lead in the second half, but his shot hit the crossbar. Argentina won 1 -- 0 to advance to the semi-finals, where they would face the Netherlands.
Man of the Match: Gonzalo Higuaín (Argentina)
Assistant referees: Renato Faverani (Italy) Andrea Stefani (Italy) Fourth official: Ben Williams (Australia) Fifth official: Matthew Cream (Australia)
The two teams had never met before. This was the first time Costa Rica had reached the quarter - finals of the World Cup. Costa Rica defender Óscar Duarte was suspended for the match, after being sent off in the round of 16 match against Greece.
After a goalless 90 minutes, which saw Wesley Sneijder 's free kick hit the post and Robin van Persie 's shot deflected onto the crossbar by Costa Rica defender Yeltsin Tejeda, the match headed to extra time. In the second period, substitute Marco Ureña had a shot saved by Netherlands goalkeeper Jasper Cillessen, while Sneijder had another shot hit the crossbar. In added time at the end of 120 minutes, Dutch manager Louis van Gaal brought on Tim Krul to replace Cillessen. In the subsequent penalty shoot - out, Krul saved from Bryan Ruiz and Michael Umaña, while the Netherlands scored all four of their kicks to advance to the semi-finals, where they would face Argentina.
Uzbek referee Ravshan Irmatov took charge of his ninth World Cup match, breaking the record of most World Cup games officiated, which he previously held jointly with Joël Quiniou of France, Benito Archundia of Mexico, and Jorge Larrionda of Uruguay.
Man of the Match: Keylor Navas (Costa Rica)
Assistant referees: Abdukhamidullo Rasulov (Uzbekistan) Bahadyr Kochkarov (Kyrgyzstan) Fourth official: Noumandiez Doué (Ivory Coast) Fifth official: Songuifolo Yeo (Ivory Coast)
The two teams had met in 21 previous matches, including in the final of the 2002 FIFA World Cup (their only previous encounter in the tournament 's history), won by Brazil 2 -- 0.
While Germany kept the same starting line - up as their quarter - final against France, Brazil made two changes: defender and captain Thiago Silva was suspended for the match due to accumulation of yellow cards, and was replaced by Dante, while forward Neymar was sidelined after suffering a fractured vertebra in the quarter - final against Colombia, and was replaced by Bernard. Germany took the lead in the 11th minute, Thomas Müller volleying in Toni Kroos 's corner. Miroslav Klose scored Germany 's second goal, after a passing move saw him set up by Kroos, his first shot was saved by Brazil goalkeeper Júlio César, but he slotted in the rebound. Kroos then scored two quick goals in succession, the first one after Philipp Lahm 's cross was missed by Müller, the second one after stealing the ball from Fernandinho and playing a quick one - two with Sami Khedira. Khedira then scored Germany 's fourth goal in six minutes, after exchanging passes with Mesut Özil, to give Germany a 5 -- 0 halftime lead. Substitute André Schürrle added two more goals in the second half, first slotting in from Lahm 's cross, then scoring via the crossbar after a cut - back from Müller. Brazil scored a consolation goal in the 90th minute, as Oscar received a pass from Marcelo, dribbled inside and scored. Germany reached their eighth World Cup final, a record by any nation, where they would face Argentina, while Brazil had to settle for the third - place play - off against the Netherlands.
The game equalled Brazil 's biggest margin of defeat, a 6 -- 0 loss to Uruguay in 1920, and it broke a 62 - match home unbeaten streak in competitive matches going back to the 1975 Copa América, where they lost 3 -- 1 to Peru in the same exact stadium of this match. The match also broke many World Cup records: It was Brazil 's biggest World Cup defeat (eclipsing their 1998 final loss to France), the biggest defeat by a World Cup host nation (previous record was by three goals), and the biggest margin of victory in a World Cup semi-final (three previous semi-finals ended in 6 -- 1 scorelines).
Klose 's goal was his 16th overall throughout his World Cup appearances, allowing him to beat Ronaldo for the record of all - time top scorer in World Cup finals tournaments. Germany 's seven goals took their total tally in World Cup history to 223, surpassing Brazil 's 221 goals to first place overall.
Man of the Match: Toni Kroos (Germany)
Assistant referees: Marvin Torrentera (Mexico) Marcos Quintero (Mexico) Fourth official: Mark Geiger (United States) Fifth official: Mark Hurd (United States)
The two teams had met in eight previous matches, including four times in the FIFA World Cup: Netherlands won 4 -- 0 in the second group stage of the 1974 FIFA World Cup and 2 -- 1 in the quarter - finals of the 1998 FIFA World Cup, Argentina won 3 -- 1 (after extra time) in the final of the 1978 FIFA World Cup, where as a group stage encounter of the 2006 FIFA World Cup ended in a 0 -- 0 draw.
The Netherlands made one change to their starting line - up from their quarter - final, with Nigel de Jong returning from injury to replace Memphis Depay, while Argentina made two changes, with Marcos Rojo returning from suspension to replace José María Basanta and Enzo Pérez replacing the injured Di María. The match finished 0 -- 0 after extra-time with very little chances as both sides cancelled each other out. In the penalty shoot - out, Sergio Romero saved the first penalty from Ron Vlaar diving to his left and the fifth penalty of the shoot - out from Wesley Sneijder when he dived high to his right. Argentina scored all of their four penalties to win 4 -- 2. Maxi Rodríguez scored the decisive fourth penalty, shooting to Dutch goalkeeper Jasper Cillessen 's right to send Argentina into the final, where they would face Germany, while the Netherlands had to settle for the third - place play - off against Brazil.
This was the first World Cup semi-final to end in a goalless draw. Argentina won their fourth World Cup penalty shoot - out, tied with Germany for most wins, and were involved in their fifth World Cup shoot - out, a record for any nation.
Man of the Match: Sergio Romero (Argentina)
Assistant referees: Bahattin Duran (Turkey) Tarık Ongun (Turkey) Fourth official: Jonas Eriksson (Sweden) Fifth official: Mathias Klasenius (Sweden)
The two teams had met in 11 previous meetings, including four times in the FIFA World Cup: Netherlands won 2 -- 0 in the second group stage of the 1974 FIFA World Cup and 2 -- 1 in the quarter - finals of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, and Brazil won 3 -- 2 in the quarter - finals of the 1994 FIFA World Cup and 4 -- 2 on penalties after a 1 -- 1 draw (after extra time) in the semi-finals of the 1998 FIFA World Cup.
Brazil made six changes in their starting line - up from their semi-final, while the Netherlands made only two, with Wesley Sneijder, who was originally part of the Dutch starting line - up, replaced by Jonathan de Guzmán after an injury during the pre-match warm - up prevented him from playing. The Netherlands opened the scoring within three minutes, after Robin van Persie converted a penalty kick awarded for a foul on Arjen Robben by Thiago Silva. Daley Blind extended the lead in the 17th minute, scoring after a David Luiz headed clearance fell to him inside the penalty area. Georginio Wijnaldum completed the scoring in second half injury time as he shot home from substitute Daryl Janmaat 's cross from the right.
The Netherlands finished third for the first time in their World Cup history. With Michel Vorm 's participation (who was substituted into the match in second half injury time), the Netherlands became the first team to use all of their 23 players in a World Cup since the finals squads were expanded from 22 to 23 players in 2002. Brazil, who finished fourth for the second time in World Cup history, conceded a total of 14 goals in the tournament, the most they had ever allowed in a World Cup and also the most conceded by any World Cup hosts. Brazil also became the second team to concede 100 World Cup goals, after Germany. Van Persie 's goal was the 100th goal that Brazil have conceded in the FIFA World Cup and made him the 2nd highest Dutch goalscorer with 6 World Cup goals along with Wesley Sneijder, Arjen Robben, Dennis Bergkamp, and Rob Rensenbrink, all before Johnny Rep with 7 World Cup goals. Lastly, since the beginning of the 21st century of the World Cups (first one being in 2002), all four World Cups in 2002, 2006, 2010, and 2014 involved the third - place victors all winning a third - place match with 3 goals.
Man of the Match: Arjen Robben (Netherlands)
Assistant referees: Rédouane Achik (Morocco) Abdelhalk Etchiali (Algeria) Fourth official: Yuichi Nishimura (Japan) Fifth official: Toru Sagara (Japan)
The two teams had met in 20 previous matches, including six times in the FIFA World Cup: 1958, group stage: West Germany 3 -- 1 Argentina; 1966, group stage: West Germany 0 -- 0 Argentina; 1986, final: West Germany 2 -- 3 Argentina; 1990, final: West Germany 1 -- 0 Argentina; 2006, quarter - finals: Germany 1 -- 1 Argentina (after extra time, Germany won 4 -- 2 on penalties); 2010 FIFA World Cup, quarter - finals: Germany 4 -- 0 Argentina. Their third final meeting is the most ever in World Cup history, and also tied the record for the most frequent fixture in tournament history, as Brazil vs Sweden and Germany vs Serbia (including Yugoslavia) had also been played seven times in the World Cup.
Both teams initially named unchanged starting line - ups from their semi-finals, but Germany had to make a late change as Sami Khedira injured his calf and was replaced by Christoph Kramer, who was himself substituted in the first half by André Schürrle after a blow to his head. In the first half, Gonzalo Higuaín shot wide after a Toni Kroos 's misplaced header fell to him, and also had a goal disallowed for offside. Later, Jérôme Boateng cleared off the line after a Lionel Messi run, and Benedikt Höwedes 's header hit the post. In the second half, Argentina 's best chance fell to Messi, whose shot went just wide, while Toni Kroos also had a chance for Germany but could not convert. For the third World Cup final in a row, the match went to extra time. In the first half, Schürrle had a shot saved by Sergio Romero, while Rodrigo Palacio 's lobbed shot was also unsuccessful. Germany scored the only goal in the second half, as Schürrle ran down the left wing and crossed for substitute Mario Götze, who controlled the ball on his chest and volleyed past Romero.
Germany won their fourth World Cup title, and their first title since German reunification (they won as West Germany in 1954, 1974, and 1990). It was the first time a European team won the tournament in the Americas. For the third tournament in a row, the World Cup was won by a European team, first time for any confederation. Argentina finished as the runners - up for the third time in their history.
A total of 171 goals were scored in the tournament, a joint record along with the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Götze 's goal was the 32nd by a substitute, a World Cup record. Including the final, a total of eight matches went to extra time, a joint record along with the 1990 FIFA World Cup.
Man of the Match: Mario Götze (Germany)
Assistant referees: Renato Faverani (Italy) Andrea Stefani (Italy) Fourth official: Carlos Vera (Ecuador) Fifth official: Christian Lescano (Ecuador)
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why doesn't the river nile flood anymore | Flooding of the Nile - wikipedia
The flooding of the Nile (Arabic: عيد وفاء النيل , translit. eid wafa al - nayl) has been an important natural cycle in Egypt since ancient times. It is celebrated by Egyptians as an annual holiday for two weeks starting August 15, known as Wafaa El - Nil. It is also celebrated in the Coptic Church by ceremonially throwing a martyr 's relic into the river, hence the name, The Martyr 's Finger (Coptic: ⲡⲓⲧⲏⲃ ⲛⲙⲁⲣⲧⲏⲣⲟⲥ, Arabic: Esba ` al - shahīd ). Ancient Egyptians believed that the Nile flooded every year because of Isis 's tears of sorrow for her dead husband, Osiris.
The flooding of the Nile is the result of the yearly monsoon between May and August causing enormous precipitations on the Ethiopian Highlands whose summits reach heights of up to 4550 m (14,928 ft). Most of this rainwater is taken by the Blue Nile and by the Atbarah River into the Nile, while a less important amount flows through the Sobat and the White Nile into the Nile. During this short period, those rivers contribute up to ninety percent of the water of the Nile and most of the sedimentation carried by it, but after the rainy season, dwindle to minor rivers.
These facts were unknown to the ancient Egyptians who could only observe the rise and fall of the Nile waters. The flooding as such was foreseeable, its exact dates and levels could only be forecast on a short term basis by transmitting the gauge readings at Aswan to the lower parts of the kingdom where the data had to be converted to the local circumstances. Which was not foreseeable, of course, was the size of flooding and its total discharge.
The Egyptian year was divided into the three seasons of Akhet (Inundation), Peret (Growth), and Shemu (Harvest). Akhet covered the Egyptian flood cycle. This cycle was so consistent that the Egyptians timed its onset using the heliacal rising of Sirius, the key event used to set their calendar.
The first indications of the rise of the river could be seen at the first of the cataracts of the Nile (at Aswan) as early as the beginning of June, and a steady increase went on until the middle of July, when the increase of water became very great. The Nile continued to rise until the beginning of September, when the level remained stationary for a period of about three weeks, sometimes a little less. In October it often rose again, and reached its highest level. From this period it began to subside, and usually sank steadily until the month of June when it reached its lowest level, again. Flooding reached Aswan about a week earlier than Cairo, and Luxor 5 -- 6 days earlier than Cairo. Typical heights of flood were 45 feet (13.7 metres) at Aswan, 38 feet (11.6 metres) at Luxor (and Thebes) and 25 feet (7.6 metres) at Cairo.
If it were not for the Nile River, Egyptian civilization could not have developed, as it is the only significant source of water in this desert region.
Its other importance was its function as their gateway to the unknown world. The Nile flows from south to north, to its delta on the Mediterranean Sea. The floods were seen as the annual coming of the god. Possibly Egyptian mythology was based on this understanding, creating stories of gods or nature to give added importance to the processes and cycles that sustained Egypt.
Whilst the earliest Egyptians simply laboured those areas which were inundated by the floods, some 7000 years ago, they started to develop the basin irrigation method. Agricultural land was divided into large fields surrounded by dams and dykes and equipped with intake and exit canals. The basins were flooded and then closed for about 45 days to saturate the soil with moisture and allow the silt to deposit. Then the water was discharged to lower fields or back into the Nile. Immediately thereafter, sowing started, and harvesting followed some three or four months later. In the dry season thereafter, farming was not possible. Thus, all crops had to fit into this tight scheme of irrigation and timing.
In case of a small flood, the upper basins could not be filled with water which would mean famine. If a flood was too large, it would damage villages, dykes and canals.
The basin irrigation method did not exact too much of the soils, and their fertility was sustained by the annual silt deposit. Salinisation did not occur, since in summer, the ground water level was well below the surface, and any salinity which might have accrued was washed away by the next flood.
It is estimated that by this method, in ancient Egypt, some 2 million up to a maximum of 12 million inhabitants could be nourished. By the end of Late Antiquity, the methods and infrastructure slowly decayed, and the population diminished accordingly.
By 1800, Egypt had a population of some 2.5 million inhabitants.
Muhammad Ali Pasha, (1805 -- 1848 Khedive of Egypt) modernized various aspects of Egypt. He endeavoured to extend arable land and achieve additional revenue by introducing cotton cultivation, a crop with a longer growing season and requiring sufficient water at all times. To this end, the Delta Barrages and wide systems of new canals were built, changing the irrigation system from the traditional basin irrigation to perennial irrigation whereby farmland could by irrigated throughout the year. Thereby, many crops could be harvested twice or even three times a year and agricultural output was increased dramatically.
In 1873, Isma'il Pasha built the Ibrahimiya Canal, thereby greatly extending perennial irrigation.
Although the British, during their first period in Egypt, improved and extended this system, it was not able to store large amounts of water and to fully retain the annual flooding. In order to further improve irrigation, Sir William Willcocks, in his role as director general of reservoirs for Egypt, planned and supervised the construction of the Aswan Low Dam, the first true storage reservoir, and the Assiut Barrage, both completed in 1902. However, they were still not able to retain sufficient water to cope with the driest summers, despite the Aswan Low Dam being raised twice, in 1907 -- 1912 and in 1929 -- 1933.
During the 1920s, the Sennar Dam was constructed on the Blue Nile as a reservoir in order to supply water to the huge Gezira Scheme on a regular basis. It was the first dam on the Nile to retain large amounts of sedimentation (and to divert a large quantity of it into the irrigation canals) and in spite of opening the sluice gates during the flooding in order to flush the sediments, the reservoir is assumed to have lost about a third of its storage capacity. In 1966, the Roseires Dam was added to help irrigating the Gezira Scheme. The Jebel Aulia Dam on the White Nile south of Khartoum was completed in 1937 in order to compensate for the Blue Nile 's low waters in winter, but it was still not possible to overcome a period of very low waters in the Nile and thus avoid occasional drought, which had plagued Egypt since ancient times.
In order to overcome these problems, Harold Edwin Hurst, a British hydrologist in the Egyptian Public Works from 1906 until many years after his retirement age, studied the fluctuations of the water levels in the Nile, and already in 1946 submitted an elaborate plan for how a "century storage '' could be achieved to cope with exceptional dry seasons occurring statistically once in a hundred years. His ideas of further reservoirs using Lake Victoria, Lake Albert and Lake Tana and of reducing the evaporation in the Sudd by digging the Jonglei Canal were opposed by the states concerned.
Eventually, Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of Egypt from 1956 to 1970, opted for the idea of the Aswan High Dam at Aswan in Egypt instead of having to deal with many foreign countries. The required size of the reservoir was calculated using Hurst 's figures and mathematical methods. In 1970, with the completion of the Aswan High Dam which was able to store the highest floods, the annual flooding cycle in Egypt came to an end in Lake Nasser.
In the meantime, Egyptian population has risen to 92.5 million inhabitants (2016 estimate).
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who was removed in the indian removal act | Indian Removal Act - wikipedia
The Indian Removal Act was signed by President Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830. The law authorized the president to negotiate with southern Native American tribes for their removal to federal territory west of the Mississippi River in exchange for their lands.
The act enjoyed strong support from the non-Indian peoples of the South, but there was a large amount of resistance from the Indian tribes, the Whig Party, and whites in the northeast, especially New England. The Cherokee worked together as an independent nation to stop this relocation. However, the Cherokee were unsuccessful in their attempt to keep their land and were eventually forcibly removed by the United States government in a march to the west that later became known as the Trail of Tears.
In the early 1800s, the United States government began a systematic effort to remove American Indian tribes from the southeast. The Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee - Creek, Seminole, and original Cherokee Nations had been established as autonomous nations in the southeastern United States.
This acculturation was originally proposed by George Washington and was well under way among the Cherokee and Choctaw by the turn of the 19th century. In an effort to assimilate with American culture, Indians were encouraged to "convert to Christianity; learn to speak and read English; and adopt European - style economic practices such as the individual ownership of land and other property (including, in some instances, the ownership of African slaves). '' Thomas Jefferson 's policy echoed Washington 's proposition: respect the Indians ' rights to their homelands, and allow the Five Tribes to remain east of the Mississippi provided that they adopt behavior and cultural practices that are compatible with those of other Americans. Jefferson encouraged practicing an agriculture - based society. However, Andrew Jackson sought to renew a policy of political and military action for the removal of the Indians from these lands and worked toward enacting a law for Indian removal. In his 1829 State of the Union address, Jackson called for removal.
The Indian Removal Act was put in place to give to the southern states the land that Indians had settled on. The act was passed in 1830, although dialogue had been ongoing since 1802 between Georgia and the federal government concerning such an event. Ethan Davis states that "the federal government had promised Georgia that it would extinguish Indian title within the state 's borders by purchase ' as soon as such purchase could be made upon reasonable terms ' ''. As time passed, southern states began to speed up the process by posing the argument that the deal between Georgia and the federal government had no contract and that southern states could pass the law themselves. This scheme forced the national government to pass the Indian Removal Act on May 28, 1830, in which President Jackson agreed to divide the United States territory west of the Mississippi into districts for tribes to replace the land from which they were removed.
In the 1823 case of Johnson v. M'Intosh, the United States Supreme Court handed down a decision stating that Indians could occupy and control lands within the United States but could not hold title to those lands. Jackson viewed the union as a federation of highly esteemed states, as was common before the American Civil War. He opposed Washington 's policy of establishing treaties with Indian tribes as if they were foreign nations. Thus, the creation of Indian jurisdictions was a violation of state sovereignty under Article IV, Section 3 of the Constitution. As Jackson saw it, either Indians comprised sovereign states (which violated the Constitution) or they were subject to the laws of existing states of the Union. Jackson urged Indians to assimilate and obey state laws. Further, he believed that he could only accommodate the desire for Indian self - rule in federal territories, which required resettlement west of the Mississippi River on federal lands.
The Removal Act was strongly supported in the South, especially in Georgia, which was the largest state in 1802 and was involved in a jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokee. President Jackson hoped that removal would resolve the Georgia crisis. Besides the Five Civilized Tribes, additional people affected included the Wyandot, the Kickapoo, the Potowatomi, the Shawnee, and the Lenape.
The Indian Removal Act was controversial. Many Americans during this time favored its passage, but there was also significant opposition. Many Christian missionaries protested it, most notably missionary organizer Jeremiah Evarts. In Congress, New Jersey Senator Theodore Frelinghuysen and Tennessee Congressman Davy Crockett spoke out against the legislation. The Removal Act passed only after bitter debate in Congress.
Jackson viewed the demise of Indian tribal nations as inevitable, pointing to the advancement of settled life and demise of tribal nations in the American northeast. He called his northern critics hypocrites, given the North 's history. Indian tribes had become nearly extinct, Indian hunting grounds had been replaced with family farms, and state law had replaced tribal law. If the Indians of the south were to survive and their culture be maintained, they faced powerful historical forces that could only be postponed. He dismissed romantic portrayals of lost Indian culture as a sentimental longing for a simpler time in the past, stating that "progress requires moving forward. ''
Humanity has often wept over the fate of the aborigines of this country and philanthropy has long been busily employed in devising means to avert it, but its progress has never for a moment been arrested, and one by one have many powerful tribes disappeared from the earth.... But true philanthropy reconciles the mind to these vicissitudes as it does to the extinction of one generation to make room for another.... Philanthropy could not wish to see this continent restored to the condition in which it was found by our forefathers. What good man would prefer a country covered with forests and ranged by a few thousand savages to our extensive Republic, studded with cities, towns, and prosperous farms, embellished with all the improvements which art can devise or industry execute, occupied by more than 12,000,000 happy people, and filled with all the blessings of liberty, civilization, and religion?
According to historian H.W. Brands, Jackson sincerely believed that his population transfer was a "wise and humane policy '' that would save the Indians from "utter annihilation ''. Brands writes that, given the "racist realities of the time, Jackson was almost certainly correct in contending that for the Cherokees to remain in Georgia risked their extinction ''. Jackson portrayed his paternalism and federal support as a generous act of mercy.
On April 24, 1830, the Senate passed the Indian Removal Act by a vote of 28 to 19. On May 26, 1830, the House of Representatives passed the Act by a vote of 101 to 97. On May 28, 1830, the Indian Removal Act was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson.
The Removal Act paved the way for the forced expulsion of tens of thousands of American Indians from their land into the West in an event widely known as the "Trail of Tears, '' a forced resettlement of the Indian population. The first removal treaty signed was the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek on September 27, 1830, in which Choctaws in Mississippi ceded land east of the river in exchange for payment and land in the West. The Treaty of New Echota was signed in 1835 and resulted in the removal of the Cherokee on the Trail of Tears.
The Seminoles and other tribes did not leave peacefully, as they resisted the removal along with fugitive slaves. The Second Seminole War lasted from 1835 to 1842 and resulted in the government allowing them to remain in the south Florida swamplands. Only a small number remained, and around 3,000 were removed in the war.
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what is the legal drinking age in norway | Legal drinking age - wikipedia
The legal drinking age is the age at which a person can legally consume or purchase alcoholic beverages. These laws cover a wide range of issues and behaviors, addressing when and where alcohol can be consumed. The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries. These laws vary among different countries and many laws have exemptions or special circumstances. Most laws apply only to drinking alcohol in public places, with alcohol consumption in the home being mostly unregulated (an exception being the UK, which has a minimum legal age of five for supervised consumption in private places). Some countries also have different age limits for different types of alcoholic drinks.
Some Islamic nations prohibit Muslims, or both Muslims and non-Muslims, from drinking alcohol at any age. In other countries, it is not illegal for minors to drink alcohol, but the alcohol can be seized without compensation. In some cases, it is illegal to sell or give alcohol to minors. The following list indicates the age of the person for whom it is legal to consume and purchase alcohol.
Kazakhstan, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, Paraguay, Solomon Islands, India (certain states), the United States (except U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico), Yemen (Aden and Sana'a), Japan, Iceland, Canada (certain Provinces and Territories), and South Korea have the highest set drinking ages, however some of these countries do not have off - premises drinking limits. Austria, Antigua and Barbuda, Belgium, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cuba, Ethiopia, Gibraltar, Luxembourg, Nicaragua, Serbia and Zimbabwe have the lowest set drinking ages.
The most common minimum age to purchase alcohol in Africa is 18. Although it varies from the lowest age limit in Ethiopia being only 15 years, Zimbabwe with a minimum purchase age of 16 years, Gambia with a age limit of 17 years and Uganda where the minimum legal purchase age is 18 but minors aged 16 or 17 may consume a glass of beer, wine or cider with a meal at a restaurant. Cameroon and Egypt are the only countries in Africa with a minimum purchase age of 21 years. However Algeria, Angola (except Luando Province), Central African Republic, Comoros, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Guinea - Bissau, Morocco, Togo, Tunisia and the Western Sahara have no laws on the book restricting the sale of alcohol to minors. And in Libya, Somalia and Sudan the sale, production ond consumption of alcohol is completely prohibited.
It is illegal to sell alcoholic beverages to anyone under the age of 18. It is also illegal for minors to buy and consume alcohol.
The minimum age to purchase and consume varies, but the most common age is 18 years. However in North America the age limits varies between 18 and 21 years of age. Throughout the United States the minimum legal age to purchase any alcoholic beverage from a shop, supermarket, liquor store, bar, club or any other licensed premises is 21 years of age. In Canada each province can decide which minimum age limit is to be set to buy or consume alcohol. Most provinces have a minimum age of 19 years, while Alberta, Manitoba and Quebec have set a minimum age of 18 years. In South America all countries have set a minimum purchase age of 18 years, except for Guyana where minors aged 16 or 17 may consume a glass of beer, wine or cider in a restaurant provided the buy a meal, and Paraguay the only country with a minimum legal pruchase and drinking age of 20 years.
Federal law explicitly provides for religious exceptions. As of 2005, 31 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws. However, non-alcoholic beer in many (but not all) states, such as Idaho, Texas, and Maryland, is considered legal for those under the age of 21.
By a judge 's ruling, South Carolina appears to allow the possession and consumption of alcohol by adults 18 to 20 years of age, but a circuit court judge has said otherwise.
The states of Washington and Wisconsin allows the consumption of alcohol in the presence of parents.
Some U.S. states have legislation that make providing to and possession of alcohol by persons under twenty - one a gross misdemeanor with a potential penalty of a $5,000 fine or up to year in jail.
The legal age for drinking alcohol is 18 in Abu Dhabi (although a Ministry of Tourism by - law allows hotels to serve alcohol only to those over 21), and 21 in Dubai and the Northern Emirates (except Sharjah, where drinking alcohol is illegal).
It is a punishable offence to drink, or to be under the influence of alcohol, in public.
Most countries within Europe have set 18 as the minimum age to purchase alcohol. Although Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Germany, Gibraltar, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Serbia and Switzerland (except Ticino) maintain a minimum purchase age below 18 years permitting minors either full or limited access to alcohol. In 2005, 2007 and recently in 2015 the European Union has failed to enact a law forcing member states to raise their purchase age to 18 years. But in the past years several European countries have raised their drinking / purchase age or enacted laws restricting the access to alcohol for minors:
By tradition, youths are privately allowed to drink alcohol after their confirmation. If a shop or bar fails to ask for an ID card and is identified having sold alcohol to an underage, it is subject to fine. A national ID card, obtained in the local town hall, can serve as age verification. This card is rarely used though since a passport or drivers license is more commonly used.
Both the legal drinking and purchasing age in the Faroe Islands is 18.
Police may search minors in public places and confiscate or destroy any alcoholic beverages in their possession. Incidents are reported to the legal guardian and social authorities, who may intervene with child welfare procedures. In addition, those aged 15 or above are subject to a fine.
In private, offering alcohol to a minor is considered a criminal offence if it results in drunkenness and the act can be deemed reprehensible as a whole, considering the minor 's age, degree of maturity and other circumstances.
Alcohol with more than 60 % ABV is generally not sold in Norway, although exceptions may be made by the government for specific products.
Alcohol possessed by minors may be confiscated as evidence. Drinking in public is prohibited, though this is rarely enforced in recreational areas.
None
None 18 18 20,
It is illegal to sell, serve, offer or consume alcoholic beverages in public under the age of 18.
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why is there whistling at the end of dock of the bay | (Sittin ' on) the Dock of the Bay - wikipedia
"(Sittin ' On) The Dock of the Bay '' is a song co-written by soul singer Otis Redding and guitarist Steve Cropper. It was recorded by Redding twice in 1967, including once just days before his death in a plane crash. The song was released on Stax Records ' Volt label in 1968, becoming the first posthumous single to top the charts in the US. It reached number 3 on the UK Singles Chart.
Redding started writing the lyrics to the song in August 1967, while sitting on a rented houseboat in Sausalito, California. He completed the song with the help of Cropper, who was a Stax producer and the guitarist for Booker T. & the M.G. 's. The song features whistling and sounds of waves crashing on a shore.
While on tour with the Bar - Kays in August 1967, Redding wrote the first verse of the song, under the abbreviated title "Dock of the Bay, '' on a houseboat at Waldo Point in Sausalito, California. He had completed his famed performance at the Monterey Pop Festival just weeks earlier. While touring in support of the albums King & Queen (a collaboration with female vocalist Carla Thomas) and Live in Europe, he continued to scribble lines of the song on napkins and hotel paper. In November of that year, he joined producer and guitarist Steve Cropper at the Stax recording studio in Memphis, Tennessee, to record the song.
In a September 1990 interview on NPR 's Fresh Air, Cropper explained the origins of the song:
Otis was one of those the kind of guy who had 100 ideas. (...) He had been in San Francisco doing The Fillmore. And the story that I got he was renting boathouse or stayed at a boathouse or something and that 's where he got the idea of the ships coming in the bay there. And that 's about all he had: "I watch the ships come in and I watch them roll away again. '' I just took that... and I finished the lyrics. If you listen to the songs I collaborated with Otis, most of the lyrics are about him. (...) Otis did n't really write about himself but I did. Songs like "Mr. Pitiful, '' "Fa - Fa - Fa - Fa - Fa (Sad Song) ''; they were about Otis and Otis ' life. "Dock of the Bay '' was exactly that: "I left my home in Georgia, headed for the Frisco Bay '' was all about him going out to San Francisco to perform.
Together, they completed the music and melancholic lyrics of "(Sittin ' On) The Dock of the Bay. '' From those sessions emerged Redding 's final recorded work, including "Dock of the Bay, '' which was recorded on November 22, with additional overdubs on December 7. Redding 's restrained yet emotive delivery is backed by Cropper 's succinct guitar playing. The song is somewhat different in style from most of Redding 's other recordings. While discussing the song with his wife, Redding stated that he had wanted to "be a little different '' with "The Dock of the Bay '' and "change his style ''. There were concerns that "The Dock of the Bay '' had too much of a pop feel for an Otis Redding record, and contracting the Stax gospel act the Staple Singers to record backing vocals was discussed but never carried out. Redding had considered the song to be unfinished and planned to record what he considered a final version, but never got the chance. The song features a whistled tune heard before the song 's fade. It was originally performed by Redding, who (according to Cropper) had "this little fadeout rap he was gon na do, an ad - lib. He forgot what it was so he started whistling. '' Redding continued to tour after the recording sessions. On December 10, his charter plane crashed into Lake Monona, outside Madison, Wisconsin. Redding and six others were killed.
After Redding 's death, Cropper mixed "Dock of the Bay '' at Stax Studios. He added the sound of seagulls and waves crashing to the background, as Redding had requested, recalling the sounds he heard when he was staying on the houseboat.
"The Dock of the Bay '' has been hugely popular, even after its stay at the top of the charts. The song has been recorded by many artists, from Redding 's peers, like Glen Campbell, Cher, Peggy Lee, David Allan Coe, Bob Dylan, Don Partridge, Percy Sledge, Dee Clark, and Sam & Dave, to artists in various genres, including Jimmy Velvit (whose cover version was included on his 2001 Grammy - nominated album Sun Sea & Sand), Widespread Panic (who opened their New Year 's Eve 2005 concert with the song), Waylon Jennings and Willie Nelson (whose duet peaked at number 13 on the U.S. Hot Country Songs chart), Kenny Rankin, Dennis Brown, Michel Pagliaro, Jacob Miller, Pearl Jam, the Format, T. Rex (as the B - side of "Dreamy Lady '', released in 1975), Brent Smith of Shinedown (during an acoustic set in 2008 and with Zach Myers in a 2014 EP) and Garth Brooks (for the 2013 Blue - Eyed Soul album in the Blame It All on My Roots: Five Decades of Influences compilation) as well as John Hartford on the Retrograss album with David Grisman and Mike Seeger (1999).
Sammy Hagar released a version of the song as a non-album single in 1979. His version features the song 's co-writer, Steve Cropper, on guitar and members of the band Boston -- Brad Delp, Sib Hashian and Barry Goudreau -- on backup vocals. Producer John S. Carter had the track recorded in May 1979 with Cropper, bassist Leland Sklar and drummer Alvin Taylor. Later, he added Hagar 's vocals with background harmonies by the three members of Boston, with whom Hagar had just toured. Although the single was a modest hit for Hagar, peaking at number 65 on the Billboard Hot 100, he considered it Carter 's efforts to manufacture a pop top 40 pop hit despite Hagar 's heavy metal roots. Hagar and Cropper 's work on the song was rated the thirty - seventh worst guitar solo in history by Pitchfork in 1998. The song was not released on an album until 1992, when it appeared on The Best of Sammy Hagar. The B - side of Hagar 's single was the first release of his studio version of "I 've Done Everything for You ''.
Michael Bolton included the song on his 1987 album The Hunger. His version peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100. Zelma Redding, Otis 's widow, said she was so moved by Bolton 's performance "that it brought tears to my eyes. It reminded me so much of my husband that I know if he heard it, he would feel the same. '' In a framed letter that hangs on the wall of Bolton 's office, she referred to the record as "my all - time favorite version of my husband 's classic. ''
In April 2013, Justin Timberlake performed the song as part of a tribute to Memphis soul music at the "In Performance '' concert series performed at the White House. The series was attended by President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama.
Phil Walden and Jim Stewart were among those who had doubts about the song, the sound, and the production. Redding accepted some of the criticisms and fine - tuned the song. He reversed the opening, which was Redding 's whistling part, and put it at the end as suggested. "The Dock of the Bay '' was released early in 1968 and topped the charts in the US and UK. Billboard ranked the record as the number 4 song for 1968.
"(Sittin ' On) The Dock of the Bay '' was released in January 1968, shortly after Redding 's death. R&B stations quickly added the song to their playlists, which had been saturated with Redding 's previous hits. The song shot to number one on the R&B charts in early 1968 and, starting in March, topped the pop charts for four weeks. The album, which shared the song 's title, became his largest - selling to date, peaking at number four on the pop albums chart. "Dock of the Bay '' was popular in countries across the world and became Redding 's most successful record, selling more than four million copies worldwide. The song went on to win two Grammy Awards: Best R&B Song and Best Male R&B Vocal Performance.
Redding 's body of work at the time of his death was immense, including a backlog of archived recordings as well as those created in November and December 1967, just before his death. In mid-1968, Stax Records severed its distribution contract with Atlantic Records, which retained the label 's back catalog and the rights to the unreleased Otis Redding masters. Through its Atco subsidiary (Atco had distributed Otis Redding 's releases from Stax 's Volt label), Atlantic issued three more albums of new Redding material, one live album, and eight singles between 1968 and 1970. Reprise Records issued a live album featuring Redding and Jimi Hendrix at the Monterey Pop Festival. Both studio albums and anthologies sold well in America and abroad. Redding was especially successful in the United Kingdom, where The Dock of the Bay went to number one, becoming the first posthumous album to reach the top spot there.
In 1999, BMI named the song as the sixth-most performed song of the twentieth century, with about six million performances. Rolling Stone ranked The Dock of the Bay number 161 on its 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, the third of five Redding albums on the list. "(Sittin ' On) The Dock of the Bay '' was ranked twenty - eighth on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, the second - highest of four Redding songs on the list, after "Respect '' (in this case the version recorded by Aretha Franklin).
Jim Morrison made reference to "Dock of the Bay '' in the Doors ' song "Runnin ' Blue '', written by Robby Krieger, from their 1969 album The Soft Parade. Morrison sings an a capella intro for the song, singing directly about Otis Redding. "Poor Otis dead and gone, left me here to sing his song, pretty little girl with a red dress on, poor Otis dead and gone. '' And during the verse, the lyrics "Got to find a dock and a bay '' appear more than once; as well as several other references to Redding 's song.
In addition to the original Otis Redding version, several other versions have charted on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States. King Curtis 's version charted for five weeks starting in March 1968 and peaked at number 84 (during the same month, the original was number one). A year later, Sergio Mendes & Brasil ' 66 's version charted for five weeks starting in June 1969 and peaked at number 66. Sammy Hagar 's version charted for five weeks starting in April 1979, peaking at number 65. The Reddings, who included two of Otis Redding 's sons, released a version which charted for nine weeks starting in June 1982 and peaked at number 55. Michael Bolton 's rendition charted for 17 weeks starting in January 1988 and peaked at number 11, making it the highest - charting cover version. In 2016, the British coffee brand Nescafé remixed part of the song in a television advertisement featuring American musician will.i.am.
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when does it start getting cold in seoul | Climate of Seoul - wikipedia
Coordinates: 37 ° 34 ′ 08 '' N 126 ° 58 ′ 36 '' E / 37.56889 ° N 126.97667 ° E / 37.56889; 126.97667
The climate of Seoul features a humid continental / subtropical climate with dry winter, called "Dwa '' / "Cwa '' in the Köppen climate classification. Seoul is classed as having a temperate climate with four distinct seasons, but temperature differences between the hottest part of summer and the depths of winter are extreme. In summer the influence of the North Pacific high - pressure system brings hot, humid weather with temperatures soaring as high as 35 ° C (95 ° F) on occasion. In winter the city is topographically influenced by expanding Siberian High - pressure zones and prevailing west winds, temperatures dropping almost as low as - 20 ° C (- 4 ° F) in severe cold waves. The bitterly cold days tend to come in three - day cycles regulated by rising and falling pressure systems, during winter snowfall can cause frosty weather in the city. The most pleasant seasons, for most people in the city are spring and autumn, when azure blue skies and comfortable temperatures are regular. Most of Seoul 's precipitation falls in the summer monsoon period between June and September, as a part of East Asian monsoon season.
Seoul has a wet and very humid climate during the summer season, with cold and dry weather during the winter season. Spring (although windy) and autumn are mild but are short in duration. These seasons are considered the best time to visit Seoul.
As a temperate climate, Seoul has winter, spring, summer and autumn seasons. The monsoon season and typhoons also occurs in the summer season.
The winter in Seoul is controlled by the large Siberian high pressure system (the Asiatic high), which results in predominantly cold, dry north - westerly winds. The influence of the Siberian high leads to significantly colder winter temperatures than would be expected at this latitude. About every 4 to 6 days a low - pressure trough will move through South Korea, bringing with it cloudiness and light precipitation. The amount of precipitation locally depends mostly on the elevation of the station and the length of time that the air has been over the Yellow Sea. Maximum snowfall occurs over the northwest coast, which is the most exposed to the northwesterly flow, and in the mountain areas. Normally less than 10 percent of the annual precipitation falls (falls very much) during the winter. Frequently the weather is cloudless, clear, and dry, except for the southwestern region of the peninsula. The mean January temperature in Seoul is - 2.4 ° C (27 ° F). January is the coldest month in Seoul, often with the lowest temperatures, almost always dropping below - 10 ° C (14 ° F), and sometimes below - 15 ° C (5 ° F).
During the summer, East Asian monsoon winds engulf the city and the warm, moisture laden air moving off the oceans clashes with the drier air to the north. These fronts oscillate back and forth across Korea during the summer months. The interior highlands disturb the winds, forcing them into a westerly / southwesterly direction. The majority of the annual precipitation falls between late June and the middle of September, with rains fully developing along the entire peninsula by mid-June. Seoul receives approximately 126 mm (5 in) of precipitation during the winter (December -- March), but in July alone receives approximately 383 mm (14.3 in). July is the wettest month in the metropolis.
Thunderstorms usually occur about 2 to 5 days per month during this period. Summer precipitation in Seoul is as likely to occur at 0200 as at 1400. Humidity is very high and fog will develop whenever a cold air mass confronts this moisture laden air, often forming on cloudless days. The typhoon season occurs from July through September. About once each year, a typhoon will pass very close to or move over Korea, causing heavy showers. Strong winds are usually confined to islands and exposed coastal areas. Although winds might not pose a problem, the associated rainfall can cause significant flash flooding, a very real threat during the rainy season, especially in rough terrain. The mean temperature for Seoul in August is 25.7 ° C (78 ° F)
October is the transition month between the summer rainy season and the cold, dry winter. The predominantly tropical cloudy weather of the summer is replaced by cooler, drier, and less cloudy conditions. The primary weather producers during October are cold frontal systems from the Asian mainland. On the average, one frontal passage per week can be expected during the month. A typical frontal passage is proceeded by increasing middle and high cloudiness with light rain. Following the frontal passage, mostly clear skies can be expected for 3 or 4 days. During this clear period it is very likely for fog to form. Fog is especially prevalent in river valleys and in low - lying areas.
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what percentage of america's population is in prison | United States incarceration rate - wikipedia
In October 2013, the incarceration rate of the United States of America was the highest in the world, at 716 per 100,000 of the national population. While the United States represents about 4.4 percent of the world 's population, it houses around 22 percent of the world 's prisoners. Corrections (which includes prisons, jails, probation, and parole) cost around $74 billion in 2007 according to the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
In 2016, the Prison Policy Initiative estimated that in the United States that about 2,298,300 people were incarcerated out of a population of 323.1 million. This means that 0.71 % of the population was behind bars. Of those who were incarcerated, about 1,351,000 people were in state prison, 646,000 in local jails, 211,000 in federal prisons, 34,000 in youth correctional facilities, 33,000 in immigration detention camps, 14,000 in territorial prisons, 5,500 in civil commitment, 2,400 in Indian country jails, and 1,400 in United States military prisons.
Total U.S. incarceration (prisons and jails) peaked in 2008. Total correctional population peaked in 2007. If all prisoners are counted (including those juvenile, territorial, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) (immigration detention), Indian country, and military), then in 2008 the United States had around 24.7 % of the world 's 9.8 million prisoners.
The United States has the highest documented incarceration rate in the world, at 754 per 100,000 (as of 2009). As of December 31, 2010, the International Centre for Prison Studies (ICPS) at King 's College London estimated 2,266,832 prisoners from a total population of 310.64 million as of this date (730 per 100,000 in 2010).
This number comprises local jails with a nominal capacity of 866,782 inmates occupied at 86.4 % (June 6, 2010), state prisons with a nominal capacity of approximately 1,140,500 occupied at approximately 115 % (December 31, 2010), and federal prisons with a nominal capacity of 126,863 occupied at 136.0 % (December 31, 2010). Of this number, 21.5 % are pretrial detainees (December 31, 2010), 8.7 % are female prisoners (December 31, 2010), 0.4 % are juveniles (June 6, 2009), and 5.9 % are foreign prisoners (June 30, 2007).
The imprisonment rate varies widely by state; Louisiana surpasses this by about 100 %, but Maine incarcerates at about a fifth this rate. A report released 28 February 2008, indicates that more than 1 in 100 adults in the United States are in prison.
According to a U.S. Department of Justice report published in 2006, over 7.2 million people were at that time in prison, on probation, or on parole (released from prison with restrictions). That means roughly 1 in every 32 adult Americans are under some sort of criminal justice system control.
In the last forty years, incarceration has increased with rates upwards of 500 % despite crime rates decreasing nationally. Between the years 2001 and 2012, crime rates (both property and violent crimes) have consistently declined at a rate of 22 % after already falling an additional 30 % in years prior between 1991 and 2001. As of 2012, there are 710 people per every 100,000 U.S. residents in the United States that are imprisoned in either local jails, state prisons, federal prisons, and privately operated facilities. This correlates to incarcerating a number close to almost a quarter of the prison population in the entire world. Mass incarceration is an intervening variable to more incarceration.
The Bureau of Justice Statistics has released a study which finds that, despite the total number of prisoners incarcerated for drug - related offenses increasing by 57,000 between 1997 and 2004, the proportion of drug offenders to total prisoners in State prison populations stayed steady at 21 %. The percentage of Federal prisoners serving time for drug offenses declined from 63 % in 1997 to 55 % in that same period. In the twenty - five years since the passage of the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986, the United States penal population rose from around 300,000 to more than two million. Between 1986 and 1991, African - American women 's incarceration in state prisons for drug offenses increased by 828 percent.
In 2009, the U.S. Department of Justice announced that the growth rate of the state prison population had fallen to its lowest since 2006, but it still had a 0.2 % growth - rate compared to the total U.S. prison population. The California state prison system population fell in 2009, the first year that populations had fallen in 38 years.
When looking at specific populations within the criminal justice system the growth rates are vastly different. In 1977, there were just slightly more than eleven thousand incarcerated women. By 2004, the number of women under state or federal prison had increased by 757 percent, to more than 111,000, and the percentage of women in prison has increased every year, at roughly double the rate of men, since 2000. The rate of incarcerated women has expanded at about 4.6 % annually between 1995 and 2005 with women now accounting for 7 % of the population in state and federal prisons.
Comparing some countries with similar percentages of immigrants, Germany has an incarceration rate of 76 per 100,000 population (as of 2014), Italy is 85 per 100,000 (as of 2015), and Saudi Arabia is 161 per 100,000 (as of 2013). Comparing other countries with a zero tolerance policy for illegal drugs, the rate of Russia is 455 per 100,000 (as of 2015), Kazakhstan is 275 per 100,000 (as of 2015), Singapore is 220 per 100,000 (as of 2014), and Sweden is 60 per 100,000 (as of 2014).
A 2014 report by the National Research Council identified two main causes of the increase in the United States ' incarceration rate over the previous 40 years: longer prison sentences and increases in the likelihood of imprisonment. The same report found that longer prison sentences were the main driver of increasing incarceration rates since 1990.
Even though there are other countries that commit more inmates to prison annually, the fact that the United States keeps their prisoners longer causes the total rate to become higher. To give an example, the average burglary sentence in the United States is 16 months, compared to 5 months in Canada and 7 months in England.
Looking at reasons for imprisonment will further clarify why the incarceration rate and length of sentences are so high. The practice of imposing longer prison sentences on repeat offenders is common in many countries but the three - strikes laws in the U.S. with mandatory 25 year imprisonment -- implemented in many states in the 1990s -- are statutes enacted by state governments in the United States which mandate state courts to impose harsher sentences on habitual offenders who are previously convicted of two prior serious criminal offenses and then commit a third.
Crime rates in low - income areas are much higher than in middle to high class areas. As a result, Incarceration rates in low - income areas are much higher than in wealthier areas due to these high crime rates. When the incarcerated or criminal is a youth, there is a significant impact on the individual and rippling effects on entire communities. Social capital is lost when an individual is incarcerated. How much social capital is lost is hard to accurately estimate, however Aizer and Doyle found a strong positive correlation between lower income as an adult if an individual is incarcerated in their youth in comparison to those who are not incarcerated. 63 percent to 66 percent of those involved in crimes are under the age of thirty. People incarcerated at a younger age lose the capability to invest in themselves and in their communities. Their children and families become susceptible to financial burden preventing them from escaping low - income communities. This contributes to the recurring cycle of poverty that is positively correlated with incarceration. Poverty rates have not been curbed despite steady economic growth. Poverty is not the sole dependent variable for increasing incarceration rates. Incarceration leads to more incarceration by putting families and communities at a dynamic social disadvantage.
The "War on Drugs '' is a policy that was initiated by Richard Nixon with the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 and vigorously pursued by Ronald Reagan. By 2010, drug offenders in federal prison had increased to 500,000 per year, up from 41,000 in 1985. According to Michelle Alexander, drug related charges accounted for more than half the rise in state prisoners between 1985 and 2000. 31 million people have been arrested on drug related charges, approximately 1 in 10 Americans. In contrast, John Pfaff of Fordham Law School has accused Alexander of exaggerating the influence of the War on Drugs on the rise in the United States ' incarceration rate: according to him, the percent of state prisoners whose primary offense was drug - related peaked at 22 % in 1990. The Brookings Institution reconciles the differences between Alexander and Pfaff by explaining two ways to look at the prison population as it relates to drug crimes, concluding "The picture is clear: Drug crimes have been the predominant reason for new admissions into state and federal prisons in recent decades '' and "rolling back the war on drugs would not, as Pfaff and Urban Institute scholars maintain, totally solve the problem of mass incarceration, but it could help a great deal, by reducing exposure to prison. ''
After the passage of Reagan 's Anti-Drug Abuse Act in 1986, incarceration for non-violent offenses dramatically increased. The Act imposed the same five - year mandatory sentence on those with convictions involving crack as on those possessing 100 times as much powder cocaine. This had a disproportionate effect on low - level street dealers and users of crack, who were more commonly poor blacks, Latinos, the young, and women.
Courts were given more discretion in sentencing by the Kimbrough v. United States (2007) decision, and the disparity was decreased to 18: 1 by the Fair Sentencing Act of 2010. As of 2006, 49.3 % of state prisoners, or 656,000 individuals, were incarcerated for non-violent crimes. As of 2008, 90.7 % of federal prisoners, or 165,457 individuals, were incarcerated for non-violent offenses.
By 2003, 58 % of all women in federal prison were convicted of drug offenses. Black and Hispanic women in particular have been disproportionately affected by the War on Drugs. Since 1986, incarceration rates have risen by 400 % for women of all races, while rates for Black women have risen by 800 %. Formerly incarcerated Black women are also most negatively impacted by the collateral legal consequences of conviction.
According to the American Civil Liberties Union, "Even when women have minimal or no involvement in the drug trade, they are increasingly caught in the ever - widening net cast by current drug laws, through provisions of the criminal law such as those involving conspiracy, accomplice liability, and constructive possession that expand criminal liability to reach partners, relatives and bystanders. ''
These new policies also disproportionately affect African - American women. According to Dorothy E. Roberts, the explanation is that poor women, who are disproportionately black, are more likely to be placed under constant supervision by the State in order to receive social services. They are then more likely to be caught by officials who are instructed to look specifically for drug offenses. Roberts argues that the criminal justice system 's creation of new crimes has a direct effect on the number of women, especially black women, who then become incarcerated.
One of the first laws in the U.S. against drugs was the Opium Exclusion Act of 1909. It prohibited the smoking of opium, which was ingested but not smoked by a substantial portion of caucasian housewives in America. It was smoked mainly by Asian American immigrants coming to build the railroads. These immigrants were targeted with anti-Asian sentiment, as many voters believed they were losing jobs to Asian immigrants.
This pattern was repeated in the late twentieth century with higher penalties for crack cocaine than powder. Crack was consumed primarily by African Americans, while powder was consumed more by the white middle - class. The substantial penalties for crack contributed to the five-fold increase in incarcerations seen in the plot above. For instance, the disproportionate number of African Americans compared to other racial groups in the United States that are arrested or incarcerated. Figures from 2008 offer a better illustration of the situation with 28 % of arrests involving African Americans and African American men comprising almost half of the current incarcerated population in the United States.
In the 1980s, the rising number of people incarcerated as a result of the War on Drugs and the wave of privatization that occurred under the Reagan Administration saw the emergence of the for - profit prison industry. Prior to the 1980s, private prisons did not exist in the US.
In a 2011 report by the ACLU, it is claimed that the rise of the for - profit prison industry is a "major contributor '' to "mass incarceration, '' along with bloated state budgets. Louisiana, for example, has the highest rate of incarceration in the world with the majority of its prisoners being housed in privatized, for - profit facilities. Such institutions could face bankruptcy without a steady influx of prisoners. A 2013 Bloomberg report states that in the past decade the number of inmates in for - profit prisons throughout the U.S. rose 44 percent.
Corporations who operate prisons, such as the Corrections Corporation of America and The GEO Group, spend significant amounts of money lobbying the federal government along with state governments. The two aforementioned companies, the largest in the industry, have been contributors to the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), which seeks to expand the privatization of corrections and lobbies for policies that would increase incarceration, such as three - strike laws and "truth - in - sentencing '' legislation. Prison companies also sign contracts with states that guarantee at least 90 percent of prison beds be filled. If these "lockup quotas '' are n't met, the state must reimburse the prison company for the unused beds. Prison companies use the profits to expand and put pressure on lawmakers to incarcerate a certain number of people. This influence on the government by the private prison industry has been referred to as the Prison -- industrial complex.
The industry is well aware of what reduced crime rates could mean to their bottom line. This from the CCA 's SEC report in 2010:
Our growth... depends on a number of factors we can not control, including crime rates... (R) eductions in crime rates... could lead to reductions in arrests, convictions and sentences requiring incarceration at correctional facilities.
Gallup polling since 1989 has found that in most years in which there was a decline in the U.S. crime rate, a majority of Americans said that violent crime was getting worse.
A substantial body of research claims that incarceration rates are primarily a function of media editorial policies, largely unrelated to the actual crime rate. Constructing Crime: Perspectives on Making News and Social Problems is a book collecting together papers on this theme. The researchers say that the jump in incarceration rate from 0.1 % to 0.5 % of the United States population from 1975 to 2000 (documented in the figure above) was driven by changes in the editorial policies of the mainstream commercial media and is unrelated to any actual changes in crime. Media consolidation reduced competition on content. That allowed media company executives to maintain substantially the same audience while slashing budgets for investigative journalism and filling the space from the police blotter, which tended to increase and stabilize advertising revenue. It is safer, easier and cheaper to write about crimes committed by poor people than the wealthy. Poor people can be libeled with impunity, but major advertisers can materially impact the profitability of a commercial media organization by reducing their purchases of advertising space with that organization.
News media thrive on feeding frenzies (such as missing white women) because they tend to reduce production costs while simultaneously building an audience interested in the latest development in a particular story. It takes a long time for a reporter to learn enough to write intelligently about a specific issue. Once a reporter has achieved that level of knowledge, it is easier to write subsequent stories. However, major advertisers have been known to spend their advertising budgets through different channels when they dislike the editorial policies. Therefore, a media feeding frenzy focusing on an issue of concern to an advertiser may reduce revenue and profits.
Sacco described how "competing news organizations responded to each other 's coverage (while) the police, in their role as gatekeepers of crime news, reacted to the increased media interest by making available more stories that reflected and reinforced '' a particular theme. "(T) he dynamics of competitive journalism created a media feeding frenzy that found news workers ' snatching at shocking numbers ' and ' smothering reports of stable or decreasing use under more ominous headlines. ' ''
The reasons cited above for increased incarcerations (US racial demographics, Increased sentencing laws, and Drug sentencing laws) have been described as consequences of the shift in editorial policies of the mainstream media.
According to the Federal Bureau of Prisons, 77.6 % of Federal inmates are U.S. citizens (as of April 2016). 15.2 % are citizens of Mexico, and the next three countries -- Colombia, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic, contribute less than 1 % each. 4.9 % have other or unknown citizenship. The Bureau did not state how many had come to the U.S. legally.
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a8 chip with 64-bit architecture m8 motion coprocessor | Apple A8 - wikipedia
The Apple A8 is a 64 - bit ARM - based system on a chip (SoC) designed by Apple Inc. It first appeared in the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus, which were introduced on September 9, 2014. Apple states that it has 25 % more CPU performance and 50 % more graphics performance while drawing only 50 % of the power of its predecessor, the Apple A7.
The A8 is manufactured on a 20 nm process by TSMC, which replaced Samsung as the manufacturer of Apple 's mobile device processors. It contains 2 billion transistors. Despite having twice the number of transistors of the A7, the A8 's physical size has been reduced by 13 % to 89 mm. The A8 uses LPDDR3 - 1333 RAM on a 64 - bit memory interface; in the iPhone 6 / 6 Plus, sixth generation iPod touch and HomePod the A8 has 1 GB RAM included in the package, while the A8 in the iPad Mini 4 and 4th generation Apple TV is packaged with 2 GB RAM.
The A8 CPU has a per - core L1 cache of 64 KB for data and 64 KB for instructions, an L2 cache of 1 MB shared by both CPU cores, and a 4 MB L3 cache that services the entire SoC. As its predecessor, it has a 6 decode, 6 issue, 9 wide, out - of - order design. The processor is dual core, and as used in the iPhone 6 has a frequency of 1.4 GHz, supporting Apple 's claim of it being 25 % faster than the A7. It also supports the notion of this being a second generation enhanced Cyclone core called Typhoon, and not an entirely new architecture which would supposedly mean a more significant performance gain per Hz.
The A8 also integrates a graphics processing unit (GPU) which is a 4 - shader - cluster PowerVR GX6450.
On October 16, 2014, Apple introduced a variant of the A8, the A8X, in the iPad Air 2. Compared with the A8, the A8X has an enhanced 8 - shader - cluster GPU and improved CPU performance due to one extra core and higher frequency.
The A8 's branch predictor has been claimed to infringe on a 1998 patent. On October 14, 2015, a district judge found Apple guilty of infringing U.S. patent US 5781752, "Table based data speculation circuit for parallel processing computer '', on the Apple A7 and A8 processors. The patent is owned by Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation (WARF), a firm affiliated with the University of Wisconsin. On July 24, 2017, Apple was ordered to pay WARF $506 million for patent infringement. The patent expired in December 2016. Apple filed an appellate brief on October 26, 2017 with the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, that argued that Apple did not infringe on the patent owned by the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation.
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what is the purpose of the balanced budget amendment enacted by these states | Balanced budget amendment - wikipedia
A balanced budget amendment is a constitutional rule requiring that a state can not spend more than its income. It requires a balance between the projected receipts and expenditures of the government.
Balanced - budget provisions have been added to the constitutions of most U.S. states, the Basic Law of Germany, the Hong Kong Basic Law, Spain, Italy and the Swiss Constitution. It is often proposed that a balanced - budget rule be added to the federal United States Constitution. Most balanced - budget provisions make an exception for times of war, national emergency, or recession, or allow the legislature to suspend the rule by a supermajority vote.
There is a near - consensus among economists that a balanced budget amendment would not reduce economic volatility. Economists are divided as to whether a balanced budget amendment would reduce the cost of borrowing for governments; with 19 % of economists saying that it would and 38 % of economists saying that it would not.
In November 2011 the Austrian coalition government agreed to amend its constitution and introduce a German style Schuldenbremse ("debt brake ''). This will force the government to reduce its debt level to 60 % of gross domestic product (GDP) by 2020.
Article 34 of the Constitution was amended in 2008 to include the objective of balancing the public sector accounts. In 2012 France passed a new law (2012 - 1403), creating the independent High Council of Public Finances, giving it the responsibility to report on the sustainability and deviation from planned targets of public spending.
In 2009 Germany 's constitution was amended to introduce the Schuldenbremse ("debt brake ''), a balanced budget provision. This will apply to both the federal government and the Länder (German states). From 2016 onwards the federal government will be forbidden to run a structural deficit of more than 0.35 % of GDP. From 2020, the states will not be permitted to run any structural deficit at all. The Basic Law permits an exception to be made for emergencies such as a natural disaster or severe economic crisis.
In 2011 Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi promised to balance the budget by 2013, and a balanced budget amendment to the Constitution of Italy was added in 2012 with an overwhelming parliamentary majority, under the following Monti government.
Poland 's constitution (adopted in 1997) caps the public debt at 60 % of GDP -- the government can not take on any financial obligations that would cause that limit to be exceeded. To ensure this level is never breached, Poland has a self - imposed debt threshold of 55 % of GDP, and the government must take action to balance the budget once this level is exceeded.
In 2013 the Slovenian parliament approved a balanced budget amendment to the constitution that will come into force in 2015.
In 2011 the Spanish Parliament proposed a law amending the Spanish Constitution to require a balanced budget at both the national and regional level by 2020. The law states that public debt can not exceed 60 % of GDP, though exceptions would be made in case of a natural catastrophe, economic recession or other emergencies. The changes will also require the government to stick to EU annual deficit limits of 3 % of GDP.
After years of rising deficits and debt in the 1990s, Switzerland 's citizens adopted the debt brake as a constitutional amendment in 2001. The rule was implemented starting in 2003. It states that each year, the budget must be in balance, adjusted for economic conditions. This adjustment is made by multiplying expenditures by a cyclical factor (the ratio of trend real GDP to expected real GDP), thus either allowing for deficits during recessions or forcing lawmakers to have surpluses during booms. Essentially, the rule calls for structural balance in each year and absolute balance over the course of a business cycle. So if lawmakers want to have expansionary fiscal policy during recessions, they need to pay for it by saving up during good economic times. The rule did initially allow for "extraordinary spending '' if a qualified parliamentary majority approved, but recent changes have made this spending count as normal expenditures.
Every U.S. state other than Vermont has some form of balanced budget provision that applies to its operating budget. The precise form of this provision varies from state to state. Indiana has a state debt prohibition with an exception for "temporary and casual deficits, '' but no balanced budget requirement. The governor is not legally required to submit a balanced budget, the legislature is not required to approve appropriations that are within available revenue, and the state is not required to end the year in balance. An unusual variant is the Oregon kicker, which bans surpluses of more than 2 % of revenue by refunding the money to the taxpayers. State balanced budget requirements do not apply to state capital budgets, which generally allow states to use their debt capacity to finance long - term expenditures such as transportation and other infrastructure.
There is no balanced budget provision in the U.S. Constitution, so the federal government is not required to have a balanced budget and usually does not pass one. Several proposed amendments to the U.S. Constitution would require a balanced budget, but none have been passed. Most of these proposed amendments allow a supermajority to waive the requirement of a balanced budget in times of war, national emergency or recession.
U.S. economists of varying macroeconomic theories disagree about whether a balanced budget is needed -- or even useful -- to achieve long term economic growth.
The Articles of Confederation and the Perpetual Union had granted to the Continental Congress the power
And, with this as a model Article I, Section 8, Clause 2 of the Constitution grants to the United States Congress the power
At the time that the Constitution came into effect, the United States had a significant debt, primarily associated with the Revolutionary War. There were differences within and between the major political coalitions over the possible liquidation or increase of this debt. As early as 1798, Thomas Jefferson wrote:
I wish it were possible to obtain a single amendment to our Constitution. I would be willing to depend on that alone for the reduction of the administration of our government; I mean an additional article taking from the Federal Government the power of borrowing. I now deny their power of making paper money or anything else a legal tender. I know that to pay all proper expenses within the year would, in a case of war, be hard on us. But not so hard as ten wars instead of one. For wars could be reduced in that proportion; besides that, the State governments would be free to lend their credit in borrowing quotas.
(Although Jefferson made a point of seeking a balanced budget during the early years of his administration, he seems to have later reversed himself in purchasing the Louisiana Territory. But note also that he made no exception for war, but rather saw the requirement of maintaining a balanced budget as a salutary deterrent.)
The issue of the federal debt was next addressed by the Constitution within Section 4 of the Fourteenth Amendment (proposed on June 13, 1866, and ratified on July 9, 1868):
On May 4, 1936, Representative Harold Knutson (R - Minnesota) introduced House Joint Resolution 579, resolution in support of a Constitutional Amendment that would have placed a per capita ceiling on the federal debt in peacetime.
Article V of the Constitution specifies that if the legislatures of two - thirds of the states apply to Congress for a constitutional amendment by means of an amendment - proposing convention, then Congress must call that convention. A total of 44 states have submitted applications for a balanced budget amendment, at some time in the past. However, they were not outstanding simultaneously as some have expired or been rescinded. As of 27 December 2016, there were 28 outstanding applications according to the Balance Budget Amendment Task Force which advocates for such an amendment. On 24 February, 2017, Wyoming became the 29th state to call for a convention to pass a balanced budget amendment.
Unlike the constitutions of most U.S. states, the United States Constitution does not require the United States Congress to pass a balanced budget, one in which the projected income to the government through taxes, fees, fines, and other revenues equals or exceeds the amount proposed to be spent. This has led to deficit spending and the creation of a national debt. Except for a short period during the presidency of Andrew Jackson since its inception the United States federal government has always been in debt.
Gross debt includes both public debt and Intragovernmental holdings -- money borrowed from federal funds such as Medicare and Social Security.
Fiscal years 1940 -- 2009 GDP figures are derived from 2010 Office of Management and Budget figures which contained revisions of prior year figures due to significant changes from prior GDP measurements. Fiscal years 1950 - 2010 GDP measurements are derived from December 2010 Bureau of Economic Analysis figures which also tend to be subject to revision. The two measures in Fiscal Years 1980, 1990 and 2000 - 2007 diverge only slightly.
Deficit spending resumed under Richard Nixon, who had become president by the time that the 1969 surplus was known. Nixon 's advisors chose to fight inflation rather than to maintain a balanced budget. Nixon was famously quoted as saying, "We are all Keynesians now, '' with regard to the budget deficit that his administration began to accumulate during years of mild recession. (He also imposed the first peacetime wage and price controls, mandatory petroleum allotments, and many other features of a planned economy).
With the distractions of the Watergate scandal and the budget deficit relatively small, however, most criticisms were sidelined until the administration of Jimmy Carter. During Carter 's presidency, the term "stagflation '' enjoyed widespread use as the economy stagnated even among increased inflation rates. This economic situation had been previously unheard of in the United States where increasing prices and wages had generally been seen during times of economic growth. Republicans began to make much mention of "Democratic deficits '' and proposed the Balanced Budget Amendment as a cure.
During this time period, many liberal Democrats began to call for a Balanced Budget Amendment, including Governor Jerry Brown of California, who ran for president against Carter in 1980, and then - Congressman Paul Simon, who, upon his election to the U.S. Senate, would write the version of the amendment that came closest to passing.
The 1980 presidential election gave the presidency to Republican Ronald Reagan and control of the Senate to the Republicans for 3 / 4 of Reagan 's presidency. Passage of the amendment started to seem more possible, though passage of a constitutional amendment requires a two - thirds vote in both houses of Congress. Deficit spending soared in the 1980s. A program agreed to by Administration and Congressional leaders which were supposed to entail two dollars of spending cuts for every dollar of tax increases was an abysmal failure, and deficits soared further. It became apparent that Congress had no intention of passing the Balanced Budget Amendment, and President Reagan never once proposed a balanced budget for adoption by the Congress.
The amendment 's backers, far from despairing, said that it was needed more than ever. They began a plan to make an "end run '' around Congress, for the U.S. Constitution also allows two - thirds of state legislatures to petition for a new constitutional convention to be called for the purpose of writing proposed amendments to the Constitution, a procedure which has never happened at the federal level since the original constitutional convention of 1787. Much of this effort was initially organized by the National Taxpayers Union and its President at the time, George Snyder, a former state senate majority leader. Many people were appalled at the concept; some constitutional scholars suggested that such a body could not be limited to its ostensible purpose and could largely rewrite the Constitution, perhaps removing or reducing the Bill of Rights, a fear that backers described as being totally groundless, since any proposed changes would still have to be approved by three - quarters of the states, which would presumably doom any attempt to end basic constitutional freedoms.
Detractors also noted that there was no mechanism in place by which to select delegates to any such convention, meaning that the states might choose to select them in a way which tended to subvert democracy. Backers also produced their own constitutional scholars stating that limiting such a convention was perfectly constitutional, that it could be limited to whatever purpose the states had called it for, and that states would be free to select the delegates to represent them, as was the case in 1787.
Perhaps motivated by the number of state legislatures calling for such a convention approaching the required two - thirds, and recognizing its inability to make sufficient cuts on its own initiative to balance the budget, Congress responded in 1985 with the Gramm - Rudman - Hollings Act, named for its Senate sponsors, which called for automatic cuts in discretionary spending when certain deficit - reduction targets were not met. This act soon became a convenient target for opponents of all stripes, who blamed it for government failing to meet perceived needs, for not abolishing the deficit, and anything else that might be wrong with government. When it began to affect popular programs and was partially overturned in the courts, it was first amended to postpone the strength of its effects until later years, and then repealed in its entirety.
President George H.W. Bush, in part to help ensure Congressional support for the Gulf War, agreed to turn back on a campaign promise of no tax increases, reportedly in part because he saw disaffection from his conservative base due to the looming deficit.
Deficit spending continued but was no longer much of an issue until the presidential bid of Ross Perot during the 1992 presidential election. Perot made the deficit, and his plans to eliminate it, the major issue of his campaign, along with his protectionist plans to reduce and then eliminate the trade deficit. Many supporters of the Balanced Budget Amendment flocked to the Perot camp. Despite winning a substantial number of popular votes, Perot failed to carry a single state (zero electoral votes). He eventually faded from the political scene and when appearances were made, focused more on the trade deficit issue.
President Bill Clinton did not support a constitutional amendment, but in his 1992 campaign, he called for balancing the budget through ordinary fiscal policy. He came into office facing a large deficit. Clinton signed into law the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, which attacked the deficit by raising taxes. Beginning with the 1998 budget year, during his second term, the federal government ran a yearly budget surplus through FY 2001. During the Clinton administration, there was an official surplus of $419 billion during fiscal years 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001.
However, it has been argued that this official balanced budget only constituted a surplus in the public debt (or on - budget), in which the Treasury Department borrowed increased tax revenue from intragovernmental debt (namely the Social Security Trust Fund), thus adding more interest on Treasury bonds. In effect, the four year alleged ' surplus ' was only in public debt holdings, while the National Debt Outstanding increased every fiscal year, the lowest being a $17.9 billion deficit in FY2000. Meanwhile, Government Sponsored Enterprises (GSEs) such as GNMA, FNMA and FHLMC continued to borrow and spend an extra $543.6 billion over and above their previous 3 years. GSE debt instruments are classified as US Government Securities, but are not officially part of the Federal Debt total.
In 1994, many Americans viewed reducing the deficit as one of the most important public policy objectives. To that end, in that year 's Congressional election, Republicans campaigned against Clinton 's tax increase and took control of both the Senate and the House. The Republican - led Congress immediately engaged in a battle with President Clinton culminating in a vetoed budget and a brief shutdown of the Federal government. Despite negotiations disagreement remained on the pace of spending cuts. Ultimately Republican concessions differed little from what was attainable without shutdown. One provision of their "Contract with America '' campaign document called for a balanced - budget amendment. In 1995, such an amendment passed the House of Representatives and came within one vote of passing the Senate.
In his final State of the Union address, Clinton said the United States should continue to balance its books and pay off the debt.
A recession, tax cuts and increases in military and other spending have eliminated late 1990s - era surpluses. Both the deficit and debt grew to the largest in U.S. history. In fiscal years starting September 30, 2002, and ending September 30, 2004, the deficit increased nearly 50 %.
By 2008, the last full year of George W. Bush 's presidency, the deficit had almost doubled again, for the first time exceeding $1 trillion. As a result, during the administration of President George W. Bush, the gross debt increased from $5.7 trillion in January 2001 to $10.7 trillion by December 2008, rising from 57.0 % of GDP to 74.5 % of GDP.
By the end of 2008, a large reduction in tax revenues caused by the Great Recession and the cost of federal stimulus spending began contributing to a rapidly increasing deficit. Responses to the crisis from both the Bush administration -- the bank bailouts and economic stimulus of late 2008 -- and more stimulus spending in the first months of the Obama administration grew the deficit further. By the end of 2009, it reached a record $11.9 trillion. The Congressional Budget Office estimated in March 2009 that under the Obama administration public debt would rise from 40.8 % of GDP in 2008 to 70.1 % in 2012. Gross debt did rise to 84.5 % of GDP at the end of Fiscal Year 2009 and to 93.5 % of GDP at the end of the fiscal year 2010. (Gross debt includes both public debt and Intragovernmental holdings -- money borrowed from federal funds such as Medicare and Social Security.)
During the 2011 US debt ceiling crisis, some Republicans supported a bill that would avert the crisis by raising the debt ceiling, but with an increase that would not take effect until a balanced - budget amendment was approved by both houses of Congress and submitted to the states. In addition to balancing the budget, it would also impose a constitutional limit on federal spending as a percentage of gross domestic product and would set a supermajority requirement on tax increases. The Budget Control Act of 2011, which resolved the debt - ceiling crisis, required Congress to vote on a balanced - budget amendment in the near future. In addition, it stated that once a balanced budget amendment was sent to the states, the debt ceiling would be automatically increased by 1.5 trillion (this would be in addition to the initial debt limit increase of 2.1 trillion (from 14.294 to 16.394 trillion)). If this provision were to take effect today, it would raise the debt limit to approximately 18.199 trillion, therefore, end the 2013 debt ceiling crisis.
On November 18, 2011 the House of Representatives voted down a balanced - budget amendment that would not have imposed a supermajority requirement on tax increases. House Rules Committee chair David Dreier (R - CA), who had voted for the amendment in 1995, announced that he had changed his mind about the need to amend the Constitution, in light of the success in balancing the budget in the late 1990s.
Historically as a political issue, the deficit, national debt, and the proposed Balanced Budget Amendment have ebbed and flowed in levels of discussion and the proposed amendment has varied greatly in level of support. The modern discussion of the issue seems to have been started by the Republican Party in response to the "guns and butter '' policies of President Lyndon B. Johnson, who simultaneously announced his desires for "Great Society '' social programs while prosecuting the Vietnam War. Johnson also pushed for Congressional enactment of a surtax as well as other tax increases which allowed him to leave office in 1969 with a balanced budget (plus a small surplus) on the books. This was the last time the United States would see a balanced budget until FY 1998.
In 2003, approximately 90 % of the members of the American Economic Association agreed with the statement, "If the federal budget is to be balanced, it should be done over the course of the business cycle, rather than yearly. '' A reason cited by several leading economists is that a "balanced budget amendment would mandate perverse actions in the face of recessions '' by requiring spending cuts that would aggravate the recession. As government spending is part of any country 's GDP, sharp cuts in spending to achieve a balanced budget would increase a government 's overall debt burden by increasing the country 's debt - to - GDP ratio.
Currently, most Democrats and Democratic - leaning Independents want to stabilize the public debt (all debt except intergovernmental holdings) as a percentage of GDP and worry about balancing later. On the other hand, most Republicans and Republican - leaning Independents support a balanced - budget amendment that would require balancing the federal budget by a certain fiscal year in the near future.
Lobbying organizations supporting the balanced budget amendment include: Balanced Budget Amendment Task Force, the American Legislative Exchange Council, and Citizens for Self - Governance.
Many Neo-Keynesian economists believe that while a large federal deficit has an adverse effect on the economy, deficit spending has significant benefits in times of recession.
The forecasting firm Macroeconomic Advisers LLC addressed the effect of balancing the federal budget for 2012, in the wake of the late - 2000s recession: "Then, instead of forecasting real GDP growth of 2 % or so for FY 2012, we 'd mark that projection down to perhaps -- 12 % and raise our forecast of the unemployment rate from 9 % to 16 %, or roughly 11 million fewer jobs. '' Furthermore, the resulting loss of tax revenue and increase in mandatory spending would require additional cuts in discretionary spending that would cause a loss of four million more jobs.
The Center for Budget and Policy Priorities published a report in 2014 saying that a constitutional balanced budget amendment would pose serious risks.
The amendment has been called "political posturing '' because its proponents use it to position themselves as supporters of a balanced budget but without specifying which unpopular tax increases or spending cuts they would support to reach that goal. For example, Robert Bixby of the anti-deficit Concord Coalition called the amendment "an avoidance device. '' Economist Dean Baker has noted that if the federal government were to run budget surpluses with the US still experiencing a large trade deficit, the economy would, in the absence of economic bubbles, shrink and experience rising unemployment. Without significant devaluation of the US dollar, he has stated, the federal government necessarily has to run budget deficits to offset trade deficits or there will be high unemployment.
It has been argued that such amendment would likely be unenforceable. Among other reasons, the standard budgetary process in the United States operates with projected figures. There is no way of knowing ahead of time whether the budget would end up unbalanced in any fiscal year before that fiscal year is over. While the Congress may be mandated by the amendment only to pass balanced budgets, this could be easily circumvented by inflating revenue projections or routing spending through off - budget channels. Balanced - budget amendment proposals often contain an exemption for emergencies such as being in the state of war. It could be envisioned that the Congress would simply declare the country in a perpetual state of war, year after year, just to avoid the necessity of politically costly spending cuts or tax increases.
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when does the new freddy movie come out | Freddy Krueger - wikipedia
Frederick Charles "Freddy '' Krueger is a character of the A Nightmare on Elm Street film series. He first appeared in Wes Craven 's A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984) as a burnt serial killer who uses a glove armed with razors to kill his victims in their dreams, causing their deaths in the real world as well. In the dream world, he is a powerful force and almost completely invulnerable. However, whenever Freddy is pulled into the real world, he has normal human vulnerabilities. Krueger was created by Wes Craven and had been consistently portrayed by Robert Englund since his first appearance. In the 2010 franchise reboot, he was portrayed by Jackie Earle Haley. In 2011, Freddy appeared as a playable character in the video game Mortal Kombat. Over the course of the series, Freddy has battled numerous survivors including Nancy Thompson.
In the Nightmares on Elm Street comics, a popular alias is used, known as The Springwood Killer.
Freddy is a dream - demon who attacks his victims from within their dreams. He is commonly identified by his burned, disfigured face, red - and - green striped sweater, brown fedora, and trademark metal - clawed brown leather glove only on his right hand. This glove was the product of Krueger 's own imagination, the blade having been welded by himself. Robert Englund has said many times that he feels the character represents neglect, particularly that suffered by children. The character also more broadly represents subconscious fears.
Wizard magazine rated Freddy the 14th greatest villain, the British television channel Sky2 listed him 8th, and the American Film Institute ranked him 40th on its "AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains '' list. In 2010, Freddy won an award for Best Villain (formerly Most Vile Villain) at the Scream Awards.
Freddy is introduced in A Nightmare on Elm Street as a child killer who is eventually captured, but is let off due to a technicality (the search warrant was n't signed in the right place). He is hunted down by a mob of angry parents and cornered in a boiler room where he used to take his victims. The mob douses the building with gasoline and sets it on fire, burning Krueger alive. While his body dies, his spirit lives on in the dreams of a group of teenagers living in his old neighborhood, whom he preys on by entering their dreams and killing them. He is apparently destroyed at the end of the film by protagonist Nancy Thompson, but the last scene reveals that he had survived. He went on to antagonize the teenage protagonists of the next five films in the series. After a hiatus, Krueger was brought back in Wes Craven 's New Nightmare by Wes Craven, who had not worked on the film series since the third film, A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors. Robert Englund, who portrayed Krueger throughout the film series and its television spin - off, also took the role as a fictional version of himself in New Nightmare; it is implied that Englund was stalked by his character, who is an ancient demonic entity that took on the form of Wes Craven 's creation, and has come to life from the film franchise 's fictitious world. Englund struggles to keep his sanity intact from Krueger 's torments, and went into hiding with his family. This embodiment of Freddy Krueger also sees Heather Langenkamp as his primary foe as the result of her character Nancy Thompson was the first who defeated him in the first film.
In Dream Warriors, more of Freddy 's backstory is revealed by the mysterious nun who repeatedly appears to Dr. Gordon. Freddy 's mother, Amanda Krueger, was a nurse at the asylum featured in the film. At the time she worked there, a largely abandoned, run - down wing of the asylum was used to lock up entire hordes of the most insane criminals all at once. When Amanda was young, she was accidentally locked into the room with the criminals over a holiday weekend. They managed to keep her hidden for days, raping her repeatedly. When she was finally discovered, she was barely alive and was pregnant with the future Freddy Krueger.
In 2003, Freddy battled fellow horror icon Jason Voorhees from the Friday the 13th film series in the theatrical release Freddy vs. Jason, a film which officially resurrected both characters from their respective deaths and subsequently sent them to Hell. The ending of the film is left ambiguous as to whether or not Freddy is actually dead; despite being decapitated, as a head he looks back and winks at the viewers. A sequel featuring Ash Williams from The Evil Dead franchise was planned, but never materialized on - screen. It was later turned into Dynamite Entertainment 's comic book series Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash.
In the 2010 remake of the original film, it is suggested that Freddy is a child molester who had sexually abused the teenage protagonists of the film when they were young children. When their parents found out, they trapped him in a building and set it on fire, killing him. As a spirit, he took his revenge on the teenagers by haunting their dreams for selling him out.
Robert Englund continued his role as Krueger on October 9, 1988, in the television anthology series, Freddy 's Nightmares. The show was hosted by Freddy, who did not take direct part in most of the episodes, but he did show up occasionally to influence the plot of particular episodes. Further, a consistent theme in each episode was characters having disturbing dreams. The series ran for two seasons, 44 episodes, ending March 10, 1990. Although most of the episodes did not feature Freddy taking a major role in the plot, the pilot episode, "No More, Mr. Nice Guy '', depicts the events of his trial, and his subsequent death at the hands of the parents of Elm Street after his acquittal. In "No More, Mr. Nice Guy '', though Freddy 's case seems open and shut, a mistrial is declared based on the arresting officer, Lt. Tim Blocker, not reading Krueger his Miranda rights, which is different from the original Nightmare that stated he was released because someone forgot to sign a search warrant in the right place. The episode also reveals that Krueger used an ice cream van to lure children close enough so that he could kidnap and kill them. After the town 's parents burn Freddy to death he returns to haunt Blocker in his dreams. Freddy gets his revenge when Blocker is put to sleep at the dentist 's office, and Freddy shows up and kills him. The episode "Sister 's Keeper '' was a "sequel '' to this episode, even though it was the seventh episode of the series. The episode follows Krueger as he terrorizes the Blocker twins, the identical twin daughters of Lt. Tim Blocker, and frames one sister for the other 's murder. Season two 's "It 's My Party And You 'll Die If I Want You To '' featured Freddy attacking a high school prom date who stood him up twenty years earlier. He got his revenge with his desire being fulfilled in the process.
Freddy 's first video game appearance was in the Nintendo Entertainment System 's 1989 game A Nightmare on Elm Street. The game was published by LJN Toys and developed by Rare.
A second game for the Commodore 64 and DOS - based computers was also released in 1989 released by Monarch Software and developed by Westwood Associates.
Freddy Krueger appeared as a downloadable playable character for Mortal Kombat (2011), with Robert Englund reprising his role. He has become the second non-Mortal Kombat character to appear in the game with the other being Kratos from the God of War series (who was an exclusive character for the PlayStation 3 version, while Freddy was available across all versions of the game). The game depicts Krueger as a malevolent spirit inhibating the Dream Realm who attacks Shao Kahn for "stealing '' the souls of his potential victims. During the fight, he is pulled into the game 's fictional depiction of the real world. The injured Krueger arms himself with two razor claws to continue to battle Kahn. Upon defeating him, Krueger is sent back to the Dream Realm by Nightwolf, where he continues to haunt the dreams of his human prey. In an interview with PlayStation. Blog, Mortal Kombat co-creator Ed Boon cited the character 's violent nature and iconic status as reasoning for the inclusion in the game, "Over the years, we 've certainly had a number of conversations about guest characters. At one point, we had a conversation about having a group -- imagine Freddy, Jason, Michael Myers, Leatherface from Texas Chainsaw Massacre. We never got a grip on how we would do it, whether they 'd be DLC characters or what. We also wanted to introduce a character who was unexpected. This DLC thing opens the doors to realizing these ideas. '' Krueger went on to become playable in the mobile edition of the game 's sequel, Mortal Kombat X, alongside Jason from Friday the 13th. In October 2017, Krueger was released as a downloadable playable character in the seventh chapter of the asymmetric survival horror game Dead by Daylight, alongside Quentin Smith. The events of the chapter are set immediately following Nancy Holbrook 's escape from Krueger, after which he targets Quentin Smith as revenge for aiding her. Invading Smith 's dreams, he forces him to go to the Badham Preschool, where the two are unwittingly taken to the universe of Dead by Daylight by an unseen force.
Freddy Krueger appeared alongside Jason Voorhees and Leatherface as minor icons during Halloween Horror Nights 17 and again with Jason during Halloween Horror Nights 25 at Universal Orlando Resort and Universal Studios Hollywood. In 2016, Freddy Krueger is back at Halloween Horror Nights Hollywood in the maze "Freddy vs. Jason ''.
Wes Craven said his inspiration for the basis of Freddy Krueger 's power stemmed from several stories in the Los Angeles Times about a series of mysterious deaths: All the victims had reported recurring nightmares and died in their sleep. Additionally, Craven 's original script characterized Freddy as a child molester, which Craven said was the "worst thing '' he could think of. The decision was made to instead make him a child murderer in order to avoid being accused of exploiting the spate of highly publicized child molestation cases in California around the time A Nightmare on Elm Street went into production. Craven 's inspirations for the character included a bully from his school during his youth, a disfigured homeless man who had frightened him when he was 11, and the 1970s pop song "Dream Weaver '' by Gary Wright. In an interview, he said, "When I looked down there was a man very much like Freddy walking along the sidewalk. He must have sensed that someone was looking at him and stopped and looked right into my face. He scared the living daylights out of me, so I jumped back into the shadows. I waited and waited to hear him walk away. Finally I thought he must have gone, so I stepped back to the window. The guy was not only still looking at me but he thrust his head forward as if to say, ' Yes, I 'm still looking at you. ' The man walked towards the apartment building 's entrance. I ran through the apartment to our front door as he was walking into our building on the lower floor. I heard him starting up the stairs. My brother, who is ten years older than me, got a baseball bat and went out to the corridor but he was gone. ''
Freddy 's back story is revealed gradually throughout the series. In A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors, the protagonists learn that Freddy 's mother, Amanda Krueger, was a nun who worked in Westin Hills mental hospital caring for the inmates. Freddy was conceived when she was accidentally locked inside over the Christmas holiday and gang - raped by a group of the inmates, thus making him "the bastard son of 100 maniacs ''. Freddy 's Dead: The Final Nightmare depicts Freddy 's traumatic childhood; he displayed sociopathic behavior at a young age and was often teased by classmates. He was adopted as a child by an abusive alcoholic named Mr. Underwood, who teaches him how to torture animals and inflict pain on himself. Freddy eventually murders him, with no apparent consequences, and becomes a serial killer. The film also reveals that when Freddy reached adulthood, he married a woman named Loretta, with whom he fathered a daughter named Katherine. After the birth of his daughter, he tried to lead a normal life, but his murderous nature eventually overcame him, and he murdered 20 children on Elm Street between 1963 and 1966. He later murdered his wife after she discovered the evidence of his child killings, which Katherine witnessed. She told the authorities and Freddy was arrested for the murder of his wife and the Elm Street children. In 1968, he was put on trial, but released on a technicality - generally agreed to be that the evidence of his role in the murders was acquired without a properly - signed search warrant, with the result that none of the evidence was admissible in court even if it was clear Krueger did it - leading to his death at the hands of the parents of his victims. In his dying moments, the Dream Demons came to him to offer him immortality in exchange for being their agent, which Freddy accepted. His daughter, Katherine, was later moved out of Springwood, adopted, and renamed Maggie Burroughs.
In Wes Craven 's New Nightmare, Freddy is characterized as a symbol of something powerful and ancient, and is given more stature and muscles. Unlike the six movies before it, New Nightmare shows Freddy as closer to what Wes Craven originally intended, toning down his comedic side while strengthening the more menacing aspects of his character.
Throughout the series, Freddy 's potential victims often experience dreams of young children, jumping rope and chanting a rhyme to the tune of "One, Two, Buckle My Shoe '' with the lyrics changed to "One, Two, Freddy 's coming for you '', often as an omen to Freddy 's presence or a precursor to his attacks.
In the 2010 remake of A Nightmare On Elm Street, Jackie Earle Haley portrayed Freddy Krueger. In the film, Krueger is depicted as a child abuser who worked as a gardener at a local preschool. Unlike in the original version of events, where he was a known child - killer who evaded conviction on a technicality, in this version of events there was actually ambiguity about Kruger 's guilt or innocence apart from the testimony of his victims, until the now - grown survivors find the room where Krueger molested them while searching for evidence.
Freddy Krueger 's physical appearance has remained largely consistent throughout the film series, although minor changes were made in subsequent films. He wears a striped red - and - green sweater (solid red sleeves in the original film), a dark brown fedora, his bladed glove, loose black trousers (brown in the original film), and worn work boots, in keeping with his blue collar background. His skin is scarred and burned as a result of being burned alive by the parents of Springwood, and he has no hair at all on his head as it presumably all burned off. In the original film, only Freddy 's face was burned, while the scars have spread to the rest of his body from the second film onwards. His blood is occasionally a dark, oily color, or greenish in hue when he is in the Dreamworld. In the original film, Freddy remains in the shadows and under lower light much longer than he does in the later pictures. In the second film, there are some scenes where Freddy is shown without his bladed glove, and instead with the blades protruding from the tips of his fingers. As the films began to emphasize the comedic, wise - cracking aspect of the character, he began to don various costumes and take on other forms, such as dressing as a waiter or wearing a Superman inspired version of his sweater with a cape (The Dream Child), appearing as a video game sprite (Freddy 's Dead), a giant snake - like creature (Dream Warriors), and a hookah smoking caterpillar (Freddy vs. Jason).
In New Nightmare, Freddy 's appearance is updated considerably, giving him a green fedora that matched his sweater stripes, skin - tight leather pants, knee - high black boots, a turtleneck version of his trademark sweater, a dark blue trench coat, and a fifth claw on his glove, which also has a far more organic appearance, resembling the exposed muscle tissue of an actual hand. Freddy also has fewer burns on his face, though these are more severe, with his muscle tissue exposed in numerous places. Compared to his other incarnations, this Freddy 's injuries are more like those of an actual burn victim. For the 2010 remake, Freddy is returned to his iconic attire, but the burns on his face are intensified with further bleaching of the skin and exposed facial tissue on the left cheek, more reminiscent of actual third degree burns than in the original series.
Wes Craven stated that part of the inspiration for Freddy 's infamous bladed glove was from his cat, as he watched it claw the side of his couch one night.
In an interview he said, "Part of it was an objective goal to make the character memorable, since it seems that every character that has been successful has had some kind of unique weapon, whether it be a chain saw or a machete, etc. I was also looking for a primal fear which is embedded in the subconscious of people of all cultures. One of those is the fear of teeth being broken, which I used in my first film. Another is the claw of an animal, like a saber - toothed tiger reaching with its tremendous hooks. I transposed this into a human hand. The original script had the blades being fishing knives. ''
When Jim Doyle, the creator of Freddy 's claw, asked Craven what he wanted, Craven responded, "It 's kind of like really long fingernails, I want the glove to look like something that someone could make who has the skills of a boilermaker. '' Doyle explained, "Then we hunted around for knives. We picked out this bizarre - looking steak knife, we thought that this looked really cool, we thought it would look even cooler if we turned it over and used it upside down. We had to remove the back edge and put another edge on it, because we were actually using the knife upside down. '' Later Doyle had three duplicates of the glove made, two of which were used as stunt gloves in long shots.
For New Nightmare, Lou Carlucci, the effects coordinator, remodeled Freddy 's glove for a more "organic look ''. He says, "I did the original glove on the first Nightmare and we deliberately made that rough and primitive looking, like something that would be constructed in somebody 's home workshop. Since this is supposed to be a new look for Freddy, Craven and everybody involved decided that the glove should be different. This hand has more muscle and bone texture to it, the blades are shinier and in one case, are retractable. Everything about this glove has a much cleaner look to it, it 's more a natural part of his hand than a glove. '' The new glove has five claws.
In the 2010 remake, the glove is redesigned as a metal gauntlet with four finger bars, but it is patterned after its original design.
Freddy 's glove appeared in the 1987 horror - comedy Evil Dead II: Dead by Dawn above the door on the inside of a toolshed. This was Sam Raimi 's response to Wes Craven showing footage of The Evil Dead in A Nightmare on Elm Street, which in turn was a response to Sam Raimi putting a poster of Craven 's 1977 film The Hills Have Eyes in The Evil Dead. The glove also appears in the 1998 horror - comedy Bride of Chucky in an evidence locker room that also contains the remains of the film 's villain Chucky, the chainsaw of Leatherface from The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, and the masks of Michael Myers from Halloween and Jason Voorhees from Friday the 13th.
At the end of the movie Jason Goes To Hell: The Final Friday, the mask of the title character, Jason Voorhees, played by Kane Hodder, is dragged under the earth by Freddy 's gloved hand, thus setting up Freddy vs. Jason. Freddy 's gloved hand, in the ending, was played by Hodder.
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who is currently the tallest player in the nba 2018 | List of tallest players in National Basketball Association history - wikipedia
This is a list of the tallest players in National Basketball Association history. Twenty five of them have been listed at 7 feet, 3 inches or taller. Two are active as of the 2017 -- 18 season; Kristaps Porziņģis of the New York Knicks and Boban Marjanović of the Los Angeles Clippers. The tallest player inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame is 7 feet, 6 inch Yao Ming. In addition to Yao, Ralph Sampson and Arvydas Sabonis were the only other players 7'3 '' or taller selected to the Hall of Fame.
In the seventh round of the 1981 NBA Draft, the Golden State Warriors used the 171st pick to select Yasutaka Okayama, a Japanese basketball player who was measured at 7 feet 8 inches (2.34 m) and 330 pounds (150 kg). Okayama, who attended and played junior varsity basketball at the University of Portland for one and a half years in 1976 as an exchange student, declined to try out for the Warriors and never played in the NBA. He is the tallest person ever drafted and would have been the tallest player in the NBA had he played in the league.
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what part of the ocean is the deepest | Mariana Trench - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 11 ° 21 ′ N 142 ° 12 ′ E / 11.350 ° N 142.200 ° E / 11.350; 142.200
The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench is located in the western Pacific Ocean approximately 200 kilometres (124 mi) east of the Mariana Islands, and has the deepest natural point in the world. It is a crescent - shaped trough in the Earth 's crust averaging about 2,550 km (1,580 mi) long and 69 km (43 mi) wide. The maximum known depth is 10,994 metres (36,070 ft) (± 40 metres (130 ft)) at the southern end of a small slot - shaped valley in its floor known as the Challenger Deep. However, some unrepeated measurements place the deepest portion at 11,034 metres (36,201 ft). For comparison: if Mount Everest were dropped into the trench at this point, its peak would still be over 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) under water.
At the bottom of the trench the water column above exerts a pressure of 1,086 bars (15,750 psi), more than 1,000 times the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level. At this pressure, the density of water is increased by 4.96 %, so that 95.27 litres of water under the pressure of the Challenger Deep would contain the same mass as 100 litres at the surface. The temperature at the bottom is 1 to 4 ° C (34 to 39 ° F).
The trench is not the part of the seafloor closest to the centre of the Earth. This is because the Earth is not a perfect sphere; its radius is about 25 kilometres (16 mi) smaller at the poles than at the equator. As a result, parts of the Arctic Ocean seabed are at least 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) closer to the Earth 's centre than the Challenger Deep seafloor.
In 2009, the Marianas Trench was established as a United States National Monument.
Xenophyophores have been found in the trench by Scripps Institution of Oceanography researchers at a record depth of 10.6 kilometres (6.6 mi) below the sea surface. On 17 March 2013, researchers from the Scottish Association for Marine Science reported data that suggested microbial life forms thrive within the trench.
The Mariana Trench is named for the nearby Mariana Islands (in turn named Las Marianas in honor of Spanish Queen Mariana of Austria, widow of Philip IV of Spain). The islands are part of the island arc that is formed on an over-riding plate, called the Mariana Plate (also named for the islands), on the western side of the trench.
The Mariana Trench is part of the Izu - Bonin - Mariana subduction system that forms the boundary between two tectonic plates. In this system, the western edge of one plate, the Pacific Plate, is subducted (i.e., thrust) beneath the smaller Mariana Plate that lies to the west. Crustal material at the western edge of the Pacific Plate is some of the oldest oceanic crust on earth (up to 170 million years old), and is therefore cooler and more dense; hence its great height difference relative to the higher - riding (and younger) Mariana Plate. The deepest area at the plate boundary is the Mariana Trench proper.
The movement of the Pacific and Mariana plates is also indirectly responsible for the formation of the Mariana Islands. These volcanic islands are caused by Flux melting of the upper mantle due to release of water that is trapped in minerals of the subducted portion of the Pacific Plate.
The trench was first sounded during the Challenger expedition in 1875, using a weighted rope, which recorded a depth of 4,475 fathoms (8,184 metres; 26,850 feet). In 1877, a map was published called Tiefenkarte des Grossen Ozeans ("Deep map of the Great Ocean '') by Petermann, which showed a Challenger Tief ("Challenger deep '') at the location of that sounding. In 1899, USS Nero, a converted collier, recorded a depth of 5,269 fathoms (9,636 metres; 31,614 feet).
In 1951, Challenger II surveyed the trench using echo sounding, a much more precise and vastly easier way to measure depth than the sounding equipment and drag lines used in the original expedition. During this survey, the deepest part of the trench was recorded when the Challenger II measured a depth of 5,960 fathoms (10,900 metres; 35,760 feet) at 11 ° 19 ′ N 142 ° 15 ′ E / 11.317 ° N 142.250 ° E / 11.317; 142.250, known as the Challenger Deep.
In 1957, the Soviet vessel Vityaz reported a depth of 11,034 metres (36,201 ft) at a location dubbed the Mariana Hollow.
In 1962, the surface ship M.V. Spencer F. Baird recorded a maximum depth of 10,915 metres (35,810 ft) using precision depth gauges.
In 1984, the Japanese survey vessel Takuyō (拓 洋) collected data from the Mariana Trench using a narrow, multi-beam echo sounder; it reported a maximum depth of 10,924 metres (35,840 ft), also reported as 10,920 metres (35,830 ft) ± 10 m (33 ft). Remotely Operated Vehicle KAIKO reached the deepest area of the Mariana Trench and made the deepest diving record of 10,911 metres (35,797 ft) on March 24, 1995.
During surveys carried out between 1997 and 2001, a spot was found along the Mariana Trench that had depth similar to that of the Challenger Deep, possibly even deeper. It was discovered while scientists from the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology were completing a survey around Guam; they used a sonar mapping system towed behind the research ship to conduct the survey. This new spot was named the HMRG (Hawaii Mapping Research Group) Deep, after the group of scientists who discovered it.
On 1 June 2009, sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep by the Simrad EM120 sonar multibeam bathymetry system for deep water, mapping aboard the RV Kilo Moana (mothership of the Nereus vehicle), indicated a spot with a depth of 10,971 metres (35,994 ft). The sonar system uses phase and amplitude bottom detection, with an accuracy of better than 0.2 % of water depth across the entire swath (implying that the depth figure is accurate to ± 22 metres (72 ft)).
In 2011, it was announced at the American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting that a US Navy hydrographic ship equipped with a multibeam echosounder conducted a survey which mapped the entire trench to 100 metres (330 ft) resolution. The mapping revealed the existence of four rocky outcrops thought to be former seamounts.
The Mariana Trench is a site chosen by researchers at Washington University and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in 2012 for a seismic survey to investigate the subsurface water cycle. Using both ocean - bottom seismometers and hydrophones the scientists are able to map structures as deep as 97 kilometres (60 mi) beneath the surface.
Four descents have been achieved. The first was the manned descent by Swiss - designed, Italian - built, United States Navy - owned bathyscaphe Trieste which reached the bottom at 1: 06 pm on 23 January 1960, with Don Walsh and Jacques Piccard on board. Iron shot was used for ballast, with gasoline for buoyancy. The onboard systems indicated a depth of 11,521 m (37,799 ft), but this was later revised to 10,916 m (35,814 ft). The depth was estimated from a conversion of pressure measured and calculations based on the water density from sea surface to seabed.
This was followed by the unmanned ROVs Kaikō in 1996 and Nereus in 2009. The first three expeditions directly measured very similar depths of 10,902 to 10,916 m (35,768 to 35,814 ft). The fourth was made by Canadian film director James Cameron in 2012. On 26 March, he reached the bottom of the Mariana Trench in the submersible vessel Deepsea Challenger.
In July 2015, members of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Oregon State University, and the Coast Guard submerged a hydrophone into the deepest part of the Mariana Trench, the Challenger Deep, never having deployed one past a mile. The titanium - shelled hydrophone was designed to withstand the immense pressure 7 miles under. Although researchers were unable to retrieve the hydrophone until November, the data capacity was full within the first 23 days. After months of analyzing the sounds, the experts were surprised to pick up natural and man - made sounds such as boats, earthquakes, a typhoon, and baleen whales. Due to the mission 's success, the researchers announced plans to deploy a second hydrophone in 2017 for an extended period of time.
As of February 2012, at least two other teams are planning piloted submarines to reach the bottom of the Mariana Trench. Triton Submarines, a Florida - based company that designs and manufactures private submarines, plans for a crew of three to take 120 minutes to reach the seabed. DOER Marine, a marine technology company based near San Francisco and set up in 1992, plans for a crew of two or three to take 90 minutes to reach the seabed.
The expedition conducted in 1960 claimed to have observed, with great surprise because of the high pressure, large creatures living at the bottom, such as a flatfish about 30 cm (12 in) long, and shrimp. According to Piccard, "The bottom appeared light and clear, a waste of firm diatomaceous ooze ''. Many marine biologists are now skeptical of the supposed sighting of the flatfish, and it is suggested that the creature may instead have been a sea cucumber. During the second expedition, the unmanned vehicle Kaikō collected mud samples from the seabed. Tiny organisms were found to be living in those samples.
In July 2011, a research expedition deployed untethered landers, called dropcams, equipped with digital video cameras and lights to explore this region of the deep sea. Amongst many other living organisms, some gigantic single - celled amoebas with a size of more than 10 cm (4 in), belonging to the class of xenophyophores were observed. Xenophyophores are noteworthy for their size, their extreme abundance on the seafloor and their role as hosts for a variety of organisms.
In December 2014, a new species of snailfish was discovered at a depth of 8,145 m (26,722 ft), breaking the previous record for the deepest living fish seen on video.
During the 2014 expedition, several new species were filmed including huge crustaceans known as supergiants. Deep - sea gigantism is the process where species grow larger than their shallow water relatives.
In May 2017, an unidentified type of snailfish was filmed at a depth of 8,178 metres (26,800 ft).
In 2016, a research expedition looked at the chemical makeup of crustacean scavengers collected from a range of 7,841 -- 10,250 metres within the trench. Within these organisms, the researchers found extremely elevated concentrations of PCBs, a chemical toxin banned for its environmental harm in the 1970s, concentrated at all depths within the sediment of the trench.
Like other oceanic trenches, the Mariana Trench has been proposed as a site for nuclear waste disposal, in the hope that tectonic plate subduction occurring at the site might eventually push the nuclear waste deep into the Earth 's mantle, the second layer of the Earth. However, ocean dumping of nuclear waste is prohibited by international law. Furthermore, plate subduction zones are associated with very large megathrust earthquakes, the effects of which are unpredictable for the safety of long - term disposal of nuclear wastes within the hadopelagic ecosystem.
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who is the attorney general for the state of new jersey | New Jersey Attorney General - wikipedia
The attorney general of New Jersey is a member of the executive cabinet of the state and oversees the Department of Law and Public Safety. The office is appointed by the Governor of New Jersey, confirmed by the New Jersey Senate, and term limited. Under the provisions of the New Jersey State Constitution, the Attorney General serves a concurrent four - year term to the governor. Gurbir Grewal was nominated as Attorney General by Governor Phil Murphy. Grewal is the first Sikh attorney general in the United States.
The conventional wisdom is that the Attorney General can not be removed from office except "for cause '' by the Governor or by way of legislative impeachment.
It is fifth in the line of succession after the Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey, President of the New Jersey Senate, and Speaker of the New Jersey General Assembly. The Attorney General can not also serve as the Lieutenant Governor.
Holders of the office of Attorney General include:
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when did man u last win premier league | Manchester United F.C. - Wikipedia
Manchester United Football Club, commonly known as Man. United or simply United, is a professional football club based in Old Trafford, Greater Manchester, England, that competes in the Premier League, the top flight of English football. Nicknamed "the Red Devils '', the club was founded as Newton Heath LYR Football Club in 1878, changed its name to Manchester United in 1902 and moved to its current stadium, Old Trafford, in 1910.
Manchester United have won more trophies than any other club in English football, with a record 20 League titles, 12 FA Cups, 5 League Cups and a record 21 FA Community Shields. United have also won three UEFA Champions Leagues, one UEFA Europa League, one UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup, one UEFA Super Cup, one Intercontinental Cup and one FIFA Club World Cup. In 1998 -- 99, the club became the first in the history of English football to achieve the treble of the Premier League, the FA Cup and the UEFA Champions League. By winning the UEFA Europa League in 2016 -- 17, they became one of five clubs to have won all three main UEFA club competitions, and the only English club to have won every ongoing top - flight honour available to them.
The 1958 Munich air disaster claimed the lives of eight players. In 1968, under the management of Matt Busby, Manchester United became the first English football club to win the European Cup. Alex Ferguson won 38 trophies as manager, including 13 Premier League titles, 5 FA Cups and 2 UEFA Champions Leagues, between 1986 and 2013, when he announced his retirement. José Mourinho is the club 's current manager, having been appointed on 27 May 2016.
Manchester United was the highest - earning football club in the world for 2016 -- 17, with an annual revenue of € 676.3 million, and the world 's most valuable football club in 2018, valued at £ 3.1 billion. As of June 2015, it is the world 's most valuable football brand, estimated to be worth $1.2 billion. After being floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1991, the club was purchased by Malcolm Glazer in May 2005 in a deal valuing the club at almost £ 800 million, after which the company was taken private again, before going public once more in August 2012, when they made an initial public offering on the New York Stock Exchange. Manchester United is one of the most widely supported football clubs in the world, and has rivalries with Liverpool, Manchester City, Arsenal, and Leeds United.
Manchester United was formed in 1878 as Newton Heath LYR Football Club by the Carriage and Wagon department of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway (LYR) depot at Newton Heath. The team initially played games against other departments and railway companies, but on 20 November 1880, they competed in their first recorded match; wearing the colours of the railway company -- green and gold -- they were defeated 6 -- 0 by Bolton Wanderers ' reserve team. By 1888, the club had become a founding member of The Combination, a regional football league. Following the league 's dissolution after only one season, Newton Heath joined the newly formed Football Alliance, which ran for three seasons before being merged with the Football League. This resulted in the club starting the 1892 -- 93 season in the First Division, by which time it had become independent of the railway company and dropped the "LYR '' from its name. After two seasons, the club was relegated to the Second Division.
In January 1902, with debts of £ 2,670 -- equivalent to £ 270,000 in 2018 -- the club was served with a winding - up order. Captain Harry Stafford found four local businessmen, including John Henry Davies (who became club president), each willing to invest £ 500 in return for a direct interest in running the club and who subsequently changed the name; on 24 April 1902, Manchester United was officially born. Under Ernest Mangnall, who assumed managerial duties in 1903, the team finished as Second Division runners - up in 1906 and secured promotion to the First Division, which they won in 1908 -- the club 's first league title. The following season began with victory in the first ever Charity Shield and ended with the club 's first FA Cup title. Manchester United won the First Division for the second time in 1911, but at the end of the following season, Mangnall left the club to join Manchester City.
In 1922, three years after the resumption of football following the First World War, the club was relegated to the Second Division, where it remained until regaining promotion in 1925. Relegated again in 1931, Manchester United became a yo - yo club, achieving its all - time lowest position of 20th place in the Second Division in 1934. Following the death of principal benefactor John Henry Davies in October 1927, the club 's finances deteriorated to the extent that Manchester United would likely have gone bankrupt had it not been for James W. Gibson, who, in December 1931, invested £ 2,000 and assumed control of the club. In the 1938 -- 39 season, the last year of football before the Second World War, the club finished 14th in the First Division.
In October 1945, the impending resumption of football led to the managerial appointment of Matt Busby, who demanded an unprecedented level of control over team selection, player transfers and training sessions. Busby led the team to second - place league finishes in 1947, 1948 and 1949, and to FA Cup victory in 1948. In 1952, the club won the First Division, its first league title for 41 years. With an average age of 22, the back - to - back title winning side of 1956 were labelled "the Busby Babes '' by the media, a testament to Busby 's faith in his youth players. In 1957, Manchester United became the first English team to compete in the European Cup, despite objections from The Football League, who had denied Chelsea the same opportunity the previous season. En route to the semi-final, which they lost to Real Madrid, the team recorded a 10 -- 0 victory over Belgian champions Anderlecht, which remains the club 's biggest victory on record.
The following season, on the way home from a European Cup quarter - final victory against Red Star Belgrade, the aircraft carrying the Manchester United players, officials and journalists crashed while attempting to take off after refuelling in Munich, Germany. The Munich air disaster of 6 February 1958 claimed 23 lives, including those of eight players -- Geoff Bent, Roger Byrne, Eddie Colman, Duncan Edwards, Mark Jones, David Pegg, Tommy Taylor and Billy Whelan -- and injured several more.
Assistant manager Jimmy Murphy took over as manager while Busby recovered from his injuries and the club 's makeshift side reached the FA Cup final, which they lost to Bolton Wanderers. In recognition of the team 's tragedy, UEFA invited the club to compete in the 1958 -- 59 European Cup alongside eventual League champions Wolverhampton Wanderers. Despite approval from the FA, the Football League determined that the club should not enter the competition, since it had not qualified. Busby rebuilt the team through the 1960s by signing players such as Denis Law and Pat Crerand, who combined with the next generation of youth players -- including George Best -- to win the FA Cup in 1963. The following season, they finished second in the league, then won the title in 1965 and 1967. In 1968, Manchester United became the first English (and second British) club to win the European Cup, beating Benfica 4 -- 1 in the final with a team that contained three European Footballers of the Year: Bobby Charlton, Denis Law and George Best. Matt Busby resigned as manager in 1969 and was replaced by the reserve team coach, former Manchester United player Wilf McGuinness.
Following an eighth - place finish in the 1969 -- 70 season and a poor start to the 1970 -- 71 season, Busby was persuaded to temporarily resume managerial duties, and McGuinness returned to his position as reserve team coach. In June 1971, Frank O'Farrell was appointed as manager, but lasted less than 18 months before being replaced by Tommy Docherty in December 1972. Docherty saved Manchester United from relegation that season, only to see them relegated in 1974; by that time the trio of Best, Law, and Charlton had left the club. The team won promotion at the first attempt and reached the FA Cup final in 1976, but were beaten by Southampton. They reached the final again in 1977, beating Liverpool 2 -- 1. Docherty was dismissed shortly afterwards, following the revelation of his affair with the club physiotherapist 's wife.
Dave Sexton replaced Docherty as manager in the summer of 1977. Despite major signings, including Joe Jordan, Gordon McQueen, Gary Bailey, and Ray Wilkins, the team failed to achieve any significant results; they finished in the top two in 1979 -- 80 and lost to Arsenal in the 1979 FA Cup Final. Sexton was dismissed in 1981, even though the team won the last seven games under his direction. He was replaced by Ron Atkinson, who immediately broke the British record transfer fee to sign Bryan Robson from West Bromwich Albion. Under Atkinson, Manchester United won the FA Cup twice in three years -- in 1983 and 1985. In 1985 -- 86, after 13 wins and two draws in its first 15 matches, the club was favourite to win the league, but finished in fourth place. The following season, with the club in danger of relegation by November, Atkinson was dismissed.
Alex Ferguson and his assistant Archie Knox arrived from Aberdeen on the day of Atkinson 's dismissal, and guided the club to an 11th - place finish in the league. Despite a second - place finish in 1987 -- 88, the club was back in 11th place the following season. Reportedly on the verge of being dismissed, victory over Crystal Palace in the 1990 FA Cup Final replay (after a 3 -- 3 draw) saved Ferguson 's career. The following season, Manchester United claimed its first Cup Winners ' Cup title and competed in the 1991 UEFA Super Cup, beating European Cup holders Red Star Belgrade 1 -- 0 in the final at Old Trafford. A second consecutive League Cup final appearance followed in 1992, in which the team beat Nottingham Forest 1 -- 0 at Wembley. In 1993, the club won its first league title since 1967, and a year later, for the first time since 1957, it won a second consecutive title -- alongside the FA Cup -- to complete the first "Double '' in the club 's history.
In the 1998 -- 99 season, Manchester United became the first team to win the Premier League, FA Cup and UEFA Champions League -- "The Treble '' -- in the same season. Losing 1 -- 0 going into injury time in the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final, Teddy Sheringham and Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored late goals to claim a dramatic victory over Bayern Munich, in what is considered one of the greatest comebacks of all time. The club also won the Intercontinental Cup after beating Palmeiras 1 -- 0 in Tokyo. Ferguson was subsequently knighted for his services to football.
Manchester United won the league again in the 1999 -- 2000 and 2000 -- 01 seasons. The team finished third in 2001 -- 02, before regaining the title in 2002 -- 03. They won the 2003 -- 04 FA Cup, beating Millwall 3 -- 0 in the final at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff to lift the trophy for a record 11th time. In the 2005 -- 06 season, Manchester United failed to qualify for the knockout phase of the UEFA Champions League for the first time in over a decade, but recovered to secure a second - place league finish and victory over Wigan Athletic in the 2006 Football League Cup Final. The club regained the Premier League in the 2006 -- 07 and 2007 -- 08 seasons, and completed the European double by beating Chelsea 6 -- 5 on penalties in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final in Moscow 's Luzhniki Stadium. Ryan Giggs made a record 759th appearance for the club in this game, overtaking previous record holder Bobby Charlton. In December 2008, the club won the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup and followed this with the 2008 -- 09 Football League Cup, and its third successive Premier League title. That summer, Cristiano Ronaldo was sold to Real Madrid for a world record £ 80 million. In 2010, Manchester United defeated Aston Villa 2 -- 1 at Wembley to retain the League Cup, its first successful defence of a knockout cup competition.
After finishing as runner - up to Chelsea in the 2009 -- 10 season, United achieved a record 19th league title in 2010 -- 11, securing the championship with a 1 -- 1 away draw against Blackburn Rovers on 14 May 2011. This was extended to 20 league titles in 2012 -- 13, securing the championship with a 3 -- 0 home win against Aston Villa on 22 April 2013.
On 8 May 2013, Ferguson announced that he was to retire as manager at the end of the football season, but would remain at the club as a director and club ambassador. The club announced the next day that Everton manager David Moyes would replace him from 1 July, having signed a six - year contract. Ryan Giggs took over as interim player - manager 10 months later, on 22 April 2014, when Moyes was sacked after a poor season in which the club failed to defend their Premier League title and failed to qualify for the UEFA Champions League for the first time since 1995 -- 96. They also failed to qualify for the Europa League, meaning that it was the first time Manchester United had n't qualified for a European competition since 1990. On 19 May 2014, it was confirmed that Louis van Gaal would replace Moyes as Manchester United manager on a three - year deal, with Giggs as his assistant. Malcolm Glazer, the patriarch of the Glazer family that owns the club, died on 28 May 2014.
Although Van Gaal 's first season saw United once again qualify for the Champions League through a fourth - place finish in the Premier League, his second season saw United go out of the same tournament in the group stage. United also fell behind in the title race for the third consecutive season, finishing in 5th place, in spite of several expensive signings during Van Gaal 's tenure. However, that same season, Manchester United won the FA Cup for a 12th time, this being their first major trophy won since the departure of Sir Alex Ferguson. Despite this victory, Van Gaal was sacked as manager just two days later, with José Mourinho appointed in his place on 27 May, signing a three - year contract. That season, United finished in sixth place while winning the EFL Cup for the fifth time and the Europa League for the first time, as well as the FA Community Shield for a record 21st time. Despite not finishing in the top four, United qualified for the Champions League through their Europa League win. Wayne Rooney scored his 250th goal with United, surpassing Sir Bobby Charlton as United 's all - time top scorer, before leaving the club at the end of the season to return to Everton.
The club crest is derived from the Manchester City Council coat of arms, although all that remains of it on the current crest is the ship in full sail. The devil stems from the club 's nickname "The Red Devils ''; it was included on club programmes and scarves in the 1960s, and incorporated into the club crest in 1970, although the crest was not included on the chest of the shirt until 1971.
Newton Heath 's uniform in 1879, four years before the club played its first competitive match, has been documented as ' white with blue cord '. A photograph of the Newton Heath team, taken in 1892, is believed to show the players wearing red - and - white quartered jerseys and navy blue knickerbockers. Between 1894 -- 96, the players wore distinctive green and gold jerseys which were replaced in 1896 by white shirts, which were worn with navy blue shorts.
After the name change in 1902, the club colours were changed to red shirts, white shorts, and black socks, which has become the standard Manchester United home kit. Very few changes were made to the kit until 1922 when the club adopted white shirts bearing a deep red "V '' around the neck, similar to the shirt worn in the 1909 FA Cup Final. They remained part of their home kits until 1927. For a period in 1934, the cherry and white hooped change shirt became the home colours, but the following season the red shirt was recalled after the club 's lowest ever league placing of 20th in the Second Division and the hooped shirt dropped back to being the change. The black socks were changed to white from 1959 to 1965, where they were replaced with red socks up until 1971 with white used on occasion, when the club reverted to black. Black shorts and / or white socks were sometimes worn with the home strip, most often in away games, if there is a clash with the opponent 's kit. For 2018 -- 19, black shorts and red socks became the primary choice for the home kit. Since 1997 -- 98, white socks have been the preferred choice for European games, which are typically played on weeknights, to aid with player visibility. The current home kit is a red shirt with black stripes gradually getting thicker towards the base and the trademark Adidas three stripes in black on the shoulders, black shorts, and red socks with black tops and gradual stripes in between.
The Manchester United away strip has often been a white shirt, black shorts and white socks, but there have been several exceptions. These include an all - black strip with blue and gold trimmings between 1993 and 1995, the navy blue shirt with silver horizontal pinstripes worn during the 1999 -- 2000 season, and the 2011 -- 12 away kit, which had a royal blue body and sleeves with hoops made of small midnight navy blue and black stripes, with black shorts and blue socks. An all - grey away kit worn during the 1995 -- 96 season was dropped after just five games, most notoriously against Southampton where Alex Ferguson forced the team to change into the third kit during half - time of its final outing. The reason for dropping it being that the players claimed to have trouble finding their teammates against the crowd, United failed to win a competitive game in the kit. In 2001, to celebrate 100 years as "Manchester United '', a reversible white / gold away kit was released, although the actual match day shirts were not reversible.
The club 's third kit is often all - blue, this was most recently the case during the 2014 -- 15 season. Exceptions include a green - and - gold halved shirt worn between 1992 and 1994, a blue - and - white striped shirt worn during the 1994 -- 95 and 1995 -- 96 seasons and once in 1996 -- 97, an all - black kit worn during the Treble - winning 1998 -- 99 season, and a white shirt with black - and - red horizontal pinstripes worn between 2003 -- 04 and 2005 -- 06. From 2006 -- 07 to 2013 -- 14, the third kit was the previous season 's away kit, albeit updated with the new club sponsor in 2006 -- 07 and 2010 -- 11, apart from 2008 -- 09 when an all - blue kit was launch to mark the 40th anniversary of the 1967 -- 68 European Cup success.
Newton Heath initially played on a field on North Road, close to the railway yard; the original capacity was about 12,000, but club officials deemed the facilities inadequate for a club hoping to join The Football League. Some expansion took place in 1887, and in 1891, Newton Heath used its minimal financial reserves to purchase two grandstands, each able to hold 1,000 spectators. Although attendances were not recorded for many of the earliest matches at North Road, the highest documented attendance was approximately 15,000 for a First Division match against Sunderland on 4 March 1893. A similar attendance was also recorded for a friendly match against Gorton Villa on 5 September 1889.
In June 1893, after the club was evicted from North Road by its owners, Manchester Deans and Canons, who felt it was inappropriate for the club to charge an entry fee to the ground, secretary A.H. Albut procured the use of the Bank Street ground in Clayton. It initially had no stands, by the start of the 1893 -- 94 season, two had been built; one spanning the full length of the pitch on one side and the other behind the goal at the "Bradford end ''. At the opposite end, the "Clayton end '', the ground had been "built up, thousands thus being provided for ''. Newton Heath 's first league match at Bank Street was played against Burnley on 1 September 1893, when 10,000 people saw Alf Farman score a hat - trick, Newton Heath 's only goals in a 3 -- 2 win. The remaining stands were completed for the following league game against Nottingham Forest three weeks later. In October 1895, before the visit of Manchester City, the club purchased a 2,000 - capacity stand from the Broughton Rangers rugby league club, and put up another stand on the "reserved side '' (as distinct from the "popular side ''). However, weather restricted the attendance for the Manchester City match to just 12,000.
When the Bank Street ground was temporarily closed by bailiffs in 1902, club captain Harry Stafford raised enough money to pay for the club 's next away game at Bristol City and found a temporary ground at Harpurhey for the next reserves game against Padiham. Following financial investment, new club president John Henry Davies paid £ 500 for the erection of a new 1,000 - seat stand at Bank Street. Within four years, the stadium had cover on all four sides, as well as the ability to hold approximately 50,000 spectators, some of whom could watch from the viewing gallery atop the Main Stand.
Following Manchester United 's first league title in 1908 and the FA Cup a year later, it was decided that Bank Street was too restrictive for Davies ' ambition; in February 1909, six weeks before the club 's first FA Cup title, Old Trafford was named as the home of Manchester United, following the purchase of land for around £ 60,000. Architect Archibald Leitch was given a budget of £ 30,000 for construction; original plans called for seating capacity of 100,000, though budget constraints forced a revision to 77,000. The building was constructed by Messrs Brameld and Smith of Manchester. The stadium 's record attendance was registered on 25 March 1939, when an FA Cup semi-final between Wolverhampton Wanderers and Grimsby Town drew 76,962 spectators.
Bombing in the Second World War destroyed much of the stadium; the central tunnel in the South Stand was all that remained of that quarter. After the war, the club received compensation from the War Damage Commission in the amount of £ 22,278. While reconstruction took place, the team played its "home '' games at Manchester City 's Maine Road ground; Manchester United was charged £ 5,000 per year, plus a nominal percentage of gate receipts. Later improvements included the addition of roofs, first to the Stretford End and then to the North and East Stands. The roofs were supported by pillars that obstructed many fans ' views, and they were eventually replaced with a cantilevered structure. The Stretford End was the last stand to receive a cantilevered roof, completed in time for the 1993 -- 94 season. First used on 25 March 1957 and costing £ 40,000, four 180 - foot (55 m) pylons were erected, each housing 54 individual floodlights. These were dismantled in 1987 and replaced by a lighting system embedded in the roof of each stand, which remains in use today.
The Taylor Report 's requirement for an all - seater stadium lowered capacity at Old Trafford to around 44,000 by 1993. In 1995, the North Stand was redeveloped into three tiers, restoring capacity to approximately 55,000. At the end of the 1998 -- 99 season, second tiers were added to the East and West Stands, raising capacity to around 67,000, and between July 2005 and May 2006, 8,000 more seats were added via second tiers in the north - west and north - east quadrants. Part of the new seating was used for the first time on 26 March 2006, when an attendance of 69,070 became a new Premier League record. The record was pushed steadily upwards before reaching its peak on 31 March 2007, when 76,098 spectators saw Manchester United beat Blackburn Rovers 4 -- 1, with just 114 seats (0.15 per cent of the total capacity of 76,212) unoccupied. In 2009, reorganisation of the seating resulted in a reduction of capacity by 255 to 75,957. Manchester United has the second highest average attendance of European football clubs only behind Borussia Dortmund.
Manchester United is one of the most popular football clubs in the world, with one of the highest average home attendance in Europe. The club states that its worldwide fan base includes more than 200 officially recognised branches of the Manchester United Supporters Club (MUSC), in at least 24 countries. The club takes advantage of this support through its worldwide summer tours. Accountancy firm and sports industry consultants Deloitte estimate that Manchester United has 75 million fans worldwide, while other estimates put this figure closer to 333 million. The club has the third highest social media following in the world among sports teams (after Barcelona and Real Madrid), with over 71 million Facebook fans as of September 2016. A 2014 study showed that Manchester United had the loudest fans in the Premier League.
Supporters are represented by two independent bodies; the Independent Manchester United Supporters ' Association (IMUSA), which maintains close links to the club through the MUFC Fans Forum, and the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust (MUST). After the Glazer family 's takeover in 2005, a group of fans formed a splinter club, F.C. United of Manchester. The West Stand of Old Trafford -- the "Stretford End '' -- is the home end and the traditional source of the club 's most vocal support.
Manchester United has rivalries with Arsenal, Leeds United, Liverpool, and Manchester City, against whom they contest the Manchester derby.
The rivalry with Liverpool is rooted in competition between the cities during the Industrial Revolution when Manchester was famous for its textile industry while Liverpool was a major port. The two clubs are the most successful English teams in both domestic and European competitions; and between them they have won 38 league titles, 8 European Cups, 4 UEFA Cups, 4 UEFA Super Cups, 19 FA Cups, 13 League Cups, 1 FIFA Club World Cup, 1 Intercontinental Cup and 36 FA Community Shields. It is considered to be one of the biggest rivalries in the association football world and is considered the most famous fixture in English football.
The "Roses Rivalry '' with Leeds stems from the Wars of the Roses, fought between the House of Lancaster and the House of York, with Manchester United representing Lancashire and Leeds representing Yorkshire.
The rivalry with Arsenal arises from the numerous times the two teams, as well as managers Alex Ferguson and Arsène Wenger, have battled for the Premier League title. With 33 titles between them (20 for Manchester United, 13 for Arsenal) this fixture has become known as one of the finest Premier League match - ups in history.
Manchester United has been described as a global brand; a 2011 report by Brand Finance, valued the club 's trademarks and associated intellectual property at £ 412 million -- an increase of £ 39 million on the previous year, valuing it at £ 11 million more than the second best brand, Real Madrid -- and gave the brand a strength rating of AAA (Extremely Strong). In July 2012, Manchester United was ranked first by Forbes magazine in its list of the ten most valuable sports team brands, valuing the Manchester United brand at $2.23 billion. The club is ranked third in the Deloitte Football Money League (behind Real Madrid and Barcelona). In January 2013, the club became the first sports team in the world to be valued at $3 billion. Forbes Magazine valued the club at $3.3 billion -- $1.2 billion higher than the next most valuable sports team. They were overtaken by Real Madrid for the next four years, but Manchester United returned to the top of the Forbes list in June 2017, with a valuation of $3.689 billion.
The core strength of Manchester United 's global brand is often attributed to Matt Busby 's rebuilding of the team and subsequent success following the Munich air disaster, which drew worldwide acclaim. The "iconic '' team included Bobby Charlton and Nobby Stiles (members of England 's World Cup winning team), Denis Law and George Best. The attacking style of play adopted by this team (in contrast to the defensive - minded "catenaccio '' approach favoured by the leading Italian teams of the era) "captured the imagination of the English footballing public ''. Busby 's team also became associated with the liberalisation of Western society during the 1960s; George Best, known as the "Fifth Beatle '' for his iconic haircut, was the first footballer to significantly develop an off - the - field media profile.
As the second English football club to float on the London Stock Exchange in 1991, the club raised significant capital, with which it further developed its commercial strategy. The club 's focus on commercial and sporting success brought significant profits in an industry often characterised by chronic losses. The strength of the Manchester United brand was bolstered by intense off - the - field media attention to individual players, most notably David Beckham (who quickly developed his own global brand). This attention often generates greater interest in on - the - field activities, and hence generates sponsorship opportunities -- the value of which is driven by television exposure. During his time with the club, Beckham 's popularity across Asia was integral to the club 's commercial success in that part of the world.
Because higher league placement results in a greater share of television rights, success on the field generates greater income for the club. Since the inception of the Premier League, Manchester United has received the largest share of the revenue generated from the BSkyB broadcasting deal. Manchester United has also consistently enjoyed the highest commercial income of any English club; in 2005 -- 06, the club 's commercial arm generated £ 51 million, compared to £ 42.5 million at Chelsea, £ 39.3 million at Liverpool, £ 34 million at Arsenal and £ 27.9 million at Newcastle United. A key sponsorship relationship was with sportswear company Nike, who managed the club 's merchandising operation as part of a £ 303 million 13 - year partnership between 2002 and 2015. Through Manchester United Finance and the club 's membership scheme, One United, those with an affinity for the club can purchase a range of branded goods and services. Additionally, Manchester United - branded media services -- such as the club 's dedicated television channel, MUTV -- have allowed the club to expand its fan base to those beyond the reach of its Old Trafford stadium.
In an initial five - year deal worth £ 500,000, Sharp Electronics became the club 's first shirt sponsor at the beginning of the 1982 -- 83 season, a relationship that lasted until the end of the 1999 -- 2000 season, when Vodafone agreed a four - year, £ 30 million deal. Vodafone agreed to pay £ 36 million to extend the deal by four years, but after two seasons triggered a break clause in order to concentrate on its sponsorship of the Champions League.
To commence at the start of the 2006 -- 07 season, American insurance corporation AIG agreed a four - year £ 56.5 million deal which in September 2006 became the most valuable in the world. At the beginning of the 2010 -- 11 season, American reinsurance company Aon became the club 's principal sponsor in a four - year deal reputed to be worth approximately £ 80 million, making it the most lucrative shirt sponsorship deal in football history. Manchester United announced their first training kit sponsor in August 2011, agreeing a four - year deal with DHL reported to be worth £ 40 million; it is believed to be the first instance of training kit sponsorship in English football. The DHL contract lasted for over a year before the club bought back the contract in October 2012, although they remained the club 's official logistics partner. The contract for the training kit sponsorship was then sold to Aon in April 2013 for a deal worth £ 180 million over eight years, which also included purchasing the naming rights for the Trafford Training Centre.
The club 's first kit manufacturer was Umbro, until a five - year deal was agreed with Admiral Sportswear in 1975. Adidas received the contract in 1980, before Umbro started a second spell in 1992. Umbro 's sponsorship lasted for ten years, followed by Nike 's record - breaking £ 302.9 million deal that lasted until 2015; 3.8 million replica shirts were sold in the first 22 months with the company. In addition to Nike and Chevrolet, the club also has several lower - level "platinum '' sponsors, including Aon and Budweiser.
On 30 July 2012, United signed a seven - year deal with American automotive corporation General Motors, which replaced Aon as the shirt sponsor from the 2014 -- 15 season. The new $80 m-a - year shirt deal is worth $559 m over seven years and features the logo of General Motors brand Chevrolet. Nike announced that they would not renew their kit supply deal with Manchester United after the 2014 -- 15 season, citing rising costs. Since the start of the 2015 -- 16 season, Adidas has manufactured Manchester United 's kit as part of a world - record 10 - year deal worth a minimum of £ 750 million. Plumbing products manufacturer Kohler became the club 's first sleeve sponsor ahead of the 2018 -- 19 season.
Originally funded by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company, the club became a limited company in 1892 and sold shares to local supporters for £ 1 via an application form. In 1902, majority ownership passed to the four local businessmen who invested £ 500 to save the club from bankruptcy, including future club president John Henry Davies. After his death in 1927, the club faced bankruptcy yet again, but was saved in December 1931 by James W. Gibson, who assumed control of the club after an investment of £ 2,000. Gibson promoted his son, Alan, to the board in 1948, but died three years later; the Gibson family retained ownership of the club through James ' wife, Lillian, but the position of chairman passed to former player Harold Hardman.
Promoted to the board a few days after the Munich air disaster, Louis Edwards, a friend of Matt Busby, began acquiring shares in the club; for an investment of approximately £ 40,000, he accumulated a 54 per cent shareholding and took control in January 1964. When Lillian Gibson died in January 1971, her shares passed to Alan Gibson who sold a percentage of his shares to Louis Edwards ' son, Martin, in 1978; Martin Edwards went on to become chairman upon his father 's death in 1980. Media tycoon Robert Maxwell attempted to buy the club in 1984, but did not meet Edwards ' asking price. In 1989, chairman Martin Edwards attempted to sell the club to Michael Knighton for £ 20 million, but the sale fell through and Knighton joined the board of directors instead.
Manchester United was floated on the stock market in June 1991 (raising £ 6.7 million), and received yet another takeover bid in 1998, this time from Rupert Murdoch 's British Sky Broadcasting Corporation. This resulted in the formation of Shareholders United Against Murdoch -- now the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust -- who encouraged supporters to buy shares in the club in an attempt to block any hostile takeover. The Manchester United board accepted a £ 623 million offer, but the takeover was blocked by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission at the final hurdle in April 1999. A few years later, a power struggle emerged between the club 's manager, Alex Ferguson, and his horse - racing partners, John Magnier and J.P. McManus, who had gradually become the majority shareholders. In a dispute that stemmed from contested ownership of the horse Rock of Gibraltar, Magnier and McManus attempted to have Ferguson removed from his position as manager, and the board responded by approaching investors to attempt to reduce the Irishmen 's majority.
In May 2005, Malcolm Glazer purchased the 28.7 per cent stake held by McManus and Magnier, thus acquiring a controlling interest through his investment vehicle Red Football Ltd in a highly leveraged takeover valuing the club at approximately £ 800 million (then approx. $1.5 billion). Once the purchase was complete, the club was taken off the stock exchange. In July 2006, the club announced a £ 660 million debt refinancing package, resulting in a 30 per cent reduction in annual interest payments to £ 62 million a year. In January 2010, with debts of £ 716.5 million ($1.17 billion), Manchester United further refinanced through a bond issue worth £ 504 million, enabling them to pay off most of the £ 509 million owed to international banks. The annual interest payable on the bonds -- which mature on 1 February 2017 -- is approximately £ 45 million per annum. Despite restructuring, the club 's debt prompted protests from fans on 23 January 2010, at Old Trafford and the club 's Trafford Training Centre. Supporter groups encouraged match - going fans to wear green and gold, the colours of Newton Heath. On 30 January, reports emerged that the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust had held meetings with a group of wealthy fans, dubbed the "Red Knights '', with plans to buying out the Glazers ' controlling interest.
In August 2011, the Glazers were believed to have approached Credit Suisse in preparation for a $1 billion (approx. £ 600 million) initial public offering (IPO) on the Singapore stock exchange that would value the club at more than £ 2 billion. However, in July 2012, the club announced plans to list its IPO on the New York Stock Exchange instead. Shares were originally set to go on sale for between $16 and $20 each, but the price was cut to $14 by the launch of the IPO on 10 August, following negative comments from Wall Street analysts and Facebook 's disappointing stock market debut in May. Even after the cut, Manchester United was valued at $2.3 billion, making it the most valuable football club in the world.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Manchester United are one of the most successful clubs in Europe in terms of trophies won. The club 's first trophy was the Manchester Cup, which it won as Newton Heath LYR in 1886. In 1908, the club won its first league title, and won the FA Cup for the first time the following year. Manchester United won the most trophies in the 1990s; five league titles, four FA Cups, one League Cup, five Charity Shields (one shared), one UEFA Champions League, one UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup, one UEFA Super Cup and one Intercontinental Cup.
The club holds the record for most top - division titles (20) -- including a record 13 Premier League titles -- and FA Community Shields (21). It was also the first English club to win the European Cup in 1968, and, as of 2017, is the only British club to have won the Club World Cup, in 2008. United also became the sole British club to win the Intercontinental Cup, in 1999. The club 's most recent trophy came in May 2017, with the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Europa League.
In winning the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Europa League, United became the fifth club in history to have won the "European Treble '' of European Cup / UEFA Champions League, European Cup Winners ' Cup / UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup, and UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League after Juventus, Ajax, Bayern Munich and Chelsea.
Especially short competitions such as the Charity / Community Shield, Intercontinental Cup (now defunct), FIFA Club World Cup or UEFA Super Cup are not generally considered to contribute towards a Double or Treble.
Manchester United formed a women 's football team in 2018.
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who sings i've got the moves like jagger | Moves like Jagger - wikipedia
"Moves like Jagger '' is a song by American band Maroon 5 featuring recording artist Christina Aguilera, released by A&M Octone Records on June 21, 2011, as the fourth and final single from the re-release of the group 's third studio album Hands All Over (2010). The song was written by Adam Levine, Ammar Malik, Benjamin Levin, and Shellback; the latter two are also the producers. "Moves like Jagger '' is a dance - pop and electropop song and is backed by synths and electronic drums. The lyrics refer to a male 's ability to impress a love interest with his dance moves, which he compares to those of Mick Jagger, lead singer of The Rolling Stones.
"Moves like Jagger '' was well received by music critics, who praised the song 's chorus. Praise also went to the vocals of Levine and Aguilera, with critics pointing out solid chemistry between the two. Likewise, the song was a commercial success, going on to top the charts in over 18 countries. In the United States, "Moves like Jagger '' became the band 's second (after 2007 's "Makes Me Wonder '') and Aguilera 's fifth number - one single and is among the best - selling singles of all time. The song also made Aguilera the second female artist to score a number - one hit in the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s (the first being Britney Spears), which in turn made her the fourth female to score number - one singles in three different decades, after Janet Jackson, Madonna and Spears. Worldwide, it was the ninth - best - selling digital single of 2011 with sales of 7 million copies. As of 2016, the song ranks as one of the eight best - selling digital singles of all time with sales of over 15 million copies.
The music video was directed by Jonas Åkerlund. The video features an old video footage of Jagger and his iconic dance moves. "Moves like Jagger '' was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance at the 54th Grammy Awards but lost to "Body and Soul '' by Tony Bennett and Amy Winehouse. The song was first performed in June 2011 on an episode of The Voice (where Levine and Aguilera both served as judges / coaches).
"Moves like Jagger '' was written and produced by Benjamin Levin and Shellback, while additional writing was done by Adam Levine. When asked about the song, Levine said, "It was one of those songs that was definitely a risk; it 's a bold statement. We 've never really released a song like that. But it 's exciting to do something different, do something new. I 'm just happy everyone likes it. '' "Moves like Jagger '' is a dance - pop and electropop song, with elements of disco, pop, rock and soul. It features a "throbbing '' synth, fast - paced beat and electronic drums. Robbie Daw from Idolator wrote that "Moves like Jagger '' slightly echoes The Rolling Stones ' chart - topping 1978 classic "Miss You '', and added that "Levine 's voice is distorted via Auto - Tune on the chorus. '' The song is introduced by a whistle melody and light, funky guitar in the key of B minor with a tempo of 128 beats per minute. Levine tries his best to impress his female interest with dance moves like The Rolling Stones frontman Mick Jagger: "I do n't need to try to control you / Look into my eyes and I 'll own you / With the moves like Jagger / I got the moves like Jagger / I got the moves like Jagger. '' Aguilera appears midway through the song 's bridge, playing her role as a tease: "You want to know how to make me smile / Take control, own me just for the night / But if I share my secret / You gon na have to keep it / Nobody else can see this. ''
Bill Lamb from About.com gave the song a positive review, giving the single four - and - a-half out of five stars. Lamb wrote that, "The funky, whistle driven melody here is loose, light, and irresistibly funky. The punchy guest vocal from fellow judge Christina Aguilera is simply icing on the cake. There is a real vocal chemistry between Aguilera and Levine. '' Lamb called the song an "outstanding summer song '', writing that "It is light, danceable, and would sound great in the car with the top down. '' Robbie Daw from Idolator wrote that "It takes a full two minutes and 15 seconds for Christina 's soulful pipes to begin trilling on "Moves like Jagger. '' But once she does, she immediately steals the show. '' Daw concluded by writing that "this is the best thing from either of these two in years. ''
While naming the song "a contender for 2011 's song of the summer '', James Dinh from MTV Newsroom wrote that "Adam Levine and Christina Aguilera have turned their friendly rivalry on NBC 's The Voice into some studio chemistry. '' Scott Schelter from Pop Crush awarded "Moves like Jagger '' four - and - a-half out of five stars. Schelter called the song "danceable and fun '' and wrote that "the song would 've been great even without Aguilera, but her fiery cameo makes it that much better. '' Robert Copsey wrote for Digital Spy: ""Take me by the tongue and I 'll know you / Kiss me till you 're drunk and I 'll show you, '' Ad insists over a funky, finger - clicking bassline and an irresistible whistle hook that immediately burrows deep into the recesses of your brain. "If I share my secret / You 're gon na have to keep it, '' Christina says on her short, sweet and perfectly formed cameo. We 've already got your number, love, but our surprise is still 100 % genuine. ''
Jagger himself acknowledged the song in an interview, calling the concept "very flattering. '' Jagger also mentioned the song on a 2012 episode of Late Show with David Letterman, in which he read the Top Ten List and joked about his inability to collect royalties from "Moves like Jagger ''.
On the issue dated July 9, 2011, "Moves like Jagger '' debuted at number eight on the United States Billboard Hot 100, and topped it in the week ending September 10, 2011, as the greatest airplay gainer for the third consecutive week. It spent 10 weeks in the top 3. For Maroon 5, with prior top hits, this is the first time at the number - one position on the Hot 100 chart since their single "Makes Me Wonder '' in 2007. For Aguilera, this is her fifth number - one position, her first since "Lady Marmalade '' in 2001. Incidentally, Levine is the first artist to achieve both the number - one position on the Hot 100 as a member of a band and reach the top 10 as a solo artist in the same week. "Moves like Jagger '' made Aguilera the fourth female artist, behind Janet Jackson and Madonna (1980s, 1990s, and 2000s) and Britney Spears (1990s, 2000s, and 2010s), to top the Hot 100 in three decades, as well as the eighth artist overall. (If counting her records in the duo Sonny & Cher, Cher also scored number - one singles in three decades -- the 1960s, 1970s, and 1990s.) During the week of October 1, 2011, the song advanced to number one on the Hot 100 Airplay. By March 2013, it had sold over 6 million digital copies in the United States. As of June 2015, its total stands at 6.7 million copies sold in the US.
On August 1, 2011, "Moves like Jagger '' reached number two on the Australian ARIA Charts, making it Aguilera 's highest charting single since "Candyman '' in 2007, and held the runner - up spot for ten straight weeks. On the week of August 20, 2011, the song topped the Canadian Hot 100 chart, becoming the band 's second number - one single and Aguilera 's third number - one single, first in almost nine years (the last one was the 2002 hit "Beautiful '').
"Moves like Jagger '' made its debut on the UK Singles Chart at number three and sold 56,000 copies on the issue dated August 21, 2011, becoming Maroon 5 's 4th top 10 hit and Aguilera 's 15th top 10 hit in the UK. Starting at the issue date September 10, it peaked at number two for seven consecutive weeks, equalling the all - time UK record held by All - 4 - One 's "I Swear '' for the longest stay at number two by a hit not to reach number one. On October 5, 2011, the song reached number one in the mid-week chart update but failed to reach the number - one spot the following Sunday due to the mid-week release of Rihanna 's new single "We Found Love '' which debuted at number one keeping "Moves like Jagger '' away from the number - one position. Uniquely, in the first six of these weeks it was held off the top of the chart by six different number - one singles consecutively, each of which debuted directly ahead of it; this after having already been held at number three behind two different pairs of new entries in its first two weeks on the chart. As of week ending October 22, "Moves like Jagger '' dropped two places to number 4, ending a seven - week run in the runner - up position. After spending seven straight weeks at number two in the singles charts without ever managing to claim the number - one spot, it ironically peaked at number two in the year end chart of 2011 's best - selling singles as well. It became the biggest - selling song not to peak at number one in 2012. As of October 2014, "Moves like Jagger '' has sold 1.4 million copies in the United Kingdom, in an uninterrupted 52 - week run in the chart.
The music video for "Moves like Jagger '' was directed by Jonas Åkerlund and filmed in the Los Angeles Theater, Los Angeles, California on July 8, 2011. On July 9, Aguilera posted an image of herself from the video shoot via Twitter, saying, "Always great to see Jonas Akerlund. He created the perfect feel for the song. Expect a fun video. '' The image showed Aguilera performing with a band in front of a background of the American flag. Four shirtless images of Levine from the shoot were also released online the same day. More images from the video shoot were released online on July 11, showing Levine and Aguilera performing in front of an American and British - themed backdrop with confetti falling from the ceiling. Another image showed Aguilera performing in front of a black backdrop with her name "Christina '' shown in pink. The Rolling Stones frontman Mick Jagger made an appearance in the video "via archive footage ''. The video features an incorrect, simplified version of the Union Flag as a backdrop for parts of the song. For Levine and his bandmates, the song and video are all about exposing a new generation to the rock legend. "We were lucky enough to get Mick 's endorsement (for the video), as far as him giving us access to a bunch of different footage that 's so cool, '' Levine told MTV News when they visited the video 's set last month. "Not many people have seen (it), especially a newer generation of people that do n't know so much about how incredible he was. '' The music video was released on August 8, 2011.
The video opens with black - and - white footage of the theater, shots of work crews assembling lighting and equipment onstage and groups of extras getting into costume, warming up for a shoot. This is followed by classic footage of Jagger, during which Michael Parkinson asks The Rolling Stones frontman how long he plans to make music. "I do n't know. I never thought I 'd be doing it for two years even, '' a young Jagger says, as the opening whistles of the Maroon 5 song kick in, throughout which a slew of Jagger lookalikes are shown dancing up to a central microphone, interlaced with archival footage of Jagger himself and shots of band members James Valentine, Jesse Carmichael, Michael Madden and Matt Flynn. When Maroon 5 frontman Adam Levine eventually appears, he is shirtless, tattooed and wearing tight black pants. The video is mostly a mash - up of people trying to move like Jagger, including Levine. When Aguilera makes her brief appearance, she is dressed for a retro look with mascara - heavy lashes and a floppy hat.
Becky Bain wrote for Idolator that "Adam Levine wears a whole lot of ink on his upper torso instead of a shirt, and Christina Aguilera applies an entire bottle of mascara around her eyes. '' The Huffington Post commented "We were n't sure whether Levine and Aguilera would be able to bring it like Mick, but then again, no one can ever touch the original. The best they can do is try to imitate Jagger 's greatness -- and Levine and Aguilera do a pretty solid job of that. ''
"Moves like Jagger '' was performed for the first time with Aguilera on June 21, 2011, during The Voice, a talent competition show on which both she and Levine are coaches. Maroon 5 performed this song without Aguilera on America 's Got Talent on August 3, 2011 in the results show of the fourth week of the Hollywood performances. The song was performed live on September 8, 2011 at the NFL pre-show on Lambeau Field in Green Bay, Wisconsin, before the start of the 2011 NFL season. The song was also played on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in mid-September 2011, on Saturday Night Live in November 2011, as well as the 2011 American Music Awards and the 2011 Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show.
American singer Demi Lovato covered the song during her A Special Night with Demi Lovato, blended with Michael Jackson 's song "Workin ' Day and Night ''. The cast of the television series Glee, also covered this song with The Rolling Stones ' song "Jumpin ' Jack Flash '', from the episode "Yes / No ''. In November 2011, the Victoria 's Secret Angel models performed a lip - synced version of the song. In July 2012, Kurt Hugo Schneider created a musical medley of Maroon 5 's songs titled "The Maroon 5 Medley '', performed by Victorious star Victoria Justice and Max Schneider. "The Maroon 5 Medley '' contains eight songs ("Moves like Jagger '', "Sunday Morning '', "This Love '', "She Will Be Loved '', "Makes Me Wonder '', "Wo n't Go Home Without You '', "Misery '' and "Payphone '').
The song was used as the television advertisement in the film Magic Mike (2012).
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The song 's official remix features both Aguilera and Pittsburgh - based rapper Mac Miller. It was first made available on September 29, 2011, via hip hop website HipHopDX.com, before being released officially via iTunes on October 4. The remix remains largely unchanged from the original song, with Mac Miller 's two verses each coming at the beginning of the track and prior to Aguilera 's refrain respectively. Mac Miller was asked to appear on the remix of "Moves like Jagger '' by producer Benny Blanco, following consultation with Maroon 5 frontman Adam Levine. The rapper later said that he hoped to be involved in an official music video for the track, but no such video has been announced yet.
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friends episode the one with all the other ones | List of Friends episodes - wikipedia
The American sitcom Friends was created by David Crane and Marta Kauffman, and produced by Bright / Kauffman / Crane Productions in association with Warner Bros. Television for NBC. The series began with the pilot episode, which was broadcast on September 22, 1994; the series finished its ten - season run on May 6, 2004, with 236 episodes. On average, they are 22 -- 23 minutes long, for a 30 - minute time slot including commercial breaks.
The series narrative follows six friends living and working in New York City: Ross Geller, Rachel Green, Monica Geller, Chandler Bing, Joey Tribbiani and Phoebe Buffay, played by David Schwimmer, Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Matthew Perry, Matt LeBlanc and Lisa Kudrow respectively. All episodes were filmed at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California. The fourth season finale, "The One with Ross 's Wedding '', however, was filmed on location in London, UK in front of a British studio audience.
In addition to the episodes, three specials were produced. In Friends: The Stuff You 've Never Seen, broadcast following "The One with Joey 's New Brain '' on February 15, 2001, Conan O'Brien hosted a light - hearted discussion with the main cast on the Central Perk set -- the fictional coffee house which featured prominently in the series. The special introduced outtakes from past episodes. The two - part retrospective special The One with All the Other Ones was broadcast before the one - hour series finale "The Last One '' on May 6, 2004, and features clips from past episodes and interviews with the cast. All episodes have been released on VHS, DVD, Blu - ray, and Netflix.
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where did the chinese mitten crab come from | Chinese mitten crab - wikipedia
The Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis; Chinese: t 大閘蟹, s 大闸蟹, p dàzháxiè, lit. "big sluice crab ''), also known as the Shanghai hairy crab (上海 大闸蟹, p Shànghǎi dàzháxiè), is a medium - sized burrowing crab that is named for its furry claws, which resemble mittens. It is native to rivers, estuaries and other coastal habitats of eastern Asia from Korea in the north to the Fujian province of China in the south. It has also been introduced to Europe and North America where it is considered an invasive species.
This species ' distinguishing features are the dense patches of dark setae on its claws. The crab 's body is the size of a human palm. The carapace is 3 -- 10 centimetres (1.2 -- 3.9 in) wide, and the legs are about twice as long as the carapace is wide.
Mitten crabs spend most of their life in fresh water and return to the sea to breed. During their fourth or fifth year in late summer, the crustaceans migrate downstream and attain sexual maturity in the tidal estuaries. After mating, the females continue seaward, overwintering in deeper waters. They return to brackish water in the spring to hatch their eggs. After development as larvae, the juvenile crabs gradually move upstream into fresh water, thus completing the life cycle.
It moves from freshwater habitats to saltwater habitats once it has reached reproduction maturity. The types of estuaries suitable for the mitten crab is large brackish waters for the larva to develop in, and large shallow waters for the growth of the juvenile crabs.
The Chinese mitten crab originates from Hong Kong to the border of Korea. It can be found inland but prefers coastal areas. In the Yangtze, the largest river in its native range, Chinese mitten crabs have been recorded up to 1,400 km (870 mi) upstream. It is known to settle in rice fields by the sea and rivers inland. The crab is found in subtropical and temperate regions.
Phylogenetically the crab belongs to the Varunidae family which is the newest group of brachyuran crustaceans. Spawning crabs average around 5.5 cm (2.2 in) in length. Since crabs spawn at the end of their life spans and perish at the end of the breeding cycle, the crabs can live up to 7 (in Germany also 8) years old.
The mitten crab diet is omnivorous. Their main prey consists of worms, mussels, snails, dead organic material, and other small crustaceans and fish.
Starts off as a fresh - water organism. In late August the crab 's sexual instinct is awakened and they begin migrating downstream to the sea, away from their feeding grounds. It is during this migration where the crabs reach puberty and develop their sex organs. Late fall is when the crabs begin to breed in the brackish waters. The males arrive first and stay in the brackish waters all winter. The females arrive after the males arrive. The eggs are laid within 24 hours of mating. They are attached to the abdomen of the female crab. After the eggs are attached, the female leaves immediately heading to the mouth of the river. The larvae hatch from the eggs during summer and they float and drift about the brackish waters. Because the journey to breed for crabs is so great, they only breed once during their lifetimes. The breeding age is normally toward the end of their life spans. Since these crabs only breed once, they have very sizeable egg production counts. After the crabs successfully reproduce, they have very little energy and begin to waste away.
Different life stages of the mitten crab:
1) Eggs require pure salt water to mature. 2) Larvae hatch from the eggs in brackish waters. 3) The larvae gradually move from brackish water to fresh water. 4) The final stage of the larvae is the megalopa, which is 3 - 4mm in length. 5) The megalopa then develop into small mitten crabs in the freshwater.
This species has been spread rapidly from Asia (China and Korea) to North America and Europe, raising concerns that it competes with local species, and its burrowing nature damages embankments and clogs drainage systems. The crabs can make significant inland migrations. It was reported in 1995 that residents of Greenwich saw Chinese mitten crabs coming out of the River Thames, and in 2014 one was found in the Clyde, in Scotland. The crabs have also been known to take up residence in swimming pools. In some places the crabs have been found hundreds of miles from the sea. There is concern in areas with a substantial native crab fishery, such as the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland and the Hudson River in New York (both locations where the crabs were first spotted in 2005), as the impact of the invasion by this species on the native population is unknown.
It is generally illegal to import, transport, or possess live Chinese mitten crabs in the United States, as accidental release or escape risks spreading these crabs to uninfested waters. In addition, some states may have their own restrictions on possession of mitten crabs. California allows fishing for mitten crabs with some restrictions.
The Chinese mitten crab has been introduced into the Great Lakes several times, but has not yet been able to establish a permanent population.
The Smithsonian is tracking the spread of the Chinese mitten crab and seeking help to determine the current distribution status of the mitten crab in the Chesapeake Bay region. People are encouraged to report any mitten crab sightings, along with details (date, specific location, size) and a close - up photograph or specimen if possible. The first confirmed record along the East coast of the United States was in the Chesapeake Bay near Baltimore, Maryland, in 2005.
Chinese mitten crabs have also invaded German waters, where they destroy fishing nets, hurt native fish species and damage local dams, causing damage of up to 80 million Euros. These crabs migrated from China to Europe as early as 1900, and were first documented by official German reports in 1912 from Aller River. After investigation by German scientists in 1933, it was thought that the crabs migrated to Europe through ballast water in commercial ships. The crabs are the only freshwater crab species in Germany, and their tendency to dig holes has caused damage to industrial infrastructure and dams.
The first time the crab was brought to Europe was most likely by commercial vessels. Ships must fill their ballast water tanks and during one of these filling events, it could have been the spawning time for the mitten crab. Since the larvae are free floating and 1.7 mm to 5mm in size, it would have been easy for them to be swept into the ballast water tank. Once the ship reached Europe and emptied its tank, the crab larvae was released. Over time, this repetition would allow for a prominent mitten crab population in Europe. The crab has spread and can be found in Continental Europe, Southern France, United States of America (the San Francisco Bay), and the United Kingdom. A 15 - year period in Germany when the crabs were gradually entering Europe is known as the "establishment phase. ''
The crab is an autumn delicacy in Shanghai cuisine and eastern China. It is prized for the female crab roe, which ripen in the ninth lunar month and the males in the tenth. The crab meat is believed by the Chinese to have a "cooling '' (yin) effect on the body.
Chinese spend hundreds of yuan just to taste a small crab from Yangcheng Lake which are considered a delicacy. Most of the Yangcheng crabs are exported to Shanghai and Hong Kong, and high - profit foreign markets. Responding to the spread of the crab to the West, businessmen have started seeing it as a new source of crab for the Chinese market. One proposed scheme involves importing unwanted crabs from Europe, where they are seen as a pest, to replenish local pure - bred stock.
Mitten crabs have exhibited a remarkable ability to survive in highly modified aquatic habitats, including polluted waters. Like some fish, they can also easily tolerate and uptake heavy metals, such as cadmium and mercury. Therefore, the farming and post-harvesting of the species needs proper management if it is used as a food. Concerns have been raised that the population and origin of the crab may be affected because of overfishing of the species in the Yangtze River.
Recently, China introduced vending machines to sell this species of crab in the subways. The crabs are stored at 5 ° C (41 ° F), which induces a sleepy state of hibernation.
Management efforts have shown to be very difficult. This is due to its abundance, high reproductive rate, and high physiological tolerance. All the following efforts were attempted but showed little improvement: "catch as many as you can '', migration barriers, trapping, raising awareness, electrical screens, and pulses.
There has been discussion of capturing the breeding crabs at the river mouths. There has been difficulties in carrying out this plan though. Other strategies such as capturing them when they pile up at dams has proven somewhat effective. The problem arises when the crabs climb the walls of the dams and over into the rivers behind the dams.
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who sings the new girl in town hairspray | Hairspray (2007 soundtrack) - Wikipedia
Hairspray: Soundtrack to the Motion Picture is the soundtrack album for the 2007 New Line Cinema musical film Hairspray. The film is an adaptation of the 2002 Broadway musical of the same name, itself adapted from John Waters 's original 1988 film. It features performances from the film 's cast, which includes John Travolta, Michelle Pfeiffer, Christopher Walken, Amanda Bynes, James Marsden, Queen Latifah, Brittany Snow, Zac Efron, Elijah Kelley, and Nikki Blonsky as the lead character of Tracy Turnblad.
The album has sold upwards of 1,200,000 copies in the USA, and has been certified Platinum by the RIAA.
The soundtrack received positive reviews from critics.
The soundtrack contains nineteen songs from the film written by Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman, three of which were not included in the stage musical version. Shaiman, who produced the original cast album for the Broadway musical, produced the songs for the film musical as well. Hairspray 's music is written and performed to conform to the story 's 1962 setting, with influences spanning the genres of rock and roll, soul, and pop.
"Ladies ' Choice '', a new song performed by Zac Efron, was the Hairspray soundtrack 's first single. iTunes released the single on May 15, 2007. The iTunes version of the album includes bonus features such as the bonus track "I Can Wait '' (a song written for the film but cut), the "Ladies ' Choice '' music video, an instructional dance video for "Ladies ' Choice '', and a digital version of the album booklet. The soundtrack debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 20 and peaked at number two.
"The New Girl in Town '', "Big, Blonde and Beautiful (Reprise) '', and "Come So Far (Got So Far to Go) '' are the three songs new to this version of Hairspray, although "The New Girl in Town '' was originally written for but dropped from the Broadway production. "Come So Far (Got So Far to Go) '' is played over the film 's end credits, as are renditions of two songs from the stage musical which were not included in the film proper: "Cooties '' and "Mama, I 'm a Big Girl Now ''. "Cooties '' is performed on the soundtrack in a contemporary pop style by singer Aimee Allen. It was also played (without vocals) while the contestants, for Miss Teenage Hairspray, danced to show off their "moves ''. "Mama, I 'm a Big Girl Now '', is performed by each of the three women most famous portraying Hairspray 's main character, Tracy Turnblad: the 1988 film 's Ricki Lake, the Broadway production 's Marissa Jaret Winokur, and this film 's Nikki Blonsky. Harvey Fierstein, who played Edna in the original Broadway production, also has a vocal cameo at the end of this track.
Several of the songs from the Broadway musical had their lyrics altered and / or verses removed for use in the film version. These songs include "(The Legend of) Miss Baltimore Crabs '', "Welcome to the 60s '', "Big, Blonde and Beautiful '', "Without Love '', "(It 's) Hairspray '', "You Ca n't Stop the Beat '', et cetera.
In 2016, a vinyl edition of the album was released and sold at numerous retailers to coincide with the release of Hairspray Live!.
All tracks written by Marc Shaiman and Scott Wittman.
A limited edition two - disc version of the Hairspray soundtrack was released on November 20, 2007, the same day as the film 's DVD / Blu - Ray release. The 2 - disc Collector 's edition soundtrack includes the one - disc soundtrack, as well as a second disc featuring additional songs from the film, deleted songs (among them "I Can Wait ''), demo recordings, and karaoke versions of certain songs. The album debuted at # 90 on the Billboard 200 with sales of at least 20,000 copies sold.
Although included in the movie, "The Nicest Kids in Town (Reprise) '' was not included on the motion picture soundtrack. The track included Tracy in the Roll Call with Corny and the Council Members. Another such song was "Tied Up in the Knots of Sin '' and the performers included Marc Shaiman and Adam Shankman. The demo songs "Mrs. Von Tussle Says '' and "Save Your Applause ' Til the End '' contains some of the cut lyrics to "(The Legend of) Miss Baltimore Crabs, '' as well as lyrics to another popular song in the show that was cut, "Velma 's Revenge, '' which is a reprise of the former.
Vocal ensemble members: Marc Shaiman, Shoshana Bean, Terron Brooks, Jenn Gambatese, Chester Gregory, Leslie Kritzer, Arnold McCuller, Louis Price, Sabrina Sloan, Donna Vivino, Willis White, Lucien Piane, Chyla Anderson, Jonathan Byram, Keith Cotton, Michael Cunio, Carmel Echols, Cliff Frazier, Christopher Johnson, Katharine Leonard, Laura Lively, Michael Mayo, Sophia Pizzulo, Jamison Scott Robinson, Jessica Rotter, Candice Rumph Burrows, Peter Mathew Smith, Leonard Sullivan, Matt Sullivan, Clarke Thorell, Davia Walker, Ayana Williams, Frank Wolf
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how old is judy from kc undercover in real life | K.C. Undercover - wikipedia
K.C. Undercover is an American comedy television series created by Corinne Marshall that originally aired on Disney Channel from January 18, 2015 to February 2, 2018. The series stars Zendaya as a teenager named K.C. who becomes a spy.
Set in Washington, D.C., the series follows K.C. Cooper, a high school math genius who gets recruited by her parents, Craig and Kira Cooper, after she discovers that they are secretly undercover spies working for an agency called The Organization. Her brother, Ernie, tries to help because he feels left out, and eventually joins the team, and his desire leads Craig and Kira to get a new robot child named Judy.
Each episode centers on K.C. and her family as they contend with common familial issues while also performing missions to save the country, with a recurring storyline involving thwarting the plans of a criminal organization called the Other Side.
The third season introduces a renegade organization called the Alternate which is against the Organization and the Other Side with plans to destroy the United States government to change the world their way.
The series was first announced as a pilot in pre-production titled Super Awesome Katy in November 2013. The series was set to star Shake It Up star, Zendaya, who would play 16 - year - old Katy Cooper, an outspoken and confident technology wiz and skilled black belt, who discovers that both her parents are spies who expect her to follow in their footsteps. Production on the pilot was set to begin in early 2014. On November 6, 2013, Zendaya tweeted about the pilot, saying she wants to bring back the "cool Disney Channel '', mentioning shows like That 's So Raven, The Proud Family, and Kim Possible. It was ordered to series by Disney Channel in May 2014, with the series now under the title K.C. Undercover. The series was released on Watch Disney Channel on January 1, 2015, and was followed by the television premiere on January 18, 2015. The first season consisted of 27 episodes. On May 15, 2015, Disney Channel renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on March 6, 2016. On August 1, 2016, People revealed that the series had been renewed for a third season. The third season premiered on Disney Channel on July 7, 2017.
In Canada, the series premiered on Family Channel on January 23, 2015, and moved to Disney Channel on September 1, 2015. During the launch week of Disney Channel, the episode "Runaway Robot '' aired on September 1, 2015, a week before the U.S. The series premiered on Disney Channel in Australia and New Zealand on March 5, 2015. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the show premiered on March 27, 2015, on Disney Channel. On Disney Channel in Southeast Asia, it premiered in Singapore on March 13, 2015, and in the Philippines on April 10, 2015. The show debuted on the English feed of Disney XD in the Middle East and Africa on October 12, 2015. In India, the series premiered on October 30, 2017 on Disney International HD.
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what is the origin of the friday the 13th superstition | Friday the 13th - wikipedia
Friday the 13th is considered an unlucky day in Western superstition. It occurs when the 13th day of the month in the Gregorian calendar falls on a Friday, which happens at least once every year but can occur up to three times in the same year. In 2017, it occurred twice, on January 13 and October 13. In 2018, it will also occur twice on April 13 and July 13. There will be two Friday the 13ths every year until 2020, where 2021 and 2022 will have just one occurrence, in August and May respectively.
The fear of the number 13 has been given a scientific name: "triskaidekaphobia ''; and on analogy to this the fear of Friday the 13th is called paraskevidekatriaphobia, from the Greek words Paraskeví (Παρασκευή, meaning "Friday ''), and dekatreís (δεκατρείς, meaning "thirteen '').
The superstition surrounding this day may have arisen in the Middle Ages, "originating from the story of Jesus ' last supper and crucifixion '' in which there were 13 individuals present in the Upper Room on the 13th of Nisan Maundy Thursday, the night before his death on Good Friday. While there is evidence of both Friday and the number 13 being considered unlucky, there is no record of the two items being referred to as especially unlucky in conjunction before the 19th century.
An early documented reference in English occurs in Henry Sutherland Edwards ' 1869 biography of Gioachino Rossini, who died on a Friday 13th:
He (Rossini) was surrounded to the last by admiring friends; and if it be true that, like so many Italians, he regarded Fridays as an unlucky day and thirteen as an unlucky number, it is remarkable that on Friday 13th of November he passed away.
It is possible that the publication in 1907 of Thomas W. Lawson 's popular novel Friday, the Thirteenth, contributed to disseminating the superstition. In the novel, an unscrupulous broker takes advantage of the superstition to create a Wall Street panic on a Friday the 13th.
A suggested origin of the superstition -- Friday, 13 October 1307, the date Philip IV of France arrested hundreds of the Knights Templar -- may not have been formulated until the 20th century. It is mentioned in the 1955 Maurice Druon historical novel The Iron King (Le Roi de fer), John J. Robinson 's 1989 work Born in Blood: The Lost Secrets of Freemasonry, Dan Brown 's 2003 novel The Da Vinci Code and Steve Berry 's The Templar Legacy (2006).
In Spanish - speaking countries, instead of Friday, Tuesday the 13th (martes trece) is considered a day of bad luck.
The Greeks also consider Tuesday (and especially the 13th) an unlucky day. Tuesday is considered dominated by the influence of Ares, the god of war (Mars in Roman mythology). The fall of Constantinople to the Fourth Crusade occurred on Tuesday, April 13, 1204, and the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans happened on Tuesday, 29 May 1453, events that strengthen the superstition about Tuesday. In addition, in Greek the name of the day is Triti (Τρίτη) meaning the third (day of the week), adding weight to the superstition, since bad luck is said to "come in threes ''.
Tuesday the 13th occurs on a month starting on Thursday.
In Italian popular culture, Friday the 17th (and not the 13th) is considered a day of bad luck. The origin of this belief could be traced in the writing of number 17, in Roman numerals: XVII. By shuffling the digits of the number one can easily get the word VIXI ("I have lived '', implying death in the present), an omen of bad luck. In fact, in Italy, 13 is generally considered a lucky number. However, due to Americanization, young people consider Friday the 13th unlucky as well.
The 2000 parody film Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday the Thirteenth was released in Italy with the title Shriek -- Hai impegni per venerdì 17? ("Shriek -- Do You Have Something to Do on Friday the 17th? '').
Friday the 17th occurs on a month starting on Wednesday.
According to the Stress Management Center and Phobia Institute in Asheville, North Carolina, an estimated 17 to 21 million people in the United States are affected by a fear of this day, making it the most feared day and date in history. Some people are so paralyzed by fear that they avoid their normal routines in doing business, taking flights or even getting out of bed. "It 's been estimated that (US) $ 800 or $900 million is lost in business on this day ''. Despite this, representatives for both Delta Air Lines and Continental Airlines (the latter now merged into United Airlines) have stated that their airlines do not suffer from any noticeable drop in travel on those Fridays.
In Finland, a consortium of governmental and nongovernmental organizations led by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health promotes the National Accident Day (kansallinen tapaturmapäivä) to raise awareness about automotive safety, which always falls on a Friday the 13th. The event is coordinated by the Finnish Red Cross and has been held since 1995.
A study in the British Medical Journal, published in 1993, attracted some attention from popular science - literature, as it concluded that "' the risk of hospital admission as a result of a transport accident may be increased by as much as 52 percent ' on the 13th ''; however, the authors clearly state that "the numbers of admissions from accidents are too small to allow meaningful analysis ''. Subsequent studies have disproved any correlation between Friday the 13th and the rate of accidents.
On the contrary, the Dutch Centre for Insurance Statistics on 12 June 2008 stated that "fewer accidents and reports of fire and theft occur when the 13th of the month falls on a Friday than on other Fridays, because people are preventatively more careful or just stay home. Statistically speaking, driving is slightly safer on Friday the 13th, at least in the Netherlands; in the last two years, Dutch insurers received reports of an average 7,800 traffic accidents each Friday; but the average figure when the 13th fell on a Friday was just 7,500. ''
In years which begin on the same day of the week and are of the same type (that is, whether they are a common year or leap year), Friday the 13th occurs in the same months.
This sequence, given here for 1900 -- 2099, follows a 28 - year cycle from 1 March 1900 to 28 February 2100. The months with a Friday the 13th are determined by the Dominical letter (G, F, GF, etc.) of the year. Any month that starts on a Sunday contains a Friday the 13th, and there is at least one Friday the 13th in every calendar year. There can be as many as three Friday the 13ths in a single calendar year; either in February, March and November in a common year starting on Thursday (such as 2009, 2015 or 2026) (D), or January, April and July in a leap year starting on Sunday (such as 2012) (AG).
The longest period that occurs without a Friday the 13th is 14 months, either from July to September the following year being a common year starting on Tuesday (F) (e.g. 2001 / 02, 2012 / 13 and 2018 / 19), or from August to October the following year being a leap year starting on Saturday (BA) (e.g. 1999 / 2000 and 2027 / 28).
The shortest period that occurs with a Friday the 13th is just one month, from February to March in a common year starting on Thursday (D) (e.g. 2009, 2015 and 2026).
Each Gregorian 400 - year cycle contains 146,097 days (with 97 leap days) or exactly 20,871 weeks. Therefore, each cycle contains the same pattern of days of the week and thus the same pattern of Fridays that are on the 13th. The 13th day of the month is slightly more likely to be a Friday than any other day of the week. On average, there is a Friday the 13th once every 212.35 days, whereas Thursday the 13th occurs only once every 213.59 days.
In the 2010s there were three Friday the 13ths in 2012 and 2015, and two in 2013 and 2017. There will also be two in 2018, 2019, and 2020. In the 2020s, there will be three F13 's in 2026, and two in 2020, 2023, 2024, and 2029. The rest of years have at least one F13 if there are fewer than two or three in the 2010s and 2020s. Assuming nothing is changed with the calendar there are never more than three F13s in a year. There is a 28 - year cycle that repeats when there is a F13 in February, March and November, and the current start of that pattern was in 2009. Although there is at least one F13 per calendar year, it can be as long as 14 months between two F13s. For the details see the table below.
In Finland one F13 is chosen as National Accident Day to raise awareness about automotive safety, this is possible because there is at least one F13 each year.
The table is for the Gregorian calendar and Jan / Feb for leap years.
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does france have a president and prime minister | Prime Minister of France - Wikipedia
The French Prime Minister (French: Premier ministre français) in the Fifth Republic is the head of government and of the Council of Ministers of France. During the Third and Fourth Republics, the head of government position was called President of the Council of Ministers (French: Président du Conseil des Ministres), generally shortened to President of the Council (French: Président du Conseil).
The Prime Minister proposes a list of ministers to the President of the Republic. Decrees and decisions of the Prime Minister, like almost all executive decisions, are subject to the oversight of the administrative court system. Few decrees are taken after advice from the Council of State (French: Conseil d'État). All prime ministers defend the programs of their ministry, and make budgetary choices. The extent to which those decisions lie with the Prime Minister or President depends upon whether they are of the same party.
Manuel Valls was appointed to lead the government in a cabinet reshuffle in March 2014, after the ruling Socialists suffered a bruising defeat in local elections. However, he resigned on 6 December 2016, to stand in the French Socialist Party presidential primary, 2017 and Bernard Cazeneuve was appointed as Prime Minister later that day by President François Hollande. Cazeneuve resigned on 10 May 2017. Édouard Philippe was named his successor on 15 May 2017.
The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic, who can select whomever they want. While prime ministers are usually chosen from amongst the ranks of the National Assembly, on rare occasions the President has selected a non-officeholder because of their experience in bureaucracy or foreign service, or their success in business management -- Dominique de Villepin, for example, served as Prime Minister from 2005 to 2007 without ever having held an elected office.
On the other hand, while the Prime Minister does not have to ask for vote of confidence after cabinet 's formation and they can depend their legitimacy on the President 's assignment as Prime Minister and approval of the cabinet, because the National Assembly does have the power to force the resignation of the cabinet by motion of no confidence, the choice of Prime Minister must reflect the will of the majority in the Assembly. For example, right after the legislative election of 1986, President François Mitterrand had to appoint Jacques Chirac Prime Minister although Chirac was a member of the RPR (Rally for the Republic) and therefore a political opponent of Mitterrand. Despite the fact that Mitterrand 's own Socialist Party was the largest party in the Assembly, it did not have an absolute majority. The RPR had an alliance with the UDF, which gave them a majority. Such a situation, where the President is forced to work with a Prime Minister who is an opponent, is called a cohabitation.
Édith Cresson is the only woman to have held the position of Prime Minister.
Aristide Briand holds the record for number of cabinet formations as Prime Minister with 11 times. He served between 1909 and 1929 with some terms as short as 26 days.
According to article 21 of the Constitution, the Prime Minister "shall direct the actions of the Government ''. Additionally, Article 20 stipulates that the Government "shall determine and conduct the policy of the Nation ''. Other members of Government are appointed by the President "on the recommendation of the Prime Minister ''. In practice the Prime Minister acts on the impulse of the President to whom he is a subordinate, except when there is a cohabitation in which case his responsibilities are akin to those of a prime minister in a parliamentary system.
The Prime Minister can "engage the responsibility '' of his or her Government before the National Assembly. This process consists of placing a bill before the Assembly, and either the Assembly overthrows the Government, or the bill is passed automatically (article 49). In addition to ensuring that the Government still has support in the House, some bills that might prove too controversial to pass through the normal Assembly rules are able to be passed this way.
The Prime Minister may also submit a bill that has not been yet signed into law to the Constitutional Council (article 61).
Before he is allowed to dissolve the Assembly, the President has to consult the Prime Minister and the presidents of both Houses of Parliament (article 12).
The office of the prime minister, in its current form, was created in 1958 under the French Fifth Republic.
Under the Third Republic, the French Constitutional Laws of 1875 imbued the position of President of the Council with similar formal powers to those which at that time the British Prime Minister possessed. In practice, however, this proved insufficient to command the confidence of France 's multi-party parliament, and the president of the Council was a fairly weak figure, his strength more dependent on charisma than formal powers, and often serving as little more than the cabinet 's "primus inter pares ''. Most notably, the legislature had the power to force the entire cabinet out of office by a vote of censure. As a result, cabinets were often toppled twice a year, and there were long stretches where France was left with only a caretaker government.
After several unsuccessful attempts to strengthen the role in the first half of the twentieth century, a presidential system was introduced under the Fifth Republic. The 1958 Constitution includes several provisions intended to strengthen the prime minister 's position, for instance by restricting the legislature 's power to vote censure.
The current prime minister is Édouard Philippe, who was appointed on 15 May 2017.
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where are the three main locations where innovation and development of the blues happened | Music history of the United States - wikipedia
The music history of the United States includes many styles of folk, popular and classical music. Some of the best - known genres of American music are blues, rock and roll, and country. The history began with the Native Americans, the first people to populate North America. The music of these people was highly varied in form, and was mostly religious in purpose.
With the colonization of America from European countries like France, Spain, Scotland, England, Ireland, and Wales came Christian choirs, musical notation, broadsides, as well as West African slaves. West African slaves played a variety of instruments, especially drums and string instruments similar to the banjo. The Spanish also played a similar instrument called the Bandora. Both of these cultures introduced polyrhythms and call - and - response style vocals.
As the United States incorporated more land, spreading west towards the Ocean, more immigrants began to arrive in the country, bringing with them their own instruments and styles. During this time, the United States grew to incorporate the Cajun and Creole music of Louisiana, the Polynesian music of Hawaii and Tex - Mex and Tejano music. Immigrants brought with them the Eastern European polka, Chinese and Japanese music, and Polish fiddling, Scottish and Irish music, Ashkenazi Jewish klezmer, and other styles of Indian, Russian, French, German, Italian, Arab and Latin music.
In the 21st century, American popular music achieved great international acclaim. Even since the ragtime and minstrel songs of the 19th century, African American and Scottish music has greatly influenced American popular music. The rural blues of poor black Southerners and the jazz of black urbanites were among the earliest styles of American popular music. At the time, black performers typically did not perform their own material, instead using songs produced by the music publishing companies of Tin Pan Alley. African American blues evolved during the early 20th century, later evolving to create genres like rhythm and blues. During this time, jazz diversified into steadily more experimental fields. By the end of the 1940s, jazz had grown into such varied fields as bebop and jazz.
Rock and roll was soon to become the most important component of American popular music, beginning with the rockabilly boom of the 1950s. In the following decade, gospel evolved into secular soul. Rock, country and soul, mixed with each other and occasionally other styles, spawned a legion of subgenres over the next few decades, ranging from heavy metal to punk and funk. In the 1970s, urban African Americans in New York City began performing spoken lyrics over a beat provided by an emcee; this became known as hip hop music. By the dawn of the 21st century, hip hop had become a part of most recorded American popular music, and by the 2010s had surpassed rock music in overall listenership.
The first musicians anywhere in North America were Native Americans, who consist of hundreds of ethnic groups across the country, each with their own unique styles of folk music. Of these cultures, many, and their musical traditions, are now extinct, though some remain relatively vibrant in a modern form, such as Hawaiian music.
By the 16th century, large - scale immigration of English, French and Spanish settlers brought new kinds of folk music. This was followed by the importation of Africans as slaves, bringing their music with them. The Africans were as culturally varied as the Native Americans, descended from hundreds of ethnic groups in West Africa. American music is, like most of its hemispheric neighbors, a mixture of African, European and a little bit of native influences. Still later in the country 's history, ethnic and musical diversity grew as the United States grew into a melting pot of different peoples. Immigration from China began in large numbers in the 19th century, most of them settling on the West Coast. Later, Japanese, Indian, Scottish, Polish, Italian, Irish, Mexican, Swedish, Ukrainian and Armenian immigrants also arrived in large numbers.
The first song copyrighted under the new United States Constitution was The Kentucky Volunteer, composed a recent immigrant from England, Raynor Taylor, one of the first notable composers active in the US, and printed by the most prolific and notable musical publisher of the country 's first decade, Benjamin Carr.
In the 19th century, African - Americans were freed from slavery following the American Civil War. Their music was a mixture of Scottish and African origin, like African American gospel displaying polyrhythm and other distinctly African traits. Work songs and field hollers were popular, but it was spirituals which became a major foundation for music in the 20th century.
Spirituals (or Negro spirituals, as they were then known) were Christian songs, dominated by passionate and earthy vocals similar to the church music of Scotland, which were performed in an African - style and Scottish style call - and - response format using hymns derived from those sung in colonial New England choirs, which were based on Moravian, English and Dutch church music. These hymns spread south through Appalachia in the late 18th century, where they were partnered with the music of the African slaves. During the Great Awakening of religious fervor in the early 19th century, spirituals spread across the south. Among some whites, slave music grew increasingly popular, especially after the American Civil War, when black and white soldiers worked together and Southern slaves fled north in huge numbers.
By the end of the 19th century, minstrel shows had spread across the country, and even to continental Europe. In minstrel shows, performers imitated slaves in crude caricatures, singing and dancing to what was called "Negro music '', though it had little in common with authentic African American folk styles. An African American variety of dance music called the cakewalk also became popular, evolving into ragtime by the start of the 20th century.
The Appalachian Mountains run along the East Coast of the United States. The region has long been historically poor compared to much of the rest of the country; many of the rural Appalachian people travelled to cities for work, and were there labeled hillbillies, and their music became known as hillbilly music. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Irish and Scottish immigrants arrived in large numbers. They mingled there with poor whites of other ethnic backgrounds, as well as many blacks. The result was a diverse array of folk styles which have been collectively referred to as Appalachian folk music. These styles included jug bands, honky tonk and bluegrass, and are the root of modern country music.
Appalachian folk music began its evolution towards pop - country in 1927, when Jimmie Rodgers and the Carter Family began recording in a historic session with Ralph Peer (Barraclough and Wolff, 537). Rodgers sang often morbid lyrical themes that drew on the blues to create tales of the poor and unlucky (Collins, 11), while the Carters preferred more upbeat ballads with clear vocals, complementary instrumentation and wholesome lyrics (Garofalo, 53). Their success paved the way for the development of popular country, and left its mark on the developing genre of rock and roll.
Though Appalachian and African American folk music became the basis for most of American popular music, the United States is home to a diverse assortment of ethnic groups. In the early 20th century, many of these ethnic groups supported niche record industries and produced minor folk stars like Pawlo Humeniuk, the "King of the Ukrainian Fiddlers '' (Kochan and Kytasty, 308). Some of these ethnic musicians eventually became well - known across the country, such as Frankie Yankovic, the Slovenian polka master.
This same period also saw the rise of Native American powwows around the start of the 20th century. These were large - scale intertribal events featuring spiritual activity and musical performances, mostly group percussion based (Means, 594).
Large - scale immigration of Eastern European Jews and their klezmer music peaked in the first few decades of the 20th century. People like Harry Kandel and Dave Tarras become stars within their niche, and made the United States the international center for klezmer (Broughton, 583).
In Texas, ethnic Mexicans who had lived in the area for centuries, played a distinct style of conjunto, different from that played in Mexico. The influence of Czech polka music was a major distinguishing characteristic of this music, which gradually evolved into what is now known as norteño (Burr, 604).
The Cajuns and Creoles of Louisiana have long constituted a distinct minority with their own cultural identity. The Cajuns are descendants of French - Canadians from the region of Acadia, the Creoles are black and French - speaking. Their music was a mixture of bluesy work songs mixed with jazz and other influences, and included styles like la la and juré. Though these genres were geographically limited, they were modernized and mixed with more mainstream styles, evolving into popular zydeco music by the middle of the century (Broughton and Kaliss, 558).
The first field of American music that could be viewed as popular, rather than classical or folk, was the singing of the colonial New England choirs, and travelling singing masters like William Billings. It was here that techniques and traditions like shape note, lined - out hymnody and Sacred Harp were created, gradually spreading south and becoming an integral part of the Great Awakening. The Great Awakening of the 1730s and ' 40s was a period of religious fervor, among whites and blacks (both slave and free), that saw passionate, evangelical "Negro spirituals '' grow in popularity (Ferris, 98).
During the 19th century, it was not spirituals that gained truly widespread acclaim, but rather peppy comic songs performed by minstrels in blackface, and written by legendary songwriters like Stephen Foster and Daniel Emmett. During the Civil War, popular ballads were common, some used liberally by both the North and the South as patriotic songs. Finally, late in the century, the African American cakewalk evolved into ragtime, which became a North American and European sensation, while mainstream America was enthralled by the brass band marches of John Philips Sousa.
Tin Pan Alley was the biggest source of popular music early in the 20th century (Garofolo, 17). Tin Pan Alley was a place in New York City which published sheet music for dance songs like "After the Ball Is Over ''. The first few decades of the 20th century also saw the rise of popular, comic musical theater, such as the vaudeville tradition and composers and writers like Oscar Hammerstein II, Jerome Kern and Ira Gershwin. At the same time, jazz and blues, two distinct but related genres, began flourishing in cities like Memphis, Chicago and New Orleans and began to attract some mainstream audiences.
Blues and jazz were the foundation of what became American popular music. The ability to sell recorded music through phonographs changed the music industry into one that relied on the charisma of star performers rather than songwriters. There was increased pressure to record bigger hits, meaning that even minor trends and fads like Hawaiian steel guitar left a permanent influence (the steel guitar is still very common in country music). Dominican merengue and Argentinian tango also left their mark, especially on jazz, which has long been a part of the music scene in Latin America. During the 1920s, classic female blues singers like Mamie Smith became the first musical celebrities of national renown. Gospel, blues and jazz were also diversifying during this period, with new subgenres evolving in different cities like Memphis, New York, New Orleans and Chicago.
Jazz quickly replaced the blues as American popular music, in the form of big band swing, a kind of dance music from the early 1930s. Swing used large ensembles, and was not generally improvised, in contrast with the free - flowing form of other kinds of jazz. With swing spreading across the nation, other genres continued to evolve towards popular traditions. In Louisiana, Cajun and Creole music was adding influences from blues and generating some regional hit records, while Appalachian folk music was spawning jug bands, honky tonk bars and close harmony duets, which were to evolve into the pop - folk of the 1940s, bluegrass and country. The American Popular music reflects and defines American Society.
In the 1940s, jazz evolved into an ever more experimental bebop scene. Country and folk music further developed as well, gaining newfound popularity and acclaim for hard - edged folk music.
Starting in the 1920s, Boogie Woogie began to evolve into what would become rock and roll, with decided Blues influences, from 1929 's Crazy About My Baby with fundamental rock elements, to 1938 's Roll ' Em Pete by Big Joe Turner, which contained almost the complete formula. Teenagers from across the country began to identify with each other and launched numerous trends. Perhaps most importantly, the 1940s saw the rise of the youth culture. The first teen stars arose, beginning with the bobby soxer idol Frank Sinatra; this opened up new audiences for popular music, which had been primarily an adult phenomenon prior to the 1940s. In the 1940s, boogie woogie was using terms like "rocking '' and "rolling '' borrowed from gospel and Blues music, as in Good Rockin ' Tonight by Roy Brown. In the 1950s, "Rock and Roll '' musicians began producing direct covers of boogie woogie and R&B stars, for example Shake Rattle and Roll by Big Joe Turner (covered by Bill Haley and his Comets in 1954) and Hound Dog by Big Mama Thornton (covered by Elvis Presley in 1956), and their own original works like Chuck Berry 's Maybellene in 1955.
The early 1940s saw the first major commercial success for Appalachian folk. Singers like Pete Seeger emerged, in groups like the Almanac Singers and The Weavers. Lyrically, these performers drew on early singer - songwriters like Woody Guthrie, and the whole scene became gradually associated with the political left (Garofolo, 196). By the 1950s, the anti-Communism scare was in full swing, and some performers with a liberal or socialist bent were blacklisted from the music industry.
In the middle of the 1940s, Western swing reached its peak of popularity. It was a mixture of diverse influences, including swing, blues, polka and popular cowboy songs, and included early stars like Bob Wills, who became among the best known musicians of the era.
With a honky tonk root, modern country music arose in the 1940s, mixing with R&B and the blues to form rockabilly. Rockabilly 's earliest stars were Elvis Presley and Bill Haley, who entertained to crowds of devoted teenage fans. At the time, black audiences were listening to R&B, doo wop and gospel, but these styles were not perceived as appropriate for white listeners. People like Haley and Presley were white, but sang in a black style. This caused a great deal of cheeze controversy from concerned parents who felt that "race music '', as it was then known, would corrupt their children. Nevertheless, rockabilly 's popularity continued to grow, paving the way for the earliest rock stars like Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Little Richard and Fats Domino.
Among country fans, rockabilly was not well - regarded. Instead, the pop sounds of singers like Hank Williams and Patsy Cline became popular. Williams had an unprecedented run of success, with more than ten chart - topping singles in two years (1950 -- 1951), including well - remembered songs still performed today like "I 'm So Lonesome I Could Cry '' and "Cold, Cold Heart ''. It was performers like Williams that established the city of Nashville, Tennessee as the center of the country music industry. There, country and pop were mixed, resulting in what was known as the Nashville Sound.
The 1950s also saw the widespread popularization of gospel music, in the form of powerful singers like Mahalia Jackson. Gospel first broke into international audiences in 1948, with the release of Jackson 's "Move On Up a Little Higher '', which was so popular it could n't be shipped to record stores fast enough. As the music became more mainstream in the later part of the decade, performers began adding influences from R&B to make a more palatable and dance - able sound. Early in the next decade, the lyrics were secularized, resulting in soul music. Some of soul 's biggest stars began performing in the 1950s gospel scene, including Sam Cooke, Dinah Washington, Dionne Warwick and Aretha Franklin.
Doo wop, a complex type of vocal music, also became popular during the 1950s, and left its mark on 1960s soul and R&B. The genre 's exact origins are debatable, but it drew on groups like the Mills Brothers and The Ink Spots, who played a kind of R&B with smooth, alternating lead vocals. With the addition of gospel inflections, doo wop 's polished sound and romantic ballads made it a major part of the 1950s music scene, beginning in 1951. The first popular groups were The Five Keys ("Glory Of Love '') and The Flamingos ("Golden Teardrops ''). Doo wop diversified considerably later in the decade, with groups like The Crows ("Gee ''), creating a style of uptempo doo wop and the ballad style via The Penguins ("Earth Angel ''), while singers like Frankie Lymon became sensations; Lymon became the first black teen idol in the country 's history after the release of the Top 40 pop hit "Why Do Fools Fall in Love '' (1956).
Latin music imported from Cuba (chachachá, mambo, rumba) and Mexico (ranchera and mariachi) had brief periods of popularity during the 1950s. The earliest popular Latin music in the United States came with rumba in the early 1930s, and was followed by calypso in the mid-40s, mambo in the late 1940s and early 1950s, chachachá and charanga in the mid-50s, bolero in the late 1950s and finally boogaloo in the mid-60s, while Latin music mixed with jazz during the same period, resulting in Latin jazz and the bossa nova fusion cool jazz.
The first Mexican - Texan pop star was Lydia Mendoza, who began recording in 1934. It was not until the 1940s, however, that musica norteña became popularized by female duets like Carmen y Laura and Las Hermanas Mendoza, who had a string of regional hits. The following decade saw the rise of Chelo Silva, known as the "Queen of the (Mexican) Bolero '', who sang romantic pop songs.
The 1950s saw further innovation in the Mexican - Texan community, as electric guitars, drums and elements of rock and jazz were added to conjunto. Valeria Longoria was the first major performer of conjunto, known for introducing Colombian cumbia and Mexican ranchera to conjunto bands. Later, Tony de la Rosa modernized the conjunto big bands by adding electric guitars, amplified bajo sexto and a drum kit and slowing down the frenetic dance rhythms of the style. In the mid-1950s, bandleader Isidro Lopez used accordion in his band, thus beginning the evolution of Tejano music. The rock - influenced Little Joe was the first major star of this scene.
Louisiana 's Cajun and Creole communities saw their local music become a brief mainstream fad during the 1950s. This was largely due to the work of Clifton Chenier, who began recording for Speciality Records in 1955. He took authentic Cajun and Creole music and added more elements of rock and roll: a rollicking beat, frenetic vocals and a dance - able rhythm; the result was a style called zydeco. Chenier continued recording for more than thirty years, releasing over a hundred albums and paving the way for later stars like Boozoo Chavis and Buckwheat Zydeco.
In the 1960s, music became heavily involved in the burgeoning youth counter culture, as well as various social and political causes. The beginning of the decade saw the peak of doo wop 's popularity, in about 1961, as well as the rise of surf, girl groups and the first soul singers. Psychedelic and progressive rock arose during this period, along with the roots of what would later become funk, hip hop, salsa, electronic music, punk rock and heavy metal. An American roots revival occurred simultaneously as a period of sexual liberation and racial conflict, leading to growth in the lyrical maturity and complexity of popular music as songwriters wrote about the changes the country was going through.
The first few years of the 1960s saw major innovation in popular music. Girl groups, surf and hot rod, and the Nashville Sound were popular, while an Appalachian folk and African American blues roots revival became dominant among a smaller portion of the listening audience. An even larger population of young audiences in the United Kingdom listened to American blues. By the middle of the decade, British blues and R&B bands like The Beatles, The Who and the Rolling Stones were topping the charts in what became known as the British Invasion, alongside newly secularized soul music and the mainstreaming of the Bakersfield Sound. Folk - based singer - songwriters like Bob Dylan also added new innovations to popular music, expanding its possibilities, such as by making singles more than the standard three minutes in length.
Psychedelic rock became the genre most closely intertwined with the youth culture. It arose from the British Invasion of blues in the middle of the decade, when bands like The Beatles, Rolling Stones and The Who dominated the charts and only a few American bands, such as The Beach Boys and The Mamas & the Papas, could compete. It became associated with hippies and the anti-war movement, civil rights, feminism and environmentalism, paralleling the similar rise of Afrocentric Black Power in soul and funk. Events like Woodstock became defining symbols for the generation known as the Baby Boomers, who were born immediately following World War 2 and came of age in the mid to late 1960s.
Later in the decade, psychedelic rock and the youth culture splintered. Punk rock, heavy metal, singer - songwriter and progressive rock appeared, and the connection between music and social activism largely disappeared from popular music.
In the middle of the decade, female soul singers like Dionne Warwick, Aretha Franklin and Diana Ross were popular, while innovative performers like James Brown invented a new style of soul called funk. Influenced by psychedelic rock, which was dominating the charts at the time, funk was a very rhythmic, dance - able kind of soul. Later in the decade and into the 1970s, funk too split into two strands. Sly & the Family Stone made pop - funk palatable for the masses, while George Clinton and his P Funk collective pioneered a new, psychedelia - and heavy metal - influenced form of avant - garde funk. Album - oriented soul also appeared very late in the decade and into the next, with artists like Marvin Gaye, Al Green and Curtis Mayfield taking soul beyond the realm of the single into cohesive album - length artistic statements with a complex social conscience.
It was in this context, of album - oriented soul and funk, influenced by Black Power and the civil rights movement, that African Americans in Harlem invented hip hop music.
Merle Haggard led the rise of the Bakersfield Sound in the 1960s, when the perceived superficiality of the Nashville Sound led to a national wave that almost entirely switched country music 's capital and sound within the space of a few years. At the same time, bluegrass became a major influence on jam bands like Grateful Dead and also evolved into new, progressive genres like newgrass. As part of the nationwide roots revival, Hawaiian slack - key guitar and Cajun swamp pop also saw mainstream success.
With the widespread success of Tony de la Rosa 's big band conjunto in the late 1950s, the style became more influenced by rock and pop. Esteban Jordan 's wild, improvised style of accordion became popular, paving the way for the further success of El Conjunto Bernal. The Bernal brothers ' band sold thousands of albums and used faster rhythms than before.
The early 1970s saw popular music being dominated by folk - based singer - songwriters like John Denver, Carole King and James Taylor, followed by the rise of heavy metal subgenres, glam, country rock and later, disco. Philly soul and pop - funk was also popular, while world music fusions became more commonplace and a major klezmer revival occurred among the Jewish community. Beginning in the early 1970s, hip hop arose in New York City, drawing on diverse influences from both white and black folk music, Jamaican toasting and the performance poetry of Gil Scott - Heron.
Heavy metal 's early pioneers included the British bands Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath, though American cult bands Blue Cheer and The Velvet Underground also played a major role. Their music was hard - edged and bluesy, with an often menacing tone that became more pronounced in later subgenres. In the beginning of the 1970s, heavy metal - influenced glam rock arose, and musicians like David Bowie became famous for gender - bending costumes and themes. Glam was followed by mainstream bombastic arena rock and light progressive rock bands becoming mainstream, with bands like Styx and Chicago launching popular careers that lasted most of the decade. Glam metal, a glitzy form of Los Angeles metal, also found a niche audience but limited mainstream success.
With the Bakersfield Sound the dominant influence, outlaw country singers like Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings were the biggest country stars of the 1970s, alongside country rock bands like Lynyrd Skynyrd and Allman Brothers Band who were more oriented towards crossover audiences. Later in the decade and into the next, these both mixed with other genres in the form of heartland rockers like Bruce Springsteen, while a honky tonk revival hit the country charts, led by Dwight Yoakam.
Hip hop was a cultural movement that began in Bronx in the early 1970s, consisting of four elements. Two of them, rapping and DJing, make up hip hop music. These two elements were imported from Jamaica by DJ Kool Herc. At neighborhood block parties, DJs would spin popular records while the audience danced. Soon, an MC arose to lead the proceedings, as the DJ began isolating and repeating the percussion breaks (the most popular, dance - able part). MCs ' introductions became more and more complex, drawing on numerous African - derived vocal traditions, and became the foundation of rapping. By the end of the decade, hip hop had spread across the country, especially in Los Angeles and Chicago.
Cuban and Puerto Ricans in New York invented salsa in the early 1970s, using multiple sources from Latin America in the pan-Latin melting pot of the city. Puerto Rican plena and bomba and Cuban chachacha, son montuno and mambo were the biggest influences, alongside Jamaican, Mexican, Dominican, Trinidadian, Argentinian, Colombian and Brazilian sources. Many of the earliest salsa musicians, like Tito Puente, had had a long career in various styles of Latin music. Salsa grew very popular in the 1970s and into the next two decades, spreading south to Venezuela, Colombia, Puerto Rico, Mexico, Peru and especially Cuba.
Punk rock arose as a reaction against what had come before. Early punks believed that hollow greed had destroyed American music, and hated the perceived bombasity and arrogance of the biggest bands of the 1970s. It arose in London and New York, with numerous regional centers by the end of the decade when acts like Ramones and Patti Smith saw unprecedented success for their defiantly anti-mainstream genre. It was the British band The Clash, however, that became wildly popular, more so in the UK than the U.S., and set the stage for adoption of elements of punk in popular music in the 1980s.
The 1980s began with new wave dominating the charts, and continued through a new form of silky smooth soul, and ended with a popular glam metal trend dominating mainstream America. Meanwhile, the first glimmer of punk rock 's popularity began, and new alternative rock and hardcore found niche markets. Hip hop diversified as a few artists gained mainstream success, finally breaking through in the last few months of the decade.
In the 1980s, hip hop saw its first taste of mainstream success with LL Cool J and Kurtis Blow. Meanwhile, hip hop was continuing its spread from the East Coast to most major urban areas across the country, and abroad. At the end of the decade, two albums broke the genre into the mainstream. Public Enemy 's It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back and N.W.A 's Straight Outta Compton broke through with highly controversial and sometimes violent lyrics. N.W.A proved especially important, launching the career of Dr. Dre and the dominant West Coast rap sound of the next decade. That same year (1989), De La Soul 's 3 Feet High and Rising became the earliest release of alternative hip hop, and numerous regional styles of hip hop saw their first legitimization, including Chicago hip house, Los Angeles electroclash, Miami 's bass, Washington, D.C. 's go - go and Detroit 's ghettotech. Drawing inspiration from the rebellious attitudes of the Civil Rights Movement and groups like Public Enemy, many intelligent and politically minded rappers began what is known as underground hip - hop with artists like Boots Riley from The Coup leading the way.
As the 1990s began, hair metal was dominating the charts, especially formulaic bands like Extreme. In reaction to that, the first few years saw a sea change in American popular music. Nirvana 's Nevermind along with Alice in Chains, Pearl Jam, and Soundgarden launched the defiantly anti-mainstream grunge movement among mainstream audiences, while Dr. Dre 's The Chronic brought his West Coast G Funk sound to widespread success.
Both these trends died out quickly, however, grunge done in by Kurt Cobain 's death and disillusionisment with grunge, a form of alternative rock, becoming mainstream. G Funk lasted a few years, displacing East Coast rap as the dominant sound of hip hop. A rivalry began, fed by the music news, focusing on West Coast 's Tupac Shakur and the East Coast 's Notorious B.I.G.. By the middle of the decade, Tupac and Biggie were shot dead, and Dr. Dre 's Death Row Records had fallen apart. East Coast rappers like Puff Daddy, 50 Cent and Busta Rhymes re-established the East Coast, while Atlanta 's OutKast and other performers found a mainstream audience.
Alanis Morissette, one of the top - selling artist of the 1990s, injected renewed popularity to singer - songwriters such as Tori Amos, Jewel, and Sarah McLachlan. In the wake of grunge and gangsta rap came a fusion of soul and hip hop, called neo soul, some popularity for British Britpop and the rise of bands like Sublime and No Doubt, playing a form of pop punk influenced by Jamaican ska and British two tone ska / punk fusionists from the early 1980s. Techno also became popular, though nowhere 's near as much so as in most of the rest of the world.
At the turn of the millennium, bubblegum pop groups like Backstreet Boys and Britney Spears were dominating the charts, many of them with a Latin beat (Shakira, Ricky Martin), and rappers like Jay - Z and Eminem were huge stars. Some garage rock revivalists like The White Stripes and The Hives became highly hyped bands in the indie rock field, and achieved substantial mainstream success. The first few years of the 2000s saw the further rise of pop - hip hop, fed by the breakthrough success of Eminem. Indeed, hip hop became an essential element of nearly all popular music during this period, resulting in new fusions like nu metal. Pop thug rappers like Ja Rule were nationally renowned, though hard - edged hip made a return within a few years with the rise of 50 Cent. Politically minded hip hop in the tradition of Public Enemy and Boogie Down Productions has also diversified since the early 1990s with groups like The Coup, Sweatshop Union, Mr. Lif, Paris, Immortal Technique and many others.
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what is the hindi meaning of muscular system | Muscular system - wikipedia
The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. It permits movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the body. The muscular system in vertebrates is controlled through the nervous system, although some muscles (such as the cardiac muscle) can be completely autonomous. Together with the skeletal system it forms the musculoskeletal system, which is responsible for movement of the human body.
There are three distinct types of muscles: skeletal muscles, cardiac or heart muscles, and smooth (non-striated) muscles. Muscles provide strength, balance, posture, movement and heat for the body to keep warm.
Skeletal muscles, like other striated muscles, are composed of myocytes, or muscle fibers, which are in turn composed of myofibrils, which are composed of sarcomeres, the basic building block of striated muscle tissue. Upon stimulation by an action potential, skeletal muscles perform a coordinated contraction by shortening each sarcomere. The best proposed model for understanding contraction is the sliding filament model of muscle contraction. Within the sarcomere, actin and myosin fibers overlap in a contractile motion towards each other. Myosin filaments have club - shaped heads that project toward the actin filaments.
Larger structures along the myosin filament called myosin heads are used to provide attachment points on binding sites for the actin filaments. The myosin heads move in a coordinated style; they swivel toward the center of the sarcomere, detach and then reattach to the nearest active site of the actin filament. This is called a ratchet type drive system.
This process consumes large amounts of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy source of the cell. ATP binds to the cross bridges between myosin heads and actin filaments. The release of energy powers the swiveling of the myosin head. When ATP is used, it becomes adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and since muscles store little ATP, they must continuously replace the discharged ADP with ATP. Muscle tissue also contains a stored supply of a fast acting recharge chemical, creatine phosphate, which when necessary can assist with the rapid regeneration of ADP into ATP.
Calcium ions are required for each cycle of the sarcomere. Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcomere when a muscle is stimulated to contract. This calcium uncovers the actin binding sites. When the muscle no longer needs to contract, the calcium ions are pumped from the sarcomere and back into storage in the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
There are approximately 639 skeletal muscles in the human body.
Skeletal muscles, viewed from the front
Skeletal muscles, viewed from the back
Heart muscles are distinct from skeletal muscles because the muscle fibers are laterally connected to each other. Furthermore, just as with smooth muscles, their movement is involuntary. Heart muscles are controlled by the sinus node influenced by the autonomic nervous system.
Smooth muscles are controlled directly by the autonomic nervous system and are involuntary, meaning that they are incapable of being moved by conscious thought. Functions such as heart beat and lungs (which are capable of being willingly controlled, be it to a limited extent) are involuntary muscles but are not smooth muscles.
Neuromuscular junctions are the focal point where a motor neuron attaches to a muscle. Acetylcholine, (a neurotransmitter used in skeletal muscle contraction) is released from the axon terminal of the nerve cell when an action potential reaches the microscopic junction, called a synapse. A group of chemical messengers cross the synapse and stimulate the formation of electrical changes, which are produced in the muscle cell when the acetylcholine binds to receptors on its surface. Calcium is released from its storage area in the cell 's sarcoplasmic reticulum. An impulse from a nerve cell causes calcium release and brings about a single, short muscle contraction called a muscle twitch. If there is a problem at the neuromuscular junction, a very prolonged contraction may occur, such as the muscle contractions that result from tetanus. Also, a loss of function at the junction can produce paralysis.
Skeletal muscles are organized into hundreds of motor units, each of which involves a motor neuron, attached by a series of thin finger - like structures called axon terminals. These attach to and control discrete bundles of muscle fibers. A coordinated and fine tuned response to a specific circumstance will involve controlling the precise number of motor units used. While individual muscle units contract as a unit, the entire muscle can contract on a predetermined basis due to the structure of the motor unit. Motor unit coordination, balance, and control frequently come under the direction of the cerebellum of the brain. This allows for complex muscular coordination with little conscious effort, such as when one drives a car without thinking about the process.
At rest, the body produces the majority of its ATP aerobically in the mitochondria without producing lactic acid or other fatiguing byproducts. During exercise, the method of ATP production varies depending on the fitness of the individual as well as the duration and intensity of exercise. At lower activity levels, when exercise continues for a long duration (several minutes or longer), energy is produced aerobically by combining oxygen with carbohydrates and fats stored in the body. During activity that is higher in intensity, with possible duration decreasing as intensity increases, ATP production can switch to anaerobic pathways, such as the use of the creatine phosphate and the phosphagen system or anaerobic glycolysis. Aerobic ATP production is biochemically much slower and can only be used for long - duration, low intensity exercise, but produces no fatiguing waste products that can not be removed immediately from sarcomere and body and results in a much greater number of ATP molecules per fat or carbohydrate molecule. Aerobic training allows the oxygen delivery system to be more efficient, allowing aerobic metabolism to begin quicker. Anaerobic ATP production produces ATP much faster and allows near - maximal intensity exercise, but also produces significant amounts of lactic acid which render high intensity exercise unsustainable for greater than several minutes. The phosphagen system is also anaerobic, allows for the highest levels of exercise intensity, but intramuscular stores of phosphocreatine are very limited and can only provide energy for exercises lasting up to ten seconds. Recovery is very quick, with full creatine stores regenerated within five minutes.
Multiple diseases can affect the muscular system.
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who is the first prime minister of usa | Prime minister - wikipedia
A prime minister, also known as a premier, is the head of a cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the government. In most systems, the prime minister is the presiding member and chairman of the cabinet. In a minority of systems, notably in semi-presidential systems of government, a prime minister is the official who is appointed to manage the civil service and execute the directives of the head of state.
In parliamentary systems fashioned after the Westminster system, the prime minister is the presiding and actual head of government and head of the executive branch. In such systems, the head of state or the head of state 's official representative (often the monarch, president, or governor - general) usually holds a largely ceremonial position, although often with reserve powers.
The prime minister is often, but not always, a member of the Legislature or the Lower House thereof and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature. In some monarchies the monarch may also exercise executive powers (known as the royal prerogative) that are constitutionally vested in the crown and may be exercised without the approval of parliament.
As well as being head of government, a prime minister may have other roles or posts -- the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, for example, is also First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the Civil Service. Prime ministers may take other ministerial posts. For example, during the Second World War, Winston Churchill was also Minister of Defence (although there was then no Ministry of Defence) and in the current cabinet of Israel, Benjamin Netanyahu also serves as Minister of Communications, Foreign Affairs, Regional Cooperation, Economy and Interior.
The term prime minister in its French form, premier ministre, is attested in 17th Century sources referring to Cardinal Richelieu after he was named to head the royal council in 1624. The title was however informal and used alongside the equally informal principal ministre d'État ("chief minister of the state '') more as a job description. After 1661, Louis XIV and his descendants refused to allow one of their ministers to be more important than the others, so the term was not in use.
The term prime minister in the sense that we know it originated in the 18th century in the United Kingdom when members of parliament disparagingly used the title in reference to Sir Robert Walpole. During the whole of the 18th Century, Britain was involved in a prolonged conflict with France, periodically bursting into all - out war, and Britons took outspoken pride in their "Liberty '' as contrasted to the "Tyranny '' of French Absolute Monarchy; therefore, being implicitly compared with Richelieu was no compliment to Walpole. Over time, however, the title became honorific and remains so in the 21st century.
The monarchs of England and the United Kingdom had ministers in whom they placed special trust and who were regarded as the head of the government. Examples were Thomas Cromwell under Henry VIII; William Cecil, Lord Burghley under Elizabeth I; Clarendon under Charles II and Godolphin under Queen Anne. These ministers held a variety of formal posts, but were commonly known as "the minister '', the "chief minister '', the "first minister '' and finally the "prime minister ''.
The power of these ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the monarch. Although managing the parliament was among the necessary skills of holding high office, they did not depend on a parliamentary majority for their power. Although there was a cabinet, it was appointed entirely by the monarch, and the monarch usually presided over its meetings.
When the monarch grew tired of a first minister, he or she could be dismissed, or worse: Cromwell was executed and Clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour. Kings sometimes divided power equally between two or more ministers to prevent one minister from becoming too powerful. Late in Anne 's reign, for example, the Tory ministers Harley and Viscount Bolingbroke shared power.
In the mid 17th century, after the English Civil War (1642 -- 1651), Parliament strengthened its position relative to the monarch then gained more power through the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and passage of the Bill of Rights in 1689. The monarch could no longer establish any law or impose any tax without its permission and thus the House of Commons became a part of the government. It is at this point that a modern style of prime minister begins to emerge.
A tipping point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of Anne in 1714 and the accession of George I to the throne. George spoke no English, spent much of his time at his home in Hanover, and had neither knowledge of, nor interest in, the details of English government. In these circumstances it was inevitable that the king 's first minister would become the de facto head of the government.
From 1721 this was the Whig politician Robert Walpole, who held office for twenty - one years. Walpole chaired cabinet meetings, appointed all the other ministers, dispensed the royal patronage and packed the House of Commons with his supporters. Under Walpole, the doctrine of cabinet solidarity developed. Walpole required that no minister other than himself have private dealings with the king, and also that when the cabinet had agreed on a policy, all ministers must defend it in public, or resign. As a later prime minister, Lord Melbourne, said, "It matters not what we say, gentlemen, so long as we all say the same thing. ''
Walpole always denied that he was "prime minister '', and throughout the 18th century parliamentarians and legal scholars continued to deny that any such position was known to the Constitution. George II and George III made strenuous efforts to reclaim the personal power of the monarch, but the increasing complexity and expense of government meant that a minister who could command the loyalty of the Commons was increasingly necessary. The long tenure of the wartime prime minister William Pitt the Younger (1783 -- 1801), combined with the mental illness of George III, consolidated the power of the post. The title was first referred to on government documents during the administration of Benjamin Disraeli but did not appear in the formal British Order of precedence until 1905.
The prestige of British institutions in the 19th century and the growth of the British Empire saw the British model of cabinet government, headed by a prime minister, widely copied, both in other European countries and in British colonial territories as they developed self - government. In some places alternative titles such as "premier '', "chief minister '', "first minister of state '', "president of the council '' or "chancellor '' were adopted, but the essentials of the office were the same.
By the late 20th century, the majority of the world 's countries had a prime minister or equivalent minister, holding office under either a constitutional monarchy or a ceremonial president. The main exceptions to this system have been the United States and the presidential republics in Latin America modelled on the U.S. system, in which the president directly exercises executive authority.
Bahrain 's prime minister, Sheikh Khalifah bin Sulman Al Khalifah has been in the post since 1970, making him the longest serving non-elected prime minister.
The post of prime minister may be encountered both in constitutional monarchies (such as Belgium, Denmark, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Malaysia, Morocco, Spain, Sweden, Thailand, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom), and in parliamentary republics in which the head of state is an elected official (such as Finland, the Czech Republic, France, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia (1945 - 1959), Ireland, Pakistan, Portugal, Montenegro, Croatia, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia and Turkey). See also "First Minister '', "Premier '', "Chief Minister '', "Chancellor '', "Taoiseach '', "Statsminister '' and "Secretary of State '': alternative titles usually equivalent in meaning to, or translated as, "prime minister ''.
This contrasts with the presidential system, in which the president (or equivalent) is both the head of state and the head of the government. In some presidential and all semi-presidential systems, such as those of France, Russia or South Korea, the prime minister is an official generally appointed by the president but usually approved by the legislature and responsible for carrying out the directives of the president and managing the civil service. The head of government of the People 's Republic of China is referred to as the Premier of the State Council and the premier of the Republic of China (Taiwan) is also appointed by the president, but requires no approval by the legislature.
Appointment of the prime minister of France requires no approval by the parliament either, but the parliament may force the resignation of the government. In these systems, it is possible for the president and the prime minister to be from different political parties if the legislature is controlled by a party different from that of the president. When it arises, such a state of affairs is usually referred to as (political) cohabitation.
In parliamentary systems a prime minister may enter into office by several means.
The position, power and status of prime ministers differ depending on the age of the constitution.
Australia 's constitution makes no mention of a Prime Minister of Australia and the office only exists by convention, based on the British model.
Bangladesh 's constitution clearly outlines the functions and powers of the Prime Minister, and also details the process of his / her appointment and dismissal.
The People 's Republic of China constitution set a premier just one place below the National People 's Congress in China. Premier read as (Simplified Chinese: 总理; pinyin: Zŏnglĭ) in Chinese.
Canada 's constitution, being a ' mixed ' or hybrid constitution (a constitution that is partly formally codified and partly uncodified) originally did not make any reference whatsoever to a prime minister, with her or his specific duties and method of appointment instead dictated by "convention ''. In the Constitution Act, 1982, passing reference to a "Prime Minister of Canada '' is added, though only regarding the composition of conferences of federal and provincial first ministers.
Czech Republic 's constitution clearly outlines the functions and powers of the Prime Minister of the Czech Republic, and also details the process of his / her appointment and dismissal.
France 's constitution (1958) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister of France.
Germany 's Basic Law (1949) lists the powers, functions and duties of the federal chancellor.
Greece 's constitution (1975) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Greece.
Hungary 's constitution (2012) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Hungary.
India 's constitution (1950) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister of India. In India, the Prime Ministerial candidate must be a member of parliament either Lok Sabha (Lower House) or Rajya Sabha (Upper House). No parliamentary vote takes place on who is forming a government.
Ireland 's constitution (1937), provides for the office of Taoiseach in detail, listing powers, functions and duties.
Italy 's constitution (1948) lists the powers, functions and duties of the President of the Council of Ministers.
Japan 's constitution (1946) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Japan.
The Republic of Korea 's constitution (1987) sections 86 - 87 list the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister of the Republic of Korea.
Malta 's constitution (1964) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Malta.
Malaysia 's constitution (1957) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Malaysia.
Norway 's constitution (1814) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Norway
Pakistan 's constitution (1973) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
Spain 's constitution (1978) regulates the appointment, dismissal, powers, functions and duties of the President of the Government.
Thailand 's constitution (1932) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Thailand.
Taiwan 's constitution (1946) lists the powers, functions and duties of the President of the Executive Yuan.
The United Kingdom 's constitution, being uncodified and largely unwritten, makes no mention of a prime minister. Though it had de facto existed for centuries, its first mention in official state documents did not occur until the first decade of the twentieth century. Accordingly, it is often said "not to exist '', indeed there are several instances of parliament declaring this to be the case. The prime minister sits in the cabinet solely by virtue of occupying another office, either First Lord of the Treasury (office in commission), or more rarely Chancellor of the Exchequer (the last of whom was Balfour in 1905).: However as the government will have to outline its legislative programme to parliament in, for example, the Speech from the Throne, the speech is sometimes used to test parliamentary support. A defeat of the Speech is taken to mean a loss of confidence and so requires either a new draft, resignation, or a request for a dissolution of parliament. Until the early 20th century governments when defeated in a general election remained in power until their Speech from the Throne was defeated and then resigned. No government has done so for one hundred years, though Edward Heath in 1974 did delay his resignation while he explored whether he could form a government with Liberal party support.
During the period between the time it is clear that the incumbent government has been defeated at a general election, and the actual swearing - in of the new prime minister by the monarch, governor - general, or president, that person is referred to as the "prime minister - elect '' or "prime minister - designate ''. Neither term is strictly correct from a constitutional point of view, but they have wide acceptance. In a situation in which a ruling party elects or appoints a new leader, the incoming leader will usually be referred as "prime minister - in - waiting ''. An example or this situation was in 2016 in the United Kingdom when Theresa May was elected leader of the Conservative Party while David Cameron was still prime minister.
Ukraine 's constitution (1996) lists the powers, functions and duties of the Prime Minister of Ukraine.
Most prime ministers in parliamentary systems are not appointed for a specific term in office and in effect may remain in power through a number of elections and parliaments. For example, Margaret Thatcher was only ever appointed prime minister on one occasion, in 1979. She remained continuously in power until 1990, though she used the assembly of each House of Commons after a general election to reshuffle her cabinet.
Some states, however, do have a term of office of the prime minister linked to the period in office of the parliament. Hence the Irish Taoiseach is formally ' renominated ' after every general election. (Some constitutional experts have questioned whether this process is actually in keeping with the provisions of the Irish constitution, which appear to suggest that a taoiseach should remain in office, without the requirement of a renomination, unless s / he has clearly lost the general election.) The position of prime minister is normally chosen from the political party that commands majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.
In parliamentary systems, governments are generally required to have the confidence of the lower house of parliament (though a small minority of parliaments, by giving a right to block supply to upper houses, in effect make the cabinet responsible to both houses, though in reality upper houses, even when they have the power, rarely exercise it). Where they lose a vote of confidence, have a motion of no confidence passed against them, or where they lose supply, most constitutional systems require either:
The latter in effect allows the government to appeal the opposition of parliament to the electorate. However, in many jurisdictions a head of state may refuse a parliamentary dissolution, requiring the resignation of the prime minister and his or her government. In most modern parliamentary systems, the prime minister is the person who decides when to request a parliamentary dissolution.
Older constitutions often vest this power in the cabinet. In the United Kingdom, for example, the tradition whereby it is the prime minister who requests a dissolution of parliament dates back to 1918. Prior to then, it was the entire government that made the request. Similarly, though the modern 1937 Irish constitution grants to the Taoiseach the right to make the request, the earlier 1922 Irish Free State Constitution vested the power in the Executive Council (the then name for the Irish cabinet).
In Australia, the Prime Minister is expected to step down if s / he loses the majority support of his / her party under a spill motion as have many such as Tony Abbott, Julia Gillard and Kevin Rudd.
In the Russian constitution the prime minister is actually titled Chairman of the government while the Irish prime minister is called the Taoiseach (which is rendered into English as prime minister), and in Israel he is Rosh HaMemshalah meaning "head of the government ''. In many cases, though commonly used, "prime minister '' is not the official title of the office - holder; the Spanish prime minister is the President of the Government (Presidente del Gobierno).
Other common forms include president of the council of ministers (for example in Italy, Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri), President of the Executive Council, or Minister - President. In the Nordic countries the prime minister is called Statsminister, meaning "Minister of State ''. In federations, the head of government of subnational entities such as provinces is most commonly known as the premier, chief minister, governor or minister - president.
The convention in the English language is to call nearly all national heads of government "prime minister '' (sometimes modified to the equivalent term of "premier '') except in the cases where the head of state and head of government are fused into one position, usually a presidency, regardless of the correct title of the head of government as applied in his or her respective country. The few exceptions to the rule are Germany and Austria, whose heads of government titles are almost always translated as Chancellor; Monaco, whose head of government is referred to as the Minister of State; and Vatican City, for which the head of government is titled the Secretary of State. In the case of Ireland, the head of government is occasionally referred to as the Taoiseach by English speakers. A stand - out case is the President of Iran, who is not actually a head of state, but the head of the government of Iran. He is referred to as "president '' in both the Persian and English languages.
In non-Commonwealth countries the prime minister may be entitled to the style of Excellency like a president. In some Commonwealth countries prime ministers and former prime ministers are styled Right Honourable due to their position, for example in the Prime Minister of Canada. In the United Kingdom the prime minister and former prime ministers may appear to also be styled Right Honourable, however this is not due to their position as head of government but as a privilege of being current members of Her Majesty 's Most Honourable Privy Council.
In the UK, where devolved government is in place, the leaders of the Scottish, Northern Irish and Welsh Governments are styled First Minister. Between 1921 and 1972, when Northern Ireland was a Majority Rule Parliament the head of government would be known as the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland.In India, the Prime Minister is referred to as Pradhan Mantri, meaning "prime minister ''. In Pakistan, the prime minister is referred to as Wazir - e-Azam, meaning "Grand Vizier ''.
The Prime Minister 's executive office is usually called the Office of the Prime Minister in the case of the Canada and other Commonwealth countries, it is called Cabinet Office in United Kingdom. Some Prime Minister 's office do include the role of Cabinet. In other countries, it is called the Prime Minister 's Department or the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet as for Australia. In Israel, the Prime Minister 's executive office is officially titled the "Prime Minister 's Office '' in English, but the original Hebrew term can also be translated as the Prime Minister 's Ministry.
Wilfried Martens, who served as Prime Minister of Belgium, described his role as follows:
The following table groups the list of past and present prime ministers and details information available in those lists.
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what was the name of robin williams last movie | Robin Williams filmography - wikipedia
American actor and comedian Robin Williams (1951 -- 2014) was featured in many feature films and television series throughout his career.
Williams studied acting at the College of Marin in California and later at the Juilliard School in New York. Williams ' first acting role was in the revival of Laugh - In in 1977, before he portrayed Mork in Mork & Mindy from 1978 to 1982 and the titular role in Popeye. After starring in less financially successful films he made his breakthrough role portraying Adrian Cronauer in Good Morning, Vietnam.
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who does dave franco play in the disaster artist | The Disaster Artist (film) - wikipedia
The Disaster Artist is a 2017 American biographical comedy - drama film produced and directed by James Franco. Written by Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber, the film is based on Greg Sestero and Tom Bissell 's non-fiction book of the same name, and chronicles the making of Tommy Wiseau 's 2003 The Room, widely considered one of the worst films ever made. The film stars brothers James and Dave Franco as Wiseau and Sestero, respectively, alongside a supporting cast featuring Seth Rogen (who also produced), Alison Brie, Ari Graynor, Josh Hutcherson, and Jacki Weaver.
Principal photography began on December 8, 2015. A work - in - progress cut of the film premiered at South by Southwest on March 12, 2017; it was later screened at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival on September 11, and also played at the 2017 San Sebastián International Film Festival, where it became the first American film to win its top prize, the Golden Shell, since A Thousand Years of Good Prayers in 2007.
Distributed by A24 in the United States and Warner Bros. Pictures in international markets, The Disaster Artist began a limited release on December 1, 2017, before opening wide on December 8, 2017. It received positive reviews from critics, with James Franco 's portrayal of Wiseau as well as the film 's humor and screenplay receiving praise, and was chosen by the National Board of Review as one of the top ten films of 2017. At the 75th Golden Globe Awards, James Franco won the award for Best Actor -- Musical or Comedy; the film was also nominated for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy. Franco also received a nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role at the 24th Screen Actors Guild Awards, and the film earned a nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay at the 90th Academy Awards.
San Francisco, 1998: 19 - year - old Greg Sestero meets Tommy Wiseau in acting classes with Jean Shelton. Shelton criticizes Tommy 's protracted performance of a scene from A Streetcar Named Desire, but Greg is impressed by Tommy 's fearlessness and the two become friends. On Tommy 's suggestion, they move to Los Angeles to pursue acting careers. Sestero discovers that Wiseau can afford apartments in both San Francisco and Los Angeles, but Wiseau will not discuss his personal life nor the source of his wealth.
Greg signs with Iris Burton, a talent agent, while Tommy faces rejection from agencies, casting directors, and Hollywood insiders. Greg develops a relationship with Amber, whom he meets at her job at a nightclub, and Tommy grows jealous; as he fails to find work, he becomes disheartened. As Greg 's auditions also dry up, he shares his frustrations with Tommy, who decides to make a movie for them both to star in.
Tommy writes a screenplay titled The Room, a melodrama about a love triangle between banker Johnny (played by Tommy), his fiancée Lisa and his best friend Mark. Greg reluctantly accepts the role of Mark and an associate producer credit. They rent out a production house; Tommy insists on buying all the production equipment and shooting the film on 35 mm film and HD Digital simultaneously, costly and unnecessary measures. The employees introduce Tommy to Raphael Smadja and Sandy Schklair, who work as his cinematographer and script supervisor respectively.
Production starts smoothly, but Tommy is difficult to work with. He forgets his lines, arrives late, and refuses to supply his crew with basic needs such as drinking water, even as an actor faints. During preparation for a sex scene, Tommy humiliates actress Juliette Danielle by pointing out her acne to the crew. Having filmed extensive behind - the - scenes footage, Tommy reveals that he knows everybody hates him, and believes that nobody, including Greg, supports his vision.
Greg and Amber run into Malcolm in the Middle star Bryan Cranston, who invites Greg to fill in for a small lumberjack part in a Malcolm episode. The part requires a beard; as Greg is due to shave his beard for The Room, he begs Tommy to postpone shooting, but Tommy refuses. On the last day of shooting, Greg accuses Tommy of being selfish and duplicitous throughout their friendship, and questions his real age and origins, before storming off set.
Eight months later, Amber and Greg have split up and Greg is working in theatre. Tommy invites Greg to the premiere of The Room; to his surprise, the entire cast and crew attend. The audience react first with horror then laughter at the film. Tommy bursts into tears and walks out, but Greg comforts him, telling him they have delighted the audience, not angered them. With a renewed mindset, Tommy returns to the theater as the credits roll, takes credit for his "comedic '' movie, and receives a standing ovation.
Real - life clips of Wiseau attending screenings of The Room play, and title cards explain that the film made $1,800 against its reported $6 million budget during its initial release (Wiseau kept it running for two weeks, allegedly to qualify for the Academy Awards), but it has since become a profitable cult film. Wiseau and Sestero remain friends and, to this day, Wiseau 's age, past life and source of income remain a mystery. Scenes from The Room are then compared side - by - side with reenactments of the scenes performed by The Disaster Artist 's cast.
In a post-credits scene, Wiseau has an odd verbal exchange with a party goer (played by the real Wiseau), who offers to hang out, but Wiseau refuses.
Celebrity cameos include Bryan Cranston, J.J. Abrams, Lizzy Caplan, Kristen Bell, Keegan - Michael Key, Adam Scott, Danny McBride, Angelyne, Kevin Smith, and Ike Barinholtz as themselves. Bob Odenkirk appears as a method acting acting teacher in Los Angeles, and Judd Apatow as a film producer. Other cameos include John Early, Joe Mande, Jessie Ennis, Dylan Minnette, Charlyne Yi, Tom Franco, Zoey Deutch, Sugar Lyn Beard, Brian Huskey, Randall Park, Jerrod Carmichael and Casey Wilson. Greg Sestero appears as an assistant casting director, while Tommy Wiseau appears in a post-credits scene as a character named Henry.
In February 2014, Seth Rogen 's production company Point Grey Pictures announced it had acquired the book and film rights to The Disaster Artist. James Franco was set to direct and play Wiseau, and his brother Dave Franco was cast as Sestero. James Franco stated The Disaster Artist was "a combination of Boogie Nights and The Master. '' According to Franco, Wiseau initially had hoped Johnny Depp would play him. In April 2016, the title was reported to have changed from The Disaster Artist to The Masterpiece, though The Disaster Artist was confirmed as the official title when the film 's SXSW premiere was announced.
In June 2014, James Franco 's younger brother, Dave Franco, informally announced at a midnight showing of The Room that he had been cast in the co-starring role of Greg Sestero. Wiseau praised the decision in a Q&A session. The film is the first collaboration of James and brother Dave, as the younger Franco has said that he had sought different projects deliberately, specifying in an interview at the Toronto International Film Festival, "I did n't want people to think I was riding his coattails. '' As New Line Cinema sought to acquire The Disaster Artist in October 2015, one of the film 's producers, and frequent Franco collaborator, Seth Rogen, was in negotiations to play The Room 's script supervisor, Sandy Schklair. Schklair expressed concern over the film 's portrayal of him, as Rogen did not pursue contact with him, despite his offers to sit down and discuss the film. The remainder of the principal cast were revealed in the days prior to the beginning of filming, in early December 2015: Josh Hutcherson plays Philip Haldiman, Ari Graynor as Juliette Danielle, Jacki Weaver as Carolyn Minnott, Hannibal Buress as Bill Meur, Andrew Santino as Scott Holmes, and Zac Efron as Dan Janjigian. Dave Franco 's wife, Alison Brie, joined the cast in the role of Sestero 's then - girlfriend, Amber, and Sharon Stone was later announced to have been cast as Hollywood talent agent Iris Burton. Sestero stated in January 2016 that Bryan Cranston had been cast in the film in an undisclosed role. In November 2016, he was revealed to be playing himself, during his time working on Malcolm in the Middle.
Dave Porter composed the film 's score.
Principal photography began on December 8, 2015, in Los Angeles, and ended on January 28, 2016.
The film had its premiere, in a work - in - progress form, at South by Southwest on March 12, 2017. In May 2017, A24 acquired distribution rights to the film, and set the film for a limited release on December 1, 2017, before a wide release on December 8. Warner Bros. Pictures distributes the film internationally, and it received an IMAX release in selected areas as well.
On October 25, 2017, A24 mounted a billboard on Highland Avenue in Los Angeles that replicated the original The Room billboard that Wiseau kept up from 2003 to 2008.
It was released on Blu - ray, DVD and digital download on March 13, 2018.
The Disaster Artist has grossed $21.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $8.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $29.8 million, against a production budget of $10 million.
The film grossed $1.2 million from 19 theaters in its limited opening weekend, finishing 12th at the box office and averaging $64,254 per venue, one of the highest averages of 2017. The film had its wide expansion the following week, alongside the opening of Just Getting Started, and was projected to gross around $5 million from 840 theaters over the weekend. It ended up making $6.4 million, finishing 4th at the box office. The following week, despite being added to 170 additional theaters, the film dropped a more - than - expected 59 % to $2.6 million, finishing 8th.
The Disaster Artist received a standing ovation at its initial screening at South by Southwest. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 91 % based on 273 reviews, and an average rating of 7.7 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Oh, hai Mark. The Disaster Artist is a surprisingly poignant and charming movie - about - a-movie that explores the creative process with unexpected delicacy. '' Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 76 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by PostTrak gave the film an 81 % overall positive score and a 66 % "definite recommend ''.
Erik Childress of The Playlist gave the film a positive review, dubbing James Franco 's performance his "best... since his Oscar - nominated turn in 127 Hours. '' Further, he wrote that "as a director it is nice to finally see him embrace the comfort zone of comedy with enough cameos to rival Robert Altman 's The Player. '' Peter Debruge of Variety also gave the film a positive review, saying it had a "genuine capacity to delight, whether or not the audiences in question have seen The Room. ''
Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, saying: "As a director, Franco succeeds beautifully at bringing coherence to chaos, a word that accurately describes the making of this modern midnight - movie phenomenon. Do you need to see The Room to appreciate The Disaster Artist? Not really. '' Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times called the film "a hilarious, heartening celebration of failure ''.
Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote that it is "a divertingly funny movie, but its breeziness can also feel overstated, at times glib and a bit of a dodge ''. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave the film three out of five stars, writing that the film brings up unanswered questions, and that it "has room for improvement ''. Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club gave the film a rating of "C '', calling it a "lousy tribute '' and asking, "will anyone who has n't seen The Room actually be able to piece together a sense of this Z - grade sensation from watching The Disaster Artist? ''
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where was the largest earthquake ever recorded and how much destruction did it do | 1960 Valdivia earthquake - wikipedia
The 1960 Valdivia earthquake (Spanish: Terremoto de Valdivia) or Great Chilean earthquake (Gran terremoto de Chile) of 22 May is the most powerful earthquake ever recorded. Various studies have placed it at 9.4 - 9.6 on the moment magnitude scale. It occurred in the afternoon (19: 11 GMT, 15: 11 local time), and lasted approximately 10 minutes. The resulting tsunami affected southern Chile, Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, eastern New Zealand, southeast Australia and the Aleutian Islands.
The epicenter of this megathrust earthquake was near Lumaco, approximately 570 kilometres (350 mi) south of Santiago, with Valdivia being the most affected city. The tremor caused localised tsunamis that severely battered the Chilean coast, with waves up to 25 metres (82 ft). The main tsunami raced across the Pacific Ocean and devastated Hilo, Hawaii. Waves as high as 10.7 metres (35 ft) were recorded 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) from the epicenter, and as far away as Japan and the Philippines.
The death toll and monetary losses arising from this widespread disaster are not certain. Various estimates of the total number of fatalities from the earthquake and tsunamis have been published, ranging between 1,000 and 7,000 killed. Different sources have estimated the monetary cost ranged from US $ 400 million to 800 million (or $3.31 billion to $6.62 billion today, adjusted for inflation).
The 1960 Chilean earthquakes were a sequence of strong earthquakes that affected Chile between 21 May and 6 June 1960. The first was the 8.1 M Concepción earthquake, and the strongest was the Valdivia earthquake.
The first Concepción earthquake was at 06: 02 UTC - 4 on 21 May 1960. Its epicenter was near Curanilahue. Telecommunications to southern Chile were cut off and President Jorge Alessandri cancelled the traditional ceremony of the Battle of Iquique memorial holiday to oversee the emergency assistance efforts. The second and third Concepción earthquakes occurred the next day at 06: 32 UTC - 4 and 14: 55 UTC - 4 on May 22. These earthquakes formed a southward migrating foreshock sequence to the main Valdivia shock, which occurred just 15 minutes after the third event.
The earthquake interrupted and effectively ended Lota 's coal miners march on Concepción as they demanded higher salaries.
The Valdivia earthquake occurred at 15: 11 UTC - 4 on 22 May, and affected all of Chile between Talca and Chiloé Island, more than 400,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi). Coastal villages, such as Toltén, were struck. At Corral, the main port of Valdivia, the water level rose 4 m (13 ft) before it began to recede. At 16: 20 UTC - 4, a wave of 8 m (26 ft) struck the Chilean coast, mainly between Concepción and Chiloé. Another wave measuring 10 m (33 ft) was reported ten minutes later.
Hundreds of people were already reported dead by the time the tsunami struck. One ship, Canelos, starting at the mouth of Valdivia River, sank after being moved 1.5 km (0.93 mi) backward and forward in the river; as of 2005, its mast was still visible from the road to Niebla.
A number of Spanish - colonial fortifications were completely destroyed. Soil subsidence also destroyed buildings, deepened local rivers, and created wetlands in places like the Río Cruces and Chorocomayo, a new aquatic park north of the city. Extensive areas of the city were flooded. The electricity and water systems of Valdivia were totally destroyed. Witnesses reported underground water flowing up through the soil. Despite the heavy rains of 21 May, the city was without a water supply. The river turned brown with sediment from landslides and was full of floating debris, including entire houses. The lack of potable water became a serious problem in one of Chile 's rainiest regions.
The earthquake did not strike all the territory with the same strength; measured with the Mercalli scale, tectonically depressed areas suffered heavier damage. The two most affected areas were Valdivia and Puerto Octay, near the northwest corner of Llanquihue Lake. Puerto Octay was the center of a north - south elliptical area in the Central Valley, where the intensity was at the highest outside the Valdivia Basin. East of Puerto Octay, in a hotel in Todos los Santos Lake, stacked plates were reported to have remained in place. Excepting poor building sites, the zone of Mercalli scales intensities of VII or more all lay west of the Andes in a strip running from Lota (37 ° S) southwards. The area of intensities of VII or more did not penetrate into the Central Valley in north of Lleulleu Lake (38 ° S) and south of Castro (42.5 ° S).
Two days after the earthquake Cordón Caulle, a volcanic vent close to Puyehue volcano, erupted. Other volcanoes may also have erupted, but none was recorded due to the lack of communication in Chile at the time. The relatively low death toll in Chile (5,700) is explained in part by the low population density in the region, and by building practices that took into account the area 's high geological activity.
The earthquake was a megathrust earthquake resulting from the release of mechanical stress between the subducting Nazca Plate and the South American Plate, on the Peru -- Chile Trench. The focus was relatively shallow at 33 km (21 mi), considering that earthquakes in northern Chile and Argentina may reach depths of 70 km (43 mi). Subduction zones are known to produce the strongest earthquakes on earth, as their particular structure allows more stress to build up before energy is released. Geophysicists consider it a matter of time before this earthquake will be surpassed in magnitude by another. The earthquake 's rupture zone was 800 km (500 mi) long, stretching from Arauco (37 ° S) to Chiloé Archipelago (43 ° S). Rupture velocity, the speed at which a rupture front expands across the surface of the fault, has been estimated as 3.5 km (2.2 mi) per second.
While the Valdivia earthquake was extraordinarily large, the 2016 Chiloé earthquake hints that it did not unleash all available slip.
The earthquake triggered numerous landslides, mainly in the steep glacial valleys of the southern Andes. Within the Andes, most landslides occurred on forested mountain slopes around the Liquiñe - Ofqui Fault. Some of these areas remain sparsely vegetated while others have naturally developed more or less pure stands of Nothofagus dombeyi. These landslides did not cause many fatalities nor significant economic losses because most of the areas were uninhabited, with only minor roads.
One landslide caused destruction and alarm following its blockage of the outflow of Riñihue Lake (see "Riñihuazo '' section below). About 100 km (62 mi) south of Riñihue Lake, landslides in the mountains around Golgol River caused the river to dam up; when it burst through the earthen dam, it created a flood down to Puyehue Lake. The Golgol landslides destroyed parts of international Route 215 - CH, which connects to Bariloche in Argentina through Cardenal Antonio Samoré Pass.
While most landslides clustered around north - south strips in the Andes, other areas that were affected by a large numbers of earthquakes were the coast, mainly the foot of the Chilean Coast Range, and the shores of Llanquihue Lake.
Earthquake - induced tsunamis affected southern Chile, Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, China, eastern New Zealand, southeast Australia and the Aleutian Islands. Some localized tsunamis severely battered the Chilean coast, with waves up to 25 m (82 ft). The main tsunami crossed the Pacific Ocean at a speed of several hundred km / h and devastated Hilo, Hawaii, killing 61 people. Most of the tsunami - related deaths in Japan occurred in the northeast Sanriku region of Honshu.
The Chilean coast was devastated by a tsunami from Mocha Island (38 ° S) to Aysén Region (45 ° S). Across southern Chile the tsunami caused huge loss of life, damage to port infrastructure and the loss of many small boats. Further north, the port of Talcahuano did not suffer any major damage, only some flooding. Some tugboats and small sailboats were stranded on Rocuant Island near Talcahuano.
After the May 21 Concepción earthquake, people in Ancud sought refuge in boats. A carabinero (police) boat, Gloria, was towing a few of these boats when the second earthquake struck on 22 May. As the sea regressed Gloria became stranded between Cerro Guaiguén and Cochinos Island. The stranded boat was wrecked when a tsunami wave came engulfing it.
All the new infrastructure of the small port of Bahía Mansa was destroyed by the tsunami, that reached heights of up to 10 metres above sea level there. The boat Isabella that was at that time in Bahía Mansa quickly left the port but lost its anchors.
In Valdivia River and Corral Bay several vessels were wrecked due to the earthquake, among them Argentina, Canelos, Carlos Haverbeck, Melita and the salvaged remnants of Penco. Canelos was anchored at Corral and filling a cargo of wood and other products destined to northern Chile when the quake struck. The engine of Canelos was warmed up after the earthquake. After hours of drifting around in Corral Bay and Valdivia River the ship was wrecked and subsequently abandoned by its crew at 18.00 PM. Two men on board of Canelos died in the incident. As of 2000 the remnants of Canelos were still visible. Santiago, another ship anchored at Corral at the time of the quake, managed to leave Corral in a bad state but was wrecked off the coast of Mocha Island on 24 May. The schooner La Milagrosa departed from Queule on 22 May to load a cargo of Fitzroya wood shingles in a small port south of Corral. La Milagrosa was battered by the currents and waves of the tsunami for four days while moving south. Outside Corral the crew rescued six nearly unconscious and dehydrated children on board two boats. The boats found were used to navigate in Valdivia River and Corral Bay but had drifted into the high sea.
At the coastal town of Queule a carabinero reported hundreds of people to be dead or missing some days after the tsunami. Historians Yoselin Jaramillo and Ismael Basso report that people in Queule decades later know about 50 people to have died because of the earthquake and tsunami.
A seiche of more than 1 meter was observed on Panguipulli Lake following the earthquake.
On 22 May, a seiche occurred also in Nahuel Huapi Lake, on the Argentinean side of the Andes, more than 200 km away from Valdivia. The wave, most likely produced by an earthquake - triggered sediment slide at the lake bottom, killed two people and destroyed a pier in San Carlos de Bariloche city.
During the Great Chilean earthquake, several landslides west of Tralcán Mountain blocked the outflow of Riñihue Lake. Riñihue Lake is the lowest of the Seven Lakes chain and receives a constant inflow from the Enco River. The blocked San Pedro River, which drains the lake, passes through several towns before reaching the city of Valdivia near the coast.
As the San Pedro River was blocked, the water level of Riñihue Lake started to rise quickly. Each meter the water level rose was equivalent to 20 million cubic meters, which meant that 480 million cubic meters of water would release into the San Pedro River (easily overpowering its flow capacity of 400 cubic metres (14,000 cu ft) per second if it rose above the final, 24 - meter - high dam. This potential disaster would have violently flooded all the settlements along the course of the river in less than five hours, with more dire consequences if the dam suddenly broke.
About 100,000 people lived in the affected zone. Plans were made to evacuate Valdivia, and many people left. To avoid the destruction of the city, several military units and hundreds of workers from ENDESA, CORFO, and MOP started an effort to control the lake. Twenty - seven bulldozers were put into service, but they had severe difficulties moving in the mud near the dams, so dykes had to be constructed with shovels from June onwards. The work was not restricted to the lake; drainages from other parts of the Seven Lakes were dammed to minimize additional flow into Riñihue Lake. These dams were removed later, with the exception of Calafquén Lake, which still retains its dam.
By 23 June, the main dam had been lowered from 24 to 15 m (79 to 49 ft), allowing 3 billion cubic metres of water to leave the lake gradually, but still with considerable destructive power. The team was led by ENDESA engineer Raúl Sáez.
On May 24, 38 hours after the main shock of the 1960 Valdivia earthquake, Cordón Caulle began a rhyodacitic fissure eruption. Between two sparsely populated and isolated Andean valleys, the eruption had few eyewitnesses and received little attention by local media, which was preoccupied with the severe and widespread damage and losses caused by the earthquake. The eruption fed a 5.5 km long and N135 ° trending fissure where 21 individual vents have been found. These vents produced an output of about 0.25 km DRE both in form of lava flows and tephra. The eruption ended on 22 July.
The levels of material damage were relatively low given the high magnitude of the earthquake. Part of the reason behind this was the limited infrastructure development of the region next to the rupture zone.
Structures that had been designed to resist earthquakes performed well during the earthquake, chiefly suffering damage when affected by soil subsidence or small fault movements. Houses built by their own owners fared badly. In the regions of Maule and Bío Bío houses built in adobe and masonry, proved weak, while from Araucanía to the south weak houses were mainly those built with inappropriate wood that had decayed over time.
It has been estimated that about 40 percent of the houses in Valdivia were destroyed, leaving 20,000 people homeless. The most affected structures were those built of concrete, which in some cases collapsed completely due to lack of earthquake engineering. Traditional wooden houses fared better; although many were uninhabitable if they did not collapse. Houses built upon elevated areas suffered considerably less damage compared to those on the lowlands, which absorbed great amounts of energy. Many city blocks with destroyed buildings in the city center remained empty until the 1990s and 2000s, with some of them still used as parking lots. Before the earthquake, some of these blocks had modern concrete buildings built after the Great Valdivia fire of 1909.
In terms of urban development, Valdivia suffered the loss of the minor but significant Cau - Cau bridge, a bridge that has not been rebuilt. The other bridges suffered only minor damage. Land subsidence in Corral Bay improved navigability as shoal banks, produced earlier by sediments from Madre de Dios and other nearby gold mines, sank and were compacted. As the earthquake destroyed Valdivia 's flood barriers, general land subsidence exposed new areas to flooding.
The United States quickly set up a field hospital following the earthquake. Aided by the United States, a geological survey of Valdivia was done following the earthquake and resulted in the city 's first geological map. Mexico built and donated the public school Escuela México after the earthquake.
The earthquakes damaged an area that had suffered a long period of economic decline, which began with shifts in trade routes, due to the expansion of railroads in southern Chile and the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914.
Unlike Valdivia, Osorno was saved from major destruction. In Osorno only about 20 houses were totally destroyed, although many firewalls and chimneys collapsed.
Puerto Montt, a major city today, had in the early 1960s about 49,500 inhabitants. The bulk of the damage in Puerto Montt was located in the neighborhood of Barrio Modelo and the northern part of Bahía Angelmó, where artificial fills subsided. Angelmó and other coastal areas of Puerto Montt were among the few urban areas that suffered "total destruction '' by the earthquake.
The tsunami that struck the coast of southern Chile destroyed seaside farms, killing numerous livestock and people. Barns and industrial structures were destroyed by the quake. The dairy industry was among the few industries of the affected zone that received subsidies and investment after the earthquake. It received state support through a long - term policy after the earthquake.
As a result of the earthquake, an international technological cooperation programme was established in the dairy sector. More specifically, the German and Danish governments helped to create the Centro Tecnológico de la Leche (the Milk Technological Centre) in the Southern University of Chile. The scholar Erik Dahmén believes that the earthquake resulted in a "creative destruction '' for farmers of Southern Chile.
The economy of the coastal town of Queule had during the 1950s developed significantly. Its economy based on fishing, agriculture and industry had grown. Queule was connected by road in 1957 to the rest of the country and the town had developed into a balneario. This era of prosperity ended with the 1960 earthquake.
Further north the earthquake destroyed numerous houses in the coal - mining town of Lebu.
After the 1960 Valdivia earthquake, a committee was formed to solve problems caused by the earthquake. It continued to operate, to develop approaches for national emergencies. In 1974 it was named ONEMI (Spanish acronym for Ministry of Interior National Emergency Office) when it was authorized by law as an independent governmental office.
In the coastal village Collileufu, native Lafkenches carried out a ritual human sacrifice during the days following the main earthquake. Collileufu, located in the Budi Lake area, south of Puerto Saavedra, was in 1960 highly isolated. The Mapuche spoke primarily Mapudungun. The community had gathered in Cerro La Mesa, while the lowlands were struck by successive tsunamis. Juana Namuncura Añen, a local machi, demanded the sacrifice of the grandson of Juan Painecur, a neighbor, in order to calm the earth and the ocean. The victim was 5 - year - old José Luis Painecur, an "orphan '' (huacho) whose mother had gone to work as domestic worker in Santiago and left her son under the care of her father.
The sacrifice was learned about by authorities after a boy in the commune of Nueva Imperial denounced to local leaders the theft of two horses; these were allegedly eaten during the sacrifice ritual. Two men were charged with the crime of murder and confessed, but later recanted. They were released from prison after 2 years. A judge ruled that those involved had "acted without free will, driven by an irresistible natural force of ancestral tradition ''. The story was mentioned in a Time magazine article, although with little detail.
There is evidence that a similar earthquake and landslide occurred in 1575 in Valdivia. This earthquake was of similar strength and also caused a Riñihuazo. According to the chronicle of Mariño de Lobera, corregidor of Valdivia in 1575, a landslide blocked the outflow of the lagoon of Renigua. Several months later in April, it caused a flood. He said that the Spanish settlers had evacuated and waited on high ground until after the dam burst, but many aboriginals died in the flood waters. While the 1575 earthquake is considered the one most similar to that of 1960, it differed in not having caused any tsunami in Japan.
Other lesser earthquakes that preceded the 1960 event occurred in 1737 and 1837.
On 27 February 2010 at 03: 34 local time, an 8.8 magnitude earthquake occurred just to the north (off the coast of the Maule region of Chile, between Concepción and Santiago). This quake was reported to be centered approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi) deep and several miles off shore. This 2010 Chile earthquake may be related or consequential to the 1960 tremor.
Bibliography
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who painted the girl with the pearl earing | Girl with a Pearl Earring - wikipedia
Girl with a Pearl Earring (Dutch: Meisje met de parel) is an oil painting by 17th - century Dutch painter Johannes Vermeer. It is a tronie of a girl with a headscarf and a pearl earring. The painting has been in the collection of the Mauritshuis in The Hague since 1902.
The painting is a tronie, the Dutch 17th - century description of a ' head ' that was not meant to be a portrait. It depicts a European girl wearing an exotic dress, an oriental turban, and an improbably large pearl earring. In 2014, Dutch astrophysicist Vincent Icke raised doubts about the material of the earring and argued that it looks more like polished tin than pearl on the grounds of the specular reflection, the pear shape and the large size of the earring.
The work is oil on canvas and is 44.5 cm (17.5 in) high and 39 cm (15 in) wide. It is signed "IVMeer '' but not dated. It is estimated to have been painted around 1665.
After the most recent restoration of the painting in 1994, the subtle colour scheme and the intimacy of the girl 's gaze toward the viewer have been greatly enhanced. During the restoration, it was discovered that the dark background, today somewhat mottled, was initially intended by the painter to be a deep enamel - like green. This effect was produced by applying a thin transparent layer of paint, called a glaze, over the present - day black background. However, the two organic pigments of the green glaze, indigo and weld, have faded.
On the advice of Victor de Stuers, who for years tried to prevent Vermeer 's rare works from being sold to parties abroad, Arnoldus Andries des Tombe purchased the work at an auction in The Hague in 1881, for only two guilders with a thirty cents buyer 's premium (around € 24 at current purchasing power). At the time, it was in poor condition. Des Tombe had no heirs and donated this and other paintings to the Mauritshuis in 1902.
In 2012, as part of a traveling exhibition while the Mauritshuis was being renovated and expanded, the painting was exhibited in Japan at the National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo, and in 2013 -- 2014 the United States, where it was shown at the High Museum in Atlanta, the de Young Museum in San Francisco and in New York City at the Frick Collection. Later in 2014 it was exhibited in Bologna, Italy. In June 2014, it returned to the Mauritshuis museum which stated that the painting will not leave the museum in the future.
The painting was investigated by the scientists of the Netherlands Institute for Cultural Heritage and FOM Institute for Atomic and Molecular Physics (AMOLF) Amsterdam. The ground is dense and yellowish in color and is composed of chalk, lead white, ocher and very little black. The dark background of the painting contains bone black, weld (luteolin, reseda luteola), chalk, small amounts of red ochre, and indigo. The face and draperies were painted mainly using ochres, natural ultramarine, bone black, charcoal black and lead white.
Tracy Chevalier wrote a historical novel, also entitled Girl with a Pearl Earring (1999), fictionalizing the circumstances of the painting 's creation. In the novel, Johannes Vermeer becomes close with a fictional servant named Griet (based on Chevalier 's close friend Georgia Kendall), whom he hires as an assistant and has sit for him as a painting model while wearing his wife 's pearl earrings. The novel inspired a 2003 film and 2008 play of the same name. The 2003 film stars Scarlett Johansson as Griet, the girl with the pearl earring. Johansson was nominated for various awards including a Golden Globe Award and a BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role.
The painting also appears in the 2007 film St Trinian 's, when a group of unruly schoolgirls steal it to raise funds to save their school.
English street artist Banksy has recreated the painting as a mural in Bristol, replacing the pearl earring with an alarm box and calling the artwork Girl with a Pierced Eardrum.
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how did the napoleonic war affect the united states | France -- United States relations - wikipedia
French -- American relations refers to the relations between France and the United States since 1776. France was the first ally of the new United States due to its 1778 treaty and military support in the American Revolutionary War. The relations are part of France -- Americas relations. The Franco - American relationship has been generally peaceful (except for large - scale fighting in 1798 and small - scale fighting in 1942) and the relationship is important for both nations.
In 2002, 62 % of French people viewed the United States favorably; this number dropped below 50 % for each year between 2003 and 2008, due in part to differences between the two countries during the Iraq War. As of 2013, 64 % of French people viewed the U.S. favorably, increasing up to 75 % in 2014. According to a 2015 Gallup poll, 82 % of Americans view France favorably.
Leaders of France and United States from 1958
As long as Great Britain and France remained at peace in Europe, and as long as the precarious balance in the American interior survived, British and French colonies coexisted without serious difficulty. However, beginning in earnest following the Glorious Revolution in England (1688), the simmering dynastic, religious, and factional rivalries between the Protestant British and Catholic French in both Europe and the Americas triggered four "French and Indian Wars '' fought largely on American soil (King William 's War, 1689 -- 97; Queen Anne 's War, 1702 -- 13; King George 's War, 1744 -- 48; and, finally the Seven Years ' War, 1756 -- 63). Great Britain finally removed the French from continental North America in 1763 following French defeat in the Seven Years ' War. Within a decade, the British colonies were in open revolt, and France retaliated by secretly supplying the independence movement with troops and war materials.
After Congress declared independence in July 1776, its agents in Paris recruited officers for the Continental Army, notably the Marquis de Lafayette, who served with distinction as a major general. Despite a lingering distrust of France, the agents also requested a formal alliance. After readying their fleet and being impressed by the U.S. victory at the Battle of Saratoga in October 1777, the French on February 6, 1778, concluded treaties of commerce and alliance that bound them to fight Britain until independence of the United States was assured.
The military alliance began poorly. French Admiral d'Estaing sailed to North America with a fleet in 1778, and began a joint effort with American General John Sullivan to capture a British outpost at Newport, Rhode Island. D'Estaing broke off the operation to confront a British fleet, and then, despite pleas from Sullivan and Lafayette, sailed away to Boston for repairs. Without naval support, the plan collapsed, and American forces under Sullivan had to conduct a fighting retreat alone. American outrage was widespread, and several French sailors were killed in anti-French riots. D'Estaing's actions in a disastrous siege at Savannah, Georgia further undermined Franco - American relations.
The alliance improved with the arrival in the United States in 1780 of the Comte de Rochambeau, who maintained a good working relationship with General Washington. French naval actions at the Battle of the Chesapeake made possible the decisive Franco -- American victory at the siege of Yorktown in October 1781, effectively ending the war as far as the Americans were concerned. The French went on fighting, losing a naval battle to Britain in 1782.
In the peace negotiations between the Americans and the British in Paris in 1782, the French played a major role. Indeed, the French Foreign Minister Vergennes had maneuvered so that the American Congress ordered its delegation to follow the advice of the French. However, the American commissioners, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and particularly John Jay, correctly realized that France did not want a strong United States. They realized that they would get better terms directly from Britain itself. The key episodes came in September, 1782, when Vergennes proposed a solution that was strongly opposed by the United States. France was exhausted by the war, and everyone wanted peace except Spain, which insisted on continuing the war until it captured Gibraltar from the British. Vergennes came up with the deal that Spain would accept instead of Gibraltar. The United States would gain its independence but be confined to the area east of the Appalachian Mountains. Britain would take the area north of the Ohio River. In the area south of that there would be set up an independent Indian state under Spanish control. It would be an Indian barrier state and keep the Americans from the Mississippi River or New Orleans, which were under Spanish control. John Jay promptly told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them, cutting off France and Spain. The British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne agreed. He was in full charge of the British negotiations and he now saw a chance to split the United States away from France and make the new country a valuable economic partner. The western terms were that the United States would gain all of the area east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Canada. The northern boundary would be almost the same as today. The United States would gain fishing rights off Canadian coasts, and agreed to allow British merchants and Loyalists to try to recover their property. It was a highly favorable treaty for the United States, and deliberately so from the British point of view. Prime Minister Shelburne foresaw highly profitable two - way trade between Britain and the rapidly growing United States, as it indeed came to pass. Trade with France was always on a much smaller scale.
Six years later, the French Revolution toppled the Bourbon regime. At first, the United States was quite sympathetic to the new situation in France, where the hereditary monarchy was replaced by a constitutional republic. However, in the matter of a few years, the situation in France turned sour, as foreign powers tried to invade France and King Louis XVI was accused of high treason. The French revolutionary government then became increasingly authoritarian and brutal, which dissipated some of the United States ' warmth for France.
A crisis emerged in 1793 when France found itself at war again with Great Britain and its allies, this time after the French revolutionary government had executed the king. The new federal government in the United States was uncertain how to respond. Should the United States recognize the radical government of France by accepting a diplomatic representative from it? Was the United States obliged by the alliance of 1778 to go to war on the side of France? The treaty had been called "military and economic '', and as the United States had not finished paying off the French loan, would the military alliance be ignored as well? President George Washington (responding to advice from both Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson) recognized the French government, but did not support France in the war with Britain, as expressed in his 1793 Proclamation of Neutrality. The proclamation was issued and declared without Congressional approval. Congress instead acquiesced, and a year later passed a neutrality act forbidding U.S. citizens to participate in the war and prohibiting the use of U.S. soil as a base of operation for either side. Thus, the revolutionary government viewed Washington 's policy as partial to the enemy.
The first challenge to U.S. neutrality came from France, when its first diplomatic representative, the brash Edmond - Charles Genêt, toured the United States to organize U.S. expeditions against Spain and Britain. Exasperated, Washington demanded Genêt 's recall, but by then the French Revolution had taken yet another turn and the new French ministers arrived to arrest Genêt. Washington refused to extradite Genêt (knowing he would otherwise be guillotined). Genêt became a U.S. citizen.
France regarded Jay 's Treaty (November 1794) between Britain and the United States as hostile. It opened a decade of trade when France was at war with Britain.
Timothy Pickering (1745 - 1829) was the third United States Secretary of State, serving in that office from 1795 to 1800 under Washington and John Adams. Biographer Gerald Clarfield says he was a "quick - tempered, self - righteous, frank, and aggressive Anglophile, '' who handled the French poorly. In response the French envoy Pierre Adet repeatedly provoked Pickering into embarrassing situations, then ridiculed his blunderings and blusterings to appeal to Republican Party opponents of the Administration.
To overcome this resentment John Adams sent a special mission to Paris in 1797 to meet the French foreign minister Talleyrand. The American delegation was shocked, however, when it was demanded that they pay monetary bribes in order to meet and secure a deal with the French government. Adams exposed the episode, known as the "XYZ Affair '', which greatly offended Americans even though such bribery was not uncommon among the courts of Europe.
Tensions with France escalated into an undeclared war -- called the "Quasi-War. '' It involved two years of hostilities at sea, in which both navies attacked the other 's shipping in the West Indies. The unexpected fighting ability of the U.S. Navy, which destroyed the French West Indian trade, together with the growing weaknesses and final overthrow of the ruling Directory in France, led Talleyrand to reopen negotiations. At the same time, President Adams feuded with Hamilton over control of the Adams ' administration. Adams took sudden and unexpected action, rejecting the anti-French hawks in his own party and offering peace to France. In 1800 he sent William Vans Murray to France to negotiate peace; Federalists cried betrayal. The subsequent negotiations, embodied in the Convention of 1800 (also called the "Treaty of Mortefontaine '') of Sept. 30, 1800, affirmed the rights of Americans as neutrals upon the sea and abrogated the alliance with France of 1778. The treaty failed to provide compensation for the $20,000,000 "French Spoliation Claims '' of the United States; the U.S. government eventually paid these claims. The Convention of 1800 ensured that the United States would remain neutral toward France in the wars of Napoleon and ended the "entangling '' French alliance with the United States. In truth, this alliance had only been viable between 1778 and 1783.
Spain was losing money heavily on the ownership of vast Louisiana territory, and was eager to turn it over to Napoleon in 1800. He envisioned it as the base (along with Haiti) of a New World empire. Louisiana would be a granary providing food to the enslaved labor force in the West Indies. President Jefferson could tolerate weak Spain but not powerful France in the west. He considered war to prevent French control of the Mississippi River. Jefferson sent his close friend, James Monroe, to France to buy as much of the land around New Orleans as he could. Surprisingly, Napoleon agreed to sell the entire territory. Because of an insuppressible slave rebellion in St. Domingue, modern - day Haiti, among other reasons, Bonaparte 's North American plans collapsed. To keep Louisiana out of British hands in an approaching war he sold it in April 1803 to the United States for $15 million. British bankers financed the deal, taking American government bonds and shipping gold to Paris. The size of the United States was doubled without going to war.
Britain and France resumed their war in 1803, just after the Purchase. Both challenged American neutrality and tried to disrupt trade with its enemy. presupposition was that small neutral nations could benefit from the wars of the great powers. He distrusted both Napoleon and Great Britain, but saw Britain (with its monarchism, aristocracy and great navy and position in Canada) as the more immediate threat to American interests. Therefore, he and Madison took a generally pro-French position and used the embargo to hurt British trade. Both Britain and France infringed on U.S. maritime rights. The British infringed more and also impressed thousands of American sailors into the Royal Navy; France never did anything like impressment. Jefferson signed the Embargo Act in 1807, which forbade all exports and imports. Designed to hurt the British, it hurt American commerce far more. The destructive Embargo Act, which had brought U.S. trade to a standstill, was rescinded in 1809, as Jefferson left office. Both Britain and France remained hostile to the United States. The War of 1812 was the logical extension of the embargo program as the United States declared war on Britain. However, there was never any sense of being an ally of France and no effort was made to coordinate military activity.
France and Spain had not defined a boundary between Louisiana and neighboring territory retained by Spain, leaving this problem for the U.S. and Spain to sort out. The U.S. inherited the French claims to Texas, then in the 1819 Adams -- Onís Treaty traded these (and a little of the Mississippi drainage itself) in return for American possession of Florida, where American settlers and the U.S. Army were already encroaching, and acquisition of Spain 's weak claims to the Pacific Northwest. Before three more decades had passed, the United States had annexed Texas.
Relations between the two nations were generally quiet for two decades. The United States, in cooperation with Great Britain, issued the "Monroe Doctrine '' in 1823 to keep European powers, especially Spain but also France, from seizing lands in the New World. The French had a strong interest in expanding commercial opportunity in Latin America, especially as the Spanish role was faltering. There was a desire among top French officials that some of the newly independent countries in Latin America might select a Bourbon king, but no actual operations ever took place. French officials ignored the American position. France and Austria, two reactionary monarchies, strenuously opposed American republicanism and wanted the United States to have no voice whatsoever in European affairs.
A treaty between the United States and France in 1831 called for France to pay 25 million francs for the spoilation claims of American shipowners against French seizures during the Napoleonic wars. France did pay European claims, but refused to pay the United States. President Andrew Jackson was livid, In 1834 ordered the U.S. Navy to stand by and asked Congress for legislation. Jackson 's political opponents blocked any legislation. France was annoyed but finally voted the money if the United States apologized. Jackson refused to apologize, and diplomatic relations were broken off until in December 1835 Jackson did offer some friendlier words. The British mediated, France paid the money, and cordial relations were resumed.
Modest cultural exchanges resumed, most famously and intense study visits by Gustave de Beaumont and Alexis de Tocqueville, the author of Democracy in America (1835). The book was immediately a popular success in both countries, and to this day helps shape American self understanding.
In the 1840s Britain and France considered sponsoring continued independence of the Republic of Texas and blocking U.S. moves to obtain California. Balance of power considerations made Britain want to keep the western territories out of U.S. hands to limit U.S. power; in the end, France opposed such intervention in order to limit British power, the same reason for which France had sold Louisiana to the U.S. and earlier supported the American Revolution. Thus the great majority of the territorial growth of the continental United States was accomplished with French support.
During the American Civil War, 1861 -- 65, France was neutral. However Napoleon III favored the seceding Southern states of the Confederacy, hoping to weaken the United States, create a new ally in the Confederacy, safeguard the cotton trade and protect his large investment in controlling Mexico. France was too weak to declare war alone (which might cause Prussia to attack), and needed British support. The British were unwilling to go to war and nothing happened. Napoleon III took advantage of the war in 1863, when he installed Austrian archduke Maximilian of Habsburg on the throne in Mexico. The United States protested and refused to recognize the new government.
U.S. celebration of the anniversary of the Mexican victory over the French on Cinco de Mayo, 1862 started the following year and has continued up to the present. In 1865, the United States used increasing diplomatic pressure to persuade Napoleon III to end French support of Maximilian and to withdraw French troops from Mexico. When the French troops left the Mexicans executed the puppet emperor Maximilian.
The removal of Napoleon III in 1870 after the Franco - Prussian War helped improve Franco -- American relations. During the Siege of Paris, the small American population, led by the United States Minister to France Elihu B. Washburne, provided much medical, humanitarian, and diplomatic support to peoples of all nations, gaining much credit to the Americans. In subsequent years the balance of power in the relationship shifted in favor of the United States. The United States, rising to the status as a great power, came to overshadow Europe.
All during this period the relationship remained friendly -- as symbolized by the Statue of Liberty, presented in 1884 as a gift to the United States from the French people. From 1870 until 1918, France was the only major republic in Europe, which endeared it to the United States. Many French people held the United States in high esteem, as a land of opportunity and as a source of modern ideas -- a trend which lasted well into the 1950s until the mention of a "friendly colonisation of France '' by the Eisenhower administration in 1956 (though few French people emigrated to the United States).
In 1906, when the German Empire challenged French influence in Morocco (see Tangier Crisis and Agadir Crisis), U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt sided with the French.
During World War I the United States was initially neutral but eventually entered the conflict in 1917 and provided much - needed funding, food and ammunition for the French effort. In 1918 the United States sent over a million combat troops who were located to the south of the main French lines. They gave the Allies a decisive edge, as the Germans were unable to replace their heavy losses and lost their self - confidence by September 1918. The American troops were sent over without their heavy equipment (so that the ships could carry more soldiers). They used French artillery, airplanes and tanks, such as the SPAD XIII fighter biplane and Renault FT light tank serving in the aviation and armored formations respectively, of the American Expeditionary Force on the Western Front in 1918.
Wilson had become the hero of the war for Frenchmen, and his arrival in Paris was widely hailed. However, the two countries clashed over France 's policy to weaken Germany and make it pay for the entire French war. The burning ambition of French Premier Georges Clemenceau was to ensure the security of France in the future; his formula was not friendship with Germany restitution, reparations, and guarantees. Clemenceau had little confidence in what he considered to be the unrealistic and utopian principles of US President Woodrow Wilson: "Even God was satisfied with Ten Commandments, but Wilson insists on fourteen '' (a reference to Wilson 's "Fourteen Points ''). The two nations disagreed on debts, reparations, and restraints on Germany.
Clemenceau was also determined that a buffer state consisting of the German territory west of the Rhine River should be established under the aegis of France. In the eyes of the U.S. and British representatives, such a crass violation of the principle of self - determination would only breed future wars, and a compromise was therefore offered Clemenceau, which he accepted. The territory in question was to be occupied by Allied troops for a period of five to fifteen years, and a zone extending fifty kilometers east of the Rhine was to be demilitarized. Wilson and British Prime Minister David Lloyd George agreed that the United States and Great Britain, by treaty, would guarantee France against German aggression. Republican leaders in Washington were willing to support a security treaty with France. It failed because Wilson insisted on linking it to the Versailles Treaty, which the Republicans would not accept without certain amendments Wilson refused to allow.
While French historian Duruoselle portrays Clemenceau as wiser than Wilson, and equally compassionate and committed to justice but one who understood that world peace and order depended on the permanent suppression of the German threat. Blumenthal (1986), by contrast, says Wilson 's policies were far sounder than the harsh terms demanded by Clemenceau. Blumenthal agrees with Wilson that peace and prosperity required Germany 's full integration into the world economic and political community as an equal partner. One result was that in the 1920s the French deeply distrusted the Americans, who were loaning money to Germany (which Germany used to pay its reparations to France and other Allies), while demanding that France repay its war loans from Washington.
During the interwar years, the two nations remained friendly. Beginning in the 1920s, U.S. intellectuals, painters, writers, and tourists were drawn to French art, literature, philosophy, theatre, cinema, fashion, wines, and cuisine.
A number of American artists, such as Josephine Baker, experienced popular success in France. Paris was also quite welcoming to American jazz music and black artists in particular, as France, unlike a significant part of the United States at the time, had no racial discrimination laws. Numerous writers such as William Faulkner, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, and others were deeply influenced by their experiences of French life.
However, anti-Americanism came of age in the 1920s, as many French traditionalists were alarmed at the power of Hollywood and warned that America represented modernity, which in turn threatened traditional French values, customs, and popular literature. The alarm of American influence escalated half a century later when Americans opened a $4 billion Disneyland Paris theme park in 1992. It attracted larger crowds than the Louvre, and soon it was said that the iconic American cartoon character Mickey Mouse had become more familiar than Asterix among French youth.
In 1928 the two nations were the chief sponsors of the Kellogg -- Briand Pact which informally outlawed war. The pact, which was endorsed by most major nations, renounced the use of war, promoted peaceful settlement of disputes, and called for collective force to prevent aggression. Its provisions were incorporated into the United Nations Charter and other treaties and it became a stepping stone to a more activist American policy.
In the Second World War the United States again favored France over Nazi Germany. The successful performance of German warplanes during the Spanish Civil War (1936 -- 39) suddenly forced France to realize its military inferiority. Germany had better warplanes, more of them, and much more efficient production systems. President Franklin Roosevelt had long been interested in France, and was a personal friend of French Senator, Baron Amaury de La Grange. In late 1937 he told Roosevelt about The French weaknesses, and asked for military help. Roosevelt was forthcoming, and forced the War Department to secretly sell the most modern American airplanes to France. Paris frantically expanded its own aircraft production, but it was too little and too late. France and Britain declared war on Germany when it invaded Poland in September 1939, but there was little action until the following spring. Suddenly a German blitzkrieg overwhelmed Denmark and Norway and trapped French and British forces in Belgium. Many French soldiers were evacuated through Dunkirk, but France was forced to surrender.
Langer (1947) argues that Washington was shocked by the sudden collapse of France in spring 1940, and feared that Germany might gain control of the large French fleet, and exploit France 's overseas colonies. This led the Roosevelt administration to maintain diplomatic relations. FDR appointed his close associate Admiral William D. Leahy as ambassador. Vichy regime was officially neutral but it was helping Germany.
The United States severed diplomatic relations in late 1942 when Germany took direct control of areas that Vichy had ruled, and Vichy France became a Nazi puppet state. More recently, Hurstfield (1986) concluded that Roosevelt, not the State Department, had made the decision, thereby deflecting criticism from leftwing elements of his coalition onto the hapless State Department. When the experiment ended FDR brought Leahy back to Washington as his top military advisor and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs.
Relations were strained between Roosevelt and Charles De Gaulle, the leader of the Free French, who had refused to participate in the Normandy landings in June 1944. After Normandy the Americans and the Allies knew it was only a matter of time before the Nazis lost. Eisenhower did give De Gaulle his word that Paris would be liberated by the French as the Americans had no interest in Paris, a city they considered lacking tactical value. It was therefore easy for Eisenhower to let De Gaulle 's FFI take the charge. There was one important aspect of Paris that did seem to matter to everyone: it was its historical and cultural significance. Hitler had given the order to bomb and burn Paris to the ground; he wanted to make it a second Stalingrad. The Americans and the Allies could not let this happen. The French 2nd armored division with Maj. Gen Phillipe Leclerc at its helm was granted this supreme task of liberating Paris. General Leclerc was ecstatic at this thought because he wanted to wipe away the humiliation of the Vichy Government.
General George S. Patton was at the command of the U.S. Third Army that swept across northern France. It campaigned in Lorraine for some time, but it was one of the least successful of Patton 's career. While in Lorraine, he annexed the Maj. Gen. Phillipe Leclerc 's battalion into his army. Leclerc did not respect his American counterparts because like the British he thought that they were new to the war. Therefore, he thought the Americans did not know what they were doing on the field. After being more trouble than help Patton let Leclerc go for Paris. The French then went on to liberate Paris from the east while the 4th U.S. Infantry (they were originally part of Patton 's Army) came from the west. Because of Eisenhower 's deal with De Gaulle, the Liberation was left to the French 's 2nd armored division. With De Gaulle becoming the head of state, the Americans and the British had no other choice, but to accept him. Eisenhower even came to Paris to give De Gaulle his blessing.
In the postwar years, both cooperation and discord persisted. The debts left over from World War I, whose payment had been suspended since 1931, was renegotiated in the Blum - Byrnes agreement of 1946. The United States forgave all $2.8 billion in debt, and gave France a new loan of $650 million. In return French negotiator Jean Monnet set out the French five - year plan for recovery and development.
The United States helped revive the French economy with the Marshall Plan whereby it gave France $2.3 billion with no repayment. The total of all American grants and credits to France from 1946 to 1953, amounted to $4.9 billion. A central feature of the Marshall Plan was to encourage international trade, reduce tariffs, lower barriers, and modernize French management. The Marshall Plan set up intensive tours of American industry. France sent 500 missions with 4700 businessmen and experts to tour American factories, farms, stores and offices. They were especially impressed with the prosperity of American workers, and how they could purchase an inexpensive new automobile for nine months work, compared to 30 months in France. Some French businesses resisted Americanization, but the most profitable, especially chemicals, oil, electronics, and instrumentation, seized upon the opportunity to attract American investments and build a larger market.
In 1949 the two became formal allies through the North Atlantic treaty, which set up the NATO military alliance. Although the United States openly disapproved of French efforts to regain control of colonies in Africa and Southeast Asia, it supported the French government in fighting the Communist uprising in French Indochina. However, in 1954, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower declined French requests for aerial strikes to relieve besieged French forces at Dien Bien Phu.
Both countries opposed the Soviet Union in Cold War confrontations but went through another crisis in 1956. When France, Britain, and Israel attacked Egypt, which had recently nationalized the Suez Canal and shown signs of warming relations with the Soviet Union and China, Eisenhower forced them to withdraw. By exposing their diminished international stature, the Suez Crisis had a profound impact on the UK and France: the UK subsequently aligned its Middle East policy to that of the United States, whereas France distanced itself from what it considered to be unreliable allies and sought its own path.
While occasional tensions surfaced between the governments, the French public, except for the Communists, generally had a good opinion of the United States throughout the 1950s and into the 1960s. Despite some cultural friction, the United States was seen as a benevolent giant, the land of modernity, and French youth took a taste to American culture such as chewing gum, Coca - Cola, and rock and roll.
In the 1950s France sought American help in developing nuclear weapons; Eisenhower rejected the overtures for four reasons. Before 1958, he was troubled by the political instability of the French Fourth Republic and worried that it might use nuclear weapons in its colonial wars in Vietnam and Algeria. Charles de Gaulle brought stability to the Fifth Republic starting in 1958, but Eisenhower was still hesitant to assist in the nuclearization of France. De Gaulle wanted to challenge the Anglo - Saxon monopoly on Western weapons by having his own Force de frappe. Eisenhower feared his grandiose plans to use the bombs to restore French grandeur would weaken NATO. Furthermore, Eisenhower wanted to discourage the proliferation of nuclear arms anywhere.
DeGaulle also quarreled with Washington over the admission of Britain into the European Economic Community. These and other tensions led to de Gaulle 's decision in 1966 to withdraw French forces from the integrated military structure of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation and forced it to move its headquarters to Belgium. De Gaulle 's foreign policy was centered on an attempt to limit the power and influence of both superpowers, which would increase France 's international prestige in relative terms. De Gaulle hoped to move France from being a follower of the United States to a leading first - world power with a large following among certain non-aligned Third World countries. The nations de Gaulle considered potential participants in this grouping were those in France 's traditional spheres of influence, Africa and the Middle East.
The two nations differed over the waging of the Vietnam War, in part because French leaders were convinced that the United States could not win. The recent French experience with the Algerian War of Independence was that it was impossible, in the long run, for a democracy to impose by force a government over a foreign population without considerable manpower and probably the use of unacceptable methods such as torture. The French popular view of the United States worsened at the same period, as it came to be seen as an imperialist power.
Relations improved somewhat after de Gaulle lost power in 1969. Small tensions reappeared intermittently. France, more strongly than any other nation, has seen the European Union as a method of counterbalancing American power, and thus works towards such ends as having the Euro challenge the preeminent position of the United States dollar in global trade and developing a European defense initiative as an alternative to NATO. Overall, the United States had much closer relations with the other large European powers, Great Britain, Germany and Italy. In the 1980s the two nations cooperated on some international matters but disagreed sharply on others, such as Operation El Dorado Canyon and the desirability of a reunified Germany. The Reagan administration did its best efforts to prevent France and other European countries from buying natural gas from Russia, through the construction of the Siberia - Europe pipeline. The European governments, including the French, were undeterred and the pipeline was finally built.
Richard Kuisel, an American scholar, has explored how France partly embraced American consumerism while rejecting much of American values and power. He writes in 2013:
On the other hand, Kuisel identifies several strong pull effects:
France under President François Mitterrand supported the 1991 Persian Gulf War in Iraq as a major participant under Operation Daguet. The French Assemblee Nationale even took the "unprecedented decision '' to place all French forces in the Gulf under United States command for the duration of the war.
In March 2003 France, along with Germany, China, and Russia, opposed the proposed UN resolution that would have authorized a U.S. invasion of Iraq. During the run - up to the war, French foreign minister Dominique de Villepin emerged as a prominent critic of the George W. Bush administration 's Iraq policies. Despite the recurring rifts, the often ambivalent relationship remained formally intact. A few days after the September 11, 2001 attacks, President Jacques Chirac -- later known for his frosty relationship with Bush -- had ordered the French secret services to collaborate closely with U.S. intelligence, and created Alliance Base in Paris, a joint - intelligence service center charged with enacting the Bush administration 's War on Terror.
Public attempts in 2003 to boycott French goods in retaliation for perceived French "active hostility toward America '' ultimately fizzled out, having had no impact. Nonetheless, the Iraq war, the attempted boycott, and anti-French sentiments routinely whipped up by American commentators and politicians bred increased suspicion of the United States among the French public in 2003, just as anti-war demonstrations, hostile treatment of American tourists in Europe, and the actions of the French government bred a similar level of increased distrust of France in the United States. By 2006, only one American in six considered France an ally of the United States.
The ire of American popular opinion towards France during the run - up to the 2003 Iraq Invasion was primarily due to the fact that France decided not to intervene in Iraq (because the French did not believe the reasons given to go to war, such as the supposed link between Saddam Hussein and Al - Qaeda, and the purported weapons of mass destruction to be legitimate). This contributed to the perception of the French as uncooperative and unsympathetic in American popular opinion at the time. This perception was quite strong and persisted despite the fact that France was and had been for some time a major ally in the campaign in Afghanistan (see for example the French forces in Afghanistan) where both nations (among others in the US - led coalition) were dedicated to the removal of the rogue Taliban, and the subsequent stabilization of Afghanistan, a recognized training ground and safe haven for terrorists intent on carrying out attacks in the Western world.
As the Iraq War progressed, relations between the two nations began to improve. In June 2006 the Pew Global Attitudes Project revealed that 52 % of Americans had a positive view of France, up from 46 % in 2005. Other reports indicate Americans are moving not so much toward favorable views of France as toward ambivalence, and that views toward France have stabilized roughly on par with views toward Russia and China.
Following issues like Hezbollah 's rise in Lebanon, Iran 's nuclear program and the stalled Israeli - Palestinian peace process, George Bush urged Jacques Chirac and other world leaders to "stand up for peace '' in the face of extremism during a meeting in New York on September 19, 2006.
Strong French and American diplomatic cooperation at the United Nations played an important role in the Cedar Revolution, which saw the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon. France and the United States also worked together (with some tensions) in crafting UN resolution 1701, intended to bring about a ceasefire in the 2006 Israeli -- Lebanese conflict.
Political relations between France and the United States became friendlier after Nicolas Sarkozy was elected President of France in 2007. Sarkozy, who has been called "Sarko the American '', has said that he "love (s) America '' and that he is "proud of his nickname ''.
In 2007, Sarkozy delivered a speech before the U.S. Congress that was seen as a strong affirmation of French -- American ties; during the visit, he also met with President George W. Bush as well as senators John McCain and Barack Obama (before they were chosen as presidential candidates).
Obama and McCain also met with Sarkozy in Paris after securing their respective nominations in 2008. After receiving Obama in July, Sarkozy was quoted saying "Obama? C'est mon copain '', which means "Obama? He 's my buddy. '' Because of their previous acquaintance, relations between the Sarkozy and Obama administrations were expected to be warm.
Since 2008, France has been back to the integrated command of NATO, a decision that has been greatly appreciated by the United States.
In 2011 the two countries were part of the multi-state coalition which launched a military intervention in Libya where they led the alliance and conducted 35 % of all NATO strikes.
In 2013, France launched a major operation in Mali to free the country from an ad - hoc alliance of terrorists and Azawa rebels. The United States provided France with logistical support for Operation Serval.
After president François Hollande pledged support for military action against Syria, U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry referred to France as "our oldest ally ''.
On February 10, 2014, Hollande arrived in the U.S. for the first state visit by a French leader in nearly two decades. Obama and Hollande published jointly in the Washington Post and Le Monde:
"... we have been able to take our alliance to a new level because our interests and values are so closely aligned.
Rooted in a friendship stretching back more than two centuries, our deepening partnership offers a model for international cooperation. ''
During his state visit Hollande toured Monticello where he stated:
"We were allies in the time of Jefferson and Lafayette. We are still allies today. We were friends at the time of Jefferson and Lafayette and will remain friends forever ''
On September 19, 2014 it was announced that France had joined the United States in bombing Islamic State targets in Iraq as a part of the 2014 American intervention in Iraq. United States president, Barack Obama & the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Martin Dempsey, praised Hollande 's decision to join the operation:
"As one of our oldest and closest allies, France is a strong partner in our efforts against terrorism and we are pleased that French and American service members will once again work together on behalf of our shared security and our shared values. ''
Said Obama,
"the French were our very first ally and they 're with us again now. ''
Stated Dempsey, who was visiting the Normandy landing beaches and the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial with his French counterpart, General Pierre de Villiers.
On April 18, 2015, the Hermione (a replica of the famous 1779 French frigate Hermione) departed La Rochelle, France, bound for Yorktown, Virginia, USA, where it arrived in early June. After that it has visited ports along the eastern seaboard en route to New York City for Independence Day celebrations. The original Concorde class frigate became famous when she ferried General Lafayette to the United States in 1780 to allow him to rejoin the American side in the American Revolutionary War. French President François Hollande was at La Rochelle to see the replica off, where he stated:
"L'Hermione is a luminous episode of our history. She is a champion of universal values, freedom, courage and of the friendship between France and the United States, ''
President Barack Obama in a letter commemorating the voyage stated:
For more than two centuries, the United States and France have stood united in the freedom we owe to one another. From the battlefields where a revolution was won to the beaches where the liberation of a continent began, generations of our peoples have defended the ideals that guide us - overcoming the darkness of oppression and injustice with the light of liberty and equality, time and again.
As we pay tribute to the extraordinary efforts made by General Lafayette and the French people to advance the Revolutionary cause, we reflect on the partnership that has made France our Nation 's oldest ally. By continuing to renew and deepen our alliance in our time, we ensure generations to come can carry it forward proudly.
The ship was given a copy of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen by the French President to be presented to the American President upon its arrival.
On July 12, 2017, United States President, Donald Trump, visited France and French President, Emmanuel Macron. The two leaders discussed issues like counter-terrorism and the war in Syria, but skipped topics where they disagreed, like climate change and trade. The visit was two days before the one - year anniversary of the 2016 Nice attack on Bastille Day.
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which is a main purpose of public opinion polls | Opinion poll - wikipedia
An opinion poll, often simply referred to as a poll or a survey, is a human research survey of public opinion from a particular sample. Opinion polls are usually designed to represent the opinions of a population by conducting a series of questions and then extrapolating generalities in ratio or within confidence intervals.
The first known example of an opinion poll was a local straw poll conducted by The Aru Pennsylvanian in 1824, showing Andrew Jackson leading John Quincy Adams by 335 votes to 169 in the contest for the United States Presidency. Since Jackson won the popular vote in that state and the whole country, such straw votes gradually became more popular, but they remained local, usually citywide phenomena. In 1916, The Literary Digest embarked on a national survey (partly as a circulation - raising exercise) and correctly predicted Woodrow Wilson 's election as president. Mailing out millions of postcards and simply counting the returns, The Literary Digest correctly predicted the victories of Warren Harding in 1920, Calvin Coolidge in 1924, Herbert Hoover in 1928, and Franklin Roosevelt in 1932.
Then, in 1936, its 2.3 million "voters '' constituted a huge sample, but they were generally more affluent Americans who tended to have Republican sympathies. The Literary Digest was ignorant of this new bias; the week before election day, it reported that Alf Landon was far more popular than Roosevelt. At the same time, George Gallup conducted a far smaller (but more scientifically based) survey, in which he polled a demographically representative sample. Gallup correctly predicted Roosevelt 's landslide victory. The Literary Digest soon went out of business, while polling started to take off.
Elmo Roper was another American pioneer in political forecasting using scientific polls. He predicted the reelection of President Franklin D. Roosevelt three times, in 1936, 1940, and 1944. Louis Harris had been in the field of public opinion since 1947 when he joined the Elmo Roper firm, then later became partner.
In September 1938 Jean Stoetzel, after having met Gallup, created IFOP, the Institut Français d'Opinion Publique, as the first European survey institute in Paris and started political polls in summer 1939 with the question "Why die for Danzig? '', looking for popular support or dissent with this question asked by appeasement politician and future collaborationist Marcel Déat.
Gallup launched a subsidiary in the United Kingdom that, almost alone, correctly predicted Labour 's victory in the 1945 general election, unlike virtually all other commentators, who expected a victory for the Conservative Party, led by Winston Churchill.
The Allied occupation powers helped to create survey institutes in all of the Western occupation zones of Germany in 1947 and 1948 to better steer denazification. By the 1950s, various types of polling had spread to most democracies.
In long - term perspective, advertising had come under heavy pressure in the early 1930s. The Great Depression forced businesses to drastically cut back on their advertising spending. Layoffs and reductions were common at all agencies. The New Deal furthermore aggressively promoted consumerism, and minimized the value of (or need for) advertising. Historian Jackson Lears argues that "By the late 1930s, though, corporate advertisers had begun a successful counterattack against their critics. '' They rehabilitated the concept of consumer sovereignty by inventing scientific public opinion polls, and making it the centerpiece of their own market research, as well as the key to understanding politics. George Gallup, the vice president of Young and Rubicam, and numerous other advertising experts, led the way. Moving into the 1940s, the industry played a leading role in the ideological mobilization of the American people for fighting the Nazis and Japanese in World War II. As part of that effort, they redefined the "American Way of Life '' in terms of a commitment to free enterprise. "Advertisers, '' Lears concludes, "played a crucial hegemonic role in creating the consumer culture that dominated post-World War II American society. ''
Opinion polls for many years were maintained through telecommunications or in person - to - person contact. Methods and techniques vary, though they are widely accepted in most areas. Over the years, technological innovations have also influenced survey methods such as the availability of electronic clipboards and Internet based polling. Verbal, ballot, and processed types can be conducted efficiently, contrasted with other types of surveys, systematics, and complicated matrices beyond previous orthodox procedures.
Opinion polling developed into popular applications through popular thought, although response rates for some surveys declined. Also, the following has also led to differentiating results: Some polling organizations, such as Angus Reid Public Opinion, YouGov and Zogby use Internet surveys, where a sample is drawn from a large panel of volunteers, and the results are weighted to reflect the demographics of the population of interest. In contrast, popular web polls draw on whoever wishes to participate, rather than a scientific sample of the population, and are therefore not generally considered professional.
Recently, statistical learning methods have been proposed in order to exploit social media content (such as posts on the micro-blogging platform of Twitter) for modelling and predicting voting intention polls.
Polls can be used in the public relations field as well. In the early 1920s, public relation experts described their work as a two - way street. Their job would be to present the misinterpreted interests of large institutions to public. They would also gauge the typically ignored interests of the public through polls.
A benchmark poll is generally the first poll taken in a campaign. It is often taken before a candidate announces their bid for office but sometimes it happens immediately following that announcement after they have had some opportunity to raise funds. This is generally a short and simple survey of likely voters.
A benchmark poll serves a number of purposes for a campaign, whether it is a political campaign or some other type of campaign. First, it gives the candidate a picture of where they stand with the electorate before any campaigning takes place. If the poll is done prior to announcing for office the candidate may use the poll to decide whether or not they should even run for office. Secondly, it shows them where their weaknesses and strengths are in two main areas. The first is the electorate. A benchmark poll shows them what types of voters they are sure to win, those they are sure to lose, and everyone in - between these two extremes. This lets the campaign know which voters are persuadable so they can spend their limited resources in the most effective manner. Second, it can give them an idea of what messages, ideas, or slogans are the strongest with the electorate.
Brushfire polls are polls taken during the period between the benchmark poll and tracking polls. The number of brushfire polls taken by a campaign is determined by how competitive the race is and how much money the campaign has to spend. These polls usually focus on likely voters and the length of the survey varies on the number of messages being tested.
Brushfire polls are used for a number of purposes. First, it lets the candidate know if they have made any progress on the ballot, how much progress has been made, and in what demographics they have been making or losing ground. Secondly, it is a way for the campaign to test a variety of messages, both positive and negative, on themselves and their opponent (s). This lets the campaign know what messages work best with certain demographics and what messages should be avoided. Campaigns often use these polls to test possible attack messages that their opponent may use and potential responses to those attacks. The campaign can then spend some time preparing an effective response to any likely attacks. Thirdly, this kind of poll can be used by candidates or political parties to convince primary challengers to drop out of a race and support a stronger candidate.
A tracking poll or rolling poll is a poll in which responses are obtained in a number of consecutive periods, for instance daily, and then results are calculated using a moving average of the responses that were gathered over a fixed number of the most recent periods, for example the past five days. In this example, the next calculated results will use data for five days counting backwards from the next day, namely the same data as before, but with the data from the next day included, and without the data from the sixth day before that day.
Over time, a number of theories and mechanisms have been offered to explain erroneous polling results. Some of these reflect errors on the part of the pollsters; many of them are statistical in nature. Others blame the respondents for not giving candid answers (e.g., the Bradley effect, the Shy Tory Factor); these can be more controversial.
Polls based on samples of populations are subject to sampling error which reflects the effects of chance and uncertainty in the sampling process. Sampling polls rely on the law of large numbers to measure the opinions of the whole population based only on a subset, and for this purpose the absolute size of the sample is important, but the percentage of the whole population is not important (unless it happens to be close to the sample size). The possible difference between the sample and whole population is often expressed as a margin of error - usually defined as the radius of a 95 % confidence interval for a particular statistic. One example is the percent of people who prefer product A versus product B. When a single, global margin of error is reported for a survey, it refers to the maximum margin of error for all reported percentages using the full sample from the survey. If the statistic is a percentage, this maximum margin of error can be calculated as the radius of the confidence interval for a reported percentage of 50 %. Others suggest that a poll with a random sample of 1,000 people has margin of sampling error of ± 3 % for the estimated percentage of the whole population.
A 3 % margin of error means that if the same procedure is used a large number of times, 95 % of the time the true population average will be within the sample estimate plus or minus 3 %. The margin of error can be reduced by using a larger sample, however if a pollster wishes to reduce the margin of error to 1 % they would need a sample of around 10,000 people. In practice, pollsters need to balance the cost of a large sample against the reduction in sampling error and a sample size of around 500 -- 1,000 is a typical compromise for political polls. (Note that to get complete responses it may be necessary to include thousands of additional participators.)
Another way to reduce the margin of error is to rely on poll averages. This makes the assumption that the procedure is similar enough between many different polls and uses the sample size of each poll to create a polling average. An example of a polling average can be found here: 2008 Presidential Election polling average. Another source of error stems from faulty demographic models by pollsters who weigh their samples by particular variables such as party identification in an election. For example, if you assume that the breakdown of the US population by party identification has not changed since the previous presidential election, you may underestimate a victory or a defeat of a particular party candidate that saw a surge or decline in its party registration relative to the previous presidential election cycle.
A caution is that an estimate of a trend is subject to a larger error than an estimate of a level. This is because if one estimates the change, the difference between two numbers X and Y, then one has to contend with errors in both X and Y. A rough guide is that if the change in measurement falls outside the margin of error it is worth attention.
Since some people do not answer calls from strangers, or refuse to the answer the poll, poll samples may not be representative samples from a population due to a non-response bias. Response rates have been declining, and are down to about 10 % in recent years. Because of this selection bias, the characteristics of those who agree to be interviewed may be markedly different from those who decline. That is, the actual sample is a biased version of the universe the pollster wants to analyze. In these cases, bias introduces new errors, one way or the other, that are in addition to errors caused by sample size. Error due to bias does not become smaller with larger sample sizes, because taking a larger sample size simply repeats the same mistake on a larger scale. If the people who refuse to answer, or are never reached, have the same characteristics as the people who do answer, then the final results should be unbiased. If the people who do not answer have different opinions then there is bias in the results. In terms of election polls, studies suggest that bias effects are small, but each polling firm has its own techniques for adjusting weights to minimize selection bias.
Survey results may be affected by response bias, where the answers given by respondents do not reflect their true beliefs. This may be deliberately engineered by unscrupulous pollsters in order to generate a certain result or please their clients, but more often is a result of the detailed wording or ordering of questions (see below). Respondents may deliberately try to manipulate the outcome of a poll by e.g. advocating a more extreme position than they actually hold in order to boost their side of the argument or give rapid and ill - considered answers in order to hasten the end of their questioning. Respondents may also feel under social pressure not to give an unpopular answer. For example, respondents might be unwilling to admit to unpopular attitudes like racism or sexism, and thus polls might not reflect the true incidence of these attitudes in the population. In American political parlance, this phenomenon is often referred to as the Bradley effect. If the results of surveys are widely publicized this effect may be magnified - a phenomenon commonly referred to as the spiral of silence.
Use of the plurality voting system (select only one candidate) in a poll puts an unintentional bias into the poll, since people who favor more than one candidate can not indicate this. The fact that they must choose only one candidate biases the poll, causing it to favor the candidate most different from the others while it disfavors candidates who are similar to other candidates. The plurality voting system also biases elections in the same way.
Some people responding may not understand the words being used, but may wish to avoid the embarrassment of admitting this, or the poll mechanism may not allow clarification, so they may make an arbitrary choice. Some percentage of people also answer whimsically or out of annoyance at being polled. This results in perhaps 4 % of Americans reporting they have personally been decapitated or that "lizardmen are running the Earth ''.
It is well established that the wording of the questions, the order in which they are asked and the number and form of alternative answers offered can influence results of polls. For instance, the public is more likely to indicate support for a person who is described by the operator as one of the "leading candidates ''. This support itself overrides subtle bias for one candidate, as does lumping some candidates in an "other '' category or vice versa. Thus comparisons between polls often boil down to the wording of the question. On some issues, question wording can result in quite pronounced differences between surveys. This can also, however, be a result of legitimately conflicted feelings or evolving attitudes, rather than a poorly constructed survey.
A common technique to control for this bias is to rotate the order in which questions are asked. Many pollsters also split - sample. This involves having two different versions of a question, with each version presented to half the respondents.
The most effective controls, used by attitude researchers, are:
These controls are not widely used in the polling industry.. However, as it is important that questions to test the product have a high quality, survey methodologists work on methods to test them. Empirical tests provide insight into the quality of the questionnaire, some may be more complex than others. For instance, testing a questionnaire can be done by:
One of the criticisms of opinion polls is that societal assumptions that opinions between which there is no logical link are "correlated attitudes '' can push people with one opinion into a group that forces them to pretend to have a supposedly linked but actually unrelated opinion. That, in turn, may cause people who have the first opinion to claim on polls that they have the second opinion without having it, causing opinion polls to become part of self - fulfilling prophecy problems. It have been suggested that attempts to counteract unethical opinions by condemning supposedly linked opinions may favor the groups that promote the actually unethical opinions by forcing people with supposedly linked opinions into them by ostracism elsewhere in society making such efforts counterproductive, that not being sent between groups that assume ulterior motives from each other and not being allowed to express consistent critical thought anywhere may create psychological stress because humans are sapient, and that discussion spaces free from assumptions of ulterior motives behind specific opinions should be created. In this context, rejection of the assumption that opinion polls show actual links between opinions is considered important.
Another source of error is the use of samples that are not representative of the population as a consequence of the methodology used, as was the experience of The Literary Digest in 1936. For example, telephone sampling has a built - in error because in many times and places, those with telephones have generally been richer than those without.
In some places many people have only mobile telephones. Because pollsters can not use automated dialing machines to call mobile phones in the United States (because the phone 's owner may be charged for taking a call), these individuals are typically excluded from polling samples. There is concern that, if the subset of the population without cell phones differs markedly from the rest of the population, these differences can skew the results of the poll.
Polling organizations have developed many weighting techniques to help overcome these deficiencies, with varying degrees of success. Studies of mobile phone users by the Pew Research Center in the US, in 2007, concluded that "cell - only respondents are different from landline respondents in important ways, (but) they were neither numerous enough nor different enough on the questions we examined to produce a significant change in overall general population survey estimates when included with the landline samples and weighted according to US Census parameters on basic demographic characteristics. ''
This issue was first identified in 2004, but came to prominence only during the 2008 US presidential election. In previous elections, the proportion of the general population using cell phones was small, but as this proportion has increased, there is concern that polling only landlines is no longer representative of the general population. In 2003, only 2.9 % of households were wireless (cellphones only), compared to 12.8 % in 2006. This results in "coverage error ''. Many polling organisations select their sample by dialling random telephone numbers; however, in 2008, there was a clear tendency for polls which included mobile phones in their samples to show a much larger lead for Obama, than polls that did not.
The potential sources of bias are:
Some polling companies have attempted to get around that problem by including a "cellphone supplement ''. There are a number of problems with including cellphones in a telephone poll:
An oft - quoted example of opinion polls succumbing to errors occurred during the 1992 UK general election. Despite the polling organizations using different methodologies, virtually all the polls taken before the vote, and to a lesser extent, exit polls taken on voting day, showed a lead for the opposition Labour party, but the actual vote gave a clear victory to the ruling Conservative party.
In their deliberations after this embarrassment the pollsters advanced several ideas to account for their errors, including:
The relative importance of these factors was, and remains, a matter of controversy, but since then the polling organizations have adjusted their methodologies and have achieved more accurate results in subsequent election campaigns.
A comprehensive discussion of these biases and how they should be understood and mitigated is included in several sources including Dillman and Salant (1994).
A widely publicized failure of opinion polling to date in the United States was the prediction that Thomas Dewey would defeat Harry S. Truman in the 1948 US presidential election. Major polling organizations, including Gallup and Roper, indicated a landslide victory for Dewey.
It was widely predicted that Donald Trump would lose the 2016 US presidential election to Former US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton; however, Donald Trump was elected the 45th President of the United States and was inaugurated on January 20, 2017. Many publications, such as FiveThirtyEight, predicted that there was a significant chance of the Trump winning.
In the United Kingdom, most polls failed to predict the Conservative election victories of 1970 and 1992, and Labour 's victory in 1974. However, their figures at other elections have been generally accurate. In the 2015 election virtually every poll predicted a hung parliament with Labour and the Conservatives neck and neck when the actual result was a clear Conservative majority. On the other hand, in 2017, the opposite appears to have occurred. Most polls predicted a Conservative landslide, even though in reality the election resulted in a hung parliament with the Conservatives losing their majority.
Social media today is a popular medium for the candidates to campaign and for gauging the public reaction to the campaigns. Social media can also be used as an indicator of the voter opinion regarding the poll. Some research studies have shown that predictions made using social media signals can match traditional opinion polls.
Recently, concerning the 2016 U.S. presidential election, a major concern has been that of the effect of false stories spreading throughout social media. Recent evidence shows that social media plays a huge role in the supplying of news: 62 percent of US adults get news on social media. This fact makes the issue of fake news being spread throughout it more influential. Other evidence surrounding fake news shows that: the most popular fake news stories were more widely shared on Facebook than the most popular mainstream news stories; many people who see fake news stories report that they believe them; and the most discussed fake news stories tended to favor Donald Trump over Hillary Clinton. As a result of these facts, some have concluded that if not for these stories, Donald Trump may not have won the election over Hillary Clinton.
By providing information about voting intentions, opinion polls can sometimes influence the behavior of electors, and in his book The Broken Compass, Peter Hitchens asserts that opinion polls are actually a device for influencing public opinion. The various theories about how this happens can be split into two groups: bandwagon / underdog effects, and strategic ("tactical '') voting.
A bandwagon effect occurs when the poll prompts voters to back the candidate shown to be winning in the poll. The idea that voters are susceptible to such effects is old, stemming at least from 1884; William Safire reported that the term was first used in a political cartoon in the magazine Puck in that year. It has also remained persistent in spite of a lack of empirical corroboration until the late 20th century. George Gallup spent much effort in vain trying to discredit this theory in his time by presenting empirical research. A recent meta - study of scientific research on this topic indicates that from the 1980s onward the Bandwagon effect is found more often by researchers.
The opposite of the bandwagon effect is the underdog effect. It is often mentioned in the media. This occurs when people vote, out of sympathy, for the party perceived to be "losing '' the elections. There is less empirical evidence for the existence of this effect than there is for the existence of the bandwagon effect.
The second category of theories on how polls directly affect voting is called strategic or tactical voting. This theory is based on the idea that voters view the act of voting as a means of selecting a government. Thus they will sometimes not choose the candidate they prefer on ground of ideology or sympathy, but another, less - preferred, candidate from strategic considerations. An example can be found in the United Kingdom general election, 1997. As he was then a Cabinet Minister, Michael Portillo 's constituency of Enfield Southgate was believed to be a safe seat but opinion polls showed the Labour candidate Stephen Twigg steadily gaining support, which may have prompted undecided voters or supporters of other parties to support Twigg in order to remove Portillo. Another example is the boomerang effect where the likely supporters of the candidate shown to be winning feel that chances are slim and that their vote is not required, thus allowing another candidate to win.
In addition, Mark Pickup in Cameron Anderson and Laura Stephenson 's "Voting Behaviour in Canada '' outlines three additional "behavioural '' responses that voters may exhibit when faced with polling data.
The first is known as a "cue taking '' effect which holds that poll data is used as a "proxy '' for information about the candidates or parties. Cue taking is "based on the psychological phenomenon of using heuristics to simplify a complex decision '' (243).
The second, first described by Petty and Cacioppo (1996) is known as "cognitive response '' theory. This theory asserts that a voter 's response to a poll may not line with their initial conception of the electoral reality. In response, the voter is likely to generate a "mental list '' in which they create reasons for a party 's loss or gain in the polls. This can reinforce or change their opinion of the candidate and thus affect voting behaviour.
Third, the final possibility is a "behavioural response '' which is similar to a cognitive response. The only salient difference is that a voter will go and seek new information to form their "mental list '', thus becoming more informed of the election. This may then affect voting behaviour.
These effects indicate how opinion polls can directly affect political choices of the electorate. But directly or indirectly, other effects can be surveyed and analyzed on all political parties. The form of media framing and party ideology shifts must also be taken under consideration. Opinion polling in some instances is a measure of cognitive bias, which is variably considered and handled appropriately in its various applications.
Starting in the 1980s, tracking polls and related technologies began having a notable impact on U.S. political leaders. According to Douglas Bailey, a Republican who had helped run Gerald Ford 's 1976 presidential campaign, "It 's no longer necessary for a political candidate to guess what an audience thinks. He can (find out) with a nightly tracking poll. So it 's no longer likely that political leaders are going to lead. Instead, they 're going to follow. ''
Some jurisdictions over the world restrict the publication of the results of opinion polls, especially during the period around an election, in order to prevent the possibly erroneous results from affecting voters ' decisions. For instance, in Canada, it is prohibited to publish the results of opinion surveys that would identify specific political parties or candidates in the final three days before a poll closes.
However, most western democratic nations do n't support the entire prohibition of the publication of pre-election opinion polls; most of them have no regulation and some only prohibit it in the final days or hours until the relevant poll closes. A survey by Canada 's Royal Commission on Electoral Reform reported that the prohibition period of publication of the survey results largely differed in different countries. Out of the 20 countries examined, 3 prohibit the publication during the entire period of campaigns, while others prohibit it for a shorter term such as the polling period or the final 48 hours before a poll closes. In India, the Election Commission has prohibited it in the 48 hours before the start of polling.
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when was the great wall of china abandoned | History of the Great Wall of China - Wikipedia
The history of the Great Wall of China began when fortifications built by various states during the Spring and Autumn (771 -- 476 BC) and Warring States periods (475 -- 221 BC) were connected by the first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, to protect his newly founded Qin dynasty (221 -- 206 BC) against incursions by nomads from Inner Asia. The walls were built of rammed earth, constructed using forced labour, and by 212 BC ran from Gansu to the coast of southern Manchuria.
Later dynasties adopted different policies towards northern frontier defense. The Han (202 BC -- 220 AD), the Northern Qi (550 -- 574), the Sui (589 -- 618), and particularly the Ming (1369 -- 1644) were among those that rebuilt, re-manned, and expanded the Walls, although they rarely followed Qin 's routes. The Han extended the fortifications furthest to the west, the Qi built about 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) of new walls, while the Sui mobilised over a million men in their wall - building efforts. Conversely, the Tang (618 -- 907), the Song (960 -- 1279), the Yuan (1271 -- 1368), and the Qing (1644 -- 1911) mostly did not build frontier walls, instead opting for other solutions to the Inner Asian threat like military campaigning and diplomacy.
Although a useful deterrent against raids, at several points throughout its history the Great Wall failed to stop enemies, including in 1644 when the Manchu Qing marched through the gates of Shanhai Pass and replaced the most ardent of the wall - building dynasties, the Ming, as rulers of China.
The Great Wall of China visible today largely dates from the Ming dynasty, as they rebuilt much of the wall in stone and brick, often extending its line through challenging terrain. Some sections remain in relatively good condition or have been renovated, while others have been damaged or destroyed for ideological reasons, deconstructed for their building materials, or lost due to the ravages of time. For long an object of fascination for foreigners, the wall is now a revered national symbol and a popular tourist destination.
The conflict between the Chinese and the nomads, from which the need for the Great Wall arose, stemmed from differences in geography. The 15 '' isohyet marks the extent of settled agriculture, dividing the fertile fields of China to the south and the semi-arid grasslands of Inner Asia to the north. The climates and the topography of the two regions led to distinct modes of societal development.
According to the model by sinologist Karl August Wittfogel, the loess soils of Shaanxi made it possible for the Chinese to develop irrigated agriculture early on. Although this allowed them to expand into the lower reaches of the Yellow River valley, such extensive waterworks on an ever - increasing scale required collective labour, something that could only be managed by some form of bureaucracy. Thus the scholar - bureaucrats came to the fore to keep track of the income and expenses of the granaries. Walled cities grew up around the granaries for reasons of defence along with ease of administration; they kept invaders out and ensured that citizens remained within. These cities combined to become feudal states, which eventually united to become an empire. Likewise, according to this model, walls not only enveloped cities as time went by, but also lined the borders of the feudal states and eventually the whole Chinese empire to provide protection against raids from the agrarian northern steppes.
The steppe societies of Inner Asia, whose climate favoured a pastoral economy, stood in stark contrast to the Chinese mode of development. As animal herds are migratory by nature, communities could not afford to be stationary and therefore evolved as nomads. According to the influential Mongolist Owen Lattimore this lifestyle proved to be incompatible with the Chinese economic model. As the steppe population grew, pastoral agriculture alone could not support the population, and tribal alliances needed to be maintained by material rewards. For these needs, the nomads had to turn to the settled societies to get grains, metal tools, and luxury goods, which they could not produce by themselves. If denied trade by the settled peoples, the nomads would resort to raiding or even conquest.
Potential nomadic incursion from three main areas of Inner Asia caused concern to northern China: Mongolia to the north, Manchuria to the northeast, and Xinjiang to the northwest. Of the three, China 's chief concern since the earliest times had been Mongolia -- the home of many of the country 's fiercest enemies including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Khitans, and the Mongols. The Gobi Desert, which accounts for two - thirds of Mongolia 's area, divided the main northern and southern grazing lands and pushed the pastoral nomads to the fringes of the steppe. On the southern side (Inner Mongolia), this pressure brought the nomads into contact with China.
For the most part, barring intermittent passes and valleys (the major one being the corridor through Zhangjiakou and the Juyong Pass), the North China Plain remained shielded from the Mongolian steppe by the Yin Mountains. However, if this defence were breached, China 's flat terrain offered no protection to the cities on the plain, including the imperial capitals of Beijing, Kaifeng, and Luoyang. Heading west along the Yin Mountains, the range ends where the Yellow River circles northwards upstream in the area known as the Ordos Loop -- technically part of the steppe, but capable of irrigated agriculture. Although the Yellow River formed a theoretical natural boundary with the north, such a border so far into the steppe was difficult to maintain. The lands south of the Yellow River -- the Hetao, the Ordos Desert, and the Loess Plateau -- provided no natural barriers on the approach to the Wei River valley, the oft - called cradle of Chinese civilization where the ancient capital Xi'an lay. As such, control of the Ordos remained extremely important for the rulers of China: not only for potential influence over the steppe, but also for the security of China proper. The region 's strategic importance combined with its untenability led many dynasties to place their first walls here.
Although Manchuria is home to the agricultural lands of the Liao River valley, its location beyond the northern mountains relegated it to the relative periphery of Chinese concern. When Chinese state control became weak, at various points in history Manchuria fell under the control of the forest peoples of the area, including the Jurchens and the Manchus. The most crucial route that links Manchuria and the North China Plain is a narrow coastal strip of land, wedged between the Bohai Sea and the Yan Mountains, called the Shanhai Pass (literally the "mountain and sea pass ''). The pass gained much importance during the later dynasties, when the capital was set in Beijing, a mere 300 kilometres (190 miles) away. In addition to the Shanhai Pass, a handful of mountain passes also provide access from Manchuria into China through the Yan Mountains, chief among them the Gubeikou and Xifengkou (Chinese: 喜 峰 口).
Xinjiang, considered part of the Turkestan region, consists of an amalgamation of deserts, oases, and dry steppe barely suitable for agriculture. When influence from the steppe powers of Mongolia waned, the various Central Asian oasis kingdoms and nomadic clans like the Göktürks and Uyghurs were able to form their own states and confederations that threatened China at times. China proper is connected to this area by the Hexi Corridor, a narrow string of oases bounded by the Gobi Desert to the north and the high Tibetan Plateau to the south. In addition to considerations of frontier defence, the Hexi Corridor also formed an important part of the Silk Road trade route. Thus it was also in China 's economic interest to control this stretch of land, and hence the Great Wall 's western terminus is in this corridor -- the Yumen Pass during Han times and the Jiayu Pass during the Ming dynasty and thereafter.
One of the first mentions of a wall built against northern invaders is found in a poem, dated from the seventh century BC, recorded in the Classic of Poetry. The poem tells of a king, now identified as King Xuan (r. 827 -- 782 BC) of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046 -- 771 BC), who commanded General Nan Zhong (南仲) to build a wall in the northern regions to fend off the Xianyun. The Xianyun, whose base of power was in the Ordos region, were regarded as part of the charioteering Rong tribes, and their attacks aimed at the early Zhou capital region of Haojing were probably the reason for King Xuan 's response. Nan Zhong 's campaign was recorded as a great victory. However, only a few years later in 771 BC another branch of the Rong people, the Quanrong, responded to a summons by the renegade Marquess of Shen by over-running the Zhou defences and laying waste to the capital. The cataclysmic event killed King Xuan 's successor King You (795 -- 771 BC), forced the court to move the capital east to Chengzhou (成 周, later known as Luoyang) a year later, and thus ushered in the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770 -- 256 BC). Most importantly, the fall of Western Zhou redistributed power to the states that had acknowledged Zhou 's nominal rulership. The rule of the Eastern Zhou dynasty was marked by bloody interstate anarchy. With smaller states being annexed and larger states waging constant war upon one another, many rulers came to feel the need to erect walls to protect their borders. Of the earliest textual reference to such a wall was the State of Chu 's wall of 656 BC, 1,400 metres (4,600 feet) of which were excavated in southern Henan province in the modern era. However the Chu border fortifications consisted of many individual mountain fortresses; they do not constitute to a lengthy, single wall. The State of Qi also had fortified borders up by the 7th century BC, and the extant portions in Shandong province had been christened the Great Wall of Qi. The State of Wei built two walls, the western one completed in 361 BC and the eastern in 356 BC, with the extant western wall found in Hancheng, Shaanxi. Even non-Chinese peoples built walls, such as the Di state of Zhongshan and the Yiqu Rong, whose walls were intended to defend against the State of Qin.
Of these walls, those of the northern states Yan, Zhao, and Qin were connected by Qin Shi Huang when he united the Chinese states in 221 BC.
The State of Yan, the easternmost of the three northern states, began to erect walls after the general Qin Kai drove the Donghu people back "a thousand li '' during the reign of King Zhao (燕 昭王; r. 311 -- 279 BC). The Yan wall stretched from the Liaodong peninsula, through Chifeng, and into northern Hebei, possibly bringing its western terminus near the Zhao walls. Another Yan wall was erected to the south to defend against the Zhao; it was southwest of present - day Beijing and ran parallel to the Juma River for several dozen miles.
The Zhao walls to the north were built under King Wuling of Zhao (r. 325 -- 299 BC), whose groundbreaking introduction of nomadic cavalry into his army reshaped Chinese warfare and gave Zhao an initial advantage over his opponents. He attacked the Xiongnu tribes of Linhu (林 胡) and Loufan (樓 煩) to the north, then waged war on the state of Zhongshan until it was annexed in 296 BC. In the process, he constructed the northernmost fortified frontier deep in nomadic territory. The Zhao walls were dated in the 1960s to be from King Wuling 's reign: a southern long wall in northern Henan encompassing the Yanmen Pass; a second line of barricades encircling the Ordos Loop, extending from Zhangjiakou in the east to the ancient fortress of Gaoque (高 闕) in the Urad Front Banner; and a third, northernmost line along the southern slopes of the Yin Mountains, extending from Qinghe in the east, passing north of Hohhot, and into Baotou.
Qin was originally a state on the western fringe of the Chinese political sphere, but it grew into a formidable power in the later parts of the Warring States period when it aggressively expanded in all directions. In the north, the state of Wei and the Yiqu built walls to protect themselves from Qin aggression, but were still unable to stop Qin from eating into their territories. The Qin reformist Shang Yang forced the Wei out of their walled area west of the Yellow River in 340 BC, and King Huiwen of Qin (r. 338 -- 311 BC) took 25 Yiqu forts in a northern offensive. When King Huiwen died, his widow the Queen Dowager Xuan acted as regent because the succeeding sons were deemed too young to govern. During the reign of King Zhaoxiang (r. 306 -- 251 BC), the queen dowager apparently entered illicit relations with the Yiqu king and gave birth to two of his sons, but later tricked and killed the Yiqu king. Following that coup, the Qin army marched into Yiqu territory at the queen dowager 's orders; the Qin annihilated the Yiqu remnants and thus came to possess the Ordos region. At this point the Qin built a wall around their new territories to defend against the true nomads even further north, incorporating the Wei walls. As a result, an estimated total of 1,775 kilometres (1,103 mi) of Qin walls (including spurts) extended from southern Gansu to the bank of the Yellow River in the Jungar Banner, close to the border with Zhao at the time.
The walls, known as Changcheng (長城) -- literally "long walls '', but often translated as "Great Wall '' -- were mostly constructed of tamped earth, with some parts built with stones. Where natural barriers like ravines and rivers sufficed for defence, the walls were erected sparingly, but long fortified lines were laid where such advantageous terrains did not exist. Often in addition to the wall, the defensive system included garrisons and beacon towers inside the wall, and watchtowers outside at regular intervals. In terms of defence, the walls were generally effective at countering cavalry shock tactics, but there are doubts as to whether these early walls were actually defensive in nature. Nicola Di Cosmo points out that the northern frontier walls were built far to the north and included traditionally nomadic lands, and so rather than being defensive, the walls indicate the northward expansions of the three northern states and their desire to safeguard their recent territorial acquisitions. This theory is supported by the archeological discovery of nomadic artifacts within the walls, suggesting the presence of pre-existing or conquered barbarian societies. It is entirely possible, as Western scholars like di Cosmo and Lattimore suggest, that nomadic aggression against the Chinese in the coming centuries was partly caused by Chinese expansionism during this period.
In 221 BC, the state of Qin completed its conquest over the other Warring States and united China under Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. These conquests, combined with the Legalist reforms started by Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, transformed China from a loose confederation of feudal states to an authoritarian empire. With the transformation, Qin became able to command a far greater assembly of labourers to be used in public works than the prior feudal kingdoms. Also, once unification was achieved, Qin found itself in possession of a large professional army with no more internal enemies to fight and thus had to find a new use for them. Soon after the conquests, in the year 215 BC, the emperor sent the famed general Meng Tian to the Ordos region to drive out the Xiongnu nomads settled there, who had risen from beyond the fallen marginal states along the northern frontier. Qin 's campaign against the Xiongnu was preemptive in nature, since there was no pressing nomadic menace to be faced at the time; its aim was to annexe the ambiguous territories of the Ordos and to clearly define the Qin 's northern borders. Once the Xiongnu were chased away, Meng Tian introduced 30,000 settler families to colonize the newly conquered territories.
Wall configurations were changed to reflect the new borders under the Qin. General Meng Tian erected walls beyond the northern loop of the Yellow River, effectively linking the border walls of Qin, Zhao, and Yan. Concurrent to the building of the frontier wall was the destruction of the walls within China that used to divide one warring state from another -- contrary to the outer walls, which were built to stabilize the newly united China, the inner walls threatened the unity of the empire. In the following year, 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang ordered new fortifications to be built along the Yellow River to the west of the Ordos while work continued in the north. This work was completed probably by 212 BC, signalled by Qin Shi Huang 's imperial tour of inspection and the construction of the Direct Road (直道) connecting the capital Xianyang with the Ordos. The result was a series of long walls running from Gansu to the seacoast in Manchuria.
Details of the construction were not found in the official histories, but it could be inferred that the construction conditions were made especially difficult by the long stretches of mountains and semi-desert that the Great Wall traversed, the sparse populations of these areas, and the frigid winter climate. Although the walls were rammed earth, so the bulk of the building material could be found in situ, transportation of additional supplies and labour remained difficult for the reasons named above. The sinologist Derk Bodde posits in The Cambridge History of China that "for every man whom Meng Tian could put to work at the scene of actual construction, dozens must have been needed to build approaching roads and to transport supplies. '' This is supported by the Han dynasty statesman Zhufu Yan 's description of Qin Shi Huang 's Ordos project in 128 BC:
... the land was brackish and arid, crops could not be grown on them... At the time, the young men being drafted were forced to haul boats and barges loaded with baggage trains upstream to sustain a steady supply of food and fodder to the front... Commencing at the departure point a man and his animal could carry thirty zhong (about 176 kilograms (388 lb)) of food supply, by the time they arrived at the destination, they merely delivered one dan (about 29 kilograms (64 lb)) of supply... When the populace had become tired and weary they started to dissipate and abscond. The orphans, the frail, the widowed and the seniors were desperately trying to escape from their appallingly derelict state and died on the wayside as they wandered away from their home. People started to revolt.
The settlement of the north continued up to Qin Shi Huang 's death in 210 BC, upon which Meng Tian was ordered to commit suicide in a succession conspiracy. Before killing himself, Meng Tian expressed regret for his walls: "Beginning at Lintao and reaching to Liaodong, I built walls and dug moats for more than ten thousand li; was it not inevitable that I broke the earth 's veins along the way? This then was my offense. ''
Meng Tian 's settlements in the north were abandoned, and the Xiongnu nomads moved back into the Ordos Loop as the Qin empire became consumed by widespread rebellion due to public discontent. Owen Lattimore concluded that the whole project relied upon military power to enforce agriculture on a land more suited for herding, resulting in "the anti-historical paradox of attempting two mutually exclusive forms of development simultaneously '' that was doomed to fail.
In 202 BC, the former peasant Liu Bang emerged victorious from the Chu -- Han Contention that followed the rebellion that toppled the Qin dynasty, and proclaimed himself Emperor of the Han dynasty, becoming known as Emperor Gaozu of Han (r. 202 -- 195 BC) to posterity. Unable to address the problem of the resurgent Xiongnu in the Ordos region through military means, Emperor Gaozu was forced to appease the Xiongnu. In exchange for peace, the Han offered tributes along with princesses to marry off to the Xiongnu chiefs. These diplomatic marriages would become known as heqin, and the terms specified that the Great Wall (determined to be either the Warring States period Qin state wall or a short stretch of wall south of Yanmen Pass) was to serve as the line across which neither party would venture. In 162 BC, Gaozu 's son Emperor Wen clarified the agreement, suggesting the Xiongnu chanyu held authority north of the Wall and the Han emperor held authority south of it. Sima Qian, the author of the Records of the Grand Historian, describes the result of this agreement as one of peace and friendship: "from the chanyu downwards, all the Xiongnu grew friendly with the Han, coming and going along the Long Wall ''. However, Chinese records show that the Xiongnu often did not respect the agreement, as the Xiongnu cavalry numbering up to 100,000 made several intrusions into Han territory despite the intermarriage.
To Chinese minds, the heqin policy was humiliating and ran contrary to the Sinocentric world order like "a person hanging upside down '', as the statesman Jia Yi (d. 169 BC) puts it. These sentiments manifested themselves in the Han court in the form of the pro-war faction, who advocated the reversal of Han 's policy of appeasement. By the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141 -- 87 BC), the Han felt comfortable enough to go to war with the Xiongnu. After a botched attempt at luring the Xiongnu army into an ambush at the Battle of Mayi in 133 BC, the era of heqin - style appeasement was broken and the Han -- Xiongnu War went into full swing.
As the Han -- Xiongnu War progressed in favour of the Han, the Wall became maintained and extended beyond Qin lines. In 127 BC, General Wei Qing invaded the much - contested Ordos region as far as the Qin fortifications set up by Meng Tian. In this way, Wei Qing reconquered the irrigable lands north of the Ordos and restored the spur of defences protecting that territory from the steppe. In addition to rebuilding the walls, archeologists believe that the Han also erected thousands of kilometres of walls from Hebei to Inner Mongolia during Emperor Wu 's reign. The fortifications here include embankments, beacon stations, and forts, all constructed with a combination of tamped - earth cores and stone frontages. From the Ordos Loop, the sporadic and non-continuous Han Great Wall followed the northern edge of the Hexi Corridor through the cities of Wuwei, Zhangye, and Jiuquan, leading into the Juyan Lake Basin, and terminating in two places: the Yumen Pass in the north, or the Yang Pass to the south, both in the vicinity of Dunhuang. Yumen Pass was the most westerly of all Han Chinese fortifications -- further west than the western terminus of the Ming Great Wall at Jiayu Pass, about 460 kilometres (290 mi) to the east. The garrisons of the watchtowers on the wall were supported by civilian farming and by military agricultural colonies known as tuntian. Behind this line of fortifications, the Han government was able to maintain its settlements and its communications to the Western Regions in central Asia, generally secure from attacks from the north.
The campaigns against the Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples of the west exhausted the imperial treasury, and the expansionist policies were reverted in favour of peace under Emperor Wu 's successors. The peace was largely respected even when the Han throne was usurped by the minister Wang Mang in 9 AD, beginning a brief 15 - year interregnum known as the Xin dynasty (9 -- 23). Despite high tensions between the Xin and the Xiongnu resulting in the deployment of 300,000 men on the Great Wall, no major fighting broke out beyond minor raids. Instead, popular discontent led to banditry and, ultimately, full - scale rebellion. The civil war ended with the Liu clan on the throne again, beginning the Eastern Han dynasty (25 -- 220).
The restorer Emperor Guangwu (r. 25 -- 57 AD) initiated several projects to consolidate his control within the frontier regions. Defense works were established to the east of the Yanmen Pass, with a line of fortifications and beacon fires stretching from Pingcheng County (present - day Datong) through the valley of the Sanggan River to Dai County, Shanxi. By 38 AD, as a result of raids by the Xiongnu further to the west against the Wei River valley, orders were given for a series of walls to be constructed as defences for the Fen River, the southward course of the Yellow River, and the region of the former imperial capital, Chang'an. These constructions were defensive in nature, which marked a shift from the offensive walls of the preceding Emperor Wu and the rulers of the Warring States. By the early 40s AD the northern frontiers of China had undergone drastic change: the line of the imperial frontier followed not the advanced positions conquered by Emperor Wu but the rear defences indicated roughly by the modern (Ming dynasty) Great Wall. The Ordos region, northern Shanxi, and the upper Luan River basin around Chengde were abandoned and left to the control of the Xiongnu. The rest of the frontier remained somewhat intact until the end of the Han dynasty, with the Dunhuang manuscripts (discovered in 1900) indicating that the military establishment in the northwest was maintained for most of the Eastern Han period.
Following the end of the Han dynasty in 220, China disintegrated into warlord states, which in 280 were briefly reunited under the Western Jin dynasty (265 -- 316). There are ambiguous accounts of the Jin rebuilding the Qin wall, but these walls apparently offered no resistance during the Wu Hu uprising, when the nomadic tribes of the steppe evicted the Chinese court from northern China. What followed was a succession of short - lived states in northern China known as the Sixteen Kingdoms, until they were all consolidated by the Xianbei - led Northern Wei dynasty (386 -- 535).
As Northern Wei became more economically dependent on agriculture, the Xianbei emperors made a conscious decision to adopt Chinese customs, including passive methods of frontier defence. In 423, a defence line over 2,000 li (1,080 kilometres (670 mi)) long was built to resist the Rouran; its path roughly followed the old Zhao wall from Chicheng County in Hebei Province to Wuyuan County, Inner Mongolia. In 446, 100,000 men were put to work building an inner wall from Yanqing, passing south of the Wei capital Pingcheng, and ending up near Pingguan on the eastern bank of the Yellow River. The two walls formed the basis of the double - layered Xuanfu -- Datong wall system that protected Beijing a thousand years later during the Ming dynasty.
The Northern Wei collapsed in 535 due to civil insurrection to be eventually succeeded by the Northern Qi (550 -- 575) and Northern Zhou (557 -- 580). Faced with the threat of the Göktürks from the north, from 552 to 556 the Qi built up to 3,000 li (about 1,600 kilometres (990 mi)) of wall from Shanxi to the sea at Shanhai Pass. Over the course of the year 555 alone, 1.8 million men were mobilized to build the Juyong Pass and extend its wall by 450 kilometres (280 mi) through Datong to the eastern banks of the Yellow River. In 557 a secondary wall was built inside the main one. These walls were built quickly from local earth and stones or formed by natural barriers. Two stretches of the stone - and - earth Qi wall still stand in Shanxi today, measuring 3.3 metres (11 ft) wide at their bases and 3.5 metres (11 ft) high on average. In 577 the Northern Zhou conquered the Northern Qi and in 580 made repairs to the existing Qi walls. The route of the Qi and Zhou walls would be mostly followed by the later Ming wall west of Gubeikou, which includes reconstructed walls from Qi and Zhou. In more recent times, the reddish remnants of the Zhou ramparts in Hebei gave rise to the nickname "Red Wall ''.
The Sui took power from the Northern Zhou in 581 before reuniting China in 589. Sui 's founding emperor, Emperor Wen of Sui (r. 581 -- 604), carried out considerable wall construction in 581 in Hebei and Shanxi to defend against Ishbara Qaghan of the Göktürks. The new walls proved insufficient in 582 when Ishbara Qaghan avoided them by riding west to raid Gansu and Shaanxi with 400,000 archers. Between 585 and 588 Emperor Wen sought to close this gap by putting walls up in the Ordos Mountains (between Suide and Lingwu) and Inner Mongolia. In 586 as many as 150,000 men are recorded as involved in the construction. Emperor Wen 's son Emperor Yang (r. 604 -- 618) continued to build walls. In 607 -- 608 he sent over a million men to build a wall from Yulin to near Huhhot to protect the newly refurbished eastern capital Luoyang. Part of the Sui wall survives to this day in Inner Mongolia as earthen ramparts some 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) high with towers rising to double that. The dynastic history of Sui estimates that 500,000 people died building the wall, adding to the number of casualties caused by Emperor Yang 's projects including the aforementioned redesign of Luoyang, the Grand Canal, and two ill - fated campaigns against Goguryeo. With the economy strained and the populace resentful, the Sui dynasty erupted in rebellion and ended with the assassination of Emperor Yang in 618.
-- Wang Changling (698 -- 755)
Frontier policy under the Tang dynasty reversed the wall - building activities of most previous dynasties that had occupied northern China since the third century BC, and no extensive wall building took place for the next several hundred years.
Soon after the establishment of the Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Taizong (r. 626 -- 649), the threat of Göktürk tribesmen from the north prompted some court officials to suggest drafting corvée labourers to repair the aging Great Wall. Taizong scoffed at the suggestion, alluding to the Sui walls built in vain: "The Emperor Yang of Sui made the people labor to construct the Great Wall in order to defend against the Turks, but in the end this was of no use. '' Instead of building walls, Taizong claimed he "need merely to establish Li Shiji in Jinyang for the dust on the border to settle. '' Accordingly, Taizong sent talented generals like Li Shiji with mobile armies to the frontier, while fortifications were mostly limited to a series of walled garrisons, such as the euphemistically - named "cities for accepting surrender '' (受降 城, shòuxiáng chéng) that were actually bases from which to launch attacks. As a result of this military strategy, the Tang grew to become one of the largest of all the Chinese empires, destroying the Göktürks of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and acquiring territory stretching all the way to Kazakhstan.
Nevertheless, records show that in the Kaiyuan era (713 -- 742) of Emperor Xuanzong 's reign, the general Zhang Yue built a wall 90 li (48 kilometres (30 mi)) to the north of Huairong (懷 戎; present - day Huailai County, Hebei), although it remains unclear whether he erected new walls or only reinforced the existing Northern Qi walls.
The Great Wall, or the ruins of it, features prominently in the subset of Tang poetry known as biansai shi (邊塞 詩, "frontier verse '') written by scholar - officials assigned along the frontier. Emphasizing the poets ' loneliness and longing for home while hinting at the pointlessness of their posts, these frontier verses are characterized by imagery of desolate landscapes, including the ruins of the now - neglected Great Wall -- a direct product of Tang 's frontier policy.
Han Chinese power during the tumultuous post-Tang era was represented by the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279), which completed its unification of the Chinese states with the conquest of Wuyue in 971. Turning to the north after this victory, in 979 the Song eliminated the Northern Han, ultimate successors to the Later Jin, but were unable to take the Sixteen Prefectures from the Liao dynasty. As a result of Song 's military aggression, relations between the Song and Liao remained tense and hostile. One of the battlegrounds in the Song -- Liao War was the Great Wall Gap (長城 口), so named because the southern Yan wall of the Warring States period crossed the Juma River here into Liao territory. The Great Wall Gap saw action in 979, 988 -- 989, and 1004, and a Song fortress was built there in 980. Intermittent wars between the Song and the Liao lasted until January 1005, when a truce was called and led to the Treaty of Chanyuan. This agreement, among other things, required the Song to pay tribute to the Liao, recognized the Song and Liao as equals, and demarcated the Song -- Liao border, the course of which became more clearly defined in a series of subsequent bilateral agreements. Several stretches of the old Great Walls, including the Northern Qi Inner Wall near the Hengshan mountain range, became the border between the Song and the Liao.
In the northwest, the Song were in conflict with the Western Xia, since they occupied what the Song considered as Chinese land lost during the Tang dynasty. The Song utilized the walls built during the reign of Qin 's King Zhaoxiang of the Warring States period, making it the Song -- Western Xia border, but the topography of the area was not as sharp and distinct as the Song -- Liao defences to the east. The border general Cao Wei (曹 瑋; 973 -- 1030) deemed the Old Wall itself insufficient to slow a Tangut cavalry attack, and had a deep trench dug alongside. This trench, between 15 and 20 metres (49 and 66 feet) in width and depth, proved an effective defence, but in 1002 the Tanguts caught the Song patrollers off guard and filled the trench to cross the Old Wall. Later, in 1042, the Tanguts turned the trench against the Song by removing the bridges over it, thereby trapping the retreating army of Ge Huaimin (葛懷敏) before annihilating it at the Battle of Dingchuan Fortress (定 川 寨).
Despite the war with the Western Xia, the Song also settled land disputes with them by referring to prior agreements, as with the Liao. However, soon after the Jin dynasty overthrew the Liao dynasty, the Jurchens sacked the Song capital in 1127 during the Jin -- Song wars, causing the Song court to flee south of the Yangtze River. For the next two and a half centuries, the Great Wall played no role in Han Chinese geopolitics.
After the Tang dynasty ended in 907, the northern frontier area remained out of Han Chinese hands until the establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368. During this period, non-Han "conquest dynasties '' ruled the north: the Khitan Liao dynasty (907 -- 1125) and the succeeding Jurchen Jin dynasty (1115 -- 1234) in the east and the Tangut Western Xia (1038 -- 1227) in the west, all of which had built walls against the north.
In 907, the Khitan chieftain Abaoji succeeded in getting himself appointed khaghan of all Khitan tribes in the north, laying the foundations to what would officially become the Liao dynasty. In 936, the Khitan supported the Shanxi rebel Shi Jingtang in his revolt against the Shatuo Turkic Later Tang, which had destroyed the usurpers of the Tang in 923. The Khitan leader, Abaoji 's second son Yelü Deguang, convinced Shi to found a new dynasty (the Later Jin, 936 -- 946), and received the crucial border region known as the Sixteen Prefectures in return. With the Sixteen Prefectures, the Khitan now possessed all the passes and fortifications that controlled access to the plains of northern China, including the main Great Wall line.
Settling in the transitional area between agricultural lands and the steppe, the Khitans became semi-sedentary like their Xianbei predecessors of the Northern Wei, and started to use Chinese methods of defence. In 1026 walls were built through central Manchuria north of Nong'an County to the banks of the Songhua River.
When the Jurchens, once Liao vassals, rose up to overthrow their masters and established the Jin dynasty, they continued Liao 's wall - building activities with extensive work begun before 1138. Further wall construction took place in 1165 and 1181 under the Jin Emperor Shizhong, and later from 1192 to 1203 during the reign of his successor Emperor Zhangzong.
This long period of wall - building burdened the populace and provoked controversy. Sometime between 1190 and 1196, during Zhangzong 's reign, the high official Zhang Wangong (張萬公) and the Censorate recommended that work on the wall be indefinitely suspended due to a recent drought, noting: "What has been begun is already being flattened by sandstorms, and bullying the people into defence works will simply exhaust them. '' However, Chancellor Wanyan Xiang (完 顏 襄) convinced the emperor of the walls ' merits based on an optimistic cost estimate -- "Although the initial outlay for the walls will be one million strings of cash, when the work is done the frontier will be secure with only half the present number of soldiers needed to defend it, which means that every year you will save three million strings of cash... The benefits will be everlasting '' -- and so construction continued unabated. All this work created an extensive systems of walls, which consisted of a 700 kilometres (430 mi) "outer wall '' from Heilongjiang to Mongolia and a 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) network of "inner walls '' north and northeast of Beijing. Together, they formed a roughly elliptical web of fortifications 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) in length and 440 kilometres (270 mi) in diameter. Some of these walls had inner moats (from 10 to 60 metres (33 to 197 feet) in width), beacon towers, battlements, parapets, and outward - facing semicircular platforms protruding from the wall -- features that set the Jin walls apart from their predecessors.
In the west, the Tanguts took control of the Ordos region, where they established the Western Xia dynasty. Although the Tanguts were not traditionally known for building walls, in 2011 archeologists uncovered 100 kilometres (62 mi) of walls at Ömnögovi Province in Mongolia in what had been Western Xia territory. Radiocarbon analysis showed that they were constructed from 1040 to 1160. The walls were as tall as 2.75 metres (9 ft 0 in) at places when they were discovered, and may have been around 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) taller originally. They were built with mud and saxaul (a desert shrub) in one section, and dark basalt blocks in another, suggesting that the rocks may have been quarried from nearby extinct volcanoes and transported to the construction site. Archaeologists have not yet found traces of human activity around this stretch of wall, which suggests that the Western Xia wall in this location may have been incomplete and not ready for use.
In the 13th century, the Mongol leader Genghis Khan, once a vassal of the Jurchens, rose up against the Jin dynasty. In the ensuing Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, the nomadic invaders avoided direct attacks on the Jin fortifications. Instead, when they could, the Mongols simply rode around the walls; an effective example of this tactic is in 1211, when they circumvented the substantial fortress in Zhangjiakou and inflicted a terrible defeat upon the Jin armies at the Battle of Yehuling. The Mongols also took advantage of lingering Liao resentment against the Jin; the Khitan defenders of the garrisons along the Jin walls, such as those in Gubeikou, often preferred to surrender to the Mongols rather than fight them. The only major engagement of note along the main Great Wall line was at the heavily defended Juyong Pass: instead of laying siege, the Mongol general Jebe lured the defenders out into an ambush and charged in through the opened gates. In 1215, Genghis Khan besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (modern - day Beijing). The Jin dynasty eventually collapsed following the siege of Caizhou in 1234. Western Xia had already fallen in 1227, and the Southern Song resisted the Mongols until 1279.
With that, the Yuan dynasty, established by Genghis Khan 's grandson Khublai Khan, became the first foreign dynasty to rule all of China. Despite being the head of the Mongol Empire, Khublai Khan 's rule over China was not free from the threat of the steppe nomads. The Yuan dynasty faced challenges from rival claimants to the title of Great Khan and from rebellious Mongols in the north. Khublai Khan dealt with such threats by using both military blockades and economic sanctions. Although he established garrisons along the steppe frontier from the Juyan Lake Basin in the far west to Yingchang in the east, Khublai Khan and the Yuan emperors after him did not add to the Great Wall (except for the ornate Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass). When the Venetian traveller Marco Polo wrote of his experiences in China during the reign of Khublai Khan, he did not mention a Great Wall.
In 1368, the Hongwu Emperor (Zhu Yuanzhang, r. 1368 -- 98) ousted the Mongol - led Yuan dynasty from China to inaugurate the Ming dynasty. The Mongols fled back to Mongolia, but even after numerous campaigns, the Mongol problem remained.
During his early reign, Hongwu set up the "eight outer garrisons '' close to the steppe and an inner line of forts more suitable for defence. The inner line was the forerunner to the Ming Great Wall. In 1373, as Ming forces encountered setbacks, Hongwu put more emphasis on defence and adopted Hua Yunlong 's (華 雲龍) suggestion to establish garrisons at 130 passes and other strategic points in the Beijing area. More positions were set up in the years up Hongwu 's death in 1398, and watchtowers were manned from the Bohai Sea to Beijing and further onto the Mongolian steppes. These positions, however, were not for a linear defence but rather a regional one in which walls did not feature heavily, and offensive tactics remained the overarching policy at the time. In 1421, the Ming capital was relocated from Nanjing in the south to Beijing in the north, partly to better manage the Mongol situation. Thus defenses were concentrated around Beijing, where stone and earth began to replace rammed earth in strategic passes. A wall was erected by the Ming in Liaodong to protect Han settlers from a possible threat from the Jurched - Mongol Oriyanghan around 1442. In 1467 -- 68, expansion of the wall provided further protection for the region from against attacks by the Jianzhou Jurchens in the northeast.
Meanwhile, the outer defenses were gradually moved inward, thereby sacrificing a vital foothold in the steppe transitional zone. Despite the withdrawal from the steppe, the Ming military remained in a strong position against the nomads until the Tumu Crisis in 1449, which caused the collapse of the early Ming security system. Over half of the campaigning Chinese army perished in the conflict, while the Mongols captured the Zhengtong Emperor. This military debacle shattered the Chinese military might that had so impressed and given pause to the Mongols since the beginning of the dynasty, and caused the Ming to be on the defensive ever after.
The deterioration of the Ming military position in the steppe transitional zone gave rise to nomadic raids into Ming territory, including the crucial Ordos region, on a level unprecedented since the dynasty 's founding. After decades of deliberation between an offensive strategy and an accommodative policy, the decision to build the first major Ming walls in the Ordos was agreed upon as an acceptable compromise the 1470s.
Yu Zijun (余子 俊; 1429 -- 1489) first proposed constructing a wall in the Ordos region in August 1471, but not until 20 December 1472 did the court and emperor approve the plan. The 1473 victory in the Battle of Red Salt Lake (紅 鹽池) by Wang Yue (王 越) deterred Mongol invasions long enough for Yu Zijun to complete his wall project in 1474. This wall, a combined effort between Yu Zijun and Wang Yue, stretched from present day Hengcheng (橫 城) in Lingwu (northwestern Ningxia province) to Huamachi town (花 馬 池 鎮) in Yanchi County, and from there to Qingshuiying (清水 營) in northeastern Shaanxi, a total of more than 2000 li (about 1,100 kilometres (680 mi)) long. Along its length were 800 strong points, sentry posts, beacon - fire towers, and assorted defences. 40,000 men were enlisted for this effort, which was completed in several months at a cost of over one million silver taels. This defence system proved its initial worth in 1482, when a large group of Mongol raiders were trapped within the double lines of fortifications and suffered a defeat by the Ming generals. This was seen as a vindication of Yu Zijun 's strategy of wall - building by the people of the border areas. By the mid-16th century, Yu 's wall in the Ordos had seen expansion into an extensive defence system. It contained two defence lines: Yu 's wall, called the "great border '' (大 邊, dàbiān), and a "secondary border '' (二 邊, èrbiān) built by Yang Yiqing (楊一清; 1454 -- 1530) behind it.
Following the success of the Ordos walls, Yu Zijun proposed construction of a further wall that would extend from the Yellow River bend in the Ordos to the Sihaiye Pass (四海 冶 口; in present - day Yanqing County) near the capital Beijing, running a distance of more than 1300 li (about 700 kilometres (430 mi)). The project received approval in 1485, but Yu 's political enemies harped on the cost overruns and forced Yu to scrap the project and retire the same year. For more than 50 years after Yu 's resignation, political struggle prevented major wall constructions on a scale comparable to Yu 's Ordos project.
However, wall construction continued regardless of court politics during this time. The Ordos walls underwent extension, elaboration, and repair well into the 16th century. Brick and stone started to replace tamped earth as the wall building material, because they offered better protection and durability. This change in material gave rise to a number of necessary accommodations with regard to logistics, and inevitably a drastic increase in costs. Instead of being able to draw on local resources, building projects now required brick - kilns, quarries, and transportation routes to deliver bricks to the work site. Also, masons had to be hired since the local peasantry proved inadequate for the level of sophistication that brick constructions required. Work that originally could be done by one man in a month with earth now required 100 men to do in stone.
With the Ordos now adequately fortified, the Mongols avoided its walls by riding east to invade Datong and Xuanfu (宣 府; present - day Xuanhua, Hebei Province), which were two major garrisons guarding the corridor to Beijing where no walls had been built. The two defence lines of Xuanfu and Datong (abbreviated as "Xuan -- Da '') left by the Northern Qi and the early Ming had deteriorated by this point, and for all intents and purposes the inner line was the capital 's main line of defence.
From 1544 to 1549, Weng Wanda (翁 萬達; 1498 -- 1552) embarked on a defensive building program on a scale unprecedented in Chinese history. Troops were re-deployed along the outer line, new walls and beacon towers were constructed, and fortifications were restored and extended along both lines. Firearms and artillery were mounted on the walls and towers during this time, for both defence and signalling purposes. The project 's completion was announced in the sixth month of 1548. At its height, the Xuan -- Da portion of the Great Wall totalled about 850 kilometres (530 miles) of wall, with some sections being doubled - up with two lines of wall, some tripled or even quadrupled. The outer frontier was now protected by a wall called the "outer border '' (外邊, wàibiān) that extended 380 kilometres (240 mi) from the Yellow River 's edge at the Piantou Pass (偏 頭 關) along the Inner Mongolia border with Shanxi into Hebei province; the "inner border '' wall (內 邊, nèibiān) ran southeast from Piantou Pass for some 400 kilometres (250 mi), ending at the Pingxing Pass; a "river wall '' (河 邊, hébiān) also ran from the Piantou Pass and followed the Yellow River southwards for about 70 kilometres (43 mi).
As with Yu Zijun 's wall in the Ordos, the Mongols shifted their attacks away from the newly strengthened Xuan -- Da sector to less well - protected areas. In the west, Shaanxi province became the target of nomads riding west from the Yellow River loop. The westernmost fortress of Ming China, the Jiayu Pass, saw substantial enhancement with walls starting in 1539, and from there border walls were built discontinuously down the Hexi Corridor to Wuwei, where the low earthen wall split into two. The northern section passed through Zhongwei and Yinchuan, where it met the western edge of the Yellow River loop before connecting with the Ordos walls, while the southern section passed through Lanzhou and continued northeast to Dingbian. The origins and the exact route of this so - called "Tibetan loop '' are still not clear.
In 1550, having once more been refused a request for trade, the Tümed Mongols under Altan Khan invaded the Xuan -- Da region. However, despite several attempts, he could not take Xuanfu due to Weng Wanda 's double fortified line while the garrison at Datong bribed him to not attack there. Instead of continuing to operate in the area, he circled around Weng Wanda 's wall to the relatively lightly defended Gubeikou, northeast of Beijing. From there Altan Khan passed through the defences and raided the suburbs of Beijing. According to one contemporary source, the raid took more than 60,000 lives and an additional 40,000 people became prisoners. As a response to this raid, the focus of the Ming 's northern defences shifted from the Xuan -- Da region to the Jizhou (薊 州 鎮) and Changping Defence Commands (昌平 鎮) where the breach took place. Later in the same year, the dry - stone walls of the Jizhou -- Changping area (abbreviated as "Ji -- Chang '') were replaced by stone and mortar. These allowed the Chinese to build on steeper, more easily defended slopes and facilitated construction of features such as ramparts, crenelations, and peepholes. The effectiveness of the new walls was demonstrated in the failed Mongol raid of 1554, where raiders expecting a repeat of the events of 1550 were surprised by the higher wall and stiff Chinese resistance.
In 1567 Qi Jiguang and Tan Lun, successful generals who fended off the coastal pirates, were reassigned to manage the Ji -- Chang Defense Commands and step up the defences of the capital region. Under their ambitious and energetic management, 1200 brick watchtowers were built along the Great Wall from 1569 to 1571. These included the first large - scale use of hollow watchtowers on the Wall: up until this point, most previous towers along the Great Wall had been solid, with a small hut on top for a sentry to take shelter from the elements and Mongol arrows; the Ji -- Chang towers built from 1569 onwards were hollow brick structures, allowing soldiers interior space to live, store food and water, stockpile weapons, and take shelter from Mongol arrows.
Altan Khan eventually made peace with China when it opened border cities for trade in 1571, alleviating the Mongol need to raid. This, coupled with Qi and Tan 's efforts to secure the frontier, brought a period of relative peace along the border. However, minor raids still happened from time to time when the profits of plunder outweighed those of trade, prompting the Ming to close all gaps along the frontier around Beijing. Areas of difficult terrain once considered impassable were also walled off, leading to the well - known vistas of a stone - faced Great Wall snaking over dramatic landscapes that tourists still see today.
Wall construction continued until the demise of the Ming dynasty in 1644. In the decades that led to the fall of the Ming dynasty, the Ming court and the Great Wall itself had to deal with simultaneous internal rebellions and the Manchu invasions. In addition to their conquest of Liaodong, the Manchus had raided across the Great Wall for the first time in 1629, and again in 1634, 1638, and 1642. Meanwhile, the rebels led by warlord Li Zicheng had been gathering strength. In the early months of 1644, Li Zicheng declared himself the founder of the Shun and marched towards the Ming capital from Shaanxi. His route roughly followed the line of the Great Wall, in order to neutralize its heavily fortified garrisons. The crucial defences of Datong, Xuanfu, and Juyong Pass all surrendered without a fight, and the Chongzhen Emperor hanged himself on 25 April as the Shun army entered Beijing. At this point, the largest remaining Ming fighting force in North China was in Shanhai Pass, where the Great Wall meets the Bohai Sea. Its defender Wu Sangui, wedged between the Shun army within and the Manchus without, decided to surrender to the Manchus and opened the gates for them. The Manchus, having thus entered through the Great Wall, defeated Li Zicheng at the Battle of Shanhai Pass and seized Beijing on June 5. They eventually defeated both the rebel - founded Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance, establishing their rule over all of China as the Qing dynasty.
Opinions about the Wall 's role in the Ming dynasty 's downfall are mixed. Historians such as Arthur Waldron and Julia Lovell are critical of the whole wall - building exercise in light of its ultimate failure in protecting China; the former compared the Great Wall with the failed Maginot Line of the French in World War II. However, independent scholar David Spindler notes that the Wall, being only part of a complex foreign policy, received "disproportionate blame '' because it was the most obvious relic of that policy.
The usefulness of the Great Wall as a defence line against northern nomads became questionable under the Qing dynasty, since their territory encompassed vast areas inside and outside the wall: China proper, Manchuria, and Mongolia were all under Qing control. So instead, the Great Wall became the means to limit Han Chinese movement into the steppes. In the case of Manchuria, considered to be the sacred homeland by the ruling Manchu elites, some parts of the Ming Liaodong Wall were repaired so it could serve to control Han Chinese movement into Manchuria alongside the newly erected Willow Palisade.
Culturally, the wall 's symbolic role as a line between civilized society and barbarism was suppressed by the Qing, who were keen to weaken the Han culturalism that had been propagated by the Ming. As a result, no special attention was paid to the Great Wall until the mid-Qing dynasty, when Westerners started to show interest in the structure.
The existence of a colossal wall in Asia had circulated in the Middle East and the West even before the first Europeans arrived in China by sea. The late antiquity historian Ammianus Marcellinus (330? -- 395?) mentioned "summits of lofty walls '' enclosing the land of Seres, the country that the Romans believed to be at the eastern end of the Silk Road. In legend, the tribes of Gog and Magog were said to have been locked out by Alexander the Great with walls of steel. Later Arab writers and travellers, such as Rashid - al - Din Hamadani (1248 -- 1318) and Ibn Battuta (1304 -- 1377), would erroneously identify the Great Wall in China with the walls of the Alexander romances. Soon after Europeans reached Ming China in the early 16th century, accounts of the Great Wall started to circulate in Europe, even though no European would see it with their own eyes for another century. The work A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions by Gaspar da Cruz (c. 1520 -- 70) offered an early discussion of the Great Wall in which he noted, "a Wall of an hundred leagues in length. And some will affirme to bee more than a hundred leagues. '' Another early account written by Bishop Juan González de Mendoza (1550 -- 1620) reported a wall five hundred leagues long, but suggested that only one hundred leagues were man - made, with the rest natural rock formations. The Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci (1552 -- 1610) mentioned the Great Wall once in his diary, noting the existence of "a tremendous wall four hundred and five miles long '' that formed part of the northern defences of the Ming Empire.
Europeans first witnessed the Great Wall in the early 1600s. Perhaps the first recorded instance of a European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605, when the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Góis reached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from India. Ivan Petlin 's 1619 deposition for his Russian embassy mission offers an early account based on a first - hand encounter with the Great Wall, and mentions that in the course of the journey his embassy travelled alongside the Great Wall for ten days.
Early European accounts were mostly modest and empirical, closely mirroring contemporary Chinese understanding of the Wall. However, when the Ming Great Wall began to take on a shape recognizable today, foreign accounts of the Wall slid into hyperbole. In the Atlas Sinensis published in 1665, the Jesuit Martino Martini described elaborate but atypical stretches of the Great Wall and generalized such fortifications across the whole northern frontier. Furthermore, Martini erroneously identified the Ming Wall as the same wall built by Qin Shi Huang in the 3rd century BC, thereby exaggerating both the Wall 's antiquity and its size. This misconception was compounded by the China Illustrata of Father Athanasius Kircher (1602 -- 80), which provided pictures of the Great Wall as imagined by a European illustrator. All these and other accounts from missionaries in China contributed to the Orientalism of the eighteenth century, in which a mythical China and its exaggerated Great Wall feature prominently. The French philosopher Voltaire (1694 -- 1774), for example, frequently wrote about the Great Wall, although his feelings towards it oscillate between unreserved admiration and condemnation of it as a "monument to fear ''. The Macartney Embassy of 1793 passed through the Great Wall at Gubeikou on the way to see the Qianlong Emperor in Chengde, who was there for the annual imperial hunt. One of the embassy 's members, John Barrow, later founder of the Royal Geographical Society, spuriously calculated that the amount of stone in the Wall was equivalent to "all the dwelling houses of England and Scotland '' and would suffice to encircle the Earth at the equator twice. The illustrations of the Great Wall by Lieutenant Henry William Parish during this mission would be reproduced in influential works such as Thomas Allom 's 1845 China, in a series of views.
Exposure to such works brought many foreign visitors to the Great Wall after China opened its borders as a result of the nation 's defeat in the Opium Wars of the mid-19th century at the hands of Britain and the other Western powers. The Juyong Pass near Beijing and the "Old Dragon Head, '' where the Great Wall meets the sea at the Shanhai Pass, proved popular destinations for these wall watchers.
The travelogues of the later 19th century in turn further contributed to the elaboration and propagation of the Great Wall myth. Examples of this myth 's growth are the false but widespread belief that the Great Wall of China is visible from the Moon or Mars.
The Xinhai Revolution in 1911 forced the abdication of the last Qing Emperor Puyi and ended China 's last imperial dynasty. The revolutionaries, headed by Sun Yat - sen, were concerned with creating a modern sense of national identity in the chaotic post-imperial era. In contrast to Chinese academics such as Liang Qichao, who tried to counter the West 's fantastic version of the Great Wall, Sun Yat - sen held the view that Qin Shi Huang 's wall preserved the Chinese race, and without it Chinese culture would not have developed enough to expand to the south and assimilate foreign conquerors. Such an endorsement from the "Father of Modern China '' started to transform the Great Wall into a national symbol in the Chinese consciousness, though this transformation was hampered by conflicting views of nationalism with regard to the nascent "new China. ''
The failure of the new Republic of China fanned disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture and ushered in the New Culture Movement and the May Fourth Movement of the mid-1910s and 1920s that aimed to dislodge China 's future trajectory from its past. Naturally, the Great Wall of China came under attack as a symbol of the past. For example, an influential writer of this period, Lu Xun, harshly criticized the "mighty and accursed Great Wall '' in a short essay: "In reality, it has never served any purpose than to make countless workers labour to death in vain... (It) surrounds everyone. ''
"The March of the Volunteers ''
The Sino - Japanese conflict (1931 -- 45) gave the Great Wall a new lease of life in the eyes of the Chinese. During the 1933 defence of the Great Wall, inadequately - equipped Chinese soldiers held off double their number of Japanese troops for several months. Using the cover of the Great Wall, the Chinese -- who were at times only armed with broadswords -- were able to beat off a Japanese advance that had the support of aerial bombardment. With the Chinese forces eventually overrun, the subsequent Tanggu Truce stipulated that the Great Wall was to become a demilitarized zone separating China and the newly created Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. Even so, the determined defence of the Great Wall made it a symbol of Chinese patriotism and the resoluteness of the Chinese people. The Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong picked up this symbol in his poetry during his "Long March '' escaping from Kuomintang prosecution. Near the end of the trek in 1935, Mao wrote the poem "Mount Liupan '' that contains the well - known line that would be carved in stone along the Great Wall in the present day: "Those who fail to reach the Great Wall are not true men '' (不 到 长城 非 好汉). Another noteworthy reference to the Great Wall is in the song "The March of the Volunteers '', whose words came from a stanza in Tian Han 's 1934 poem entitled "The Great Wall ''. The song, originally from the anti-Japanese movie Children of Troubled Times, enjoyed continued popularity in China and was selected as the provisional national anthem of the People 's Republic of China (PRC) at its establishment in 1949.
In 1952, the scholar - turned - bureaucrat Guo Moruo laid out the first modern proposal to repair the Great Wall. Five years later, the renovated Badaling became the first section to be opened to the public since the establishment of the PRC. The Badaling Great Wall has since become a staple stop for foreign dignitaries who come to China, beginning with Nepali prime minister Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala in 1960, and most notably the American president Richard Nixon in his historic 1972 visit to China. To date, Badaling is still the most visited stretch of the Great Wall.
Other stretches did not fare so well. During the Cultural Revolution (1966 -- 76), hundreds of kilometres of the Great Wall -- already damaged in the wars of the last century and eroded by wind and rain -- were deliberately destroyed by fervent Red Guards who regarded it as part of the "Four Olds '' to be eradicated in the new China. Quarrying machines and even dynamite were used to dismantle the Wall, and the pilfered materials were used for construction.
As China opened up in the 1980s, reformist leader Deng Xiaoping initiated the "Love our China and restore our Great Wall '' campaign (爱 我 中华, 修 我 长城) to repair and preserve the Great Wall. The Great Wall was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. However, while tourism boomed over the years, slipshod restoration methods have left sections of the Great Wall near Beijing "looking like a Hollywood set '' in the words of the National Geographic News. The less prominent stretches of the Great Wall did not get as much attention. In 2002 the New York - based World Monuments Fund put the Great Wall on its list of the World 's 100 Most Endangered Sites. In 2003 the Chinese government began to enact laws to protect the Great Wall.
In China, one of the first individuals to attempt a multi-dynastic history of the Great Wall was the 17th - century scholar Gu Yanwu. More recently, in the 1930s and 1940s, Wang Guoliang (王國良) and Shou Pengfei (壽 鵬 飛) produced exhaustive studies that culled extant literary records to date and mapped the courses of early border walls. However, these efforts were based solely on written records that contain obscure place names and elusive literary references.
The rise of modern archeology has contributed much to the study of the Great Wall, either in corroborating existing research or in refuting it. However these efforts do not yet give a full picture of the Great Wall 's history, as many wall sites dating to the Period of Disunity (220 -- 589) had been overlaid by the extant Ming Great Wall.
Western scholarship of the Great Wall was, until recently, affected by misconceptions derived from traditional accounts of the Wall. When the Jesuits brought back the first reports of the Wall to the West, European scholars were puzzled that Marco Polo had not mentioned the presumably perennial "Great Wall '' in his Travels. Some 17th - century scholars reasoned that the Wall must have been built in the Ming dynasty, after Marco Polo 's departure. This view was soon replaced by another that argued, against Polo 's own account, that the Venetian merchant had come to China from the south and so did not come into contact with the Wall. Thus, Father Martino Martini 's mistaken claim that the Wall had "lasted right up to the present time without injury or destruction '' since the time of Qin was accepted as fact by the 18th - century philosophes.
Since then, many scholars have operated under the belief that the Great Wall continually defended China 's border against the steppe nomads for two thousand years. For example, the 18th - century sinologist Joseph de Guignes assigned macrohistorical importance to such walls when he advanced the theory that the Qin construction forced the Xiongnu to migrate west to Europe and, becoming known as the Huns, ultimately contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire. Some have attempted to make general statements regarding Chinese society and foreign policy based on the conception of a perennial Great Wall: Karl Marx took the Wall to represent the stagnation of the Chinese society and economy, Owen Lattimore supposed that the Great Wall demonstrated a need to divide the nomadic way of life from the agricultural communities of China, and John K. Fairbank posited that the Wall played a part in upholding the Sinocentric world order.
Despite the significance that the Great Wall seemed to have, scholarly treatment of the Wall itself remained scant during the 20th century. Joseph Needham bemoaned this dearth when he was compiling the section on walls for his Science and Civilisation in China: "There is no lack of travelers ' description of the Great Wall, but studies based on modern scholarship are few and far between, whether in Chinese or Western languages. '' In 1990, Arthur Waldron published the influential The Great Wall: From History to Myth, where he challenged the notion of a unitary Great Wall maintained since antiquity, dismissing it as a modern myth. Waldron 's approach prompted a re-examination of the Wall in Western scholarship. Still, as of 2008, there is not yet a full authoritative text in any language that is devoted to the Great Wall. The reason for this, according to The New Yorker journalist Peter Hessler, is that the Great Wall fits into neither the study of political institutions (favoured by Chinese historians) nor the excavation of tombs (favoured by Chinese archeologists). Some of the void left by academia is being filled by independent research from Great Wall enthusiasts such as ex-Xinhua reporter Cheng Dalin (成 大林) and self - funded scholar David Spindler.
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who sang the theme song for the heat of the night | In the Heat of the night (Ray Charles song) - Wikipedia
"In the Heat of the Night '' is a 1967 song performed by Ray Charles, composed by Quincy Jones, and written by Marilyn Bergman and Alan Bergman for the film In the Heat of the Night. As Matthew Greenwald of AllMusic states, the song "opens the film and accompanying soundtrack with a slice of real, rural backwoods gospel. Lyrically, one of the key lines is ' In the heat of the night / I 'm feeling motherless somehow, ' which clearly illustrates the main character 's dilemma of being in the wrong place at the wrong time. The main melody is guided by Charles ' funky piano work and is buttressed by then - session ace Billy Preston 's powerful, soulful organ trills. The underlying sense of drama that is so much a part of the film is reflected perfectly in this song, and the Ray Charles Singers add to this with a stately grace. It 's perfect listening for a midsummer night when the temperature is just a bit too hot for comfort. ''
Released as a single by ABC Records, Charles ' version of the song reached # 33 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and # 21 on the Hot Rhythm & Blues Singles chart. The song was also released on the soundtrack album on United Artists in 1967.
For the 1988 -- 95 television series of the same name, the song was recorded by Bill Champlin.
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when did david beckham play in world cup | David Beckham - wikipedia
David Robert Joseph Beckham OBE (/ ˈbɛkəm /; born 2 May 1975) is an English retired professional footballer. He played for Manchester United, Preston North End, Real Madrid, Milan, LA Galaxy, Paris Saint - Germain and the England national team, for which he held the appearance record for an outfield player until 2016. He is the first English player to win league titles in four countries: England, Spain, the United States and France. He retired in May 2013 after a 20 - year career, during which he won 19 major trophies.
Known for his range of passing, crossing ability and bending free - kicks as a right winger, Beckham was runner up in the Ballon d'Or, twice runner - up for FIFA World Player of the Year and in 2004 was named by Pelé in the FIFA 100 list of the world 's greatest living players. He was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2008. A global ambassador for the sport, Beckham is regarded as a British cultural icon.
Beckham 's professional club career began with Manchester United, where he made his first - team debut in 1992 aged 17. With United, he won the Premier League title six times, the FA Cup twice, and the UEFA Champions League in 1999. He then played four seasons with Real Madrid, winning the La Liga championship in his final season with the club. In July 2007 Beckham signed a five - year contract with Major League Soccer club LA Galaxy. While a Galaxy player, he spent two loan spells in Italy with Milan in 2009 and 2010. He was the first British footballer to play 100 UEFA Champions League games.
In international football, Beckham made his England debut on 1 September 1996 at the age of 21. He was captain for six years, earning 58 caps during his tenure. He made 115 career appearances in total, appearing at three FIFA World Cup tournaments, in 1998, 2002 and 2006, and two UEFA European Championship tournaments, in 2000 and 2004.
Beckham has consistently ranked among the highest earners in football, and in 2013 was listed as the highest - paid player in the world, having earned over $50 million in the previous 12 months. He has been married to Victoria Beckham since 1999 and they have four children. He has been a UNICEF UK ambassador since 2005, and in 2015 he launched 7: The David Beckham UNICEF Fund. In 2014, MLS announced that Beckham and a group of investors would own an expansion team in Miami, which will begin in 2020.
Beckham was born at Whipps Cross University Hospital in Leytonstone, London, England. He is the son of Sandra Georgina (née West; b. 1949), a hairdresser, and David Edward Alan "Ted '' Beckham (b. Edmonton, London, July -- September 1948), a kitchen fitter, who married at the London Borough of Hackney in 1969. He has an older sister, Lynne Georgina, and a younger sister, Joanne Louise. He regularly played football in Ridgeway Park, Chingford, as a child, and attended Chase Lane Primary School and Chingford County High School. In a 2007 interview, Beckham said that, "At school whenever the teachers asked, ' What do you want to do when you 're older? ' I 'd say, ' I want to be a footballer. ' And they 'd say, ' No, what do you really want to do, for a job? ' But that was the only thing I ever wanted to do. '' Beckham 's maternal grandfather was Jewish, and Beckham has referred to himself as "half Jewish '' and wrote in his autobiography "I 've probably had more contact with Judaism than with any other religion ''. In his book Both Feet on the Ground, he stated that growing up he attended church every week with his parents, because that was the only way he could play football for their team.
His parents were fanatical Manchester United supporters who frequently travelled to Old Trafford from London to attend the team 's home matches. David inherited his parents ' love of Manchester United, and his main sporting passion was football. He attended one of Bobby Charlton 's football schools in Manchester and won the chance to take part in a training session with Barcelona, as part of a talent competition. He played for a local youth team called Ridgeway Rovers, which was coached by his father, Stuart Underwood, and Steve Kirby. Beckham was a Manchester United mascot for a match against West Ham United in 1986. Young Beckham had trials with his local club Leyton Orient, Norwich City and attended Tottenham Hotspur 's school of excellence. Tottenham Hotspur was the first club he played for. During a two - year period in which Beckham played for Brimsdown Rovers ' youth team, he was named Under - 15 Player of the Year in 1990. He also attended Bradenton Preparatory Academy, but signed schoolboy forms at Manchester United on his 14th birthday, and subsequently signed a Youth Training Scheme contract on 8 July 1991.
Having signed for Manchester United as a trainee on 8 July 1991, Beckham was part of a group of young players, including Ryan Giggs, Gary Neville, Phil Neville, Nicky Butt and Paul Scholes, who were coached by Eric Harrison, and helped the club win the FA Youth Cup in May 1992. Beckham scored Manchester United 's second goal in the 30th minute of their 3 -- 1 first - leg win of the final against Crystal Palace on 14 April 1992. In the second leg on 15 May, Beckham played a full 90 - minutes of the fixture which ended 3 -- 2 in favour of Manchester United and 6 -- 3 on aggregate. Beckham 's impact led to a first - team debut on 23 September 1992, as a substitute for Andrei Kanchelskis in a League Cup match against Brighton & Hove Albion. Shortly afterwards, Beckham signed as a professional on 23 January 1993.
Manchester United again reached the final of the FA Youth Cup, where they faced Leeds United. The first leg was played on 10 May 1993, where Beckham started in Manchester United 's 2 -- 0 home loss but was replaced by substitute Robbie Savage. In the second leg on 13 May 1993, Beckham played the full 90 minutes of Manchester United 's 2 -- 1 defeat, which gave Leeds United a 4 -- 1 aggregate score. Beckham also received honours with the club 's reserve team when the squad won the league in 1994. In September 1994, Beckham made his first full appearance in the club 's first team against Port Vale in a League Cup fixture. On 7 December 1994, Beckham made his UEFA Champions League debut, scoring a goal in a 4 -- 0 victory at home to Galatasaray in the final game of the group stage. Despite the victory, however, they finished third out of four in their group, behind Barcelona.
Beckham then went to Preston North End on loan for part of the 1994 -- 95 season to get some first team experience. He impressed, scoring two goals in five appearances, notably scoring directly from a corner kick.
Beckham returned to Manchester and made his Premier League debut for Manchester United on 2 April 1995, in a goalless draw against Leeds United. He played four times for United in the league that season, as they finished second behind Blackburn Rovers, missing out on a third successive Premier League title by a single point. He was not in the squad for the FA Cup final with Everton on 20 May, which United lost 1 -- 0, leaving the club without a major trophy for the first time since 1989.
United manager Sir Alex Ferguson had a great deal of confidence in the club 's young players. Beckham was part of a group of young talents Ferguson brought into United in the 1990s (known as "Fergie 's Fledglings ''), which included Nicky Butt and Gary and Phil Neville. When experienced players Paul Ince, Mark Hughes, and Andrei Kanchelskis left the club after the end of the 1994 -- 95 season, his decision to let youth team players replace them instead of buying star players from other clubs (United had been linked with moves for players including Darren Anderton, Marc Overmars and Roberto Baggio, but no major signings were made that summer), drew a great deal of criticism. The criticism increased when United started the season with a 3 -- 1 defeat at Aston Villa, with Beckham scoring United 's only goal of the game. However, United recovered from this early season defeat and the young players performed well.
Beckham swiftly established himself as United 's right - sided midfielder (rather than a right - winger in the style of his predecessor Andrei Kanchelskis) and helped them to win the Premier League title and FA Cup double that season, scoring the winner in the semi-final against Chelsea and also providing the corner from which Eric Cantona scored in the FA Cup Final. Beckham 's first title medal had, for a while, looked like it would not be coming that season, as United were still 10 points adrift of leaders Newcastle United at the turn of the new year, but Beckham and his teammates had overhauled the Tynesiders at the top of the league by mid March and they remained top until the end of the season. Despite playing regularly and to a consistently high standard for Manchester United, Beckham did not break into the England squad before Euro 1996.
-- Beckham on the goal from the half - way line against Wimbledon in August 1996 that made him a household name.
At the beginning of the 1996 -- 97 season, Beckham was given the number 10 shirt that had most recently been worn by Mark Hughes. On 17 August 1996 (the first day of the Premier League season), Beckham became something of a household name when he scored a spectacular goal in a match against Wimbledon. With United leading 2 -- 0, Beckham noticed that Wimbledon 's goalkeeper Neil Sullivan was standing a long way out of his goal, and hit a shot from the halfway line that floated over the goalkeeper and into the net.
When Beckham scored his famous goal, he was wearing Adidas Predator boots customised for Charlie Miller ("Charlie '' was embroidered on the boots) which had been given to Beckham by mistake. In a UK poll conducted by Channel 4 in 2002, the British public voted the goal No. 18 in the list of the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments. During the 1996 -- 97 season, Beckham became an automatic first - choice player at Manchester United, helping them to retain the Premier League championship, and was voted PFA Young Player of the Year by his peers. Manchester United started the 1997 -- 98 season well but erratic performances in the second half of the season saw United finish second behind Arsenal.
In the 1998 -- 99 season, he was part of the United team that won the treble of the Premier League, FA Cup and Champions League, a unique feat in English football. There had been speculation that the criticism that he had received after being sent off in the World Cup would lead to him leaving England, but Beckham decided to stay at Manchester United.
To ensure they would win the Premier League title, United needed to win their final league match of the season, at home to Tottenham. There were reports suggesting that the opposition would allow themselves to be beaten to prevent their local rivals Arsenal from retaining the title, but Tottenham took an early lead in the match. Beckham scored the equaliser with a curling strike from 25 yards out into the top left corner of the goal and United went on to win the match and the league.
Beckham played in central midfield in United 's win over Bayern Munich in the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final, since United 's first string centre - midfielders Paul Scholes and Roy Keane were suspended for the match. United were losing the match 1 -- 0 at the end of normal time, but won the trophy by scoring two goals in injury time. Both of the goals came from corners taken by Beckham. Those crucial assists, coupled with great performances over the rest of the season, led to him finishing runner up to Rivaldo for 1999 's European Footballer of the Year and FIFA World Player of the Year awards.
Despite Beckham 's achievements in the 1998 -- 99 season, he was still unpopular among some opposition fans and journalists, and he was criticised after being sent off for a deliberate foul in Manchester United 's World Club Championship match against Necaxa. It was suggested in the press that his wife was a bad influence on him, and that it might be in United 's interests to sell him, but his manager publicly backed him and he stayed at the club. During the 1999 -- 2000 season, there was a talk of a transfer to Juventus in Italy, but this never happened. Beckham helped United retain the Premier League title in 1999 -- 2000 by an 18 - point margin, after being pushed by Arsenal and Leeds United for much of the season. United won their final 11 league games of the season, with Beckham scoring five goals during this run, with his last goal coming from a swerving shot from the edge of the penalty area in their final home game against Tottenham Hotspur.
By the early 2000s, the relationship between Ferguson and Beckham had begun to deteriorate, possibly as a result of Beckham 's fame and commitments away from football. In 2000, Beckham was given permission to miss training to look after his son Brooklyn, who had gastroenteritis, but Ferguson was furious when Victoria Beckham was photographed at a London Fashion Week event on the same night, claiming that Beckham would have been able to train if Victoria had looked after Brooklyn that day. He responded by fining Beckham the maximum amount that was permitted (two weeks ' wages -- then £ 50,000) and dropping him for a crucial match against United 's rivals Leeds United. He later criticised Beckham for this in his autobiography, claiming he had not been "fair to his teammates '' Beckham had a good season for his club, though, and helped United to win the Premier League by a record margin.
"He was never a problem until he got married. He used to go into work with the academy coaches at night time, he was a fantastic young lad. Getting married into that entertainment scene was a difficult thing -- from that moment, his life was never going to be the same. He is such a big celebrity, football is only a small part. '' ' -- Alex Ferguson speaking about Beckham 's marriage in 2007.
He was a key player in United 's third successive league title in 2000 -- 01, only the fourth time that any club had achieved three league titles in a row. He scored nine goals that season, all in the Premier League.
On 10 April 2002, Beckham was injured during a Champions League match against Deportivo de La Coruña, breaking the second metatarsal bone in his left foot. There was speculation in the British media that the injury might have been caused deliberately, as the player who had injured Beckham was Argentine Aldo Duscher, and England and Argentina were due to meet in that year 's World Cup. The injury prevented Beckham from playing for United for the rest of the season and they missed out on the Premier League title to Arsenal (also being knocked out of the Champions League by Bayer Leverkusen on away goals in the semi-finals), but he signed a three - year contract in May, following months of negotiations with the club, mostly concerning extra payments for his image rights. The income from his new contract, and his many endorsement deals, made him the highest - paid player in the world at the time. Despite the injury, 2001 -- 02 was arguably Beckham 's best season as a United player; he scored 11 goals in 28 league games, and a total of 16 goals in 42 games in all competitions, the best of his career.
Following an injury early in the 2002 -- 03 season, Beckham was unable to regain his place on the Manchester United team, with Ole Gunnar Solskjær having replaced him on the right side of midfield. His relationship with his manager deteriorated further on 15 February 2003 when, in the changing room following an FA Cup defeat to Arsenal, a furious Alex Ferguson threw or kicked a boot that struck Beckham over the eye, causing a cut that required stitches. The incident led to a great deal of transfer speculation involving Beckham, with bookmakers offering odds on whether he or Ferguson would be first to leave the club. Although the team had started the season badly, their results improved greatly from December onwards and they won the league, with Beckham managing a total of 11 goals in 52 games in all competitions. He was still a first - choice player for England, however, and was appointed an Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to football on 13 June 2003.
Beckham had made 265 Premier league appearances for United and scored 61 goals. He also made 81 Champions league appearances, scoring 15 goals. Beckham won six Premier League titles, two FA Cups, one European Cup, one Intercontinental Cup and one FA Youth Cup in the space of 12 years. By this stage, he was their joint second longest serving player behind Ryan Giggs (having joined them at the same time as Nicky Butt, Gary Neville and Paul Scholes).
-- Real Madrid President Florentino Pérez during Beckham 's unveiling.
As the summer 2003 transfer window approached, Manchester United appeared keen to sell Beckham to Barcelona and the two clubs even announced that they reached a deal for Beckham 's transfer, but instead he joined reigning Spanish champions Real Madrid for € 37 million on a four - year contract. Beckham was the latest signing in the Galácticos era of global stars signed by club president Florentino Pérez every summer. The news came as a bitter blow to the newly elected Barcelona president Joan Laporta, who based much of his presidential campaign on signing Beckham. Though announced in mid-June, the transfer was completed on 1 July 2003, making him the third Englishman to play for the club, after Laurie Cunningham and Steve McManaman. Following a successful medical on 2 July, Beckham was unveiled in front of 500 accredited journalists from 25 countries at Real 's basketball facility, where he was handed the famous white shirt by club legend Alfredo Di Stéfano. Although Beckham had worn the number seven shirt for Manchester United and England, he was unable to wear it at Madrid as it was assigned to club captain Raúl. He decided to wear number 23 instead, citing his admiration of basketball player Michael Jordan, who also wore the number 23 shirt, as the reason behind his decision.
In the week before Beckham 's presentation, Real named Carlos Queiroz as their new head coach, meaning that Beckham was reunited with a familiar face upon arriving to Madrid, since Queiroz had spent the previous season as Alex Ferguson 's assistant at Manchester United. In late July 2003, the club went on a tour of the Far East as part of pre-season training, but also to cash in on Beckham 's huge marketing appeal in Asia, where he enjoyed tremendous following. Real 's brand recognition in that part of the globe was already well established as the club made financially successful trips to Asia during previous off - seasons. The presence of a global marketing icon such as Beckham, however, made this particular tour a financial smash for los Merengues.
Shortly after his transfer to Real, Beckham also ended his relationship with agent Tony Stephens of SFX Europe, who had guided him through his career until that point, including helping to engineer Beckham 's move from Manchester to Madrid. Beckham signed on with Simon Fuller and his company 19 Entertainment, which already managed the career of Victoria. Beckham also appointed close friend Terry Byrne to be his personal manager.
In late August 2003, Real Madrid won the Spanish Super Cup over two legs versus RCD Mallorca, with Beckham scoring the final goal in a 3 -- 0 return leg win at home, thus setting the stage for the start of the league season. Playing in a star - laden team which included three former FIFA World Player of the Year recipients, Zinedine Zidane, Ronaldo and Luís Figo, in addition to Roberto Carlos, Raúl and Iker Casillas, Beckham did not require much time to settle in, scoring five times in his first 16 matches (including a goal less than three minutes into his La Liga debut). Queiroz mostly favoured the adaptable 5 -- 3 -- 2 formation, with two fullbacks Míchel Salgado and Roberto Carlos, often joining the attack down the wings, while Beckham played on the right of the three - man midfield, alongside Zidane and Figo.
Real Madrid were runners - up in the Copa del Rey, were knocked out of the UEFA Champions League at the quarter - final stage and finished the league season in fourth place, meaning the team, whose president Pérez expected them to win either the Spanish league or the Champions League each season, did not match expectations. In July 2004, while Beckham was in pre-season training in Spain, an intruder scaled a wall at the Beckham home while carrying a can of petrol. Victoria and their children were in the house at the time, but security guards apprehended the man before he reached the house.
The league season began with new head coach José Antonio Camacho at the helm, but he ended up lasting only three matches, handing in his resignation as Real dropped to eighth spot in the La Liga standings. Camacho 's assistant Mariano García Remón took over on temporary basis as Real 's leadership scrambled to find a permanent replacement. Beckham made more headlines on 9 October 2004 when he admitted intentionally fouling Ben Thatcher in an England match against Wales to get himself booked. Beckham was due to receive a one - match suspension for his next caution, and had picked up an injury which he knew would keep him out of England 's next match, so he deliberately fouled Thatcher to serve his suspension in a match that he would have had to miss anyway. The Football Association asked Beckham for an explanation of his actions and he admitted that he had "made a mistake '' and apologised. He was sent off shortly afterwards, this time in a league match for Real Madrid against Valencia. Having received a yellow card, he was judged to have sarcastically applauded the referee and was given a second yellow card, causing an automatic dismissal, although the suspension was cancelled on appeal.
By Christmas 2004, with the team sitting in second position in the league, García Remón was dismissed, and Vanderlei Luxemburgo became the new head coach. However, the well - travelled Brazilian failed to inspire the team to the title as Real again finished the season in second position. On 3 December 2005, Beckham was sent off for the third time that season in a league match against Getafe CF. A day later Luxemburgo was sacked and was replaced by Juan Ramón López Caro. By the end of that season, Beckham led La Liga in number of assists.
During the season, Beckham established football academies in Los Angeles and east London and was named a judge for the 2006 British Book Awards. Real Madrid finished second to Barcelona in the 2005 -- 06 La Liga, albeit with a large 12 - point gap, and only reached the last 16 in the Champions League after losing to Arsenal. The season also marked the end of an era for the club as Pérez resigned his post as president in January 2006, with Vicente Boluda named as replacement on an interim basis until the end of the season.
The summer 2006 off - season marked a turbulent time as the club 's presidential elections were held. Ramón Calderón became the new Real president. As expected, none of the club officials who served under the previous president was kept, including head coach López Caro. Initially out of favour with newly arrived head coach Fabio Capello, Beckham started only a few games at the beginning of the season, as the speedier José Antonio Reyes was normally preferred on the right wing. Of the first nine matches Beckham started, Real lost seven. On 10 January 2007, after prolonged contractual negotiations, Real Madrid 's sporting director Predrag Mijatović announced that Beckham would not remain at Real Madrid after the end of the season. However, he later claimed that he was mistranslated and that he actually said that Beckham 's contract had not yet been renewed.
On 11 January 2007, Beckham announced that he had signed a five - year deal to play for the LA Galaxy beginning 1 July 2007. On 13 January 2007, Fabio Capello said that Beckham had played his last game for Real Madrid, although he continued to train with the team. A few days later, while speaking to the students at Villanueva University Center in Madrid, Calderón said that Beckham is "going to Hollywood to be half a film star '', adding "our technical staff were right not to extend his contract, which has been proved by the fact that no other technical staff in the world wanted him except Los Angeles ''.
About a month later, however, Capello backtracked on his earlier statement, allowing Beckham to rejoin the team for the match against Real Sociedad on 10 February 2007. The player immediately repaid his head coach 's trust by scoring the equalising goal from a 27 - yard free kick, as Real Madrid eventually recorded a 2 -- 1 victory. In his final UEFA Champions League appearance for the club, Real Madrid were knocked out of the competition by Bayern Munich at the round - of - 16 stage (on the away goals rule) on 7 March 2007. Beckham played a pivotal role in all three Madrid goals in the home game, with Bayern goalkeeper Oliver Kahn describing his performance as "world class ''.
On 17 June 2007, the last day of the La Liga season, Beckham started in his final match for the club, a 3 -- 1 win over Mallorca which saw them clinch the title from Barcelona. With Real down 0 -- 1, Beckham limped off the field and was replaced by José Antonio Reyes, who scored two goals, leading the team to that season 's La Liga title, their first since Beckham had signed with them and 30th overall in the club 's history. Although Real and Barçelona both finished level on points, Madrid took the title because of their superior head - to - head record, capping a remarkable six - month turnaround for Beckham. With his wife and children, along with celebrity friends Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes, watching from a luxury box at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, it was only Beckham 's second piece of silverware since he joined the famous club.
Towards the end of the season, as Beckham was getting back into Capello 's good books after successfully fighting his way back into the first team, Real Madrid announced they would try to untie his transfer to LA Galaxy, but were ultimately unsuccessful. Several weeks before Beckham 's scheduled arrival in the United States, Real 's management contacted LA Galaxy 's ownership group about reacquiring the player, but were quickly turned down.
A month after the conclusion of Beckham 's Real career, Forbes magazine reported that he had been the party primarily responsible for the team 's huge increase in merchandise sales, a total reported to top US $600 million during Beckham 's four years at the club.
Beckham on going to America
Beckham 's involvement with Major League Soccer (MLS) began while he was still a Real Madrid player when it was confirmed on 11 January 2007 that he would be leaving Madrid in six months to join MLS side LA Galaxy. The speculation about his new contract in Madrid was thus put to an end and the following day Beckham 's official press conference was held in conjunction with the 2007 MLS SuperDraft.
The announcement made top news all across the globe. Though many worldwide media outlets reported the deal to be worth US $250 million, the astronomical figure was soon revealed to be something of a PR stunt engineered by Beckham 's media handlers (British representative agency 19 Entertainment). To maximise the media effect, in the press release they decided to list the potential sum that Beckham could make over the five - year period from all his revenue sources, which in addition to his Galaxy pay also include his personal endorsements. Beckham 's actual deal with the Galaxy was a five - year contract worth US $32.5 million in total or $6.5 million per year.
The high - profile acquisition paid immediate financial dividends for Galaxy long before Beckham joined the team. On the strength of the signing and the media frenzy it created, the club was able to pull off a new five - year shirt sponsorship deal with Herbalife nutrition company worth US $20 million. The gate revenue peaked as well with 11,000 new season tickets holders and sold - out luxury suites (each one of the 42 inside the team 's home ground, the Home Depot Center). Even the LA Galaxy owners Anschutz Entertainment Group (AEG) saw an immediate spike in business. Involved on many business fronts worldwide, AEG was already leveraging its Beckham association in places such as China, where the company had been working aggressively in Shanghai and Beijing for years to receive clearance to build arenas and stadiums. The company 's CEO Tim Leiweke put it as follows: "Suddenly, we 're known as the company that owns the team that David Beckham is going to play for, so our world changed ''.
In the months following the announcement, the additional terms of Beckham 's contract became public knowledge. One unique contract provision was giving him the option of buying an MLS expansion franchise in any market except New York City at the fixed price of $25 million whenever he stopped playing in the league -- an allowance that the league 's owners had never given to a player before. Another provision was the opt - out clause after the 2009 season, meaning that should he decide so, Beckham was free to leave the club after completing year three of his five - year contract. In April 2007, he and wife Victoria bought an $18.2 million home on San Ysidro Drive in Beverly Hills.
Beckham 's contract with LA Galaxy took effect on 11 July, and on 13 July, the famous Englishman was officially unveiled as a Galaxy player at the Home Depot Center to much fanfare and world media interest in front of more than 5,000 gathered fans and some 700 accredited media members. Beckham chose to wear number 23. It was announced that Galaxy jersey sales had already reached a record figure of over 250,000 prior to this formal introduction.
In parallel, Beckham 's handlers at 19 Entertainment succeeded in putting together an unprecedented US media rollout designed to expand his carefully crafted personal brand in America. He made the cover of Sports Illustrated, a few weeks earlier Adidas launched the extensive 13 - part ad campaign "Fútbol meets Football '' starring Beckham and NFL running back Reggie Bush, and W magazine published a racy photo spread featuring David and wife Victoria photographed by Steven Klein. Meanwhile, ESPN sports network was running a promotional campaign and it also agreed to air David Beckham: New Beginnings documentary produced by 19 Entertainment before the friendly match versus Chelsea, which was expected to be Beckham 's American debut. In addition to popularising soccer, Beckham 's arrival was used as platform for entertainment industry endeavours. Since both Beckham 's and his wife 's often overlapping careers were handled by 19 Entertainment, which is owned by Simon Fuller, who in turn has a business relationship with the Creative Artists Agency (CAA), one of Hollywood 's most powerful talent agencies, it was important also for CAA that the Beckhams made as big an impact as possible upon their arrival in the United States. On 16 July, CAA had hosted a welcoming bash for David at its new eight - storey, $400 million headquarters in Century City with CAA employees reportedly instructed beforehand to line the staircase and clap for Beckham upon his arrival. That night Victoria 's reality show prime - time special Victoria Beckham: Coming to America aired on NBC, drawing negative reviews in the press and poor viewership ratings.
On Saturday afternoon, 21 July, despite still nursing the injured left ankle that he picked up a month earlier during the final match of La Liga 's season, Beckham made his Galaxy debut, coming on for Alan Gordon in the 78th minute of a 0 -- 1 friendly loss to Chelsea as part of the World Series of Soccer. With a capacity crowd, along with a long Hollywood celebrity list featuring Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, Eva Longoria, Governor of California Arnold Schwarzenegger, and Drew Carey among others, present at the Home Depot Center, the match was broadcast live on ESPN 's main network. However, the proceedings on the field of play took a back seat to the Beckham spectacle, and despite the presence of worldwide football stars such as Andriy Shevchenko, Didier Drogba, Michael Ballack, and Frank Lampard, the US television cameras were firmly focused on Beckham who spent most of the match on the bench. The match 's added time featured a scare for already injured Beckham when he got tackled by Steve Sidwell whose cleats struck Beckham 's right foot, sending him airborne before he crumpled hard to the ground. Though the existing injury was not aggravated too much, Beckham 's recovery process was set back by about a week. ESPN 's presentation of Beckham 's debut earned a 1.0 TV rating, meaning it was seen in an average of 947,000 television homes in the US -- a disappointing figure given the national media buzz and two weeks of constant promotion by ESPN. As far as sporting events that were televised that weekend in the United States, Beckham 's much publicised debut drew fewer TV viewers than British Open golf tournament, a regular - season national baseball game, and even the Indy Racing League 's Honda 200 motor race.
The day after the made - for - TV debut was reserved for the welcoming party for the Beckhams at LA 's Museum of Contemporary Art, formally billed as being hosted by Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, Will Smith, and Jada Pinkett Smith though in actuality a CAA - organized event. Attended by many Hollywood A-listers, the lavish bash was big news in the US celebrity tabloid media, including daily entertainment TV magazines such as Entertainment Tonight and Access Hollywood.
Beckham missed the next four LA Galaxy matches -- three in the North American SuperLiga and an MLS game away at Toronto FC though he still made the trip with his teammates, sitting on the bench in street clothes. It was in Toronto on 5 August that the team got its first taste of what life would be like on the road with Beckham on the roster. Due to security concerns, it was the first time the team flew on a charter for a road match, rather than flying commercial (MLS normally forbids charter flights for away matches, claiming they provide competitive advantage, but in this case they made an exception due to the frenzy created around Beckham and resulting security issues). Also, instead of the usual MLS - mandated modest hotels, LA Galaxy stayed at the five - star Le Méridien King Edward in downtown Toronto (an expense paid for by the local Toronto promoter), while the glitz and glamour continued with the velvet rope, red carpet party at the Ultra Supper Club with Beckham as the centerpiece guest.
Two weeks after his 12 - minute appearance against Chelsea, Beckham made his league debut as a substitute on 9 August away versus D.C. United in front of the sellout crowd of 46,686 (nearly three times the average D.C. United home crowd) at the RFK Stadium, coming on for Quavas Kirk in the 71st minute. Coming into the nationally televised match on ESPN, played under a heavy downpour with his team down a man and down a goal, Beckham left a mark during the remaining 20 - plus minutes. He hit a long free kick that Carlos Pavón failed to finish on for the equaliser, and then in the final minutes Beckham served a weighted through ball into Landon Donovan 's path that United 's keeper Troy Perkins managed to break up in the last moment -- the Galaxy lost 1 -- 0. The next match on the road trip was at New England Revolution and Beckham decided to sit it out, fearing further aggravating his ankle injury on the Gillette Stadium 's artificial surface.
Beckham returned to the pitch the following week, again facing D.C. United, in the SuperLiga semi-final on 15 August. During this game he had many firsts with the Galaxy; his first start, first yellow card and first game as team captain. He also scored his first goal for the team, from a free kick, and also made his first assist, for Landon Donovan in the second half. These goals gave the team a 2 -- 0 victory, and a place in the North American SuperLiga final versus Pachuca on 29 August.
During the SuperLiga final against Pachuca, Beckham injured his right knee, with an MRI scan revealing that he had sprained his medial collateral ligament and would be out for six weeks. He returned to play in the final home match of the season. The Galaxy were eliminated from playoff contention on 21 October, in the final MLS match of the season, a 1 -- 0 loss to the Chicago Fire. Beckham played as a substitute in the match, bringing his season totals to eight matches played (5 league); one goal scored (0 league); and three assists (2 league). Beckham trained with Arsenal from 4 January 2008 for three weeks until he returned to the Galaxy for pre-season training. Beckham scored his first league goal with the Galaxy on 3 April against the San Jose Earthquakes in the ninth minute. On 24 May 2008, the Galaxy defeated the Kansas City Wizards 3 -- 1, giving the Galaxy their first winning record in two years and moving the club into first place in the Western Conference. In the match, Beckham scored an empty - net goal from 70 yards out. The goal marked the second time in Beckham 's career that he had scored from his own half, the other being a 1996 - goal from the half - way line against Wimbledon at Selhurst Park. Overall, however, the Galaxy had a disappointing year, failing to qualify for the end - of - season play - offs.
In 2008, Beckham 's success in the England national team under Fabio Capello led to speculation that he might return to Europe to retain match fitness for the World Cup qualifying matches in 2009. On 30 October 2008, Milan announced that Beckham was to join them on loan from 7 January 2009. Despite this and other speculation, Beckham made it clear that the move in no way signalled his intent to leave MLS and announced his intent to return to the Galaxy in time for the start of the 2009 season in March. Many at Milan both within and outside of the club expressed serious reservations about the transfer, with it considered by some players no more than a marketing move.
Beckham was unveiled at Milan 's training facility by the club 's chief executive Adriano Galliani on 20 December 2008. The player chose the number 32 shirt previously worn by Christian Vieri, as both the number 7 and 23 shirts were already used by Alexandre Pato and club vice captain Massimo Ambrosini, respectively. After his physical, Beckham was reportedly told by a club doctor that he believed he could continue playing football for another five years, up to the age of 38. The day after his unveiling, Beckham was brought to San Siro where he got introduced to home fans by walking out on the pitch before the league match versus Udinese and proclaiming "Forza Milan '' over the public address system. Afterwards, he and wife Victoria watched from a luxury box as Milan won 5 -- 1.
-- A.C. Milan coach Carlo Ancelotti on Beckham 's condition at 33 years old.
Playing on the squad led by the 26 - year - old superstar Kaká in addition to several other world - class players at or near the peak of their careers -- 28 - year - old Ronaldinho, and 29 - year - old Andrea Pirlo -- as well as club veterans Paolo Maldini, Clarence Seedorf, Massimo Ambrosini, Giuseppe Favalli, Gianluca Zambrotta, Filippo Inzaghi and Andriy Shevchenko, Beckham made his competitive debut for the rossoneri in Serie A as a starter away at Roma on 11 January 2009, playing 89 minutes of the 2 -- 2 draw in front of 53,444 at the Stadio Olimpico. Playing his first competitive match in almost three months, Beckham gave a decent performance in right midfield alongside Pirlo. Though clearly lacking match fitness, occasionally struggling to keep up in a high - tempo match, Beckham put in enough useful crosses and corners to justify the coach Carlo Ancelotti 's decision to play him from the start. Going into Beckham 's home debut versus Fiorentina a week later, all the talk was around Kaká being the target of a reported £ 100 million transfer bid by Manchester City. Beckham turned in another understated performance on the right side of midfield before advancing into a more active central role in the second half thus effectively taking over Seedorf 's role after the Dutchman was subbed off. Milan won 1 -- 0 courtesy of Pato, but the 65,000 + San Siro crowd mostly focused on Kaká, imploring him to stay.
A noticeably older team, Ancelotti - coached Milan was proving a good fit for the 33 - year - old Englishman. He scored his first goal in Serie A for Milan in a 4 -- 1 victory over Bologna on 25 January, his third appearance for the club. Though Beckham was expected to return to Los Angeles in March, after impressing at the Italian club, scoring two goals in his first four matches and assisting on several more, rumours began to swirl that Beckham would stay in Milan, with the Italian club reportedly offering to pay a multimillion - dollar fee for him. The rumours were confirmed on 4 February, when Beckham stated that he was seeking a permanent transfer to Milan in a bid to sustain his England career through the 2010 World Cup. Milan, however, failed to match Galaxy 's valuation of Beckham, in the US $10 -- 15 million range.
Still, negotiations continued during a month of speculation. On 2 March, the Los Angeles Times reported that Beckham 's loan had been extended through mid-July. This was later confirmed by Beckham, revealing what was described as a unique "timeshare '' deal, in which Beckham would play with L.A. from mid-July till the end of the 2009 MLS season.
After his return from Milan, many LA fans showed dislike and anger towards him as he missed the first half of the season and several held up signs saying "Go home fraud '', and "Part - time player ''. The Galaxy, however, had a much more successful season than in previous years, rising from third to first in the Western Conference during Beckham 's time with them. He remained a key part of the squad which saw Galaxy win the 2009 Western Conference final after a 2 -- 0 overtime victory over the Houston Dynamo. In the final on 22 November 2009, the Galaxy lost to Real Salt Lake by 5 -- 4 in a penalty shoot - out after a 1 -- 1 draw. Beckham also scored in the shootout.
In November 2009, after the end of 2009 MLS season, it was confirmed that Beckham would return to Milan for a second loan period beginning in January 2010. On 6 January 2010, Beckham made a winning return in a Milan shirt, playing 75 minutes of a 5 -- 2 victory over Genoa. On 16 February 2010, Beckham played against Manchester United for the first time since he left the club in 2003. He played 76 minutes of the match at the San Siro -- which ended 3 -- 2 to Manchester United -- before being substituted for Clarence Seedorf.
Beckham returned to Old Trafford for the second leg of the tie on 10 March 2010; he did not start the match, but was brought on for Ignazio Abate in the 64th minute to a positive reception from the Manchester United fans. The score was 3 -- 0 for United at that point and the tie was all but decided. The match was the first time Beckham had played against Manchester United at Old Trafford and saw him create several scoring opportunities via crosses and corner kicks, but Manchester United dominated Milan and beat them 4 -- 0, winning the tie 7 -- 2. Following the final whistle, he aroused a bit of controversy by draping the green - and - gold scarf around his neck that was given to him by the Manchester United supporters protesting against club owner Malcolm Glazer. As the fan protests against Glazer by the people gathered around Manchester United Supporters ' Trust gained steam in 2010, the green - and - gold scarf had come to be seen as an anti-Glazer symbol, and by extension many saw Beckham 's decision to publicly put it on as gesture of support. When asked about it later, however, Beckham responded that protests are not his business.
In Milan 's next game, against Chievo, Beckham suffered a torn left Achilles tendon, causing him to miss the World Cup as well as the MLS season due to the injury, which took him out of action for the next five months. Doctor Sakari Orava performed surgery on Beckham 's tendon in Turku, Finland, on 15 March 2010. After the operation, Orava affirmed that, "it went quite fine. The prognosis is he needs a rehabilitation for the next few months, and the plaster cast is the next six to eight weeks. I would say that (it will be) maybe four months before he 's running, but six months before he 's jumping and kicking. ''
On 11 September 2010, after recovering from his Achilles tendon injury, Beckham returned to the game as a substitute in the 70th minute in the Galaxy 's 3 -- 1 win over Columbus Crew. On 4 October, Beckham scored a trademark free kick in a 2 -- 1 win over Chivas USA to mark his first goal in 2010. On 24 October, Beckham scored his second goal of the season in the Galaxy 's 2 -- 1 win over FC Dallas which secured them their second successive Western Conference title and first MLS Supporters ' Shield since 2002.
During January and February 2011, ahead of the 2011 MLS season, Beckham trained with Tottenham Hotspur. Rumours in the media claimed that the club were in talks with the Galaxy to sign the player on loan, but, according to Spurs manager Harry Redknapp, the move was blocked by Galaxy, who wanted a full final season from their number 23. As a result, he ended up only training with the club as he had done with Arsenal three years earlier. With Beckham playing in the centre of midfield, the Galaxy won the 2011 MLS cup.
On 15 May, Beckham scored his first goal of the season for the Galaxy from a 30 - yard free kick, in a 4 -- 1 victory over Sporting Kansas City. On 9 July, Beckham scored directly from a corner in a 2 -- 1 win over Chicago Fire, repeating a feat he also achieved while playing for Preston North End.
After having his best season with the Galaxy to date and finishing second in the league in assists, Beckham finished his fifth MLS season on a high. On 20 November 2011, he joined an elite group of players to have won league titles in three countries, when Los Angeles won their third MLS Cup against the Houston Dynamo, winning 1 -- 0 on a goal by captain Landon Donovan, with assists from Beckham and fellow designated player Robbie Keane.
Following the 2011 season, in which the Galaxy won their second consecutive Supporters ' Shield, having the second most points in MLS history, Beckham 's five - year contract with the Galaxy expired on 31 December 2011. Despite being 36, he stated that he did not intend to retire. Beckham was heavily linked with Paris Saint - Germain, but on 18 January 2012, Galaxy announced Beckham had signed a new two - year contract to remain in Los Angeles. In May 2012, Beckham and his victorious teammates were received by President of the United States Barack Obama at the White House.
Beckham helped the Galaxy to a fourth - place finish in the MLS Western Conference 2012 regular season with Beckham scoring seven goals and adding nine assists. The Galaxy defeated Vancouver Whitecaps FC, the San Jose Earthquakes, Seattle Sounders FC and then 3 -- 1 over the Houston Dynamo to retain the MLS Cup. He was subbed off in the 89th minute for Marcelo Sarvas and was given a standing ovation at their home venue. Beckham had earlier announced that the 2012 MLS Cup Final would be his final game with the Galaxy despite having another year remaining on his contract.
On 31 January 2013, ahead of the transfer deadline it was announced that Beckham would be undergoing a medical with Paris Saint - Germain ahead of a potential move to the Ligue 1 side. Beckham signed a five - month deal with the club later that afternoon and confirmed that his entire salary during his time in Paris would be donated to a local children 's charity. His PSG debut came on 24 February 2013, when he came off the bench in the 76th minute in a Ligue 1 home match against Marseille. This made him the 400th player in the history of the club. On 12 May 2013, Beckham won a fourth different top flight winners ' medal after PSG beat Lyon 1 -- 0 to claim the Ligue 1 title.
On 16 May 2013, Beckham announced that he would retire from professional football at the end of that year 's French football season. Following his decision to retire at the end of the 2012 -- 13 season, Beckham was given specially designed boots in the colours of the Union Jack to wear in his final game. These boots had the names of his wife and children stitched on to them. On 18 May 2013, Beckham was made captain in his final home game against Brest. In this game, Beckham assisted a goal by Matuidi from a corner. Beckham was subbed after 80 minutes, receiving hugs from his fellow players and manager, as well as a standing ovation from fans. PSG went on to win the game 3 -- 1.
Beckham made his first appearance for the England national team on 1 September 1996, in a World Cup qualifying match against Moldova.
Beckham had played in all of England 's qualifying matches for the 1998 World Cup and was part of the England squad at the World Cup finals in France, but the team 's manager Glenn Hoddle publicly accused him of not concentrating on the tournament, and he did not start in either of England 's first two games. He was picked for the third game against Colombia and scored with a bending 30 - yard free kick in a 2 -- 0 victory, which was his first goal for England.
In the second round (last 16) of that competition, he received a red card in England 's match against Argentina. Beckham, after having been fouled by Diego Simeone, kicked Simeone while lying on the floor, striking him on the calf muscle. Sports Illustrated was critical of the Argentinians ' theatrics in that incident, stating that Simeone first delivered a "heavy - handed challenge '' on Beckham and then "fell like a ton of bricks '' when Beckham retaliated. Simeone later admitted to trying to get Beckham sent off by over-reacting to the kick and then, along with other members of his team, urging the referee to send Beckham off. The match finished in a draw and England were eliminated in a penalty shootout. Many supporters and journalists blamed him for England 's elimination and he became the target of criticism and abuse, including the hanging of an effigy outside a London pub, and the Daily Mirror printing a dartboard with a picture of him centred on the bullseye. Beckham also received death threats after the World Cup.
The abuse that Beckham was receiving from English supporters peaked during England 's 3 -- 2 defeat by Portugal in Euro 2000, a match where Beckham set up two goals, when a group of England supporters taunted him throughout the match. Beckham responded by raising his middle finger and, while the gesture attracted some criticism, many of the newspapers that had previously encouraged his vilification asked their readers to stop abusing him.
On 15 November 2000, following Kevin Keegan 's resignation as England manager in October, Beckham was promoted to team captain by the caretaker manager Peter Taylor, and then kept the role under new manager Sven - Göran Eriksson.
-- Television commentary on Beckham 's stoppage time 30 - yard curling free - kick against Greece in the 2002 World Cup qualifying game in October 2001.
Beckham played a major role in helping England qualify for the 2002 FIFA World Cup, starring in an impressive 5 -- 1 victory over Germany in Munich. The final step in Beckham 's conversion from villain to national hero happened in England 's final qualifying game against Greece on 6 October 2001. England needed to win or draw the match to qualify outright for the World Cup, but were losing 2 -- 1 with little time remaining. When Teddy Sheringham was fouled eight yards outside the Greek penalty area, England were awarded a free - kick and Beckham ensured England 's qualification with a curling strike of the kind that had become his trademark. Beckham was voted the BBC Sports Personality of the Year for 2001, and finished runner - up, to Luís Figo of Portugal, for the FIFA World Player of the Year award.
Beckham was partially fit by the time of the 2002 World Cup held in Japan and South Korea, and played in the first match against Sweden. After the events of four years earlier, Beckham achieved a degree of revenge over Argentina by scoring the winning goal with a penalty, causing Argentina to fail to qualify for the knockout stage. England defeated Denmark in the second round with Beckham providing an assist in a 3 -- 0 win. England were knocked out in the quarter - finals by eventual winners Brazil after Ronaldinho scored the winner.
The following month, at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, Beckham escorted Kirsty Howard as she presented the Jubilee Baton to the Queen. Beckham played in all of England 's matches at Euro 2004. He had a penalty saved in England 's 2 -- 1 defeat to France and missed another in a penalty shootout in the quarter - final match against Portugal. England lost the shootout thus going out of the competition.
Beckham became a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in January 2005 and was involved in promoting London 's successful bid for the 2012 Olympic Games. In October 2005, Beckham 's sending off against Austria made him the first England captain to be sent off and the first player to be sent off twice while playing for England. He captained England for the 50th time in a friendly international against Argentina the following month.
In England 's opening game at the 2006 World Cup, against Paraguay on 10 June 2006, Beckham 's free kick led to an own - goal by Carlos Gamarra as England won 1 -- 0. In England 's next match, played against Trinidad and Tobago on 15 June 2006, Beckham 's cross in the 83rd minute led to a Peter Crouch goal, which put England into the lead 1 -- 0. Beckham gave another assist to Steven Gerrard. In the end they won 2 -- 0. He was named Man of the Match by tournament sponsor Budweiser.
During England 's second round match against Ecuador, Beckham scored from a free kick in the 59th minute, becoming the first English player to score in three separate World Cups, and giving England a 1 -- 0 victory and a place in the quarter - finals. He was sick before the game and vomited several times as a result of dehydration and illness that he got after having scored the winning goal for England. In the quarter - final against Portugal, Beckham was substituted following an injury shortly after half time and the England team went on to lose the match on penalties (3 -- 1), the score having been 0 -- 0 after extra time. After his substitution, Beckham was visibly shaken and emotional for not being able to play, being in tears at one point.
A day after England were knocked out of the World Cup, an emotional Beckham made a statement in a news conference that he had stepped down as England captain, stating, "It has been an honour and privilege to captain my country but, having been captain for 58 of my 95 games, I feel the time is right to pass on the armband as we enter a new era under Steve McClaren. '' (Beckham had won 94 caps up to that point.) He was succeeded by Chelsea captain John Terry.
Having stepped down as captain after the World Cup, Beckham was dropped completely from the England national team selected by new coach Steve McClaren on 11 August 2006. McClaren claimed that he was "looking to go in a different direction '' with the team, and that Beckham "was n't included within that. '' McClaren said Beckham could be recalled in future. Shaun Wright - Phillips, Kieran Richardson, and the World Cup alternative to Beckham, Aaron Lennon, were all included, although McClaren eventually opted to employ Steven Gerrard in that role.
On 26 May 2007, McClaren announced that Beckham would be recalled to the England squad for the first time since stepping down as their captain. Beckham started against Brazil in England 's first match at the new Wembley Stadium and put in a positive performance. In the second half, he set up England 's goal converted by captain John Terry. It looked as though England would claim victory over Brazil, but newcomer Diego equalised in the dying seconds. In England 's next match, a Euro 2008 qualifier against Estonia, Beckham sent two trademark assists for Michael Owen and Peter Crouch, helping England to prevail 3 -- 0. Beckham had assisted in three of England 's four total goals in those two games, and he stated his desire to continue to play for England after his move to Major League Soccer.
On 22 August 2007, Beckham played in a friendly for England against Germany, becoming the first to play for England while with a non-European club team. On 21 November 2007, Beckham earned his 99th cap against Croatia, setting up a goal for Peter Crouch to tie the game at 2 -- 2. Following the 2 -- 3 loss, England failed to qualify for the Euro 2008 Finals. Despite this, Beckham said that he has no plans to retire from international football and wanted to continue playing for the national team. After being passed over by new England coach and Beckham 's former manager at Real Madrid, Fabio Capello, for a friendly against Switzerland which would have given him his hundredth cap; Beckham admitted that he was not in shape at the time, as he had not played a competitive match in three months.
On 20 March 2008, Beckham was recalled to the England squad by Capello for the friendly against France in Paris on 26 March. Beckham became only the fifth Englishman to win 100 caps. Capello had hinted on 25 March 2008 that Beckham had a long - term future in his side ahead of crucial qualifiers for the 2010 World Cup. On 11 May 2008, Capello included an in - form Beckham in his 31 - man England squad to face the United States at Wembley Stadium on 28 May before the away fixture with Trinidad and Tobago on 1 June. Beckham was honoured before the match by receiving an honorary gold cap representing his 100th cap from Bobby Charlton, and was given a standing ovation from the crowd. He played well and assisted John Terry on the match - winning goal. When substituted at half - time for David Bentley, the pro-Beckham crowd booed the decision. In a surprise move, Capello handed Beckham the captaincy for England 's friendly against Trinidad and Tobago on 1 June 2008. The match was the first time since the 2006 World Cup that Beckham had skippered England and marked a dramatic turnaround for Beckham. In two years, he had gone from being dropped completely from the England squad to being reinstated (though temporarily) as England captain.
During the 2010 World Cup Qualifier against Belarus in which England won 3 -- 1 in Minsk, Beckham came off the bench in the 87th minute to earn his 107th cap making him England 's third-most - capped player in history, overtaking Bobby Charlton in the process. On 11 February 2009, Beckham drew level with Bobby Moore 's record of 108 caps for an English outfield player, coming on as a substitute for Stewart Downing in a friendly match against Spain. On 28 March 2009, Beckham surpassed Moore to hold the record outright when he came on as a substitute in a friendly against Slovakia, providing the assist for a goal from Wayne Rooney in the process. In all, Beckham had made 16 appearances out of a possible 20 for England under Capello until his ruptured Achilles tendon of March 2010 ruled him out of selection for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. His last game for England before injury had been on 14 October 2009 as a substitute in England 's last World Cup qualifying game, which ended England 3 -- 0 Belarus.
After a poor performance from England at the World Cup, Capello remained as manager but was under pressure to revamp the England squad for the imminent UEFA Euro 2012 qualification campaign. He unveiled a new team at the next England match, a home friendly game against Hungary on 11 August 2010, with Beckham still unavailable for selection but aiming for a return to playing in MLS by the following month. In the post-match interview, Capello said of the prospect of the now 35 - year - old Beckham playing any future competitive matches for England, that "I need to change it. David is a fantastic player but I think we need new players for the future '', referring to the new players that play in Beckham 's right midfield position, including Theo Walcott and Adam Johnson, adding "This is the future of the team under Fabio Capello or another manager. '' He said that Beckham may be selected for one last friendly game, stating, "If he is fit, I hope we will play one more game here at Wembley so the fans can say goodbye. '' In response to the comments, Beckham 's agent released a statement reiterating Beckham 's position that he had no desire to retire from international football, and would always make himself available for selection for England if fit and if needed. He remains 10 caps short of the record number of 125 caps by goalkeeper Peter Shilton, for a player of any position.
Beckham was named in the provisional squad to represent the Great Britain Olympic football team at the 2012 Olympics. He was not included in the final selection by manager Stuart Pearce.
-- Former Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson.
Beckham was a product of Sir Alex Ferguson 's hard - working approach at Manchester United, and was renowned for his long - range passing, crossing ability, and bending free - kicks as a right winger. Ferguson noted that Beckham "practised with a discipline to achieve an accuracy that other players would n't care about. '' Beckham reportedly spent hours practising his free kicks after training sessions had ended.
Beckham maintained his training routine at Real Madrid and even when his relationship with management was strained in early 2007, Real Madrid president Ramón Calderón and manager Fabio Capello praised Beckham for maintaining his professionalism and commitment to the club. Beckham 's Real Madrid teammate Roberto Carlos regarded Beckham to be the best free - kick exponent he had ever seen. Two of the best free kick exponents of their generation, Roberto Carlos commented on the dilemma the team faced when they won a free kick on the edge of the penalty area: "I would stand on one side and Beckham on the other but I wanted to see Beckham take the free - kick because it 's beautiful how he hits the ball. ''
In May 2013, asked about how he wanted to be remembered in his retirement, Beckham said, "I just want people to see me as a hardworking footballer, someone that 's passionate about the game, someone that -- every time I stepped on the pitch -- I 've given everything that I have, because that 's how I feel. That 's how I look back on it and hope people will see me. ''
Beckham was the first England player ever to collect two red cards, and the first England captain to be sent off. Beckham 's most notorious red card was during the 1998 World Cup after Argentina 's Diego Simeone had fouled him: Beckham, lying face down on the pitch, kicked out at the Argentine midfielder, who fell dramatically.
He amassed 41 yellow cards and four red cards in his time at Real Madrid; all four reds came in La Liga. He received one red card while at Paris Saint - Germain, picked up in injury time in a match against Evian on 28 April 2013. Between 2000 and 2013, Beckham played 420 competitive games for England, Milan, LA Galaxy, Manchester United, Real Madrid and PSG, and received seven red cards, one every 60 matches on average.
In 2005, Beckham founded the David Beckham Academy football school, operating from two sites, in London and Los Angeles. It was announced in late 2009 that both would close. A mobile academy is being developed by Beckham, to travel around the UK and further afield.
On 5 February 2014, MLS announced that Beckham had exercised his option to buy a MLS expansion team for $25 million, which he had received as part of the contract he signed with the LA Galaxy in 2007. The ownership group, led by Beckham, originally hoped the Miami - based team would begin play in 2016 or 2017. After delays getting a stadium deal completed, MLS announced in January 2018 that the team had been approved and would likely begin play in 2020.
In 1997, Beckham started dating Victoria Adams, after she attended a Manchester United match. She was famously known as "Posh Spice '' of the pop music group Spice Girls, one of the world 's top pop groups at the time, and his team was also enjoying a great run of success. Therefore, their relationship instantly attracted a great deal of media attention. The couple were dubbed "Posh and Becks '' by the media. He proposed to her on 24 January 1998 in a restaurant in Cheshunt, England.
On 4 July 1999, they married at Luttrellstown Castle in Ireland. Beckham 's teammate Gary Neville was the best man, and the couple 's infant son, Brooklyn, was the ring bearer. The media were kept away from the ceremony, as the Beckhams had an exclusive deal with OK! Magazine, but newspapers were still able to obtain photographs showing them sitting on golden thrones. 437 staff were employed for the wedding reception, which was estimated to have cost £ 500,000.
David and Victoria Beckham have four children: sons Brooklyn Joseph (born 4 March 1999 at Portland Hospital, London), Romeo James (born 1 September 2002 at Portland Hospital, London), Cruz David (born 20 February 2005 at Ruber International Hospital, Madrid), and daughter Harper Seven (born 10 July 2011 at Cedars - Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles). Elton John is godfather to Brooklyn and Romeo Beckham; their godmother is Elizabeth Hurley. Beckham 's three sons have all played football in the Arsenal Academy. Like their father, Brooklyn and Romeo have both done modelling work and been named among GQ 's best dressed British men. Brooklyn previously played football for Arsenal U16, but was released at the end of the 2014 -- 15 season.
In his early Manchester United career, Beckham lived in a four - bedroom house in Worsley that he bought directly from the property developer as a 20 - year - old in 1995.
Beckham suffers from obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), which he says makes him "have everything in a straight line or everything has to be in pairs. '' Victoria Beckham claims, "If you open our fridge, it 's all co-ordinated down either side. We 've got three fridges -- food in one, salad in another and drinks in the third. In the drinks one, everything is symmetrical. If there 's three cans, he 'll throw one away because it has to be an even number. ''
In April 2004, the British tabloid News of the World carried claims by Beckham 's former personal assistant Rebecca Loos that he and Loos had an extramarital affair. A week later, the Malaysian - born Australian model Sarah Marbeck claimed that she had slept with Beckham on two occasions. Beckham dismissed both accusations as "ludicrous ''.
In September 2010, Beckham announced that he was making a court application against prostitute Irma Nici and several others over claims in the magazine In Touch that he had sex with her. Although the magazine later accepted that the allegations against Beckham were untrue, his court application was dismissed under US freedom of speech laws.
Beckham 's fame extends beyond the pitch; in much of the world his name is "as instantly recognisable as that of multinational companies like Coca - Cola and IBM. '' Beckham 's relationship and marriage to Victoria, who has been famous in her own right as part of the Spice Girls, contributed to his celebrity beyond football.
Beckham became known as a fashion icon, and together with Victoria, the couple became lucrative spokespeople sought after by clothing designers, health and fitness specialists, fashion magazines, perfume and cosmetics manufacturers, hair stylists, exercise promoters, and spa and recreation companies. One example is a line of aftershave and fragrances called David Beckham Instinct. In 2002, Beckham was hailed as the ultimate "metrosexual '' by the man who invented the term and has been described as such by numerous other articles since.
The Beckhams were paid $13.7 million in 2007 to launch his fragrance line in the United States In the world of fashion, David has already appeared on the covers of many magazines. United States covers have included the men 's magazine Details, and with his wife for the August 2007 issue of W. According to Google, "David Beckham '' was searched for more than any other sports topic on their site in 2003 and 2004. According to Ask Jeeves, Beckham ranked third, after Britney Spears and Osama bin Laden, among subjects most searched for by British users of that site in the first decade of the 2000s.
Upon their arrival in Los Angeles on 12 July 2007, the night before Beckham 's formal introduction, Los Angeles International Airport was filled with paparazzi and news reporters. On the next night, Victoria appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno to talk about their move to LA, and presented Leno with a number 23 Galaxy jersey with his own name on the back. Victoria also talked about her NBC TV show Victoria Beckham: Coming to America. On 22 July, a private welcoming party was held for the couple at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. A-list celebrities attending included Steven Spielberg, Jim Carrey, George Clooney, Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, Will Smith, Jada Pinkett Smith, and Oprah Winfrey.
Beckham 's many endorsement deals make him one of the most recognisable athletes throughout the world. Having worn Adidas football boots from the start of his career (notably Adidas Predator), in 2003 he signed a $160 million lifetime contract with Adidas, earning nearly half the money upfront, and will continue to earn percentages of profits on all of his branded Adidas products. He had a 10 - year collaboration with Pepsi Co. that expired in 2009. He has also promoted The Walt Disney Company theme parks.
Beckham has several eponymous video games, including Go! Go! Beckham! Adventure on Soccer Island, a platform game for the Game Boy Advance, and David Beckham Soccer, a football game for a number of platforms, and he was brand ambassador for exercise video game EA Sports Active 2. Beckham featured in EA Sports ' FIFA video game series; he was on the cover for the International edition of FIFA 98.
During his playing career (which ended in May 2013), Beckham generated an estimated £ 1 billion in shirt and boot sales. In 2006, Lloyd 's of London insured his legs for £ 100m, at the time he was playing for Real Madrid. In March 2015 Beckham had the third highest social media rank in the world among sportspeople, behind Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi, with over 52 million Facebook fans.
At the closing ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Beckham, Jimmy Page and Leona Lewis represented Britain during the handover segment for the 2012 Games to be held in London. Beckham rode a London double - decker bus into the stadium and Page and Lewis performed "Whole Lotta Love ''. Beckham visited Afghanistan in May 2010 for a morale - boosting visit to British troops fighting the Taliban insurgency. The appearance of Beckham as well as British Foreign Secretary William Hague and Defence Secretary Liam Fox was believed to have prompted a Taliban attack on Kandahar airfield.
Chinese authorities appointed Beckham as global ambassador for Chinese football in March 2013. After numerous officials had been banned for match - fixing, and the Chinese Super League had failed to retain the services of well - known international names, Beckham 's role was to help improve the image of the game and raise its profile both in China and abroad.
From 14 July 2013, Beckham started appearing in adverts for BSkyB advertising their Sky Sports coverage via the Sky Go app. In January 2014, Beckham appeared on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on NBC in the U.S, and in March he made a guest appearance in the BBC 's Sport Relief special of Only Fools and Horses. He was named one of GQ 's 50 best dressed British men in 2015.
Beckham was announced as the new Ambassadorial president of the British Fashion Council on 11 May 2018. Prior to the June 2018 vote by FIFA member nations for selecting the hosts of the 2026 FIFA World Cup, Beckham endorsed the North American bid (Canada, Mexico and the United States).
Beckham has supported UNICEF since his days at Manchester United and in January 2005, the English national team captain became a Goodwill Ambassador with a special focus on UNICEF 's Sports for Development program. In 2012, he met with UK Prime Minister David Cameron at 10 Downing Street to call for more action to help children affected by malnutrition around the world. In 2015, his tenth year as a UNICEF Ambassador, Beckham launched 7: The David Beckham UNICEF Fund to help protect children in danger. In June 2015 he visited Siem Reap in Cambodia, where he met with child victims of violence. Beckham has pledged his support for the Unite for Children, Unite Against AIDS campaign. He is a former patron of the Elton John AIDS Foundation. In 2013, he also donated all his £ 3.4 million salary taken from Paris Saint - Germain to two children 's charities in France. Beckham has been supporting the charity named Help For Heroes for many years whose aim is to help soldiers injured in Iraq and Afghan wars.
On 17 January 2007, Rebecca Johnstone, a 19 - year - old cancer patient from Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, received a surprise phone call from Beckham. After the conversation, he sent her a Real Madrid jersey with his signature on it. Rebecca died on 29 January 2007. On 1 July 2007, Beckham appeared as a speaker at the Concert for Diana held at Wembley Stadium, London to celebrate the life of Princess Diana almost 10 years after her death. Proceeds from the concert went to Diana 's charities as well as to charities of which her sons Princes William and Harry are patrons.
Beckham is a founding member of the Malaria No More UK Leadership Council and helped launch the charity in 2009 with Andy Murray at Wembley Stadium. Beckham also appeared in a 2007 public service announcement for Malaria No More U.S, advertising the need for inexpensive bed nets. The TV spot aired in the United States on Fox Networks, including Fox Soccer Channel, and can also be seen on YouTube.
Since joining Major League Soccer, Beckham has been a very public advocate in the United States for related charities such as "MLS W.O.R.K.S. '' On 17 August 2007, he conducted a youth clinic in Harlem, along with other current and former MLS players. This was in advance of his first New York City area match the following day against the New York Red Bulls. That team 's Jozy Altidore and Juan Pablo Ángel were also with Beckham, teaching skills to disadvantaged youth to benefit FC Harlem Lions.
Beckham never personally appeared in the 2002 film Bend It Like Beckham, except in archive footage. He and his wife wanted to make cameo appearances, but scheduling proved difficult, so the director used lookalike Andy Harmer instead.
Beckham makes a cameo appearance with Zinedine Zidane and Raúl, in the 2005 film Goal!. Harmer also doubled for him in the party scene. Beckham himself appears in the sequel Goal II: Living the Dream in a larger role, when the film 's lead character gets transferred to Real Madrid. This time, the story centres on the Real Madrid team, and besides Beckham, other real life Real Madrid players also appear on and off the pitch, alongside the fictional characters. Though the use of stock footage from the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Beckham appeared in Goal III: Taking on the World, which was released straight to DVD on 15 June 2009. Beckham has expressed no personal interest in pursuit of acting roles, saying he is too "stiff ''.
However, due to his friendship with Guy Ritchie, he has made two cameo appearances in Ritchie 's films: as a projectionist in The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (based on the 1964 MGM television series of the same name), and as Trigger in King Arthur: Legend of the Sword.
Beckham has played along to jokes about his voice. In a 2018 promo for Deadpool 2, Beckham is seen watching the first instalment of the film franchise in which Ryan Reynolds ' character compares Beckham 's voice to inhaling helium. Beckham is seen rolling his eyes at the voice jibe before receiving an apology text from Deadpool. Beckham answers his door to the antihero who presents him with milk and cookies, before Deadpool knocks again and has a bunch of helium - filled red balloons.
Beckham captained England 59 times, the fourth highest after Bobby Moore and Billy Wright both with 90, and Bryan Robson with 65. With his free kick goal against Ecuador in the second round of the 2006 World Cup, Beckham gained membership into two of football 's exclusive clubs: he became the only English player -- and the 21st player in the world -- to score in three World Cups; Real Madrid teammate Raúl also achieved this feat a few days earlier. It also made him only the fifth player in World Cup history to score twice from a direct free kick; the other four were Pelé, Roberto Rivelino, Teófilo Cubillas, and Bernard Genghini (Beckham had previously scored this way against Colombia in the first round of the 1998 World Cup). All three goals were against South American teams (Colombia, Argentina and Ecuador) and from set pieces (the two aforementioned free kicks and a penalty against Argentina).
As of 2016, Beckham had more than 40 tattoos. There are names of his sons Romeo, Cruz and Brooklyn, and of his wife Victoria. His wife 's name, tattooed on his left forearm, is in Sanskrit script because Beckham thought it would be "tacky '' to have it in English. Unfortunately, this was misspelt as the equivalent of "Vihctoria ''. In his autobiography David Beckham: My Side, he said that the idea of having tattoos came to him in 1999 after his son Brooklyn was born, following a conversation on the subject of tattoos with Mel B and her then - husband, Jimmy Gulzar. Beckham said: "I ended up going to this Dutch guy who 'd done all of Jimmy 's. I 'd finally realised what I wanted a tattoo to represent. Mine are all about the people in my life, my wife and sons, who I want with me always. When you see me, you see the tattoos. You see an expression of how I feel about Victoria and the boys. They 're part of me. ''
2006 FIFA World Cup qualification
Manchester United Youth
Manchester United
Real Madrid
LA Galaxy
Paris Saint - Germain
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when do you get called to the bar | Call to the bar - wikipedia
The call to the bar is a legal term of art in most common law jurisdictions where persons must be qualified to be allowed to argue in court on behalf of another party and are then said to have been "called to the bar '' or to have received a "call to the bar ''. "The bar '' is now used as collective noun for barristers, but literally referred to the wooden barrier in old courtrooms, which separated the often crowded public area at the rear from the space near the judges reserved for those having business with the Court. Barristers would sit or stand immediately behind it, facing the judge, and could use it as a table for their briefs.
Like many other common law terms, the term originated in England in the Middle Ages, and the call to the bar refers to the summons issued to one found fit to speak at the ' bar ' of the royal courts. In time, English judges allowed only legally qualified men to address them on the law and later delegated the qualification and admission of barristers to the four Inns of Court. Once an Inn calls one of its members to its bar, they are thereafter a barrister. They may not, however, practise as a barrister until they have completed (or been exempted from) an apprenticeship called pupillage. After completing pupillage, they are considered to be a practising barrister with a right of audience before all courts.
England and Wales and some other jurisdictions distinguish two types of lawyers, who are regulated by different bodies, with separate training, examinations, regulation and traditions:
A solicitor must additionally qualify as a solicitor - advocate in order to acquire the same "higher rights '' of audience as a barrister. In other jurisdictions, the terminology and the degree of overlap between the roles of solicitor and barrister varies greatly; in most, the distinction has disappeared entirely.
Common law jurisdictions include Australia, England and Wales, New Zealand, Canada, Hong Kong, India, Nigeria, the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland and most jurisdictions in the Commonwealth of Nations and the United States (the See also section below contains links to articles on the laws of these jurisdictions).
In common law, Canadian provinces, despite the unified legal profession (lawyers are qualified as both barristers and solicitors), the certificate issued by the provincial Law Society to the newly qualified lawyer generally indicates his or her having been called to the Bar and admitted as a solicitor. In the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Manitoba, there are, in fact, two certificates, one issued by the respective provincial Law Society for call to the bar and the other by the Superior Court (Ontario) or Court of Queen 's Bench (Manitoba) for admission as a solicitor. In Ontario being called to the bar requires students to article (apprentice) with a law firm for ten months, but due to a shortage of articling positions available each year and an influx of articling candidates, a pilot alternative program available through the University of Ottawa and Ryerson University was established. The Law Practice Program requires the articling students to spend four months in a virtual law office and to spend another four months in a work placement. Alberta is the only common law jurisdiction with individual, rather than group, calls. The student 's supervisor, referred to as his or her principal, makes an oral application to the Provincial Court of Alberta or Court of Queen 's Bench to have the student called to the bar. Gowns are worn and the ceremony is public, with the presiding judge (or judges) welcoming the new member with a speech written specifically for that call. In Quebec, a civil law notary is very similar to a solicitor.
In England and Wales, a call ceremony takes place at the barrister 's Inn of Court (or at Temple Church for Inner Temple Inn), before or during the pupillage year. A barrister is called to the utter ("outer '') bar or "appointed to the degree of the utter bar ''. Those appointed as Queen 's Counsel are entitled to plead from "within the bar '' in court.
As in Canada, the legal profession is fused. A lawyer in New Zealand is admitted as either a "barrister sole '' or a "barrister and solicitor of the High Court of New Zealand ''. Once admitted, New Zealand 's "barrister and solicitors '' are able to practise in either mode provided they hold a practising certificate, while barristers sole are entitled only to practice as a barrister. Admission is overseen by the New Zealand Law Society.
As in New Zealand, there is no formal distinction between barristers and solicitors. A lawyer in Nigeria is admitted as a "Barrister and Solicitor of the Supreme Court of Nigeria. '' Once admitted, Nigerian lawyers may argue in any federal trial or appellate court as well as any of the courts in Nigeria 's thirty six states and the Federal Capital Territory. Lawyers are regulated by the Nigerian Bar Association.
In Sri Lanka, a lawyer must be admitted and enrolled as an attorney - at - law of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka. This is referred to as the call to the bar.
Generally, a lawyer is said to have been "admitted to the Bar '' and become an "attorney at law ''; some states still use the older term "attorney and counselor (or even spelled ' counsellor ') at law '', upon taking his or her oath of office. Historically, the institution of attorney was similar to that of the solicitor, whereas the office of the counselor was almost identical to that of the barrister, but today this distinction has disappeared. The phrase "called to the bar '' is still sometimes used informally by U.S. attorneys to refer to their qualification as a lawyer.
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who is the guy in a star is born | A Star Is Born (2018 film) - wikipedia
A Star Is Born is a 2018 American music - themed romantic drama film produced and directed by Bradley Cooper (in his directorial debut) and written by Cooper, Eric Roth and Will Fetters. A remake of the 1937 film of the same name, it stars Cooper, Lady Gaga, Andrew Dice Clay, Dave Chappelle, and Sam Elliott, and follows a hard - drinking musician (Cooper) who discovers and falls in love with a young singer (Gaga). It marks the fourth remake of the original 1937 film, after the 1954 musical, the 1976 rock musical and the 2013 Bollywood romance film.
Talks of a remake of A Star Is Born began in 2011, with Clint Eastwood attached to direct and Beyoncé set to star. The film was in development hell for several years with various actors approached to co-star, including Christian Bale, Leonardo DiCaprio, Will Smith, and Tom Cruise. In March 2016, Cooper signed on to star and direct, and Lady Gaga joined the cast in August 2016. Principal photography began at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in April 2017.
A Star Is Born premiered at the 75th Venice International Film Festival on August 31, 2018, and was theatrically released in the United States on October 5, 2018, by Warner Bros. The film has grossed over $254 million worldwide and received critical acclaim, with praise for Cooper, Gaga and Elliott 's performances and Cooper 's direction, as well as the screenplay, cinematography and music.
Jackson Maine, a famous country music singer privately battling an alcohol and drug addiction, plays a concert in California. His main support is Bobby, his manager and significantly older half - brother. After the show, Jackson happens upon a drag bar where he witnesses a performance by Ally, a waitress and singer - songwriter. Jackson is amazed by her talent; they spend the night speaking to each other, where Ally discloses to him the troubles she has faced in pursuing a professional music career.
Jackson invites Ally to his next show. Despite her initial refusal she attends and, with Jackson 's encouragement, sings on stage with him. Jackson invites Ally to go on tour with him, and they form a romantic relationship. In Arizona, Ally and Jackson visit the ranch where Jackson grew up and where his father is buried, only to discover that Bobby sold the land. Angered at his betrayal, Jackson punches Bobby, who subsequently quits as his manager. Before doing so, Bobby reveals that he did inform Jackson about the sale, but the latter was too inebriated to notice.
While on tour Ally meets Rez, a record producer who offers her a contract. Although visibly bothered, Jackson still supports her decision. Rez refocuses Ally away from country music and towards pop. Jackson misses one of Ally 's performances after he passes out drunk in public; he recovers at the home of his friend Noodles, and later makes up with Ally. There he proposes to Ally with a ring made from a loop of guitar string, and they are married that same day.
During Ally 's performance on Saturday Night Live, Bobby reconciles with Jackson. Later, Jackson and Ally fight after he drunkenly voices his disapproval of Ally 's new image and music, which is nominated for Grammy Awards. At the Grammys, a visibly intoxicated Jackson performs in a tribute to Roy Orbison, and Ally wins the Best New Artist award. When she goes up on stage to receive her award, Jackson follows her, where he wets himself and passes out. Ally 's father Lorenzo berates Jackson and Ally helps him sober up. Jackson joins a drug rehabilitation program shortly thereafter.
Jackson recovers in rehab, where he discloses to his counselor that he attempted suicide as a teenager. He tearfully apologizes to Ally for his behavior, and returns home. Ally wishes to bring Jackson to perform with her on the European leg of her tour; Rez refuses, prompting Ally to cancel the remainder of the tour so she can care for Jackson.
Rez later confronts Jackson, informing him of Ally 's decision to cancel her tour and accusing him of holding Ally back. That evening, Ally lies to Jackson, and tells him that her record label has cancelled her tour so she can focus on her second album. Jackson promises that he will come to her concert that night, but after Ally leaves, he hangs himself in their garage.
Ally becomes inconsolable after Jackson 's death. She is visited by Bobby, who explains Jackson 's death was his own fault and not hers. Ally takes a song that Jackson had written but never performed and sings it at a tribute concert, introducing herself as Ally Maine.
Additionally, Rebecca Field appears as Gail, Shangela Laquifa Wadley as the drag bar emcee, Willam Belli as drag queen Emerald, Greg Grunberg as Jackson 's driver Phil, and Ron Rifkin as Carl. Lukas Nelson & Promise of the Real appear as Jackson 's band, Eddie Griffin appears as a local preacher and Luenell appears as a cashier. Marlon Williams, Brandi Carlile, Halsey, Alec Baldwin, and Don Roy King cameo as themselves.
In January 2011, it was announced that Clint Eastwood was in talks to direct Beyoncé in a third American remake of the 1937 film A Star Is Born; however, the project was delayed due to Beyoncé 's pregnancy. In April 2012, writer Will Fetters told Collider that the script was inspired by Kurt Cobain. Talks with Christian Bale, Leonardo DiCaprio, Tom Cruise, Johnny Depp, and Will Smith to play the male lead failed to come to fruition. On October 9, 2012, Beyoncé left the project, and it was reported that Bradley Cooper was in talks to star. Eastwood was interested in Esperanza Spalding to play the female lead.
On March 24, 2015, Warner Bros. announced that Cooper was in final talks to make his directorial debut with the film, and potentially to star with Beyoncé, who was again in talks to join; Cooper did become the male lead. On August 16, 2016, it was reported that Lady Gaga had officially become attached and the studio had green - lit the project to begin production early 2017. It marks the fourth remake of the original 1937 film, after the 1954 musical, the 1976 rock musical and the 2013 Bollywood romance film. On November 9, 2016, it was reported that Ray Liotta was in talks to join the film in the role of the manager to Cooper 's character, though he ultimately was not involved. On March 17, 2017, Sam Elliott joined the film, with Andrew Dice Clay entering negotiations to play Lorenzo, the father of Lady Gaga 's character. Clay was selected over Robert De Niro, John Turturro and John Travolta. In April 2017, Rafi Gavron, Michael Harney, and Rebecca Field also joined the cast.
Filming began on April 17, 2017. In May, Dave Chappelle was cast in the film. In April 2018, it was announced that Halsey would have a small role.
After seeing him perform at Desert Trip festival, Cooper approached Lukas Nelson (son of country music singer Willie Nelson) and asked him to help work on the film. Nelson agreed and wrote several songs, which he sent to the producers. Nelson subsequently met Lady Gaga and began writing songs with her and she, in turn, provided backing vocals on two tracks on his self - titled 2017 album. The soundtrack, performed by Gaga and Cooper, was released on October 5, 2018, by Interscope Records. The studio announced that the album "features 19 songs in a wide range of musical styles + 15 dialogue tracks that will take you on a journey that mirrors the experience of seeing the film. ''
A Star Is Born had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on August 31, 2018. It also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival, the San Sebastián International Film Festival, and the Zurich Film Festival in September 2018. The film was theatrically released in the United States on October 5, 2018, distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures, after initially having been set for September 28, 2018, and May 18, 2018, releases.
As of October 28, 2018, A Star Is Born has grossed $148.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $106 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $254.6 million, against a production budget of $36 -- 40 million.
In the United States and Canada, A Star Is Born grossed $1.35 million from select Tuesday and Wednesday night screenings, and $15.8 million on its first day, including $3.2 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $42.9 million for the weekend and finished second at the box office, behind fellow newcomer Venom. The film remained in second place in its second, third and fourth weekends, grossing a respective $28 million, $19.3 million and $14.1 million.
Outside North America, the film was released day - and - date with the U.S. in 31 other countries, and made $14.2 million in its opening weekend; its largest markets were the United Kingdom ($5.3 million), France ($2.1 million) and Germany ($1.9 million).
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, A Star Is Born holds an approval rating of 90 % based on 394 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "With appealing leads, deft direction, and an affecting love story, A Star Is Born is a remake done right -- and a reminder that some stories can be just as effective in the retelling. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 88 out of 100, based on 60 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported film - goers gave it a 90 % positive score.
Alonso Duralde of TheWrap gave the film a positive review, saying, "Cooper and Lady Gaga are dynamite together; this is a story that lives and dies by the central relationship and the instant chemistry that must blossom between them, and these two have it in spades, '' and praised the musical numbers, describing them as "electrifying ''. Owen Gleiberman of Variety lauded Cooper 's directing, co-writing, and acting, and called the film "a transcendent Hollywood movie ''. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B+, singling out Gaga 's performance, saying, "she deserves praise for her restrained, human - scale performance as a singer whose real - girl vulnerability feels miles away from the glittery meat - dress delirium of her own stage persona. '' Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine found the film superior to its previous iterations and similarly praised Cooper 's direction, the writing, as well the performances and chemistry of Cooper and Gaga. She stated: "You come away feeling something for these people, flawed individuals who are trying to hold their cracked pieces of self together -- or to mend the cracks of those they love, '' also describing Gaga 's performance as a "knockout. ''
In his review for Los Angeles Times, Justin Chang called the film "remarkable, '' and praised Cooper for his fresh take on the well - worn formula of 1937 film, as well his direction, the performances, writing, and the cinematography. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film 4.5 out of five stars, and deemed it as a "modern classic, '' hailing the performances of Cooper and Gaga, and Cooper 's direction. He found the film 's screenplay and the original songs "seamless '' and "terrific, '' and also called the film a major Oscar contender of the year and one of the year 's best films. The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday described the film as "lavishly delightful '' and "earthly convincing, '' and added that it "offers a suitably jaundiced glimpse of starmaking machinery at its most cynical, but also its most thrilling and gratifying. '' She similarly praised Cooper 's direction, the performances and chemistry of Cooper and Gaga, and the supporting performances, particularly Andrew Dice Clay and Sam Elliott.
While praising the direction, acting, and writing, Michael Phillips in the Chicago Tribune argues that a A Star is Born 's formula has always been very seductive to audiences, even when it has been written poorly, and Cooper 's few missteps include being a bit of a scene hog. Admitting audiences love it, and he just liked it, Phillips drew attention to a skeptical review by Lindsey Romaine of Medium.com who criticized the story 's marginalization of the Gaga character in dealing with Cooper 's manipulative addict. She at least wanted a scene where Gaga 's character processed her behavior of letting the addict boyfriend get away with it. Phillips argued that it is in part the skillful musicianship which gets audiences to blow past such flaws.
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when did one direction audition for x factor | One Direction - wikipedia
One Direction (commonly abbreviated as 1D) are an English - Irish pop boy band based in London, composed of Niall Horan, Liam Payne, Harry Styles, Louis Tomlinson, and previously, Zayn Malik until his departure from the band on 25 March 2015. The group signed with Simon Cowell 's record label Syco Records after forming and finishing third in the seventh series of the British televised singing competition The X Factor in 2010. Propelled to international success by social media, One Direction 's five albums, Up All Night (2011), Take Me Home (2012), Midnight Memories (2013), Four (2014), and Made in the A.M. (2015), topped charts in most major markets, and generated hit singles including "What Makes You Beautiful '', "Live While We 're Young '', "Best Song Ever '', "Story of My Life '', and "Drag Me Down ''.
Their awards include six Brit Awards, four MTV Video Music Awards, eleven MTV Europe Music Awards, seven American Music Awards (including Artist of the Year in 2014 and 2015), and 28 Teen Choice Awards, among many others. According to Nick Gatfield, the chairman and chief executive of Sony Music Entertainment UK, One Direction represented a $50 million business empire by June 2012. They were proclaimed 2012 's "Top New Artist '' by Billboard. According to the Sunday Times Rich List, by April 2013, they had an estimated personal combined wealth of £ 25 million ($41.2 m) making them the second - wealthiest musicians in the UK under 30 years of age. In 2014, Forbes listed them the second - highest earning celebrities under 30, with the group earning an estimated $75 million from June 2013 to June 2014. In June 2015, Forbes listed their earnings at $130 million for the previous twelve months, and ranked them the fourth highest earning celebrities in the world. In 2016 Forbes ranked them the world 's second highest earning celebrities.
After the release of Four, One Direction became the first band in the US Billboard 200 history to have their first four albums debut at number one. Their third album, Midnight Memories, was the best - selling album worldwide of 2013. The band 's Where We Are Tour in support of Midnight Memories and Four, was the highest - grossing concert tour in 2014, and the highest - grossing tour ever by a vocal group, generating $282 million. In 2014, Billboard named One Direction Artist of the Year. The band is currently on a hiatus that began in January 2016, allowing all members to pursue other projects.
In 2010, Niall Horan, Zayn Malik, Liam Payne, Harry Styles, and Louis Tomlinson auditioned as solo candidates for the seventh series of the British televised singing competition The X Factor. They failed to progress to the "Boys '' category at "judges ' houses '' but were put together to form a five - piece boy band at Wembley Arena, in London, England, in July 2010, during the "bootcamp '' stage of the competition, thus qualifying for the "Groups '' category. Nicole Scherzinger, a guest judge, and Simon Cowell have both claimed to have come up with the idea of forming the band. In 2013, Cowell said that it "took him 10 minutes to put them together as a group ''. Subsequently, the group got together for two weeks to get to know each other and to practice. Styles came up with the name One Direction. For their qualifying song at "judges ' houses '', and their first song as a group, One Direction sang an acoustic version of "Torn ''. Cowell later commented that their performance convinced him that they "were confident, fun, like a gang of friends, and kind of fearless as well. '' Within the first four weeks of the live shows, they were his last act in the competition. The group quickly gained popularity in the UK.
One Direction achieved third place in the competition and immediately after the final, their song "Forever Young '', which would have been released if they had won The X Factor, was leaked onto the internet. Shortly afterwards it was confirmed that One Direction had been signed by Cowell to a reported £ 2 million Syco Records record contract. Recording for their debut album began in January 2011, as they flew to Los Angeles to work with RedOne, a record producer. A book licensed by One Direction, One Direction: Forever Young (Our Official X Factor Story), was published by HarperCollins in February 2011, subsequently topping The Sunday Times Best Seller list. The same month, the boy band and other contestants from the series participated in the X Factor Live Tour. During the tour, the group performed for 500,000 people throughout the UK. After the tour concluded in April 2011, the group continued working on their debut album. Recording took place in Stockholm, London and Los Angeles, as One Direction worked with producers Carl Falk, Savan Kotecha, Steve Mac, and Rami Yacoub, among others.
Released in September 2011, One Direction 's debut single, "What Makes You Beautiful '', reached number one on the UK Singles Chart, after becoming the most pre-ordered Sony Music Entertainment single in history. Subsequent singles, "Gotta Be You '' and "One Thing '', peaked in the UK Singles Chart top ten. In November 2011, they signed a record deal with Columbia Records in North America. Steve Barnett, the co-chairman of Columbia Records, said it was not a difficult decision to sign One Direction; "I just thought there was a void, and maybe they could seize and hold it. '' "What Makes You Beautiful '' was released in the United States in February 2012, where it debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 28, becoming the highest debut for a British act since 1998. It has sold over 4 million copies in the US Upon arrival in the US in February 2012, One Direction embarked on a radio promotion spree, as well as their first North American concert tour as an opening act for Big Time Rush. They made their first US television appearance on The Today Show, at the Rockefeller Center; an estimated 15,000 fans descended on the plaza. Critically commended for its appeal to the teenage audience, One Direction 's first studio album, Up All Night, was released globally in early 2012. It became the UK 's fastest - selling debut album of 2011, and topped the charts in sixteen countries. The album bowed atop the Billboard 200 chart, making One Direction the first British group in US chart history to enter at number one with their debut album. They were inducted into the Guinness World Records as a result. Up All Night also became the first album by a boy band to sell 500,000 digital copies in the US and, by August 2012, had sold over 3 million copies worldwide.
In April 2012, an American band that went by the same name filed a trademark infringement lawsuit. According to the lawsuit, the US band had been using the name since 2009, recorded two albums and filed an application to register the trademark name in the US in February 2011. The US band said they were entitled to three times the profits made by the UK band, as well as compensatory damages in excess of US $1 million. The lawsuit claimed that Syco and Sony Music "chose to ignore the plaintiff 's rights and wilfully infringed them '' after they realised in early 2011 that the two bands shared the same name. Syco Records subsequently counter-sued, suggesting the US group was trying to make money from One Direction 's success and that the boy band was the first to use the name in US interstate commerce. The BBC reported in September 2012 that the UK group won the legal dispute over the right to keep using their band name; the US band changed its name to Uncharted Shores. The change of name was announced in a joint statement that also noted both groups were happy with the outcome.
In December 2011, One Direction embarked on their first headlining UK concert tour, the Up All Night Tour. In early 2012, they announced Australasian and North American legs of the concert tour, with dates from April to July 2012. The tour, comprising 62 shows, was met with positivity both critically and commercially. A recording of a concert from the tour, Up All Night: The Live Tour, was released in May 2012. In addition to the DVD topping the charts in twenty - five countries, its global sales had exceeded 1 million copies by August 2012. One Direction 's first book to be licensed in America, Dare to Dream: Life as One Direction, published in the United States in May 2012, topped The New York Times Best Seller list. In June 2012, Nick Gatfield, the chairman and chief executive officer of Sony Music Entertainment UK, stated how he expects One Direction to represent a $100 million business empire over 2013. Gatfield was quoted as saying, "What you might not know about One Direction is that they already represent a $50 million business and that 's a figure we expect to double next year ''. In August 2012, the group 's record sales exceeded 8 million singles, 3 million albums, and 1 million DVDs, and they performed "What Makes You Beautiful '' at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony in London, which represented the handover to Rio de Janeiro as the host of the 2016 Summer Olympics. One Direction were the biggest winners of the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards winning their three nominations on 6 September 2012, including Best New Artist.
One Direction 's second studio album, Take Me Home, was released in November 2012. Take Me Home was written in groups and has an average of just under five songwriters per track. Savan Kotecha, Rami Yacoub, and Carl Falk, who composed One Direction 's hits "What Makes You Beautiful '' and "One Thing '', spent six months in Stockholm developing songs for the album, and were able to shape melodies around their tones. One Direction began recording the album in May 2012, in Stockholm at Kinglet Studios. The album cover artwork features the group surrounding a traditional British K2 red telephone box, a familiar sight on the streets of the UK. Take Me Home garnered mixed reviews from music critics. There was praise for its quality of production, while it was criticised for its generic, rushed nature. The album 's lead single, "Live While We 're Young '', released in September 2012, reached the top ten in almost every country it charted in and recorded the highest one - week opening sales figure for a song by a non-US artist in the US The album and its second single, "Little Things '', both debuted at number one in the UK simultaneously; something that One Direction became the youngest act in British chart history to achieve. Take Me Home sold 540,000 copies in its first week in the US, debuted atop the Billboard 200, and topped the charts in more than thirty - four other countries. Additionally, Up All Night and Take Me Home were the number three and number four best - selling albums of 2012 globally, each album selling over 5 million units worldwide.
One Direction performed "Little Things '' at the 2012 Royal Variety Performance in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II, and headlined a sold - out show at New York City 's Madison Square Garden on 3 December 2012. In February 2013, One Direction released a cover version of "One Way or Another '' and "Teenage Kicks '', "One Way or Another (Teenage Kicks) '', as the 2013 Comic Relief single. As part of their involvement with the UK charity, One Direction travelled to Ghana to volunteer at a children 's hospital, visit a school and make donations.
The Official Charts Company revealed that One Direction had sold 2,425,000 records in the UK by February 2013. One Direction embarked on their second concert tour in February 2013, the Take Me Home Tour. The concert tour consists of over 100 shows in Europe, North America and Australasia. Ticket sales reached 300,000 within a day of release in the UK and Ireland, which included a six - date sell - out at London 's The O2 Arena. In the Australian and New Zealand markets, tickets grossed US $15.7 million, with all 190,000 tickets being sold for the eighteen shows to be held. The tour received critical acclaim from music critics who praised the band 's live vocals and their performance abilities and was a commercial success, selling 1,635,000 tickets from 134 shows.
One Direction: This Is Us, a 3D documentary and concert film about the group directed by Morgan Spurlock and produced by Spurlock, Ben Winston, Adam Milano and Simon Cowell, was released by TriStar Pictures on 30 August 2013. The film features the song "Best Song Ever '', released on 22 July 2013. "Best Song Ever '' was the lead single of the group 's third studio album Midnight Memories. The film was a box office success, topping the UK and US box offices and grossing over $60 million worldwide, and became the fourth highest - grossing concert movie. "Best Song Ever '' broke the 24 - Hour Vevo Record with 10.9 million views on YouTube (this was the second time the band held the record with "Live While We 're Young '' attaining 8.2 million views on 20 September 2012). On 16 May 2013, the band announced their first stadium tour, the Where We Are Tour, which began in April 2014. On 30 May 2013, the band announced a partnership with Office Depot on a limited - edition capsule collection of back to school supplies. They also confirmed that a portion of the proceeds from the alliance would go toward an anti-bullying educational program intended to promote kinder behaviour in schools.
On 23 November 2013, in support of Midnight Memories, the band participated in "1D Day '', a day dedicated to One Direction fans. The day constituted of a landmark 7.5 - hour socially interactive YouTube live - stream featuring live band performances, celebrity guests including, Simon Cowell, Cindy Crawford, Piers Morgan, Jerry Springer and many more. The event was unique not only because of its long runtime but the unprecedented use of social media whereby fans got to participate in the show interact directly with the band via Google+ Hangout.
Midnight Memories was released globally on 25 November 2013. It debuted at number one in the UK and in the US, making them the first group to debut at number one on the Billboard 200 with its first three albums, and the second to reach the top after The Monkees in 1967. The album was described by the band as edgier and as having a "slightly rockier tone '' than their previous efforts. "Story of My Life '' was revealed as the second single of the album with each member posting a photo from their childhood. To promote the album, the band performed on both the American and British versions of The X Factor.
In December 2013, One Direction broke yet another UK sales record with the DVD and Blu - ray release of their 3 - D concert film This is Us. Nearly 270,000 copies of the film were sold in the UK within three days of its release, beating the record previously set by Michael Jackson 's This Is It in 2010 by 10,000 copies. The group was named among the Top Global artists of 2013 by the IFPI because of strong digital downloads, physical albums, on - demand streams, and music videos.
On 21 July 2014, One Direction announced One Direction: Where We Are - The Concert Film, a film which documents the concerts of 28 and 29 June 2014 that took place in San Siro Stadium during their Where We Are Tour. After the announcement, the band announced the film would also have a limited 10 -- 11 October 2014 international cinema release before its home media release in November 2014. The group also released an autobiography book titled Who We Are on 25 September 2014.
On 8 September 2014, One Direction announced their fourth studio album to be titled Four, set to be released on 17 November 2014. As part of the announcement, one of the songs from the album, "Fireproof '' was released for free download for 24 hours on their official website. "Steal My Girl '', the album 's lead single, was released on 29 September 2014, and the music video was released on 24 October 2014. The second single from the album, "Night Changes '', was released on 14 November, three days before the album 's release. Four was released on 17 November 2014, topping the Billboard 200 and the UK Album Chart.
On 22 November 2014, Paul Higgins, the group 's tour manager who has been with them since its formation, parted ways with the band. The band confirmed at the BBC Music Awards that following the success of Four, they had hopes to continue to go "somewhere else '' on their fifth album. In support of Midnight Memories and Four, the band 's Where We Are Tour was the highest - grossing concert tour in 2014, and the highest - grossing tour ever by a vocal group, generating $282 million.
On 25 March 2015, the band released a statement announcing Malik 's departure. They admitted that they were angry at first because of Zayn Malik 's decision. The group made their first official public appearance as a four - piece on The Late Late Show with James Corden on 14 May, where they confirmed that they would continue working without a new fifth member. Since leaving the band, Malik has gone on to have solo success with his number one debut single "Pillowtalk '' and album Mind of Mine.
On 31 July 2015, the group released "Drag Me Down '' without promotional material or announcement. The single is the first single from their fifth studio album, Made in the A.M., and the first material released by the group after Malik 's departure. Following the release, it was revealed that the group would going on hiatus in 2016 to take a break. On 22 September, the title for the fifth studio album, Made in the A.M., was officially announced along with promotional single "Infinity '' being released. The group began to reveal the track listing on their Snapchat stories to which it was later confirmed on iTunes. The album was released on 13 November 2015. At the 2015 American Music Awards on 22 November, One Direction won the award for Artist of the Year for the second year in succession. Louis Tomlinson later confirmed that the break would be around 18 months. On 13 December, One Direction performed on The X Factor final. Their last televised performance as a group, before their hiatus, was on Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve on 31 December 2015.
On 13 January 2016, Us Weekly published a report claiming that the group 's hiatus would become a permanent split, with a "source '' citing that each of the four remaining group members did not renew their contracts following the completion of the on the Road Again Tour in October 2015. Representatives for the group denied said - report in a statement to Billboard, stating, "nothing has changed regarding hiatus plans for the group, and all will be revealed in due time from the band members ' own mouths. '' By May 2017, all members of the group had released solo singles.
At the 2017 Brit Awards, One Direction won the Video of the Year award for their song "History ''. Payne accepted the award on the behalf of the band.
One Direction 's debut studio album, Up All Night (2011), is predominantly a pop music record, containing elements of teen pop, dance - pop, pop rock, with electropop and rock influences. Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey described the album as a "collection of PG pop rock with killer choruses '', while The New York Times considered it "full of easy rock - inflected pop, blithe and sometimes clever. '' Jason Lipshutz of Billboard acknowledged that the album demonstrates an originality in sound that was "necessary for the revitalization of the boy band movement ''. The songs "One Thing '' and "What Makes You Beautiful '' were particularly noted for the genres of power pop and pop rock, for their "powerhouse '' guitar riffs and "forceful '' choruses.
Their second studio album, Take Me Home (2012), is characterised by rock - inherited pop, prominent electric guitar riffs, bright synthesisers, a homogeneous sound and message, and the pitch - correcting software Auto - Tune. Alexis Petridis of The Guardian interpreted its signature sound as a "peppy, synth - bolstered take on early - 80s new - wave pop, heavy on clipped rhythms and chugging guitars, '' which, he said, is at least an improvement on the substitute contemporary R&B "that was once the grim lot of the boyband. '' Jon Caramanica, writing in The New York Times, considered the album "far more mechanical '' than their debut album, although noted that it is sonically and lyrically similar. The album 's lyricism speaks of falling in love, unrequited love, the insistence that flaws are what make a person unique, commitment, jealousy and longing for past significant others.
Erica Futterman for Rolling Stone favoured their live acoustic performances as both showing, "Horan 's ability to play guitar, as well as One Direction 's admirable live vocals. There was no need to worry about a backing track or a bum note, a pleasant realization at a pop show. '' Herald Sun 's Cameron Adams opined that One Direction have "strong pop voices ''. Melody Lau of the National Post wrote, "It 's easy to get lost in inherent appeal of their perfectly coiffed dos and almost - too - put - together preppy style but somewhere in the midst of all the love - struck squeals of teenage girls are guys who can actually sing and, to a certain extent, entertain. '' Jane Stevenson of the portal site Canoe concurred: "What I did n't really prepare myself for was that they all can actually sing in concert. '' Chris Richards, writing in The Washington Post, dissented from the approval: "As the five traded couplets, it was tough to imagine a future Justin Timberlake, Ricky Martin or Bobby Brown emerging from the pack. No one voice stood out. '' Mike Wass of Idolator felt One Direction 's "surprisingly accomplished effort '' of Kings of Leon 's "Use Somebody '' proved that One Direction are "more than capable '' of evolving their sound.
Their third album Midnight Memories (2013) is a pop rock record, a slight departure from the band 's original teen pop sound. Liam Payne called Midnight Memories a "slightly rockier and edgier '' album than their previous material. The album is heavily influenced by 80 's rock and folk music and briefly integrates elements of dubstep, notably in "Little White Lies ''. The album 's lyrical themes primarily revolve around love, heartbreak and sexual intercourse. Many critics praised its lyrical depth and musical composition, as well as the group 's level of involvement in the production process.
Their fourth album Four (2014) was released on 17 November 2014. Payne once again claimed that the album would be "edgier '' and that the group had written most of the songs for it; Horan came up with the name of the album, commemorating the fact that it is One Direction 's fourth record to date and that it has been four years since the band 's formation. Signifying a further maturation of their pop sound, the album 's first single, Steal My Girl, was dubbed by Billboard as "no What Makes You Beautiful, but its Coldplay - like piano pop could be a good direction '', and that the band was "not entirely ready to let go of its bubble - gum days ''. Rolling Stone described the record as "saturated with retro vibes ''; its songs "split the difference between big, splashy Eighties pop rock and more elegant Seventies flavours -- a very pesky whipper - snapper move that 's not so far from what Haim 's hit Days Are Gone did last year. ''
In 2011, the band performed on the BBC 's Children in Need 2011 charity telethon, helping raise over 26 million pounds. In 2012 they extended their involvement with Children in Need as they opened the telecast with a performance of their single "Live While We 're Young ''. A prominent annual event in British culture, the group said it was "incredible '' to be involved in Children in Need as it was something that they had "always watched as children ''.
In February 2013, One Direction released "One Way or Another (Teenage Kicks) '' (a medley of "One Way or Another '' and "Teenage Kicks '') as the 2013 single for the UK 's other major charity telethon Comic Relief. For ITV 's Santa charity Christmas campaign, they filmed a set of pleas to their fans and the general public, asking them to donate £ 2. The band have made numerous other appearances for charitable causes, including the 2011 Pride of Britain Awards where they presented 13 - year - old quadruple amputee Danielle Bailey the Child of Courage award at her school assembly, and the 2014 Royal Variety Performance where they played in front of Prince William and Catherine at the London Palladium.
In September 2012, Niall Horan organised an event to raise money for Irish Autism Action and another charity, called Temporary Emergency Accommodation Mullingar, based in his hometown. Due to overwhelming demand to participate in the fundraising, the ticket website for the event broke down. Horan 's brother Greg commented on the website crash, saying that "there were 500 tickets and they were all snapped up pretty quick ''.
In 2013, band members Liam Payne and Harry Styles partnered with Trekstock, a leading cancer charity to help raise money for cancer research. As ambassadors of the charity, the duo collaborated to offer the chance for one fan and a friend to win an evening out with them in return for a donation to the charity as part of an exclusive "# HangwithLiam&Harry '' global campaign. They had originally set a goal of raising $500,000 and ended up raising $784,984. Trekstock later added that this amount would allow them to "complete funding of their Hodgkin 's lymphoma trial, in the hope of offering a much brighter future to thousands of children and young people affected by this form of disease. '' One Direction were named the most charitable in 2013 behind Taylor Swift by social change organisation DoSomething.org.
In 2014, One Direction donated £ 600,000 for the Stand up to Cancer campaign by giving portions of their ticket sales revenues from their Where We Are Tour. On 15 November 2014, One Direction joined the charity group Band Aid 30 along with other British and Irish pop acts, recording the latest version of the track "Do They Know It 's Christmas? '' at Sarm West Studios in Notting Hill, London, to raise money for the 2014 Ebola crisis in Western Africa.
Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph, in an article on One Direction 's success in North America, notes that Americans had left a gap in the market and it took the prominence of Justin Bieber to demonstrate that there still was a market for "clean cut, wholesome, whiter - than - white, middle class parent friendly pop: cute boys advocating puppy love. And what could be better than one cute boy, if not five? '' One Direction have been described as sparking a resurgence in the interest in boy bands, and as forming part of a new "British Invasion '' in the United States. Bill Werde, a representative of Billboard magazine, commented, "There 's a lot of possibility here, there 's a lot of upside, that level of talent with those kinds of looks, it 's really a perfect storm for a massive, massive successful phenomenon. ''
Sonny Takhar, the chief executive officer of Syco Records, attributes the breakthrough to the power of social media. "Sometimes you feel the song 's the star, but it 's not like that here -- it 's the act, '' he said. "It 's a real moment. Social media has become the new radio, it 's never broken an act globally like this before. '' Will Bloomfield, the group 's manager, added, "These guys live online, and so do their fans. '' Their management employs a social media team and the members all tweet themselves, "which helps create the illusion that they could n't be any closer to their fans, '' according to Caspar Llewellyn Smith, writing for The Guardian. One Direction 's Twitter account had amassed 10 million followers by February 2013, with the account gaining followers at an average of 21,000 per day. In an approach pioneered by The Beatles, each member is known for his feature; Horan is "the cute one '', Malik is "the quiet and mysterious one '', Payne is "the sensible one '', Styles is "the charming one '' and Tomlinson is "the funny one ''. Each member 's individual identity is reinforced by their intentionally different personal styles. Caroline Watson, the band 's original stylist, spoke about styling the band, "At the beginning I did n't want them all in black or all in leather -- that whole stereotypical boy band thing. '' Instead, her original idea was for them to be the "male equivalent to the Spice Girls '', with each member being a part of the group but still having his own individual style. Horan commented on One Direction as a boy band, "People think that a boy band is air - grabs and (being) dressed in all one colour. We 're boys in a band. We 're trying to do something different from what people would think is the typical kind of boy band. We 're trying to do different kinds of music and we 're just trying to be ourselves, not squeaky clean. '' Leah Collins, writing for the National Post, remarked that One Direction had succeeded on the latter front, "For the most part, that just means the group presents themselves as typical, goofy and uncensored teenage boys -- posting jokey YouTube videos, for instance, or boozing at awards shows. '' Writing for The Observer, Kitty Empire opined, "One Direction fulfil a great many boy band prerequisites (looks, soppy lyrics, tune - grasp, fame - lust) but their lack of routines points to the subtle digressions afoot here ''.
Headlining
Opening act
One Direction has received five BRIT Awards -- winning their first with "What Makes You Beautiful '' for Best British Single at the 2012 BRIT Awards, three NME awards, two Kids ' Choice Awards, and four MTV Video Music Awards, among other awards. One Direction won 27 awards from 29 they have been nominated for at the Teen Choice Awards. One Direction also won two American Music Awards out of their two nominations for Favorite Pop / Rock Album and Favorite Pop / Rock Band / Duo / Group, respectively.
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what movie is the song sister christian in | Sister Christian - wikipedia
"Sister Christian '' is a power ballad by the American hard rock band Night Ranger. It was released in March 1984 as the second single from their album Midnight Madness. It was ranked number 32 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the 1980s. It was written and sung by the band 's drummer, Kelly Keagy, for his sister. It was the band 's biggest hit, peaking at number five on the Billboard Hot 100, and staying on the charts for 24 weeks.
It also reached number - one in Canada. The song was also featured in Louie (season 3 episode 6), Friday the 13th, Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, Saints Row 2, Parks and Recreation, The Goldbergs, American Dad!, Boogie Nights, Rock Band 3 and Superstar.
The song is about Keagy 's little sister, Christy. Keagy wrote the song at his apartment, near Divisadero and California streets in San Francisco, after he had just returned from a visit to his hometown of Eugene, Oregon. He had been struck at how fast his teenaged sister, 10 years younger than he was, was growing up.
"After we started playing it a lot, Jack turned to me and said, ' What exactly are you saying? ' '' Keagy recalled. "He thought the words were Sister Christian, instead of Sister Christy, so it just stuck. ''
The lyric, "You 're motoring. What 's your price for flight? In finding Mr. Right? '' is the subject of much debate. The band stated in a VH - 1 Behind the Music interview that the term "motoring '' was synonymous with the term "cruising. ''
On the single version, part of the second chorus is omitted. More specifically, the words "You 've got him in your sight. And driving through the night, '' are omitted from the single version. The third chorus is repeated once on the album version, but not on the single.
The music video (which uses the shorter single version) was filmed in San Rafael High School.
A newly recorded acoustic version of the song was produced for the band 's ninth album, Hole in the Sun. A medley at the beginning of the movie Rock of Ages starts with a cover of this song.
Glee covered the song in its Season Four premiere episode, "The New Rachel. '' It was sung by junior student Brody Weston (portrayed by Dean Geyer) in the co-ed bathrooms of NYADA. Foster Farms covered the song with singing chickens. Jensen Ackles covered the song at VegasCon 2015 Salute to Supernatural Las Vegas 2015, with the band Louden Swain, and Rob Benedict.
On ESPN 's NFL Primetime, Chris Berman called former running back Bob Christian Bob "Sister '' Christian. In the video game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, the song was played on Emotion 98.3, which was one of the radio stations in the game.
In an episode of Parks and Recreation from 2014, Yo La Tengo dressed as Indiana basketball coach Bob Knight and performed "Sister Christian '' as the ' Bobby Knight Rangers '. The song appears multiple times in American Dad!, and most famously in the climatic drug deal scene from Paul Thomas Anderson 's Boogie Nights. The song is briefly featured in the 2009 film Friday the 13th.
Movie Superstar (1999) - Soundtrack
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who was the most decorated soldier of ww2 | Audie Murphy - wikipedia
Audie Leon Murphy (20 June 1925 -- 28 May 1971) was one of the most decorated American combat soldiers of World War II. He received every military combat award for valor available from the U.S. Army, as well as French and Belgian awards for heroism. Murphy received the Medal of Honor for valor that he demonstrated at the age of 19 for single - handedly holding off an entire company of German soldiers for an hour at the Colmar Pocket in France in January 1945, then leading a successful counterattack while wounded and out of ammunition. Murphy was born into a large family of sharecroppers in Hunt County, Texas. His father abandoned them, and his mother died when he was a teenager. Murphy left school in fifth grade to pick cotton and find other work to help support his family; his skill with a hunting rifle helped feed his family.
After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Murphy 's older sister helped him to falsify documentation about his birthdate in order to meet the minimum - age requirement for enlisting in the military. Turned down by the Navy and the Marine Corps, he enlisted in the Army. He first saw action in the 1943 Allied invasion of Sicily; then in 1944 he participated in the Battle of Anzio, the liberation of Rome, and the invasion of southern France. Murphy fought at Montélimar and led his men on a successful assault at the L'Omet quarry near Cleurie in northeastern France in October.
After the war, Murphy embarked on a 21 - year acting career. He played himself in the 1955 autobiographical film To Hell and Back, based on his 1949 memoirs of the same name, but most of his roles were in westerns. He made guest appearances on celebrity television shows and starred in the series Whispering Smith. Murphy was a fairly accomplished songwriter. He bred quarter horses in California and Arizona, and became a regular participant in horse racing.
Suffering from what would today be described as post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), Murphy slept with a loaded handgun under his pillow. He looked for solace in addictive sleeping pills. In his last few years, he was plagued by money problems but refused offers to appear in alcohol and cigarette commercials because he did not want to set a bad example. Murphy died in a plane crash in Virginia in 1971, which was shortly before his 46th birthday. He was interred with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery, where his grave is one of the most visited.
Murphy was the seventh of twelve children born to Emmett Berry Murphy and his wife Josie Bell Killian in Kingston, Texas. The Murphys were sharecroppers of Irish descent.
As a child, Murphy was a loner with mood swings and an explosive temper. He grew up in Texas, around Farmersville, Greenville, and Celeste, where he attended elementary school. His father drifted in and out of the family 's life and eventually deserted them. Murphy dropped out of school in fifth grade and got a job picking cotton for a dollar a day (equivalent to $18 in 2017) to help support his family; he also became skilled with a rifle, hunting small game to help feed them. After his mother died of endocarditis and pneumonia in 1941, he worked at a radio repair shop and at a combination general store, garage and gas station in Greenville. Hunt County authorities placed his three youngest siblings in Boles Children 's Home, a Christian orphanage in Quinlan. After the war, he bought a house in Farmersville for his eldest sister Corinne and her husband, Poland Burns. His other siblings briefly shared the home.
The loss of his mother stayed with Murphy throughout his life. He later stated:
She died when I was sixteen. She had the most beautiful hair I 've ever seen. It reached almost to the floor. She rarely talked; and always seemed to be searching for something. What it was I do n't know. We did n't discuss our feelings. But when she passed away, she took something of me with her. It seems I 've been searching for it ever since.
Murphy had always wanted to be a soldier. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, he tried to enlist, but the Army, Navy and Marine Corps all turned him down for being underweight and underage. After his sister provided an affidavit that falsified his birth date by a year, he was accepted by the U.S. Army on 30 June 1942. After basic training at Camp Wolters, he was sent to Fort Meade for advanced infantry training. During basic training, he earned the Marksman Badge with Rifle Component Bar and Expert Badge with Bayonet Component Bar.
Murphy was shipped to Casablanca in French Morocco on 20 February 1943. He was assigned to Company B, 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment, 3rd Infantry Division, which trained under the command of Major General Lucian Truscott. He participated as a platoon messenger with his division at Arzew in Algeria in rigorous training for the Allied assault landings in Sicily. He was promoted to private first class on 7 May and corporal on 15 July.
When the 3rd Infantry landed at Licata, Sicily, on 10 July, Murphy was a division runner. On a scouting patrol, he killed two fleeing Italian officers near Canicattì. Sidelined with illness for a week when Company B arrived in Palermo on 20 July, he rejoined them when they were assigned to a hillside location protecting a machine - gun emplacement, while the rest of the 3rd Infantry Division fought at San Fratello en route to the Allied capture of the transit port of Messina.
Murphy participated in the September 1943 mainland Salerno landing at Battipaglia. While on a scouting party along the Volturno River, he and two other soldiers were ambushed; German machine gun fire killed one soldier. Murphy and the other survivor responded by killing five Germans with hand grenades and machine gun fire. While taking part in the October Allied assault on the Volturno Line, near Mignano Monte Lungo Hill 193, he and his company repelled an attack by seven German soldiers, killing three and taking four prisoner. Murphy was promoted to sergeant on 13 December.
In January 1944, Murphy was promoted to staff sergeant. He was hospitalized in Naples with malaria on 21 January and was unable to participate in the initial landing at the Anzio beachhead. He returned on 29 January and participated in the First Battle of Cisterna, and was made a platoon sergeant in Company B following the battle. He returned with the 3rd Division to Anzio, where they remained for months. Taking shelter from the weather in an abandoned farmhouse on 2 March, Murphy and his platoon killed the crew of a passing German tank. He then crawled out alone close enough to destroy the tank with rifle grenades, for which he received the Bronze Star with "V '' device.
Murphy continued to make scouting patrols to take German prisoners before being hospitalized for a week on 13 March with a second bout of malaria. Sixty - one infantry officers and enlisted men of Company B, 15th Infantry, including Murphy, were awarded the Combat Infantryman Badge on 8 May.
Murphy was awarded a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for his Bronze Star. American forces liberated Rome on 4 June, and Murphy remained bivouacked in Rome with his platoon throughout July.
During the first wave of the Allied invasion of southern France, Murphy received the Distinguished Service Cross for action taken on 15 August 1944.
After landing on Yellow Beach near Ramatuelle, Murphy 's platoon was making its way through a vineyard when the men were attacked by German soldiers. He retrieved a machine gun that had been detached from the squad and returned fire at the German soldiers, killing two and wounding one. Two Germans exited a house about 100 yards (91 m) away and appeared to surrender; when Murphy 's best friend responded, they shot and killed him. Murphy advanced alone on the house under direct fire. He killed six, wounded two and took 11 prisoner.
Murphy was with the 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment during the 27 -- 28 August offensive at Montélimar that secured the area from the Germans. Along with the other soldiers who took part in the action, he received the Presidential Unit Citation.
Murphy 's first Purple Heart was for a heel wound received in a mortar shell blast on 15 September 1944 in northeastern France. His first Silver Star came after he killed four and wounded three at a German machine gun position on 2 October at L'Omet quarry in the Cleurie river valley. Three days later, Murphy crawled alone towards the Germans at L'Omet, carrying an SCR - 536 radio and directing his men for an hour while the Germans fired directly at him. When his men finally took the hill, 15 Germans had been killed and 35 wounded. Murphy 's actions earned him a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for his Silver Star. He was awarded a battlefield commission to second lieutenant on 14 October, which elevated him to platoon leader. While en route to Brouvelieures on 26 October, the 3rd Platoon of Company B was attacked by a German sniper group. Murphy captured two before being shot in the hip by a sniper; he returned fire and shot the sniper between the eyes. At the 3rd General Hospital at Aix - en - Provence, the removal of gangrene from the wound caused partial loss of his hip muscle and kept him out of combat until January. Murphy received his first Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for his Purple Heart for this injury.
The Colmar Pocket, 850 square miles (2,200 km) in the Vosges Mountains, had been held by German troops since November 1944. On 14 January 1945, Murphy rejoined his platoon, which had been moved to the Colmar area in December. He moved with the 3rd Division on 24 January to the town of Holtzwihr, where they faced a strong German counterattack. He was wounded in both legs, for which he received a second Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for his Purple Heart. As the company awaited reinforcements on 26 January, he was made commander of Company B.
The Germans scored a direct hit on an M10 tank destroyer, setting it alight, forcing the crew to abandon it. Murphy ordered his men to retreat to positions in the woods, remaining alone at his post, shooting his M1 carbine and directing artillery fire via his field radio while the Germans aimed fire directly at his position. Murphy mounted the abandoned, burning tank destroyer and began firing its. 50 caliber machine gun at the advancing Germans, killing a squad crawling through a ditch towards him. For an hour, Murphy stood on the flaming tank destroyer returning German fire from foot soldiers and advancing tanks, killing or wounding 50 Germans. He sustained a leg wound during his stand, and stopped only after he ran out of ammunition. Murphy rejoined his men, disregarding his own injury, and led them back to repel the Germans. He insisted on remaining with his men while his wounds were treated.
For his actions that day, he was awarded the Medal of Honor. The 3rd Infantry Division was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation for its actions at the Colmar Pocket, giving Murphy a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for the emblem.
On 16 February, Murphy was promoted to first lieutenant and was awarded the Legion of Merit for his service from 22 January 1944 to 18 February 1945. He was moved from the front lines to Regimental Headquarters and made a liaison officer.
The United States additionally honored Murphy 's war contributions with the American Campaign Medal, the European -- African -- Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with arrowhead device and 9 campaign stars, the World War II Victory Medal, and the Army of Occupation Medal with Germany Clasp. France recognized his service with the French Legion of Honor -- Grade of Chevalier, the French Croix de guerre with Silver Star, the French Croix de guerre with Palm, the French Liberation Medal and the French Fourragère in Colors of the Croix de guerre, which was authorized for all members of the 3rd Infantry Division who fought in France during World War II. Belgium awarded Murphy the Belgian Croix de guerre with 1940 Palm.
Brigadier General Ralph B. Lovett and Lieutenant Colonel Hallet D. Edson recommended Murphy for the Medal of Honor. Near Salzburg, Austria on 2 June 1945, Lieutenant General A.M. Patch presented Murphy with the Medal of Honor and Legion of Merit for his actions at Holtzwihr. When asked after the war why he had seized the machine gun and taken on an entire company of German infantry, he replied, "They were killing my friends. ''
Murphy received every U.S. military combat award for valor available from the U.S. Army for his World War II service.
Inquiries were made through official channels about the prospect of Murphy attending West Point upon his return to the United States, but he never enrolled. According to author Don Graham, Murphy suggested the idea and then dropped it, possibly when he realized the extent of academic preparation needed to pass the entrance exam.
Murphy was one of several military personnel who received orders on 8 June 1945 to report to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas, for temporary duty and reassignment. Upon arrival on 13 June, he was one of four assigned to Fort Sam Houston Army Ground & Services Redistribution Station and sent home for 30 days of recuperation, with permission to travel anywhere within the United States during that period. While on leave, Murphy was feted with parades, banquets, and speeches. He received a belated Good Conduct Medal on 21 August.
He was discharged with the rank of first lieutenant at a 50 percent disability classification on 21 September and transferred to the Officers ' Reserve Corps.
Since his military service, Murphy had been plagued with insomnia and bouts of depression, and he slept with a loaded pistol under his pillow. A post-service medical examination on 17 June 1947 revealed symptoms of headaches, vomiting, and nightmares about the war. His medical records indicated that he took sleeping pills to help prevent nightmares. During the mid-1960s, he recognized his dependence on Placidyl, and locked himself alone in a hotel room for a week to successfully break the addiction. Post-traumatic stress levels exacerbated his innate moodiness, and surfaced in episodes that friends and professional colleagues found alarming. His first wife, Dixie Wanda Hendrix, claimed he once held her at gunpoint. She witnessed her husband being guilt - ridden and tearful over newsreel footage of German war orphans. Murphy briefly found a creative stress outlet in writing poetry after his Army discharge. His poem "The Crosses Grow on Anzio '' appeared in his book To Hell and Back, but was attributed to the fictitious character Kerrigan.
In an effort to draw attention to the problems of returning Korean War and Vietnam War veterans, Murphy spoke out candidly about his own problems with posttraumatic stress disorder. It was known during Murphy 's lifetime as "battle fatigue '' and "shell shock '', terminology that dated back to World War I. He called on the government to give increased consideration and study to the emotional impact of combat experiences, and to extend health care benefits to war veterans.
As a result of legislation introduced by U.S. Congressman Olin Teague five months after Murphy 's death in 1971, the Audie L. Murphy Memorial VA Hospital in San Antonio, now a part of the South Texas Veterans Health Care System, was dedicated in 1973.
At the end of World War II, the 36th Infantry Division reverted to state control as part of the Texas Army National Guard, and Murphy 's friends, Major General H. Miller Ainsworth and Brigadier General Carl L. Phinney, were the 36th 's commander and deputy commander respectively. After the 25 June 1950 commencement of the Korean War, Murphy began a second military career and was commissioned as a captain in the 36th Infantry Division of the Texas Army National Guard. He drilled new recruits in the summer training camps, and granted the Guard permission to use his name and image in recruiting materials. Although he wanted to join the fighting and juggled training activities with his film career, the 36th Infantry Division was never sent to Korea.
At his request, he transferred to inactive status on 1 October 1951 because of his film commitments with MGM Studios, and returned to active status in 1955. Murphy was promoted to the rank of major by the Texas Army National Guard in 1956 and returned to inactive status in 1957. In 1969, his official separation from the Guard transferred him to the United States Army Reserve. He remained with the USAR until his transfer to the Retired Reserve in 1969.
Throughout an acting career spanning from 1948 to 1969, Murphy made more than 40 feature films and one television series. When actor and producer James Cagney saw the 16 July 1945 issue of Life magazine depicting Murphy as the "most decorated soldier '', he brought him to Hollywood. Cagney and his brother William signed him as a contract player for their production company and gave him training in acting, voice and dance. They never cast Murphy in a movie and a personal disagreement ended the association in 1947. Murphy later worked with acting coach Estelle Harman, and honed his diction by reciting dialogue from William Shakespeare and William Saroyan.
Murphy moved into Terry Hunt 's Athletic Club in Hollywood where he lived until 1948. Hollywood writer David "Spec '' McClure befriended Murphy, collaborating with him on Murphy 's 1949 book To Hell and Back. McClure used his connections to get Murphy a $500 (equivalent to $5,000 in 2017) bit part in Texas, Brooklyn and Heaven. The agent of Wanda Hendrix, whom he had been dating since 1946, got him a bit part in the 1948 Alan Ladd film Beyond Glory directed by John Farrow. His 1949 film Bad Boy gave him his first leading role. The film 's financial backers refused to bankroll the project unless Murphy was given the lead; thus, Allied Artists put aside their reservations about using an inexperienced actor and gave him the starring role.
Universal Studios signed Murphy to a seven - year studio contract at $2,500 a week (equivalent to $25,400 in 2017). His first film for them was as Billy the Kid in The Kid from Texas in 1950. He wrapped up that year making Sierra starring Wanda Hendrix, who by that time had become his wife, and Kansas Raiders as outlaw Jesse James. Universal lent him to MGM in 1951 at a salary of $25,000 to play the lead of The Youth in The Red Badge of Courage, directed by John Huston. Murphy and Huston worked together again in the 1960 film The Unforgiven.
The only film Murphy made in 1952 was The Duel at Silver Creek with director Don Siegel. Murphy worked with Siegel one more time in 1958 for The Gun Runners. In 1953, he starred in Frederick de Cordova 's Column South, and played Jim Harvey in Nathan Juran 's Tumbleweed, an adaptation of the Kenneth Perkins novel Three Were Renegades. Director Nathan Juran also directed Gunsmoke and Drums Across the River. George Marshall directed Murphy in the 1954 Destry, a remake of Destry Rides Again, based on a character created by author Max Brand.
Although Murphy was initially reluctant to appear as himself in To Hell and Back, the 1955 adaptation of his book directed by Jesse Hibbs, he eventually agreed; it became the biggest hit in the history of Universal Studios at the time. To help publicize the release of the film, he made guest appearances on television shows such as What 's My Line?, Toast of the Town, and Colgate Comedy Hour. The Hibbs - Murphy team proved so successful in To Hell and Back that the two worked together on five subsequent films. The partnership resulted in the 1956 western Walk the Proud Land, and the non-westerns Joe Butterfly and World in My Corner. They worked together for the last time in the 1958 western Ride a Crooked Trail.
Joseph L. Mankiewicz hired Murphy to play the titular role in the 1958 film The Quiet American. Murphy formed a partnership with Harry Joe Brown to make three films, starting with The Guns of Fort Petticoat (1957). The partnership fell into disagreement over the remaining two projects, and Brown filed suit against Murphy.
Murphy was featured in three westerns in 1959: he starred opposite Sandra Dee in The Wild and the Innocent, collaborated as an uncredited co-producer with Walter Mirisch on the black and white Cast a Long Shadow, and performed as a hired killer in No Name on the Bullet, a film that was well received by critics. Thelma Ritter was his costar in the 1960 Startime television episode "The Man ''. During the early 1960s, Murphy donated his time and otherwise lent his name and image for three episodes of The Big Picture television series produced by the United States Army. He received the 1960 Outstanding Civilian Service Medal for his cooperation in the episode Broken Bridge, which featured his visits to military installations in Germany, Italy, Turkey and the U.S. state of New Mexico to showcase the military 's latest weaponry.
Writer Clair Huffaker wrote the 1961 screenplays for Murphy 's films Seven Ways from Sundown and Posse from Hell. Willard W. Willingham and his wife Mary Willingham befriended Murphy in his early days in Hollywood and worked with him on a number of projects.
Willard was a producer on Murphy 's 1961 television series Whispering Smith, and co-wrote the screenplay for Battle at Bloody Beach that year. He collaborated on Bullet for a Badman in 1964 and Arizona Raiders in 1965. The Willinghams as a team wrote the screenplay for Gunpoint as well as the script for Murphy 's last starring lead in the western 40 Guns to Apache Pass in 1967. Murphy made Trunk to Cairo in Israel in 1966.
He first met director Budd Boetticher when Murphy requested to be his boxing partner at Terry Hunt 's Athletic Club. He subsequently appeared in the 1951 title role of Boetticher 's first western The Cimarron Kid. Boetticher wrote the script in 1969 for Murphy 's last film, A Time for Dying. Two other projects that Murphy and Boetticher planned to collaborate on -- A Horse for Mr Barnum and When There 's Sumpthin ' to Do -- never came to fruition.
Murphy married actress Wanda Hendrix in 1949. Their divorce became final two years later in 1951. Four days later, he married former airline stewardess Pamela Opal Lee Archer (October 7, 1923 - April 8, 2010), with whom he had two sons: Terry Michael (born 14 March 1952), and James Shannon (born 1954).
Murphy bred quarter horses at the Audie Murphy Ranch in what is now Menifee, California, and the Murphy Ranch in Pima County, Arizona. His horses raced at the Del Mar Racetrack, and he invested large sums of money in the hobby. Murphy 's gambling left his finances in a poor state. In 1968 he stated that he lost $260,000 in an Algerian oil deal and was dealing with the Internal Revenue Service over unpaid taxes. In spite of his financial difficulties, Murphy refused to appear in commercials for alcohol and cigarettes, mindful of the influence he would have on the youth market.
On 28 May 1971, Murphy was killed when the private plane in which he was a passenger crashed into Brush Mountain, near Catawba, Virginia, 20 miles (32 km) west of Roanoke in conditions of rain, clouds, fog and zero visibility. The pilot and four other passengers were also killed.
The aircraft was a twin - engine Aero Commander 680 flown by a pilot who had a private - pilot license and a reported 8,000 hours of flying time, but who held no instrument rating. The aircraft was recovered on 31 May. After her husband 's death, Pamela Murphy moved into a small apartment and got a clerk position at the Sepulveda Veterans Administration Hospital in Los Angeles, where she remained employed for 35 years.
In 1975, a court awarded Murphy 's widow and two children $2.5 million in damages because of the accident.
On 7 June 1971, Murphy was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery. In attendance were Ambassador to the U.N. George H.W. Bush, Army Chief of Staff William Westmoreland, and many of the 3rd Infantry Division. Murphy 's gravesite is in Section 46, headstone number 46 - 366 - 11, located across Memorial Drive from the Amphitheater. A special flagstone walkway was later constructed to accommodate the large number of people who visit to pay their respects. It is the cemetery 's second most - visited gravesite, after that of President John F. Kennedy.
The headstones of Medal of Honor recipients buried at Arlington National Cemetery are normally decorated in gold leaf. Murphy previously requested that his stone remain plain and inconspicuous, like that of an ordinary soldier. The headstone contains the birth year 1924, based upon purportedly falsified materials among his military records. In 1974, a large granite marker was erected just off the Appalachian Trail at 37 ° 21 ′ 52 '' N 80 ° 13 ′ 33 '' W / 37.364554 ° N 80.225748 ° W / 37.364554; - 80.225748 (Audie Murphy monument) at 3,100 ′ elevation, near the crash site.
Civilian honors were bestowed on Murphy during his lifetime and posthumously, including a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2013, Murphy was honored by his home state with the Texas Legislative Medal of Honor.
Swedish power metal band Sabaton wrote a song on their 2014 studio album, Heroes, also entitled "To Hell and Back '', commemorating and recognizing Audie Murphy as one of the most decorated American veterans of World War II.
David McClure, his collaborator on the book To Hell and Back, discovered Murphy 's talent for poetry during their work on the memoir when he found discarded verses in Murphy 's Hollywood apartment. One of those poems, "The Crosses Grow on Anzio '', appears in To Hell and Back attributed to a soldier named Kerrigan. Only two others survived, "Alone and Far Removed '' and "Freedom Flies in Your Heart Like an Eagle ''. The latter was part of a speech Murphy had written at a 1968 dedication of the Alabama War Memorial in Montgomery, and later set to music by Scott Turner under the title "Dusty Old Helmet ''.
Murphy was a fan of country music, in particular Bob Wills and Chet Atkins, but was not a singer or musician himself. Through his friend Guy Mitchell, Murphy was introduced to songwriter Scott Turner in 1961. The two collaborated on numerous songs between 1962 and 1970, the most successful of which was "Shutters and Boards '' and "When the Wind Blows in Chicago ''.
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who is guest host on americas got talent | America 's Got Talent (Season 12) - wikipedia
Season twelve of the reality competition series America 's Got Talent was ordered on August 2, 2016 and premiered on NBC on Tuesday, May 30, 2017. Howie Mandel, Mel B, Heidi Klum and Simon Cowell returned as judges for their respective eighth, fifth, fifth and second seasons. Supermodel and businesswoman Tyra Banks replaced Nick Cannon, who hosted the show for eight seasons, making her the first female host of the show. The live shows returned to the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles beginning August 15, 2017.
The format of the show was the same as in season eleven, and Dunkin Donuts sponsors the show for a third consecutive season. A guest judge joined the panel for each episode of the Judge Cuts round: Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox and Seal.
Darci Lynne Farmer was named the winner on the season finale, September 20, 2017. She was the third ventriloquist, third child and third female to win a season of America 's Got Talent. 10 - year - old Singer Angelica Hale placed second, and glow light dance troupe Light Balance came in third. Farmer won the show 's prize of $1 million and a headlining performance in Las Vegas.
On October 4, 2016, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through 2019.
Long - time host Nick Cannon announced, on February 13, 2017, that he would not return as host for the twelfth season, soon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his 2017 Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. Cannon was still under contract to host, and NBC executives did not initially accept his resignation, but they ultimately searched for a new host.
On March 12, 2017, NBC announced supermodel and host Tyra Banks as the host for Season 12.
The season had preliminary open call auditions in Chicago, Austin, Cleveland, Jacksonville, Philadelphia, Las Vegas, San Diego, New York City, Charleston, Memphis, and Los Angeles. As in years past, prospective contestants could also submit online auditions.
Judges ' auditions were taped in March at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles. The premiere aired May 30, 2017.
The Golden Buzzer returned for its fourth consecutive season. Any act that received a golden buzzer during the preliminary auditions was sent directly to the live shows and did not compete in the Judge Cuts round. In the first episode of preliminary auditions, Mel B pressed the golden buzzer for 12 - year - old singing ventriloquist Darci Lynne Farmer. In subsequent episodes, Simon Cowell pressed it for 29 - year - old deaf singer Mandy Harvey, Howie Mandel chose 16 - year - old former blind singer Christian Guardino, Tyra Banks pressed it for Light Balance dance crew, and Heidi Klum chose 13 - year - old singer Angelina Green.
Each Judge Cuts act that received a golden buzzer advanced to the live shows without any voting by the judges. During those Judge Cuts round, guest judges Chris Hardwick pressed his golden buzzer for 9 - year old singer Angelica Hale, DJ Khaled pressed it for 21 - year old singer - songwriter and guitarist Chase Goehring, Laverne Cox pressed it for 9 - year old singer Celine Tam, and Seal pressed it for soul singer Johnny Manuel.
On June 11, 2017, contestant Brandon Rogers died in an automobile accident. Rogers was an American physician who specialized in family medicine. Earlier in 2017, after seeing YouTube videos of Rogers singing, Boyz II Men invited him to sing with them as a guest in three of their Las Vegas shows. His AGT audition aired on July 11, 2017 in his memory, and he advanced to the next round. He competed in the Judge Cuts round, but his performance in that round was not televised.
The Judge Cuts round began on Tuesday, July 18, 2017. Like the previous season, one guest judge joined the judges ' panel each show and was given one golden buzzer opportunity to send an act straight to the live shows. Twenty acts were shown each week and seven advanced, including the guest judge 's golden buzzer choice. Guest judges were not given a red buzzer to use. Any act that received all four red buzzers was immediately eliminated from the competition. The four guest judges were Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox, and Seal.
After the Judge Cuts, three wildcards were chosen from eliminated acts to perform in the live shows: Final Draft, Bello Nock and Oskar and Gaspar (who did not perform in the Judge Cuts round). All three of these acts were eliminated in the Quarterfinals.
Guest judge: Chris Hardwick
Date: July 18, 2017
Guest judge: DJ Khaled
Date: July 25, 2017
As of 2017, this is the only Judge Cuts episode in the show 's history in which an act with at least one "X '' buzzer was nevertheless promoted to the live shows. This was also the only Judge Cuts episode of the season in which an act received 4 red buzzers.
Guest judge: Laverne Cox
Date: August 1, 2017
This was the first Judge Cuts episode in which no acts received a red buzzer from any of the judges.
Guest judge: Seal
Date: August 8, 2017
The quarterfinals were broadcast live from the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles starting on August 15, 2017. They featured the nine golden buzzer acts, the 24 other acts promoted during the Judge Cuts round, and three wildcard acts chosen by the producers and judges. Twelve acts performed each week, with results announced the on following nights; each week seven acts were sent through to the semifinals. Puddles Pity Party and Mirror Image received an "X '' in the Quarterfinals. Demian Aditya received "X 's '' by Brown and Cowell in the second Quarterfinals.
Guests: Grace VanderWaal, August 16
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Yoli Mayor was announced to have received more of America 's votes than Just Jerk, and she advanced to the semi-finals.
Guests: Circus 1903, August 23
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Eric Jones was announced to have received more of America 's votes than The Masqueraders, and he advanced to the semi-finals.
^ 2 Due to a technical issue, Light Balance 's performance was based on their dress rehearsal.
^ 3 Another technical issue occured when the sealed box Aditya was in did n't fall as planned.
Guests: Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, and Jon Dorenbos, August 30
^ 1 Sara added another dog named Loki in her act.
The live semifinals started on September 5, 2017. They featured the 21 acts voted to the semifinals, plus the judges ' semifinal wildcard pick. Each week, eleven acts performed; five went through to the finals, and six were eliminated. No acts were buzzed.
Guests: The Clairvoyants
^ 1 Chase Goehring, DaNell Daymon & Greater Works, and Mike Yung were not initially announced as performing on week one of semifinals.
^ 1 Merrick Hanna and Mandy Harvey were switched to perform on Week 2 although they were on the Week 1 promo.
^ 2 Klum 's voting intention was not revealed.
The final performances took place on September 19, followed by the final results show on September 20, 2017. No acts were buzzed.
Guest performers at the finale included Kelly Clarkson, Shania Twain, James Arthur, Derek Hough and Terry Fator. Other celebrity appearances included Marlee Matlin.
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how is the level of employment and income determined in a capitalist society | Full employment - wikipedia
Full employment means that everyone who wants a job have all the hours of work they need on "fair wages ''. Because people switch jobs, full employment means a stable rate of unemployment around 1 to 2 per cent of the total workforce, but does not allow for underemployment where part - time workers can not find hours they need for a decent living. In macroeconomics, full employment is sometimes defined as the level of employment at which there is no cyclical or deficient - demand unemployment.
Some economists reject that full employment is a worthwhile goal, and see it as a necessary means to control inflation, i.e. to prevent inflation from accelerating. This view is based on a theory centered on the concept of the Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment (NAIRU), and those who hold it usually mean NAIRU when speaking of full employment. The NAIRU has also been described by Milton Friedman, among others, as the "natural '' rate of unemployment. Having many names, it has also been called the structural unemployment rate.
For the United States, economist William T. Dickens found that full - employment unemployment rate varied a lot over time but equaled about 5.5 percent of the civilian labor force during the 2000s. Recently, economists have emphasized the idea that full employment represents a "range '' of possible unemployment rates. For example, in 1999, in the United States, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) gives an estimate of the "full - employment unemployment rate '' of 4 to 6.4 %. This is the estimated unemployment rate at full employment, plus & minus the standard error of the estimate.
The concept of full employment of labor corresponds to the concept of potential output or potential real GDP and the long run aggregate supply (LRAS) curve. In neoclassical macroeconomics, the highest sustainable level of aggregate real GDP or "potential '' is seen as corresponding to a vertical LRAS curve: any increase in the demand for real GDP can only lead to rising prices in the long run, while any increase in output is temporary.
What most neoclassical economists mean by "full '' employment is a rate somewhat less than 100 % employment. Others, such as the late James Tobin, have been accused of disagreeing, considering full employment as 0 % unemployment. However, this was not Tobin 's perspective in his later work.
Some see John Maynard Keynes as attacking the existence of rates of unemployment substantially above 0 %:
Most readers would interpret this statement as referring to only cyclical, deficient - demand, or "involuntary '' unemployment (discussed below) but not to unemployment existing as "full employment '' (mismatch and frictional unemployment). This is because, writing in 1929, Keynes was discussing a period in which the unemployment rate had been persistently above most conceptions of what corresponds to full employment. That is, a situation where a tenth of the population (and thus a larger percentage of the labor force) is unemployed involves a disaster.
One major difference between Keynes and the Classical economists was that while the latter saw "full employment '' as the normal state of affairs with a free - market economy (except for short periods of adjustment), Keynes saw the possibility of persistent aggregate - demand failure causing unemployment rates to exceed those corresponding to full employment. Put differently, while Classical economists saw all unemployment as "voluntary, '' Keynes saw the possibility that involuntary unemployment can exist when the demand for final products is low compared to potential output. This can be seen in his later and more serious work. In his General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money, chapter 2, he used a definition that should be familiar to modern macroeconomics:
The only difference from the usual definitions is that, as discussed below, most economists would add skill / location mismatch or structural unemployment as existing at full employment. More theoretically, Keynes had two main definitions of full employment, which he saw as equivalent. His first main definition of full employment involves the absence of "involuntary '' unemployment:
Put another way, the full employment and the absence of involuntary unemployment correspond to the case where the real wage equals the marginal cost to workers of supplying labor for hire on the market (the "marginal disutility of employment ''). That is, the real wage rate and the amount of employment correspond to a point on the aggregate supply curve of labor that is assumed to exist. In contrast, a situation with less than full employment and thus involuntary unemployment would have the real wage above the supply price of labor. That is, the employment situation corresponds to a point above and to the left of the aggregate supply curve of labor: the real wage would be above the point on the aggregate supply curve of labor at the current level of employment; alternatively, the level of employment would be below the point on that supply curve at the current real wage.
Second, in chapter 3, Keynes saw full employment as a situation where "a further increase in the value of the effective demand will no longer be accompanied by any increase in output. ''
This means that at and above full employment, any increase in aggregate demand and employment corresponds primarily to increases in prices rather than output. Thus, full employment of labor corresponds to potential output.
Whilst full employment is often an aim for an economy, most economists see it as more beneficial to have some level of unemployment, especially of the frictional sort. In theory, this keeps the labor market flexible, allowing room for new innovations and investment. As in the NAIRU theory, the existence of some unemployment is required to avoid accelerating inflation.
For the United Kingdom, the OECD estimated the NAIRU (or structural unemployment) rate as being equal to 8.5 % on average between 1988 and 1997, 5.9 % between 1998 and 2007, 6.2 %, 6.6 %, and 6.7 in 2008, 2009, and 2010, then staying at 6.9 % in 2011 - 2013. For the United States, they estimate it as being 5.8 % on average between 1988 and 1997, 5.5 % between 1998 and 2007, 5.8 % in 2008, 6.0 % in 2009, and then staying at 6.1 % from 2010 to 2013. They also estimate the NAIRU for other countries. These calculations have been criticised as lacking any foundation in evidence.
The era after the 2007 - 2009 Great Recession shows the relevance of this concept, for example as seen in the United States. On the one hand, in 2013 Keynesian economists such as Paul Krugman of Princeton University see unemployment rates as too high relative to full employment and the NAIRU and thus favor increasing the aggregate demand for goods and services and thus labor in order to reduce unemployment. On the other hand, pointing to shortages of some skilled workers, some businesspeople and Classical economists suggest that the U.S. economy is already at full employment, so that any demand stimulus will lead to nothing but rising inflation rates. One example was Narayana Kocherlakota, President of the Minneapolis Federal Reserve Bank, who has since changed his mind.
An alternative, more normative, definition (used by some labor economists) would see "full employment '' as the attainment of the ideal unemployment rate, where the types of unemployment that reflect labor - market inefficiency (such as mismatch or structural unemployment) do not exist. That is, only some frictional or voluntary unemployment would exist, where workers are temporarily searching for new jobs and are thus voluntarily unemployed. This type of unemployment involves workers "shopping '' for the best jobs at the same time that employers "shop '' for the best possible employees to serve their needs. Its existence can allow the best possible correspondence between workers and jobs from the points of view of both employees and employers and thus promotes the economy 's efficiency.
William Beveridge defined "full employment '' as where the number of unemployed workers equaled the number of job vacancies available (while preferring that the economy be kept above that full employment level in order to allow maximum economic production). But the point is that this definition allows for some unemployment. To see this, assume that frictional and mismatch unemployment can be separated. At Beveridge full employment, in the case of frictional unemployment the number of job - seekers corresponds to an equal number of job openings: as discussed above, the unemployed are "shopping '' for the best possible jobs (as long as the cost of job - search is less than the expected benefit) at the same time that employers are "shopping '' for the best possible employees to fill the vacancies. Similarly, at Beveridge full employment, the number of people suffering from mismatch or structural unemployment equals the number of vacancies. The problem here is that the skills and geographical locations of the unemployed workers does not correspond to the skill requirements and locations of the vacancies. In theory, Beveridge 's concept full employment corresponds to that of Keynes (discussed above).
The situation with less than full employment in Beveridge 's sense results either from "Classical '' unemployment or "neoclassical '' unemployment or from Keynesian deficient - demand unemployment. In terms of supply and demand, Classical or neoclassical unemployment results from the actual real wage exceeding the equilibrium real wage, so that the quantity of labor demanded (and the number of vacancies) is less than the quantity of labor supplied (and the number of unemployed workers). In the Classical theory, the problem is that real wages are rigid, i.e., do not fall due to an excess supply of labor. In theory, this might happen because of minimum wage laws and other interference with "free markets '' that prevent the attainment of market perfection. Classical economists favor making labor markets more like the ideal competitive market -- and so making real wages more flexible -- in order to deal with this kind of unemployment.
The neoclassical theory, in contrast, follows John Maynard Keynes and more importantly, Milton Friedman to blame inflexible money or nominal wages for low employment relative to full employment. If the money wage is fixed, the real wage is fixed for any given average price level, so that rigid money wages have the same effect as rigid real wages when the price level is given. In this case, however, real wages can be depressed (and Beveridge full employment restored) if prices rise relative to nominal wages. Alternatively, people could wait for the persistence of high unemployment to eventually cause money wages to fall. This would have the same effect, reducing real wages and increasing the quantity of labor demanded. One of the big debates in macroeconomics is whether it is better to deal with neoclassical unemployment using a small amount of inflation or by waiting for markets to adjust.
In contrast, Keynesian deficient - demand unemployment (as explained by Don Patinkin) sees a situation with less than full employment (following Beveridge 's definition) as possibly prevailing even if the actual real wage is equal to the equilibrium real wage at full employment. The problem is that the demand for final products is limited by aggregate demand failure. Low demand for products (below potential output) implies that there is a sales constraint on the labor market to the left of equilibrium so that the quantity of labor demanded is below the amount that would be demanded if the aggregate demand for products was sufficient (what Robert Clower called the notional demand for labor). In terms of neoclassical theory, the prevailing real wage is less than the marginal physical product of labor in this situation. In the absence of the sales constraint, profit - maximizing employers would hire unemployed workers as long as this inequality is true, moving the labor markets toward full employment. However, the sales constraint means that the extra product of these workers could not be sold. Thus, employers would not hire the unemployed until aggregate demand rose, which would shift the sales constraint to the right, allowing more employment of labor. In this situation, Keynesians recommend policies that raise the aggregate demand for final products and thus the aggregate demand for workers.
The economic literature concerning the Phillips Curve and the NAIRU moved away from the direct examination of labor market to focus instead on the behavior of inflation rates at different unemployment rates. That is, while Beveridge and Keynes saw full - employment unemployment as where the supply of and the demand for labor were in balance, later views saw it as a threshold which should not be crossed, since low unemployment causes serious inflation.
The theories behind the Phillips curve pointed to the inflationary costs of lowering the unemployment rate. That is, as unemployment rates fell and the economy approached full employment, the inflation rate would rise. But this theory also says that there is no single unemployment number that one can point to as the "full employment '' rate. Instead, there is a trade - off between unemployment and inflation: a government might choose to attain a lower unemployment rate but would pay for it with higher inflation rates. In essence, in this view, the meaning of "full employment '' is really nothing but a matter of opinion based on how the benefits of lowering the unemployment rate compare to the costs of raising the inflation rate.
Though their theory had been proposed by the Keynesian economist Abba Lerner several years before (Lerner 1951, Chapter 15), it was the work of Milton Friedman, leader of the monetarist school of economics, and Edmund Phelps that ended the popularity of this concept of full employment. In 1968, Friedman posited the theory that full employment rate of unemployment was ' ' ' unique ' ' ' at any given time. He called it the "natural '' rate of unemployment. Instead of being a matter of opinion and normative judgment, it is something we are stuck with, even if it is unknown. As discussed further, below, inflation / unemployment trade - offs can not be relied upon. Further, rather than trying to attain full employment, Friedman argues that policy - makers should try to keep prices stable (meaning a low or even a zero inflation rate). If this policy is sustained, he suggests that a free - market economy will gravitate to the "natural '' rate of unemployment automatically.
In an effort to avoid the normative connotations of the word "natural, '' James Tobin (following the lead of Franco Modigliani), introduced the term the "Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment '' (NAIRU), which corresponds to the situation where the real gross domestic product equals potential output. It has been called the "inflation threshold '' unemployment rate or the inflation barrier. This concept is identical to Milton Friedman 's concept of the "natural '' rate but reflects the fact that there is nothing "natural '' about an economy. The level of the NAIRU depends on the degree of "supply side '' unemployment, i.e., joblessness that ca n't be abolished by high demand. This includes frictional, mismatch, and Classical unemployment. When the actual unemployment rate equals the NAIRU, there is no cyclical or deficient - demand unemployment. That is, Keynes ' involuntary unemployment does not exist.
To understand this concept, start with the actual unemployment equal to the NAIRU. Then, assume that a country 's government and its central bank use demand - side policy to reduce the unemployment rate and then attempt to keep the rate at a specific low level: rising budget deficits or falling interest rates increase aggregate demand and raise employment of labor. Thus, the actual unemployment rate falls, as going from point A to B in the nearby graph. Unemployment then stays below the NAIRU for years or more, as at point B. In this situation, the theory behind the NAIRU posits that inflation will accelerate, i.e. get worse and worse (in the absence of wage and price controls). As the short - run Phillips curve theory indicates, higher inflation rate results from low unemployment. That is, in terms of the "trade - off '' theory, low unemployment can be "bought, '' paid for by suffering from higher inflation. But the NAIRU theory says that this is not the whole story, so that the trade - off breaks down: a persistently higher inflation rate is eventually incorporated as higher inflationary expectations. Then, if workers and employers expect higher inflation, it results in higher inflation, as higher money wages are passed on to consumers as higher prices. This causes the short run Phillips curve to shift to the right and upward, worsening the trade - off between inflation and unemployment. At a given unemployment rate, inflation accelerates. But if the unemployment rate rises to equal the NAIRU, we see higher inflation than before the expansionary policies, as at point C in the nearby diagram. The fall of the unemployment rate was temporary because it could not be sustained. In sum, the trade - off between inflation and unemployment can not be relied upon to be stable: taking advantage of it causes it to disappear. This story fits the experience of the United States during the late 1960s, during which unemployment rates stayed low (below 4 % of the civilian labor force) and inflation rates rose significantly.
Second, examine the other main case. Again start with the unemployment rate equal to the NAIRU. Then, either shrinking government budget deficits (or rising government surpluses) or rising real interest rates encourage higher unemployment. In this situation, the NAIRU theory says that inflation will get better (decelerate) if unemployment rates exceed the NAIRU for a long time. High unemployment leads to lower inflation, which in turn causes lower inflationary expectations and a further round of lower inflation. High unemployment causes the short - run inflation / unemployment trade - off to improve. This story fits the experience of the United States during the early 1980s (Paul Volcker 's war against inflation), during which unemployment rates stayed high (at about 10 % of the civilian labor force) and inflation rates fell significantly.
Finally, the NAIRU theory says that the inflation rate does not rise or fall when the unemployment equals the "natural '' rate. This is where the term NAIRU is derived. In macroeconomics, the case where the actual unemployment rate equals the NAIRU is seen as the long - run equilibrium because there are no forces inside the normal workings of the economy that cause the inflation rate to rise or fall. The NAIRU corresponds to the long - run Phillips curve. While the short - run Phillips curve is based on a constant rate of inflationary expectations, the long - run Phillips curve reflects full adjustment of inflationary expectations to the actual experience of inflation in the economy.
As mentioned above, Abba Lerner had developed a version of the NAIRU before the modern "natural '' rate or NAIRU theories were developed. Unlike the currently dominant view, Lerner saw a range of "full employment '' unemployment rates. Crucially, the unemployment rate depended on the economy 's institution. Lerner distinguished between "high '' full employment, which was the lowest sustainable unemployment under incomes policies, and "low '' full employment, i.e., the lowest sustainable unemployment rate without these policies.
Further, it is possible that the value of the NAIRU depends on government policy, rather than being "natural '' and unvarying. A government can attempt to make people "employable '' by both positive means (e.g. using training courses) and negative means (e.g. cuts in unemployment insurance benefits). These policies do not necessarily create full employment. Instead, the point is to reduces the amount of mismatch unemployment by facilitating the linking of unemployed workers with the available jobs by training them and or subsidizing their moving to the geographic location of the jobs.
In addition, the hysteresis hypothesis says that the NAIRU does not stay the same over time -- and can change due to economic policy. A persistently low unemployment rate makes it easier for those workers who are unemployed for "mismatch '' reasons to move to where the jobs are and / or to attain the training necessary for the available vacancies (often by getting those jobs and receiving on - the - job training). On the other hand, high unemployment makes it more difficult for those workers to adjust, while hurting their morale, job - seeking skills, and the value of their work skills. Thus, some economists argue that British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher 's anti-inflation policies using persistently high unemployment led to higher mismatch or structural unemployment and a higher NAIRU.
Whatever the definition of full employment, it is difficult to discover exactly what unemployment rate it corresponds to. In the United States, for example, the economy saw stable inflation despite low unemployment during the late 1990s, contradicting most economists ' estimates of the NAIRU.
The idea that the full - employment unemployment rate (NAIRU) is not a unique number has been seen in recent empirical research. Staiger, Stock, and Watson found that the range of possible values of the NAIRU (from 4.3 to 7.3 % unemployment) was too large to be useful to macroeconomic policy - makers. Robert Eisner suggested that for 1956 - 95 there was a zone from about 5 % to about 10 % unemployment between the low - unemployment realm of accelerating inflation and the high - unemployment realm of disinflation. In between, he found that inflation falls with falling unemployment.
The active pursuit of national full employment through interventionist government policies is associated with Keynesian economics and marked the postwar agenda of many Western nations, until the stagflation of the 1970s.
Australia was the first country in the world in which full employment in a capitalist society was made official policy by its government. On May 30, 1945, The Australian Labor Party Prime Minister John Curtin and his Employment Minister John Dedman proposed a white paper in the Australian House of Representatives titled Full Employment In Australia, the first time any government apart from totalitarian regimes had unequivocally committed itself to providing work for any person who was willing and able to work. Conditions of full employment lasted in Australia from 1941 to 1975. This had been preceded by the Harvester Judgment (1907), establishing the basic wage (a living wage); while this earlier case was overturned, it remained influential.
The United States is, as a statutory matter, committed to full employment; the government is empowered to effect this goal. The relevant legislation is the Employment Act (1946), initially the "Full Employment Act, '' later amended in the Full Employment and Balanced Growth Act (1978). The 1946 act was passed in the aftermath of World War II, when it was feared that demobilization would result in a depression, as it had following World War I in the Depression of 1920 -- 21, while the 1978 act was passed following the 1973 -- 75 recession and in the midst of continuing high inflation.
The law states that full employment is one of four economic goals, in concert with growth in production, price stability, balance of trade, and budget, and that the US shall rely primarily on private enterprise to achieve these goals. Specifically, the Act is committed to an unemployment rate of no more than 3 % for persons aged 20 or over, and not more than 4 % for persons aged 16 or over (from 1983 onwards), and the Act expressly allows (but does not require) the government to create a "reservoir of public employment '' to affect this level of employment. These jobs are required to be in the lower ranges of skill and pay so as to not draw the workforce away from the private sector.
However, since the passage of this Act in 1978, the US has, as of 2017, never achieved this level of employment on the national level, though some states have neared it or met it, nor has such a reservoir of public employment been created.
Some, particularly Post-Keynesian economists have suggested ensuring full employment via a job guarantee program, where those who are unable to find work in the private sector are employed by the government, the stock of thus employed public sector workers fulfilling the same function as the unemployed do in controlling inflation, without the human costs of unemployment.
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distance from cape town to idutywa via n2 | N2 (South Africa) - wikipedia
Numbered routes of South Africa
The N2 is a national route in South Africa that runs from Cape Town through Port Elizabeth, East London and Durban to Ermelo. It is the main highway along the Indian Ocean coast of the country. Its total distance of 2,255 kilometres (1,401 mi) makes it the longest numbered route in South Africa.
Major towns and cities along the route of the N2 include Cape Town, Somerset West, Caledon, Swellendam, Mossel Bay, George, Knysna, Plettenberg Bay, Humansdorp, Port Elizabeth, Makhanda, King William 's Town, Bhisho, East London, Mthatha, Kokstad, Port Shepstone, Durban, KwaDukuza, Empangeni, Piet Retief, and Ermelo.
The N2 begins in central Cape Town at the northern end of Buitengracht Street outside the entrance to the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront. The first section of the N2 is shared with the beginning of the N1; it is a four - lane elevated freeway that runs along a strip of land between the city centre and the Port of Cape Town. On the eastern edge of the city centre the two roads split, and the N2 turns south as Nelson Mandela Boulevard, crossing above the yards and approach tracks of Cape Town railway station.
The N2 descends to ground level in Woodstock before approaching the major interchange known as "Hospital Bend '' because of its proximity to Groote Schuur Hospital. In this interchange, the N2 and the M3 merge to form a massive 10 - lane freeway before diverging again. Because Hospital Bend is built on a steeply sloping curve, and lane - changing is often necessary to travel through the intersection, it was notorious for congestion and accidents, until it was upgraded between 2008 and 2010. (1) (2)
After Hospital Bend the N2 turns east to travel across the Cape Flats as a 6 - lane freeway to Somerset West; this section is known as Settler 's Way. Along this route it crosses the M5, M7 and R300 freeways; it also travels just past the end of the main runway at Cape Town International Airport. In Somerset West it is reduced to an undivided highway, passing through several intersections with traffic lights, which cause frequent congestion.
East of Somerset West the N2 climbs Sir Lowry 's Pass to enter the Overberg region. It passes near the town of Grabouw on the Hottentots - Holland plateau before descending the Houwhoek Pass to Botrivier. After Botrivier it passes across the agricultural plains through the towns of Caledon, Riviersonderend, Swellendam and Riversdale to re-approach the coast at Mossel Bay, which marks the beginning of the Garden Route.
Just west of Mossel Bay the N2 again becomes a divided freeway, and remains one as far as the intersection with the N9 just outside George. From there it travels across Kaaiman 's Pass (see below) to Wilderness and on to Knysna and Plettenberg Bay. After Plettenberg Bay a section of the road is tolled as the Tsitsikamma Toll Route, primarily because of the Bloukrans Bridge; an alternative route used to run through Nature 's Valley but this is no longer available due to flood damage. The Bloukrans Bridge marks the border with the Eastern Cape and is the site of the worlds highest bridge bungy, Bloukrans Bridge Bungy.
In the Eastern Cape the N2 passes near Humansdorp and Jeffrey 's Bay before becoming a four - lane divided freeway through the city of Port Elizabeth, ending at Colchester, Eastern Cape. The N2 continues in a north - easterly direction from Port Elizabeth, moving away from the coast towards Grahamstown; en route the N10 splits from the N2, going northwards towards Middelburg. After Grahamstown the N2 passes through the former Ciskei; at King William 's Town it turns back towards the coast, meeting it at East London. The N2 passes around East London on a bypass; it meets the N6 which runs northwards from East London towards Bloemfontein.
After East London the N2 turns again towards the interior, to avoid the difficult terrain of the Wild Coast. It passes through the former Transkei and its former capital Mthatha. Near Kokstad, KwaZulu - Natal the N2 crosses into the province of KwaZulu - Natal.
From Kokstad the N2 turns again back towards the coast, meeting it at Port Shepstone. From Port Shepstone it runs as a freeway past the resort towns of the Natal South Coast, including Umzumbe, Hibberdene, Ifafa Beach, Scottburgh, Umkomaas and Amanzimtoti, before passing on a bypass around the city of Durban. At the Westville four - level bypass the N2 meets the N3 from Johannesburg.
After Durban the N2 continues as a freeway along the Natal North Coast past Umhlanga Rocks, Ballito and Tongaat, with the freeway ending at KwaDukuza. It passes the port of Richard 's Bay and turns north, moving away from the coast into the heart of Zululand. It passes close to the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park and the Hluhluwe - Umfolozi Game Reserve. It approaches the border with Swaziland near to the border post of Golela, and turns westwards, running just south of the border through the town of Pongola before entering Mpumalanga province.
In Mpumalanga the N2 continues close to the Swazi border to the town of Piet Retief, from which it travels north - west to end in the town of Ermelo. Ermelo is connected by the N17 to Johannesburg and Mbabane, and by the N11 to Mokopane and Ladysmith.
Heavy rains triggered a mud - slide on the Kaaiman 's pass section of the N2 between George and Wilderness. This caused the road to be temporarily closed from 26 August 2006. As a result of the slide a section of roadway sagged and large cracks appeared on the road surface. After an inspection by a team of engineers a single lane was reopened on 29 August for vehicles with a gross mass of under 5000 kg.
An alternative route following the Saasveld road was put into use, but this road only allows for a single lane of traffic and light vehicles. Heavy vehicles have to take an alternative route via the R62 and Langkloof pass effectively lengthening the distance from George to Wilderness from 11 km to over 600 km (news24.com story). The road has since reopened but major repairs are being done.
Traffic on the N2 has also been disrupted on numerous occasions because of protests. On 10 September 2007, residents of Joe Slovo Informal Settlement blockaded the N2 Freeway in Cape Town near Langa. Police responded with rubber bullets injuring over 30 residents. On 4 December 2008, a few thousand residents of eMachambini, between KwaDukuza and Richards Bay in KZN, blockaded the N2 Freeway in protest against the proposed AmaZulu World Themepark. Police opened fire and injured about 23 residents and arrested about 10.
On 20 October 2012, a section of the N2 was closed after heavy rainfall caused a collapse about 20 km outside Grahamstown.
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lnjp national institute of criminology and forensic science | National Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science - wikipedia
Lok Nayak Jayaprakash Narayan National Institute of Criminology & Forensic Science or commonly known as National Institute of Criminology & Forensic Science (NICFS) is a central institute for teaching Criminology and Forensic Science in New Delhi, India. The institute was established by Government of India in 1972 within the Bureau of Police Research and Development following recommendations of the University Grants Commission (UGC).
The institute was formerly known as "Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science '' and came into existence on 4th January, 1972. The institute has trained around 41,000 officers from Police, Judiciary, Prisons, Prosecution, Defence, Customs, Forest, Medical, Public Sector Undertakings, Nationalized Banks as well as Scientists from Central and State Forensic Science Laboratories. It was renamed after Indian independence activist Jayaprakash Narayan in 2003.
The UGC set up an expert committee to suggest steps to bring Criminology and Forensic Science into the general stream of university education, based on the resolution taken at a Symposium organized by UNESCO in London in 1955. It suggested that systematic understanding of Criminology and Forensic Science was necessary for Law Enforcement Officers and the Universities should be encouraged to include these disciplines in their curriculum.
Following recommendations of the UGC to set up a Central Institute for teaching Criminology and Forensic Science, Government of India established the institute in 1972 within the Bureau of Police Research and Development. In 1976 it became an independent Department directly under the Ministry of Home Affairs with a wider mandate which included promotion of Criminology and Forensic Science. The Institute was upgraded as a National Institute in 1991 and in 2003 the Institute was renamed after Lok Nayak Jayaprakash Narayan.
Over the years, NICFS has trained more than 40,000 officers from Police, Judiciary, Prisons, Prosecution, Defence, Customs, Forest, Medical, Public Sector Undertakings, Nationalized Banks as well as Scientists from Central and State Forensic Science Laboratories.
The Vision of the Institute is To be a world class Academic Institution
The LNJN National Institute of Criminology & Forensic Science is located in Rohini locality of the National Capital of New Delhi. The institute has 8 acres of campus housing administrative wing and teaching areas. The teaching area is about 9000 Sq meters while the hostel space is 2400 Sq meters. The main building accommodates several lecture theaters, seminar rooms and an auditorium. There are residential facilities for faculty and staff. The institute also has an instrumentation wing and several laboratories with state of the art equipment. An Indian Police Service Officer of the rank of Director General of Police is the Director of the Institute.
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side pieces on a horses bridle crossword clue | Bridle - wikipedia
A bridle is a piece of equipment used to direct a horse. As defined in the Oxford English Dictionary, the "bridle '' includes both the headstall that holds a bit that goes in the mouth of a horse, and the reins that are attached to the bit.
Headgear without a bit that uses a noseband to control a horse is called a hackamore, or, in some areas, a bitless bridle. There are many different designs with many different name variations, but all use a noseband that is designed to exert pressure on sensitive areas of the animal 's face to provide direction and control.
The bridle consists of the following elements:
On a double bridle, where the horse carries two bits (a curb and small snaffle, often called a "bit and bradoon ''), a second, smaller headstall, known as a ' bradoon hanger ' or ' slip head ' is used to attach the bradoon. A second set of reins is attached to the bradoon, and hence the rider carries four reins.
The bridle, depending on style, may also contain some of the following elements:
A hackamore, put simply, is headgear that controls a horse via pressure points on the face, usually with a nosepiece instead of a bit. A hackamore is not the same thing as a halter, as a halter is primarily used for leading and tying up an animal. Bitless bridles are similar to hackamores, but some designs use different leverage principles for control. Hackamores and bitless bridles use a headstall with reins attached to some type of noseband or nosepiece. Various designs allow control and good communication to the horse and may, in some cases, be more comfortable to the horse, particularly a young animal or one with a mouth injury.
The jaquima or original bosal style hackamore is mostly seen on young horses being started under saddle in western riding disciplines. Bitless bridles and other types of hackamore are most often seen on horses used for endurance riding and trail riding. A design called the mechanical hackamore is sometimes seen at rodeos. Most horse show events do not allow bitless bridles of any kind. The exceptions are show jumping, where equipment rules are fairly generous, and in certain western horse show classes for "junior '' horses, which permit use of bosal hackamore.
Besides the bosal hackamore, there are many other designs. A design that combines elements of the bosal hackamore is known as a sidepull, which acts mostly on the nose, and are popular with western riders and many trail riders. English riders sometimes use a jumping cavesson or "jumping hackamore '' that is basically a leather sidepull noseband reinforced internally with a cable, with rein rings attached. The so - called mechanical hackamore or "hackamore bit '' is basically a hybrid bridle / hackamore made up of a noseband with shanks and a curb strap or chain that can put considerable leverage on the jaw and poll.
Another design, called a bitless bridle is the "cross-under '' or "figure eight '' bridle. One common design connects the reins to a loop that passes from the noseband, under the jaw, and up around the poll, returning on the opposite side back under the jaw to the noseband and out to the other rein. This design directs pressure from one rein to the opposite side of the horse 's head, or pressure on both reins to the whole head. Other designs only cross under the jaw and do not go over the poll.
Some riders, not realizing that a horse 's head overall is a very sensitive area, use a noseband - based style of headgear without the same caution they might use with a bit, thus defeating any benefit that an apparently milder form of gear would otherwise provide. While many bitless designs are marketed as humane, and some are indeed quite mild, other designs can be remarkably harsh in the hands of a poor rider, particularly if they are improperly adjusted or have metal parts, a thin design, or rough surfaces.
Bridles used for driving horses have some differences from most riding bridles. The most visible difference is that they usually include partial eye coverings called blinders, blinkers or winkers that restrict the horse 's peripheral vision. They are stitched into the cheekpieces of a driving bridle and sometimes bear a monogram or badge. Winkers may be square, dee - shaped, hatchet - shaped, or round, and are adjusted to fit clear of the center of the horse 's eye.
The noseband is fitted into the bridle so has a certain amount of action, and is not on a separate headstall (also called sliphead) as is a cavesson. Harness bridles may feature a fancy browband, rosettes, and other ornamentation. An overcheck or sidecheck are sometimes used to control a horse 's head carriage and may be used in conjunction with an overcheck bit.
The Liverpool curb bit is most commonly used for carriage driving. The reins can be attached in any of the three slots along the shanks, resulting in a snaffle or curb action as required. Wilson snaffle bits are commonly used with trade turnouts. These bits have four rings so that the inner two rings may be attached to the cheek pieces and the outer pair to the reins. This arrangement is designed to prevent rein pressure interfering with the position of the winkers. Other styles of bits are used for harness racing, fine harness, and coach driving.
A bridle is individually fitted to a horse. Without properly fitting the bridle to the horses ' head, the horse may be uncomfortable, and poor fitting may also result in lack of control while riding or unclear communication.
The length of each piece of the bridle needs to be individually adjusted to fit the horse 's head. Other parts of the bridle are adjustable in length, though there are limits to adjustment and thus many manufacturers offer two to six different basic sizes. The sizes may have different names, but in the USA and Canada they are often called "cob '' and "horse '' for small and large animals, sometimes with "pony '', "mini '', "warmblood '' and "draft '' sizes in some designs.
The bit and browband are of set lengths and must be selected in the correct size. A too - narrow bit is uncomfortable and can not be widened. One that is slightly too wide can be narrowed to some extent by adding a pair of bit guards. A browband that is too short causes the browband or crownpiece to rub the ears. The cheekpieces are adjusted not only so that the bit avoids the extremes of pulling the corners of the horse 's mouth or banging the horse 's incisors, but also so it hangs properly in the mouth for the specific riding discipline and bit design involved. The adjustment of the noseband depends on the type used, but needs to be snug enough to be effective, yet loose enough to avoid discomfort. The throatlatch is adjusted each time the bridle is put on the horse, loose enough to not interfere as the horse flexes at the poll. A standard throatlatch measurement is that the width of three or four fingers should be able to fit between the throatlatch and the horses ' cheek.
It is unsafe to tie a horse using a bridle for two main, seemingly contradictory, reasons. First, if the tied animal pulls back on the bridle, the bit or controlling noseband (such as a bosal or mechanical hackamore) may cause considerable pain or even injury to the mouth, tongue, or other facial structures of the animal even if the bridle breaks. Second, compared to halters, most bridles are made of thin leather which will easily break under pressure. The end result can be both injury to the horse and broken equipment. Should a rider need to tie a horse, best practice is to either remove the bridle and put on a halter, or to put a halter on in addition to the bridle (under or over the bridle), and tie the horse using the halter only. In addition, tying with a slipknot that can be released by pulling on the end of the lead rope is a key safety tactic.
In western riding, some horses are taught to "ground tie '' with a bridle, that is, to stand still when the reins are dropped on the ground. This can only be done with split reins, as a horse can easily put a foot through a pair of reins that are attached to one another. Even with split reins, a horse can still step on a rein, jerk its head up and both break the rein and injure its mouth. Historically, it was a useful skill if a rider had to momentarily dismount and perform a task that required both hands (such as removing brush or fixing a fence) in a remote area where tying was impracticable. In actual practice, just as with the "stay '' command used in obedience work for dogs, even well - trained horses may not stay "ground tied '' for long, especially if left unsupervised. Thus, ground tying today is usually seen in specific classes at horse shows such as the trail horse class, or as a useful short - term command: many horses are taught to stand still for a limited period of time on a "whoa '' or "stay '' command, with or without dropping the reins.
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